Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/addressesproceed57natiuoft ADDRESSES AND PROCEEDINGS or THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES \.. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION '" OF THE UNITED STATES Addresses and Proceedings OF THE FIFTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN JUNE 28-JULY ^ 1919 VOLUME LVII ^ 1919 publtsbt bi2 tbe Hasociation secretary's office, WASHINGTON, D.C, 13 V Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. CONTENTS PAGE Act of Incorporation i By-Laws 5 Calendar of Meetings 13 Ofl&cersfor 1918-19 • . 15 Secretary's Minutes of General Sessions 19 GENERAL SESSIONS Addresses of Welcome: I. Cary 31 II. Potter 32 III. Sahin 35 Response to Addresses of Welcome — Blanton 38 President's Address — Strayer 41 The New World and the Demand That It Will Make upon Public Edu- cation: A. Manufacturing and Commercial Interests — Fuelicher 47 B. Agricultural Interests — Waters 51 C. American Homes — Stewart 55 D. War Education Abroad — Spaulding 58 E. Organized Labor — Sterling 60 The Organization of Public Education for Service in the New Democracy: A. Rural Education — Driver 64 B. Elementary Education — Geeks 67 C. Secondary Education — Tildsley 70 D. Higher Education — Elliott 73 The Work of the Commission on the Revision of Elementary Education — McNaught 75 The Work of the Commission on the Emergency in Education — Bradford . . 79 Education for the Establishment of a Democracy in the World: A. The United States— C/a^/ow 81 B. France — Feuillerat 89 C. France — Buisson 93 D. South America — Viera 95 The Contribution of Teachers to the De\elopment of Democracy: A. Kindergarten — Binzel 96 B. Rural Schools — Harvey 100 C. Elementary Schools — Baker ' 104 D. Secondary Schools — Hathaway 107 Memorial to Anna Howard Shaw in An Adequate Supply of Trained Teachers — Waldo in Child-Welfare Agencies Cooperating with the Schools: A. The Children's Bureau — Lathrop 113 B. Girl Scouts — Holland 116 C. Red Cross — Davis 117 V vi NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Milwaukee Meeting page Secretary's Minutes 119 Teacher Training, Including Observation Schools and Courses of Study for Rural Schools — Sims 120 Consolidation of Rural Schools — Baylor 1 24 Rural Health and Sanitation — Preston . 128 Final Report of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education . . . . 132 Report of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions — Swain . . . . 135 Salaries — Carr i37 How the Salary Bill Was Past in the New York Legislature — Jones .... 139 Pensions — Johnson 14S Teachers' Salaries — Brown 147 Chicago Meeting Secretary's Minutes 148 Essential Factors in the Teaching of Democracy: I. Wins/tip 150 II. Cofman 152 Discussion: Meek 155 Wilson 155 Ballou 156 Art as an Essential in General Education — Eggers 157 Discussion: Drawing as an Essential in General Education — Sargent . . . 158 Report of Committee on Health Problems in the Schools — Wood . . . , 159 Cooperation of Physicians in the Health Work of Schools — Abt 161 Cooperation of the Medical Prof ession — Green 165 DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 171 The Kindergarten Curriculum as Modified by Modern Educational Thought — Vandewalker, 171 Subject-Matter of the Curriculum — Temple 175 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 179 Instruction of Elementary-School Children in the Use of Books and Libraries — Rice 1 80 Revision of the Elementary-School Curriculum — Gildemeister 182 Reports on Practical Experiments in Everyday Schoolrooms in Revision of Programs — Logan 186 Teacher Participation in School Administration — Harris 189 Equipping and Furnishing the Modern School — Dobbs 191 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 195 New Problems and Developments in Vocational Education — Leavitt .... 196 A Constructive Program in Physical Education — McCurdy 199 Pupil Responsibility as a Training in Democracy — Allen 203 CONTENTS vii DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION PAGE Secretary's Minutes 205 The Influence of the War on Higher Education — Sullivan 205 The Effect of the War on Methods of Teaching— Po//er 208 Modification of Business Methods in Educational Institutions — Hilton . . . 210 Effect of War on the Education of Women — McLean 214 Discussion: Effect of the War on Higher Education — Birge 217 DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS Milwaukee Meeting Secretary's Minutes 221 How to Secure an Adequate Student Constituency for State Normal Schools and Colleges — Crabbe 222 What State Normal Schools Should Do for Their Graduates — Ellsworth . . . 224 Chicago Meeting Secretary's Minutes . 228 Adequate Compensation for Teachers in State Normal Schools — Keith . . . 229 The Status of the Critic Teacher — Bagley 238 The Preparation of Rural School Teachers — Burnham 242 The Preparation of Graded Elementary Teachers — Butcher 245 Preparation of Supervisory and Administrative Officers — Coburn .... 250 How the Colleges and Normal Schools May Cooperate in the Preparation of Teachers for American Public Schools — Cofman 253 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 259 Recent Developments in Commercial Education — Nichols 260 Office Training in the High School — Neipert 262 Occupations Open to Boys and Girls under Seventeen — Required Training: I. Yoder 264 II. Winkel 266 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIO>fAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 271 Part-Time Vocational Education — Callahan 272 The Problem of the Continuation School — Cooley 275 Round Table Discussion on Business Training in Evening Schools for Persons Eighteen Years or Over 276 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 281 The Course of Study Reorganized to Meet the Needs of Modern Rural Life — Cook . 282 The Specific Equipment to Meet the Requirements of Modern Rural Life — Root . 287 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Secretary's Minutes 289 DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 291 President's Address — Finn 291 Music fpr Citizenship — Gantvoori 292 viii NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION PAGE Music as an Aid to School Enthusiasm — Woods 295 Music as an Influence in Elementary Education — Glenn 298 Discussion: Music in Education — Dussuchal 301 DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE Secretary's Minutes 303 Hygienic Problems in Schoolhouse Construction — Cooper 303 A Practical Demonstration in Health Education — Wood 306 The National Legion of Modern Health Crusaders — De Forest 307 Educational Control of School Health Work — Barth 310 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 315 Loyal Citizens a Product of Physical Training — Wittich 316 The Promotion of Physical Education thru State Legislation — Caulkins . . . 318 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Milwaukee Meeting Secretary's Minutes 323 Music as an Asset in School Administration — McConathy 323 Cooperation between Boards of Education and the Public — Pieplow . . . .325 The Intermediate School — Ittner 328 The Administration of Vocational Education — Leaviit 332 Vocational Education — Brace 333 Chicago Meeting Secretary's Minutes 338 Illumination Requirements of School Buildings — Freeman 339 Planning the School Buildings of Chicago — Hussander 353 School Buildings from the Standpoint of an Editor — Bruce 357 The School Building from the Legislator's Standpoint — Patton 358 School Buildings as They Are and as They Should Be — McCornack . . ,- , 361 Is the Country Ready for the New School Building ? — Winship 365 Educational Specifications for School Buildings — Judd 365 School Environment for Health — McCurdy . . . 369 DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Secretary's Minutes 375 Need for the Substitution of a Cooperative Type of Organization for the Present System — Cojffman 376 Constructive Participation in Organization and Administration by Teachers — Gardner 378 Necessity for Sharp Differentiation between the Teacher's Point of View and the Administrator's Point of View — Gould 380 The Teaching of Citizenship in High Schools — Balliet 381 Some Causes of the Present Decline of Teaching as a Profession — Fahey . . . 383 The Value of Teachers' Councils — Bogan 387 A Plea for Greater Democracy in Our Public Schools — Harden . . . . . 390 CONTENTS DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN Milwaukee Meeting p^^g Secretary's Minutes 393 What Deans of Women Can Do to Encourage Group Consciousness among Women — Industry and Politics — McN aught 394 What Deans of Women Can Do to Encourage Group Consciousness among Women — Education — Adams 396 What a President May Expect from a Dean of Women — Birge 399 Am I My Sister's Keeper ? — Blanton 402 Professional and Social Loyalties — Kerr 404 Chicago Meeting Secretary's Minutes 406 Some Effects of the War on the Higher Education of Women — Goodsell . . . 407 Relation of the Faculty and Especially the Dean of Women to the Student Govern- ment Organization — Alvord 412 How May the Freshman Be More Easily and Quickly Adjusted to College Life ? — Nardin 41S The Work of a Dean of Girls and Its Relation to That of a Dean of Women — Deaton , . 420 The Scoring of Rooms in Residence Halls — Greenwood . 425 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS Secretary's Minutes 427 Report of Congress of Mothers' and Parent-Teachers' Associations — Harrison . 428 Report of the Council of Jewish Women — Long 430 Cooperation between Boards of Education and the Public — Rugg . . . .432 Cooperation between the Public and the School Authorities in Securing Better Teaching in Elementary Schools — McN aught 434 Cooperation between the Public and the Schools in Taking Advantage of the Vocational Education Bill — Payne 437 Cooperation of Patrons in Solving the Problems of Social Life in the High School — Pound 440 Cooperation of School Authorities and the Public in the Wider Use of School Buildings — Crist 443 LIBRARY DEPARTMENT Secretary's Minutes 445 Supervision of School Libraries — Alexander 446 Young People's Reading Circles — Wolcott 449 The High-School Library and the High-School Librarian — Williams .... 453 Instruction of High-School Students in the Use of Books and Libraries — Hopkins . 45 7 The Relation of the School Library to the Teaching of Science — Glenn . . . 460 War-Library Experiences — Ahem 463 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS Secretary's Minutes 465 Experiments in State Publication — Shirer . . . .' 465 Should Authors Be Concerned with the Methods of Distribution of Textbooks ? — Co£man 468 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION DEPARTMENT OF THE WIDER USE OF SCHOOLHOUSES ^ ^ PAGE Secretary's Minutes 47 1 The Federal Plan of Americanization Work with the Foreign-bom — Crist . . . 471 Federal and Public-School Cooperation in Citizenship Training — Ball . . . 475 Experiences in Americanization, with Suggestive Plan for Development — Roseman 477 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Secretary's Minutes 483 Resolutions of Department of Superintendence 488 Addresses of Welcome: I. Blair 49° II. Mortenson . 493 Adequate Compensation for Teaching Service in Public Schools — Waldo . . . 494 Training of Teachers — Baglcy 499 Necessity and Difficulties of Supervision in a City School System — Weet . . . 504 Defects of Supervision and Constructive Suggestions Thereon — Hill .... 506 A National Program for Education — Beveridge 509 A National Program for Education — Kendall 514 A National Program for Education — James 517 A National Program for Education — Strayer . .' 523 War Savings — Car others . . . .- 524 The Red Cross and the Schools — Studebaker 527 Educational Service — Cofman 531 Boys' Working Reserve — Wells 535 Report of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions — Swain . . . . 537 The Schools as They Have Affected Government Activities — Ford .... 538 What the War Should Do for Our Methods in English — Miller 542 What the War Should Do for Our Methods in History — Harding 545 What the War Should Do for Our Methods in Geography — Goode .... 547 What the War Should Do for Our Methods in Civics and Economics — Guitteau . . 552 What the War Should Do for Our Methods in Physical Education — Arnold . . 554 Education of the Immigrant — Condon 558 What the War Should Do for Our Methods in Vocational Education — Bogan . . 561 School Expenses Considered as an Investment — Hartwell 564 Adjustment of School Hours to Meet Congestion and Community Needs — Thurston 567 Adjustments between the Junior and Senior High Schools in Boston — Thompson . 569 The Adjustment of the Senior School to Meet New Conditions — Meredith . . . 571 The Three Functions of the Class Period — Hall-Quest 575 The Relation between Study and Reading — Gray 580 The Divided-Period Plan of Supervised Study in American History — Simpson . 587 Supervised and Directed Study — Brown . 594 Supervision of Study in the Grades — Day 598 Administrative Problems in Supervised Study — Kelly 601 Training Teachers to Supervise — Sexton 602 The English Language — Its New Importance and Universality — Johnson . . 606 What Shall We Do with the Ancient and Modern Languages ? — McClinton . . 609 The Necessity for the Rearrangement of the History and Civics Program — Rose . 614 Changes Produced in the Modern-Science Courses by the War — Deamer . . . 616 The Part-Time Continuation School — Colgrove 619 Supervision in the Small City School System — Irons 622 Intelligence Testing as an Aid to Supervision — Saam . " 625 Discussion . 639 CONTENTS PAGE The County School Nurse — Johnstone 634 The Educational Value of Play — Hamilton 637 The Work and Value of the Helping Teacher — Scott 642 The Six-Six Plan in Indiana — Funderburg 646 Educational Readjustments Following the \\'ar — Harris 649 National Aid for Education — McN aught 652 Our Legislative Program — Magill 654 How to Teach Pupils That Democracy Involves Duties as well as Rights — Meras 658 How to Teach Pupils Respect for Properly Constituted Authority — Fosdick 661 How to Teach Pupils to Respect the Rights of Others — Blake 665 Report of the Committee on Economy of Time 668 NATIONAL COUNCIL Report of the Committee on Superintendents' Problems: Part I. Administrative Cooperation in the Making of Courses of Study in Elementary Schools — U pdegrajff 675 Part II. Report of the Subcommittee on Curriculum — Yocum . . . . 717 Treasurer'sReport, June 1, 1918, toMay 31, 1919 — Matthews . . . . 741 Thirty-third Annual Report of the Board of Trustees, June i, 1918, to May 31, 1919 ' 744 Chart Showing Membership Growth 747 Index . 749 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1857-1870 ' The National Teachers Associaton Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Purpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. The name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the "National Educational Association." 1870-1907 National Educational Association Incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, "National Education Association," which was changed to "National Educational Association," by certificate filed November 6, 1886. 1907- National Education Assocla.tion or the United States Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the "National Educational Association." The charter was accepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Con- vention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled: Section i. That the following named persons, who are now ofl5cers and directors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eight-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz. : Nathan C. Schaeflfer, *Eliphalet Oram Lyte, *JohnW.Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; IsaacW. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J.Matthews, of Arizona; John H. Hinemon, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Connor, *Josiah L. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; *George W. Twitmyer, of Delaware; *J. Ormond Wilson, *Willia5n T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District * Deceased. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; *Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, * Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, * Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, *Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; *Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, *Luther D. Whitte- more, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; *Warren Easton, of Louisi- ana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot, *Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White, William H. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, *Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, * James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri; *Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of Nebraska; *JosephE. Stubbs, of Nevada; JamesE.Klock, of New Hampshire; James M. Green, John Enright, of New Jersey; *Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; *James H. Can- field, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina; *Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A, Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; *Charles Car- roll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert Lange, of South Dakota; *Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas; David H. Christensen, of Utah; *Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall, Lucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; *Thomas T. T3aian, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Grifl&ths, of Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia by the name of the "National Education Association of the United States," and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. Sec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to promote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of Education and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by organization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties and the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Educa- tion may be changed or abolisht at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its by-laws. Sec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a common seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws not inconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the Constitution of the United States; to take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal estate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorpora- tion; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the objects of the corporation. * * Deceased. ACT OF INCORPORATION Sec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia, which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corpora- tion as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation; provided, however, That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational purposes of the corporation; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year. Sec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of members — viz., active, associate, and corresponding — whose qualifications, terms of membership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the by-laws of the corporation. Sec. 6. That the ofl&cers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve Vice- Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and a Board of Trustees. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-President, the Sec- retary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Edu- cational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former Presidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association hereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the by-laws of the corporation. The Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of the Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Direct- ors, to serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be given by said board. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect one trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unex- pired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the. board shall forfeit his membership. Sec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the "Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association," when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be held by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trus- tees, whp shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two- thirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon the recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed ijotice of the proposed expenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall other- wise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treas- urer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. The Board of, Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his ofl&ce for a period not to exceed four years. Sec. 8. That the principal ofl5ce of the said corporation shall be in the city of Wash- ington, District of Columbia; provided, That the meetings of the corporation, its officers, conmiittees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be determined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the by-laws. Sec. 9. That the charter, constitution, and by-laws of the National Educational Association shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall be accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until new by-laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Association shall continue to bold office and perform their respective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this act and adopt by-laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the "National Educa- tion Association of the United States"; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association, incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the presiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted by this act by the National Educational Association, shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, pro- vided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Association and its corporate existence shall be and are hereby extended until the thirty- first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District of Columbia. Sec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obli- BY-LAWS gations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing,' to the same effect as if such new corpora- tion had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act. Sec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Approved June 30, 1906. Accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. BY-LAWS (Amended at meeting of active members held in Milwaukee, Wis., July 4, 1919) ARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP Section i. The membership of the National Education Association of the United States shall consist of three classes, Active, Associate and Corresponding, whose quali- fications, rights, and obligations shall be as hereinafter prescribed. Sec. 2. Active members of the Association shall be those actively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educational work at the time of their becoming members. Sec. 3. The annual dues of an active member shall be $2 . 00, which shall entitle him to attend all meetings of the Association and its several departments, to receive the Bulletin free, and, on application, to secure all publications of the Association at a price fixt by the Publication Committee, which shall be the approximate cost. By the payment of annual dues of $5 . 00 an active member shall receive, in addition to the Bulletin, without application or other condition, the volume of Proceedings and all other regular publica- tions of the Association, including reports of committees and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. \ Sec. 4. All life members and life directors shall have all the rights and privileges of active members without the payment of annual dues, and shall receive free without application or condition the publications of the Association. Sec. 5. Associate members of the Association shall be persons who are not actively engaged in the profession of teaching, but interested in the promotion of education. The annual dues of an associate member shall be the* same as the dues of an active member and he shall have the same rights and privileges excepting the right to vote and hold office. Sec. 6. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board of Directors as Corresponding Members. The number of Corresponding Members shall not at any time exceed fifty. They shall pay no dues and may receive free the publica- tions of the Association. Sec. 7. The annual dues of all members shall be paid at the time of the annual meeting of the Association or shall be sent to the Secretary on or before November i. An active member failing to pay his dues as herein provided shall forfeit the privileges of membership and after being in arrears one year shall be dropt from the list of members. Sec. 8. The membership year shall be the same as the fiscal year of the Association, from June i, to May 31, inclusive. New members may join at any time, and the member- ship of those joining between March i and June i shall extend to the end of the following membership year. Those joining after January i may, if they so elect, have their dues apply to membership for the following year. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Sec. 9. The Secretary of the Association shall furnish each member of the Asso- ciation a Membership Card, declaring him to be a member of the National Education Association for the year for which his dues are paid, and as such entitled to all the rights and privileges granted by the Charter and By-laws of the Association. Sec. 10. The right to vote shall be limited to active members of the Association .whose dues are paid. The right to hold office in the Association or in any department shall be limited to active members whose dues are paid. The right to vote and hold office in the Council shall be limited to members of the Council whose dues are paid. Each active member shall have one vote. ARTICLE II— ELECTION OF OFFICERS Section i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and Directors of the National Education Association of the United States shall be chosen by the active members of the Association by ballot, at their annual business meeting, a majority of the votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the terms for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. ARTICLE III— DUTIES OF OFFICERS Section i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive of such an association. In his absence, the ranking Vice-President who is present shall preside; and in the absence of all Vice-Presidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association, and, with the approval of the Executive Committee, shall determine the time and place of the general meeting of the Association and of the various departments not definitely fixt by these by-laws, and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in the programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and chairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, and all bills approved or authorized by the Executive Committee between the meetings of the Board of Directors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he shall become first Vice-President for the ensuing year, and shall be chairman ex officio of the Committee on Publication. Sec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the Association as provided in the articles of incorporation and the by-laws, and, in all matters not definitely pre- scribed therein, shall be under the direction of the Executive Committee, and, in the absence of direction by the Executive Committee, shall be under the direction of the President, and shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same each month to the Treasurer, shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee in the interval between the meetings of the Board of Directors, or on the approval of the President acting under authority of the^ Board of Directors, or Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records present at all meetings of the active members of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members as required by Section 9 of Article I of these by-laws and shall revise said list annually. He shall be secretary of the Board of Directors, and a member of the Committee on Publication. He shall be the BY-LAWS custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report to the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all money, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The Secretary shall not print, publish, nor distribute any official report or other document without the approval of the Publication Committee. Sec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of the Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall pay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of the Association and the chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds in his possession exceed five hundred dollars; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirty-first day of May of each year, he shall render to the Executive Conmiittee not later than July I, and when approved by said committee they shall be transmitted by the com- mittee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting and to the active members at their annual business meeting. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belong- ing to the Association. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed by Section 8 of Article I of these by-laws, shall elect members of the National Council of Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these by-laws, shall have power to fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees; shall recommend to the Executive Committee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Association, the Council of Education, and the departments. The Board of Directors shall approve all bills incurred under authority of the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee, or the President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or Executive Committee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the active members at their annual business meeting for the work of all special committees of research and investigation authorized and provided for by such active members at their annual business meeting, shall make a full report of the financial condition of the Association (including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees) to the active members at their annual business meeting, and shall po all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution. Sec. 5. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging for the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Council of Education, and of the various departments. The Executive Committee shall recommend to active members at their annual business meeting the appointment of special committees for investigation or research, the subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active membership of the National Education Association or by any of its departments; it shall recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such investigations. When such special committees are provided for and duly authorized by the active members at their annual business meeting, the Executive Committee shall have general supervision of them, shall receive and consider all reports made by them, and shall print such reports, and present the same, together with the reports received from the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon, to the active members at their annual business meeting. All such special committees shall be appointed by the President of the National Education Association. 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association except vacancies in the Board of Directors, Board of Trustees, and the office of Secretary. Sec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds of such amount as may be determined by said board for the faithful performance of their duties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Com- mittee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting of the Associa- tion. It shall choose annually its own chairman and secretary. ARTICLE IV— THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Section i. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational questions of public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to time, suitable subjects for investigation and research; have a report made at its annual meeting on "Educational Progress during the Past Year"; and in other ways use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general. Sec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred and twenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education Association. Any active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the Council, and each member shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected. Sec. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association shall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all vacancies in its quota of members. No state, territory, nor district in the United States shall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council. Sec. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Sec. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons ivhose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denominated honorary members of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association with the privilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and participating in its discussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Asso- ciation forfeits his membership in the Council. Sec. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a president, a vice-president, a secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The Secretary of the Council shall, in addition to performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication. Sec. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by-laws for its government not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or the by-laws of the Association; provided^ That such by-laws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors of the Association before they shall become operative. Sec. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council abolisht upon a two-thirds vote of the Association taken at the annual business meeting of the Association; provided y That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Association. ARTICLE V— DEPARTMENTS Section i. The following departments are now (1914) in existence, to wit: The departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Vocational Education and Practical BY-LAWS Arts; sixth, of Kindergarten Education; seventh, of Music Education; eighth, of Secondary Education; ninth, of Business Education; tenth, of Child Hygiene; eleventh, of Physical Education; twelfth, of Science Instruction; thirteenth, of School Administra- tion; fourteenth, the Library Department; fifteenth, of Special Education; sixteenth, of School Patrons; seventeenth, of Rural and Agricultural Education; eighteenth, of Classroom Teachers; nineteenth, for the Promotion of the Wider Use of Schoolbouses; twentieth, of Educational Publications; twenty-first. Deans of Women. Sec. 2. The active members of the Association, and no others, are members of each department of the Association. Sec. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may hold its annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined by said department, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the Association. Sec. 4. The, object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the Presi- dent of the Association, except that a third session for business or informal round-table conference may be held at the discretion of the department officers. Sec. 5. The officers of each department shall consist of a president, a vice-president, and a secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve one year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their election, be active members of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of president of any of the departments, it shall be filled by an appointment made by the President of the Association. Any other departmental vacancy shall be filled by appoint- ment made by the president of the department. Sec. 6. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the meetings of the department for publication. Sec. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the exception stated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section i of this article in the order of their establishment and shall be dropt from the list when discontinued. Each department may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or these by-laws. Sec. 8. A new department may be establisht by a two-thirds vote of the Board of Directors taken at a regular meeting of the board or by a two-thirds vote of the active members at any annual business meeting; provided, That a written application for said department, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular meeting of the board next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the preceding annual business meeting, by at least twenty-five members engaged or interested in the field of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be establisht. A department already establisht may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a two-thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a two-thirds vote of the active members at any business meeting of the active members; provided, That announcement has been made of the proposed action at a regular meeting of the board the preceding year, or at the preceding annual business meeting. A department shall be discontinued when it fails to hold a regular meeting for two successive years. ARTICLE VI— COMMITTEJES Section i. On the first day of each annual meeting of the Association, unless appointment has already been made, the President shall appoint a Committee on Resolutions, consisting of seven active members, and a Committee on Necrology, lO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION consisting of five active members, and on the third day of such meeting he shall appoint a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one active member from each state, territory, and district represented at the meeting. Each state, territorial, and district representative shall be appointed on the nomination of the active members in attendance from said state, territory, or district; provided, That three or more active members participate in said nomination in accordance with these by-laws; and provided further , That in case of the failure of the active members of any state, territory, or district to nominate a member of the nominating committee in accordance with these by-laws, the President shall appoint an active member from said state, territory, or dis- trict, to serve on said committee. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors on the first day of the annual meeting, the President shall appoint an Auditing Committee consisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a trustee or a director; to this committee shall be referred the report of the expert account- ant, together with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided in Section 6 of this article; and the committee shall report its finding§ at the meeting of active members. The chairman of each of the foregoing committees shall be designated by the President of the Association at the time of its appointment. Sec. 2. The meetings of active members present from the several states, territories, etc., to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association. Sec. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the fourth day of the annual meeting at 9:00 a.m., at a place designated by the President of the Association, and shall nominate persons for the following oflSces in the Association, to wit: one person for Presi- dent, eleven persons for Vice-Presidents, one person for Treasurer, and one person from each state, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board of Direct- ors. It shall report to the active members at their annual business meeting. Sec. 4. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting of active members, and, except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to said committee, without discussion. This committee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President; some time during the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold a meeting, at a place and time to be announst in the printed program, for the purpose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them. Sec. 5. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the publisht Proceedings a list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year, accom- panied by memorial sketches whenever practicable. Sec. 6. Within thirty days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Associa- tion, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licenst to do business as expert accountants; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts, papers, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and compare the same, and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees. The report of the said accountants shall be filed with the Presi- dent before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to the Board of Directors, at their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association. ARTICLE VII— MEETINGS Section i. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Council of Education, and of each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee acting for the board in accordance with these by-laws. An annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies BY-LAWS II may be omitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of two-thirds of the directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee. Sec. 2. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held in July, beginning on a day determined by the Executive Committee. Two sessions shall be held daily, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association. The annual business meeting of the active members shall be held on the fifth day of the annual meeting at 9:00 a.m. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting at 10:30 a.m. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the annual meeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announst in the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors referred to above in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the chairman, and shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the board by the secretary thereof. ARTICLE VIII— PROCEEDINGS Section i. The proceedings of the meeting of the Association, the Council, and the departments shall be publisht under the direction of a committee consisting of the President, the First Vice-President, and the Secretary, the First Vice-President acting as chairman of the committee; provided, That in the opinion of the Executive Committee the funds of the Association warrant the publication. Each member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings. Associate members must make written application to the Secretary on or before November i for a copy in order to obtain it. Corresponding members, and active members whose dues are paid, will receive the publisht Proceedings without written application. Sec. 2. No paper, lecture, nor address shall be read before the Association or any of the departments in the absence of its author, without the approval of the President of the Association or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be publisht in the Proceedings, without the approval of the Executive Committee. ARTICLE rX— ELECTIONS, QUORUM Section i. The certificate of membership, in coimection with the official list of active members, shall be accepted as evidence that members are entitled to vote. Sec. 2. Representatives from twenty-five states and territories shall constitute a quorum in all meetings of active members and of the Board of Directors. ARTICLE X— APPROPRIATIONS Section i. Unless otherwise ordered by the active members at their annual busi- ness meeting, not less than 10 per cent of the gross income of the Association each year shall be set aside for such educational investigations and studies as may be ordered in accordance with Section 5 of Article III. ARTICLE XI— AMENDMENTS Section i. These by-laws may be altered or amended at the annual business meeting of the active members by unanimous consent, or by a two-thirds vote of the active members present if the alteration or amendment shall have been substantially proposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action is taken; due announcement of the proposed action shall be made in the annual publisht Proceedings. 12 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incor- porate the National Education Association of the United States," Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected officers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907. Nathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer Irwin Shepard, Secretary VERIFICATION RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE ACTIVE MEMBERS, JULY lO, 1907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter granted by an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States," passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and ffie with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by said act. 2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meet- ing of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the Journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the title "National Education Association of the United States," and the dates "1857-1907." 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize under the charter granted by the act of Congress. Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4, 1907. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION 18S7-1S70 i8s7— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized) James L. Enos, Chairman. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary 1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO Z. Richards, President. J. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary. A. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer. i8s9— WASHINGTON, D.C. A. J. RiCKOFF, President. J. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary. C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. i860— BUFFALO, N.Y. J. W. Bulkley, President. Z. RicHARDS.'Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1861, 1862 — No session. 1863— CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President. James Cruikshank, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1864— OGDENSBURG, N.Y. W. H. Wells, President. David N. Camp, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 186s— HARRISBURG. PA. S. S. Greene, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P. Wickersham, President. S. H. White, Secretary, S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867 — No session. 1868— NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President. L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary. James Cruikshank, Treasurer. 1869— TRENTON, N.J. L. Van Bokkelen, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. A. L. Barber, Treasurer. 1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO Daniel B. Hagar, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W. E. Crosby, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION 1871-1907 1871— ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Pickard, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873— ELMIRA, N.Y. B. G. Northrop, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1874— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 187s— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. M. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1877— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. a. Newell, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878 — No session. 1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N.Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1881— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. i882~SARATOGA SPRINGS. N.Y. G. J. Orr, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. Tarbell, Treasurer. 1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1884— MADISON, WIS. Thomas W. Bicknell, President. H. S. Tarbell, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 188s— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. F. Loois SoLDAN, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1886— TOPEKA, KANS. N. A, Calkins, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1887— CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. £. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 13 14 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION 1 87 i-i Q07 — Continued i888— SAN FRANCISCO. CALIF. Aaron Gove, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1889— NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1890— ST. PAUL, MINN. J. H. Canfield, President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1891— TORONTO, ONT. W. R. Garrett, President. E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. E. H. Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893— CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education) Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1894— ASBURY PARK, N.J. Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer 189s— DENVER, COLO. Nicholas Murray Butler, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1896— BUFFALO, N.Y. Newton C. Dougherty, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS. Charles R. Skinner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1898— WASHINGTON, D.C. J. M. Greenwood, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1899— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. E. Oram Lyte, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1900— CHARLESTON, S.C. Oscar T. Corson, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Carroll C. Pearse, Treasurer. 1901— DETROIT, MICH. James M. Green, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer. 1902— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. William M. Beardshear, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer. 1903— BOSTON, MASS. Charles W. Eliot, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. W. M. Davidson, Treasurer. 1904— ST. LOUIS, MO. John W. Cook, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. McHenry Rhoads, Treasurer. 190S— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE, N.J. William H. Maxwell, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. James W. Crabtree, Treasurer. 1906 — ^No session. 1907— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Nathan C. Schaeffer, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1908— 1908— CLEVELAND, OHIO Edwin G. Cooley, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer. 1909— DENVER, COLO. Lorenzo D. Harvey, President . Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer 1910— BOSTON. MASS. James Y. Joyner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer. 191 1— SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Ella Flagg Young, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. DuRAND W. Springer, Treasurer. 191 2— CHICAGO, ILL. Carroll G. Pearse, President. Irwin Shepard. Secretary. Katherine D. Blake. Treasurer. 1913— SALT LAKE CITY. UTAH Edward T. Fairchild, President. DuRAND W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1914— ST. PAUL, MINN. Joseph Swain, President. DuRAND W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. ' 191S— OAKLAND, CALIF. (International Congress of Education) David Starr Jordan, President. DuRAND W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1916— NEW YORK, N.Y. David B. Johnson, President. DuRAND W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1917— PORTLAND, ORE. Robert J. Aley, President. DuRAND W. Springer, Secretary. Thomas E. Finegan, Treasurer. 1918— PITTSBURGH, PA. Mary C. C. Bradford, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. 1919-MILWAUKEE, WIS. GeorgeJD. Straver, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS FOR 1918-19 \ GENERAL ASSOCIATION George D. Strayer President New York, N.Y. J. W. Crabtree Secretary Washington, D.C. A. J. Matthews Treasurer Tempe, Ariz. VICE-PRESIDENTS Mary C. C. Bradford, State Superintendent Public Instruction Denver, Colo. M. L. Brittain, State Superintendent Public Instruction Atlanta, Ga . J. A. Churchill, State Superintendent Public Instruction Salem, Ore. MiLO B. Hillegas, State Superintendent Public Instruction Montpelier, Vt. John R. Kirk, President, State Normal School Kirksville, Mo. Anna E. Logan, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Cincinnati, Ohio A. S. Cooke, County Superintendent of Schools Baltimore, Md. H. R. Driggs, Department of English, State University Salt Lake City, Utah F. L. PiNET, Secretary State Teachers' Association Topeka, Kans. Ida L. M. Fursman, Linn School Chicago, 111. Isabel Lawrence, Training Supervisor, State Normal School St. Cloud, Minn. BOARD OF TRUSTEES Carroll G. Pearse President, State Normal School Milwaukee, Wis. James Y. Joyner Raleigh, N.C. Walter R. Siders Superintendent Schools Pocatello, Idaho Agnes E. Doherty History and Sociology, High School.. . St. Paul, Minn. George D. Strayer Teachers College, Columbia University New York, N.Y. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE George D. Strayer President New York, N.Y. Mary C. C. Bradford First Vice-President Denver, Colo. Carroll G. Pearse Chairman, Board of Trustees Milwaukee, Wis. A. J. Matthews Treasurer Tempe, Ariz. George B. Cook Member by Election Little Rock, Ark. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors ex oflacio George D. Strayer, New York, N.Y. A. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz. Mary C. C. Bradford, Denver, Colo. Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis. J. W. Crabtree, Washington, D.C. Life Directors Aley, Robert J Orono, Me. Cook, John W De Kalb, 111. Bradford, Mary C. C Denver, Colo. Cooley, Edwin G Chicago, 111. Bicknell, Thomas W Providence, R.I. Corson, Oscar T Columbus, Ohio Board of Education Nashville, Tenn. Eliot, Charles W Cambridge, Mass. Brown, Elmer Ellsworth New York, N.Y. Gove, Aaron Denver, Colo. Butler, Nicholas Murray New York, N.Y. Graham, H. A Mount Pleasant, Mich. Claxton, P. P Washington, D.C. Green, James M Trenton, N.J. IS i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Harvey, Lorenzo D Menomonie, Wis. Pearse, Carroll G Milwaukee, Wis. Jewett, a. V Abilene, Kans. Skinner, Charles R Albany, N.Y. Johnson, David B Rock Hill, S.C. State Teachers' Association of Illinois Jordan, David Starr Swain, Joseph Swarthmore, Pa. Leland Stanford University, Calif. Taylor, A. R. Decatur, 111. Joyner, James Y Raleigh, N.C. Teachers' Institute Philadelphia, Pa. Marshall, T. Marcellus Stouts Mills, W.Va. White, Charles G Menomonie, Wis. Maxwell, William H New York, N.Y. Directors by Election Alabama J. H. Phillips, Superintendent of Schools Birminghasi Arizona CO. Case, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . Phoenix Arkansas J. R. Jewell, Dean, College of Education, University of Arkansas Fayetteville California A. H. Chamberlain, Secretary, State Educa,tion Assn . . . San Francisco Colorado H. B. Smith, Secretary, Colorado Education Association. Denver Connecticut Janet M. Purdue, New Haven High School West Haven Delaware A. R. Spaid, Commissioner of Education Dover District of Columbia. . . S. E. Kramer, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Washington Florida W. N. Sheats, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Tallahassee Georgia M. L. Brittain, State Superintendent of Education Atlanta Idaho. .: G. A. Axline, President, State Normal School Albion Illinois R. O. Stoops, Superintendent of Schools Joliet Indiana H. Lester Smith, Dean, School of Education Bloomington Iowa L. H. MiNKEL, Superintendent of Schools Fort Dodge Kansas T. W. Butcher, President, State Normal School Empori^ Kentucky Cora Wilson Stewart, President, Illiteracy Commission Frankfort Louisiana D. T. Powers, State University Baton Rouge Maine A. O. Thomas, State Superintendent of Schools Augusta Maryland F. E. Rathbun, Superintendent of County Schools '. . Oakland Massachusetts Payson Smith, Commissioner of Education Boston Michigan T. E. Johnson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Lansing Minnesota L. D. Coffman, University of Minnesota. Minneapolis Mississippi E. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools Greenville Missouri U. W. Lamkin, State Superintendent of Schools. Jefferson City Montana W. K. Dwyer, Superintendent of Schools Anaconda Nebraska E. L. Rouse, President, State Normal School Peru Nevada Samuel O. Welday, Superintendent of Elementary Schools Elko New Hampshire Thedora Richardson, Grade Teacher Manchester New Jersey Z. E. Scott, Assistant Commissioner of Education , Trenton New Mexico J. H. Wagner, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion Santa Fe New York Thomas E. Finegan, Assistant Commissioner of Educa- tion Albany North Carolina E, C. Brooks, State Superintendent of Schools Raleigh North Dakota Mrs. N. C. Macdonald, State House Bismarck Ohio A. J. Gantvoort, College of Music Cincinnati Oklahoma E. E. Oberholtzer, Superintendent of Schools Tulsa Oregon H. D. Sheldon, University of Oregon Eugene Pennsylvania R. B. Teitrick, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion Harrisburg Rhode Island Walter E. Ranger, State Commissioner of Public Schools Providence South Carolina J. E. Walmsley, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College Rock Hill South Dakota A. A. McDonald, Superintendent of Schools Sioux Falls Tennessee Charl O. Williams, Superintendent of Shelby County Schools Memphis Texas P. W. Horn, Superintendent of Schools Houston Utah C. H. Skidmore, Superintendent of Schools Brigham City Vermont Margaret R. Kelley, Superintendent of Schools Derby Virginia S. P. Duke, State Board of Education Richmond Washington O. C. Whitney, Acting Superintendent of Schools Bellingham West Virginia M. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools Charleston Wisconsin J. F. Sius, President, State Normal School Stevens Point Wyoming J. J. Early, Superintendent of Schools Sheridan DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 17 Alaska L. D. Henderson, Commissioner of Education Junwau Hawaii Vaughan MacCaughey, College of Hawaii Honolulu Philippine Islands Walter W. Marquardt, Director of Education Manila Porto Rico Ralph S. Garwood, University of Porto Rico Mayaguez Saskatchewan A. A. Kennedy, Inspector of Schools Weyburn DEPARTMENT OFFICERS National Council President William B. Owen, President, Chicago Normal College . . Chicago, 111. Vice-President H. H. Seerly, President, State Normal College Cedar Falls, Iowa Secretary Adelaide Steele Baylor Indianapolis, Ind. Kindergarten President Ella Ruth Boyce, Director of Kindergartens Pittsburgh, Pa. Vice-President Edna Baker, National Kindergarten College Chicago, 111. Secretary Barbara Greenwood, State Normal School Los Angeles, Calif. Elementary President Abbie Louise Day, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Passaic, N.J. Vice-President Dora M. Moore, Principal, Corona School Denver, Colo. Secretary Alfie 0. Freel, Principal, Linnton School Portland, Ore. Secondary President Frank G. Pickell, Principal, High School Lincoln, Nebr. Vice-President Edmond D. Lyon, Principal, Hughes High School Cincinnati, Ohio Secretary Anna Willson, Principal, High School Crawfordsville, Ind. Higher President Frank L. McVey, President, University of Kentucky Lexington, Ky. Secretary Edward L. Schaub, Professor of Philosophy, North- western University Evanston, 111. Normal President D. B. Waldo, President, State Normal School Kalamazoo, Mich. Secretary Anna M. Tibbetts, Fargo College Fargo, N.D. Superintendence President E. C. Hartwell, Superintendent of Schools Buffalo, N.Y. First Vice-President D. B. Corson, Acting Superintendent of Schools Newark, N.J. Second Vice-President. . J. R. Morgan, Superintendent of Schools Trinidad, Colo. Secretary '. Marie Gugle, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Columbus, Ohio Vocational Education and Practical Arts President Arthiir F. Payne, Associate Superintendent of Schools. . Johnstown, Pa. First Vice-President Adelaide Steele Baylor Indianapolis, Ind. Secretary Howard G. Burdge, Supervisor of Vocational Education, Military Training Com New York, N.Y. Music President M. Teresa Finn, Supervisor of Music, Grammar Grades, and Soldan High School St. Louis, Mo. Vice-President W. Otto Meissner, State Normal School Milwaukee, Wis. Secretary W. B. Kinnear, Supervisor, Public School Music Lamed, Kans. Business President F. G. Nichols, Assistant Director ,Commercial Education, Federal Board Washington, D.C. Vice-President James C. Reed, Head of Commercial Department, State Normal School Whitewater, Wis. Secretary J. M. Waters, Dean, School of Commerce, Georgia School of Technology Atlanta, Ga. ChUd Hygiene President Kathryn S. McLean, Dean of Women, Ohio Wesleyan University Delaware, Ohio Vice-President Eva Johnston, Dean of Women, University of Missouri. . Columbia, Mo. Secretary Anne Dudley Blitz, Dean, William Smith College Geneva, N.Y. 1 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Physical President Randall D. Warden, Director of Physical Education . . . Newark, N.J. Vice-President Lawrence L. Hill, Director of Physical Education Albany, N.Y. Secretary Esther Watson, Secretary, New England Division, War Work Council, Y.W.C.A Boston. Mass. Science President Arthur S. Williston, Director of Wentworth Institute. . Boston, Mass. Vice-President E. R. Weidlein, Acting Director of Mellen Institute. . . . Pittsburgh, Pa. Secretary George R. Twiss, High School Inspector Columbus, Ohio School Administration President Albert Wunderlich, Commissioner of Schools St. Paul, Minn. Vice-President George W. Gerwig, Secretary, Board of Education Pittsburgh, Pa. Secretary William C. Bruce, Editor, School Board Journal Milwaukee, Wis. Library President O. S. Rice, Supervisor of School Libraries Madison, Wis. Vice-President Delia G. Ovitz, Librarian, State Normal School Milwaukee, Wis. Secretary Annie T. Eaton, Librarian, Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University New York, N.Y. Special President Joseph P. Byers Philadelphia, Pa. Vice-President Charlotte Steinbach Cleveland, Ohio Secretary Emma Kohnky Cincinnati, Ohio School Patrons President Ella S. Stewart, 5464 Harper Ave Chicago, 111. Vice-President Gertrude S. Martin Ithaca, N.Y. Secretary Charlotte Greenebaum Kuh, 4346 N. Hermitage Ave. Chicago, 111. Bural and Agricultural President H. W. Foght, Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior Washington, D.C. Vice-President W. R. Hart, Professor of Agricultural Education, Mas- sachusetts Agricultural College Amherst, Mass. Secretary Charl 0. Williams, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools Memphis, Tenn. Classroom Teachers President Sara H. Fahey, Teacher of English, Seward Park School New York, N.Y. Vice-President Mary P. Lang, High School Pittsburgh, Pa. Secretary Mary V. Donoghue, Grade Teacher, Stewart School Chicago, 111. Educational Publications President Arthur H. Chamberlain, Editor, Sierra Educational News San Francisco, Calif. Secretary George L. Towne, Editor, Nebraska Teacher Lincoln, Nebr. Deans of "Women President Kathryn S. McLean, Dean of Women, Ohio Wesleyan University Delaware, Ohio Vice-President Eva Johnston, Dean of Women, University of Missouri . Columbia, Mo. Secretary Anne Ditoley Blitz, Dean, William Smith College Geneva, N.Y. Wider Use of the School House President Raymond F. Crist, Bureau of Naturalization, Depart- ment of Labor Washington, D.C. Vice-President Charles D. Kelso, Principal, Los Angeles Schools Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary Margarita Spaulding Gerry, Board of Education Washington, D.C, JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE • NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES MILWAUKEE, WIS., JUNE 28— JULY 5, 1919 FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS OPENING SESSION— Monday Evening, June 30, 8:00 o'clock The Fifty-seventh Annual Convention of the National Education Association was opened in the Main Hall, Auditorium, Milwaukee, Wis., Monday evening, June 30, 1919, at 8:00 o'clock. First Vice-President Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo., presided at the opening of the meeting. The meeting opened with community and patriotic singing led by A. J. Gantvoort, College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio. The invocation was given by Paul B. Jenkins, pastor Immanuel Presbyterian Church, Milwaukee, Wis. Addresses of welcome were given by C. P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruc- tion, Madison, Wis.; M. C. Potter, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis.; Ellen C. Sabin, president, Milwaukee-Downer College, Milwaukee, Wis.; and responded to by Annie Webb Blanton, state superintendent of public instruction, Austin, Tex.' President Strayer then delivered the presidential address, which was entitled "The National Education Association Program of Work." SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July i, 9:00 o'clock The meeting was opened with community singing led by M. Teresa Finn, supervisor of music, St. Louis, Mo. After the musical program the meeting was called to order by President Strayer. The general topic for the session was "The New World and the Demand That It Will Make upon Public Education," and addresses were given by the following persons: a) John H. Puelicher, government director of savings, Seventh Federal Reserve District, Milwaukee, Wis., representing manufacturing and commercial interests. b) Henry J. Waters, Kansas City Star, Kansas City, Mo., representing agricultural interests. c) Ella S. Stewart, president, Department of School Patrons, National Education Association, Chicago, 111., representing American homes. d) Frank E. Spaulding, head of American education in France, Paris, France, representing war education abroad. e) In the absence of Henry Sterling, legislative representative, American Federation of Labor, Washington, D.C., representing organized labor, his address was read by Hugh S. Magill, field secretary, National Education Association. 19 20 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THIRD SESSION— Tuesday Evening, July i, 8:oo o'clock The session was opened with community and patriotic singing led by Edgar B. Gordon, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. After the musical program the meeting was called to order by President Strayer. The general topic for discussion was "The Organization of Public Education for Service in the New Democracy," and the following program was presented: a) "Rural Education" — Lee L. Driver, county superintendent of schools, Win- chester, Ind. b) "Elementary Education "—T. C. Geeks, supervisor, primary department, St. Louis, Mo. c) "Secondary Education" — John L. Tildsley, associate superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y. d) "Higher Education" — E. C. Elliott, chancellor, University of Montana, Helena, Mont. THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FOURTH SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 2, 9:00 o'clock The session opened with community singing led by Osbourne McConathy, North- western University, Evanston, 111. After the musical program the meeting was called to order by President Strayer. The general topic for discussion was "The Work of the Association," and the follow- ing program was presented: "Principles Underlying the Necessary Reorganization of the Association" — William B. Owen, president, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111. "The Work of the Commission on the Revision of Elementary Education" — Margaret S. McNaught, state commissioner of elementary education, Sacramento, Calif. "The Work of the Commission on the Emergency in Education" — Mary C. C. Brad- ford, state superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo. "The Work of the Committee on Rural Education"— J. Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C. "The Work^ of the Field Secretary"- Hugh S. Magill, field secretary, National Education Association, Washington, D.C. FIFTH SESSION— Wednesday Evening, July 2, 8:00 o'clock The session opened with the singing of the following national hymns rendered by the Children's Chorus, seventh and eighth grades, Milwaukee schools, with Helen Poole, Milwaukee, Wis., director, and Judith Rebinquist, Milwaukee, Wis., accompanist. "La Brabanconne," Belgium "La Marseillaise," France "Rule Britannia," England "Italian War Hymn," Italy "Star-Spangled Banner," United States After the musical program the meeting was called to order by President Strayer. The general topic for discussion was "Education for the Establishment of a Democ- racy in the World," and addresses were delivered by the following persons: P. P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C, repre- senting the United States. Albert Feuillerat, head of the department of English, University of Rennes, Rennes, France, and Ferdinand Buisson, University of Paris, president of the League of the Rights of Man, Paris, France, representing France. President Strayer read a cablegram received from Herbert Lewis, M.P,, parliamentary secretary. Board of Education, London, England, stating that he was prevented from leaving London in time to reach America for the meeting, expressing deep regret because of his inability to attend, and sending kind greetings from the teachers of his country to the National EducationJAssociation. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 2i Sfenorita Aurelia Viera, a delegate from the National Anti-Alcoholic League of Uru- guay, and also a representative of her government for the study of industrial education for social-reform methods, with her interpreter, Hardynia K. Norville, of Buenos Aires, Argentina, South America, brought greetings from the teachers of Uruguay to the teachers of America. Leonard P. Ayres, colonel, United States Army, New York, N.Y., spoke on "The Necessity of a Health Program as Evidenst by the War." FOURTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS SIXTH SESSION — Thursday Forenoon, July 3, 9:00 o'clock The session opened with community singing led by Lillian Watts, Milwaukee, Wis. After the musical program the meeting was called to order by President Strayer, The general topic for discussion was "The Contribution of Teachers to the Develop- ment of Democracy," and the following program was presented: a) "Kindergarten" — Alma L. Binzel, Northrup Collegiate School, Minneapolis, Minn. b) "Rural Schools" — Marie Turner Harvey, Porter Rural School, Kirksville, Mo. c) "Elementary Schools" — Elizabeth S. Baker, supervising principal, public schools, Harrisburg, Pa. d) "Secondary Schools" — Essie V. Hathaway, teacher of English, East High School, Des Moines, Iowa, e) "Higher Education" — Guy Stanton Ford, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. After adjournment of the general session the meeting was called to order by Mary C. C. Bradford in the interest of national women's suffrage. A motion was past unanimously adopting a memorial to Anna Howard Shaw. Addresses were delivered by Katherine Devereaux Blake, principal. Public School No. 6, New York, N.Y., and Maude Wood Park, National American Women's Suffrage Association, Boston, Mass. SEVENTH SESSION— Thursday Evening, July 3, 8:00 o'clock The session opened with community singing led by Milton Rusch, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. After the musical program the meeting was called to order by President Strayer, and the following program was presented : "Physical and Health Education" — John H. Finley, commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y. "Americanization" — Allen T. Burns, director. Survey Committee, Cleveland Founda- tion, Cleveland, Ohio. "Adequate Supply of Trained Teachers" — D. B. Waldo, president, State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich. FIFTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS EIGHTH SESSION— FRroAY Forenoon, July 4, 9:00 o'clock Business session. NINTH SESSION — Frtoay Afternoon, July 4, 2:00 o'clock The session opened with community singing led by Peter W. Dykema, song leader, United States Army. After the musical program the meeting was called to order by President Strayer. 22 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The general topic for discussion was " Child Welfare Agencies Cooperating with the Schools," and the following program was presented: a) "The Children's Bureau" — ^Julia Lathrop, Department of Labor, Washing- ton, D.C. b) "Safety Education in the Schools" — Albert W. Whitney, general manager, National Workmen's Compensation Service Bureau, New York, N.Y. c) "Girl Scouts" — Laura Pierce Holland, director of Girl Scouts, Pittsburgh, Pa. d) "The Community-Center Movement" — Henry E. Jackson, Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. e) "Red Cross" — Minnie Lee Davis, supervisor of prunary grades, Richmond, Va. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary REPORT OF THE COMMITTE ON RESOLUTIONS One phase of the world-crisis in the progress of civilization has just been safely past in the successful outcome of the Great War. The democratic peoples of the world face another phase of the same crisis in the solution of the problem of making democracy universal and effective. Inasmuch as universal and effective democracy is fundamentally dependent upon a high level of intelligence in the rank and file of the citizenship of a nation as well as upon a properly qualified and trained leadership, a nation-wide, even a world-wide, program in education has become a vitally essential factor in the right solution of the great problem. The National Education Association desires to outline at this time of crisis an Ameri- can program in education. In so doing we are not unmindful of the great fundamental lessons taught by the war: 1. That the general ideals, purposes, and methods of American education are con- sistent with competent and effective democracy, because the war has proved the outputs of the schools of America to be resourceful, of independent and reliable judgment, cour- ageous in the highest degree, and consecrated to public duty. 2. That great defects in our national life and in our social and industrial system exist which are incompatible with the spirit of democracy, which invite the entrance of forces and institutions distinctive of our ideals and purposes as a nation, and which are essentially dangerous to the perpetual prosperity and happiness of the masses of our people and to our leadership in the movement of universal democracy. We recognize these to be: a) An increasingly large un- Americanized element, both native and foreign-born, in our population, evidenst by statistical research to be one in three. b) An alarming percentage of illiteracy in our population, shown by the army tests to be approximately 20 per cent of the total population. c) An astonishing degree of physical unfitness in our people, betraying a lack of preparedness either for the duties of defense or for the responsibilities of peace, and amounting to at least one-third of the entire adult population. d) A machinery for public education which is distinctly defective in many vital particulars, namely: (i) The schools as the principal agent of a democratic people in the training for universal good citizenship fail to reach at least 50 per cent of the youth for whom such training is vitally essential,. and for whom a system of public education is intended. (2) School organization, courses of study, and classroom methods have not been sufficiently differentiated and adapted to the varying needs of different communities and individual children. (3) A large proportion of the teaching corps of the nation has had training and experience entirely incommensurate with the responsibilities imposed upon the teachers of the schools of a democracy. Five million children, or one-fourth of our total school r JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 23 population in the United States, go to school in classrooms taught by teachers of less than the regular four years of high-school training. (4) Such inadequate support has been given the public schools of the United States that teachers are leaving the profession in large numbers for more remunerative fields, and ambitious and talented young men and women are largely refusing to enter the profession of teaching as a life-career. During the past school year from 30,000 to 70,000 children were without teachers in one of our largest metropolitan cities, because it was impossible to secure a sufficient number of teachers on account of the small number of teachers entering the profession. The average salary paid elementary teachers in the United States is $600 a year. (5) There has never been developt an adequate, effectively organized, and well- supervised system of rural education. (6) Compulsory-education laws have not been well enforced, and such enforcement as has been prevalent has not been based upon records showing the number of minor citizens of each age in our various communities, without which provision complete and universal enforcement is entirely impossible. (7) Our efforts at making education scientific have been largely theoretical. We have not adequately followed up our surveys and scientific investigations. Aims of a Program in Education • In view of these conclusions forced upon us by the Great War a program of education in America should aim to bring about the following results: 1. A general high level of patriotic, intelligent, and competent citizenship thru the specific training of all the children of the democracy for citizenship to an age approxi- mating maturity. 2. The Americanization of the un- Americanized elements in the United States, both native and foreign-born. 3. The complete abolition of illiteracy. 4. The use of English as the universal language of instruction in public education and as the means of making general and common our American ideals. 5. A high degree of physical and moral fitness for both the responsibilities of peace and the duties of war on the part of all our people. 6. An adequate and effective system of public education, both state and national, as the chief agency for the accomplishment of the above-mentioned ends. Since the aims of an American program in education are these the National Educa- tion Association pledges itself to the following measures: It calls upon all its membership to engage actively in a nation-wide campaign for the successful consummation of them all and urges upon all those in our nation who believe in democracy and in the effective- ness of public education as an agency in perfecting it and bringing to ourselves and our children its richest fruits active, persistent efifort in supporting this program. national measures We advocate the enactment of the following measures as foundational beginnings of a national program in education : • 1. The passage by Congress of the Smith-Towner Bill, H.R, 7 and S. 1017. 2. An act providing for a year of compulsory civic, physical, and vocational training. 3. A nation-wide plan for the enlistment of all teachers as active members of the National Education Association. 4. A policy of interpretation and administration of the Smith-Hughes Law consistent with the above-named purposes of an educational program. The Smith-Towner Bill. — This Association has urged for years that education should be given just recognition by the federal government, and that a Department of Educa- tion should be establisht. The war has so emphasized the importance of education from 24 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION a national standpoint that the necessity of the immediate consideration of this question is universally recognized. Moreover, a Commission on the Emergency in Education, appointed by this Association one year ago, acting under the instruction of the Association, prepared a bill creating a Department of Education with a secretary in the President's cabinet, and authorizing the appropriation of one hundred million dollars to encourage the states in the promotion of education, particularly in the removal of illiteracy, the Americani- zation of immigrants, physical and health education, teacher preparation, and the equaliz- ing of educational opportunities. This Association, thru its Commission and with the cooperation of other great national organizations, secured the introduction of this bill in the Sixty-fifth Congress, and more recently its introduction in the Sixty-sixth Congress in a carefully revised and perfected form, known as the Smith-Towner Bill, H.R. 7 and S. 1017; therefore this Association gives its hearty and unqualified indorsement to the Smith-Towner Bill, H.R. 7 and S. 1017, now before the Sixty-sixth Congress, and instructs the official staff of this Association to use all honorable means to secure its passage. A year of civic training. — We advocate a comprehensive program of education which shall "bring effectively within the reach of every boy and girl all the training, physical, mental, and moral, literary, technical, and scientific, of which he is capable." We urge that this program of education shall provide for universal training of all young men and women for a definite period, which training shall have for its object civic responsibility and occupational efficiency in the interest of national progress and national defense. We urge the government of the United States to institute and maintain a full twelve- month year of instruction, training, and discipline for each young man and young woman between the ages of seventeen years and six months and twenty, such training to be carried on at such place and in such manner as may result to the particular advantage of the individual in the development of civic responsibility and vocational efficiency, and to bear the entire expense of this undertaking, including adequate maintenance allowance for the dependents of such students in training. A national policy of vocational education. — A high standard of intelligence, general vocational efficiency, physical and moral fitness, and civic devotion are dependent not only upon an efficient system of public education of all our youth but also upon the reaction upon human values of the occupations in which the people of the nation engage. If we are to be a homogeneous people, generally happy and prosperous, generally living full, rich, contributive lives, the work which we do must continue thru our lives, the development begun in the earlier years being devoted to specific and formal schooling. To this end industry in this country must be reorganized. All industry must become educational to those who engage in it. The workers must find in their work an oppor- tunity for self-expression and self-development. Human, not commercial, value must be placed first in our great industrial establishments. The rank and file of those who produce wealth must, thru their organization, share in the control of the policy of the institutions for which they work. They must find an educative realization of their life- purposes in the output of their daily toil and in the sharing in the direction of the policy guiding its production. Vocational education must have as its purpose educational industry. Inasmuch as the general policy of vocational education in this country is directed by those respon- sible for the administration of the Smith-Hughes Law, we urge those thus responsible to adopt such a policy in interpreting and administering this law that the above-named ends may be furthered by the system of vocational education now developing under this law, namely, that the schools and departments organized under the Smith-Hughes Law shall be made competent as far as is humanly possible, for sharing in the control of the ^ policy of the institutions in which they may afterward be employed, and "that they shall JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 25 be inspired, so far as is humanly possible, with an impulse to continue their education thru the instrumentality of the occupation for which they may be trained and in which they may be afterward engaged," STATE MEASURES An American program in education is dependent to a great degree upon the support of education afforded by the states. We recommend the adoption of a specific program in public education by each of the states, adapted to the special problems of the states respectively, but in general conforming to the national program and seeking finally a common purpose with it and all other public-education programs. The responsibility for such a plan must rest chiefly upon the legislature of each state and upon the educational leadership and organization within the respective states. We specifically recommend the following steps and measures : 1 . Provision by each state legislature for more adequate financial support of public education in order to (a) pay salaries sufficient to maintain the teaching profession upon an efficient basis, with the ideals and standards of living in this democracy; (6) establish a plan for systematically recruiting the profession; (c) develop a teacher- training system adequate for the general and special phases of education. 2. Laws clearly defining education as a function of the state rather than the munici- pality, and making impossible the control of the public educational system of any com- munity, rural or urban, by the factional politics of the local or municipal government. 3. Laws definitely establishing an efficiently organized, supervised, and administered system of rural schools upon the basis of a larger unit than the local district. 4. Legal provision for the development of flexible and adaptable courses of study, methods of instruction, and systems of promotion to meet the needs of all classes of children. 5. Legal provision for compulsory education to the age of sixteen and compulsory continuation schools upon the employers' time to the age of eighteen. 6. Laws providing for compulsory registration of minors as a basis for effective enforcement of the compulsory-education laws. 7. Effective compulsory-education laws in all states. 8. Legal provision for compulsory classes in Americanization for all illiterates and all who are not able to read and write the English language with a proficiency equivalent to a sixth-grade standard, which standard shall be necessary for admission to citizenship of the United States. 9. Legal provision for the use of English as the language of instruction in all schools. 10. Legal provision for compulsory physical education in all units of the public educational system, RECRUITING THE TEACHING PROFESSION There is a growing disinclination on the part of young men and women to enter upon teaching as a profession, a fact evidenst by the lessening number of graduates from normal schools and teachers' colleges and also of students entering these institutions and by the steady decrease in the number of college Seniors who become teachers. Many of the best teachers are leaving the profession of teaching for more attractive and lucrative employment. The consequent shortage of teachers is depriving many thousand chil- dren of adequate instruction, and we affirm that the future of our country depends upon giving the children of today the sort of training that will produce efficient, intelligent, and patriotic citizens, prepared to uphold the ideals of American democracy. It is impossible for teachers of mediocre ability or insufficient ideals to train properly the citizenship of tomorrow. We therefore insist that all teachers' organizations, as a part of the campaign to increase salaries of teachers, also conduct a systematic campaign to interest desirable men and women to enter the teaching profession, and that the National Education 26 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Association and each state commissioner of education secure the services of men and women best equipt to conduct such a campaign among high schools and colleges. teachers' salaries There are evidences that the campaign for adequate, just, and appropriate salaries for teachers is beginning to show results, but we must also know that deplorable condi- tions still too generally exist. We therefore stand for the minimum of $1000 for any and all legally qualified teachers, and for legislative enactment to that end. Since thru the magnanimity of W. J. Funk, who purchast space in metropolitan daily papers for the promulgation of the teachers' salary cause, we have had demonstrated to us the effectiveness of that form of support and promotion, we therefore urge thru increast publicity the continuance of this campaign for a living, saving, culture wage for all com- petent teachers, until the public mind is imprest with the patriotic and social importance of this cause as it affects the future welfare of our country, and with its justice as it affects our profession. That this movement for more adequate compensation implies the reciprocal obliga- tion to earnest effort for increast eflSiciency of service must not be forgotten if the gains are to be made secure. defectives 1. We advocate the application of standard measurements to all children to determine their mental strength, progress, and fitness, and an earnest effort to adapt education to the needs of all, as discovered by these tests to the superior, mediocre, and inferior alike. 2. The educational policy of the state should be sufficiently comprehensive to provide training and instruction for every child under eighteen years of age, be he normal, feeble- minded, delinquent, or suffering from permanent physical defect. 3. The education of mental defectives, of delinquents, and of those suffering from physical defects should be an integral part of the educational program of the state and should not be dependent upon individual initiative or state authority other than that responsible for the entire educational policy of the state, 4. The diagnosing of degrees of mental defect and the classification of children upon such diagnoses should be in the hands of highly qualified psychologists only. 5. In order to facilitate adequate handling state institutions for exceptional children should be available as research laboratories and as training schools for teachers of excep- tional children. GENERAL RESOLUTION We declare our advocacy of the following measure, which we believe to be in accord- ance with the general ideals and purpose of our democracy and vital to the carrying out of the program just stated: league of nations One of the revelations brought to us out of the great world-war is the knowledge that no country can preserve its ideals in isolation from the rest of the world. If our ideals of democracy and humanity are to continue, even for ourselves as an American people, it is essential that we establish with the other nations of the world such relations as will tend to preserve the peace of the world, demand from all nations the education of their people in the fundamental ideals and principles of good government, and secure for all peoples the opportunity to pursue their industries and commerce without interrup- tion by unnecessary wars or interference because of the selfish ambitions of any one people or ruler. Therefore this Association heartily approves the action of President Wilson in his support of the League of Nations and urges upon Congress the recognition of the League I JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 27 of Nations as a non-partisan measure designed to secure the peace and happiness of all people and the propagation and preservation of true democracy. RECOGNITION OF WAR SERVICE Since 191 7, when the United States took up its share in the great world-war, our nation has past thru much hardship, sorrow, and sacrifice such as test men's souls. The Association desires to take this opportunity to express its appreciation of the self- forgetfulness and devotion with which the teachers of the nation replied to the call upon them, so that by their example, their influence, and their instruction they made the schools the main factor in the quick and generous response our people gave in reply to the various war loans, war activities, and the demand for the service and even the life of their sons. SUFFRAGE Since the Congress of the United States with commendable justice and recognition of the rights of suffrage to women has past the separate amendment to the Constitution granting the ballot to the womanhood of America, we urge the governors of all states that have not already ratified the amendment to call a special session of their respective state legislatures so that the amendment may speedily become a law and our great country may take this important additional step in becoming a true democracy. BUDGET SYSTEM Since expenditure, national, state, and local, will greatly increase, and inasmuch as education is always able and ready to justify all expenditure, and every other appro- priation should be required to justify itself, we insist upon the universal adoption of the budget system in public appropriation. THRIFT INSTRUCTION The subject of thrift and savings is thru the efforts of the Treasury Department at Washington engrossing and receiving the attention of all thinking people in this Republic. Furthermore the safety of the democracy in which we live depends largely upon the stability of the government and the improvement of the financial condition of the majority of the people. We accordingly indorse this movement to universalize and render permanent the habit of thrift and savings among our people, and we urge that the teaching of thrift and savings be made a compulsory part of every school curriculum in this country. INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF EDUCATION Whereas, The Minister of Public Instruction, the Federation of the Associations of Elementary Teachers, and the numerous associations of France for the promotion of a League of Nations have graciously exprest thru their distinguisht representative, M. Ferdinand Buisson, their hearty approval of suggestions made by the National Education Association, and the United States Commissioner of Education, respecting the establishment of an International Bureau of Education under the auspices of the League of Nations, and the international organization of the great national educational associa- tions of the free nations, all for the purpose of advancing thru education the ideals of democracy, be it Resolved, First, that the National Education Association, assembled in its fifty- seventh annual convention, expresses to M. Buisson its sincere thanks for the courteous offices which he has so graciously rendered in bringing to this Association cordial messages from our honored sister- republic. Second, that the Association begs M. Buisson to continue his kind offices by convey- ing to the distinguisht Minister of Public Instruction, to the Federation of Teachers' Associations, and to the associations of France for the promotion of a League of Nations the cordial greetings of the National Education Association, and the message that it is 28 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the purpose of this Association, acting on the gracious suggestion of the distinguisht Minister, the Federation, and the associations, to proceed to the formulation of more definite plans looking toward the realization of the proposals for an International Bureau of Education and the international organization of national associations of teachers. Third, that this Association requests its Commission on the Emergency in Education to give prompt attention to the international matters referred to in its resolution and to act on these matters with the authority of the National Education Association. A BUREAU OF INTERNATIONAL STUDY The country needs a growing constituency of educated leaders, familiar with the language, history, traditions, aspirations, and ideals of the various foreign nations with which the United States will from this time on have ever-increasing relations, commercial, social, and political. The number of Americans on the soil who understand the hearts and the institutions and the tongues of foreign peoples is exceedingly small. Our government should therefore establish a plan by which every year two or three hundred young men and young women who have completed their secondary or pre- paratory education should be carefully selected to be sent to the various countries of South America, Australia, and the Old World to spend from four to six years in the higher educational institutions of the country to which they are accredited, their neces- sary living expenses being borne by their government, as is now done in the case of young men being educated for the army at West Point and for the navy at Annapolis. DECLARATION OF PURPOSE The object of the National Education Association of the United States is set forth in its Charter granted by Congress as follows: "To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of education in the United States." To accomplish this object it is imperative that the public shall give generous support to public education in order that men and women of the highest char- acter and scholarship shall be attracted to the profession of teaching as a career, and that the highest professional standards shall be developt and maintained and the most efficient service rendered by those engaged in the teaching profession. The Association will therefore exert all its influence thru its officers, its committees, its publications, and its official staff to the accomplishment of the following objects: 1. To secure the enactment of such state and federal legislation as will give proper recognition and support to public education and provide adequate compensation for teachers. 2. To establish and maintain such educational standards with respect to the train- ing and qualifications of teachers, length of school terms and compulsory attendance, sanitary buildings and modern equipment, organization for the elimination of all class distinction and privilege, and the most improved educational policies and methods attainable thru the continued investigation and study of educational problems, in order that public education shall make the largest possible contribution to the welfare of the" community, the state, and the nation. RESOLUTION OF TRIBUTE Your Committee on Resolutions feels that it is altogether fitting that we turn for a moment from consideration of questions of immediate practical interest to this Associ- ation and pay tribute, by at least brief mention, to the memory of the men and women who within the year have been called by death from our midst. " All of them were for many years honored members of the National Education Association. Several -were, by their loyal, active support and wise counsel, potent influence in shaping the progressive policies of this organization. Ella Flagg Young and 29 Nathan C. Shaeffer each served as president of the National Education Association, and John C. Shoop as president of the Department of Superintendence. To these names must be added those of others, among whom are Henry R. Pattengill, of Lansing, Mich.; Fred L. Keeler, state superintendent of Michigan; Samuel L. Button, professor emeritus of Columbia University, New York; Jennie Rebecca Faddis, assistant super- intendent of schools, St, Paul, Minn.; John J. Keene, archbishop of Dubuque, Iowa; and Charles B. Robertson, superintendent of extension, Pittsburgh University, Pitts- burgh, Pa. Resolved, That for these brave, loyal, and earnest souls who so immeasurably helpt onward and upward this Association, and the best it stands for, we hereby acknowledge our obligations and express our sincere gratitude. COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Fred M. Hunter, superintendent of schools, Oakland, Calif., chairman. Carlton B. Gibson, superintendent of schools, Savannah, Ga. Mary D. Bradford, superintendent of schools, Kenosha, Wis. May Trumper, state superintendent of public instruction, Helena, Mont. R. J. Condon, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. Olive Jones, principal, Public School No. 120, New York, N.Y. Wm. D. Lewis, principal, William Penn High School, Philadelphia, Pa. > GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION ADDRESSES OF WELCOME I. C. p. GARY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WIS. It is a great pleasure and a great honor to have this opportunity to welcome you, the educators of America, to the state of Wisconsin. We have long wisht that you might come to us again with your hearty hand- shake, your good cheer, and your inspiration. You have come to a splen- did state; at least we love it. Nowhere else, we believe, is the fighting so fast and furious between the forces of Progress and the forces of Chaos and Old Night. Here we sleep at night with our armor on, if we sleep at all. Here we win victories much oftener than we meet defeat. Fellow-educators, it is a glorious time we have chosen for this brief existence, this Ufe of ours. In all the bygone ages there was nothing that approacht in magnitude and world-significance the things that are happening in this half a decade. A year ago, and two years ago when we met, we were in serious and stern mood, filled with determination to see the war thru to victory. It has been finisht. Imperialism as a world-force is dead. The funeral was but yesterday. In all the eons of time to come may it never happen that autocracy shall again become a menace to the world! I take great pleasure in telHng you that the latest bulletins announce that John Barleycorn is at this moment in the agonies of dissolution. It is believed that he cannot survive beyond the midnight hour. The world does move, and the schoolmaster helps it move. In the midst of our rejoicing let us not forget, however, that the fight for humanity is not ended, indeed never will be ended while the world stands. At this moment Bolshevism is rearing its horrid head the world over. It is the enemy of law, order, and democracy — of everything we hold most sacred. The fight is a grim reality. Nor is this all. The danger from the selfish greed of man and the lust for power is evident to everyone who studies the signs of the times. Our schools, our children, are not safe from the clutches of industrial- ism. We shall have to fight an insidious foe to real democracy, to equal opportunity for all, which is the principal meaning of democracy, right here in our midst. All over the country today we find subtle influences at work dividing our youth into two classes, the professional and leisure class on the one hand and the day laborers on the other. You will find, if you but look, that there is in some places an effort of big business to 31 32 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General get as many children as possible not to go beyond the grades or, if they enter high school at all, to have them take courses that fall short of college- entrance requirements, so that there will not be too many going on to higher institutions of learning and too few men with the hoe. To illus- trate, we have today in this state the effort in progress on the part of the national and state industrial boards in agriculture to cut under college requirements, thus making it difficult if not impossible to enter colleges after graduating from such courses. In other states the demand is made to segregate the people who take domestic-science courses under the Smith-Hughes Law. Again it is an attempt, conscious or unconscious, to keep young people from growing ambitious to go on with the higher education. You will find if you look sharply at our great corporation schools that they are greatly interested in teaching people to be contented with the state or condition in which they find themselves, and that any effort on the part of anybody to arouse ambition in such groups of indus- trial workers is resented. If the city, the state, or the nation, or all combined, were to undertake to stimulate ambition and the desire for a better job on the part of employes, the effort would be met with secret or open resistance. I have tried it and have seen the results. These things I say merely by way of illustration to show that no sooner are we out of one war or fight than we are into another; that is, we are if we are alive and are an active force in the age in which we live. Our nation needs in its teaching body good fighters, valiant men and women who know no fear and who will never play the slacker's part in the educational army. The school man or woman who does not feel that we are in a fight against ignorance, superstition, greed, and the forces of darkness needs to be galvanized into life. Fellow-soldiers, fellow-workers, fellow-teachers, I welcome you to Wisconsin, and trust your stay with us will yield us all great pleasure and great profit, and that you will be so well treated that you may return to your homes, east, west, north, and south, singing the praises of the state and the city that have welcomed you. II. M. C. POTTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MILWAUKEE, WIS. As a Milwaukee Yankee I heartily welcome you to be at home in our thoroly American city. My Milwaukee friends are predominantly of German blood, of Irish or Polish or Itahan blood. We came to Wisconsin, "The Gathering of the Waters," and have made our home and been made at home in this special domain of French Jesuits and Voyageurs. The French were long before welcomed by the native Americans, which kindly hosts still reside by the thousands in towns and countryside and on four Wisconsin reservations. One of their Sagamores, a distinguisht Milwaukee lawyer, admits that his proud people exceeded all others in the proportion of its young warriors sent forth to Flanders fields. On this " Good Land" Sessionsl ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 33 Milwaukee, before Marquette and Joliet landed here, were wont to be gathered in council the Algonquins and the Dakotahs. Now all we together (the native Chippewa stock and we brethren gathered by heaven's grace from all the warring peoples of Europe) unite in welcoming the friends of the children of Milwaukee, the ''Place of the Peace Council.'* The great Republic went to war, But Spring still comes as Spring has done, And all the Summer months will run Their Summer sequence as before; And every bird will build its nest, The sun sink daily in the west, And rising eastward bring new day In the old way. ^K Sweet and wholesome sanity returns with the new dawn of peace. Shouting portentous marvels of the new world which post-bellum recon- struction is to erect will not materially assist or arrest the quiet processes of nature. Millennial prophets and vision dreamers by the score have sought to stir our souls with tales of the utter unheard-ofness to be expected in reconstruction education. Meanwhile the teachers teach, the chil- dren play, the parents are glad, and the people and the school board dis- cover that teachers are worthy of their hire and proceed to begin to think about raising teachers' pay a fraction of the general price increase. The beginning of fiscal justice for teachers is no new need; it is no ■ reconstruction achievement. Doubling their stipends, which has nowhere been done, would not restore to them even the financial competence they enjoyed before the war. True the teacher's most valuable services are not purchasable. They are given or withheld regardless of salary. Real teaching is a free-will offering of the soul's essence poured out freely on life's altar for the better- ment and uplift of humanity, given in the spirit of the service rendered by the garbed sisters of the cloister. But to make possible an approximation of such service teachers should not be compelled to concern themselves about salaries. Their remunera- Ition should be amply adequate for Kfe's full demands, each day's labor bringing recompense not alone for the hour but sufficient to leave a wide margin in order that the symbolism of each decHning sun may be viewed without apprehension. Then we may indeed hope for home-extension schools presided over by foster-mothers. The school is become a far cry from the original gathering of a group of pioneer children around a motherly or fatherly knee. The telling of prayers and stories, the direction and instruction of their Uves by that original teacher-soul, was very real education. The interpretation of daily happenings, of the phenomena of nature, of the adaptation of man's environment to his needs; the making of shelter for man's protection, the gradual growth of skill on the part of man in adapting the materials 34 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General at hand, in devising utensils, in perfecting tools; the sources for clothing and its decoration; the growth and preparation of daily food; the taming of beasts and the winning of their friendship and consequent mutual protection — such as these were the content and the method for Httle ones on farm and lake shore long before the triumphant war had tempted hopeful souls to expect something strange and dazzling after the deluge and to attempt the unprecedented in every field of endeavor. Much talking of mighty post-bellum changes in teaching children will not bedazzle a single boyish soldier from France. He has lived and played with chil- dren under the sky from the Seine to the Rhine. He has met the child and therefore stands in little need of pedagogical phrases. He should be sought for earnestly by superintendents desiring scholastics who have been born again into teacherhood. In our old Chippewa days, when father and older brothers spent the day in search of food, mother and the Uttle children occupied themselves with the daily tasks about the primitive home. The mother recited to the children the little stories of father's bravery and brother's prowess. She interpreted the song of the wind, the rumble of the thunder, and the whistle of the sleet in the winter storm into terms which the Httle child could understand. She robbed those songs of fear and taught the child that they were the messages of friends. In the long evenings the little child learned to imitate these sounds. These men and women who removed terror from the sounds in nature were teaching music. The desire to perpetuate the narratives and traditions of fathers and grandfathers, to keep forever the beautiful songs in which those stories were told, and to make those stories inteUigible to cousins in different clans gave rise to a spoken literature by successive generations wrought out in eloquence from the simple songs which father and mother sang about the fire. But as life lost some of its simpHcity and civilization's cares gave father and mother other tasks, hired "teachers" came from the White Father. The wisest among them tried to tell the stories, inter- pret the facts, and sing the songs for which mother and father no longer had tjjne. But the New White Skill was demanded for the child; so time became too precious to allow him to "play" all his days. He was usually compelled to leave the ways of his own folk and "work" in a school like a Paleface. Then many a government teacher entirely abandoned the grouping under the trees or beside a brook, and the little children were gathered together in a building which came to be known as the school- house. The mother- and father-spirit which constitutes the teacher-soul could scarcely be recognized by a Chippewa child thus caught in a man trap. Only slowly the child led the teachers back to the facts of his fathers. But today at last they consciously impersonate Indian parent- hood in the Indian schools, and the race, because of parent-souls among the hired teachers, shall not perish from the earth. I I Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 35 Is the city school losing sight of these homely purposes? Are we keeping the mother-spirit? Is the child our leader and our law? Is all that we do for children intended for their natural growth ? Are we teach- ing them the beauty of, the faith in, and love for, the old days and deeds ? Together with the knowledge we think we teach are we giving them wisdom and courage and cheer for the future ? For more than a decade it has been a signal for derisive mockery to say that in some schoolroom is sitting a boy who will be president of these United States. But the ancient altar of our breed still stands — the granite fact. Today's barefoot president of the future nation is such a fact. Are we guarding each child as we would guard the president? Is each child learning to love his country, to revel in her history, to play some glowing page of it with his best chums, to defend her laws, to revere her great men, and to look forward with modesty and hopefulness to a part in the pageant ? Our Milwaukee teachers would be the last to proclaim it, but I must say for them that, judged by the foregoing tests, they are worthy to wel- come American teachers in an American city. Financially and industrially they have far more than met every demand laid upon them by the war. Meanwhile they have stood in the midst of their flocks and suffered the little children to come unto them. The rush of the new and the garish has not made them faithless to the ancient landmarks of their craft. These are they who welcome you 1;o council in the place of peace. We heartily invite you to drink freely of our waters. We expect you to enlighten us with your counsel. Our Association of Commerce and the local arrangement committees have done their best to make things pleasant and convenient for this great Association and for its individual members. We hope you may not be disappointed. On behalf of our American children, teachers, and board members I welcome you and thank you for coming. III. ELLEN C. SABIN, PRESIDENT, MILWAUKEE-DOWNER COLLEGE, MILWAUKEE, WIS. You have been heartily welcomed by those who have spoken for our state and for our city. May I have the honor of saying a word of most cordial greeting for the teachers of Wisconsin ? This great occasion is the third meeting of this Association that has taken place within our state in the course of thirty-five years. The first one, in 1884, when this body convened in our capital city, gave an inspira- tion and direction to the thought of the teachers of Wisconsin that persists beyond the limits of a generation. The discussions then turned on the philosophy of education considered from the points of view of the nature of the human mind and the adaptation to its development of each study of 36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the curriculum. At this meeting, within twenty years after the close of the Civil War, great interest was attacht to national and large sectional con- cerns, and addresses were eagerly heard on "The New South," "Supple- menting the War," and "Negro Education." Scientific instruction in temperance was championed, and the "new education" was voist in the call to consider the needs of the great majority of children and to emancipate the schools from the domination of the colleges. In 1897 the metropoHs of the state was honored by receiving this con- vention, and the change of emphasis upon subjects under consideration was noticeable. Certain former aims had been achieved and other goals were estabHsht. I recall that rural schools, college-entrance requirements, and public-school libraries were among the live topics. Thru all the years the discussions of the Association have both reflected the popular thought of the hour and advanst to new positions. Great leaders have made their contribution, and their places have been taken by others; but one constant and dominant idea pervading all our history as an association has been an abiding conviction in education as the fundamental essential of our country's safety. In the spirit of Decatur's toast we say, "Our public schools, right or wrong; where right, to be preserved; where wrong, to be corrected." Last year the great Pittsburgh meeting was intense with patriotic zeal to meet the requirements of a supreme national exigency. We have today, in less lurid glow but with steady incandescent light, to perceive the necessi- ties of reorganization and to devise the ways to supply them. Certain commonplaces have been made significant to us. Among them is the fact of the oneness of the educational process from start to finish. Tho we speak of "higher" and "lower" we do not signify inferiority in any link of the chain. Every form of education, elementary and research training, public and private, state-supported and endowed foundations, is essential to the whole, and each must justify itself by making both its peculiar and its general contribution. We also recognize the social and community aims and the modification of the earlier individualism. May we, however, avoid losing sight of the primary value of individuality and personality, for only as the units are good and sound can the mass be wholesome and worthy. To establish the right standards of education is, I take it, our supreme obligation. In our superficiaHties in school work, our easy-going, pleasure- seeking disposition, our impatience under the direction of the superior officer, our irresponsible attitude toward personal and public duties. He evident and insidious tendencies that will, uncheckt, increasingly imperil the ship of state. To whom, if not to us, does our country appeal for ideals of the means and the objects of personal and national life ? The unity of our country, its very existence, does it depend on the melting-pot that is to obliterate races, religions, and backgrounds ? Surely not. It rests instead Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 37 on the ideals of virtuous Inen and women and their standards of liberty, justice, patriotism, and of all that constitutes the significance of life; and these ideals must develop in the minds of our children and youth thru the instrumentality of enlightened and consecrated teachers. It has come to pass in America that into the hands of women is chiefly committed the forming of the hearts and minds of the people. In the mother's care is the culture of the earhest years, and from her molding in- fluence the child passes to the woman teacher to whom is committed, almost entirely, the conscious and formal education of boys and girls during the entire plastic period of their Uves. Since more than half of our pupils do not go beyond the eighth grade the larger part of our population never knows other school training than that given by women. The forming of the character of our future citizens is, for better or worse, principally in women's hands. This is a condition that calls upon women in education to consider well the magnitude of their task. The emphasis of the past year has been, perhaps necessarily and most appropriately, upon the increase of the salaries for teachers. Not less urgent is the unvoist imperative for greater qualification and fitness for the teacher's work. The keynote of this meeting is Americanization. We have in our schools, whatever may be done outside and beyond them, the chief agency for this great work. They were originally designed for this function. The idea of preparing the future citizen of the Republic was constantly in the thought of those who estabhsht our public schools, and it was the persuasive deter- mining argument for the free school from its beginning. That this oppor- tunity and obligation have been sadly neglected has become but too obvious. But with the new dignity that has come to women there will certainly be seen in the teachers a larger consciousness of civic responsibility that will awaken in our youth a better patriotism than has been known. No longer will the sources of the noblest sentiments, the traditions, biography, his- tory, poetry, songs, and stories of our own country be merely incidental. No longer will the great documents, debates, and speeches that contain the essence of our doctrine of democracy and of national purpose be unknown to a graduate of a high school. The vital teaching of the recent years will be continued and expanded. Pride, enthusiasm, the sense of honor, loyalty, and personal obligation will prevail in the responsive hearts of young people. No virtue stands alone, and increasing loyalty to country will assemble related loyalties. Thus character develops. Nothing less than character can be our conception of our objective in education. Therefore the order of primacy which the founders of our free schools stated as their conviction of that which is necessary to a free government and to the happiness of mankind is reaffirmed thru the experience of over a hundred and thirty years to be religion, morality, and knowledge. Shall I confess that our welcome to you is not devoid of selfish hopes ? We are eager to appropriate something of the masterful methods of 38 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General California; of the progressive purpose of North CaroUna; of the rich culture of the East; we listen intently to the words from speakers from other lands. In this crisis of changing aims and directions we seek your inspiring thought and able leadership. We welcome you with the hope that our city can contribute to you who are engaged thruout the year in arduous and respon- sible work the refreshment that cordial hospitality can offer, and the enjoy- ment of nature that our lake, river, parks, and drives can furnish. We hope that you may see in our city life, our schools, higher institutions, and art and music societies evidence of preparation of soil in which you may hopefully sow good seed. We would be happy to have you share the pleasure in Milwaukee as a city of beauty and of high purposes that is felt by its residents. And we hope that the charm of Wisconsin in July will lure you to outstay the days of this meeting and will be productive to you of pleasure and lasting benefit. RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME ANNIE WEBB BLANTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, AUSTIN, TEX. On the part of the members of the National Education Association I desire to say that we have been gratified by the warmth of your welcome and edified and pleased by the eloquence of your greeting. We are delighted to be in Milwaukee. We do not expect to be bored by a single dry moment during our stay in your beautiful city. We have come prepared for a con- stant flow of sparkling spirits and ebullient enthusiasm, and we shall bear away with us a rejuvenation of mind and heart which for at least another twelve months should keep us from pedagogical stagnation. We have come with the expectation of finding this the most note- worthy gathering of educators for many years. We are standing on the dividing line between a not wholly successful past and a future in which the way is as yet uncharted. The question that is now before us is. Have we the power of vision, the wisdom of judgment, the courage of initiative, to examine fearlessly into the work and methods of the past, retaining what will stand the test of the new spirit and new conditions and to appropriate boldly whatever in the new and untried may promise in the future real efficiency in our schools? We are now at the death-grip in the struggle between two ideals of education, the cultural and the practical. The cultural has for its object to teach the child to live the best life and to enjoy the living of that life. The practical has for its purpose to train the child to earn a good living. Of what avail is it to be able to live well and to enjoy life if one is unable to earn his living ? And what shall it profit a man to be able to earn a good living if he does not know how to live the best life ? The time has come when we must find in our councils the wisdom of judgment to select from Sessions] RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 39 both of these ideas of education what will meet the necessities of the future, and when we must develop the courage and initiative to discard the fondly cherisht delusions of the past if they have proved themselves ineffective. The examinations of the army drafts have deeply imprest us with the necessity of vitalizing our schools in some way. The results attained at the training camps have caused the questions in our own minds. If con- centration can do this in time of war, what is wrong with our schools in times of peace ? It had been said of the American boy that, as compared with the man- taught soldier of Eui'ope, he would prove himself a mollycoddle. But the outcome showed that the American soldier had no superior. He had the coolness and tenacity of the British, the fire and dash of the French, the patriotism and determination of the Belgian, the courage and humor of the Irish, the stoicism of the Indian, and a spirit all his own — an idealism that made him eager to lay down his life upon the fields of France, without advantage to his own coimtry, if thereby other nations might achieve a freedom hitherto unknown to them — a freedom in which, in future, the weak and defenseless might be forever safe. Our boys went out from us to meet the great adventure of dying. Most of them have now returned to us to meet the great adventure of living. We do not find them unchanged. No one can come face to face with the great experiences of life and death such as they met across the seas without a truer realization than ever before of what in Hfe is really worth while. We shall not find them satisfied now with the same old conditions merely because they have always been so. The question then before us is, Are they to find us* satisfied with the same old conditions in our schools ? Are we big enough, bold enough, strong enough, to make use of the present spirit of unrest to achieve better things for education before the fear of the future and the discontent with old conditions have again settled down into public apathy ? We know that the problem of vitaHzing our schools is largely that of attracting and holding in the teaching profession men and women of superior abihty. When we reflect that the world's supply of persons of more than ordinary ability is comparatively small and that we cannot make an excel- lent teacher of a mediocre person, we begin to realize that if we are to attract and hold in the teaching profession those of more than average ability we must offer superior inducements. Someone has said that the slogan now must be, "Keep the brain fires burning." I can illustrate by the following anecdote how we have been trying to do this in America. A certain great manufacturing estabhshment was noted for its many valuable devices. One day the proprietor was showing these to a visitor. He said, " Many of these valuable appliances we owe to the ability of one of our employes. Frequently he will go off for a week or so of duck hunting, and while he is gone will concoct something entirely new. This device over here, which has been worth $50,000 to our firm, he thought of while out on one of these 40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General duck hunts." The visitor gazed at the machine meditatively for a few moments. Then he said to the proprietor, ''But what does the author of all of these ideas get out of it?" The proprietor looked surprised for a moment, and then he repHed, " Oh, he gets the dticks.^' And that is exactly what we have been receiving in the teaching profession. We have been training others who achieve success; we have been contributing our talent, ideas, and labors to the progress of the world. How much longer shall we be satisfied with receiving in return only the diicks ? I hope that the teacher will always continue to be something of a mis- sionary; but unfortunately this idea of the teacher as a missionary is now resulting in almost a collapse of the teaching profession, for those of the younger generation are declining to prepare themselves for the profession. It has been said that teachers are like preachers. Preachers save souls, but that is all that they ever get a chance to save. The remuneration in any line of work should be commensurate with the importance of the work, with the amount of preparation required, with the hours of labor, and with the hazardous nature of the work. What occupa- tion could be more important than the training of the children of America ? No occupation should require longer special preparation. No other work except the mother's needs more hours of labor, for the teacher's work, like the mother's, is almost never done. Statistics show that no other line of human endeavor is more dangerous to the health of the person engaging in it than is teaching. Tuberculosis and nervous prostration claim their victims by thousands from the teaching profession. Perhaps this is partly due to the fact that most teachers must do other work while teaching in order to live at all. It has been said that teachers have to burn the candle at both ends because that is the only way that they can make both ends meet. We know that teaching is a process of the contact of mind with mind. I wonder how many people ever ask themselves, "What kind of mind is it with which the mind of my child is in daily contact during most of his wak- ing hours?" In most of the rural districts of America that mind is the immature mind of the boy or girl under twenty-two, who, moreover, has had no special training for the work. If a child were ill his parents would not have a cheap doctor to minister to his body, for that is too precious; but many of them are quite willing to intrust to a cheap teacher the formation of his immortal soul and character. This is a condition of the pubHc mind wliich must be changed if we are to be proud of the future citizens of our country. This is a situation which it devolves upon us to put squarely up to the people of the United States. We should say to them, "Are you willing to pay for character, talent, brains, and training in the teaching pro- fession ? If not, then cease to complain of the work of the public schools." Lastly we must realize, and act upon the reaUzation, that we cannot take democracy to other nations, that we cannot train the future citizens of Sessions! PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 4t America in democracy, unless we first inject a little more democracy into the ideals and customs of the teaching profession. When that is done, we shall no longer have the coward and the toady to train our children; when that is done, the teacher will fearlessly take his proper part in public and social affairs and in matters of government; when that is done, a price will be placed upon the work and the remuneration awarded without regard to sex; when that is done, our schools and colleges will no longer be built upon the feudal plan, each department with its overlord, who has the power to hold in leash talent, initiative, and originaHty; when that is done, our teachers' associations will no longer be subject to the ring rule of this or that small group who use these organizations to further their own personal ambitions; and when that is done, thejgreat masses of members of our associations will no longer have for their only functions to supply the funds for the support of these bodies and to act as audience and applause. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PROGRAM OF WORK GEORGE D. STRAYER, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. Your President feels that it is his obligation to present for your con- sideration an account of the work which has been done during the past year, and to propose for your consideration the measures which should be taken to increase the effectiveness of the National Education Association. This has been preeminently a year in which the officers and members of the Association have been engaged in carrying forward the program of work which was adopted at our last annual meeting. There is a real satisfac- tion in reporting to you the achievements of the past year. It is more important, however, to propose plans which are necessary for the further development of a program which shall make certain the realization of the ideals of our profession in the building of a greater and more efficient system of public education. During the period of the war, and even more certainly for the period of reconstruction, education has become the chief concern of the statesmen of the world. In England, in that notable report on education in relation to juvenile employment, there appeared in the opening paragraph this sentence, ''Any inquiry concerning education at this juncture is big with issues of national fate." The Fisher Bill, which past the English parlia- ment during the period of the war, has furnisht the basis for the education of all English boys and girls on full time until fourteen years of age and either on full time or on part time until eighteen years of age. England 4^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General has recognized the fact that her future security and her place among the nations of the world are dependent upon the education of all her citizens. In the United States, without a representative of education in the Presi- dent's cabinet and without any satisfactory definition of problems of reconstruction by our national government, it became the obligation of our profession to provide a statement of program which would make possible the realization of a democratic system of public education, and which would at the same time meet the emergencies of which we became conscious during the period of the war. My predecessor in office appointed a Commission on the Emergency in Education. This body, with the assistance of a large number of the leaders of our profession and in cooperation with bodies of laymen interested in public education, prepared a general education bill which has been intro- duced in both houses of Congress. This bill provides for the recognition of education in our national government and for the acceptance of responsi- bility by the nation in stimulating the states to meet the emergencies which exist thruout the nation. The bill proposes the creation of the office of a Secretary of Education, who shall sit in the President's cabinet. It is the belief of our profession that education is fundamental to the perpetua- tion of our democratic institutions. It is our conviction that the failure to provide adequately for education in any part of the nation involves a weakness in our body politic no less serious than the failure to provide for the common defense or to guarantee the rights of the individual. We believe that in the United States, as in all the democracies with which we were associated in the Great War, we should have a Minister of Education. We need his voice in the councils of the President's cabinet. He should be responsible for the administration of a department in which are coordinated the educational activities of the nation. This organization of a national program in terms of national legislation is to be thought of, not as the culminating act in our long history of work for the development of public education in the United States, but rather as one step ahead in the realization of the responsibility of our profession in the development of our public-school system. This Association has sought to enlist the profession in support of this most important measure. The National Education Association has recognized its obligation for leadership in presenting the cause of education to other bodies. We have secured the indorsement' of the general education bill by the General Federation of Women's Clubs of the United States, by the American Federation of Labor, by scores of chambers of commerce, by rotary cl^bs, parent-teachers associa- tions, and other organizations thruout the nation. We have succeeded in arousing the opposition of those who would limit the development of public education in the nation. We must continue to enlist the support of those who believe in a policy of public education which will provide a maximum of opportunity for physical development, for intellectual achievement, for Sessions] PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 43 social training, and for vocational efficiency to every individual in the nation. We may well look forward to the development of pohcies which will carry us far beyond our present program, for education must develop to meet the need of our developing democracy. The National Education Association has always been interested not only in matters of national policy but also in the development of education in the states and in our smaller administrative units. Our program of work during the current year has involved active participation in the legislative program of many states. We have sought to bring about that type of legislation which would mean a maximum of opportunity to American boys and girls. We have helpt to secure legislation which provides a living wage for teachers in American schools. We have workt on behalf of laws which would make possible the type of educational organization which promises the highest type of efficiency for our educational system. We shall con- tinue as a national association to be concerned with the work of local boards of education. We know that at times we can bring to the local group the assistance which the local school authorities and the local group of teachers must have in order to estabhsh in the public mind the legitimacy of the program which they seek to carry thru. We should expect to establish such confidence in the public mind as will mean that our Association will be called upon to furnish expert advice with respect to the educational chapter of state constitutions, the codification of laws relating to education within the state, the writing of rules of boards of education, the recom- mendation of suitable schedules of salaries, the proposal of types of educational reorganization, and the like. It gives your President satisfaction to report that during the past year the Association has grown in numbers as well as in its conception of its program of work. There are now more active members of the National Education Association than ever before in its history. There are more than 20,000 associate members, who have come into the Association with the confident expectation of becoming active members and in support of the program which the Association has presented for their considera- tion. The promise of support for a greater National Education Association, which was made at our last annual meeting, has been fulfilled. We con- fidently believe that as teachers thruout the nation come to know definitely of the work which is being done they will in still larger numbers join themselves with those who have accepted the professional responsibility involved in membership in our Association. In any account of the work of the year there should be recorded the support of those who, in the days of doubt and uncertainty due to the epi- demic which closed our schools and made impossible the meetings of the state association, came forward with their voluntary contributions in sup- port of the work of the Association. The money that was contributed involved in every case a real sacrifice. The motive which prompted the 44 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General contribution was, I am confident, one of professional obligation in the light of the crisis which confronts us in public education. The officers of the Association went forward with renewed zeal in carrying out the instructions given them, because of the expression of confidence embodied in the contri- butions which were made. Your Executive Committee was instructed at the last annual meeting to employ a field secretary and to provide for him such assistance as might be necessary in carrying forward the work of the Association thruout the country. We were very fortunate indeed in being able to secure a part of the time of two men, who served us during the first half of the year. More recently we have succeeded in bringing to the staff of the Association a man experienst in our profession and practist in the securing of legislation. His work during the past five months has been known to all of you. He will report it in some detail at the meeting which is devoted to the work of the Association. It will suffice to say that in the judgment of the Executive Committee and Board of Trustees the office of field secretary has justified itself to a degree that makes us willing to ask for authorization to employ during the coming year such assistance as may be necessary for the further development of the work of this office. A woman should be appointed in the very near future whose time shall be spent very largely in the field in support of the program and policies of our Association. Other field secre- taries should be added as rapidly as the funds of the Association permit and the growth of its work requires. Your President would report his appreciation of the splendid achieve- ment of the General Secretary of the Association. Thru days which were dark, as well as during the more recent period of assurance that we would be able to meet our obligations and that we could carry out the instructions which were given us at the last meeting, the Secretary has workt day and night in the interest of the development of our Association and for the reali- zation of the ideal of our profession in the nation. No one has more un- selfishly devoted himself to the cause of public education in the United States, and no one has more successfully workt for the realization of our program than has the Secretary of the National Education Association. Your President has had the most splendid support, and you have had the most disinterested service from all the members of the staff employed in our national headquarters. Those who have been most actively at work carrying forward the pro- gram voted at the last meeting feel most keenly the necessity for the reorganization of our Association. We need, first of all, a recognition by all members of our profession of the ideal which was in the minds' of all of us at the Pittsburgh meeting. We are banded together as a group charged with the responsibility of representing our profession. We have a program of work to be accomplisht, and that program will grow as we devote our- selves to its accomplishment. It is imperative that in this situation we Sessions] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 45 bring about an organization of our profession which will be representative of teachers and of the supervisory and administrative officers in all parts of our great public-school system. We must have local organizations of teachers who feel their responsibility to the state association and to our national body. They must realize that as members of the profession they are concerned not merely with the development of education locally but also with the realization of our democratic ideal of providing education in the state and in the nation. The deplorable inequahties which exist in pubhc education today must be their concern. The obligation to provide trained teachers for all American boys and girls must be recognized as a profes- sional obligation. The campaign for living wages must be carried forward in the spirit of the profession that would seek to enlist the ablest young men and young women in our profession, in order that the children of America may be taught by those who can transmit to them the ideals and purposes of our democracy. The state and national associations must accept responsibility for the local situation. We can no longer hold aloof as a national body and satisfy ourselves with passing resolutions which nobody reads. We must be able and willing to go into the state, the county, or the city to present the cause of public education and to secure for our profession the recognition without which our schools cannot be effective. We must develop a professional staff at our national headquarters competent to give advice and to provide the evidence and argument that may be necessary in order to awaken the public to its obligatiori in the field of public education. The work which is to be done will involve discussion and debate in our national assembly. The policies of the Association cannot be developt by any group of officers nor by an official staff. We must become in increasing measure a delibera- tive assembly. If we are to develop this type of an association, and if we are to make the impression upon the coimtry which the profession should make, we must have a representative body charged with the responsi- bility of conducting the business of the Association. We are face to face with a great crisis. It was a highly significant utterance of a great labor group in England that suggested: "The most important of all the measures of social reconstruction must be a genuine nationalization of education which shall get rid of all class distinction and privileges and bring effectively within the reach not only of every boy and girl but also of every adult citizen all the training, physical, mental and moral, Hterary, technical and artistic, of which he is capable." We must extend the period of compulsory full-time education in the United States to sixteen years of age. During the period between sixteen and eighteen we must establish continuation schools in which education for the proper use of leisure time and educaton in the obligations and practice of citizenship go hand in hand with the study, .both theoretical and practical, of the voca- tions in which young men and young women are engaged. We must get a 46 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General _ conception of the obligation of the state which will bring our rural schools to a standard of efficiency achieved in our more progressive communities. The major support of education in all locaHties must, if this ideal is to be realized, come from the state and the supplementary support from the locality. In cities as well as in rural communities social centers which offer an opportunity for the discussion of the problems of the community, of the state, and of the nation must be establisht. A campaign of education must be carried on which will result in the acknowledgment of those principles of organization and administration which make for the highest degree of educational efficiency. Our obligation is not alone to our own people. We have today a place of leadership among the democratic peoples of the world. In our democ- racy we must train men and women to have a world-view. We must teach a new kind of geography and history, which will place us in our proper relationship as debtor to the other peoples of the world, and which will develop among us a feehng of responsibility commensurate with our indebtedness. We must enter into more sympathetic relationships with other peoples thru a more significant study of their language and hterature, and thru more frequent and more intimate association with their current problems and ideals. It is our obligation to lead in the establishment of an international bureau of education in connection with the League of Nations. It will be the function of this bureau to keep all of the nations acquainted with the development of educational theory and practice in each of them. Thru this bureau will be provided the exchange of students and of teachers and the organization of educational commissions to study and report upon the development of education in the several countries composing the league. The bureau will arrange for international conferences on education, in which the plans, the methods, the organization, and the administration of education in the democracies of the world will be discust. If we are to take our place in this development of education for world-democracy we must bring to pass a great national association of teachers conscious of the power and able and willing to accept its responsibility. We are enUsted in a great cause. We seek to perpetuate the democratic institutions in the defense of which we pledged our Hves, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. We are ready to assume the place of leadership which our profession must take, and we have faith in the response which the people of our country will give in support of our program. Sessions] MANUFACTURING AND COMMERCIAL INTERESTS 47 THE NEW WORLD AND THE DEMAND THAT IT WILL MAKE UPON PUBLIC EDUCATION A. MANUFACTURING AND COMMERCIAL INTERESTS JOHN H. PUELICHER, GOVERNMENT DIRECTOR OF SAVINGS, SEVENTH FEDERAL RESERVE DISTRICT, MILWAUKEE, WIS. It is a great privilege to be an American. It is a great privilege to be an inhabitant of a land of great traditions, great ideals, greater opportuni- ties. It is a great privilege to be permitted to participate in the delibera- tions of those who, by force of profession, are the special guardians of these great national possessions. America has achieved much. Of her is much expected. She is the world's hope. She dare not fail. Her failure would be world-failure. The war has shown us our place in the world's work. We are proud of the service rendered by those belonging to us. Their unselfish sacrifices have added to the world's respect for our ideals. At home and abroad the man- hood and the womanhood of the nation were "weighed in the balance and found wo/ wanting." Service was never more unselfishly given. Unselfish service was never more generously bestowed. And men grew as they served. The spirit of America was never so great as when exprest in service. The ideals of America were never more splendidly luminous than when lighting the way for other peoples. If life is service, the way of life has been made abundantly plain to America. And is her fate to be that of those gone before ? History is but a recital of the rise and fall of nations. Will America go ever onward and upward, or is hers to be the fate of Greece and Rome, who, risen to world- leadership, thru the misuse and abuse of their might sunk, so that today their influence is that of past grandeur ? While the war has shown us our great strength, has it not also shown to us our weaknesses ? While we were a homogeneous people in act, did not the war prove us a heterogeneous people in fact ? Did it not empha- size that all over this broad land are large colonies of foreigners — foreigners in language, foreigners in custom, foreigners at heart, availing themselves of American opportunity and enjoying American prosperity, while knowing little of American tradition, of American spirit, of American ideals, and remaining distinctly foreign in their sympathies ? I give you an example. During a Liberty Loan drive a speaker was sent to a part of our country inhabited by Americans of Swiss ancestry. It was an agricultural district, unusually wealthy. This speaker was well received and respectfully Hstened to. That he was of Swiss descent was known. He mingled with them as one of their kin. They spoke of their achievements. One told him of the cattle he owned, of the splendid lands that were his, and of the opportunities he was able to give his children. The speaker, having in mind the sale of Liberty Bonds, praised the farmer's 48 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General thrift and industry but maintained that American opportunity had been a factor in his success. The farmer insisted that his hard work and thrifty habits were the chief reasons, but grudgingly admitted that America's opportunities might possibly have been a factor. The speaker then said, "I suppose, in appreciation of this, you have purchast Liberty Bonds?" Realizing no neglect of duty the farmer answered that he had not. " Have you purchast War Savings Stamps?" Again the farmer answered, "No." "Have you contributed to the Red Cross?" Again, "No," but followed by, "Mother knits," and then, tapping the speaker familiarly on the shoulder, he made this astonishing statement: "You see I don't mix in these affairs; my country is a friendly neutral; I am a Swiss." This man had spent the greater part of his hf e in America and had here acquired what to him was a fortune. As his duty became clear this American of Swiss ancestry willingly met every government request. As the war pro- grest these Americans proved most loyal, supporting the government both in the purchase of its securities and in sending their sons to fight. This instance occurred among people who came from a foreign country. If they remained more foreign than American the fault was scarcely theirs. When you and I go to foreign parts we look up home folk. That these people, coming into a strange land, where was spoken a strange language, settled where they found those who came from home can hardly be won- dered at, and if there be fault in their remaining as they were, speaking a foreign language, observing foreign customs, not becoming thoroly Ameri- can, that fault is distinctly ours. Then too, the draft has revealed an illiteracy that is appalUng, existing not only among those long past school years and coming from foreign parts, but among native-born Americans of draft age. Educators of America, these national shortcomings must be remedied, and the remedy lies in your hands. Yours is the opportunity; yours, therefore, is the responsibility. Educators of America, Americanize America, and with this inculcate into the lives of her people those habits which will perpetuate America. Teach America to use her prosperity for her perpetuity rather than for her undoing. For if there is one rock more than any other on which the nations of the past have foundered it is the rock of extravagance — ^for with extravagance goes immorality, followed by disintegration and decay. Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, Where wealth accumulates, and men decay. The thrift movement, inaugurated by our government under the stress of war, goes to the very root of the evil. It is an undertaking of such funda- mental worth that it should be infused into the very Ufe-blood of the nation. Practically all of the twenty million pupils attending the schools of the United States, in their endeavor to aid their country, have become investors in its securities. j^ In many states lessons in thrift have become a part of the Sessions] MANUFACTURING AND COMMERCIAL INTERESTS — I 49 n » 1 ri > * is 11 SI? \ : \ I ^^ \ l5\ \ 0 rf) if ^ " ;:; s J - "^ ? s is \ \ \ * »• i / gt in lili H mill iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiij. 1 < H ^ '^$2 5 H llllllllllllllllllJIIIIIIIIIIIIII> 50 NATIONAL. EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General school curriculum. In this way much has been done to counteract the undermining tendency ever present with great prosperity. The necessi- ties of war have taught the adult and the child lessons in thrift and con- servation far exceeding any reasonable expectation. The impetus gained should now be fostered and directed into permanent channels so that these valuable lessons of the war may become a part of our national life. While the actual saving of money was necessary to the nation and important to the individual, the motive which inspired it was of even greater value. It contributed toward the creation of a national spirit such as has never before existed. Practically every adult and every child was saving — for himself yes, but primarily for the nation. Most Americans were experiencing for the first time the pleasures of service in their country's cause, and they and the country grew bigger and better because of the service. Let me relate to you a striking incident illustrating splendidly the growth of national spirit. The war-savings movement had ere this developt the Junior Four- Minute Man. This time the scene is not among foreigners from allied or neutral countries. It is in an agricultural county, with no large' centers, with many points difficult of access, inhabited almost entirely by people originally from the enemy countries. Their Liberty Loan drives had not been very successful. Public speakers failed to attract the people to gath- erings. It was difficult to find business men to undertake the sale of the bonds. The time of the Victory Loan had arrived. Someone thought of the war-savings societies that had been organized in the schools of the county and of the Junior Four-Minute Men's organization, and suggested that help be sought there. A prize was offered to the junior orator who would write and deliver the best address on the subject "Why Buy Victory Bonds?" To determine the winner an elimination contest was advocated. A hundred meetings in a hundred schools were held on one evening, and there was scarcely a person in that county not familiar, in consequence thereof, with the reasons for again supporting the government. The one hundred successful contestants were reduced to ten at further pubHc meetings, again attended by the whole county, and by this time the interest in the Victory Loan was intense. It was my good fortune to be present at the final contest. Before the hour of the meeting automobiles arrived from every part of the district. The town hall, decorated with flags and flowers, was crowded to suffocation. Parents aiKi friends were eagerly expectant of the outcome. First, the "Star-Spangled Banner," and then the explanation of the conditions of the contest by the teacher. Then the finals. These youthful American orators, in language and manner so eloquent that cheer followed cheer, told their fgreign-born or foreign-descended parents their t Sessions! AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS duty to the land in which they lived and prospered. There could be nothing more inspiring. Here were young Americans teaching their parents the principles of democracy. The effort of these children sold the county's quota of Victory Loan Bonds. The selling of the bonds was important, but the lessons learned and taught by these children of a foreign- born population were worth more to our national life than could be well measured in money. The volunteer war-loan organizations are rapidly disbanding. Unless the part of their work worth preserving is directed into permanent channels the nation will lose many of the results of its vigorously waged thrift cam- paigns. Machinery, permanently to carry the load, exists. Under the direc- tion of the Treasury Department the schools have been the spirit and soul of the thrift movement. The Post Office Department has furnisht the mechanism. Under the guidance of these two national departments the thrift movement has brought into our homes invaluable lessons in saving and patriotism. Federal supervision of the work was important. It in- sured the respect always accorded requests and recommendations of our government. Fundamental movements, especially those in the interest of the nation, should be sanctioned by national authority. This is the more necessary when permanence and uniformity are integral parts. Great basic undertakings, reaching the very root of national life and influencing the quahty of our citizenry, should receive their inspiration from the very heart of the nation, should be officially represented at the seat of our govern- ment, and should have supporting them the great resources and the great influences of our government. Education should be represented in the cabinet of our President. That would give the educator his rightful place in the professions, and service under such conditions would attain a dignity, and perchance a recognition — I am speaking of material recognition — that local administration alone could never bestow. If we hope to perpetuate America we must Americanize America and teach America to direct its prosperity into individual and national substan- tiality and growth. We must learn to think less of purely material success and to reward and honor more greatly service in cause of country and of kind. Educators of America, may God help you perpetuate America! B. AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS HENRY J. WATERS, "KANSAS CITY STAR," KANSAS CITY, MO. The immediate development of the rural school will be dependent upon a general consolidation of the small units and the raising of a school fund of sufficient size to provide adequate building and equipment and to pay much better salaries tl;an at present. A part of this additional money can be 52 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General raised by the farmers, and in the best agricultural regions all can be raised by them. In the less-favored regions the financial support which a country school ought to have cannot be wholly met by the local patron^ and must be raised in part by a general tax. In general it is as hurtful to communities to be permitted to pay less than they should toward the support of their schools as it is to require them to pay more than they can afford. The factors which will finally determine the quaHty of the rural school are the ability of the farmer adequately to support the school and to spare his children from work in the field while they complete the course of study. At present all the child-labor laws on the statute books in this country, I am told, specifically exempt farm children from their protecting influences. Are farm children of less importance than city children ? Are farm tasks which children perform, such as milking cows and picking cotton, less hurt- ful to the growing child than tasks performed in a sanitary and well- supervised city factory? Is cheap food so fundamental to the welfare of society that we are justified in sacrificing the children of the open country that it may be had ? If justice demands that the child in the city be free to attend schools without the retarding influence of physical labor, should it not also demand the same protection for country children ? I shall not attempt to answer these questions except by raising a more fundamental one : Is it not best for all children, both rich and poor, that they be taught to work and be given an opportunity to combine reasonable but productive labor with study and recreation, all under conditions which will not rob them of their childhood, nor injure their bodies or their morals? Whichever way the last question is answered, and I shall not attempt to present argu- ments pro or con, the truth is self-evident that young people on the farm have the same rights as do those in town, and general ajid unrestrained child labor ought not to be any more necessary on the farm than in the factory. If the head of the family in the city claims that it is his right, while working, alone and without capital, to be able to support his family decently, the head of the family on the farm, while working a reasonable number of years with an average capital of more than $10,000, ought to be able to accomphsh the same result. A distinguisht educator recently said, ''We cannot lead the world industrially without cheap food." If cheap food must be had by depriving the farmer of a just return on his capital and labor, or if he is forst to wear out his soil in the process of getting it, we had better not attempt to domi- nate the world industrially. This distinguisht educator was thinking of the farmer, as do most other people, as a producer of food only. When we think of industries we think of iron mines, steel mills, sawmills, cement factories, and railway-shops, but the farmer produces from two-thirds to three-fourths of all the raw material which enters into American manu- factories, while less than one-fifth of such material comes from the mines and only about one-twentieth from the forest. It is material such as live Sessions] AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS $3 stock, milk, wool, cotton, wheat, oats, barley, and rye which furnishes employment to a great majority of American workingmen. A far safer law to lay down is that America cannot succeed industrially without an abundance of raw material out of which may be manufactured th^ products which the world wants. The easiest thing to sell is food to hungry people. As long as our industries are based largely on the production of food they are safe. A shortage of this sort of raw material would necessitate a reorganization of our industries and the laying of emphasis on those finisht products which are most difficult to sell, and in the manufacture of which competition from the cheap labor of other countries is keenest. V An abundance of raw-food material is easily assured. AH that is neces- sary is to pay the farmer a price which will encourage him to produce to his limit. Everyone wants to see our factories run to the hmit of their capacity. We are just as much interested in having our farms produce to their full capacity. The rural school, the great laggard in our educational procession, lacks organization, properly prepared teachers, supervision, and support. The farming population is yet too sparse and wealth in the country is too thinly spread out to make it possible by taxing the .farmer alone to duplicate our city school system in the country. If we collected the country folks and had them live in villages and go out to the farms each morning to work, then the school, church, and social problems would be enormously simpli- fied. But by this act we would sacrifice the individual farm home, an institution which has reacht its highest development in America and doubtless has contributed more to American independence of thought and action than any other single factor. In this move also we would be taking the final step toward the establishment of an American farm peasantry and would be confessing failure in all our attempts to maintain in this country a permanent rural civilization. The recognition by society of the* principle that the proper education of the children on the farm is a part of the responsibility of the state and nation as well as of the local community, and the entering upon a policy of taxing all the people to supplement the meager support now given the country schools, would meet the problem of adequate support. But this also has its dangers. It would be making the country people objects of charity, and this in the end would impoverish rather than enrich their lives. Also entering upon such a policy would be a confession that opportunity in the country does not enable those who live there to provide a decent education for their children, and young men and women of discernment will be quick to run away from such a condition. The ultimate result of this policy, therefore, would be to accentuate the drift from the country to the city. In considering the importance of the rural school we naturally think of making it an instrument for teaching farm children how to farm, and partly 54 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General by means of what we teach them and partly by means of what we withhold from them to keep them on the farm. We are always interested in keeping farmers' children on the farm and view with alarm their coming to town to live. It does not occur to us that if the farm possesses so many advantages over the city as a place in which to live and to make a career our first duty is to our own children, whom we should be bringing up with a desire to live in the country and till the soil. In a democracy the utmost freedom in the choice of an occupation is the fundamental right of every child, and this right must not be abridged. If the public schools of the city sought to make blacksmiths of the sons of the blacksmith and to train the sons of bank directors to follow in the footsteps of their fathers the country would be shaken with protest because the public school, the most powerful agency left us with which to promote democracy, was being employed to break down democracy and to build up class aristocracy. Children born in the country are entitled to as much freedom of choice of occupation as are those brought up in town and are entitled to as sub- stantial help from the public schools in making an intelligent choice. Be- sides, if we should put to use the rural schools as a means of forcing country children to stay on the farm we would meet with failure. Every effort along this line which has ignored the fundamental principle of equality of opportunity has been futile. Indeed I think it may be accepted as axiomatic that the inteUigence of the people on the farm in any country finally is directly related to the income derived from the farming business as compared with that from similar enterprises in the same community. People will stay on the farms if the opportunities are as good in agriculture as in other industries. If the opportunities are not as good the intelligent and ambitious will leave the farm. In a word, if farming is allowed to become unprofitable as com- pared with other occupations it will be given over to a less efficient class than that which now tills our soil. I would sum up as the basis of a sound and permanent rural civilization those principles which the American farmer thru his various organizations sought without avail to have incorporated in the covenant of the League of Nations, a part of which is as follows: 1 . Equality of pay, opportunity, and social reward for equal skill and equal work in agriculture as compared with other occupations. 2. Universal free education for farm children universally accessible, 3. Extension of benefits of modern civilization to the open country in spite of added cost, part of which should be borne by general taxation. 4. Recognition of the principle that the depreciation of agriculture constitutes the central danger to civilization and that the demand for cheap food at the expense of a decent standard of living on the farm leads to agricultural disintegration and general decay. The proper adjustment of these great questions between the different states and communities of the country demands a strong, effective national Sessions] AMERICAN HOMES 55 department of education and the recognition of education as one of our principal interests by having it represented in the highest council of the nation. Our present system of public education grew largely out of the wastes of the Napoleonic war. The present American system of vocational education had its birth during the Civil War. Why should not the greatest step America shall take immediately follow the glorious achievements of the world-war ? C. AMERICAN HOMES ELLA S. STEWART, PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, CHICAGO, ILL. I am not inclined to dispute the optimistic implications of the general topic of this meeting, nor of mine in particular. None of the reactions of the war has proved more surprising to the world than that upon the status of women. Changes have taken place which are of tremendous importance in the future relation of women to industry, politics, public welfare, and the advancement of the race. Seeds of justice, of opportunity, of recognition, which had been dormant to the point of despair, have burst into immediate fruitage under the forcing processes of war necessities and a purifying patriotism. The student of the woman movement is not surprised at its romantic progress during this period of upheaval. Every right obtained by women from the frightened, chastened, bared soul of the man-world was long overdue. It had been argued out on every forum from hearthstone to throne in all civilized governments. The enfranchisement of the women of several of the warring nations was not merely coincidental. The subconscious national mind on this question was plowed up by the enginery of death. It was the conscience of nations squaring itself with the slogan, ''A war for democracy." Now behold men and women of great and boastful nations standing outside the gates of their fool's paradise, behind them a flaming sword, but before them, thank God, a new chance!- With coequal powers and a growing willingness to blend the wisdom of men and the wisdom of women, imagination, nay faith, forecasts an era when spiritual rather than material values shall predominate; when democratic government becomes a guaranty of that most sacred right of all — the right of everybody to be somebody. I congratulate the United States Congress in following the lead of old monarchies in the necessary procedure for the enfranchisement of women. The irony of the situation is that even if thirty-six states ratify the federal constitutional amendment at the first opportunity the women of Germany, the British Isles, Russia, Hungary, and South Africa will have had a long exercise of the franchise before we begin. Nevertheless, in spite of our discrepancies between theory and practice, we have pride in the 56 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General belief that America is the mother of democracy and democracy the mother- spirit of the world. The last statement is the point I wish to stress in what I shall say about the new world from the woman's point of view. The word ''reconstruction" has its feminine implications. The work of salvage- — mending, healing, conserving — has traditionally belonged to women, and no durable structure of society can now be reared without the aid of women. It has come to pass that woman and the state are meeting in woman's ancient domain — in the cultivation of the arts of peace, the conservation of human life, the ministration of the needy, and the pro- motion of morality, order, and beauty. There is no nook or comer of her home which the state has not invaded. Perhaps four-fifths of the subjects of legislation have a bearing upon the home and family. The supreme task of both home and state is to work plastic human clay into nobler forms and to cooperate in making the community home a safe enough place that little children may be born and reared in it. We are developing a courage to believe that no social wrong or public evil is unconquerable. Therefore I deem myself honored to stand in this Education Association as a representative of the organized women who form your Department of School Patrons. The General Federation of Women's Clubs, the National Council of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Association, the National Council of Jewish Women, the Southern Associa- tion of College Women, and the Association of Collegiate Alumnae are typical of many other organizations without whose ideals, experience, and cooperation reconstruction problems cannot be solved. A century ago woman was still practically at the zero-point of oppor- tunity. Up to the last third of the nineteenth, called woman's century, she was struggling to get her hands and feet free. In 1850 she had but seven industrial occupations. Today over 10,000,000 women are earning their own and others' bread in more than three hundred occupations. There were two liberating forces that shook her prison house at about the same time: the invention of labor-saving machinery and free compulsory education. The door of the house opened for women to follow their looms to the steam-driven factories. It opened for children to troop out to their place in the new social order. No longer could the mother keep them in the sanctum she had glorified. The state exercised a superior claim. Children must go to school. The women who were left in the house — children at school, drudgery being done by their sisters in factories — found themselves endowed with a precious leisure, at least two or three hours a day for the busiest^ — time for self-culture, exploration, organization. To be sure some women have used this leisure in experiments with cosmetics and vanities, self-indulgence and follies, and worse. But it is to the everlasting glory of American women that opportunity has spelled obligation, and service is the passion of the woman movement. Sessionsl AMERICAN HOMES 57 The most significant victory of organized mother-power in America was the establishment of the Children's Bureau as a department of the national government. It meant that the womanhood of the land had at last got its small foot thrust thru the crack of the governmental door, and that that door would soon have to swing wide enough to admit her resolute body. Simultaneously with efforts for child-welfare legislation in all the states women for years were troubling the national government by pointing to the millions of dollars spent in the departments of plant and animal industry by a government which spent nothing to discover the vaster and more valuable needs of American children. Why must three hundred thousand babies die in their first year in this land ? Is it the fault of heredity ? Bad housing ? AlcohoHsm or venereal disease? How much of this slaughter of the innocents is because the mothers are in industry ? Why are the mothers in industry ? The organ- ized women of the land have constituted themselves into several million interrogation marks, and at last scientific investigations have been started under the direction of JuUa Lathrop. Under the leadership of Miss Lathrop the last year was proclaimed Children's Year, and the measuring and weighing of babies became a sacred ceremonial. A general interest has been aroused in all questions of safeguarding child Hfe, and this forecasts the time when, as far as it is possible for governments to control, every baby shall have his rights— his first right to good heredity — to clear brains and clean blood. This campaign for child welfare dovetails with the national education bill in keeping the child in good health before school age so that he may enter unhampered by physical defects. The century of the child follows woman's century in logical sequence, and the child in government as in the home adds completion to the divine triangle, man, woman, and child, the greatest of which is the child, the upborne hypotenuse. Reconstruction calls for the last ounce of service of the awakened woman for the downtrodden and belated ones of her own sex. The wise ones know that the few cannot keep the heights while so many are in a pit, that no woman is free while others are in slavery, and that none is safe while traps are set for one. The womanhood of the world not only has shared the burden and the woe and led in ministration on battlefield and hospital and held the home Hnes for food production and conservation, but has assumed the obligation of industrial creation which changed the weights and balances of the struggle to the side of victory. To secure the utmost output of these women, as well as to give expres- sion to the fine, unselfish emotions of the war, standards were adopted by the war government for women in industry which the good- will of a world at peace must maintain and advance. The right of women to work should 58 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION [General never again be questioned, with compensation depending upon the character of the work or output rather than upon the sex of the worker. They should be granted a minimum wage which will permit a standard of life conducive to health, education, and recreation, daytime work and one day of rest in seven, equal opportunity in trade and technical training, equal pay for equal work, freedom to organize, and representation in the organiza- tions of labor in which they participate. They need social insurance against sickness, accident, industrial disease, and unemployment. In fact, women workers in the new world must have every right which shall be guaranteed to their brothers, for their motives in entering industry and their human needs are the same. In carrying over the social program to which women are committed, which I have so hastily and inadequately sketcht, it is apparent that there must be a great army of inteUigent, highly trained experts which the public schools, colleges, and universities must supply. This brings me to a conclusion which is obviously as follows : A nation which lays upon the doorstep of its schools its most important function must have the foresight, the plain common sense, to endow its teaching ministry with superior attainments. How shall they give out what they do not have ? How can they possess unless they have received? Adequate normal training must be freely provided to all who are wiUing to serve the general good in the training of American citizens. The piibHc must be educated by the National Education Association and all its auxiliary lay organizations to believe that the public money spent to educate teachers is its very best investment. Then the taxpaying public and governments must be shamed by their gross ingratitude to the public servants who render by far the greatest national good. No one in public life should be better paid than those upon whom we place such great respon- sibility, and I pledge the strength of the Department of School Patrons to support the efforts of those who are working for such salaries for teachers as will furnish them the means to lead self-respecting, respect-commanding lives in every community, where they should stand as the most honored and conspicuous representatives of the state. D. WAR EDUCATION ABROAD FRANK E. SPAULDING, HEAD OF AMERICAN EDUCATION IN FRANCE, PARIS, FRANCE I. The exigencies of the Great War have revealed and emphasized the following serious defects and weaknesses in the citizenry of the United States of America, viz. : I. A startling percentage of physical defects and weaknesses, largely remediable under suitable treatment. Sessions] WAR EDUCATION ABROAD 59 2. A large percentage of adult illiteracy, approximately 25 per cent of the men of the first draft failing to pass a literacy test based on the ability to read a newspaper readily and intelligently and to express one's thoughts fairly clearly in writing. 3. The number of men adequately trained in the various skilled pro- cesses of industry, agriculture, commercial organization, and control grossly insufficient to meet the needs of the state, civil as well as military. 4. Generally inadequate preparation for civic responsibilities to insure the safety and progress of the nation in war and in peace. II. To overcome these defects and weaknesses, and to prepare for the demands of the immediate future, which promise to be far greater than the demands of the past, the following proposals for a national program of education are made: 1. That the people of America, thru proper governmental agencies, national, state, and local, set before themselves the following three definite educational objectives to be attained by all children and youth: a) Essential elementary knowledge, training, and discipline, such as results from the completion of the eight-year elementary course in the best pubUc-school systems of the country. b) Occupational efficiency in some field — professional, agricultural, industrial, commercial. c) Civic responsibility in both civil and mihtary affairs, as required for the security and peaceful progress of the nation. 2. That for the realization of these three objectives there be assured to all children and youth of America the following instruction: a) A complete elementary-school course of eight years, at least thirty- six weeks to the year, equivalent to the best of such courses now maintained in any public schools in America. b) Following the elementary course, secondary instruction up to eighteen years of age, either in full-time schools or in continuation schools, the latter to be maintained forty-eight weeks in the year and to give at least eight hours of instruction, under favorable conditions, or an equivalent number of hours of concentrated instruction running thru at least three months, to all students. c) A twelve-month year of intensive training for civic responsibility and vocational efficiency of all young men not absolutely incapacitated by mental deficiency or physical defect, this training to be entered upon between the ages of seventeen years and six months, and twenty years. This year of training to be educational in the broadest sense, provided that from one- third to one-half the time be devoted to physical develop- ment and military training and one-half to two- thirds of the time to the study of such subjects, literary, scientific, technical, artistic, commercial, and agricultural, as are suited to the needs and desires of the youth con- cerned, the largest liberty of choice being allowed; all pupils, however. 6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General to be instructed in American ideals and government, modern history, and international relations. The curricula of this year of training to be prepared jointly by the Educational and the War departments of the government, the latter assum- ing responsibility for the miUtary- and physical-training part of the cur- ricula, the former for the non-miUtary subjects and courses of instruction. During this year of training the immediate control of the student body to be exercised by a military staff under the War Department; the miKtary training and physical development to be carried out by the mihtary staff, the instruction in non-mihtary subjects to be under the direction and super- vision of the Department of Education. 3. That to provide further necessary means for bringing "effectively within the reach, not only of every boy and girl, but also of every adult citizen, all the training, physical, mental, and moral, Hterary, technical, and scientific, of which he is capable," state universities and other pubhc educational institutions of university grade be fostered, and that a National University for graduate study and research be estabhsht at Washington. 4. That the national government give financial support to this educa- tional program; that the national government assume the entire expense of the year of intensive training for civic responsibihty and occupational efficiency and for the National University at Washington and contribute to the expense of the remainder of the program in such a manner as to stimu- late state and local financial support and initiative in organizing and con- trolling methods of procedure. 5. That there be estabhsht in the national government a Department of Education with a secretary at its head who shall be a member of the President's cabinet. E. ORGANIZED LABOR HENRY STERLING, LEGISLATIVE REPRESENTATIVE AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR, WASHINGTON, D.C. (In the absence of Henry Sterling his address was read by Hugh S. Magill, Field Secre- tary, N.E.A., and is publisht by special permission of the Executive Committee.) The first convention of the American Federation of Labor, in 1881, declared in its constitution: "We are in favor of the passage of such legis- lative enactments as will enforce, by compulsion, the education of children; if the state has the right to exact certain compliance with its demands, then it is also the duty of the state to educate its people to the proper under- standing of such demands." At various national gatherings since that date it has declared: The education of the people is the fundamental principle upon which the success of every proposed plan of social reform depends; therefore we favor legislatures enacting laws compelling parents to send their children to school. Education should be the watchword of the labor movement, in order that the masses may fully realize the impor- Sessions] ORGANIZED LABOR 6 1 tance of unity of action, regardless of color, creed, or country. Compulsory-education laws should be strictly enforst in every state in the Union, and where there are no such laws efforts should be made to secure their enactment The wage-earners should base their hopes upon the elevation of the conditions of all the working people. Teachers should organize, and the seeking for political influence to obtain or retain their positions should be eliminated We urge a greater interest in the education of the 25,000,000 children of school age in the United States, 50 per cent of whom leave school by the end of the sixth grade at approximately fourteen years of age The time has arrived when compulsory education must be had. All children between the ages of six and sixteen years should be provided with at least a common-school educa- tion. All public-school books should be furnisht the children at the expense of the states. 'We also favor public night schools for children over sixteen. The American Federation of Labor demands in the name of the coming generation that a sufficient number of school teachers be employed to give a reasonable degree of personal attention to each of the children intrusted to their care General educational studies and requirements of school children are of more impor- tance to the future welfare of the workers than industrial education, but these recommen- dations of the United States Industrial Relations Commissions are indorst: 1 . Compulsory day-time continuation schools for all children in industry between the ages of fourteen and eighteen years, for not less than five hours per week, at the expense of their employers. 2. Night schools for all persons over eighteen years of age desirous of further educa- tional opportunities, either cultural or vocational. 3. Standards of efiiciency for teachers. We believe the national crisis requires increast emphasis on the value of our schools and should lead to a coordinated genuinely national and democratic system of edu- cation. Child-labor and school-attendance provisions should not be suspended during the war Educated manhood and womanhood is the nation's greatest asset in both peace and war. And we must not sacrifice, even to an emergency, the increast national efi&ciency which can be attained only thru organized educational training. The free-textbook system should be extended to such states as have not adopted it. Teachers should be secured tenure of positions during efficiency One of the most flagrant injustices and most dangerous weaknesses in our national life is the continued neglect of these valuable public servants. We are alarmed by the lack of democracy in the conduct of our schools. Our American school system is administered autocratically, the teachers actually on the job in the classrooms having a negligible voice in the determination and carrying out of policies. Self-governing school and district councils of teachers should be establisht for the purpose of utilizing the experience and initiative of the teaching body in the conduct of the schools. We believe the most effective guaranty of democracy in our schools is the affiliation of the teachers of the country with the great democratic force of organized labor. In 19 1 8 the convention indorst a federal bill requiring a Commissioner of Education to devise methods and promote plans for the elimination of adult illiteracy in the United States and declared that ''organized labor always has been the avowed enemy of ilHteracy, whether among immi- grants or our own people." Labor played an important part in securing the establishment of free public schools, but from the beginning they have been designed especially for a few who could go on to high school and col- lege. They must continue to offer preparation for high school and college, 62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General and labor heartily approved and helpt to secure the tremendous expansion of high-school and college facilities during the last fifteen years. We favor the provision of adequate facilities for the teaching of English to non- English-speaking people; the utilization for this purpose of the foreign- language press; the requirement that all our children shall be taught in the English language in both public and private schools; a foreign language to be taught only as a subject in the curriculum; the provision of ample playground facilities as a part of the pubHc-school system; continuous medical and dental inspection thruout the schools; the organization and equipment of special classes for children who are subnormal, either mentally or physically; and also special classes for children who are found capable of making more rapid progress than is possible in a standard school; better enforcement of educational laws and the universal establishment of a minimum school-leaving age of sixteen years; the establishment of a complete system of modem physical education; the establishment of a federal department of education headed by a cabinet officer; the wider use of school plants, securing increast returns to the community thru additional civic, social, and educational services to both adults and chil- dren; the extension of a free-textbook system to the District of Columbia and such states and communities as have not yet adopted it; the estab- Hshment of self-governing school and district councils of teachers for the purpose of utilizing the experience and initiative of the teaching body in the conduct of the schools, the recommendations of such councils to be made a matter of official public record; the securing for teachers of tenure of positions during efficiency; no dismissals without full and fair hearing; a thorogoing revision upward of teachers' salary schedules to meet the increast cost of living and the growing appreciation of the value to the community and the nation of the teachers' services; the Hberal, ungrudging reorganization and increase of school revenues. The following resolution was adopted at the 19 19 convention of the American Federation of Labor: Whereas, In accordance with the instructions of the last convention, the Executive Council of the American Federation of Labor, working with the American Federation of Teachers and the National Education Association, has cooperated in the preparation and introduction of the Educational Bill (H.R. 7), which creates a Federal Department of Education, and appropriates annually one hundred million dollars to be apportioned among the states to aid in the payment of more adequate teachers' salaries, in the equali- zation of educational opportunities, in the removal of illiteracy, in the Americanization of immigrants, in physical education, and in the preparation of competent teachers; and Whereas, The present period of reconstruction is revealing even more clearly than the preceding period of the war the need for a national educational policy to secure coordination among the states, and to promote national welfare, efficiency, and unity; and Whereas, The threatened collapse of our schools, which influenst the action of the last convention, is still more imminent now, thru the forcing out of our best teachers by the thousands by sheer economic pressure, and thru the refusal of young men and women of Sessions] ORGANIZED LABOR 63 ability and independent spirit to prepare themselves for a calling which does not offer a self-respecting living; and \ Whereas, The'ultimate national need is for educated manhood and womanhood, a need which will become more urgent in the period we are entering; and Whereas, The recent past has forst upon us a realization of the necessity of more effective physical education, of the removal of illiteracy, and of the Americanization of immigrants; and Whereas, In the fields of vocational and agricultural education the value of the stimulus to the states of federal appropriations available to a state on its meeting specified standards, and on the appropriation by that state of equal amounts, has been proved by experience; therefore, be it Resolved, That this Thirty-ninth Convention of the American Federation of Labor, in conformity with the recommendation of the preceding conventions, indorses the Educational Bill (H.R. 7), and instructs the President and Executive Council to use the full influence of the American Federation of Labor in its support. The committee which considered this preamble and resolution stated that the people of the country are realizing now as never before that a democracy must depend primarily upon an educated citizenship for its very life, and that the nation as a whole is under even deeper obHgation to the schools than is any section of the nation. In recognition of that fact the Educational Bill provides for a federal department with a secretary in the President's cabinet and assigns to the federal government a small portion of the total cost of our public-school system. But recognizing with equal force the value of local initiative and experimentation within the various states the bill safeguards local autonomy, providing that all the educational facilities encouraged by its provisions shall be organized, supervised, and administered exclusively by the legally constituted state and local educa- tional authorities within the several states. The committee also called attention to the effective coordination under one broad agency in a com- prehensive measure of all federal educational activities, including Ameri- canization, removal of illiteracy, and physical education, as contrasted with piecemeal, separate treatment of those closely connected subjects. What then is our present purpose regarding education? We propose to cooperate to the fullest possible extent of our power and influence with you and with all others who will cooperate in impressing more fully upon the public mind the vital need of full education for all the children of the Republic, regardless of state lines. A primary essential is a more adequate conception of the vital need of education to the safety and welfare of the Republic and the elevation of the profession of teaching to its rightful place in the public esteem. Unless the profession stands high in public esteem salaries for teachers adequate to secure the highest talent cannot be obtained. The nation's children are entitled to the services of the best teaching talent that the nation produces, but the present range of salaries cannot secure the services of such talent. The iron workers in the employ of the United States Steel Corporation were said to be receiving, in Decem- ber, 1 918, wages averaging $1950 per year. The teachers of Washington 64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General are urging upon Congress a salary of at least $1000 per year. Coal heavers, hod carriers, street laborers, day laborers, building laborers, farm hands, are paid at rates as high and sometimes higher than that. A 50 per cent pay cannot secure a 100 per cent efficiency. Low-class salaries cannot secure high-class talent. With prices as they now are no competent, well- equipt teacher should be offered less than $1500 for a year's services. And we cannot afford to put teachers not fully competent, not fully equipt, in charge of the education of American children. It is a wrong to the chil- dren and an injury to the RepubUc. I have dwelt so much upon teachers' salaries, not because I wish to promote their pecuniary interests, but rather to safeguard the children. It is impossible to have efficient schools with- out efficient teachers, and efficient teacher^ cannot be secured without adequate salaries. The welfare of the children, the future rulers of the RepubHc, demands that teachers be properly paid. A more democratic management of the schools is another essential to educational progress. Too many petty oligarchies are holding secret sessions, even sometimes when the law prescribes otherwise, deciding behind closed doors large questions of vital concern to the entire pubHc, and reach- ing, in strictest privacy, determinations relating to the administration of pubhc property, public functions, and public policy. The estabfishment of teachers' councils would bring to the service of the schools the benefit of the fresh initiative growing out of actual teaching experience and would tend to eliminate autocratic and secret methods. With all the zeal, sincerity, and power that I possess I exhort you, and my own people as well, to urge upon Congress the inauguration of a more intelligent, liberal, and constructive poUcy with relation to education, to the end that future generations may increase in knowledge, happiness, loyalty, and all civic virtues. * THE ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION FOR SERVICE IN THE NEW DEMOCRACY A. RURAL EDUCATION LEE L. DRIVER, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WINCHESTER, IND. Americanization, of which we hear so much today, depends largely upon the public school for its realization. America can never be the democracy expected of it until all its children, whether country or city, rich or poor, high or low, are taught in the grades of the pubUc school and in no other language than English. No democracy can rise to the greatest degree of efficiency so long as it has within it any very considerable force that cannot communicate freely with any other group within its border. It is perhaps even more necessary for the rural school to be democratized than for the urban schools to be democratized. Children come in contact with the representati"es of every large group in their own community, Sessions] RURAL EDUCATION IN THE NEW DEMOCRACY 65 and this makes it necessary that the school be such as to bring about the highest ideals of democracy. Universal education is essential; illiteracy 'must be obliterated, ignorance must vanish, before the people can consti- tute a real democracy. The rural school being attended by children from four to eighteen years of age must lay the foundation upon which the government is to rest. The ideals of the rural school will be the ideals of the children who attend such a school. The rural children replenish the citizenship of cities and towns, hence it is extremely necessary that they be trained in the proper ideal toward the government. Before the rural school can accomplish this ideal it must be vitalized so as to become a dynamic force not only with children but with the com- munity as well. The school must be the unifying medium which shall bring together the other factors. The rural school must give the children a knowledge of the importance, necessity, and opportunity to be found in country life. The rural school must be the center about which country life revolves. The school must teach vocational work in such a way that the children will apply it with pleasure to the work of their home. The rural school must educate the children in such a way that they will want to remain in the country and will remain in the country because of the opportunity, independence, and pleasure to be derived from the country. It must be a socializing medium in which the entire community may have a common interest and be on an equality. There must be something in it that will attract the attention of the most ignorant and create in them an interest and desire to become better acquainted with it. The rural school must be in the hands of real leaders. It takes greater ability and more originality to conduct a rural than an urban school. Men and women of greater ability are needed, but how sad it is to think of the lack of such leadership. The rural school must not only be in the hands of a leader but must train for leadership. The direct need at this time is real leadership in the school, in the church, and in the home, leaders of higher ideals, and leaders who are willing to work earnestly and unceasingly. But how is this to be brought about ? It is lamentable that the people who are to receive the greatest benefit from a movement are too often those who respond less toward the realization of the benefit to be derived from the movement. The rural people are slow to respond in a way to any new movement. Traditions are held high and custom is difficult to remove. It is often, "Let well enough alone," but more often, "Any old thing will do." The one necessity to bring about desired reforms is the cost. There is nothing to which the average man objects more than to paying taxes. Eleven years ago, after I had been county superintendent one year and fully reaUzed the inadequacy of the rural schools, I had the good fortune 66 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [General to have an interview with Dr. Aley. We were returning from a country commencement, and I said to him, "What can I do to help our country schools, for I realize that they arfe very inadequate, far behind the times, and lacliing in efficiency." His reply was this: "Your schools are not what they ought to be, and they never will be what they ought to be until they cost three times as mudh money as they do today." We must get the people to see that schools are inadequate and inefficient because of the lack of funds. We must have better school buildings, we must have more equipment, we must have better teachers, and this can be done only when we put sufficient money into them to get the desired improve- ment. If our rural people could only be awakened to the tremendously important position of the rural school in the democracy and realize that that position could be stimulated by paying the necessary price to bring about the full exercise of their power it would be a great day for modern democracy. Too often we have had reformers with the idea that they might go into a rural community and pour culture upon the heads of the people and anoint them with the blessing of guidance. Too often we have had people come into the rural school and teach from necessity; too often the above-mentioned are not in sympathy with the life and conditions to be found in the country. We shall never get to where we should go until our leaders live in the country and love the country. We shall never attain the possibility of leadership until men and women are found who are in sympathy with the country and can manage the rural school. The rural school, like every other organization, has had to undergo some very decided periods of evolution to bring it to its present standard, but it must undergo even greater changes if it is to function as it should. The rural school has been the backbone of our civilization, and all credit must be given to it for having done so well. B\it whatever may have been its standard in the past, conditions have changed so rapidly that they are now vitally different, the demands made by society being so much greater, the home calling for a more cultivated family, business necessitat- ing more efficient management, and the church teaching more progressive religion, that the rural school is no longer able to meet the demands made upon it. The complexities of society and intricacies of business demand a mind trained in a broader way than it is possible for the old type of rural school to train adequately. There must be a radical change made in the types of the country school. There are now and always will be conditions under which the one- teacher school must be a necessity, and under these conditions there is but one thing to do, and that is to make the one-teacher school the best possible. Make the building modern in every respect, equip it with every convenience possible for the one-room school, and then give it its greatest factor, the best teachers that our training schools can develop. Sessions] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE NEW DEMOCRACY 67 I^LBut the one-teacher school should wherever possible give way to the larger ^f and better-organized consolidated school. The rural school must offer opportunity for social and intellectual growth, and the larger the unit the better the opportunity for lecture courses, entertainments, and any form of cultural improvement. It must become the center for political, educational, and commercial organizations. It must give opportunity for the expression and development of leadership at is possible only thru numbers. It must be equipt with the means of erfecting physical development. With all the things mentioned above we must have, and as a direct result of such conditions we shall have, a community spirit that will stand for better education, better rehgion, and better citizenship. The child can never become an ideal citizen until it has had given it and has accepted the best that the state can possibly give. It has been said that the state marches to the footsteps of its children. If that is true, and it certainly is, it must guide those steps aright, for as the state meets unto the child of today the child meets unto the state tomorrow, for tomorrow the child has become the state. PI B. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION T. C. GECKS, SUPERVISOR, PRIMARY DEPARTMENT, ST. LOUIS, MO. The question of how far elementary education will need to be reorgan- ized to meet the requirements of the new democracy is one of great concern and one that will demand for some time to come the earnest consideration of all engaged in the teaching profession. There is no doubt that readjust- ments in education will need to be made, for the constantly changing social conditions, the unsettled state of affairs in the industrial world, and the reaction of the war situation on the physical and nervous systems of everybody in general and of children in particular call for readjustments in education that will enable us as a people to regain and retain our equilib- um. The school will be taxt to the utmost to develop in the children the necessary stability to carry them safely thru the period of unrest and ^^^ to fit them for the active part which they will need to take in the upbuilding ^^Band the upholding of the new democracy. ^^H The adjustments to be made will involve the elementary school, for ^^Bthe elementary school reaches all the people all the time, and the respon- ^^RsibiUty for these adjustments will rest largely with us as school people, f^^ partly because of the indifference of the general public in matters pertain- ing to education, and again because of the danger of undue interference on the part of some who may be intent upon worthy purposes but are not I always intent upon the welfare of the children. Many of us recall the way in which we had to stand with our backs to the wall during the years 68 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION [General development of the children in the schools. We had to resort to the definite ruling that children be permitted to participate in only such community activities as would not hinder but rather further their steady and normal growth. We shall now again need to muster up all the courage and all the educational poise that we possess if we wish to attack safely and sanely the problem of reorganization. A survey, or, better, frequent surveys, of social and industrial conditions will need to be made in order that we may know just where we stand, in just what direction we are headed, and just how we must proceed. Again, we need to consider carefully from time to time the contribution that the school has made and the contribution that the school will as yet need to make to further the aims of the real democracy that has been set as our goal. Where do we stand today? Democracy has been defined as "a mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated experience." In how far is the elementary school of today fitting pupils for this mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated experience ? We know that the school, as far as it can reach the children, is contributing much toward efficiency in certain directions. We know that pupils in the elementary schools are not merely imbibing much information and knowledge but are at the same time being trained in certain right habits, habits of carefulness, accuracy, concentration, perseverance, and quick responsiveness to direction. Is this training sufficient for the mode of life that we hope some day to have the children live? We are fostering instincts of imitation, of desire, of approval, and of rivalry, but are we taking into account the other social tendencies of gregariousness and altruism? We say that we learn by doing. Surely then we learn to live by living, and the quickest and surest way of fitting children for life in a democracy is to let them experience this mode of life as far as they are equal to it. What opportunities are we affording children in our elementary grades of working together for a common cause, of sharing common interests, of striving for a common purpose, of contributing to the common good? I am speaking of elementary schools in general, not of a few particularly favored centers for experimentation. The root of the whole trouble is that our system of elementary educa- tion has been so thoroly systematized that we now have everything in the curriculum, from the children to the subjects, definitely pigeon- holed, as it were. We have pigeonholed the children, "each in a box by himself," as a little visitor from the kindergarten to the schoolroom exprest his view of our straight-backed, straight-rowed method of seating. Again, we have pigeonholed the children by our exact, inflexible system of grading. Each one must be evened up, must practice the lock step, or the goose step, in the subject in which he excels, until he can measure up to iron-clad requirements in the subject in which he never can excel. We have pigeon- holed the subjects in the curriculum in order that we might have a patent Sessions] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE NEW DEMOCRACY 69 way of administering regulation doses of reading, writing, and arithmetic, or of literature, art, and science. This pouring-in process and the indififer- ent attitude of blind acceptance that results therefrom are not conducive to intelligent self-direction and cooperative spirit. We hold to it tho, because of our finely organized, definitely estabhsht system of education, and it is going to take much courage and initiative on our part to sub- I ordinate the system to the real purpose of our work. The problem of reorganization is . going to be an interesting one. Where are we to begin ? A good beginning could be made in the physical surroundings in which children are askt to work, the building with its furnishings and equipment, for the physical conditions in the average elementary school are anything but conducive to associated living. The immense school plant on the warehouse order, with all rooms of uniform size, built for the sole purpose of storing large numbers of children, must I give way to a building that will more nearly meet the requirements of associated living. The curriculum for the elementary school need not be extended but must rather be amended. It should include only such subjects as will Afford pupils as well as teachers more intensive work, work more to a definite purpose. There must be no time-serving, no mere going thru the motions. The work must be so purposeful that the children will realize its worth and will not get into the attitude of the boy who when askt by the teacher, ''Do you know what you are here for?" answered, "Sure; my father said if I'd come every day for a month he'd buy me a P billy goat." Less fixt desks and more removable furniture must be supplied if we wish to further the development of cooperative spirit. In the classification or grouping of pupils adjustments must be made. The large, unwieldy classes, heterogeneous masses, must give way to the small homogeneous group of children that can work together at a common problem, for a common purpose. The war pointed the way for us in affording excellent opportunities for real purposeful work. It empha- t sized the need of permitting children to participate in the things that are of interest to the community and occupy the attention of the people about. Such purposeful work, such sharing in common interests and common activities, will make for real social efficiency. With the passing of the war we must find new opportunities for shared interests, shared activities that are of vital concern, if we wish to further the I development of right social tendencies in children. Projects such as the counting and listing and caring for birds that abound in the school district, collecting and destroying harmful insects that infest field and garden, and active participation in safety-first campaigns and health crusades will lend themselves to our purpose and will furnish the motive for concerted action for the common good. Estimating the cost of 70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General ownership and will result in wholesome civic pride. Investigating the duties and responsibilities of various state and city departments and officials will lead to an appreciation of joint civic privileges and will emphasize the individual's responsibihties and duties in civic matters. The school curriculum must be amended and the school environment must be adjusted in order that such purposeful work may be carried on. All work must tend to lead children to "think, act, and serve together," in order that- these future citizens may be prepared to take the active part that they will need to take in the upbuilding and the upholding of the new democracy that has been set as our ideal. C. SECONDARY EDUCATION JOHN L. TILDSLEY, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y. James Russell Lowell declared democracy to be that form of society, no matter what its political classification, in which every man has a chance and knows that he has. The free public high school, in the opinion of many, is the greatest American invention. For a hundred years it has made it possible for every man to have his chance and to know that he has a chance. It has taken the child of the poorest parent, of the most ignorant arrival from a foreign shore, and opened to him the possibility of every career, of every position of honor and trust. Notwithstanding the marvelous growth of high schools during the past two decades the high school has had but a faint vision of its rightful place in a democratic state. It has been content to see millions of children pass by its doors, and other millions enter, remain but a brief time, and go forth with a possibility, not a probability, of realizing the chance that was theirs. With this record of service not rendered it has prided itself on training the leaders in our American democracy. The war just closing has witnest the greatest achievement of democ- racy. A peace-loving people has mobilized itself in its entirety for war. For every man, woman, and child it has sought to find the task suited to its age, its strength, its special ability. It has conscripted our young manhood and devised means of classifying these young men on the basis of experience, of abilities shown by tests, and has trained them quickly and effectively to discharge the duties of carefully defined positions. It has found something for each to do in the common cause. The lessons taught by the war must not be lost with the coming of peace. American industry has justly prided itself on its scrap pile. The American Army has abolisht the human scrap pile. The American high school has heretofore scrapt its children when it should have scrapt its aims, its methods, its organization. Sessions] SECONDARY EDUCATION IN THE NEW DEMOCRACY 71 The American high school must henceforth mobihze the entire youth, [not a selected portion of it, for the service of democracy in peace. It must Intake every boy and girl from thirteen to eighteen, discover his aptitudes and his ability by a system of intelligence tests, and give him a training which shall so enlist his interest that he shall develop a habit of success, ;not failure. The supreme task of the high school is to abolish the long- JestabUsht, cheerfully accepted habit of failure. Homogeneous grouping of pupils and adaptation of subject-matter [and methods to the needs of each group will tend to aboHsh failures. idaptation to the needs of pupils will produce a rich and diversified cur- iculum and will necessitate a variety of schools. The lessening of failures riW shorten the educational process. This process of testing, with the [resulting adaptation of methods and diversification of subjects begun at [the close of the sixth year, will send some boys and girls to the high school [at thirteen or younger with habits of working, not loafing, and others Lt fourteen or older with habits of success thru persistence, not failure [thru discouragement and neglect. The effort to secure homogeneous grouping will individualize the pupils md lead to a free election of subjects limited by the need for concentration )y groups and the need for common training for citizenship. Boys and girls alike have one vocation in common, that of citizens [in a democracy — soldiers of the common good. During the past months ^e have learned as never before that the supreme good is a good govern- lent. In America we have assumed good government to be a free good, )btained without effort, without sacrifice. We now realize that good 'government is the product of good citizens, and that good citizens are pioduced only by good training. Whatever else it may do, the Ameri- can high school must give everyone of its students a definite training for the duties of the citizen. He must study the operations of government, )cal, state, and national, and the economic forces which dominate our idustrial Hfe, to which the actions of government are but the reaction; le must study the events, movements, measures, and men which have lade America what it is today; and in the realization that we in America Lre no longer isolated he must study the makings of the Europe of today. Fnless our high schools insist upon these studies as a minimum for all re shall not equip our boys and girls for service in a democracy. The war has imprest upon us the need of specific training for par- icipation in the governing function. It has shown us the need of longer training, as well as of more intensive training, for industry. Labor unions [and employes are coming to favor the postponement until a later age of [the entrance of the boy or girl into industry. New York state requires lereafter that the boy or girl must attend a school at least part of the time until he is eighteen, unless he be a high-school graduate. With the growth of such public opinion eighteen years will tend to become the mini- lum age for leaving school. 72 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General With an earlier entrance into high school, probably at thirteen years, as the result of testing and grouping, and with an increase of the age of leaving to eighteen, the high school will have a period of five years for its training, the most important in the child's Hfe. The inevitable outcome will be the combined high school and junior college on the one side and the higher commercial and technical school on the other, which will train the youth for supervising positions in the commerical and industrial field. The continuation classes of high-school grade for workers who are not high-school graduates should become a vital part of the day high school. Like the evening high school of the present, it will then find it incumbent upon itself to minister to the needs of any considerable group of students who are engaged in a given industry or have a common aim in view. To meet the needs of the workers the high school will thus extend its sessions and become the all-day school with changing relays of teachers. It will then be what has been heretofore a prophecy — the "people's college." Reorganization of units of education is of little value if the spirit be not changed. The danger threatening the training in the high school is that, in the effort to be vocational, it becomes mechanical; that it pro- duces mechanics instead of craftsmen. The humanistic studies are not discredited; they have merely lost their monopoly. The vocational subjects must be so taught as to yield not information merely, not alone the art of doing things, but a liberal education. This they have not done. This they must be made to do if the high school is to meet the needs of our democracy for men of vision, for men who are keenly analytic, for men who can think thru to a valid conclusion. A democratic system of educa- tion must beware lest it produce, not the scientist, not the artist, not the administrator, but merely the rule-of-thumb man. Democracy demands equality of opportunity, not equality of achieve- ment. Education for the service of democracy demands that the ten- talent man as well as the one-talent man shall have opportunity to realize his utmost self. The high school in the service of democracy must individualize its pupils. Tho there be five thousand of them it must know the problem of each. This is the supreme problem of the principal. With a proper delegation of duties he may still be a Mark Hopkins to the Gar- field. In the years immediately before us the most vital educational work lies with the expanding high school. No matter what the form of organization, the program of work, it will fail in its mission unless it can enlist in its service men and women of broad training, human sympathies, and social ideals who believe in our American way of life. Such men and women we are now losing rather than gaining. Again to enrol such men and women in the great army of education cannot be an impossible task for a democracy which really believes that in its schools lies the future of the nation. I Sessions] HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE NEW DEMOCRACY 73 D. HIGHER EDUCATION E, C. ELLIOTT, CHANCELLOR, UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA, HELENA, MONT. The term "new democracy" carries a handicap of unreality. From the present-day swirhng mill of human aspirations widely divergent and conflicting schemes and controls of life emerge and strive for the favor of democracy. Of one thing we may be certain: the democracy of men as they are must be the starting-point for the democracy of men as they I ought to be. The character of any new democracy will have stability only in and thru the democracy of new characters. The power of democracy is to be measured by the democracy of power. President Wilson in his recent address before the International Society Association sounded the real depth of the problem of life as men are obliged to lead it with one another — the permanent problem of democracy, old or new: : I The heart of the world is under very plain jackets. The heart of the world is at very simple firesides. The heart of the world is fn very humble circumstances; and unless you know the pressure of life on the humbler classes, you know nothing of life whatever. Unless you know where the pinch comes, you do not know what the pulse has to stand; you do not know what strain the muscle has to bear; you do not know what trial the nerves have to go thru to hold on. To hold on where there is no glee in life is the hard thing. Those of us who can sit sometimes at leisure and read pleasant books and think of the past, the long past, that we have no part in and project the long future — we are not specimens of mankind. The specimens of mankind have not time to do that, and we must use our leisure when we have it to feel with them and think for them, so that we can translate their desire into a fact, so far as that is possible, and see that this, the most complicated and elusive of all things that we call justice, is accomplisht. An easy word today, and a noble word upon the tongue, but one of the most difficult enterprises of the human spirit. No education, higher or lower, may serve democracy unless it responds Mirectly, harmoniously, and helpfully to the lives of the humble ones of fthe old, old world. And the new democracy, ever impatient to be served, all find itself ever tested by the traditions of the old, old education. With a flash of his radioactive mind the Englishman, Gilbert Chester- ;ton, has revealed for us one of the traps that lies across the path of prog- |ress: "Of all such educational processes the hardest, and apparently the most hopeless, is the education of the educated. They resist educa- tion more than anybody else; and they need it more than anybody else." Incomplete and vaguely suggestive tho these contrasts may be, they [suffice to mark the levels of life — the one, the new yearning of men; the other, the old learning of men. If higher education is the better to pro- mote the cause of democracy, and if democracy is to contribute to the power of education, many new lines of mutual communication and influence between these levels must be opened. 74 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The entire enterprise of higher education derives new motives and new energy from the potential dangers of the new peace. The signing of the Treaty of Versailles means vastly more than the ending of the world-war and the attainment of the victory for the nations of freedom. When they accepted the conditions of peace presented to them the Germans signed a blank note, payable to civilization, in partial payment of the destruction and damage arising from their criminal ambi- tion to enslave the world. The total which will finally be entered upon this blank note, when the losses have been carefully assest, will be a stag- gering sum. Full payment will strain the moral fiber and the productive working energy of the German people to the utmost for more than this and the next generation. Within this circumstance lies a significant world-danger. Is it not possible that Germany, thru the period of her punishment and redemption, will develop new weapons, suited to social and economic competition, which will enable her again to challenge the world and reach a victory, thru the instruments of peace, ^denied her thru the engines of war? Of all the nations in modem times Germany has been the most skil- fully and dangerously schooled. The Great War was a cunningly contrived conspiracy carried to its tragic climax thru an educational system. Another variety of educational cunning might enable her again to become a menace to mankind. Unless we and the other great defenders of the world see to it that the children of all free men are trained effectively in all of those habits and arts that make for national solidarity and strength, and for international sympathy and understanding, the safety of civilization cannot be guaranteed, even by a League of Nations. A world half educated will be only half free. Certain specific tasks stand out as never before as immediately essential for the secure upbuilding of our own house of peace. The con- servation of human life so as to secure a maximum of healthy vitality for the individual and the community, the universal training for skilful eco- nomic production, and the creation of political intelligence, insight, and balance constitute a trinity for national unity and character. Such conservation, such training, and such creation are the three well-defined purposes which requisition the maximum efforts of every part of the educa- tional system, from the lowest to the highest. Of such stuff is the thing we call Americanism composed. Does the new order of human affairs impose upon the universities, the colleges, and the professional schools of the nation fresh duties to which the mechanism of higher education must be adjusted? Three such duties may be suggested: the duty of estabHshing new points of helpful contact with all the other parts of the educational system, the duty of searching for the truth about themselves, and the duty of promoting the rightful economic education of leaders and workers. Sessions] ON THE REVISION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 75 The paramount problem before this and all other nations is that of the [justice of the economic relations of men. In no stage of a system of [education that aims to fit a people for democracy may this problem be f neglected. Mankind is now to be tried in the fires of the New World [ideahsm arising from the Great War. The stamping out of ravaging [radicalism, which is a tragic by-product of economic illiteracy, is the ;ommon task of civilization. The real contest during the next decade will )e between the conservatives, who want the world put back where it was before the war, and the conservationists, who desire that the world be put forward )here it should be because of the war. Neither capital nor labor can hold iloof from the rightful education of both workers and leaders in the new, dtal, economic issues. The extraordinary development of American agriculture has been due the largest measure to the educational services of the colleges of agri- :ulture and the constructive investigations conducted by the agricultural experiment stations. If our industries and our commerce are to be levelopt to the point of enabling us to maintain our position in the field [of world-competition and at the same time permit a constantly better (standard of living for all of our workers, we must see to it that economic policies are based upon carefully tested facts that apply to the world as it ?is, and upon principles that are the products, not of partisan expediency, [but of patient and sound research. The salvation of humanity today lies with the silent workers in the silent places of the schools; it lies in the balance of the brains of men skilled in the divine art of tracing the scattered fragments of truth, assem- bling and interpreting these in terms of usefulness for mankind, and teaching [the laws of fife to the children of men. Educated men with power must )e trained to think and to act ahead of uneducated men without power. THE WORK OF THE COMMISSION ON THE REVISION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION MARGARET S. MC NAUGHT, STATE COMMISSIONER OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. In the spring of 191 8 the National Education Association Commission f^on the Revision of Elementary Education was appointed, with one of its past presidents, Ella Flagg Young, as chairman. This Commission rof twelve members selected from various fields of educational work -and representing different sections of the country was called together in Pittsburgh the following summer, and a plan of work was outlined. Because of the insistent pressure of war service, in which the chairman [was especially active, it was not possible to carry on the work as planned, lost of the projects not even being attempted. In October, 191 8, shortly 'before the close of the war, the Commission was deprived of leadership 76 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General thru the death of its distinguisht chairman. Then followed the selection of a new chairman, the appointment of two new members, and the resig- nation of one on account of over-seas work. In February, 19 19, the Commission was again called together at the annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence, National Educa- tion Association, in Chicago. Because of changed conditions and the impossibility of following adequately the ideas which Mrs. Young had been able only partially to set forth, we decided to begin at the beginning and to outline for elementary education a plan which should deal with elementary education in the larger sense as related to the lives of all those to whom such education as citizens in a democracy is due. In order that all members of the Commission might work together and toward the same end it was agreed that certain aims of elementary education for study and discussion be determined upon as a basis for all action; for it is obvious that no matter what special field of investigation or of construction one member might enter he must have in mind the same general ideals and aims as his fellow-investigators and fellow- constructionists if his findings and his proposals are to be of value for the complete scheme. ' - If we are able to put before you the plan as we see it, you will be, I am sure, more and more imprest with the high importance of definitely settling upon a few fundamental aims in order to give strength and unity to the work as a whole. This in itself is no light task, for the changed views of life-values have necessarily changed the views of educational values. Moreover, we ought to be able to list these aims with some degree of logical sequence. For example, what is the chief aim in elementary education ? If it seems a simple question, attempt to answer it. It is the idea of the Commission also to propose a plan of education that will recognize change. No thought, therefore, of outlining a system or of planning a course to be followed is in the mind of any member of the Commission, but rather a setting forth of facts as we find them in such a way as, first, to stimulate thought and lead to more purposeful action on the part of our own profession, from the most highly trained and experienst superintendent of wide and successful experience to the young-woman graduate rendering her first service in a one-room rural school; and, secondly, to widen the interests of the people and obtain their support in the cause of an all-inclusive, sane, and valuable education. The Commission, now numbering fifteen members, has set at work upon the following problems, one member sometimes working intensively upon one problem, for which he is held responsible, and at the same time serving on another committee in which he is also especially interested. Under the heading "Organization and Administration of Elementary Education" must be groupt all the persons to be educated; normal children, sound physically, mentally, and morally; defective children. Sessions] ON THE REVISION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 77 defective mentally and defective physically; and delinquents, slight delinquents, greater delinquents, and those who are in reform schools. Thus this group will include, in addition to normal children, the backward ^children in our schools, morons, feeble-minded children, cripples, and the leaf; it will also include the "misfits" among young citizens — those to whom law and order and right action do not appeal, who give trouble, comparatively slight or more serious, who need to be readjusted. How shall elementary education be organized and administered to fit their needs ? Secondly, not only children but adults also are entitled to an elemen- iry education. lUiterate adults must be made literate; foreigners must )e Americanized; prisoners must be reformed. Each one of these probr Items of enlightenment for adults is, to our minds, as clearly a problem of jlementary education as is the problem of child development. Many of lese adults" have only a child's mentality, and others cannot be led beyond le limits of elementary education. The problem before us is how to )lan for these adults an elementary education that will fit them, that will 'appeal to them, that will serve them. They are especially handicapt. Education must free them. This study covers a wide range of persons, many of whom are now dwelling in, but not being educated in, local and "state institutions, and others also to whom education is not being offered [with sufficient appeal. If it is an undertaking of high value to plan what ought to be done it is almost equally important to set forth what are the conditions under /^hich it can best be done. We have therefore committees working upon le immediate or school environment of various classes of children and lults — the school grounds, buildings, and equipment. Environment outside of the school itself is being studied as a prime factor in elementary education in the effort to submit a report that will acted upon by laymen as well as by educators; for we shall not revise lucation unaided by the people, and the American people must have a :lear understanding of the difficulty of setting forth in the school ideals lat, so far from being indorst, are not even understood in the homes and le communities. So far we have not toucht upon the subject-matter of elementary educa- tion, not because its value is not fully recognized nor because its revision not deemed necessary, but because so-called educational improvement for elementary schools has always centered round the curriculum and usually meant merely addition thereto. The Commission feels that there are other reforms equally important, md that, no matter what nonessential material may be eliminated, nor ^hat additions may be made, no matter what may be the changes sug- gested in relative values of elementary-school studies, litttle headway can )e gained unless the conditions under which education is to function are 78 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General made more ideal and more practical. Even so brief a sketch as this will show the necessity for all members of the Commission to work together according to a common plan of aims and ideals, otherwise a course of study might be suggested that could not possibly be put into operation under the scheme blockt out for buildings and equipment, while school buildings and grounds might be so inclusive as to provide for activities which the outline for school studies did not even mention. The selection of studies and of other educational opportunities, which is commonly called a course of study, is, it goes without saying, a tremen- dous undertaking. It must be based for children upon what we know of them and upon what we know of life and, in view of recent disclosures of our failures in elementary education brought to light in army investi- gations and experiments, is a task to be approacht with due humility. How shall we provide materials for the work and play of children to make their lives as complete as possible in order that not only child life but all the years of life may be adequately lived? Whatever is presented by this Commission will be anything but autocratic. It will take account of the future as well as of present conditions and will be flexible and dynamic. Closely allied with the materials of education are the methods. Possibly no greater revision is needed than revision iii methods. These methods, it is agreed, should be determined by all preceding factors — aims, organization, materials, the child himself. They are to be admin- istered by teachers trained to teach normal children ranging in age from kindergarten to high school, trained to teach defectives — the handicapt in body or in mind and the morally delinquent — trained to teach men and women to read and write, to teach foreigners English, and to set forth for all classes in a way that grips both mind and heart the principles of democracy and the way to live happily and effectively in a democracy. All methods will be checkt and modified and perhaps actually deter- mined by physical, intelligence, and educational tests. So big a field of research upon which to base action are these tests that it seems strange, not to say negligent, to pass it over with a simple statement that it is being given due recognition. Thus elementary education enters the field of teacher-training. If we suggest what the education should be, how it should be organized and administered, and to whom it should be given, it follows logically that we should also suggest how it should be given. If these changes are to be made they must come about thru a proper appeal to educators and to laymen. This appeal must be based upon facts, and it is hoped that the method of procedure of the Commission in carry- ing on its work may be such that the method itself will be of value, and thru it or a similar one we may be able to keep our elementary education continuously in revision, with every teacher taking part, not only in an I I I Sessions] ON THE EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION 79 earnest and hearty way, but intelligently as befits a professional man or woman. When we have received your suggestions — and we make this public appeal for them as an illustration of our method of work — when we have clarified our* ideas as to what we wish to do and how it should be done, then we should propose a body of laws, not too many and not too detailed, but laws which ought to obtain in every state in the Union, and which every state will recognize as right and fair and wise, laws which will mean real opportunity for every man, woman, and child in the community, the state, and the nation. Only by some such all-inclusive plan as this, we feel, canournation ever be welded together into a true democracy. This welding is the great task of elementary education. It is your task as well as ours. Will ou lend a hand ? ^HE WORK OF THE COMMISSION ON THE EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION MARY C. C. BRADFORD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, DENVER, COLO. During the progress of the world-war all countries began to realize at world-modifications on a huge scale were to be the results of that ighty conflict. The National Education Association was among the first organizations f national scope to attain this self-realization and to consecrate itself to eeting the demands of the new day. It is fitting that the body of people presenting the molders of the soul stuff of the world should lead in this reat task, and the teaching force of the United States may well congratu- te itself that its own organized means of self-expression proved equal to e great opportunity offered by the mighty years 191 7-19. While envel- pt in the murk of war clouds the teacKers' organization was preparing tself to serve when the normal light of peace conditions should have etumed. It prepared a plan thru which war-time activities in the school might merge into peace-time development of educational opportunity. tit developt a» national program for education that will meet present and luture educational needs, and by so doing rendered a service of incalculable value to the Republic. These accompHshments were effected thru the Commission on the Emergency in Education and the Program for Readjustment During and After the War, which was created by the President of the National Educa- tion Association at the beginning of the year 1918, ratified by the Execu- ive Committee in February of that year at Atlantic City, and again dorst, its work approved, and its existence continued at the annual eeting of the National Education Association held in Pittsburgh, in uly, 1918. 8o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General This Commission provides a permanent body thru which the Associa- tion may develop a permanent poUcy. Before its creation the Association largely functioned as a means for *' unlimited academic discussion." There should have sprung some more definite action from the world-famous programs of this great body of school people. Yet this was impossible without a continuing body to formulate policies, develop principles, and execute plans. The Commission provides such a means of crystallizing the thought and incarnating the will of the school people of the United States. From the beginning the chairman of the Commission has been George D. Strayer, who has also been the president of the Association since the close of the Pittsburgh meeting. To his clarity of mind and consecration of purpose is largely due the progress made by the Commission during the seventeen months of its existence, and he has received a very loyal support from all its members. The first meeting of the Commission was held in Atlantic City in February, when a skeleton organization was formed. Since that' time there have been four meetings held at nationa,l headquarters in Washing- tion, one at Pittsburgh, and one at Chicago. At each conferences have been held with representatives of the national government, all other educa- tional bodies, the American Federation of Labor, and numerous welfare societies. A great campaign has been maintained for the creation of a National Department of Education, whose chief shall have a seat in the President's cabinet, and which shall be so constituted that the preparation, supplying, and compensation of teachers shall be placed upon an honorable professional and advanst business basis; that the importance of rural education shall be recognized and its needs further met; that a complete program of physical and health education may be made possible; that the problems of immigrant education and adult ilUteracy may be solved with glory to the country; that compulsory continuation schools may be estab- lisht and maintained. A mighty and successful propaganda is now in progress for the increase in the salaries of teachers, and a drive is on for increast membership in the National Education Association, to the end that the neaijy eight hun- dred thousand American public-school teachers may each reahze the vital relation between the welfare of the individual teacher, teachers as a class, and the great organization which can become efficiently and universally helpful to them only when they maintain a loo per cent membership in this historic body. The Commission has done remarkable work, not only on its own initia- tive, but in collecting, classifying, and coordinating the latest and best conclusions of educational thought and providing a coherent and cour- ageous organism thru which to challenge unsound thinking and iniquitous discrimination. It demands with .boldness that a hundred million dollars Sessions] EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY: THE UNITED STATES 8 1 a year be given to public-school education and sturdily claims congres- sional recognition for education that is partially at least commensurate with the dominating part it plays in the national development. It gathers for conference, ''on the state of the nation" as affected by public education, such personalities as the following: W. C. Bagley, Carroll G. Pearse, Sarah Louise Arnold, Nina C. Vandewalker, J. V. Joyner, and the splendid body of educational leaders who are the colleagues of the men and women just mentioned. The members of the Commission represent the great, historic, privately endowed colleges and universities; universities, colleges, and normal schools supported by pubHc taxation; state departments of public instruction, and the great city systems from the kindergarten to the superintendencies. A thoroly representative group is this, and its members hold themselves as the chief servants of the teachers of the United States. So to serve them that the teaching profession may be exalted, that the educational activities of local community, commonwealth, and nation may be effi- ciently harmonized, that the childhood of America may be recognized as its most precious asset, and that our government may be so constituted that all the children of all the people shall have free opportunity for a full and happy development as conscious citizens of the highest governmental enterprise yet known to the mind of man, is the supreme aim and the dearest hope of this Commission. This is your creation. Use it. Modify it. Challenge it. Test it. Sustain it, to the end that it may the more fully meet its obligation to civilization. EDUCATION FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A DEMOCRACY IN THE WORLD A. THE UNITED STATES p. p. CLAXTON, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C. To the distinguisht gentlemen who represent here this evening France and Great Britian I bring the greetings of a country dedicated to democ- racy from the beginning of its national life, and of a people which for three hundred years has been coming to understand ever more clearly that democracy is impossible without universal education, and that the fostering of right education .and the promotion of the means therefor constitute the highest function of statesmanship and the first duty of the representatives of a free people. It is fitting and well that representatives of the countries which before and thru the Great War have done most for the estabHshment of democ- racy in the world and for the preservation of freedom should meet here for the discussion of that education which alone can make democracy safe 82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General for the world and for itself, and without which there can be no freedom worthy of the name. Our victory over the forces of autocracy and mili- tarism brings with it great moral responsibility, because on us "lies the task of saving and reconstructing all that is worth saving in civilization," The task of building the new world on a surer foundation and in finer and more just proportions is ours. We are all henceforth bound up in the sheaf of life together. The private weal of nations is dependent henceforth on the public welfare of the world. When division of labor has been extended to such an extent that international commerce is necessary to the very physical existence of all peoples, and blockades mean starvation; when air ships cross the Atlantic in sixteen hours; when the leaves and branches of the trees in Chevy Chase Park in Washington whisper to the ears of the listener mes- sages sent out from Nauen, Germany; and a man in his cellar at Hyatts- ville, Maryland, talks thru the earth with another in Berlin; when that which is whispered in the closets of anarchy in Russia is proclaimed by an exploding bomb at the front door of the Attorney General of the United States, no country can hope longer to live unto itself. All isolations, splendid or otherwise, are gone forevermore. Those who have been closer to the war than we have and who have borne a larger share of its burdens have, it appears, been more strongly affected in this respect than we have. This is shown by the heroic efforts of the French people to keep open their schools even when the life of the nation was in the doubtful balance, by their success in keeping children in school even within the Unes of battle, and by their quick response in redoubled efforts to supply their educational needs as soon as the signing of the armistice gave time for thought of the future. In the United States and elsewhere plans for education for democracy must be all-comprehensive and must be adapted to the conditions and needs of all individuals. We still hold that all men are created equal, with certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, the pursuit of happiness, and equality of opportunity, at least such equality of oppor- tunity as may come thru education. To all must be given full and free opportunity for that kind and degree of education that will develop most perfectly their physical, mental, and moral manhood, fit them for the duties and responsibilities of democratic citizenship, prepare them for making a good and honest living for themselves and those dependent upon them, and for adding their just part to the common wealth by some form of useful, skilful work done intelligently and joyously. It must also guarantee to them a maximum of that sweetness and light, and of that deepening and widening, refining and ripening, of the human soul which we call culture — a thing quite different from the much-vaunted Kultur, which narrowed and hardened, darkened and poisoned and embittered the souls of another people and led them on toward destruction. i Sessions] EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY: THE UNITED STATES 83 In our democracy there must be no forgotten man or woman, no lost waif of a child. If we would attain to our best and highest possibilities no important talent or ability of any child, however rare, the development of which would contribute to its own welfare and happiness or to the happi- ness and welfare of society, of state, or of the race, must be neglected or left uncultivated. The richness of society, of the state, and of the race consists not less in variety than in quantity. Not only must society offer to all full and free opportunity for the kind and degree of education here indicated. Society must also see to it that no child at least is deprived of the opportunity offered, because of the poverty, the ignorance, the indifference, or the greed of its parents or guardians. Of the elements of education first in importance is health: the establishment of good health and right health habits thru proper super- vision and direction of the diet, the sleep, the recreation, and other activ- ities of children, and such instruction in things pertaining to health as will insure a maximum of health and vitaHty in the population of the state and the nation. Like unto this and bound up with it is such physical education and training as will give to all strength of body and ready con- trol of nerves and muscles and make them fit for all the duties of peace and war. The examination of men called for the Army of the United States by the processes of the selective draft showed that somewhat more than one-third were unfit for full military service, and a smaller but still too large percentage were unfit for any form of miHtary service, at a time when the standards were lowered to meet the emergencies of a great war into which we were preparing to send millions as we had sent into other wars huncireds of thousands. Had Germany succeeded against the armies of France and EnglaAd before we were ready to go in, according to their plans and expectations, and if as a result the full strength of her victorious armies had been thrown against us, this depletion of our strength thru lack of physical fitness would have been felt severely and might have proved fatal. A recent health survey of one of our great states, which happens to contain almost exactly one-fiftieth of the population of the United States, revealed the fact that five hundred thousand persons, nearly one-fourth of its entire population, are sick all the time. If only ^^^ half of these, a low estimate, are persons of producing age, and if the loss ^B in productive power is only five hundred dollars a year, again a low esti- ^Bmate, then the loss to this state in productive power is not less than ^B $125,000,000 a year. Add to this the time of those who must care for the ^H sick, and the loss from weakened energy of those who are accounted well, ^Hand the $125,000,000 may well be doubled. This is a loss altogether too ^H large for this or any other state when most of it may easily be avoided I 84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General in productive power by this state annually by fifty for the whole United States, and you have the staggering total of $12,500,000,000, or one-half of the direct cost of the war to the United States. May I here merely mention two phases of educational work pressing upon us at this time because of the cosmopolitan make-up of our popula- tion and because of the inefficiency of our school systems in the past and of our long neglect of duty to ourselves and to those who live among us- without any adequate preparation for American life and citizenship. The dangers and weaknesses arising from our neglect of their education have recently been revealed to us as by lightning flash. These dangers and weaknesses and the shame and disgrace of it all remain with us and shall remain until nation, states, and local communities give ample opportunity to all to acquire at least the power to speak, read, and write the English language with some degree of ease and fluency, and use at least the compul- sion of persuasion and attractiveness of program and methods to induce them to take advantage of the opportunities offered. For the foreign-bom there must also be offered in the same way instruction in all those other things some knowledge of which is necessary to inteUigent and successful living in America. For the millions of illit- erates and for the other millions of near-illiterates instruction must be given at least in the elements of many important subjects about which they have been unable to acquire knowledge because of lack of ability to read the printed page. For economic reasons and for many others we should not neglect these problems longer. They should soon be solved to such an extent that they will cease to be special problems to be considered apart from the more general problems of public education. Because this can be done the means for their solution should be considered temporary and of such immediate and present importance as will not permit them to be post- poned. Another phase of education to which many think, probably with some degree of justification, that we have given too little attention in our public schools is moral education. I know that we all agree that the one supreme need and aim of all education is morality — conduct. But have we always kept this in mind as we should ? I also know the difficulty of teaching morals directly, and I agree with ropst of you that religious dogmas and sectarian creeds should not and need not be taught in the public schools in a country of religious freedom and of numerous and wealthy churches. Thru literature, history, song and story, and by every other available means the future members, of our society must be prac- tically convinst of the brotherhood of man and be taught to love their nieghbors as themselves, knowing that love is the fulfilment of all law. They must be taught the full meaning of the injunction of Jesus, ''What- soever ye would that men should do unto you, do ye also unto them." Sessions] EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY: THE UNITED STATES 85 For this is indeed the summary of all that the laws would enforce and of all that'the prophets have aspired to. Despite the shudder of abhorrence which comes to us from the thought of mere brutal efficiency uninspired by good-will and guided only by indi- vidual, class, and national selfishness, we must make our education more effectively vocational than it has been or is. Mere weakness is not good- ness, and want of strength is not virtue. Strength, knowledge, good-will, skill, and strong purpose to produce and use aright should characterize the democratic men and women of the future. In America as nowhere else in the world, I believe, life and work are one. We put our life into our work and rejoice in it. We make our work our life and it gives us joy and strength. Whatever vocational knowledge and skill are needed in community, state, and nation for the prosperity, health, and happiness of the people and for the service and strength of the nation our schools must give, unless they can be given more effectively and more economi- cally elsewhere. Lessons in health and physical training, instruction in science and its application in the vocations, lessons in geography, history, and all school subjects, even the discipline of the schools itself, are preparation for citizenship. But to these should be added more definite and formal instruction in this subject. Both in our elementary schools and in our high schools we must teach more effectively the things pertaining directly to the intelligent performance of the duties of citizenship. We must teach more effectively the history of our country and of its institutions, that our future citizens may learn to love their ''land with a love far brought from out its storied past." We must teach civic duties pertaining to inter- national relations. Above all we must teach that ''fear, craft, and avarice can never build a state," and least of all a democratic state, which is in very large measure a thing of the spirit. Health, material wealth, good government, even the freedom and democracy for which we have paid such a great price, are not ends within themselves but only means to the higher ends of social purity and individ- ual culture, happiness, and- welfare. They are good only as they contribute to these higher ends. Health, wealth, freedom, must be made to con- tribute to the things of the spirit, to all that is highest and best in the development of humanity. Literature, art, music, philosophy, knowledge for the satisfaction of the intellect, and beauty for the inspiration of the heart and the culture of the soul — all that is best in the old education should be retained in the new and supplemented by whatever may contribute further to the educa- tion of free men who have finally, by their knowledge and control of the forces of nature, lifted themselves above the plane of constant slavery to the needs of their bodies. All the best that has been thought and said and done should become the common heritage of all. The education of 86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the future must be liberal in the old sense as well as in the new sense. In the new world of democracy it should come about that, when th€ lawyer comes home from his office, the judge from his bench, the minister from his pulpit and study, the banker from his counting-house, the business man from his office, the legislator from his debates, the society woman from her round of social duties, the teacher from the school, the farmer from the field, the woodsman from the forest, the laborer from the mill and the miner from his dusty labors underground, and the housewife lays aside her never-ending tasks, each having earned by his daily labor his daily bread and contributed his part to the common wealth, and all having performed intelligently and honestly the duties of citizenship, they shall all be men and women together, free human beings, with all the sweetness and Hght of which each is capable, all having the windows of their souls open for the influx of all good influences and walking unafraid and unabasht among their fellows, looking them level-eyed in the face, feeling and knowing themselves to be men among men, cringing to none, disdaining to look with contempt upon any. It is for results like these that the battles have been fought and millions of young men have bravely died. For results like these we must plan as the supreme aim of educaton. They are the final aim of democ- racy in the world. The school system that would meet the direct needs of all the people of our democracy must provide at least high-school education for all; some kind and degree of systematic instruction and training thru the early and middle ages of adolescence, "the golden period of youth" when, as at no other time, ideals are formed and the principles of natural science and of institutional life can first be understood. We must now very soon solve the problem of universal high-school education on a democratic basis not only for vocational efficiency and for citizenship but for individ- ual culture as well. In the meantime we must, thru some form of exten- sion education, provide instruction, especially in the things pertaining to citizenship, for the millions of our boys and girls who have left school before completing the high-school age. After all else is done the character and efficiency of the schools depend upon the teachers. Possibly the most important function of a democracy is to select and prepare and put into the schools teachers competent to do the work which should be required of them, and to keep them there until and after they have gained the professonal knowledge, power, and skill that come only from intelligent and successful experience. Our normal schools and the departments and schools of education in our colleges and universities have done their task nobly and well so far as public sentiment and the means at their command have permitted, but there is great need of a more just and comprehensive understanding of the purposes and aims of their work, and of at least three times as much money as is now given for their support. Sessions] EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY: THE UNITED STATES 87 All this that I have thus briefly set forth and much more that cannot even be mentioned now will cost much careful thinking, wise organiza- tion, and much more money than most of us have ever dreamed of devoting to it. But in a democracy in which everything — social purity, civic righteousness, pohtical power, national safety, individual culture, and material wealth- — waits upon education we must find the means for its adequate support. In such a state surely the support of schools and other means of education should constitute the first and largest charge upon the public revenues. Long ago President Eliot made the claim that in a democracy the education of the child should cost at least as much as its food or clothing. In this time of the high cost of living and of low salaries for teachers we are very far from this very reasonable ideal. Indeed, while our American public-school system has been and is our chief glory, the way we pay our teachers and otherwise suppt>rt our schools is little less than a national shame and disgrace. I hardly need remind you that our schools were first the care and interest of local communities only or chiefly, and that only within the last half-century have they become fully establisht as an interest of and a charge upon the revenues of the state and have come in a considerable degree under state control. The fact that we still speak of state aid and are now beginning to speak of national aid points to the time when the schools were considered only of local interest and received only local support, and indicates that local interest and local support still predom- [inate. Nor need I remind you how jealously local communities and states have protested against any form of federal control or interference. Will- ingly they have accepted gifts of money and land from the federal govern- ment, but only within the last five or six years have they accepted any form of control or direction of the use of federal funds, and then only under protest or with bare tolerance. The strength of the nation does not consist of the combined strength of the forty-eight states, but of the strength of the nation's hundred and and ten millions and more of people who are citizens of the nation at the same time and to the same extent that they are citizens of their respective states. The federal government therefore has an interest at stake, and this interest carries responsibilities. These responsibilities include support, kindly and wise guidance, and the requirement of certain minimum standards in education. Beginning at once with, say, $125,000,000 a year and increasing at regular stages to not less than $300,000,000 within the decade, the federal government should appropriate money to cooperate with the states in the education of children and youth who are citizens alike of state and nation. The federal aid should, in just and right proportion, be given for elementary and secondary schools, for the preparation of teachers in normal schools and elsewhere, for higher education, and for extension education, including 88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the support of public libraries for all the people. It should be all given for the pay of teachers and for the direct and necessary means of teaching. Nothing should be given for grounds and buildings or for permanent equipment. Every appropriation should be apportioned to the states on the basis of the number of persons to be educated and of the use made of it, which last can probably be measured best by the total number of days of attendance. States receiving federal aid should be required to give from state, county, and local treasuries at least twice as much as they receive from the federal treasury and for the same purposes. They should be required to give also, free of charge, as nearly as possible equal opportunity of education to all children, including health education, vocational education, and education for citizenship. Certain minimum standards of attendance, say, i6o days of schooHng a year for all children between 6 and 14 years of age, and not less than 480 hours for all between 14 and 18 years should be required. The federal government should also equip itself for the study of all important problems of education and for giving to the people of the states the results of such studies by way of information and kindly advice. It should do everything possible for protection against all violent changes in the work of education which would interfere with its wise and orderly de- velopment, and should then refrain severely and consistently from all med- dlesome interference with state and local administration of schools. It is of the very essence of our democracy to be alive and intelligent in all its parts, and our wisdom is to adjust national efficiency to state and local self-government. I feel sure that the way can be found. May I tax your patience a minute longer only to mention one thing more which I beheve to be necessary to the full development of our sys- tems of education for democracy in this and other countries ? I refer to an international bureau of' education, such as was planned for discussion and, it was hoped, for adoption also at the International Conference on Education which was called by the Dutch government at the instance of our government to meet at The Hague in September, 19 14, and to which most of the important governments appointed official representatives. The constitution of the League of Nations will make the formation of such a bureau much easier than it would have been before. The services which such an international agency could render to education are many and of very great importance. May I close with this quotation from the eloquent and wise words of your President : ''We are enlisted in a great cause. We seek to perpetuate the democratic institutions for which our men have given their lives. We are ready to assume the place of leadership which our profession must take^ and we have faith in the response which the people of the country will give in support of our program," and, let me add, of all our great work. Sessions] EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY: FRANCE 89 B. FRANCE ALBERT FEUILLERAT, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, UNIVER- SITY OF RENNES, RENNES, FRANCE The educational problems of the hour in France are not perhaps 50 vital and so far-reaching in their consequence as they prove to be other countries. No doubt the war has revealed many weaknesses )y the side of admirable strength, and after the experience of these Lst years we can no longer look at things thru the same eyes. We Lve acquired a truer sense of values and a great readiness to give lue attention to imperative needs. We want above all to make the ;oming generation better prepared for the tremendous work that awaits ^t in this shaken, tottering world of ours. But, on the other hand, it lould be borne in mind that for more than a century we have been [perimenting in education, and to the constructive tendencies of some »f our best minds, Victor Durey, Yeuba Terry, Ferdinand Buisson, Jtc, do we owe a system of instruction, national, complete, and coherent. 'his system has on the whole well stood the state of the war, and the langes which we anticipate will not be destructive in character. The house is still solid and we are not going to pull it down in order to rebuild it anew. We shall probably rebuild it, and equip it in a more modern way, but we want to preserve its foundations, which are leeply set in the good soil of France. Let us now see what are the chief points which call the attention )f French educators. First of all we want to modernize our schools the way of more specialization. We are entering an era of intense idustrial and commerical competition. If we want to keep among le nations the honorable place to which our share in the war entitles is we must prepare for the struggle, and to meet the new demands we lall have to adopt a system of education that will be practical and lodern, and that will keep closely in touch with the realities of life, 'he universities showed the way, even before the war broke out, when jral of them modified their instruction so as to encourage local iterests and activities, and when they created technical institutes to leet the requirements of industry and commerce. In the same way 'our higher primary schools have, beside a general section, commercial, industrial, agricultural, and even nautical sections. This tendency to specialization will be strongly developt and extended to the primary :hool proper. In the Revue Pedagogique for September, 191 8, M. iapie, the present director of primary instruction, has developt his leas on this subject, and to this article may be referred all those inter- ested in the question. It will be sufficient to say here that the main )urpose is to adapt the elementary school to the requirements of that )art of the country in which it is situated. In rural districts, for QO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General instance, the instruction will be essentially agricultural, in cities indus- trial or commercial, etc. This specialization of the schools, however, will not involve a total neglect, or even a partial neglect, of the essentials of all education, that is, general training. We remain convinst that specialization coming too soon does more harm than good, and that nothing permanent can be built upon no foundation at all. It should be borne in mind that in all our plans of reform specialization comes only on the top of general training, and not as all-sufficient in itself. As regards the study of the classics in our secondary schools we cannot forget that to the study of the Latin language and literature the French mind owes some of its brightest intellectual qualities, and, tho we recognize that in the modern world Latin cannot be the only means of culture, we are not, however, ready to sacrifice on the altar of utilitarianism what has been France's reputation in the past. The second point in our program is that we want to have more education. We recognize that however much we may have done for public instruction much remains still to be done. If we mean to be a truly democratic country we must educate the people so that it may not be said that there are children unable to take an intelligent part in the advancement of civilization. The question here concerns exclu- sively the education of the masses, and practically it means a consider- able extension of our system of continuation schools. We are resolved not only upon systematizing continued education but also upon raising the age at which instruction ceases to be compulsory. We are contem- plating having a greatly extended system of continuation schools, and we realize that such a system cannot be establisht unless the state enforces it by law. Consequently in March, 191 7, M, Viviani, then minister of public instruction, submitted to parliament a bill which will serve as a basis for the reform in view. The object is to produce men who shall be at the same time skilled laborers, good citizens, and trained soldiers, and the instruction will assume a triple character: it will be general, technical, and physical. The continuation school will be open from October to March. The average number of teaching hours will be 300 yearly, 50 being assigned to general education, 150 to technical education, and 100 to physical education. The general education will be intrusted to the primary teachers, who will be granted a full two-month vacation as a compensation for the hours they are expected to give to the continuation school. In most cases the technical training will be in the hands of specialists chosen among the superior sort of artisans. The instruction will be of two degrees, the lower grade for children between thirteen and seven- teen (sixteen for girls), the higher grade for adults between the ages of Sessions] EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY: FRANCE 91 I seventeen and twenty in the case of boys and between the ages of sixteen and eighteen in the case of girls. Regular attendance will be secured by the establishment of a '^Liviet Scolaire" or schoolbook, on which will be Recorded the educational curriculum of any individual between the Sages of six and twenty. Fines will be inflicted upon delinquents, and in cases of incorrigible truancy the pupils may be deprived of all access I^H to civil employment. \^m Such is the extension scheme which, it is hoped, will have the result that all those who cannot afford to pursue a full course of studies during their adolesence will, however, be able to acquire a minimum of knowl- edge that will make them more fit for the work of wage-earning, will enlarge their outlook, and will make them intelligent, efficient citizens, fully conscious of their rights and also of their duties to their country. But we want to do still more for the masses; we want to give all equal chances and more opportunities for higher education. Any boy showing that he has the brains to profit by education should be given a chance. In France we have done much to facilitate the access to secondary education by the means of numerous scholarships. But these scholarships are far from sufficient. Besides there is a serious obstacle which prevents many intelligent boys in primary school from taking advantage of those scholarships. Our secondary education is not, as it is in the United States, the second degree in a common com- plete scheme, receiving its pupils from the primary school when they have acquired the elements of knowledge. It develops independently and alongside of primary education, so much so that each lycee has a rimary section for the children who intend to take secondary educa- tion. Now, while in a public primary school boys finish their work only at the age of thirteen, the primary education of a lycee ends at the age of ten, at which time the secondary-school course proper begins; 0 that a boy who wins his scholarship at the close of his public primary ourse is heavily handicapt on his entering the lycee. The remedy in his case is easy to find. The best manner of removing this obstacle ithat stands on the way to the secondary school is to have but one type f primary school for all classes, with one method and one curriculum. If this measure were completed by making secondary education free of cost- — a solution which has been proposed, but which it does not seem easible to adopt just now, if we take into account the financial condi- tion of the country — or simply by increasing the number of free scholar- ships in such a way that practically no boy or girl of real ability would be debarred from the full amount of education to which he or she has I a right, then indeed we should be able to say that we have kept the promise of a democracy. But if we admit that there must be no bar of class in the way of 92 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General of sex. And then I come to the last of the unjust problems forst upon us by the war — that of women's secondary education. . The part that women have taken in the Great War has removed prejudices which a few years ago seemed ineradicable. In all the activities of life women have demonstrated that there is no kind of work which they cannot do just as well as men, and in many cases more conscientiously than men. Besides it is not to be expected that the help given by women during the war will cease now that peace has come. The loss of human lives has been so great in France that for many years to come we must have recourse to women's work. The question that therefore confronts us is this: Since woman will have as breadwinner to undertake the work of man, must she not receive a training which will place her on an intellectual level with the man who will be her f ellow- worker ? In other words, has it not become necessary to do away with all differences that at present exist between boys' and girls' education ? Such indeed* is the opinion of many French educators who demand complete identity of training for boys and girls. But they meet with the opposition of quite a large number of other experts who contend that boys and girls, being physically different, cannot be submitted to the same discipline; that, moreover, women must not renounce their most glorious part in life, that of motherhood, with all the duties this word implies, and that education must prepare them for that most difficult of tasks. There has been quite a battle fought around this question. For one year and a half (January, 191 7 — May, 1918) a committee composed of experts belonging to all grades of instruction have assembled and have carefully discust the pros and cons without arriving at a very definite solution. In the meantime the necessities of life, without waiting for the result of academic discussions, are demanding an imme- diate solution. The ultimate solution must give satisfaction to both parties. In most of the secondary schools for girls there have been created special classes in which the girls are prepared for the bacca- laureat or final examination tiiken by the boys on leaving the lycee, and in those classes they are taught exactly the same subjects as boys are, Latin included. And alongside of these special courses the ordinary classes continue to attract the more fortunate girls — I mean those who escape the stern necessity of entering into competition with the stronger sex. Such are the problems which we are trying to solve in France, and, as has already been said, the solutions we propose will not mean a total overthrow of the present system of education, whose essential characteristics we wish to preserve. The reform we have in view is moderate, prudent, reasonable. It holds fast to the belief that culture should not be sacrificed to purely utilitarian interests, tho at the same Sessions] EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY: FRANCE 93 time it takes into account the realities which are shaping the world and make for progress. Lastly it is inspired by a highly democratic ideal: more education for all, possibility for all to rise even to the highest summit, equality for all men and women before that most sacred of rights, the right to develop one's mind to one's utmost capacity — such are the aims we ardently pursue and which show that France lis still true to the ideal which has ever been hers in the past. C. FRANCE FERDINAND BUISSON, UNIVERSITY OF PARIS, PRESIDENT OF THE LEAGUE OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN, PARIS, FRANCE I owe you a painful confession. It is the first time in my life I |have tried to speak English in a public meeting — a maiden speech in the seventy-eighth year of my age! Do you not think that I need all your indulgence ? Yes, all possible, and something more. It is not a mere accident if France has two representatives in this convention. Deliberately France sends to you two school men, but how different one from another! The one is a professor in active service, who brings to you an insight into our present educational prob- lems and methods. The manner in which you heard him and applauded his words proves how much you are to appreciate his lessons during the long time he has to spend in America. The other one, former professor and administrator, is an old man, only able to bring recollections and I messages. Recollections indeed- — for it is not the first time I have come to Milwaukee. Forty-three years ago (are you not frightened by the [appearance of a ghost?) I came here at the head of a delegation of elementary teachers, the first mission sent out by the French govern- ment after the disasters of the eighteen-seventy. And I cannot remem- ber without emotion the warm reception which your city extended to (US in that time. As to the messages which I bring, they are three in number. First of all, I am the bearer of greetings from our Minister of Public Instruc- ftion, M. Lefferre, who wishes to be among the first to respond to certain suggestions respecting the establishment of an Internationa] Bureau of Education advanst by the National Education Association and 1 maintained by the highest educational authority, I mean your world- known United States Commissioner, P. P. Claxton. Like all of you, our minister is of the opinion that such an organization is not only use- ful but necessary to promote the full development of the democratic ideal amongst free nations, but you may be sure that he will receive with utmost sympathy further and more definite communications on the subject. 94 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General My second message comes from the federation of all the associations of elementary teachers. I fulfil this mandate with a special pleasure. I do not think an official adhesion is sufficient to accomplish a revolu- tion in the national schools; nothing serious and deep is possible unless the great body of teachers themselves agree and cooperate. It is a high honor for me, their former chief and director and always their friend, to have been especially commissioned by this federation (num- bering one hundred thousand members) to bring with the cordial hand- shakes of French teachers to American colleagues the assurance that they are in full and unanimous accord with the principles which you advocate. They are waiting your initiative; they will heartily follow. The third and last message I bring from people who are not directly engaged in education matters. More than a score of French societies for the promotion of the League of Nations, united under the presi- dency of M. Lenator Leon Bourgeois, several times prime minister and twice French delegate to The Hague Peace Congress, have instructed me to speak to you in their name. President Leon Bourgeois writes me that your appeal has been heard on the other side of the Atlantic by all those who are conscious of the social function of the school, and he adds: The true advocates of the new era, the true organizers of the Society of Nations, are not the governments but the peoples themselves. To bring to pass so fundamental a transformation, it is necessary that millions of men have faith in it. Let us convince them thru the supreme evidence that nothing prevents the nations from extending to international life the same value that each one of them feels in honor bound to apply to national life. With those elements of an entirely new law of nations we must familiarize new generations. May schools and universities of the United States set an inspiring example to our schools and universities in Europe! And may this Milwaukee convention mark an additional advance toward the new form of civilization, which in the words of Presi- dent Wilson "shall make right the law of the world." This is the conclusion of Leon Bourgeois. For my own part I am sure to express the sentiment of all my countrymen, whose repre- sentative I am, if I conclude so: You Americans have once delivered the world from the tyranny of militarism. Now we ask you to help to deliver the world from the tyranny of ignorance. It is a new war which begins against all social restrictions and abusive limitations of the rights which belong to every human being. "Peace on earth, good will to men." What does it mean if it is not equal opportunity for all by integral democratic education ? ^ sionsl EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY: SOUTH AMERICA 95 D. SOUTH AMERICA AURELIA VIERA, MONTEVIDEO, URUGUAY, SOUTH AMERICA I am a Uruguayan. I come from a country that is very far from you, ut it is also very near. Very far because of the distance which separates Very near because of the loving sympathy which all of our Uru- ayans feel toward you. You need not think it strange that we have this ving sympathy for you, since we consider North America in the fore- nt of all countries in commercial, industrial, and scientific movements. or me North America has ever been the first country of the world, because it are found the generous and humanitarian initiatives. In your coun- have been bom and solved the great problems which pertain to the Ivation and happiness not only of your own great land but of the human e. In these later days you have taken two gigantic steps. You have nerously rusht to the help of your brothers who were engaged in cruel rs, uselessly pouring out their precious life-blood, and it seemed to be ithout any end. You sent to their rescue your millions of young soldiers, strong in body and morally pure, who in a short time returned victorious, having shown to the entire world the power and greatness of your people. I have seen them return. It was my great joy to land upon your shores in those moments of jubilee when they were returning, and my heart rilled with joy to see them marching upon the streets of your great city New York with the satisfaction of having fulfilled their duty to man- d. Do not think it strange that I am speaking of patriotism at this time hen you are gathered here to discuss pedagogical themes. It is for the use of patriotism that you are here; for the good of your country that u are gathered in this great assembly seeking a solution of pedagogical oblems, seeking for a more perfect way of educating the youths of your hd that you may attain still greater power and happiness. I am your lleague. I have devoted my life to the school and think that in doing I have been rendering service to my country. The other great step which you have taken in these recent times and r which your greatness has resounded to the farthest limits of the earth that one which it has been my privilege to know of within the last few urs, to realize something of how your men and women of pure hearts d lofty ideals have striven courageously and have triumpht victoriously on the first of July. I speak of national prohibition, which has come to I our nation within the last few hours. How wonderfully this shows to ie world that you do not strive uselessly when an ideal, a subHme ideal, loves the hearts of your people, an ideal no less sublime than that of the ilvation of the race. This great movement, which will bring health to i 96 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General the feeble-minded, strength to weak characters, relief to the poor, and joy and tranquillity to a multitude of homes, proves that you have not only a great brain but a great heart. If we seek for the origin of these high ideals which you possess we must direct our vision to your schools, to your great educational institutions, your colleges and universities, to those notable centers of education where you have been training your great men and women, who wherever they plant the flag of your country make themselves felt for good. Wherever the North American flag waves there is gloriously represented the North American people. Of you and your institutions of learning we are ardent admirers. In our beloved country your methods of teaching have been recognized by us as the greatest of the world. We owe to our great cham- pion of education, Jose P. Varela, who is our Horace Mann, the lofty ideals which he gained here in your great nation, and which he implanted in our beloved Uruguay. We realize that in our schools too is the center of our greatness. For this reason the government of my country has sent to you upon several occasions young educators who have carried back to us some idea of your great educational system. For this same purpose I am in your midst today, that I may learn more of your methods for the development of womankind and for the methods of social reform in which your country so gloriously leads. I come to bring to you also, as a token of admiration of your patriotic labor for the uplift of mankind, cordial and affectionate greetings from my colleagues of Uruguay. These warm, heartfelt greetings come from your brothers who are striving for the same lofty ideals, and who desire your help in the unfolding of a new and better educational system for the youth of our fair land. THE CONTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DEMOCRACY A. KINDERGARTEN ALMA L. BINZEL, NORTHRUP COLLEGIATE SCHOOL, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. The first of the contributions which the kindergartner may and should make to democracy is that of interpreting to the parents of the children of today the nature of child-life and the nature of democracy and their relatedness in daily living. Her second contribution is but an enlargement of this one. It is to enlist the home-economics forces and other agencies in this country in a new campaign. For some years we have had the slogan of ''Better Babies," ''Save the Seventh Baby," and, more recently, "Keep the Children Well." The recent Children's Year brought to innumerable com- munities these ideals and many of the practices that aid in their realiza- tion. A youngster in the Springfield schools summed up the work in behalf I Sessions] TEACHERS AND DEMOCRACY: KINDERGARTEN 97 ;0f the conservation of child-life with this brief essay: "This is the hildren's Year. It is everybody's duty to have a baby and to save it." •me of those who heard the essay askt, ''Save it, for what?" and an- swered to themselves, ''To keep it not only well but to make it more worth while to itself and to democracy than many children have had the pportunity of becoming in this country in the past." The home-economics teachers have had the support of state and ational funds and influence as no other group in the profession has had. hey go out into large and small places equipt to teach and to train the ncoming generations toward scientific, artistic, and successful house- eeping and homemaking. But up to date the most perplexing of the roblems involved, that of understanding child-nature in its instinctive d emotional and intellectual aspects, has been ignored. One recent ception to the exclusion of " child- training problems" from the courses hich our home-economics teachers take in preparation for their work ust be made. The University of Minnesota required of its 1919 Senior ome-economics students an eighteen-hour lecture course along this line. umor has it that the Seniors considered it a very valuable part of their urse; that faculties of some other departments are asking for a similar urse; that some of the young men in the agricultural department have timated that they also should have it, and one father has already askt be enrolled in the course next year! The kindergartner's second con- ribution then is to urge and possibly to give these courses, so that not ss than every home-economics Senior from 1920 on shall be ready to sist in the campaign for "More Worth-while Children." Ultimately preparation for marriage and parenthood must involve a cing of this problem. From one authority and another comes the state- ent that the weakest, the most disintegrating institution in America ay is the home. Small wonder that it has survived as well as it has; at it has produced as valuable material as the average young man and oung woman of today! For note you, tho it is the most numerous of ur institutions, and tho it deals with the most valuable of our country's sources, society practically raises no questions concerning anyone's fit- ness to start and run a home. Until society changes its attitude the ndergarten and the home-economics teachers, coming close to the home they do, must in part make up for this lack. Together they must ask at state institutions shall demonstrate with children as well as with ops, cattle, and chickens. On the day that this was written the Minne- polis papers carried the story of another one hundred babies and children eeding mothers' care. The Children's Protective Association has suc- eded in ridding the community of baby farms; it has succeeded in placing 0 hundred children in private homes. Can anyone think of a plan hereby some at least of the remaining one hundred can be given a fair rt in life under the auspices of the University of Minnesota ? Can the 98 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [General departments of medicine, psychology, education, home eccdiomics, and sociology be expected to cooperate in order to keep these children well, to diagnose their individual characteristics, to direct their education, and to environ them so that normal-social development will result ? In ''Some Suggestions from Modern Sciences for Education" one finds a plea for a nursery that shall be a laboratory for the discovery of the facts of child-life from birth up to the age of six. In the homeless babies and children, of which every state has many, one finds the material for such a nursery. Where is the institution or the philanthropically inclined individual that will undertake to finance an endeavor which will be productive of good to the children themselves and enlightening to those who deal with children elsewhere? The third contribution which the kindergartner is to make is that of urging the need and the possibilities of concrete laboratory study of children at state universities. I trust that these suggestions concerning the home and the kinder- gartner's contribution to democracy will not be misinterpreted. The home casts its influence upon more lives at an earlier date and for a longer period than any one other institution. It is because of its very great importance and its hitherto rather neglected condition as far as the study of children is concerned that it has received this major emphasis this morning. The kindergartner's next contribution is to aid in equalizing the oppor- tunities for a fairer start in life thru early school opportunities for every child. I need only remind you that our country contains nearly 4,000,000 native-born men and women who cannot read and write, to have you realize that in this land, whose proudest boast has been its public-school- system, the start, via schooling, has been and is now a very uneven one. The accident of birth in one decade rather than another, in one state or another, or in one county in some states rather than in another county has been for too long the determining factor as to whether a child must go to school or not, at what age he must begin and at what one he may stop and also how many days per year he must attend. In 1852, almost seventy years ago, Massachusetts blazed the way with its compulsory-education law. How slowly the others followed her lead is shown by the facts that only six more than half had enacted similar legislation by 1900, and that the remaining sixteen came in after the open- ing of the new century! Some waited indeed until after the world- war was on to accomplish this feat. Small wonder then that the draft for our national army brought in 700,000 men between the ages of twenty- one and thirty-one who could not read and write! The states are all in now, but how varied is the conception of what constitutes the necessary minimum education for citizenship in a democracy! Of the states that had prior to 1914 declared for compulsory education none had set the age of entrance at six; for Hawaii it was so placed; sixteen states placed it at seven years; twenty-six states and the District of Columbia at eight years; 5ions] TEACHERS AND DEMOCRACY: KINDERGARTEN 99 nd one state put it at nine years. Why should a child born in Hawaii ve the protection of a compulsory-education law from his sixth birthday n, while a child in Oregon must be without it until his ninth one ? Both e child and society are at the mercy of the individual parents as long we are without a universal compulsory-education law making it equally fe to be bom in any one of the forty-eight states or in any one of its veral dependencies. With other educators the kindergartner must join in the effort to Tolong both the school year (it varies now from sixty to one hundred nd fifty days of attendance) and the child's tenure in school. In several states children may leave when they are twelve years old^; in others they ust stay on until the sixteenth or eighteenth birthday. In addition to brts for this longer school life the kindergartner must foster the move- ents necessary for national laws that aim at placing the compulsory ;e of entrance in public education at five and permissive age at four ears. We are meeting in a state fortunate in the farsightedness of its con- stitution. One of the clauses referring to education provides that public money ''may be spent" for the education of children between the ages of four and twenty years. Under such a constitution it ought not to be difficult to secure the conpulsory "must be spent." The kindergartner has heard the appeal to return to the philanthropic spirit of the early days f the kindergartner in the effort to secure kindergarten opportunities r every child. Will her greatest contribution come thru such a com- unity — by community appeal — or will it come from the effort to secure e enactment of national legislation extending the period of education ownward to the fourth, while others at the same time are securing its tension upward to the sixteenth or eighteenth birthday ? Surely in these ys of rapid transit and communication by land and sea and air it ill hooves us to think of pioneering ox-cart and pony-express methods in important a matter as the early education of childhood. There is another very important contribution which the kindergarten acher should make. It is that of inculcating into the lives of little chil- en in the kindergarten attitudes and habits that are fundamentally emocratic in nature. We all know that there are "fundamental likenesses among individuals those primitive elements of human nature, the instincts and impulses," ut do we all realize sufficiently that there must also be ''fundamental eness and agreement in acquired habits, especially those which children take on thru early training and by imitative absorption from their envi- inment"? Wherever groups of children of similar ages, and hence similar wants, e gathered together there arise situations that correspond in their general lOO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General is quick to interpret these situations correctly, and you have a group of children learning to analyze fairly the problems before them, learning to suspend judgment until the evidence is all in, learning to recognize that right things can be known and must be chosen even tho it costs something to make the choice of the right. The kindergartner from the beginning has been accustomed to think in terms of respect for each child's individuality. Her contribution must be and has been one of showing how the valuable innate differences of indi- viduals on the one hand and the fundamental innate likeness of these individuals on the other hand can be conserved in group life — where law, not personal authority, controls. The right use of privilege, the ready acceptance of duty, and the recognition of personal responsibility can and must have their beginnings in that period which biologist, psychologist, and sociologist have come to recognize as the most plastic and hence the most educable period of the individual's life — the years before the age of six. B. RURAL SCHOOLS MARIE TURNER HARVEY, PORTER RURAL SCHOOL, KIRKSVILLE, MO. In view of the fact that approximately 8,000,000 children are being educated in the one- and two-room schools of this country, and in view of the undeniable fact that today thousands of these buildings are more or less like Porter was seven years ago, indicating similar community ideals and progress over a wide area, it seems advisable to give a detailed account of Porter's conditions in 191 2 and the early history of making a "new school of the old," and then a summary of conditions in its present stage of development with a few pertinent conclusions if time allows. The Porter District, containing nine square miles of good prairie land, joins Kirksville, a town of 10,000 population, on the south. Its assessed valuation in 191 2 was $110,000 in round numbers. There were forty-six farm homes; the largest holding was eight hundred acres, the smallest five acres near town, with farms varying from forty to two hundred acres between these extremes. Only nine of these farms were occupied by ten- ants, but eighteen homes had no direct interest in the district school. This was because their children had "gone thru" or "quit" the school before now and — "gone on." To estimate correctly the progress and achievements of the Porter community after September, 191 2, it is necessary to view actual conditions, together with their causes, that existed before that date. Previous to 191 2 this district sustained the required eight months' school on a twenty-cent levy and had the divided term and the character- istic rotation of teachers, not one of whom could be justly charged with the state of affairs that prevailed for years. The Wabash Railroad Sessions] TEACHERS AND DEMOCRACY: RURAL SCHOOLS loi ran diagonally across the district, and this little box-car schoolhouse, put up by some jack carpenter at a cost of about six hundred dollars, fifteen years before, became a favorite hostelry for the "tramping gentle- men" because of its close proximity to town and railroad. This square- built, shutterless, unshaded, comfortless building, resting directly on the ground and surrounded by weeds to the very doorstep in summer, was j^^e accepted educational center of this district. That the enumeration of |^^i2 listed fifty- two children of school age and the average daily attendance ranged from eight to twelve seemingly occasioned no one serious anxiety, ce only about that number of taxpayers took the trouble to attend school election each April. That young children lost much time from school because of bad colds contracted in this drafty, ill-heated, dirty building, that teacher and children had to group closely around the old ^^K)ve wearing wraps and even mittens for hours on real cold days, that ^Wey were constantly exposed to physical and moral dangers as a result of the tramps making this a regular station — all this and much more that must be suggested to any thinking mind were seemingly accepted with philosophical resignation by some and viewed with supreme indifference by others, for local history does not record that any taxpayer ever made a formal protest about the "waste of public funds." It is inconceivable that there could have been such isolation and such extreme individualism so near a good town. There was a lack of local cooperation, of local initiative, and, worst of all, of local faith in the possibihties of bringing about a permanent regime of progress thru the medium of their public school. Certainly the drift of young people from the farm homes went steadily on, and those seeking higher education for their children made the supreme sacrifice of boarding these young people in town to get school privileges. Thus they were separated from home influence during the ^character-forming time of life and were taught in terms of city life. ^^H In 191 2 the school board of three men, who themselves had gone to ^Wrter in their youth, were determined to give their young children improved opportunity and found a teacher willing to help them establish the best possible school. The teacher agreed, provided a home could be rented in the district. A ramshackle cottage of four rooms — three-fourths of a mile from the schoolhouse, unfortunately — was the only available place, and to this the teacher, with a country girl as domestic, moved in September, 191 2, and began the work of making a typical rural school realize its possibilities for the community. In the face of the opposition with which every forward step is met, the jeers of some and the threats from others that this would spell "bank- ruptcy thru high taxes," "that the teacher would not stay," "was certain to leave for a better salary," "that old ways were good enough," a small group of men led by this school board persuaded, reasoned, contributed labor or money or both, until by October 14, 191 2, they had thru I02 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General cooperation raised the building on a good foundation of concrete blocks, dug a basement, covered the floor with concrete, installed a first-class hot-air furnace therein, built a new flue, also a staircase from vestibule to base- ment, and a commodious good-looking bookcase with glass doors and locks, elevating this on a small double platform, which added seating space in case of a ''full house" at the community gatherings to which they now lookt forward. By Christmas time thru cooperation the building had a new teacher's desk and chair, two large swinging lamps, an organ, and a water system, including a drinking-fountain and kitchen sink installed in the basement. A telephone Hne connected the school and the teacher's cottage with both the community and Kirksville. As expressive of what such a community can and will do with leader- ship it should also be mentioned that the walls were now covered with a soft, tan oatmeal paper and the woodwork changed to a golden brown; a light-papered ceiUng and adjustable dark-green shades at the windows made good lighting possible; an eight-day clock and thermorrieter were added. A school wagon was secured and run cooperatively, thus insuring the regular and prompt attendance of the majority of the pupils of that day and conserving the health of the children. The teacher rode with the children, a factor not to be overlookt when viewing results. Aside from the furnace all this was done without using a dollar of the district school fund at an astonishingly small outlay of dollars and cents, each improvement costing thought and effort to provide, such efforts bringing people constantly together in constructive efforts for their children and community, these contacts making surprising revelations of fine character hitherto unsuspected in their neighbors and verifying the truth of the advice, "Get acquainted with your neighbors; you might like them." The children thus learned the great lesson of cooperation so needed in rural life and placed high value on the improvement, coming as they did, one by one, after much planning and sacrifice. Many a world-struggle studied in the history class was the better understood because of the hard 'fight the parents and neighbors of the pupils had to make against ignorance and prejudice, thereby placing a new value on education. Thus were seeds sown that in due time and with continued cooperation would insure this farming community a wholesome social life, improved economic conditions, and^ cheerful firesides, because of the presence of sons and daughters finding happiness and reasonable prosperity in develop- ing family estates. Thanks to an open-minded county superintendent of schools freedom from standard requirements in the use of courses of study and daily pro- gram was allowed. It can only be said here that the curriculum, greatly enriched, has been adapted to the individual needs of the community and its children without depriving the pupils of the joyous influences of music, art, and Hterature. A balance of vocational and cultural subjects has sions] TEACHERS AND DEMOCRACY: RURAL SCHOOLS 103 ^. been kept thruout. No artificial stimulus has been used. Attendance nd punctuality are high; absences occur only in case of grave necessity, xplanations coming over the telephone, with the request that if possible ertain class lessons be postponed until the return of the pupils. At the end of four years the Bureau of Educational Experiments, ew York City, on its own initiative searcht out this school and after reful study effected an arrangement which made possible an extension rvice even then being widely and urgently demanded, the mutual plan rotecting the community itself by not supplying it money or interfering ith the conduct of its own affairs. Thus the community continued to ;ert itself to the utmost in making the school serve its growing needs, eing further stimulated by the altruistic desire to help others in the pen country to see the possibilities of their local schools operated under xisting legal machinery thru the cooperation of teacher and parents; us the values of the demonstration were in no way qualified. In Porter District today thea-e are a people whose school board repre- nts their evaluation of school benefits by offering $100 a month for a eacher; a substantial Farmers' Club; an active Woman's Club; a Poultry ub of young people that in three years drove out scrub poultry, taught e community to raise two pure-bred types, and is looking to cooperative lling of eggs and chickens under the club guaranty; a Pig Club which will 0 for hog breeding what the Poultry Club has done in its field; an inter- enominational Sunday school, two years old, that is in fact a spiritualizing uence in the community; a high-school annex, two years old, where students can do two full years of accredited work; a Community Band, hich in three years included twenty young men and women whose work Adair County is second only to that of the Municipal Band of Kirks- ille; a Junior Band, one year old, with twelve members ranging in age from eight to fifteen years, music having become a necessity in this com- unity. Land values have been greatly mcreast. It has toucht every terest of old and young, holding every boy and girl grown to maturity to farm. Not one has been lost to the community except in the several ses where the family moved out of the district for business reasons. Thru cooperation the school has become more than a community cen- r; it is in fact a distributing center of efficiency, social and economic, sed every day in the week during the conventional eight months of school, d from four to six times a week during the remaining four months of e year. Its people are happy, contented, striving for the better things life, and intensely patriotic, because they are an informed people. Enough has been suggested to justify the conclusion that in the face 1 a world-wide demand for self-government a new type of rural school, new kind of teacher, a new form of teaching is required — a school that this time must help the parents, the farmers, all the residents of the com- unity, who in turn must help the school. Means for the development 1 04 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [General of character and a genuine enrichment of experience must be found in the daily round and the common activities. The habit of responding quickly as a unit to right appeals due to the war emergency is still with the American people. Shall this Association be less energetic in profiting by the important lessons learned from the world-war than the commerical world, for instance, which has already reduced the distance across the Atlantic to less than a day ? Shall it not be constantly vigilant in recognizing and resisting all forces engaged in attempts to nullify the public understanding of the part the common public school in town and country alike must play if America remains true to the ideals of the founders of this Republic? As a means to this end, therefore, shall it not by concerted action discard antiquated courses of study from kindergarten to university and make such adjustments in educational procedure as will most quickly prepare the teacher that the times demand ? Shall it not use its great power so to educate the public mind as to cause it soon to attract this uew teacher to the rural field by guaranteeing a living salary, a decent home, and necessary freedom of action best to serve the community interests ? For in this way only can America have a system of schools in the open country that will make it safe for democracy. C. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ELIZABETH S. BAKER, SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, HARRISBURG, PA. The education of the individual for himself alone has had its day, a day that saw great advancement and that was sufficient for its generation. Not only were the tools of education generously meted out to all alike thru our great public-school system, but to a certain extent the treasures of the liberal arts and the knowledge of the sciences were shared. Why ? That the soul of youth might have the largest inspiration. This individ- ualistic education, however, has not wrought the miracle of good citizen- ship. It has neglected the principles of reciprocity, comradeship, and fellowship. While it is still necessary for every pupil to become efficient and proficient with the tools of education the new democracy demands that the public schools develop whatever capacities or abilities the indi- vidual may possess in order that he may become intelligently active for the common good. The greatest opportunity for the individual and the greatest satisfaction to the individual are secured only when he works with others for the common welfare. Real social service is the highest attainment the individual can aspire to reach. School must no longer be considered a preparation for life. It must be a part of life, and educa- tion today must be a group enterprise where each individual in the group must act in relation to the entire group and must be ready, if need be, to sacrifice his own desires for the betterment of the group of which he is a h Sessions] TEACHERS AND DEMOCRACY: ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 105 i ember. The schools of the nation must awake to the need of a more irect attention to reaUze their fundamental function, the preparation f the citizen, and since the education of so many children ends with the grammar grade it behooves us as elementary teachers to see that our school motive is no longer the individual advantage of the boy and girl but the arger purpose of his general welfare. What kind of citizens do we want our pupils to become ? Do we want em to accept plans handed down to them from above and execute these lans according to prescribed directions, thus reducing their own purposing o a minimum and the servile acceptance of others' plans to a maximum ? o we want another to carry their responsibilities and pass judgment upon e results of their labors? No! We want citizens who are alert, able think and act, and too intelligently critical to be easily hoodwinkt by liticians or patent medicines. We want them to know how to choose, ow to weigh the relative value and importance of things, how to organize deas and facts, how to be self-reliant. How can this be accompHsht ? By changing our idea of the methods of procedure in school life, always remembering that the aim of education is character, not subjects. We must have constantly in mind the ideal of school work which will value most highly opportunities for cooperation nd for contribution to the common good upon the part of our pupils, nd we must train them in habits of public service, because everyone nows that we learn to do by doing. This means that our ideas of conducting a recitation must be changed o meet the new issue. We must give up the old autocratic question-and- nswer plan. No longer will teachers be judged by their own activity, ut the activity of their pupils will be the measure of their ability. The eacher and pupils must study together the definite problems to be solved, nd each pupil must contribute his part, not because he is to be graded by is teacher, but because he is working for the welfare of the group whose roblems are his problems. Such recitations train students to initiate ought processes without continual prodding from the teacher, and to nduct their proceedings on a democratic basis, thus giving the pupils ractice in government. They take the ground that scholarship and the ower to think clearly are selfish abilities unless shared with the social group or capitalized for the benefit of the group. They develop social onscience by means of informed and free discussion, they lead to personal esponsibility and independent thinking — the essence of the new democ- cy. They develop team work, make the problems to be solved the hildren's, and lead to power. The ideas of leadership, the necessary overnment of the group, the ideals of loyalty to the group, are basic and represent in the child world what organized society means in the adult elationships of Hfe. The social aspects of every subject must be empha- ized, on the idea that the more thoroly you know things or the more io6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General expertly you do things, the more useful you will be to your family, your city, your state, and your nation ; the better fitted you will be to exemplify and mold American ideals. History and civics of course offer the greatest opportunities for the teaching of citizenship, and as a teacher of those branches what they should contribute to the new democracy is my special problem. History as taught in the Prussian schools exalted and glorified the Prussian state. Is that enough? No. History should develop the reasoning power and the balanst judgment. While it should kindle patriotism it should also cure narrow provincialism — a provincialism that sneers at all foreigners, that believes the false theory that "one's country is always right." It should be the remedy for the stupid partisanship which crushes independent reasoning and prevents reforms. The child who argues for the rights of the British Parliament during the Revolution, or presents the secession doctrine to his class, has learned to think. The ability to examine both sides of an argument, to pick out the truth while seeing another's point of view, can be exercised by children as well as by adults if they are properly trained to use their minds. The teacher must be careful not to twist history to suit her preconceived political notions or social theories. The impersonal search for truth is the major business, and the plainest duty of the history teacher is to concentrate on the char- acter and work of patriots of all times and countries, and to show how, thru actions and reactions, the ideals of democracy have taken shape thruout the world. It is a part of the tradition of free governments that the burning questions of the day should be discust in public meetings, and if you want to see how true to tradition your pupils are assign a cur- rent local or national question for a lesson occasionally, and allow them to conduct the discourse, and watch the passive, inert pupils become spontaneously fluent. What about civics? The old civics taught government as tho the end in view was to make constitutional lawyers. The new civics comes right into the community to help future citizens realize their responsi- bilities, their duties, and their opportunities for service, and the special aim in teaching civics should be to help the child to realize himself as a member of each political group that does work for him. He must be taught to appreciate the service rendered by all community servants, as the policeman, the plumber, the carpenter, and at the same time store up a fund of civic ideals that shall guide him later as an adult citizen. Civic activities must be talkt about and read about. Relationship of man to civic life and man's obligation to his home, his neighborhood, and his country, if taught insistently, would develop the spirit of good-will to so large an extent that this nation would become altogether different from any other nation on earth. w Sessions] TEACHERS AND DEMOCRACY: SECONDARY SCHOOLS 107 Good citizenship cannot be reacht thru gUttering generaUties as to loyalty to country. The growth of a better civic life will come slowly thru a knowledge of facts as to how the business of a municipahty or other community is run — an active cooperation whenever the opportunity offers itself. The man who knows what the pure-food laws mean and is alive to the enforcement of these statutes will, if need be, exert himself to see lat they are executed. The old bliss in ignorance may do for the indi- ridualistic person. The citizen belonging to the era of collectivism sees, feels, and acts for the common good, and every pupil can become active for the common good. Comradeship, friendship-making, and service can )e guided in school with the surest result. Fair play, team work, playing ip to the game, suggest cooperative ideals that mean life, society, highest :iviUzation. The individual does not lose himself in these new relations. [e simply becomes better acquainted with his own possibilities. He )ecomes a part of the whole with the spirit of sacrifice for the good of the rhole. The nation that grows weak and uninterested civically is doomed to decay and revolution. The democracy that does not educate for vigor- [ous and intelligent citizenship breaks down into a lower type of social [organization. The individual who does not gain that education thru )articipation which democracy affords can attain neither a high type of fsocial efficiency nor self-realization and continued growth. Civic interest iroused must bring corresponding motives for cooperation, and participation therein must cultivate civic initiative and civic judgment. D. SECONDARY SCHOOLS ESSIE V. HATHAWAY, TEACHER OF ENGLISH, EAST HIGH SCHOOL, DES MOINES, IOWA In all the upsetting of the affairs of men which the god of war has so [ruthlessly enforced in the last five years I know of no one profession so [completely turned topsy-turvy as the teaching profession, and of that )rofession I hold that no class has been thrown farther from its moorings md been forst more frequently to readjust itself than that forming the : faculty of our secondary schools. Is it too extreme a statement to make tthat such a survey of our secondary-school work taken several years ago [would have revealed an astonishing effort being put forth to train minds, [but an equally astonishing lack of effort to visualize the place of that train- ling in the development of the student's life or as related to the life of his community ? I am prepared to say that it is not too extreme a statement, 'he first revelation of our deficiency began when the great black tragedy [of Belgium brought home to us the fact that any training or any ideal, [national or individual, which did not take into consideration the rights land privileges of every other nation or individual in the world, nation, io8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General state, or community was a training and an ideal woefully lacking not only in breadth of thought and kindness of heart but in practical living possibilities. One of the first things that came to us thru war necessity was a com- munity demand, and so of value in the consideration of our subject. I refer to the use of the schools as a medium between public need and the family responsibihty in meeting that need. That medium continued thru Liberty Loan campaigns, thru Red Cross drives, thru relief funds so various that we wondered if there could be no end to hunger, nakedness, and disease in the world. From the kindergarten to the twelfth grade these messages were sent from Uncle Sam, from state and community leaders, to families representing in descent, in labor, in social advantages, every phase of our national life. Merely as an advertising agency the schools became an absolute necessity. As a factor in democratic life they took on an immediately practical possibility such as they had never had before in our country. But the school cannot be used for an advertising agency without being equipt with the ability to express the advertising matter in concrete and forceable terms; and neither school or individual can express anything forcibly or concretely without experience to enforce that expression. May I say then that in building up a modern democracy in a community a teacher of the secondary schools must in some way or other strengthen powers of expression in the boys and girls thru recognition of their neigh- bors' right to work and play. In short, a teacher of the secondary school must relate all the training of that school to the business and social life of the community if he is to have any place whatsoever as a real factor in building up the democracy of today. There is a certain sullenness that comes sometimes from repression, either in whole peoples or in individuals, a sullenness that smolders danger- ously toward explosion. I am sure we agree that all of the revolutions where a reign of terror has been part of the struggle have been caused quite as much by the great masses who could not express themselves and so could not protest effectively as by the command of those few who, keen of mind and skilled in speech, said, "This shall be so," and it was. But '^public calamity is a mighty leveler." Everybody talks today! Socialist, I.W.W., Bolshevik, suffragist, politician, even to the humblest man or woman in public or private life. While all this babbling of tongues, echoing quite around the world, is trying just now, out of it will come a clarifying of visions and judgments such as the world has never known. Even the boys and girls in our schools have thundered in season and out of season on real subjects to real audiences until they have come to feel that they have an actual place in wielding public opinion — that they have an opinion worth while and can express it intelligently. That very fact is going far to give this generation a community and national unity, for sions] TEACHERS AND DEMOCRACY: SECONDARY SCHOOLS 109 ^hile we have smiled at times at their bursts of oratory, still you know and know that thru their efforts and ours we shall have more leaders in public fe as well as a larger mass of people who can think and talk intelligently. How we are to maintain this vitaUty of expression in times of peace ithout the urgent need which war brought to us is not a question easy answer. There are, however, common needs the world around. If the )lden precepts of world-wide democracy let loose by our boys and girls m now be backt by a simple but real grasp of-their neighbors' advantages id disadvantages in the field of work and play they are bound to develop heart to sympathize and a mind to judge, so that that expression :omes politically and economically sound in community life. Cut-and-dried projects can never awaken that sympathy. An inves- jation which has to do merely with the economic value of a steel plant little less than a crime when presented by a growing boy or girl. In the ^rmative years of the secondary school no community investigation should allowed to impress the mind of the student which does not place human iings in the foreground. Let him bring his figures; let him have his 5e of economic values keenly alive and consistently developt, but let at the same time see the man who stokes the furnace all night long "in that steel mill. Let him see him in his relations to the housing condi- J;ions and to the recreational facilities of that community. If he does not, len no matter how accurate, how thoro the report, it is worse than "dry dust"; it is crippling to the growing boy and derogatory to the develop- mt of social life. There is a crying need all over the world today to train women for rk. There has been no greater tragedy thru the war than that of the Iplessness of unskilled women in trades and in fact in every walk of mmercial and business Hfe. Women of all ages with but meager school ining found themselves forst to earn their living with no other experience ck of them than that of a simple housewife. Life does not protect these men and girls. Many times they are physically unfit to meet require- nts, as well as mentally inefficient and unskilled in work of the hands. ere is no place for them. Confused and beaten, a great army of them nd today, wondering in an amazed fashion what they have ever done or ft undone that the right to earn a living should not be given them. It is blot upon our educational system that such a great mass of our people should be so scrapt in the economic world, so left broken morally and physically, because we failed to supply the need of proper training. The secondary-school teacher who fails to sweep aside his own pet visions of Ifinisht product in order to help mend the lives of those who thru heredity, ivironment, or misfortune are unable to cope with his educational hemes has no place in a school faculty today and no place in no NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The government's active assertion of the soldier's right to recreation has swept all of us into line with the boy and girl of high-school age, who have always blindly demanded that right. All real play is democratic. A square game can be nothing else. Therefore it is most necessary that the high school connect closely with the community for its leisure hours. We have but barely toucht upon the possibilities of the secondary teacher in establishing community connection thru labor and play. After all, much more depends upon a grasp of what the teacher has to work with and what he means to accomplish than upon anything that can be set forth to be done. There is more joyous enthusiasm for life among the high-school boys and girls of our land than among any other group in exist- ence. We all recognize this as a psychological fact due to their physical development. Adolescence is the time when ideals are forming, when every boy or girl has it in his mind to be something, to do something. He may not confess it, he may not recognize it in his own mind, but just the surge of physical life due to the change in his physical being makes him full of hope, altho that hope may have no definite end in view. Per- haps the girl means to be only a movie actress, but if she does she has no idea in her mind of being less than her screen ideal — Mary Pickford or someone equally successful. It may be that the boy has dreams not equal to ours for him, but whatever he sees in that particular field is never the quitter, never the down-and-out. We must recognize this fact and we must recognize that a personality that can dominate this enthusiasm for living and direct the formation of these ideals is the personality that will make or mar the child's place in the world at large. The man or woman who has the imagination to throw himself into the background of that child's mind, and with that imagina- tion has the skill to determine and to direct possibilities of development so that the child goes on joyously and apparently independently toward something which he wants to do because he knows he can do it in a capable and efficient way — that man or woman has his place in building up democ- racy in the community. Unless he has this ability he may turn out effi- cient business men and women, he may develop grace of mind and clearness of expression, but he has lost his chance to place that boy or girl in so- ciety. That great work will pass out of his hands into the hands of the community, and thru hard experience and days of blundering discourage- ment the boy or girl will somehow or other jostle down into a place perhaps happy, perhaps unhappy, in its relation to those about him. Our respon- sibility is tremendous, especially so because of the age and its possibilities; but while tremendous it carries with it a vitality and a hope which makes the working out of it one of the magnificent privileges of our modern life. Sessions] MEMORIAL TO ANNA HOWARD SHAW ill MEMORIAL TO ANNA HOWARD SHAW The National Education Association expresses its deep sense of per- sonal loss in the passing from the battle of human life of that valiant )ldier of the common good, Anna Howard Shaw. This great woman made her contribution to the welfare of the world teacher, writer, and strong defender of the rights of women to self- cpression on all planes, and as a mighty patriot during the Great War. The Association congratulates the American RepubHc upon having roduced such a woman. It congratulates American womanhood upon Lving had her as its leader during war activities. It congratulates Amer- :an manhood upon having had the loyal comradeship of this strong soul. We regard her Ufe as a challenge to the country she loved so well to stand fast for the things in which she beHeved; and we urge America to realize that she, like our men in arms, died on the firing line of Freedom. Mary C. C. Bradford, Chairman George D. Strayer, President, N.E.A. AN ADEQUATE SUPPLY OF TRAINED TEACHERS^ D. B. WALDO, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KALAMAZOO, MICH. The proper training of teachers in sufficient numbers to supply all e public schools with thoroly prepared instructors is the most important rvice that may be rendered in a democratic commonwealth. Much rogress has been made in the pubhc-school system in the United States ce the opening of the twentieth century, but there is still an appalling egree of neglect. More than 300,000 teachers between the Atlantic and e Pacific are entirely untramed so far as any professional equipment is ncerned. More than 50,000 teachers have had but eight grades of demic work in public schools, and much of this training has been in e schools of inferior type. I. The solution of the teacher-training problem Hes first in the adop- on of adequate standards. Minimum preparation for all teachers in e grades and in the rural schools should involve not less than two years special training after graduation from a standard four-year high school, or a considerable percentage of such teachers the standard of training should involve not less than four years of special preparation beyond high-school graduation. Public-school leaders and a considerable percent- age of teachers should have five, six, or seven years of academic and profes- t.onal training beyond high-school graduation. Pubhc-school service will ever be generally recognized as a profession of unquestioned dignity and osition until we require of teachers preparation equivalent to\hat now 1 1 2 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [General 2. Teacher- training institutions must be made equal to the task of sound, thoro training of the student body. Such institutions, especially state normal schools and colleges, must be adequately suppHed and equipt. Buildings should be models of convenience and sanitary standards. They should be modern and so designed as really to function. Libraries and laboratories adequate for the training of the school teachers and school leaders of a great democracy must be provided. The teaching body in such institutions must be carefully selected and thoroly trained. Only men and women of attractive personal quality should be eligible to service in these schools. Instructors in state normal school should be paid as much as university instructors. Conditions of work and study should be in all respects reasonable. There should be no overload either of teaching hours or of class numbers. All state-supported normal schools should have training schools properly equipt and sufficiently supplied with children and teachers to provide observation and practice teaching for all students. These teacher-training institutions must have the life and vigor of youth. They must be so supported as to insure real self- respect. The course of study must be modern and thoroly adapted to the professional aim of such institutions. We must have training schools adequate in number, equipment, and instructional force to prepare teachers for every vacancy. 3. The teaching profession must be made attractive to the ablest young men and women of this generation. Public schools must afford opportunity to render service untrammeled by needless annoyances and obstacles. Every teacher should have a fair chance for service and for satisfaction. Modem school buildings of suitable arrangement, adequate equipment and supplies, reasonable teaching hours, and classes with work- ing numbers must all be assured. Teaching service and teachers should command the respect and challenge the admiration of every community where public schools exist. Public recognition justly earned is a social sanc- tion absolutely essential in the school system of a genuine democracy. 4. Teachers everywhere must be paid adequately. There must be a decent thrift salary as a minimuin. There must be a rapid increase above this minimum to salaries that shall be commensurate with experi- ence, scholarship, training, professional skill, and personal worth. In every community there should be special salary rewards for exceptional teachers. These rewards should be large. Such special rewards should be sufficient in number to prove an attraction to the rank and file of our public- school teachers. Under ordinary conditions there should be no salary of less than a thousand dollars. The salaries of grade teachers in many places should start at a minimum of $1200 and rapidly increase to not less than $2000. Above this the exceptional teacher who teaches a red-letter lesson every day should be rewarded just as the exceptional lawyer, physician, or business manager is rewarded. We need many Sessions] THE CHILDREN'S BUREAU "3 )hundreds of superintendencies and administrative positions in teacher- straining colleges that shall pay from $10,000 to $25,000 a year. 5. When proper standards are establisht, adequate teacher-training schools provided, opportunity for social service and satisfaction assured, and just salaries paid the supply of trained teachers will rapidly increase. [This increase may be hastened by due pubUcity and propaganda. Super- [intendents of schools, high-school principals, and teachers under these :onditions should call to the profession many of the ablest high-school graduates. Normal schools everywhere should resort to all legitimate leans of publicity. Scholarships should be offered. Increast state aid [and generous federal aid must be provided if the problem of a good teacher [for every school is to be solved in a reasonable length of time. The [Towner Bill, which provides among other things an annual appropriation [of $15,000,000 for teacher- training institutions, should receive the support [of every teacher and every friend of the public schools. Eventually our [people will insist on a good teacher for every child. If eventually, why not now ? CHILD-WELFARE AGENCIES COOPERATING WITH THE SCHOOLS A. THE CHILDREN'S BUREAU JULIA LATHROP, DEPARTMENT OP LABOR, WASHINGTON, D.C. It is not too much to say that the world is being forst willy-nilly to a [new activity for the protection of all children — not a few, not favored lildren, but all children. War losses of population and of wealth force [Europe. A decent self-respect would force the United States even if it ,^ere not plain that nations which are to maintain leadership will be those [which most wisely and generously equip the children of today and {tomorrow. I submit the best available figures on three subjects which are sin- [gularly linkt together in the consideration of child welfare. Since these igures were made I believe that the United States has improved. Whether [we have improved enough to be moved up in the lists cannot be stated, but, whatever improvement we have made, there is call for much acceleration. First, as to illiteracy, the United States is perhaps ninth among I civilized nations; that is, Australia, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, [the Netherlands, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, Germany, all have a [larger proportion of the population who can read and write than has the I United States. Secondly, as to maternal mortality, the United States is fourteenth in the list of civilized nations, judged by the proportion of deaths of mothers from causes incident to child-bearing. That is, in thirteen countries the mother's life is safer than it is in the United States. 114 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Thirdly, the United States was eleventh among civilized countries tested by its infant-mortality rate, a rate whose searching value as a sign of social well-being is axiomatic. Considering the exemption this country enjoys from the poverty and hunger and devastation of Europe it is not less than our reasonable service to make the United States stand first in every phase of child welfare in any list of countries. We cannot, help the world toward democracy if we despise democracy at home; and it is despised when mother or child die needlessly. It is despised in the person of every child who is left to grown up ignorant, weak, unskilled, unhappy, no matter what his race or color. The war has left us no sectional questions. We have only the issue of a nation's welfare. Of the illiterate persons who make up 7 . 7 per cent of our people, 28 per cent are native white, 40 per cent are negroes, and 30 per cent are foreign-bom white. It is to be noted that the rate for the children of foreign-bom is i . i per cent, the most favorable figure given. The rural illiteracy rate is nearly twice the urban rate, and it is highly significant that the great areas of adult illiteracy are the great areas of rural child labor. Direct limitation of rural child labor has not been attempted. We are all afraid to touch it. Yet only by stopping that can we stop the supply of adult illiterates. It has remained for England to point a way. The new English Educa- tion Act cuts the root of rural child labor by providing that every child in the land, without exception, shall attend school at least until the age of fourteen for the full term of the school year. Undoubtedly the same result can be obtained here by federal aid to elementary education. The schools can be standardized and the teachers reasonably paid as a condi- tion of federal aid. Such aid cannot come too soon as a measure of sheer economy. Each year more than one million children between fourteen and six- teen years old leave the schools to go to work. The great majority have not reacht the seventh grade. Take the most advanst of these million children. What work do they find? Who helps them find it? Who gives them the guidance, the physical protection, they had yesterday in the best schools ? Do they need protection less or more ? These are the questions which I well know stir teachers as they see children go out of the door for the last time. The acknowledged facts as to lack of good, promising jobs for children under sixteen are too well known to dwell upon here. The questions raised cannot be answered by any one class of people. Teachers, factory inspectors, the coming juvenile-employment service, pubHc-health authorities, and public-spirited volunteers all have a task for their mettle, and its beginnings at least must be made in a cooperative way unless much time is to be wasted. Here too we are indebted to England for a practical example in the method by which the Juvenile Employment exchanges cooperate with Sessions] THE CHILDREN'S BUREAU 1 15 the schools and secure the aid of a vast number of voluntary committees who aid in helping to place children in suitable occupations. These com- mittees are representative, including parents who know working condi- tions and practical useful folk rather than theorists. Some of you may have met R. L. Davidson, who is in charge of Juvenile Employment exchanges in England, and who has just visited this country to attend :the Children's Bureau Conferences on Child Welfare Standards. The "Back to School" and "Stay in School" drives of Children's [Year revealed to many communities what teachers well know but cannot [unaided prevent — the unnecessary swinging out from school as soon as le law permits. Our best schools are the best in the world, the best [equipt, the most genuinely democratic. Of the rest none of us is proud. Lnd those who have made the best what they are only live to make [them over and make them more genuine, more elastic, more living parts jof the world. Would that all the yearly million of leavers were under le thrall of the best schools. We need technical schools. We need continuation schools which children shall desire and not dislike. I am sure that we are on the road at last to the right kind of school. Thanks largely to the courage and wisdom of that heroic teacher of us all, Ella Flagg Young, the German [plan of class industrial and continuation schools was dead before the war, id now we may beheve that its ghost will never walk in our land. No one can read without emotion the insistence of the English Labor party and of Herbert Fisher, head of the Education Board, that the continuation school must give culture, not mere trade skill. Teachers are members of the most fundamental profession but one [and the least recognized but one^ — I mean of course that teachers come [after mothers. I do not minimize fathers, but the technique of bringing [up a family belongs to mothers. Teachers, whether men or women, are like mothers; the astounding thing is that so many of them, with poor equipment, with poor pay, without assurance— in most states — against the poorhouse, retain a warm human interest in boys and girls and accom- )lish miraculous things for them against unbelievable odds. The rates of maternal and infant deaths are accepted as an index of Ltelligence and of social and economic well-being. They can be pulled lown by civic activities such as public-health nursing and proper medical [care, by decent living standards, by special education in hygiene, but [fundamentally by some general education of a type which makes men and [women really competent and insures the power to earn a decent income. [Indeed no one can approach the subject of the professional status of teach- ers without realizing that the economic status of the profession is most [unfair to the teacher and expensive rather than cheap for the nation. I We are told that last year the average annual salary of school teachers was $630. Averages are like the economic man; they are inventions, not [real. When applied to salaries they hide gaunt poverty at the lower end. Ii6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General B. GIRL SCOUTS LAURA PEIRCE HOLLAND, DIRECTOR OF GIRL SCOUTS, PITTSBURGH, PA. Two years ago, when the world-war was at its height, Sir Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of all scouting, made the statement that the war would not be won until 1935. Yet, soldier that he was, he was not speaking in terms of arms and physical combat; he was looking away into the future, when the boys and girls of today will be the citizens of tomorrow — the men and women upon whose shoulders the real destinies of nations will rest. He was speaking of victory in terms of' citizenship, in terms of the fitness of the rising generation for its big task. What nation will be victor in 1935 is a question which vitally concerns us all. Those whose privilege it is to promote the Girl Scout movement believe that we have been given an unequaled medium for citizen-training — a movement whose foundation is a promise and laws which make for a spirit of service and emphasis on responsibilities rather than rights, a feeling of loyalty to ideals which are civic and national rather than personal. The girl who is soon to assume the responsibilities of a woman citizen must have the spirit of service, for it is the keynote of real citizenship, but she must possess the abiUty to serve as well. It is a time-old fact that willingness to serve not coupled with ability is a more or less futile thing. The Girl Scout program realizes this and strives to give the girl activities which are practical, which will help to equip her for her future duties in home and community. It never loses sight of the fact that the girl of today is the homemaker of tomorrow who must be made efficient in her task and happy in it. Finally, hand in hand with the spirit of service and the ability to serve must go fitness for service, another big aim of the Girl Scout movement. The last few years have proved as never before the value of constructive recreation in developing healthy minds and healthy bodies. Girl Scouts play hard and fair; they know the lure of the out-of-doors, the joy of keen competition. They are becoming physically fit for the years ahead. The woman citizen of today is gradually awakening to the bigness of her calling. The woman of tomorrow must grow up in this consciousness. It is our firm belief that the Girl Scout program will be, and is, one of the strongest factors in the development of this woman citizen of the future. C. RED CROSS MINNIE LEE DAVIS, SUPERVISOR OF PRIMARY GRADES, RICHMOND, VA. The Junior Red Cross arose in response to the insistent demands of the school children to help win the war. Under guidance of their teachers the nine milhon boys and girls who were then enrolled as Juniors met their war responsibiUties in an admirable manner. Their achievements Sessions] RED CROSS 117 in production and financial support were extremely gratifying from the standpoints of comfort and morale promoted among our soldiers and relief afforded suffering humanity; but these achievements find their great significance in the fact that they were the concrete expression of the chil- dren's appreciation of their obligations to the nation and to the world. Since the signing of the armistice the Junior Red Cross has been grow- ing more rather than less active, because American school children whose f lives have been toucht by the spirit of service and sacrifice are as insistent [about taking part in the world-reconstruction that is going on at present as they were in helping to win the war. Today the enrolment has increast to over eleven miUion. The peace program of the Junior Red Cross has been prepared with the view of giving the children an important part in rebuilding the world, rent and torn by the ravages of war, and at the same time enriching their [lives and vitalizing school work. Whole-hearted participation in this [program by the children of the country under the guidance of their teachers is producing the following profound changes in our school Ufe: 1. It is transforming our potential American citizens into real Ameri- can citizens. The patriotic services rendered by children in the member- ship have given them something of the same fine spirit that overseas service has given our soldiers. The children have a sense of the dignity of their own personaHties. They are loyal Americans who desire to meet j their social obligations. They are united under the banner of mercy to [minister to suffering humanity. 2. It is shifting our attention from old to new values in life. Chil- j dren, parents, and educators are appreciating the national and international j importance of such ideals as social service, health, thrift, and international [good-will and helpfulness. 3. It is connecting the school with real life. The peace program of jthe Junior Membership gives motives for purposeful school activities which [meet real needs in home, community, nation, and the world. By centering much of the school work about these activities a vital point of contact has been made with some of the school subjects, especially civics, health education, productive work, and English. Lack of this vital point of ^contact hitherto has caused hearty discontent with the present status of lese courses. The activities of the Department of Junior Membership have a [permanent value. As long as the function of the school is the education of good citizens, so long will the schools need the cooperation of this depart- ment. Each school should be permanently "a Red Cross Auxiliary, a j center of community, national, and international service." THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES MILWAUKEE MEETING OFFICERS President — ^William B. Owen, president, Chicago Normal College Chicago, 111. Vice-President — H. H. Seeely, president, State Normal College Cedar Falls, Iowa Secretary — Adelaide Steele Baylor, Federal Agent for Home Economics, Federal Board for Vocational Education ^Washington, D.C. FIRST SESSION— Monday Forenoon, June 30 The National Council of Education convened in regular session on Monday morning, [June 30, 1919, at 9:00 o'clock, in Plankinton Hall, Auditorium, Milwaukee, Wis. The Imeeting was called to order by William B. Owen, president. J. Y. Joyner, chairman of the Committee on Rural Schools, made a brief statement [regarding the need for better rural schools and the aims and plans of the Committee, after which the following program was presented by other members of the Committee: - "Teacher Training, Including Observation Schools and Courses of Study for Rural Schools" — John F. Sims, president, State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis. "Consolidation of Rural Schools" — Adelaide Steele Baylor, federal agent for home [economics, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D.C. "Supervision and Standardization" — N. C. McDonald, Bismarck, N.Dak. "Rural Health and Sanitation" — Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent of )ublic instruction, Olympia, Wash. The President introduced E. T. Colton, recently associated with the Y.M.C.A. in [Russia, who made an earnest plea for the American people to give their moral support to 'Russia. The President, chairman ex officio of the Committee on Membership, announst the names of the members of that Committee, as follows: John R. Kirk, David B. Johnson, Mary C. C. Bradford, Adelaide Steele Baylor, and called a meeting of the Committee for the hour immediately following adjournment. SECOND SESSION— Monday Afternoon, June 30 The session was called to order at 2:00 o'clock by the President. James A. Baker, chairman of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education, presented the final report of that Committee, which was received and approved, and the Committee relieved from further work. Joseph Swain, chairman of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of Teachers, presented a brief report, which was followed by addresses by other members of the Committee, as follows: "Salaries" — John W. Carr, camp community service, Charleston, S.C.; Hugh S. Magill, field secretary. National Education Association, Washington, D.C. "Pensions" — David B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial Insti- tute, Rock Hill, S.C.; Milo B. Hillegas, commissioner of education, Montpelier, Vt. Olive Jones, principal, Public School No. 120, New York, N.Y., spoke ©f how the legislation for increast salaries for teachers in New York was brought about. 119 i^O- NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National At the request of the President brief talks on "Pensions and Salaries of Teachers" were given by the following: Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of public instruc- tion, Denver, Colo.; Robert J. Aley, president, University of Maine, Orono, Me.; J. Stanley Brown, superintendent and principal, Joliet Township High School and Junior College, Joliet, 111. After a short recess the business meeting of the Council convened. The Committee on Membership and Officers reported the following recommendations : New members of Council: Georgia Alexander, Indianapolis, Ind. (term expiring in 1921), to succeed Fred L. Keeler (deceast); J. A. C. Chandler, Williamsburg, Va. (term expiring in 1923), to succeed Nathan C. Schaeffer (deceast) ; Sarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Mass. (term expiring in 1924), to succeed Ella Flagg Young (deceast); Olive Jones, New York, N.Y. (term expiring in 1920), to succeed Mrs. James Greenwood (membership lapst); R. O. Stoops, Joliet, III. (term expiring in 1925), to succeed B. T. Baldwin (mem- bership lapst). To succeed themselves as members, with terms expiring in 1925: Fannie Fern Andrews, Boston, Mass.; Una B. Herrick, Bozenmn, Mont.; Charles H. Keyes, Saratoga Springs, N.Y.; J. F. Sims, Stevens Point, Wis.; Charles H. Judd, Chicago, 111.; A. Dun- can Yocum, Philadelphia, Pa.; Josephine Corliss Preston, Olympia, Wash.; Thomas C. Miller, Shepherdstown, W.Va. For officers in the Council: President, Homer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa (term expiring in 1922), to succeed William B. Owen (term expired); Vice-President, Josephine Corliss Preston, Olympia, Wash, (term expiring in 1922), to succeed Homer H. Seerley (elected president). Members of Executive Committee: J. M. Gwinn, New Orleans, La. (term expiring in 1922), to succeed David B. Johnson (term expired); Anna Laura Force, Denver, Colo, (term expiring in 192 1), to succeed Ella Flagg Young (deceast). Members of Committee on Membership: Cora Wilson Stewart, Frankfort, Ky. (term expiring in 1922), to succeed tV. J. Kerr (term expired); J. Stanley Brown, De Kalb, 111. (term expiring in 192 1), to succeed N. C. Schaeffer (deceast). The report of this Committee was unanimously adopted. Adelaide Steele Baylor, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS TEACHER TRAINING, INCLUDING OBSERVATION SCHOOLS AND COURSES OF STUDY FOR RURAL SCHOOLS JOHN F. SIMS, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, STEVENS POINT, WIS. The almost insuperable obstacle in the way of already tried efforts at regeneration of the rural school is the isolation of the rural school, making for indifference to the problem. If the diagnosis is correct there is but one remedy — to replace the apathy and indifference of the rural-school public by loyalty to and pride in the rural school. They must be centered where the little red schoolhouse or the consolidated school or the rural high school stands. With the proper spirit governing the people the proper means for rural education will be supplied; nor is it the means to be fumisht which demand most attention, but the willingness to make use of those at hand must be stimulated and cultivated, a willingness so cordial that if these means are not adequate others will be supplied. This is the point of leverage. f Council] TEACHER TRAINING 121 The number of institutions training rural-school teachers is constantly increasing, as revealed in the statistics of the Bureau of Education. Yet one despairs of the progress of the rural schools. Present rural schools are not seriously changed, altho improvement is noted. Among other weaknesses revealed by the war is that of inequality of educational opportunity. Democratic governments are instituted among ,men to secure the blessings of life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness. We [hold that all men are created equal — and if we are equal we must be equal ;in the great field of opportunity. This equality of opportunity in education : is not found in America today. Compare in your own state or county the opportunity offered to the boy or girl in rural communities with that offered the youth of urban communities. The teacher's duties are of a complex nature and can be satisfactorily performed only when they have been thoroly mastered. Character is the end for which we strive — the power to do what ought to be done and done [well at the proper time, as well as the power to resist temptation to do wrong. This end is not achieved thru any occult virtue in the subjects taught, but only thru the self-activity of the child in the line of performance or resist- ance. The first essential of good teaching is to realize that instruction is to aid in the mental and moral growth of the child, and the next to under- stand that this growth comes only thru the activity of the mind and con- science of the child. The potentiality for development is in the child, not in the curriculum, and it is by cultivating his powers that he reaches a ^high level of mental and moral development. Yet the course of study in rural schools is of the highest importance in that we have purpose and means in close proximity if we are to cultivate the child for his own needs, contribute to his own personal good, and give him the training whereby he may act intelligently on public and personal ; matters, thereby measuring up to the duties of citizenship and as a member : of the social order. Manifestly we must give him an insight into the world about him and :ill in using the tools of the civilization into which he was bom, as well as 'the ideals and discipline to improve that civilization. The following must be strest: (i) the three R's, with history, geography, business essentials, literature, and nature; (2) some skill in the lines of music, physical training, agriculture, farm mechanics, cooking and sewing, debating and public speaking; (3) the appreciation of art, music, nature, social intercourse, courtesy or social amenities, and education; (4) the ideals of patriotism, industry, cooperation, fair play, and achievement. We teach those subjects which are valuable in a business or social or patriotic sense in such a manner as to enlarge the powers of the person taught. Knowledge and discipline clasp hands, for if proper steps are taken to acquire knowledge the effort made is discipline, while the object for which the child reaches is knowledge. Knowledge is within the range of the child's conception, while the true teacher emphasizes discipUne. 122 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National The course of study will cover the eight years of the elementary grades in the one-room school or the nine or ten grades of the consolidated school, and hopefully the twelve grades of the rural high school will in a very few years be multiplied and universalized. City child or rural child, the heritage of every child in America is a high-school education under competent, mature, permanently employed, well-remunerated teachers, retired on a pension when their active years of service are over. The inevitable corollary is better teacher training for the rural schools. Successful teaching in the rural schools of the nation calls for specialized education and teaching atulity of the highest order on the part of those who are giving the training. The problems of the city grade teacher are simple when compared with those of the rural teacher, who must teach the many subjects of eight grades with httle or no supervision. He is thrown upon his own resources, often too meager, and receives no assistance except what his own ingenuity pro- vides. Yet graded and high schools demand not only scholarship on the part of their teachers but evidence of professional preparation as well as proof of successful experience in teaching. In Wisconsin urban communities are demanding not only high-school education but two years of normal- school education beyond the high school, while up to the present time rural teachers have secured legal qualifications with but two years' preparation beyond the eighth grade, one of which shall have been in a professional school. The disparity of preparation is evident, and states can be cited where the disparity is greater. Some rural schools have accomplisht much and stand out as mountain peaks of achievement above the average. Let all rural schools do what a few have done. The time is ripe for making rural teaching a distinct profession, for making the teacher a rural leader by investing him with the attributes of leadership. The present agencies for training rural teachers are colleges, normal schools, county training schools, and training courses in high schools. This National Council of Education and the National Education Association will be traitors to their ideals in education if they do not go on record with resolutions demanding high-school graduation as an entrance requirement into institutions training teachers for rural schools; in further demanding and carrying into execution that the courses in such institutions include special instruction in agriculture, farm mechanics, farm accounting, cook- ing, sewing, home furnishing and sanitation, home gardening, rural soci- ology, public speaking, community-center work, boys' and girls' club work, and other kindred subjects closely related to rural life, in addition to the academic and professional work essential in teaching; and lengthening the courses to two, three, and eventually four years, and certificating rural leaders to teach only in rural schools. "The hope of the country for an adequate supply of well-trained rural teachers rests with the public normal Council] TEACHER TRAINING 123 schools" say H. W. Foght, specialist in rural-school practice, Bureau of (Education, and W. C. Bagley, of Teachers College. An integral and vital part of the rural teacher-training institution will ibe the rural demonstration school, located preferably in a rural community, fin charge of expert teachers thoroly familiar with the needs of rural schools. these schools prospective teachers will observe skilful work done in a iral school and have opportunity for practice teaching under competent. mpervision. The imperative need is for more money — more money for the salaries )f rural teachers, more money for equipment, school farms, school gardens, id salaries of teachers in rural teacher-training institutions, more money for salaries of expert supervision, and more money to keep highly trained teachers in service. Education is not a local problem, for the integrity and )erpetuity of the state and nation are concerned in its solution. State md nation must make large contributions. Most of the states are now- laking such contributions, and if the Smith-Towner Bill is enacted- — and to secure its enactment into the law the enthusiastic cooperation of every [riend of education in America is necessary- — ^provision will be made for the [apportionment among the states of $15,000,000 annually for the prepara- . lion of teachers, especially of teachers in the rural schools, and $50,000,000 ^annually for the equalization of educational opportunity. The foregoing discussion, based largely on questionnaires sent out to jvery state superintendent of public instruction, warrants the following :onclusions: 1. The rural communities do not realize the condition of the rural schools, hence a campaign must be undertaken to arouse a local demand for ;tter educational facilities. Without such a local demand Httle permanent )rogress could be accompHsht. This local interest should be organized in le direction of securing competent teachers and of arousing local people to the point of realization that such teachers are professional people with career to make and a life to live. It is idle to expect missionaries to do le work; there are not enough to go around. Rural communities should lemand rural teachers, not those who are left after the towns have taken Itheir choice. The state department of education, and the national bureau lust work together to create these demands. 2. Many rural communities cannot meet the expense of the schools they [need. Therefore state and national funds must be made available. The [localities which need the best efforts of leaders in the rural-school line of work are the ones which can afford the smallest outlay and get the poorest [service. Outside help must come to such places. 3. To get the people needed special facilities must be created to train [rural teachers. Such faciHties do not now exist except in very few instances. A large percentage of rural teachers have had no training at all. Only a small percentage have had adequate academic training. A smaller percentage 124 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National have had any professional training. Very few have had any special training to fit them for rural teaching. 4. Young people will not prepare for this work as long as the salaries paid are less than those of a housemaid in the large cities. The rural schools will never get more than they are willing to pay for. Better wages and a more attractive life must lie at the bottom of any wide improvement. By molding and directing the power of pubHc opinion and by securing state and national approval and action in the way of greater appropriations we shall be successful in bringing the best men and women into this great work. America must believe with all its heart that a true educator is infinitely more important tfean a plutocrat, or a captain of industry, or a stock manipulator. Intelligence is the standing army that safeguards the Hberty and promotes the progress of the Republic. CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, FEDERAL AGENT FOR HOME ECONOMICS, FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C. As a member of the National Education Association Committee on Rural Schools, of which the late E. T. Fairchild, then state superintendent of public instruction in Kansas, was chairman, I made some investigation in 191 2 on the consoHdation of rural schools, the results of which may be summarized as follows: Three-fourths of the forty-eight states to which the questionnaire was sent repHed, thirteen of them forwarding bulletins, letters, and papers. 1 . a) In eight of these states the first steps toward consoUdation were taken in the years 1900-1902, in eight in the years 1905-12, the "star" years for the initial steps in consolidation being 1900 and 1907. b) In eleven states the work of consolidation was initiated by permissive law, in two by individual effort, in four by sentiment and by provision for transportation, in one by efforts of the state teachers' association, and in three by consohdation of weaker districts. 2. In seventeen of these states consolidation was very Hmited up to the year 191 2, consisting of from one to twelve small consoUdated districts. In two other states progress had been much more rapid, tho in one of these the seven hundred small schools abandoned were reunited in small groups of two or three, and in very few cases were consoUdated schools of several rooms built. In six of the states there had been almost phenomenal progress in consolidation. In two of these six states four-fifths of the townships furnisht some transportation; in another some beginnings of consohdation had been made in every county; while in the remaining four states consolidation had affected practically every part of the state. 3 and 4. Such good results of consolidation as (a) *' lessening of mor- tality in school life," {b) organizing of social centers, (c) maintaining of I Council] CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 125 longer terms and better schools, (d) employment of more experienst and competent teachers, (e) building of better schoolhouses with better furnish- ings and equipment, (/) lengthening of the school term, (g) increasing the percentage of daily attendance, and (h) creating local pride were enumerated by many states. A few states in 191 2 had not been able to observe any changes for the better thru consolidation, such conditions as lack of unity in the large dis- trict, poor drivers, destruction of local interest, lax officials, long distances for transporting pupils, etc., having quite overcome any good effects from the new organization. 5 and 6. The obstacles to consoUdation were found in (a) inability of local districts to let go of the httle schools (six states) ; (b) desire for a school every community (seven states) ; (c) bad roads, long distances, and the uncertainty of the legality of furnishing transportation (four states), misunderstanding of the law, and depreciation of local property, with fear of building up another neighborhood at the expense of their own. 7 and 8. The most successful methods for promoting consolidation when this was once initiated were (a) proper legislation, (b) permissive consolidation, (c) state aid for consolidation, (d) continued abandonment of small schools especially when pupils were within walking distance of other I schools, (e) propaganda for consoUdation, (/) improvement of roads and methods of transportation, (g) observation of actual educational results. 9 and 10. Some states felt that consolidation was a logical step in rural-school evolution wherever the law and good roads made it possible to unift the community, while others declared that they were studying the problem with open minds but were more interested in two other problems, i.e., (a) how to create rural schools that will really serve the people, and {b) how to advance pubUc opinion in favor of such schools. From one state came the reply that only reasonable, never complete, consolidation would be possible unless rural-school communities increase in population; from another came the statement that the only real obstacles to consoUdation in a state are the physical features. As soon as possible after the .present Committee on Rural Education had determined upon its lines of investigation, and assignments had been made to the different members of the Committee, I forwarded a second questionnaire (six years and a half after forwarding the one whose returns have just been reviewed), putting up questions to ascertain the following: (i) the increase in the number of consolidated schools from 1902 to 191 2 and from 191 2 to 1918-19; (2) effect upon (o) the percentage of pupils in rural schools completing the eighth grade, (b) the percentage of those com- pleting the eighth grade who enter high school, (c) the percentage of those completing high school who enter higher institutions of learning; (3) how consolidation of rural schools has affected the introduction into the curric- ulum of such subjects as music, art, manual training, household arts; 126 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National (4) how consolidation of rural schools has affected the organization of vocational schools, departments, or classes in agriculture, trade and in- dustry, and home economics as interpreted under the Smith-Hughes Act; (5) whether propaganda for consolidation of rural schools is still needed in the state; (6) how consolidation would be rankt as a force working for the betterment of the rural school; (7) what work can be done by a national committee to promote the work of consolidation and what states would cooperate with such a committee. This questionnaire was sent to forty-eight states, of which twenty-four responded. Of these twenty-four, four furnisht no statements or statistics whatever. Four New England states had union schools but not consoUda- tion in the way the West interprets the term. Connecticut has three hundred or four hundred less one-room schools than it had ten years ago, while in Maine the school district has been abolisht by law, and the town or township is the smallest unit which makes for union schools. New Hampshire has union schools. Vermont has two or three consolidated schools and some union schools, but owing to the mountainous country the problem is to bring the school closer to the home because of transportation difficulties. The consoHdated school appears to be growing in favor thru the South. Arkansas answers that with the coming of good roads consolidation will make great headway; Alabama was authorized by statute in 191 5 to incur expense for transportation, and since that time forty-eight of sixty-seven counties have had some consoUdation. Of the two hundred and eight schools, one hundred and forty-one are in the open country, fifty-eight in rural villages, and nine in cities and towns. Mississippi in 1902 had no consolidated schools, in 191 2 there were two, and in 1918-19 three hundred and forty. North Carolina in 1902 had none, and in 191 2 about three, and there are no statistics available as to the present number. Data show a steady decrease in number of one-room schools in North Carolina. In South Carolina the 191 8 report shows that during the year there was a gain of seventeen consolidated schools, the total number of joint districts being ninety-two. Texas has eighty- eight consolidated schools. But in the East, Rhode Island has long had consolidation; New York in 1902 had none, but from 19 13 to the present time there have been two hundred and fifty-eight consolidated schools affecting five hundred and ninety-three districts. In the West, Colorado in 1902 had none, in 191 2 six, and in 1918-19, thirty-eight. Idaho in 1918-19 had eighteen; Mon- tana in 1902 had none, in 191 2 two or three, and in 1918-19 forty-two. Washington has two hundred and forty consoUdated districts, fifty-four of which have been organized in the past two years. All of the thirty-nine counties except two have these schools. In 1902 Washington had two such schools. CaUfomia has twenty-eight imion grammar schools in seventeen Council! CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 127 different counties. In the Central West, Illinois had four or five in 191 7, but as she was authorized in July i of that year to incur expenditures for transportation the work has gone rapidly forward in the last two years. Only one state was able to give the percentage of pupils in rural schools completing the eighth grade in 191 8-19, as separate statistics are not kept for rural schools. This state (Idaho) gives 75 per cent. As to the percentage of grammar-school graduates in rural communities itering high school Idaho gave 12I per cent, and Connecticut replied that per cent of children entered high school from towns not maintaining their ^n secondary schools. No replies were given as to the percentage of pupils from rural schools )mpleting the high school who enter higher institutions of learning and ^one as to the extent to which these statistics have been influenst by the msolidation of rural schools. Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Mississippi, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Wash- igton, and Wyoming maintain that consoHdation has greatly favored and encouraged the introduction into the curriculum of art, music, and manual training. Alabama reports that consoHdation has aided agriculture when taken conjunction with the Smith-Hughes Act. Colorado has found it helpful the promotion of vocational subjects, as has Idaho. Mississippi has vocational education only in county agricultural schools and consolidated :hools. Rhode Island has notist no effect on vocational work. Virginia bates that consolidation has made it possible for her to accept the Smith- [ughes Act. Wyoming answers that it has greatly encouraged vocational lucation. Alabama, Colorado, and North Carolina need propaganda work. Con- necticut, Montana, Maine, Mississippi, Rhode Island, Virginia, Vermont, /^ashington, and Wyoming do not especially need it. Idaho would welcome in some sections. Idaho, Virginia, Vermont, and Wyoming assert that ransportation, owing to the mountainous nature of the country, is the chief )bstacle to consolidation. Montana reports that a recent survey showed that half of the consolidated schools were not considered a success by teachers because of sparse population and bad roads. North Carolina, Virginia, Washington, Idaho, and Mississippi place consoHdation first as a factor for rural-school betterment. Colorado, Montana, New York, and Wyoming place it among the foremost factors. Maine places it second. Montana thinks that it ranks high where it is feasible, but that it is not feasible where distances are too great. Rhode Island does not think consolidation a significant factor, placing trained supervision first. New York, Virginia, Connecticut, Colorado, Idaho, and Mississippi would welcome the help of the National Committee and think that it would aid in furnishing speakers, literature, etc. Montana, Maine, and Rhode 128 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Island think that the Committee could accomplish nothing for them. Wyoming finds no difficulty in establishing consohdated schools where it is practicable and possible. North Carolina was not prepared to answer. Connecticut, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Maine, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Virginia, and Wyoming were willing to cooperate. In this second survey of the situation it is interesting to note that the states of Arkansas, Alabama, Connecticut, Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming, which offered no reports in 191 2, were among the first to respond to the 19 19 questionnaire. There is still a tendency, as in 191 2, not to distinguish between the union school and the consolidated school, altho an effort was made to do this in sending out the questionnaire. Pubhcations on rural-school consolidation have been numerous since 1 9 10, coming from states, from institutions of higher learning, from the United States Bureau of Education, and from special studies of individual students of the subject of consoUdation. The banner years for these pub- lications seem to be those of 1911, 1913, 1917, and 1918. In continuing the study of consolidation it is the purpose of the sub- committee on that subject to confer with the authors of these publications and secure their counsel as to the next step in this study, in order not to dupHcate work already done but, if possible, to supplement it. RURAL HEALTH AND SANITATION JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, OLYMPIA, WASH. I was askt to give a report on the rural health and sanitation of this nation. I sent out 3200 letters asking for information on this subject and requesting each county superintendent in the United States to send me a report of just what was being done, and I then wrote a similar request to the state superintendents of public instruction. In reply I have received 434 letters. I have been informed of the conditions in 387 counties which represent 44 states. I have received letters concerning the conditions in the state as a whole from 33 of the states. Out of the 387 counties about 2 per cent have a very efiicient health program, 40 per cent have done nothing along the line of rural health and sanitation, and 58 per cent have done some work. I believe that the school nurse has come to stay. In many of the reports sent to me concerning the rural health and sanitation there is mention of a school nurse. In the trail of the school nurse follows examinations of the children's physical condition, the betterment of sanitary conditions, the forming of health clubs, the inspection of school grounds, and the correction of defects in the children. Some of the most pronounst and universal Council] RURAL HEALTH AND SANITATION 129 outgrowths of the war are the nurses supplied by the Red Cross organiza- tions in various places, the baby-welfare clinics, which are the first aid to mothers, the health crusades. Junior Red Cross health activities, and the anti-tuberculosis campaigns. The retarded child is another problem of the public day school system. It is stated by the United States Public Health Service Bulletin of Indiana Lt but 50 out of every 1000 school children are having difficulty in keeping ip with their work. The state of Indiana has made a special study of this lestion and states that in every case the slow mental progress of the child Ls been caused by minor defects, such as diseased tonsils, adenoids, defects seeing, hearing, and in teeth and enlarged nostrils. Of these children, per cent, when placed in special classes after having their physical jfects corrected, have been able to keep up with the other children. In California the state law requires physical training in every school in le state. Strict adherence to all the state requirements for proper light- ig, heating, and ventilation is demanded. An extensive hygiene course taught in practically all the grades in all the schools. Almost all of the counties from California report that altho all the work along health and sanitation lines is new a great deal of progress is being made. A course in public-school nursing has been made a part of the CaUfomia high-school LCurriculum. A fine example of intensified school nursing is found in Kent County, [ichigan. For four years there has been a county nurse in Kent County, 'hree of the important features of the health problem in this county are raveling dental health clinics, the Hygiene League, and the anti- tuberculosis impaign. The Hygiene League, an organization which has for its motto f Perfect health for every child," has 558 members. The traveling dental linics carry their equipment with them and stay at one of the rural school- houses for several days, or weeks if need be. An extensive health program is found in New York state. Here the children, teachers, janitors, and school buildings are all examined. Thru health cards and reports on health the teachers keep in touch with the parents of the children, so that the watchful eyes of the parents are on the alert concerning the children's health. In this way health supervision does not end outside of the schoolroom. The children are weighed and measured every so often, and comparisons are made of their physical con- dition each month. Similar card systems are followed out in many of the states. The teachers keep a file of the cards. This often develops a spirit of rivalry among the children, and each strives hard for perfection in health. In Florida, Alabama, Oregon, and Massachusetts these cards are successfully employed as one of the corrective mediums. In New York the teachers are given instructions as to the care of their health as well as the health of the children- Circular bulletins are sent to them asking that they not only 132 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Every nurse makes an effort to meet as often as possible with the parents at the parent-teacher meetings and to confer privately with them about their children. On her office days, usually Saturdays, the nurse ar- ranges to accompany to the physician or the dentist the children brought in for examination or operation. Each nurse is assisting in examination of children for Baby Year, in some cases arranging nearly all the details for the work. Several leagues have had exhibits at the county fair, with the nurse in charge to distribute literature and meet the public. The nurse cooperates with the county superintendent of schools and the probation officer or judge in case of mental deficiency or delinquency. In conclusion we can say that altho when taking these deplorable examples for consideration we think that nothing has been done in the way of rural health and sanitation we must also consider that this is one of the newest of subjects in our schools. I believe that both teachers and educa- tors are awakened to the need of much work in the schools and are gradually interesting outsiders. Altogether the outlook is bright and hopeful. The right training of the right kind of teachers, the employing of school nurses, an efficient system of keeping health records, the planning of health clubs and clinics, standardization of schools, state laws requiring certain sani- tary conditions, free clinics, and installation of physical-training courses are the greatest helps to the rural-health problems. FINAL REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF-TIME IN EDUCATION The Committee on Economy of Time in Education herewith presents its final report. The report made in 1913 was printed by the United States Bureau of Education, and some twelve thousand copies were distributed. On the recommendation of the Committee cooperating committees were appointed by the National Department of Superintendence, the National Association of State Universities, and the Association of American Uni- versities. The later work of the Committee has been to keep in touch with these cooperating committees and conduct a somewhat extended correspondence with many colleges, universities, and educators with the view of securing full consideration of the subject. In 191 7 a brief summary of results to that date was printed and distributed to members of the Council, investi- gators, and universities. The work of the university committees has been somewhat hmited. Presumably it will be continued. The Committee of the Department of Superintendence, under the chairmanship of Harry B. Wilson, has just completed studies of a fundamental character, which will have far-reaching results. It has been aided by a large number of able investigators who are best qualified to consider the phases of the subject assigned them. Aside f Council] COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME 133 ifrom the many papers and discussions appearing in the Proceedings of the National Education Association formal reports have been printed in the Yearbooks of the National Society for the Study of Education' — in three on *' Minimal Essentials" and in one on "Economy in Learning." These investigations cover a wide range. They point the way to the right choice of material, to the most appropriate age when children should receive certain types of instruction, to right methods of teaching, and to plans for insuring the efficiency of teachers. Altho this Committee as such has Iormally concluded its work, other important studies, suggested in its reports, »vering such subjects as "Reorganization of Elementary Education," 'Course of Study," and "Materials of Education" will be conducted by )ther agencies. Our correspondence with colleges has revealed much frank self-criticism. They acknowledge the need* of better adaptation of college courses to the demands of today, define aims more clearly, distinguish between essential and nonessential subjects and matter, train more thoroly in methods of tudy and power of reflection, make the teaching more vital, and increase e industry of the student and his interest in his' own intellectual and piritual development. It is noteworthy that the criticisms resemble ose previously printed regarding the elementary and secondary schools, t is also worthy of comment that nearly every correspondent believes that liege admission should be permitted at an earUer age. Of views lately received by your Committee from faculty members of wenty-two universities, fifteen favor the following proposition, while ven oppose it: To merge the senior college and the graduate school into a eneral faculty of genuine university rank on a level with the professional hools, to the end of increasing the intellectual power by earlier use of university methods, of getting rid of the evils that have crystallized around the forms of "college" and "graduate school," and of reinterpreting the ulture ideal in the light of the present. (This would result, not in abolish- g the college, -but in readjusting it in years by the "telescoping," which ow appears feasible, between the elementary school, the high school, and e college.) In the opinion of the Committee the investigation of the niversity committees might well take on the thorogoing character of that f the Department of Superintendence. The field would prove as fruitful f results as has the elementary. Evidently the question is this: What organization of the college and the university would eliminate waste in ime and matter and method and secure results best adapted to the needs f the American student? It involves the adjustment of the college to developing system of education, the advantage of a real university as ompared with the anomalous combination now so called, a redefinition f culture in terms of social ideals and the consequent effect on the aims nd time limits of general education, the significance of the tendency to ocationalize the senior college, and the lessons from the cooperation of ucation with the government in the war period. (One member of the 134 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Committee would not shorten the period of academic preparation for "research men"- — "a still longer period necessary to produce competent investigators.") The present status of the whole question may be summed up briefly: 1. The study of minimal essentials and of economy in teaching by the Superintendence Committee is fundamental in educational reconstruction. Attention is turning to other essentials: elimination (of duplications and of whole blocks of uimecessary material), objectives of elementary education, adaptation to age, extension of the school year, results of experiments in time economy. 2. The 6-3-3 pl^-n is received with growing favor on the grounds of its flexibility and adaptabiHty and its demonstrated results in time-saving. 3. The view of the form of reorganization presented in the report of 1913 appears to gain strength, and changes in that direction have already been effected or are foreshadowed. This is seen in the establishment of junior high schools and junior colleges and in the standard for admission to professional schools. 4. It is better understood that the plan to secure economy of time means not diminishing but increasing the average age of leaving school, be- cause of greater opportunities for the individual ; that it means doing more in the same time and hence earlier entrance to college and university; also that it means not abolishing the college but readjusting the college years. The demand of the government on the schools in the war period cannot but affect the problem. We believe that the experience of these years and the new insights into social and political questions will influence three things : earlier opportunity to prepare for occupations and more efficient training of skilled hands to supplant the army of the idle and incompetent and unprepared, and earlier entrance to special courses in science and to pro- fessional studies in response to increasing practical demands; greater economy and efficiency in the whole field of education; a clearer conception of what is essential in culture to preserve our national ideals and to develop the sentiments which make for democracy, peace, and for the principle to be applied in industrial and international problems and in all human rela- tions^— cooperation under justice. In asking that the Committee be now discharged we wish to express our appreciation to the Council, the United States Bureau of Education, the cooperating committees, and the many institutions and individuals, teachers and others, that have aided generously in our work. Respectfully submitted, James H. Baker, Chairman James H. Van Sickle William H. Smiley Henry Suzzallo Albion W. Small Council] COMMITTEE ON SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS 135 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS JOSEPH SWAIN, PRESIDENT, SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, SWARTHMORE, PA. RECENT PENSION DEVELOPMENTS The crisis thru which the country is passing in the matter of the supply of teachers demands the closest analysis and consideration of the condi- tions to which it is due and of the means by which it may be met. The ew demands that are being made and will inevitably continue to be made pon the school only serve to intensify the crisis. But it is idle to speak f raising standards or of increasing the requirements in the training of chers without considering the bases upon which recruiting for any pro- fession rests. With that percentage who will feel a calling to any profes- sion, no matter what its economic rewards may be, it is impossible to deal. Idealism and the desire for a decent livelihood are not, however, incom- patible. The most idealistic and devoted teacher will be unable to perform is task efficiently if the material rewards are so low that living becomes a hardship, if the future holds no prospects of promotion, and if the outlook for old age or the time of physical breakdown is disheartening. The National Education Association has during the past year under- taken a campaign for the increase of salaries. It cannot, however, afford to neglect at this time of economic readjustment the problem of providing or disability and old age, which is only another part of the problem of laries. Many teachers' associations thruout the country have recognized is fact and are making an intensive study of the subject of pensions, roperly conceived, a pension must be lookt upon as deferred pay, set aside for the protection against the risk of disabihty and old age. The pportunity that is afforded by the present crisis of readjusting the eco- omic position of the teacher not merely with reference to the increast cost of living but also in relation to the new openings in other fields of work is the appropriate time for considering every aspect of the problem of making the profession attractive enough to secure the right kind of aterial. A caUing or profession will attract and hold men of intelligence, ability, and devotion only as far as they reaHze that the avenue of promo- tion is open to them, and that security is afforded against the risks of life, he colleges of the country are at present considering simultaneously the questions of increasing salaries and of establishing pension systems. England during the past year has not only bent her efforts to securing the i.doption of generous salary scales but has also instituted a national pen- ion system, which, albeit it is open to serious criticism, is at any rate an admission that when the rewards of the teaching profession are being con- idered protection against the two chief hazards of life must be taken into r— to 136 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National legislature stated recently that "the efficiency of the school cannot rise above the standard of qualifications set for the teaching service. To bring this about the teachers should be adequately paid and fairly pensioned." The Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of the National Education Association was fortunate during the past year in securing the publication of a Report on Pensions for Public School Teachers, which was made at its request by Dr. Clyde Furst and Dr. I. L. Kandel, of the Car- negie Foundation. The report has received widespread recognition as the most valuable and thorogoing consideration of the problem of pensions that has yet been made. It is especially valuable in dealing in clear and simple language with an intricate technical subject that has too often been involved in unnecessary obscurity. Calls for the report have been made from teachers and educational associations in every state in the Union. It is receiving consideration as the basis for pension legislation in Florida, Georgia, Texas, the District of Columbia, Michigan, Minnesota, Utah, Oregon, and California. An extensive notice of the report appeared in the "Educational Supplement" of the London Times. The conferences conducted jointly by the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions and the Carnegie Foundation at the meetings of the National Education Association and the Department of Superintendence, together with the Report on Pensions for Public School Teachers, have f urnisht a sound basis for discussion and have exercised a salutary influence on the development of pension systems. The proposal of wholly unsound systems is now very rare, and there is more active and intelligent partici- pation by teachers' associations in proposals for pension legislation. A number of state associations are seeking to amend systems created as recently as 191 5, while others are making an entirely new start along sound lines. These include New Jersey, Ohio, and Vermont. Each of these represents an increasing advance in the direction of the fundamental principles accepted by the conferences on pensions already referred to. It may in general be said that teachers as a body have begun to recognize the validity of the arguments for sound actuarial principles and of the social philosophy underlying pensions. Legislators have still much to learn on this subject, but rapid progress is being made. Until the legislators are as ready as teachers to accept the fundamental principles such compro- mises as are found in the more recently establisht systems are inevitable. The teachers have, however, at this crisis an excellent opportunity thru their existing professional organizations to educate the pubHc at large in the conditions that are essential for the promotion of a strong professional body. Among these salaries and pensions are not the least important. Council] SALARIES 137 SALARIES JOHN W. CARR, WAR CAMP COMMUNITY SERVICE, CHARLESTON, S.C. In our report in July, 19 18, on Teachers' Salaries and the Cost of Living rwe set forth the economic conditions of the pubHc-school teachers of the United States and demonstrated the fact that the profession of teaching |was practically bankrupt, and that radical measures would have to be idopted promptly or there would be a crisis in American education. As as I know the soundness of the argument presented and the validity of )ur conclusions have not been questioned. Therefore it is not necessary [to spend time discussing the subject in general but to make a brief summary )f conditions at present and to inquire relative to the outlook for the future. If we consider the cost of living we find that prices are about as high as ley were a year ago, and that in general they are approximately double [what they were in August, 1914: (i) If we consider prices since the signing )f the armistice we find that there has been a slight decrease in some articles -food 4.4 per cent, clothing 6. 2 per cent — but an actual increase in some [bther things — shelter 1.7 per cent increase; fuel, heat, and light 1.3 per [cent increase. There was a marked increase in prices on June i over those ;^prevailing on May i, 1919. (2) So everything continues sky high, with no [prospects for a rapid fall in prices. The latest information from Washing- [ton is "that there will not be any immediate reduction in prices, and that |the decHne will be very gradual." (3) We can therefore make up our minds [that the cost of hving will remain about as it is now for a long time, and that 10 "bonuses" or other expedients will solve the problem, but that teachers' daries must be more than double what they were in 1914, or serious results follow. In our report of 19 18 we predicted a shortage of teachers — that many competent teachers would leave the profession, and that there would be markt decrease in the numbers attending normal schools. These pre- ictions have been fulfilled, and the end is not yet. The normal-school Lttendance for the last year was probably less than 80 per cent of the pre- war attendance, with the demand for teachers much above normal. Owing to demobilization we may expect an increase in normal-school attendance lext year, but it is too much to expect even prewar attendance at normal :hools in the near future. During the current month the National Education Association has ssued a splendid pamphlet entitled Higher Salaries for Teachers. This is [the last pubhsht word on the subject and is interesting even if it is not :tremely encouraging. Some extracts follow: "Every state has become ictively interested in the problem of teachers' salaries, and twelve have reported the passage of laws materially increasing salaries." Among the states reported as having past such laws are Virginia, Iowa, Pennsylvania, Jouth CaroUna, New York, Indiana, and Texas. 138 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National "Indiana has increast,the salaries of its four classes of teachers 25 to 30 per cent." "New York leads in salary increases In New York City, with its more than 21,000 teachers, the minimum salary for teachers in kindergarten and first six grades is $1005 and the maximum $2160. In grades 7-9 minimum $1350, maximum $2700." "Among others the following cities have recently establisht minimum salaries of $1000 for ele- mentary teachers: Whiting, Ind.; Bozeman, Mont.; East Chicago, Ind.; Monroe, Mich.; *and Pocatello, Idaho." "Twelve cities have median salary for elementary teachers ranging from $1202 to $1421; seventeen cities from $1003 to $1175." So far the report is fairly encouraging. It shows that the leaven is beginning to work in spots. But what of conditions in general? The report continues: "The average salary paid teachers in the United States has increast from $543 .31 in 1915 to $630.64 in 1918, or 17 per ceht in three years. In the same period the wholesale price of commodities increast seven times as much." Not very encouraging for the average teacher. Again: "Of 191 cities reporting definite increases for elementary teachers during 191 8-19, 86 per cent of them gave increases of $50 or less." "The average wage of 4198 workers in shipyards during 191 8 was $1411, or 224 per cent of the average salary paid teachers." "A comparison of the teacher's average salary of $630 with union scale of wages shows that hod carriers earn from one and one-half to twice as much as teachers." The Tribune yesterday said that hod carriers had just been awarded $8.00 a day in Chicago. The same paper recommended that policemen and firemen be given a salary of $2000 per annum. "As a direct result of the low salaries paid teachers, there is a shortage of teachers, many successful teachers are leaving the profession, and fewer students are attending normal schools and teacher- training institutions." But why multiply illustrations or tax your patience ? The fact is that the crisis in the profession is here. The question is. What are we going to do about it ? Unfortunately in many locahties there is nothing that can be done until there is appropriate legislation providing more adequate funds for teachers' salaries. In these locahties we may expect a markt decline in the efficiency of the schools. Some will have great difficulty in securing properly certifi- cated teachers at all. In about four-fifths of the states the legislatures will not convene, unless called in special session, until 192 1. So there is no immediate prospect of relief in thousands of school districts thruout the country. In our more wealthy communities it is a question of inducing school boards and municipal ai*thorities to levy sufficient money to pay adequate salaries. This will require organization and persistent effort on the part of teachers and other friends of education. It will also require organization for the purpose of securing appropriate state legislation. The teachers of Council] THE SALARY BILL IN NEW YORK LEGISLATURE 139 New York have shown how this may be done, and it remains for those of other states to emulate or surpass them. But the salary problem will not and cannot be solved thruout the nation until pubHc education is recognized as a national concern and the United States appropriates a reasonable share of the money from the pubUc treas- ury to pay adequate salaries to teachers. This Committee pointed out this fact in'its report a year ago. There is no other way out of the difficulty ^ except for a minor portion of the teachers of the country. The richest [nation of the world should contribute directly to help educate its citizens, [and whenever this subject is properly presented to the people the nation will contribute its share. It is necessary for the Smith-Towner Bill now before Congress to be ;enacted into law. This bill not only provides for a Department of Educa- |tion and a generous appropriation of $100,000,000 to aid public education, but it recognizes the obligation of the nation to help support the public [schools. This is the most important educational bill ever before Congress, land its passage will pave the way for the solution of the salary problem. But to secure the passage of the bill will require the earnest, active, and persistent support not only of the members of this Association but of all persons and organizations that we can enlist. A national campaign of education is necessary. A campaign such as the educational forces of New York waged at Albany must be waged at Washington. At this crisis jvery friend of public education is expected to do his duty and do it now. HOW THE SALARY BILL WAS PAST IN THE NEW YORK LEGISLATURE OLIVE JONES, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. I20, NEW YORK, N.Y. If you really want to know how to pass a salary law or accomphsh any ►ther thing in a definitely practical fashion you must consent at the outset to a very radical upheaval of ideas, at least of those ideas in which we [teachers have been trained. Laws are not past or salaries raised by writing long arguments or by stating your case, no matter how forceful or eloquent [your language may be, and no matter how accurate your facts. The plain iruth of the matter is that nobody will read your thesis or brief or mono- graph except the teacher whose salary is to be raised, the person who wants [the law to be past. The average legislator, like the average public, is lot interested in your needs or your problems. He has enough of his fown, and moreover he is continually besieged by people who want him ^to pass laws raising salaries or giving somebody some more money in some ^ay. What you must do is to make the average legislator and the aver- ige public, the average citizen, feel and know and believe that your problem is his problem, and that your unsatisfied need will spell disaster to some special interest of his own. I40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National To bring about this result as far as teachers' salaries are concerned there are just two methods. Both begin with the letter p, and that makes them easy to remember: practical pohtics and pubUcity. Easy to remem- ber, I said, but they are not easy to do and it's not easy to bear the criticism and slander and misrepresentation and misunderstanding that inevitably accompany such a campaign. Yet you must haVe the self-sacrificing spirit which will endure all those things, and the resolute determination to 'i^tick on the job" until you win, whether it takes one year or five, or else you would do better to give up before you begin. Very early in the school year, last September, we realized the truth of what I have just said to you, and we agreed to work along these two lines, to share the work, but to give each group a definite task to accomphsh. Now let us find out what we mean by practical politics and publicity as applied to a campaign for increast salaries. By practical politics we mean talking, writing, and arguing personally with each individual member of the legislature and each individual influ- ence that can be expected to have any wieaght with each senator or assemblyman. That is a big contract, bigger even than it sounds, bigger than we anticipated. It means that you must find someone among your teaching body who is acquainted with each legislator or can obtain acquaintance. It means that you must instruct all your teachers so that they will know their pohtical districts— senatorial, assembly, and election —and so that they will communicate, whenever necessary and under instructions, with their own district senator or assemblyman and their election district leaders of all parties, regardless of their own poUtical afl&liation. It means that you must learn to know the special interests of each legislator so that you can appeal to leaders in those interests to help you in your appeal to him, and that means religious, social, business, trade, and personal friendships of each legislator. You must make a real and personal study of each man or woman. No one person, however well endowed with the qualities of leadership or the advantages of social and political acquaintance, can do such work alone. Don't you believe any stories that this one or that one man or woman past the salary law in New York, or can pass it anywhere. Every- body must work, and everyone must -work in cooperation with his fellow-teacher. It was that spirit of cooperation which our opponents feared most and made their strongest efforts to destroy. They created disgraceful dis- sension among us, hoping thereby to prevent the passage of any law the expense of which would raise taxes, and yet at the same time hoping to evade responsibility when they faced us by being able to say, ''We would have helpt you, but you quarreled so among yourselves that we did not know what you wanted." Opponents of salary legislation for teachers tried to make us tie ourselves up with this, that, or the other issue, and Council] THE SALARY BILL IN NEW YORK LEGISLATURE 141 many teachers were led into error, not realizing that we must stand alone as a great body of teachers, independent of all other issues and of all other organized bodies whether of capital, labor, or of profession. They tried to make us lose popular sympathy, just as we were getting it most fully, by inducing some foolish ones to talk of "strikes," but except in the news- papers and among a few agitators the talk of strikes was trifling and negli- gible. The great mass of teachers is fundamentally sound in devotion to the children, whose young lives only would suffer if teachers went on strike, •and the teachers repudiated the idea of strike, believing that the teacher who goes on strike is like the soldier who deserts in the face of the enemy. All these and many other means of destroying cooperative spirit among us did our opponents use. And they workt so steadily and skilfully that their trail was hard to follow. They used our own fellow-teachers to work their ends, choosing false leaders, or persons consumed with a desire for the limelight, or persons ready to sacrifice the great body in order to gain some end of their own. Thus your difficulties in bringing about full cooperation will come from within as well as from without. Yet victory can be won only by the full cooperation of all teachers working as an inde- pendent and yet an organized body. Get such cooperation, even if some of the real and wise leaders among you must make, as some of ours did, final, supreme self-abnegation by letting press and public give the credit of their labors to others. Not until your teachers are ready to work in such a spirit can you trust them to "play the game" of practical pohtics. Even then you must select group leaders among them, and you must teach them how to approach the persons whose influence or vote they want. They must learn when to approach a legislator and when to keep away from him. They must learn how to distinguish truth from evasion. They must learn to have a behef in their ultimate victory so strong in its optimism that it can with- stand every discouragement arid will refuse to be downed by any assertion of defeat or even by any temporary defeat. They must learn how to win and how to convince without antagonizing. Right here let me say that there is only one convincing argument to use with anyone, in or out of the legislature. Don't tell people that teachers are poorly paid. They all think they are themselves. Don't tell them why you want more money. They know you want it and they don't care why. But when you begin to tell them why your lack of salary is going to bring some trouble to themselves and give them a few concrete illustrations of their personal inconvenience or worry resulting from your poor salary you will have interested listeners, and sooner or later you will find each Hstener repeating his story or experience and thus becoming a pubHcity agent for you.. Convince a man of his need or of his imminent loss and he becomes an active agent in discovering the cause of this need or loss, even tho it incidentally gives you some more money. 142 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Make the capitalist understand the kindredship between ignorance and ultra-radicalism, and he will demand well-paid teachers so that there may be no ignorance to be so deluded and preyed upon. Make the labor organizer see that the evils from which workers suffer are possible because of ignorance, and that ignorance delays his attempts to unite workers for the betterment of their conditions and he will be an earnest advocate for improved schools and better-paid teachers. Make the taxpayer see the relation between property or property values and false teaching in the schools due to inability to secure proper teachers at such low salaries and he will himself advocate the necessary advance in his tax rate. Make parents of children understand that the shortage of teachers means that their children must go untaught, or that improper persons are the only ones entering the schools as teachers today, and their fears will be aroused so that they will demand good teachers at any cost. In the need of such an appeal to personal self-interest lies the reason for getting personal knowledge of each legislator and legislative influence. But don't forget that there is a practical appeal to the politician as well. The people you reach are voters in his district. And now there has come in many states, and there is soon coming in every state, a new interest in the teacher, for every practical politician is calculating the strength of the teacher vote. There is no need to use it as a threat, for that antagonizes, and he fears it already. Just let him know that you yourself know that the teacher vote means as much today as the policeman or fireman vote, because the teachers are no longer a disfranchised body, as they were before women won the suffrage. One last word before we leave this subject of practical politics. Be sure that every teacher understands that there must be incessant labor and incessaht watchfulness from the hour that the legislature opens until the hour that the session closes. No bill has past or failed finally until the legislature has adjourned. Since all of you cannot be present at every session select leaders whom you trust with the work and raise the money to meet their financial losses and expenses. We had the complete support of our superintendents and the sympathy of most of our board of educa- tion, so that we had many expenses but few losses in salary. At first some of us stayed continually at Albany. Later, when the mayor's opposi- tion became urgent, we tried not to give him ground for complaint by any avoidable absence from school duties, but for many weeks on every Mon- day afternoon fifty or more of us went to Albany, on the four o'clock train, reached the capital for the opening session of each week, did what inter- viewing we could, and returned on the midnight train to return to our schools on Tuesday morning. Publicity is the second method of passing a salary bill, as, you will remember, I stated before. By this I do not mean articles in magazines or learned arguments printed and distributed. Such publicity is not to Council] THE SALARY BILL IN NEW YORK LEGISLATURE 143 be neglected, for it provides material for personal appeal, and it gets some readers after you have won in your personal appeal. But as a main reliance for publicity it is entirely without value. The average person detects from its title or its first paragraph that it bears upon a salary ques- tion and lays it aside unread. Neither do I mean the newspapers, desir- able and very valuable aids as they may be. By all means use them you can and if they will help you. But in New York we could get no uch publicity. We had absolutely not one newspaper sincerely and enuinely ready to aid us at first; only two or three even in the end came put in our favor, and the most that we could obtain from the majority of em was silence. By pubhcity I mean publicity such as is gained by advertising agencies nd paid publicity agents. Put someone in charge of your publicity work who knows the business of advertising or can get such knowledge easily nd quickly. You will get a better idea of what kind of publicity I mean rom a few concrete illustrations of what we did in New York. 1. We used street-car advertising as much as we could afford. That [is a very expensive means of advertising, and we were able to carry it n only three car lines, altho these were very long and traveled thru varied and crowded districts. On the poster which appeared in the cars we had printed simply, 'BARENTS! HOW ABOUT THIS ? In Decem- ber, 1918, 30,000 children in New York had no teachers!" 2. We had handbills printed, giving in short phrases and coarse print rtain impressive facts, statistics, statements of conditions, etc. These e distributed by mail and by hand. I recall that one showed salaries 1890, 1900, 1918, and compared the stationary salary with the rising ;ost of living. Another gave a tabulation of the increase in salaries in trade and industries and the lack of increase for teachers. 3. We had thousands of postcards printed and addressed ahead to every legislator and every influence we needed. On these we printed the me ideas as on the handbills plus a great deal of material of specific terest or application in reply to arguments pro and con our salary bill while its passage was under discussion. A mailing list well selected and covering a wide range of persons and organizations is one of the first ings for a publicity committee to prepare. 4. We issued bulletins almost every day of the legislative session for ix weeks. We numbered and dated these, so that they had the nature nd appearance of a periodical, and printed each one on one page only, n paper of a different color in order to attract the eye. One of the ssemblymen nicknamed our bulletins "The Teachers' Rainbow Litera- ure," and we adopted the name ourselves for the sake of its publicity ect. In these bulletins we included at greater length and with detailed rguments all that appeared in the handbills and postcards and the best f what was used for magazines and newspaper articles. Every effort 144 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National used by our opponents, every statement they used, whether genuine argu- ment or malicious slander, was answered in a bulletin at once. Nothing was too insignificant to receive our attention, for we saw important legis- lation fail thru some apparently trifling neglect of its advocates. 5. We communicated with every political, religious, and civic organiza- tion of influence, so far as we could learn how to reach them. In addition to sending to their officers copies of all our circulars and bulletins we requested .permission to send speakers to address their meetings and askt them to send resolutions of indorsement of our bill to the governor and to certain specified members of the legislature. This means that your speakers must be carefully selected and trained for personality, appearance, power of address, poise, ease in debate, and certainty of information. These are just a few illustrations of how we sought and obtained public support. Others will occur to you, developt out of exigencies of your own case. Three other matters do I want to call to your attention very briefly before I conclude. One is that laws controlling teachers' salaries, just as much as laws for compulsory education, are the affair of the state and not to be juggled with by local communities. It is fundamental for the preservation of the state of the future that its children shall be educated so as to be fit citizens for any part of the state, and not according to the whims or self-interests of a locality or local pohticians. Another is that in preparing your salary bill you should establish for each rank the initial salary, the amount of annual increment, and the minimum number of increments. By so doing you secure state protection of minimum salaries, and you leave opportunity open for broad-minded communities to be as generous as they choose. The third is very important. Do not be afraid to face an issue if it is raised against you, especially if it has an element of truth or justice to support it. The weightiest argument raised against us was the cost. Some of us thought it was best to avoid this question and to take the stand that since our cause was just and our need a civic need our bill should be past, whatever its cost. The rest of us, however, felt that it was wiser to have the cost estimated, state it honestly, and show as well as we were able how the cost could be met. It was because we had taken this course of action that we were able to demonstrate how greatly and falsely our opponents had overstated the cost, and thus secured the governor's signature without which no biU can become a law. Perhaps it is not wise to say what I have said in this pubUc way, but I want the teachers of the whole country to win out, for there are bigger issues at stake in this salary question than just the fact that teachers need more money. I do not believe that you can win out finally in any other way than by the two Unes of appeal, pohtics and publicity, for we Council] PENSIONS 145 have tried the dignified statement of our case in print and in speech too many years without results, and I do know by sad experience that teachers cannot be trusted to use these two lines of appeal unless you train them definitely and in detail. Therefore I have told you honestly and simply what we did in New York. It has somewhat astonisht me to find that [thruout the country our salary law is considered so wonderful, for we Eeel that, big victory tho it may be, it is only a partial one, and we have several years of labor ahead of us. The sooner you win the victory in /^our own states the sooner can teachers nationally gain the recognition [and returns their labor deserves and the importance of their service [demands. PENSIONS DAVID B. JOHNSON, PRESIDENT, WINTHROP NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE, ROCK HILL, S.C. The desirability, the imperative necessity, for teachers' pensions is [now almost universally recognized. Most of the countries of the civilized i world have provided some system of teachers' pensions with tenure of [position "to attract able people to the profession, to improve efficiency, 'and to afford the teachers protection in case of retirement from service on ■account of old age or disability." Teachers' pensions are provided for in Belgium, France, Great Britain and Ireland, Italy, Greece, Russia, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, all of the ^states of the late German Empire and Austria-Hungary, New Zealand, [apan, South America, and South Africa. Our country is behind these other :ountries in this respect and in the proper recognition of the teachers' dling. "The first city school pension system for city school teachers was jstablisht in Chicago in 1893, followed three years later, in 1896, by the )rganization in New Jersey of a mutual benefit plan for disabled teachers in lat state." There are at present 89 state, county, and city teachers' )ension systems in the United States. We are also behind many other countries in the preparation of teachers for their work, in the maturity of teachers, and in the length of service of )ur teachers. One-fourth of our 740,000 school teachers leave teaching jvery year — making the average term of service four years, and causing [85,000 new, inexperienst teachers to go into the work each year. About lalf of all of these 740,000 teachers have had no more preparation for [teaching than high-school graduation, and a great number of this half have lot had that much preparation. It is shameful that this great democracy, which depends for its life upon le intelligence of the people, should be so far behind the autocracies of Europe and the so-called backward countries of South America and the Eworld in the preparation of teachers and in the appreciation and safeguard- ig of the teaching profession. It is surprising that the public-school system 146 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National of our country should have accompHsht as much as it has for the country under these conditions. It is certainly time, and long past the time, when we should leave nothing undone to attract the best talent to the profession and hold it there. The doing of this is the great service rendered to society by pensions and tenure for teachers after adequate salaries are given. Our National Education Association Committee has spent most of its time thus far on salaries, as that was the first and most important matter needing attention, but we do not want the importance of pensions and tenure to be lost sight of or minimized. The most capable, high-minded people should be encour- aged in every way by tenure, pensions, social recognition, and adequate salaries to enter upon teaching as a career — people who would go into teach- ing not as a trade or commercial undertaking but as a fine art; who would teach with joy, enthusiasm, with the missionary spirit. Such teachers are often ready and wiUing to go into teaching for the love of it, for the good they can do, without too much regard for the salary, provided they can have some security against dependence in old age or if disabled in any way. Provision for retirement allowances frees such teachers and all teachers from the dread of dependence in old age, or, in case of disability, the consequent worry, and permits them to give their undivided attention to their duties in peace and contentment and thus to do more and better work. The schools, the children, and society will all gain by rendering the teacher secure against the risks of life. While pensions and tenure help to secure and hold good teachers they also make it possible to free the schools, with social justice and dignity, from superannuated and incapacitated teachers. This is almost as great a benefit as the others to the schools, the children, and society. If the superannuated teachers are held too long the young, ambitious, progressive teachers become discouraged because of the lack of opportunity for advance- ment and go into other work, and the schools and children suffer great loss in that way and also suffer from the lack of force and vitaUty in the teaching of the superannuated teachers left too long in charge. Children must not be subjected to wrong training or poor training of mind and heart and character because of incompetency of the teacher, or because of the super- annuation of the teacher. That would be an unforgivable crime against the children and society. While basing the claim for pensions for teachers chiefly upon the welfare of the schools, the children, and society we do not mean to minimize the claim for teachers' pensions for the sake of the teachers themselves, based upon the character and nature of the teachers' work. The teacher's salary at best is comparatively small, and if he gives his work the devotion it must have properly to impress the minds, hearts, and character of his pupils he cannot have the time or the disposition to make business investments Hke people of other calUngs. If he makes these Council] TEACHERS' SALARIES 147 sacrifices on small pay social justice requires that he shall receive a pension when he is too old to work longer, or is disabled and cannot work longer, as a reward for past devoted services or as deferred compensation on account of low salaries. There are some who hold that pensions should be cared for by giving adequate salaries. The giving of adequate salaries is the first and most important step to take in doing justice to teachers and in making sure of a strong and stable teaching force, but it must be accompanied by pensions and tenure. If all teachers were "thrifty" it might be possible for adequate salaries to take the place of pensions, but only a comparatively few of our people, including our teachers, are "thrifty," or rather were "thrifty" before the ^ar. There may be a much greater proportion of the people "thrifty" )w as a result of the enforst economies attending the war. I hope that le of the great lessons of the war to remain with us will be the lesson of rift. Adequate salaries, however, in our opinion cannot take the place ^f pensions. We are urging proper salaries, pensions, tenure, and consideration for ir teachers, not for the teachers alone, but chiefly in the interest of our mntry — its ideals, its democracy, its institutions, and its future. TEACHERS' SALARIES STANLEY BROWN, SUPERINTENDENT AND PRINCIPAL, JOLIET TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL AND JUNIOR COLLEGE, JOLIET, ILL. The stage of discussion, the stage of information so far as teachers are mcerned, has past. Resolutions by this body or by the whole ,of the National Education Association are useless unless they contain definite plans of action looking, directly to the accomplishment of desired ends. Are we as a group ready for such action ? Are we ready to quit the job and if need be starve outside the ranks rather than inside the ranks ? Are we borrowing anything in using the dangerous word "starve" when one of the states of this Union pays its teachers an average of 64 cents per day for their services? I say we have certainly past the stage of sentiment. We have past the stage of discussion among our own group and can there- fore do one of two things. We can quit the job, since only in a small degree is it treated as a pro- fession; or we can place this whole problem before the entire pubUc thru the best pubHcity agency available outside our own ranks and pay the bill, however large it may be. Our own reports, such as are seen before this body, have circulated for the most part in our own group, have provoked discussion in our own group, and have received approval from our own group. There is no better evidence that our problem will be solved by going out of our group than the response which came from the big pubHc 148 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National when that unanswerable article appeared in a late issue of the Literary Digest. With all our efforts heretofore we have been unable to enlist the pubUcity power of the great daily newspapers of the country, but when a pubHcation Hke the Literary Digest takes up the cause of the teacher and shows that in one small town in Illinois a man who is a superintendent in a mine receives in compensation more than four times as much as the principal of the high school living in the same town we immediately get attention. Once during the period of this war when the President was in Washing- ton he was invited down to Newport News, and during his address he askt the public-school teachers to assist in making out the questionnaires, and at that very time it was definitely and positively shown that a negro mule driver working for the government at Newport News was receiving a Httle more than twice the average salary of the public-school teachers of Newport News. While we have been preaching thrift and beHeve that this great con- vention, as did the Department of Superintendence at its recent meeting, will record its resolution making thrift and savings teaching a part of the regular curriculum of the schools, we must also recall the fact that the signing of the peace pact this week has releast bilUons of dollars for normal avenues of trade. This is the best period in the world to teach and practice thrift. It is also the best period that we have seen in this country to demand and secure adequate pay for teachers, and I am proposing that $100,000 shall be used by this National Education Association thru such pubHcity organizations as were used for war loans, and that such money be expended under the direction of this Association. SECRETARY'S MINUTES CHICAGO MEETING OFFICERS President — ^William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal College Chicago, 111. Vice-President — Homer H. Seerley, president, State Normal School Cedar Falls, Iowa Secretary — Adelaide Steele Baylor, Federal Agent for Home Economics, Federal Board for Vocational Education Washington, D.C. FIRST SESSION— Monday Evening, February 24, 1919 The National Council of Education convened in regular session on Monday evening, February 24, 1919, at 8:00 o'clock, in the Florentine Room, Congress Hotel, Chicago, 111. The meeting was called to order by William B. Owen, President. The President introduced A. Duncan Yocum, chairman of the Committee on Curric- ulum, a subcommittee of the Committee on Superintendents' Problems, who took charge of the evening program, which was given over entirely to a discussion of his report. The theme of "Existing 'High Spots' in Training for Democracy," as brought out by the responses to a democracy questionnaire, was presented. An open discussion on "Essential Factors in the Teaching of Democracy," a critique of the questionnaire, was led by A. E. Winship, editor, Journal of Education, and Lotus p. Coffman, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Council] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 149 A general discussion followed dealing largely with suggestions as to the best methods for developing democratic ideals and practices in children. A large number of those present took part in this informal discussion, and the con- sensus of opinion exprest seemed to indicate that less autocracy on the part of adminis- trators in relation to teachers and on the part of teachers in relation to pupils would create better conditions under which to train for democracy, and that such training could be further advanst by providing frequent opportunity for legitimate and wholesome service on the part of children both at home and at school, and a larger participation in the activities of both institutions. (SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, February 25, 1919 The session was called to order at 9 : 30 p.m. by the President. The President announst, before introducing the first speaker, that the program of e evening was made up largely of the reports of standing committees. Harlan Updegraff, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa., gave a "Report L Administrative Cooperation in the Making of Courses of Study in Elementary Schools." This also formed part of the work of the Committee on Superintendents' Problems and covered the policy pursued in the school system of 176 cities. Mr. Updegraff had developt a number of charts to represent graphically the results of his investigations. The leaders in the discussion of this report were: Charles S. Meek, superintendent f schools, San Antonio, Tex.; H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Berkeley, Calif.; John W. Withers, superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo.; Frank S. Ballou, assistant superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass. There was no time for a general discussion of this report, and other papers on the renoon program were postponed until the afternoon session because the room in which e Council met had been reserved for a noon luncheon. THIRD SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, February 25, 1919 The session was called to order at 2:00 p.m. by the President. The forenoon program was continued by the presentation of a paper on "Art and Education in the New Era," by George William Eggers, director, Chicago Art iStitute, Chicago, 111. Walter Sargent, University of Chicago, Chicago, III, led in the discussion of this per. The time was too limited for a general discussion of this topic, but a motion was carried that a cooperative Committee on Art Education to consist of seven members be appointed by the Chair. The general topic for the afternoon program was "Health in the Schools." Thomas D. Wood, Columbia University, New York, chairman of the Committee on Health Problems in the Schools, presented a brief report for his committee. Other papers on this program were as follows: "Interest of the National Council in School and Health" — William B. Owen, resident, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111., and president of the National Council. "Woman's Contribution to the Health Work of the Schools" — Alice H. Couch Wood, director, Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, Chicago, 111. Cooperation of Physicians in the Health Work of the Schools" — Isaac A. Abt, rofessor of pediatrics, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, 111. "Administrative Problems of Health Work in the Schools" — Ada Van Stone Harris, resident, National Council of Administrative and Executive Women in Education, ittsburgh. Pa. "Cooperation of the Medical Profession" — Frederick R. Green, secretary. Council on Health and Public Instruction, American Medical Association, Chicago. 111. di t 150 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National ESSENTIAL FACTORS IN THE TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY I. A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, "JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON, MASS. Democracy is the educational issue of America. There are two open- ings for the treatment of democracy by education: first, to discuss democ- racy and deal with democracy in such a way as to please aristocracy; second, to present a plan or seek a plan by which aristocracy will give place to democracy. Every utterance, every word and deed of educators, of high or low degree, must be judged by its relation to each of these propositions. Every suggestion that is well-pleasing to aristocrats is anti-democratic. Nothing makes for democracy that does not tend to eliminate the self-satisfiedness of aristocrats. It is a question not of improving the common people but of eliminat- ing the privilege of one class to set an autocratic standard for others. Aristocracy rests primarily upon the conceited assurance that ''me and God" set standards for all men. It was this assumption that made kingdoms and empires impregnable for centuries. The first necessity of democracy was to disprove this inherited claim of king and emperor, czar and kaiser. It was a question not of improving the proletariat but of disproving the claim of inherited superiority and authority of autocracy. Every aristocrat is a second-hand king or emperior, czar or kaiser. Nothing can be done for the proletariat that will make for democracy so long as aris- tocracy has the right to assume to be the social, industrial judge of the common people. There can be no democracy without absolute public respect for the common people and the promotion of the self-respect of the common people. The high art of aristocracy is so brilliant a camouflaging as to deceive democracy. Every teacher and other educator is instinctively aristocratic. There is a tradition that Ralph Waldo Emerson once said that he voted with the Democrats but preferred to affiHate with the Republicans. (That was in the North, where Republicans were the aristocrats.) School people dehght in praising democracy but ever prefer the life and privileges of aristocracy. There is but one mission for educators, and that is to dethrone aristocracy. The problem of education is the orderly substitution of democracy for aristocracy. The world-war was a disorderly elimination of autocratic aristocracy. The problem of the Peace Congress was the orderly establishment of democracy in place of the collapst autocracy. The world-war caused the collapse of autocracy in Turkey and Germany, in Russia and Prussia. It was the mission of the Peace Congress to elim- inate aristocracy in Italy and France, in Great Britain and the United States, in an orderly way. Aristocracy ruthlessly domineered in Germany and Turkey, in Prussia and Russia. It dominated gracefully in France Council] THE TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY 151 nd England, in the United States and Italy. Autocratic aristocracy is at the end of its career in all civilized countries. The only question is I whether it will go out of commission in the chaos of Bolshevism or sanely pind safely by way of democracy. j The difference between piling up a train of wreckt cars with the tnangled dead and agonized dying and the safe unloading of a train at the lippointed time and place is that in the first case the inertia is overcome mstantly and in the other case gradually and orderly. There is no more inertia overcome in the wreck than in the station stop, but it is done differently. When a train makes one stop we know what kind of a man is at the rottle. A masfer-engineer glides into a station so smoothly that the most sensitive nerve will not tremble. A novice, or one who will never master the art of handling a locomotive, starts to stop too soon and puts •n steam again, then the brakes again, steam again, and brakes again. e wrecks the train as completely as tho he smashed it in a heap of ruin. very wrong move of throttle and brake strains every joint and rod, very wheel and brake, every rail and buffer. The Bolshevist and the Industrial Workers of the World have neither nity nor science. All they want is to overcome the inertia of the ages, e sooner the better. The more agony, the greater the catastrophe, he louder the groans of the dying, the happier are they because it is idence of the completeness of the wreckage. There are semi-Bolshevists and semi-I.W.W.'s who decline to acknowl- ge affiliation with them, but who want to hear the joints of the train eak, who want a lot of " slack-and-go " in the stopping. They want to ke the white and the blue out of the flag without flaunting a scarlet g. They are not content with an elimination of autocracy; they want o enjoy the agony of the departing. They like enough jolt to make sleep impossible. If the jolt throws the dishes off the dining-car table nd makes walking from car to car unsafe they rejoice with a vengeance. hey want to wreck civiHzation just as completely as do the anarchists, ut they want to retain a certain amount of public respect for the sake f their families. Democracy is just as determined to ehminate aristocracy as are the olshevists. Lloyd George is as dead in earnest as is Trotzky. Lloyd eorge, however, appreciates the fact that aristocracy has been intrencht church and state, in social and industrial life, from the Garden of Eden to the Argon Forest, and his concern is with the absolute elimination of aristocracy, but he prefers to retain a perfect track for a perfect train to make high speed and a safe landing of all the passengers of church and state, home and society, industry and commerce. Democracy is as different from Bolshevism and semi-Bolshevism as the blush of a maiden's cheek is from the gasht throat of a suicide. Aristocracy 152 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National is doomed as completely as was the reign of William HohenzoUem on November ii, 1918. But the question is whether its end will be a Trotzky destruction or a rebuilding, a new birth of democracy. If the former, the schoolmaster may as well prepare for the slaughter; if the latter, ours is the greatest opportunity that has ever come to men and women since the Great Teacher taught the Sermon on the Mount. The teacher must give the school the atmosphere of the Great Teacher when he said: ''Come unto me all ye who labor and are heavy laden and I will give you rest." Democracy will bring peace that is as restful as it is eternal, as complete as it is satisfying, as helpful as it is hopeful. Will democracy come now, or will the train be wreckt and peace post- poned for generations ? II. LOTUS D. COFFMAN, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. The political ideals of a nation sooner or later find expression in the school system of the nation. The freer the political institutions the more widely distributed are the schools for all the people. The more controlled the political institutions the less widely distributed and the more restricted are the schools for all the people. The chief means of control in an au- tocracy has always been the military system; the chief means of control in a democracy is a system of public education. The chief strength of an autocracy is that its progess is made in accordance with definite plans; the chief danger of a democracy is that it trusts to compromises as a basis for progress. In the past one has organized and planned, while the other has resorted to chance and random experimenting. One requires sub- serviency to the state; the other exalts individual opinion and privilege. Either becomes dangerous when pusht to its logical extreme. Both can be made efficient. Both can be taught. Democracy is not an elusive, evanescent dream incapable of analysis. It is as concrete as autocracy and is almost, not quite, as easily taught as autocracy. If the ideals for which this nation has been fighting are to persist and to serve as a basis for guidance for this country and for democratic countries everywhere they must be taught in the schools. Their inculcation cannot be left to common sense, for common sense has always proved hopelessly inade- quate in the solution of important problems ana in the estabhshment of enduring ideals. It takes a crisis to arouse common sense to action. It was necessary for this nation to be in positive danger, with its institu- tions and all that they represent imperiled, before we recognized that only trained intelligence, which is common sense raised to some higher power, could save us. Altho the fighting is over, democracy is still on trial before the court of humanity. Now we realize that if we are to reap the fruits of victory and if we are to discharge our peculiar obligation as a member of the congeries of nations, the principles and ideals for which we fought must be formulated in clear and unmistakable language, and a Council] THE TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY 153 systematic plan must be prepared and adopted to teach them to all the people. The less intelligent the masses the greater the danger of democracy; the more intelligent the masses the greater the safety of lemocracy. Now as never before in the history of this nation do we need to take stock. The inventory should be critical, deliberate, and impersonal. The i^eakness of our conception of social responsibility which the war revealed innot be ignored, the lack of preparedness whitewashed, .nor the ineffi- lencies forgotten. On the other hand we have a right to be proud of what re have achieved. It is proper for us to exalt the virtues of the American lublic-school system and to maintain that the speed with which the army Ls organized and the victories it achieved were due to the training the )ldiers received in American schools. No finer tribute can be paid our :hools than this. But tributes will not suffice for the future. Self- mgratulation should not blind us to the serious problems we face. Old reaknesses must be pointed out and removed and new problems, now iperiously crying out for solution, must be recognized and solved. That learly 2,000,000 American soldiers never got beyond the sixth grade gives some inkling of one of the chief problems that lies before us in this country. That democracy is hopelessly floundering in the Balkans, in Persia, Armenia, Russia, China, because of illiteracy, a lack of intelligent planning, and a definite program, and that she is looking to this country [or guidance and direction gives us some notion of how gigantic our respon- ibility is. The fact that the radical elements of the industrial classes re urging industrial equahty and that we do not know how to deal with lem intelligently should make us appreciate how perilous the situation is. will be futile to write the terms of peace in Paris and to establish League of Nations unless there is back of the peace terms and of le League of Nations a world-citizenry trained thru systems of universal lucation which will enable humanity to enjoy mutual understanding and think collectively about common problems. A peace founded upon )ercion can never survive; a peace founded upon a commonalty of "aims, a mutuaUty of purposes secured thru definitely planned systems of jeneral education, designed to raise the intelligence of the masses, to widen sphere of influence, and to grow in strength with the passing years — ily such a peace stands a chance of surviving in the centuries that are come. Even Germany understands that change is necessary. She has :lared that church and state shall be separated in all educational mat- ;rs, that religion shall cease to be an examination subject, that the super- sion of the schools by the local clergy shall be abohsht, that coeducation lall be introduced, that teachers and scholars shall have the power of ilf-government, that chauvinism shall be banisht from instruction, that uniform school shall be secured and all class schools abandoned, and 154 NATIONAL EDUtATION ASSOCIATION [National that physical culture shall be deprived of its military character. Already she has begun to model her schgol system after that of the United States. Now in view of these considerations what remains for us to do? Exactly what Dr. Yocum has indicated: a careful, thorogoing revaluation of the American public schools must be made. The fact that his question- naire does not lend itself to scientific scrutiny and statistical tabulation is no criticism of it. A careful study of the questionnaire shows that in Dr. Yocum's mind democracy cannot be attained and perpetuated entirely thru incidental instruction. True he intimates and obviously intends that all the processes and activities of the schools shall be saturated with the atmosphere of wholesome democratic principles and conduct. In other words, the questionnaire clearly recognizes that the by-products of education must be numbered among its most important outcomes. But, what is far more important. Dr. Yocum implies that we must train for certain specific habits, impart certain information for the purpose of insuring a common culture, inculcate certain ideals for the purpose of developing common tastes and appreciations, and establish a system of public education which will insure universality of opportunity. We are deeply indebted to him for the comprehensiveness of his plan and for the detailed manner in which he has outlined it. But the task is not yet finisht. In fact it has only begun. It cannot be completed without cooperation of the school people of this country. Upon them devolves the obligation of translating these principles into concrete practice. This old world will see more democracy in the future than it has ever seen in the past. Shall we plan for it ? Or shall we trust to the drifting current of events and allow speculation, ignorance, and radicalism to control us? Shall we permit a system of special class schools borrowed from Europe, largely from Germany, designed to fit people for occupational niches, un- trained and uneducated in those things which make for intelligent citizen- ship, to thrive and spread in our midst ? England and France have already recognized the unwisdom of special class education; they are insisting that all vocational courses shall include one or more cultural subjects intended to make the industrial workers better citizens. We must not fail to learn this lesson. Dr. Yocum's plan clearly provides for it. Finally attention is called to the fact that his scheme does not contem- plate uniformity in educational practice. Individual and group differences are to be made the basis of variations in practice. Social progress depends upon them. But the great mistake which many are making is avoided in this study, and that is the mistake of failing to remember the value of group likenesses. Differences in mentality are responsible for progress, but resemblances and likenesses in mentality are responsible for safety. Liberty is significant only when held in restraint by law. Bolshevism flourishes and spreads over the world like a consuming pestilence when the like- mindedness of mankind, the common interests of humanity, are forgotten. Council] DISCUSSION 155 If these common interests are to be emphasized, then the schools of lemocracy must be lengthened, not curtailed, nor separated into new ivisions. The sharp departmental and divisional distinctions which now dst, and which seem to be multiplying, must eventually disappear, and 10 new ones must be introduced if the schools are to provide a more )mprehensive basis for common intercourse and mutual understanding. DISCUSSION of s Charles S. Meek, superintendent of schools, San Antonio, Tex. — All of us are gratified to see from the report of Dr. Updegraflf that the participation of teachers in curriculum-building is being extended. Everyone agrees that teachers cooperate more enthusiastically in administering a curriculum that is the joint product of their own work Pther than in having a school policy imposed upon them. A very important product of teacher participation is the education in the service e teacher receives while working in curriculum development, but we need to be sure at our joint efforts contribute always to progress and improvement and not toward action or to maintain the status quo. H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Berkeley, Calif. — The facts brought out in the statistical tables and the discussion thereof by Dr. Updegraff afford fundamental grounds for congratulation that school administration in its procedures is becoming increasingly democratic. In the fulfilment of certain graduate study requirements at Columbia University in 1910 I had occasion to investigate the extent to which courses of study were being developt by superintendents of schools in the United States in peration with their principals and teachers. It was only possible to discover a course study here and there which had been developt thru the combined thinking of the iching staff. The facts presented this morning show that this is coming to be the mmon method of procedure. The time was, of course, when the board of education alone dictated the course of study. Later, as urban communities increast, requiring the Board of Education to employ a superintendent of schools, the function was gradually delegated to the super- intendent of schools, who cherisht his authority very jealously. In the larger systems supervisors were allowed to supplement the effort in course-of-study making, but it is ly in the last few years that the entire teaching staff has been organized and focust a fundamental way on the problem of helping develop and improve the courses of ;udy from year to year. Indeed today not only are the efforts of the superintendent pplemented by the advisory staff, the principals, and the teachers in the ranks, but e intelligent, interested citizens in various communities are organized so that they y make their contributions in the development of courses of study. Their contri- tions have been particularly large in the development of sane and interesting business d commercial courses, manual and industrial courses, and household-arts courses. Any other than the most democratic attack upon the development of the courses study evidences a shortsighted policy. No other instrument of administration exer- cises so fundamental and far-reaching an influence in determining how the time and energy of pupils and teachers are expended as does the course of study. From the time school opens in the morning until it closes every day what they are occupied with is dictated by that instrument. It is highly important, therefore, that it should suggest Kd specify interesting, profitable, functional materials for mastery. From the teacher's mdpoint it is clear that it should be a handbook and guide, and indeed, if possible, 156 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National It is important to employ the democratic, cooperative attack for at least three reasons. In the first place, it produces a better course of study. The materials speci- fied for teaching are more likely to be of vital consequence and well adapted to the grade in which they are to be taught if the teaching stafif aids in judging the materials. Not only are they likely to be more valuable, but the course of study is certain to specify more detail and so to be of more help and use to the teacher in her daily work. These details should consist of concrete materials, indicating results which should be secured and methods of procedure. In the second place, the teacher's participation in the development of the course of study is a means of growth to her. If she reaUzes that her points of view and contri- butions will be used if worthy, she is stimulated to fundamental endeavor. She becomes ambitious to do her part in improving the educational opportunities provided by the course of study. In the third place, a cooperative development of the course of study insures its more intelligent understanding and use. Teachers who help build a course of study appreciate its meaning and provisions when it is issued. They therefore receive it with sympathy and enthusiasm and proceed to its execution with fundamental appreciation. It would be a mistake to understand the foregoing discussion to imply that the super- intendent has no responsibility in the making of the course of study. He is responsible for organizing his teaching staff so that they may make their contribution. He is like- wise responsible for bringing to the members of the teaching staff who are contributing to the making of the course of study a point of view, a broad vision, and indeed the necessary inspiration to stimulate them in their work. After the course of study has been completed and issued, he is responsible for enforcing its provisions. While he should be democratic in the method of developing this instrument, he should pursue no soft or easy policy in insisting upon the thoro execution of its provisions. I feel very certain that it may be predicted confidently that courses of study will be rich in the materials provided as a basis for teaching and rich in help and inspiration for the teacher, in proportion as all of the teaching staff have opportunity provided for participation in this work. Frank S. Ballou, assistant superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass. — Since I did not have an opportunity to see Dr. Updegraff's report and because my time is limited to three minutes I shall not discuss the report in detail but shall, on the other hand, make certain observations concerning the participation of teacher committees in the preparation of courses of study. In preparing courses of study teachers tend to include detail, and the resulting courses of study are likely to be more voluminous than they otherwise would be. This tendency can be counteracted by proper supervision of the work of teacher committees and revision and editing of their reports after they have been submitted. It takes time to organize teacher committees and assist them in their work; for example, teacher committees were appointed in April, 1914, in Boston, and the first-grade syllabus was ready for the teachers in December, 191 5 — about twenty months after the appointment of the committee. Other grade syllabuses followed in order thru the sixth grade. The sixth-grade syllabus was not ready until November, 191 7, or more than three years after the organization of the committee. In spite of this delay in the preparation of the courses of study thru teacher committees the time is well spent. The adoption of the plan of organizing teacher committees to work with the superintendent's office in the preparation of courses of study means capitalizing the collective intelligence of the profession in a school system. Boston prepared its provi- sional course in 1909 with the help of teacher committees. The more recent revision, which began in 1914, has been carried out on a more extensive scale. The assumption in Boston is that valuable ideas do not all flow from the superintendent's office down to the teachers. Neither do all the valuable ideas come from the teachers in the classroom. Council] ART IN GENERAL EDUCATION 157 he assumption in Boston is that the teachers and the supervisory staff each has some- thing to contribute to the making of the courses of study. Democracy in education means, among other things, opportunity to achieve a participation in the achievements of the school system. Teacher committees afford the profession an opportunity to achieve, to participate. Such utilization of the knowledge, abiUty, and experience of teachers has the advan- ge of building up a practical course of study based on classroom experience, of securing the sympathetic understanding by the teachers of the course when adopted, and of affording helpful stimulation and proper encouragement to the teaching staff, which Iust follow from such professional recognition. ART AS AN ESSENTIAL IN GENERAL EDUCATION {An Outline) EORGE WILLIAM EGGERS, DIRECTOR OF THE ART INSTITUTE, CHICAGO, ILL. Beauty is visual comfort. Art is production of any kind which recognizes the possible achieve- lent of beauty. The ground for giving special attention to visual comfort is that the eye as a rule cannot choose but see. In contrast tactile impres- sions are often optional. Production is conduct objectified' — its consequences are immediate and tangible. Production without art is not in the last analysis wholly ethical con- uct; it gives less than full measure of value received. Comfort is essential to every kind of efficiency, and visual comfort is exception. Visual comfort is no more exclusively the concern of the expert — the tist — than is any other form of comfort the exclusive concern of the gineer. Visual comfort is everybody's business, because the problems hich involve it, like those involving comfort in general, are constant, timate, and personal as well as supreme and general. (A recognition of is fact helps to clarify the relation between individuality of taste and e general principles governing beauty.) The individual (the consumer) has the opportunity at every turn of ing creative. He may be creative not merely in making but in select- g. Besides this his selection ultimately influences production. Having s than a constantly creative attitude is to miss some of the essential lues of life. To form the non-creative habit is in principle to begin edging issues. The creative habit and its result, the development of the art impulse, dds pleasure and value in life, not merely for the one who accepts the ult of production, but to a higher degree for the one who produces. Organization and not material determines the production of beauty. t is the result not of elaboration but of judgment. It oftenest takes e form of material economy because simpUcity and directness are in IS8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National themselves aesthetic qualities. Art is less a matter of information than of skill in adjustment. Paintings and sculpture are not the goal of the art impulse. This goal is the achievement of the maximum of visual comfort in all things, and paintings and sculpture, the ultimate and peculiar manifestations of art, may be means to this end. They are not to be confused with the end itself. To cultivate the creative habit with its recognition of a possible ideal in every set of conditions, a sane understanding of the place of beauty in all production past and present, is to produce a tonic which should key up every portion of the educational fabric. In sculpture and painting the "old vine of art" may have its blossom and its fruit; then architecture is the stem from which these depend, but the old vine draws its sustenance from the sweet earth itself thru a myriad of fibrils — the many so-called minor arts thru which the whole people sustain their habit of loving the beautiful and of requiring it. DISCUSSION: DRAWING AS AN ESSENTIAL IN GENERAL EDUCATION. Walter Sargent, professor of art education, School of Education, University of Chicago. — Drawing has long held a prominent place in public education, both as to the time allotted and as to the expenses of materials and instruction. In the educational and industrial reorganization which is at hand, and in which the values of various subjects wiU be reestimated, wiU drawing continue to enjoy the same prominence as heretofore ? Already some of the reasons set forth most commonly in public-school courses of study, that it is an important means of training hand and eye, and that it develops an appre- ciation of beauty, are being questioned. As training for hand and eye many forms of industrial work and of games furnish equally good training, and while drawing under certain circumstances may be a factor in developing appreciation of beauty we are justi- fied in raising the questions as to whether under usual schoolroom circumstances the production of crude and commonplace drawings, even when made from fine subjects, does not more frequently dull than quicken appreciation of beauty, and whether some means of studying these subjects other than by drawing them might not be more profitable. On the other hand demands that the advantages of art be made more available are being presented as part of the coming social reconstruction, as for instance the demand voist in the Report on Reconstruction recently put forth by the subcommittee of the British Labor Party. Industrial interests are also urging the fact that taste, as well as skill, is a factor in controlling world-market and in determining trade routes; consequently we send enor- mous sums to Paris for costumes and to the Orient for rugs and porcelains, because of the superiority of their designs. In addition to these social and industrial considerations educators are giving especial attention to drawing as an aid to thinking. Drawing is a language. A language is more than a means of making thought known; it is a means of developing and shaping thought as well as an instrument for expressing it. Drawing differs from verbal language in some essential points. It expresses thought by means of a vocabulary quite different from that which verbal language uses. Consequently it shapes and develops thought in ways correspondingly different. It makes possible another approach to many subjects, another point of view, an added experience. Council] COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN SCHOOLS 159 The kind of thinking and experience which drawing develops is of significant value rhatever one's occupation may be. It makes its own special contribution to the study of science, of history, of geography, and of some other subjects. Drawing is the language of form, and therefore is particularly the language of mstructive work and provides the means of working out many of the problems of istructive work before they are undertaken in actual material. The value of drawing as an aid to thinking is no more dependent upon the posses- m of special artistic talent than is the value of language or arithmetic upon the ^session of special Uterary or mathematical talent. Where special talent in drawing )es exist it should be discovered and'^ts particular tendency, whether toward use in instructive work, or industrial design, or in the so-called fine arts, should be cultivated a social asset. Drawing may be taught so that it will provide an introduction to a wide range of le fine arts in much the same way that language provides an introduction to jrature. The changes involved in the reconstruction of courses in drawing appear to be ing place along the following lines: its use as the language of constructive work and Immercial design, its value as a means of approach to and analysis of other subjects id consequently as a means of developing and shaping thought, and also as an intro- jction to the fine arts. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN THE SCHOOLS THOMAS D. WOOD, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. Our Committee faces unprecedented need, opportunity, and obliga- n for the prosecution of this health work in education. The revelation fundamental physical deficiency and neglect of the nation's young manhood exposed by the draft has made a deep and lasting impression. I The awakened national consciousness and conscience regarding this great fcoblem provide many manifestations of concern and determination, miblic and private agencies are more active than ever before. Laws fte being drafted and enacted in more than twenty states giving recogni- ■Dn, authorization, and financial support for constructive health pro- Bams. Thru several channels significant efforts are being made for ■deral legislation to establish nation-wide standards and machinery for accomplishment which may be as satisfactory for health promotion in ^peace as compulsory military training proved to be in war. In all the ^^peadth and complexity of health plans and programs the most important ^^nd promising period for constructive effort is childhood, and the most available, logical, and promising agency is the public school. iThe joint Committee on Health presents a brief report of effort and ogress. In June, 1918, the health charts were publisht with the finan- il aid provided by the generous guaranty of the Elizabeth McCormick emorial Fund of Chicago. This fund also supphed free of cost to the )mmittee three valuable charts on open-air and open-window schools. l6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National health chart set by the new and vigorous Child Health Organization, a national organization with headquarters in New York City. The chart set which is on exhibition here includes now 57 charts. This is being sold below cost of production at $5.00 a set plus cost of packing and trans- portation. Of these charts 275 sets have been distributed, and a map included in the exhibit will show the general geographical distribution of these charts. In addition to the orders for the charts a steady and vigorous demand is maintained for the committee reports. The first eight-page pamphlet report, entitled Minimum Health Requirements for Rural Schools, was printed in 800,000 copies. This edition is practically exhausted. This report should be reprinted with a few minor revisions. The second pamphlet report (24 pages), entitled Health Essentials for Rural School Children, was printed in 50,000 copies. K your Committee is to respond to demands for its printed information and advice, the second report will need reprinting in a few months. The third pamphlet report, entitled Health Charts, contained the miniature facsimile illustrations of the health charts. Ten thousand copies of this report were printed. This supply is entirely exhausted. The demand for this report is vigorous and is rapidly increasing. This illustrated report, with the addition of the five recently donated charts, should be at once reprinted. Manuscript for the fourth pamphlet report, to be called Health Improvement in Rural Schools, is now ready and is awaiting financial means for appearing in print. The Committee is extending its effort beyond the health problems of rural schools to the nation-wide program of school health. Material is now being collected ifor a standardization of the health norms and health defects of school children. This is perhaps the most eloquent demand now being exprest for the kind of help and guidance which this joint com- mittee is best qualified to give. We are working this year under a budget of $1000, half of which is appropriated by ^the National Education Association and half by the American Medical Association. This as a war-time budget is just half the amount which the Committee had for use during each of the two preceding years. The Committee is suffering from a plethora of business and a poverty of budget. Appeal is made to the National Education Association for as generous financial support as conditions will permit. During the eight years of the career of this joint Committee on Health the American Medical Association, thru its Council on Health and Public Instruction, has dupHcated the appropriation for this Committee granted by the National Education Association. Meanwhile the Committee waits patiently and hopefully for the adequate supplementary financial support which would render the constructive work of the Committee more nearly commensurate with the rapidly increasing opportunities and demands. mcill COOPERATION OF PHYSICIANS WITH SCHOOLS i6i :OOPERATION OF PHYSICIANS IN THE HEALTH WORK OF SCHOOLS ISAAC A. ABT, PROFESSOR OF PEDIATRICS, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY MEDICAL SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. So much has been said and written about the medical inspection of ools that only brief reference need be made to this subject before a dy of distinguisht educators. Medical school inspection is still in its fancy. As I am acquainted with it I am imprest with the fact that needs more efficient organization. I am of the opinion that a great eal of the medical examination is perfunctory, and in order that the al purpose of medical school inspection and examination should be compHsht a greater number of full-time men should be employed. upervisors should be employed who understand not only the diseases culiar to children in general but the diseases of school children in particu- r, and in addition should be well grounded in the principles of general ygiene and school hygiene. In order that school inspection should yield e very best health results the physicians and nurses engaged in this ;ork should receive special instruction. They should have frequent con- rences, and they should formulate their knowledge and experience so to standardize the methods of examination. They could thus establish such a high tone for the office of medical inspector that the position would come desirable. It is very important that the best-equipt men in a community should ek these positions. An enthusiastic interest in the work, a desire to be elpful in obtaining results, a well-equipt and fundamental knowledge in 1 that pertains to disease and its prevention, are the important and ndamental factors in medical school inspection. After all, however, medical school inspection forms only a small part the physician's activities. In his larger and broader activities, in his isits in the home and the hospital, possibilities present themselves for omulgating knowledge about child and school hygiene which, I fear, re too frequently neglected. After all, the health of the child depends much, if not more, on the hygiene of the home than it does upon the ygiene in the school. How frequently the physician may use his medical owledge in correcting unspeakably bad hygienic conditions in the home! t is not enough that the physician should make a diagnosis or prescribe for the individual child or perform a skilful operation. It is quite as important that he should teach and disseminate health knowledge. In I the poorer districts of our cities, in the tenements and in the shacks, the most ordinary rules of hygiene are disregarded. Uncleanliness and foul, Contaminated air are the rule, and under such conditions good health is pe exception. When the physician or the trained hygienist visits such a pome it should not be simplv a question of a perfunctory medical visit i62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National consisting of a hurried physical examination and directions for treatment of the ailment. Kindly suggestions should be offered as to how hygienic conditions may be improved. The suggestions may consist of advice regarding better ventilation, better or cleaner food, or possibly a change of residence. If the physician is thoroly interested he may follow his visit by sending a district nurse, a social worker, or in extreme cases an officer of the health department to remedy the evils. The family is ignorant, and the health traditions are bad. Increase the knowledge, remove the bad traditions in one family, and frequently the whole neighborhood is benefited. The mother and the children spread the new gospel of health to other families and among other school children. The family physician frequently has it in his power to prevent infection in the schools. The physician should feel his responsibiUty very keenly in these matters. Nobody knows better than the doctor that it is easier to prevent than to cure disease. One might mention innumerable instances in which the family physician could cooperate with the health work of the schools. The child with a common cold may infect an entire classroom by spraying the organisms into the air of the schoolroom, par- ticularly when he coughs or sneezes. A pupil who is coughing should be kept at home. He may become ill with measles, whooping cough, or an infectious bronchitis. Children who are improperly fed, those who are not receiving enough food, those who are receiving too much food, and those who are not receiv- ing the right kind of food must necessarily make poor scholars. No machine can do its best work unless the fuel produces the proper amount and kind of energy. That physician who corrects bad habits of feeding, who regulates and balances the child's diet on a physiological basis, coop- erates with the school in so far as he improves the child's general health, increases his resistance, and secures normal mental action on a sound physical basis. In this connection the care of the teeth may be briefly mentioned. Only last week I examined six orphaned children who were about to be admitted into an institution. The children all had badly decayed teeth. When I askt the oldest child, a boy of ten, when he had last brusht his teeth, he informed me that he had never used a toothbrush. Decayed teeth produce ill health, not only because of the mechanical difficulties of mastication, but also because each decaying tooth is the focus of infection which may produce local disease in the mouth. The infectious products may be absorbed, causing constitutional disturbances. Indeed, foci of infection may occur in distant parts of the body. The physician also has other tasks in his relation to the school. One child has a skin disease. It is for the physician to decide whether it is infectious and whether the child should remain away from school until incil] COOPERATION OF PHYSICIANS WITH SCHOOLS 163 has been cured. Another child is suffering from a congenital or acquired heart disease. Should he attend school at all? How much exercise should he be permitted to take? How far should he enter to the physical activities of the class? Should his school work be tricted so as to avoid fatigue? In the latter case he should consult th the teacher, with the school nurse, or with the medical inspector at e school. Cordial relations between the family physician and some cer of the school should be encouraged. The schoolmaster is freqently cult to reach. The physician in turn is occupied, has a full sense of professional dignity, and is reluctant to condescend. Each one of sees his own work as the most important. The teacher wants to teach d resents intrusion. The physician prefers to practice his art and desires ognition for his skill. He is not indifferent to compliment or even ttery. The most frequent diseases of school life are anemia, glandular swell- gs, affections of the mouth, nose, and throat, and deafness. The hygiene the voice should receive considerable attention. At puberty, when he voice changes, all instruction in vocal music should be temporarily stopt. This is true of girls as well as of boys. Curvature of the spine is one of the most important topics hi the health of the child at school. Errors of refraction require special attention. The occurrence of head lice is one of the most disagreeable and nevertheless one of the most impor- ^^■tant topics among the health considerations of school children. ^^H In short, the child and the school should receive all the attention. The ^^Bhysician and the teacher should come together for frequent conference and consultation, and each should do his part in the interest of the child's health. ^K In the more luxurious famiUes, where all the wants of life are readily ^Bupphed, the children are frequently found to be suffering from nervous- ^^Hess. The father is a successful business man; his life is very intense. ^^^■he mother frequently is pursuing many activities outside of the home. ^Khe has her classes, her philanthropies, and her clubs; she is living under high tension. She comes home tired and exhausted; she scarcely relaxes. Rie talks in a high-pitched voice to the children, is emotional, sometimes ipatient, tho she is very ambitious for their education. She insists at they do their home work as well as their school work. She makes an casional visit to the school if time permits and finds fault with the teacher because the child is not progressing rapidly enough or possibly because his work is not satisfactorily done. The child is a regular attendant at ^Jie dancing school, studies French with a governess, spends several hours ^K week with the music teacher, and takes swimming lessons at the women's ^Whletic club. ^B^ This child very soon slumps in his school work, is restless at night, begins to stutter, shows irascibility and irritability, and presents all the ■ 1 64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National signs of general fatigue. He is suffering from the fatigue produced by too much school work, a neuropathic constitution which he inherited from his nervous parents, from the presence of his emotional parents, and from the baneful influence of a nervous environment. The family physician can recognize this condition almost at a glance. He knows the family and the family life. He has the power to protect the child and increase the efficiency of his school work by correcting the home conditions. As time goes on preventive medicine is assuming greater and greater importance. School authorities have already recognized this, tho perhaps they have not availed themselves of all the possibihties of promoting the health of the children. Health in a school child as in an adult is the great- est asset. The family physician or the child specialist, as the case may be, could offer many important hints concerning the health, the nutrition, and the nervous constitution of the child which would not be otherwise obtainable. Why should he not be consulted by' the teacher? Why should not every child be askt. Who is your family physician ? or. What physician made a physical examination upon you ? Have your eyes been examined by a specialist? What other specialists have you consulted? In each case mention the name and give the address. The teacher could if she desired use this information in the health program of the child. In the plan of cooperation between physician and school the health of the teacher should not be neglected. A teacher who suffers from a chronic infectious disease, such, for example, as tuberculosis, or a teacher who is overworkt, is under a nervous strain, or is suffering from any acute or chronic disease, may be a positive menace in the schoolroom and may be incapable of efficient teaching. The school nurse deserves special attention. She is probably the greatest health asset in the plan of disease prevention in the schools. This is so for the reason that she gives her whole time; she displays interest and enthusiasm; it is her sole occupation. The details do not escape her, and in city school work she is invaluable. I wish to make myself quite clear. I am in no sense opposed to medical inspection of schools, but I am in favor of more thoro inspection, a more perfectly organized system. The other point which I desire to emphasize relates to the cooperation of physicians outside of the school. The family physician, the child specialist, and other specialists come into possession of knowledge which it is almost impossible for the school doctor to obtain — the tendencies toward family disease, previous illnesses from which the child has suffered, vicious constitutional states, and a great many other factors pertaining to the health of the child. Each pupil should be given at the beginning of the school year a blank health slip which should be filled out by the family physician. This should give the results of a physical examination, mention diseases to which the Council] COOPERATION OF THE MEDICAL PROFESSION 165 child is susceptible, and contain questions concerning the child's nutrition, his home hygiene, his nervous system, or any other information which may be in the possession of the regular medical attendant. This should be returned to the medical inspector at the school and should be a part ^of the medical record of the child for the school year. Of course this examination may be verified by the medical inspector. If there be no ^family physician, or if he fails to fill out the blank properly, it will become (the duty of the medical inspector to fill out the paper. This plan would [aid the school in preventing disease, and I think it would stimulate physi- :ians outside to make more careful records and examinations. It would ilso emphasize to physicians and to schools the cooperation which should fexist between both and which is nearly always overlookt. It seems shortsighted that school men should not use the medical [profession in preventing disease at school and in increasing the efficiency [of pupils when all that is required is a better mutual understanding [between the two forces. COOPERATION OF THE MEDICAL PROFESSION FREDERICK R. GREEN, AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, CHICAGp, ILL. My appearance as the last speaker on this afternoon's program is not for the purpose of adding anything to what has already been said or of ontributing any new point of view or additional information. It is father to emphasize, by a physical demonstration, the cooperation between e organized medical profession and the organized teachers of the United tates. As a practical demonstration of the possibilities of cooperation tween two professional organizations of distinctly different aims but ith a certain amount of common ground, I have regarded the joint Com- ittee on Health Problems in Education as one of the best examples, he work that it has done is ample justification for its existence. The survey of sanitary and health conditions in rural schools, carried out at e suggestion and under the general direction of the Committee, the pitomizing of the material obtained in this survey into the concise eight- age pamphlet known as Minimum Health Requirements for Rural Schools, and the distribution, largely thru the cooperation of the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, of nearly a million copies are alone sufficient justification for the existence of the Committee. The present, however, is of all times the least suitable for reminiscence '^ or for endeavoring to justify existing institutions by past records. During ^^ the last two years this country has experienst a shaking up such as has ^^never heretofore been known. Not only have millions of our people ^Bbeen violently jarred out of the routines and habits of a lifetime, but also ^Hour political and social institutions and customs as well have been violently ^Hshaken. As a result, as always follows such a period of commotion, there 1 66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National is about to ensue a careful and critical examination of all of our national, social, and personal habits and customs, a reestimate of their value, and an adjustment to changed conditions. I think it is safe to say that there are no two professions that will be so markedly affected by this revolu- tion of ideas and readjustment of values as the medical and teaching professions. The reasons for this are obvious on careful consideration. The teaching profession will be markedly affected during the next five years because the war and its accompanying phenomena have radically altered our ideas regarding educaton, what it should include, and how it should be conducted, or at least have aroused serious doubts and questionings as to whether the methods and standards of the last fifty years are best adapted for the next half-century and for the training of the coming gener- ations of Americans. It is highly probable that in the near future not only our public schools but also our colleges and universities will be called on to defend and justify the educational methods that they are following and to show that they are productive of the greatest possible amount of benefit to the pupil at the least expense of time and money. Efficiency, both personal and national, has taken on an entirely new meaning since the war. In the medical profession the changes are going to be even more strik- ing. I have no quahfications, either biblical or otherwise, for assuming the role either of a prophet or of the son of a prophet, and I well realize the dangers and pitfalls of prediction. Yet it is practically impossible to avoid the conclusion that the experiences of the last two years are bound to produce markt changes in the medical profession. There are in the United States approximately 150,000 physicians of all ages and degrees of educational and professional training. Deducting 30,000 from this number to allow for those incapacitated by age, physical disabihty, educa- tional defects, or professional inaptitude leaves approximately 120,000 physicians available for active work. Of this number, at the time of the signing of the armistice on the eleventh of last November, there were actually in the service of the government in the Army Medical Depart- ment approximately 33,000 physicians and in the Navy approximately 7,000, a total of 40,000, or one-third of the entire number of available physicians in the United States. I doubt whether any other profession or class can show any higher record. While this is a gratifying evidence of the patriotism of the medical profession and the willingness of physi- cians to serve their country in time of need, it is also a condition of the utmost significance as far as the development of the profession itself is concerned. Heretofore one of the principal difficulties in working with the medical profession and one of the most pertinent criticisms to which physicians could justly be subjected was that physicians as a class are individuaUsts. Each doctor, after taking his medical course and hospital training, goes into practice as an individual. Cooperation and partner- Council] COOPERATION OF THE MEDICAL PROFESSION 167 fee ships among doctors are the exception. Each physician stands on his own eet and succeeds or fails alone. In large cities as well as in small, in untry districts as well as in towns, a physician's success depends almost entirely on his individual ability and force of character. He is compelled by the very nature of his work to stand alone, to take the responsibility r his own decisions, to stand the blame if he makes a mistake, and to p the credit if he is successful. As a result, the doctor has been, in some ses, difficult to work with on account of his individualistic tendencies, is inability for team work, his disposition to stand by his own opinion igardless of the views of others, and in general his lack of ability to work harness with others and to harmonize and reconcile his individual views th any general plan. Probably there is no profession or caUing that s more in need of experience and training on practical cooperation; d this is essentially what the physician has secured through his army ice. During the last two years 40,cx)o doctors have sunk their dividuality, their personal judgment and responsibility, and their inde- pendence in the subordination and discipline of army training and army fe. The doctor for the first time in his experience has become a part a great machine. He has subordinated his will and his personality to hat of his military superiors. He has had to work in harness and in cooperation with others because the army is essentially a field for united and coordinated activities rather than for individual efforts. There is 10 place in either the army or the navy for the man who persists in follow- ig his own judgment or being a law unto himself. Each unit in the nmense machine must subordinate itself to the traditions and rules of he service. Many physicians for the first time in their lives have found iiemselves in a position where they must submit to discipline, must obey orders, and must harmonize their activities and ideas with those of others. ^H It was my lot during my own period of active service in the Army ^^ledical Department to have an opportunity, as adjutant and executive officer of one of the large medical training camps, to observe the effect of this training on large numbers of physicians, and I am convinst, not ^^nly that it was of the greatest benefit to them individually, but also that ^Ht is bound to exercise a markt effect, on the attitude and activities of the ^Bftedical profession for years to come. ^F Another important result of this training is that 40,000 physicians for the first time in their professional lives have workt for a salary. To a body of teachers who have always been employed on a salary basis and are familiar with these conditions there is nothing strange in this. A corollary of the personal independence of the doctor in the past is that his income has come to him in comparatively small amounts from a large number of different people. As a result he has had no special sense of obligation or service to any one individual and has had, in addition, a markt prejudice 1 68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National against any plan by which he was required to give his time and services for a fixt amount. Many physicians during the last two years have for the first time in their lives received a salary as medical officers in the army in place of the more or less uncertain and indefinite income which they have heretofore derived from their personal practice. The results of this experience are peculiar. Altho physicians in the army have unques- tionably made markt sacrifices in giving up their practices for their army duties, the fact remains that many physicians, altho the amount of their salary was far below the amount of their gross monthly collections, on account of the fact that they had no professional expenses to meet and were provided with whatever was necessary for their work by the govern- ment, they actually had a larger amount for their own personal use than they had before entering the service. In addition the doctor has been relieved entirely of the personal responsibility and annoyance of collecting his income. It has come to him each month in the shape of a check from the government. He has known definitely to the day just when he would receive it, and he has experienst in the majority of cases for the first time in his life the sensation of receiving an assured income without any effort being necessary on his part to collect it. The result is that the attitude of physicians as a class has largely changed with regard to salaries. Many physicians, especially younger men, have said to me, ''When this war is over, I am not going back into general practice. I am going to get some position where I can use my medical knowledge, but where I will be paid a definite salary." The result of these two factors — one, the training of the physician to team work, being purely social, and the other, the attitude toward salaries, being purely economic — will, I believe, very largely modify the attitude of physicians toward all phases of health and welfare work. The medical profession has received a leaven of discipline to an extent that it never before has enjoyed. It is going to be easier in the future to secure the cooperation of physicians as a class, to obtain the active and effective cooperation of individual physicians, and to interest the physician in such activities as those of school physician and school inspector in our larger cities, town and county officers in our rural districts, physicians and sur- geons for our large industrial plants, and many other collective activities which have not as yet been developt and which have heretofore been impossible. If these conclusions are correct, and if, as is probably true, educational methods are destined to undergo a similar change and upheaval, it seems probable that the two great professions jointly represented in this confer- ence this afternoon, the teaching profession and the medical profession, will not only each be materially modified in the next few years but will also develop a greater need and possibiHty for mutual helpfulness and cooperation even than has heretofore existed. If the training and educa- Council] COOPERATION OF THE MEDICAL PROFESSION 169 tion of our coming generations of children are to be made more effective, practical, and economic in the outlay of time and effort involved, the reconstruction must take place on a sound physiological and psychological basis. The plans for development must be in accordance with the best knowledge of hygiene and sanitation that can be developt. The working )ut of the details of any improved educational methods must be the joint rork of the teacher as the expert on pedagogy and the doctor as the expert m physiology and hygiene. As our knowledge increases and as physi- cians become broader in their viewpoint and less dogmatic in their atti- tude, the physician both as an individual and as a class must revert more id more to the old position of the doctor as a teacher, while the teacher, )ecoming more and more familiar with the physical and mental character- jtics and limitations of his pupils and with the dependence of the mental id the psychic on the physical and material, must necessarily become lore familiar with the facts and conclusions of modern scientific ledicine. I take it then that the net results of the war, in so far as its immediate [ects on the two professions represented in this conference and on the )int committee are concerned, will be to broaden and stimulate our iterest in each other and to draw together and coordinate the work of le two professions. It is therefore more important than ever that this joint committee, the link between the two organized professions, be retained, be made as strong and as representative as possible, and be ifforded every facility and opportunity for carrying on its work, which is be of such importance and which promises so much for the future. DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS Presidenl—EhLA Ruth Boyce, director of kindergartens Pittsburgh, Pa. Vice-President — Edna D. Baker, National Kindergarten College Chicago, 111. Secretary — Barbara Greenwood, State Normal School Los Angeles, Calif. The Department of Kindergarten Education of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Monday afternoon, June 30, 1919, at 2:00 o'clock, in Juneau Hall, Auditorium, Milwaukee, Wis. The meeting was called to order by Ella i^K Ruth Boyce, president. ^^B In the absence of the secretary the president appointed the vice-president, Edna ^^r D. Baker, as secretary pro tern. ^K The general topic for the meeting was "The Kindergarten Curriculujp as Modified ^B by Modern Educational Thought,'' and the following program was presented: ^^B "Presentation of Subject" — Nina C. Vandewalker, director, kindergarten depart- ^^Bment, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. ^^H^ " Subject-Matter of the Curriculum " — Alice Temple, University of Chicago, Chicago, ^^B^ "Language in the Kindergarten from the Primary Standpoint" — Florence C. Fox, ^^V specialist in educational systems. Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. ■P" The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — Nina C. Vandewalker, director, kindergarten department. State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. Vice-President — Margaret Mclntyre, supervisor of kindergartens, Cambridge, Mass. Secretary — Julia Bothwell, supervisor of kindergartens, Cincinnati, Ohio. A motion was past authorizing the incoming board of the Department of Kinder- garten Education to appoint a committee to cooperate with a committee from the National Council of Primary Education for the working out of common problems. Edna D. Baker Secretary pro tern PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE KINDERGARTEN CURRICULUM AS MODIFIED BY MODERN EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT NINA C. VANDEWALKER, DIRECTOR, KINDERGARTEN DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. The curriculum of the kindergarten is its working scheme, the organi- zation of its procedure in such a manner that the kindergarten comception of education — the directing of children's activities and interests — may ^be carried out. Since these needs and interests vary with the age and type of children, their home training, and their environment, and since 171 172 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten they can be known only through observation, a true curriculum cannot be static — workt out for once and all and followed forever after, what- ever the conditions. It should be instead an organization on the spot, a selecting from day to day on the basis of the children's observed needs of the specific instrumentahties by which their needs can be best met. The true kindergartner therefore creates her curriculum as she proceeds. Her work will be successful in proportion to the insight with which she has judged the need and selected the means by which it has been satisfied. It is because kindergartners recognize this that their interest in curriculum- making is always keen, and it is in this phase of their work that they always welcome help and suggestion. The organization of a working curriculum for the kindergarten, even a tentative one, has presented unusual difficulties in recent years, because the kindergarten has been in a state of transition from the ideals and methods of the earlier years to those based upon present-day knowledge of the child's development. This larger knowledge shows that many phases of the traditional kindergarten procedure needed modification, and experimentation was therefore begun in the direction in which the work was judged to be in need of improvement. The facts concerning the development of the child's nervous system during the years from four to six, for example, showed that the kindergarten needed to make much more adequate provision for his physical development, and that the activities of the kindergarten did not meet his physical needs. They proved also that the small material in use produced eye and nerve strain, and that if such strain was to be avoided all the material should be^ greatly enlarged. In consequence new games were devised to meet the newly recognized needs, and balls, blocks, paper, and sticks of increast size came into use. A better knowledge of the child's modes of thinking than Froebel could have in his day showed other respects in which kindergarten pro- cedure needed improving, and in consequence experimentation in these lines also was undertaken. It showed that children from four to six can- not grasp abstract ideas, as he supposed they could, or those for which they have no basis in their own experience. Applying this idea to the subject-matter of the customary curriculum it was clear that much of this consisted of material for which kindergarten children feel no need, and which they cannot grasp until several years later. It is in recogni- tion of this truth that such topics as the miller, the miner, the lumberman, the story of the Pilgrims, the Indians, Eskimos, and Knights, and many similar ones have been eliminated from the present-day curriculum. The kind of things that have been substituted for these will be shown by the next speaker. Present-day thought differs from that of Froebel in another respect also, and that is the interpretation of creativeness. Froebel believed children to be creating when they combined elements — lines, surfaces. Department) THE KINDERGARTEN CURRICULUM 173 and solids — in new ways. The making of series after series of sewing- cards, weaving mats, or folding and cutting sheets, each containing a new combination was therefore supposed to develop his originality. The present-day educator develops creativeness, that is, original thinking, by organizing the work so that it presents problems to be solved, and he sees no value in the types of work mentioned, since designs on sewing-cards or weaving mats are in but a slight degree the outgrowth of the child's own thinking. In consequence the old-time "schools" of sewing, weaving, folding, and cutting have no place in the present plans of work. These are but a few of the changes that have been taking place in the procedure of the kindergarten in recent years, but they will suffice to show the nature of the changes and the reason for making them. The fact that they are being made is important, since it shows that the kindergarten is adjusting itself to present-day thought and conditions, as it must do if it is to form an organic part of the educational system and perform the service which it is capable of performing. The adjustment in question is indeed well on its way. The new methods are well establisht in hundreds of kindergartens and are in process of adoption in as many more. There are still kindergartners who cHng to the old forms because they are loath to recognize any authority but that of Froebel. Their slogan is, "Since we bear the Froebelian label we should deliver only Froebelian goods." Those who take this attitude, however, should remember that even the Chinese are awakening to the fact that looking to the past alone is to close the door to the incoming of progress. It is this attitude on the part of kindergartners that is largely responsible for making superintendents wish to change the name. That name when adopted stood for the most radical departure from the educational rnethods of the period which the history of education has known, and it would be strange indeed if the name which is recognized the world over as the symbol of the new in educa- tion should now be discarded because it blocks the path of progress. The principle for which the kindergarten stands— that of education by means of children's activities and interests — will be increasingly recognized, even tho the name should be changed, but the name is still needed to suggest what the character of the beginning should be. The fact that such changes have been in progress has created many difficulties for the kindergartners in service. They could obtain the new views in fragments only at first, from an address here, or an article there, and found them difficult to put into practice, since the small material could not at once be replaced by the large, and the new forms of apparatus were not easy to obtain. Having but an inadequate insight into the principles that underlie the changes they were at a loss in trying to work out the new methods. If they had followed an establisht procedure they did not know what to do when this procedure was upset. If they wisht to discontinue the method of dictation, for example, knowing that it was 174 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten not approved by those holding the new views, they did not know how to organize the better methods that should take its place. If they had been accustomed to take up certain topics at a given season — the trades in January, for instance — they did not know what to substitute for these if they omitted them, since they had not yet learned the principles that should determine the selection of subject-matter on the l^asis of the new view. The idea of following the children's interests was often misunder- stood to mean letting them do exactly as they please. In consequence of all this there has been more confusion than clear seeing in the work of the kindergarten during recent years. Many kinder- gartners, in fact, dropt the old methods and materials without knowing why and adopted others without a definite reason. As the new views have been presented in a more organized form matters have improved, and kindergartners have experimented with a definite purpose. In conse- quence a body of conclusions has been arrived at that is of much value. In spite of the confusion the work of the kindergarten has improved from the mere fact that kindergartners were aware that new things were being done, and felt that they should know about them. As their acquaintance with the new views grew they began to see that the kindergartners of the country were all helping to work out an important problem, that of put- ting the work and methods of the kindergarten upon a new basis. In consequence they are becoming increasingly alive professionally and are seeking for a deeper insight and better methods. The fact that kindergartners are thus interested in, and desire a more adequate knowledge of, the new interpretation of kindergarten aims and methods is one reason why the Advisory Committee of the Bureau of Education has undertaken the task of organizing the curriculum of the kindergarten which has been distributed to you today. Some kinder- gartners feel this organization to be premature, since the movement for the reorganization of both kindergarten and primary work is still incom- plete. This may be true as to details, but the principles embodied in this curriculum must be recognized as fundamental for the education of young children and therefore permanent. It would be interesting to sum them up here, but they are plainly indicated in the pamphlet itself and in the papers that are to follow. This curriculum makes no effort to prescribe the kind and amount of work to be done each day in the several lines of kindergarten procedure, as some kindergarten programs have done. It attempts to do something much more valuable — to indicate the kind of things that kindergartners should do and the kind of methods that they should use, but to leave to each one's judgment just what she should select and what methods she should adopt for and with her particular group. Work on this basis will contribute to the children's real develop- ment and to her own as well. I Department) SUBJECT-MATTER OF THE CURRICULUM 175 The curriculum before you is not one whose content can be mastered in an evening's reading; it will take study to make it yield its full value to the children and to the kindergartner as well. Several training schools are already making it the basis for their summer course, and others are planning to use it in their regular program classes during the year. Is not the suggestion of using it for group study one that kindergartners in service might adopt to advantage? And would not the value of such tudy be increast if the group included some primary teachers and even school principal or two? Such a study could not fail to give them a eeper insight into their work and an increast appreciation of its value a part of the new type of education which the United States must adopt the new era upon which we are entering. If it can thus stimulate em to better effort the hopes of those whose effort has brought it into istence will be more than realized. SUBJECT-MATTER OF THE CURRICULUM ALICE TEMPLE, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. The curriculum of the kindergarten is composed of a variety of sub- ts and activities selected because of their value in meeting the needs of children from four to six years of age. The subject-matter of the kindergarten curriculum represents experi- ence common to the group of children concerned. It includes experience gained from their contact with (i) natural objects and phenomena (nature- ^^study); (2) human beings and human activity (home and community ^^Hfe); and (3) some of the products of human intelligence (literature, ^Hiusic, art, etc.). ^B The activities of the curriculum — oral expression, manual work, ^^Brawing, singing, dramatic play, games, etc. — ^are avenues of expression ^Hhru which experience is defined, interpreted, and organized. Each of ^Khese forms of activity satisfies some one or more of the fundamental impulses of the child and, if rightly used in the school, contributes its ^DecuUar share toward his development and education. I^R Each phase of the kindergarten curriculum finds its counterpart in ^^Hie curricula of our best primary grades, with reading and writing as |^(fcdditional forms of activity and expression. The work in each subject or type of activity common to the kindergarten and primary grades, ■^—therefore, should be so arranged that continuity is secured. ^H Little children do not differentiate between experiences gained from I social contacts and those having their source in nature. They are inter- i^ested in what people are doing and in natural objects and phenomena ^^■s these are connected with human activity. It seems desirable, there- ^^^ore, to make no sharp distinction between these two types of experience I in organizing the program. I 176 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten Aims. — To encourage interest in the significant phases of the environ- ment. To correct, extend, interpret, and organize experience. To culti- vate desirable attitudes and habits. Subject-matter. — If these purposes are to be realized certain funda- mental considerations must be kept constantly in mind when planning the program. The subject-matter selected must be something which appeals to the children as interesting and significant. It must be for the most part, therefore, something which they may use and enjoy in the pursuit of their activities and play projects, or which satisfies the desire for new experi- ence. The daily experience of the children will include some interests, impulses to activity, and emotions, which, altho not related to the series of topics which have been selected, should nevertheless be given oppor- tunity for expression. A rainy day, with its interesting accompaniment of rubber boots, raincoat, and umbrella, might call for expression thru dramatic play, drawing, or song, which would be much more significant on that day than anything relating to the larger unit of work or project which was being carried on. Finally there are forms of play and activity needed for the children's complete development which are not suggested by the subject-matter referred to above. Children need opportunity to experiment with and express their own images and ideas in concrete materials; they need many songs and stories which bear no relation to the selected subject-matter, but which are closely related to the interests, impulses, and emotions of childhood; they need freedom to move about, change their position, and thus thru spontaneous activity of one sort or another expend accumu- lated surplus energy. Method. — In general, the method of using subject-matter selected from home and community life, or from nature-study, involves the following: 1. Recall of familiar experience thru real objects, toy representa- tions, pictures, conversation, or some closely related experience. 2. Extension or interpretation thru excursion, or by means of objects or processes in the schoolroom, etc. 3. Interpretation and organization thru one or more of the several avenues of expression of forms of play. The third step usually involves for the child a problem which he will be interested in solving. For example, suppose the children have been shaping cookies of clay. The question of baking may present itself, and they then realize that baking tins and ovens are needed. The first problem for the child may be, "How can I change this piece of paper into a pan to hold my cookies?" The next problem follows, "How can I make an oven in which to bake this pan of cookies ? " Department] SUBJECT-MATTER OF THE CURRICULUM ' 177 Subject-matter outline. — The following outline of topics is offered as (illustrative of the standard set forth in the foregoing. It is subject-matter [which has been found valuable in a school located in an open city district. The children come from good homes. The parents are educated, American-born citizens. The material represented in the outline has been drawn directly from the experience of this particular group of chil- [dren. It is believed, however, that the general topics will be suitable in [many environments. The subtopics will necessarily vary with different communities. SEPTEMBER, OCTOBER, NOVEMBER 1. Life in the home. — The family; care of the home; preparation of food for the ■ family. 2. Sources of food. — The garden and farm; the market, the peddler, the dairy; occupations related to the supply of food; direct attention to the food products, fruits, vegetables, grains, eggs, milk, bread, butter, and to some of the simpler processes involved in food-getting. 3. Seasonal activities and interests. — Preserving and canning for winter; planting bulbs; gathering flowers, leaves, berries, seeds, nuts, etc.; collecting caterpillars; prep- aration for and celebration of Thanksgiving. DECEMBER Preparation for Christmas. — "Santa Claus"; the toyshop; making gifts; the Christmas festival and tree. JANUARY, FEBRUARY, MARCH 1. Life in the community. — ^Houses for different families; streets, walks, street lights; modes of transportation in the community; public buildings needed by the many families; various shops and stores; post-office; fire department; school; church. 2. Seasonal interests. — Out-of-door play in snow and ice; heating and lighting of homes and other buildings; celebration of St. Valentine's Day; recognition of Wash- ington's Birthday; care of plants now grown from bulbs planted in the autumn; care of pet animals, fish, birds, etc. APRIL, MAY, JUNE 1. Occupations related to clothing. — ^Making clothing; buying material at store or shop. 2. Seasonal activities and interests. — Life in the park and playground; excursions to observe signs of spring, budding of trees, birds returning, coming of wild flowers; out- of-door play with marbles, tops, etc.; gardening; raising chickens or doves; celebration of Easter; celebration of May Day. Attainments. — ^The attainments are realized so largely in terms of the various activitie's of the program, handwork, language, drawing, excur- sions, etc., that it is difficult to formulate them apart from these several activities except in very general terms. A year's work as outlined below should result in the following values for the children: I. Attitudes, interests, tastes. — ^A broader and more intelligent interest in those phases of social and natural environment included in the content of the curriculum. An eager, receptive attitude toward new experience resulting in the development of new interests. 178 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten 2. Habits J skills. — ^Increast ability to relate and organize experience. Increast ability to adjust oneself to social situations. Increast power of attention shown in ability to concentrate on a series of related ideas and activities. Increast power to think and work independently. 3. Knowledge J information, — ^A considerable fund of valuable informa- tion concerning the home and neighborhood activities and natural objects and phenomena to which attention has been drawn. Some realization of the social relationships and moral values involved in certain of these activities. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES « OFFICERS President — Abbie Louise Day, assistant superintendent of schools Passaic, N.J. Vice-President — Dora M. Moore, principal, Corona School Denver, Colo, Secretary — Alfie O. Freel, principal, Linnton School Portland, Ore. The Department of Elementary Education of the National Education Association mvened in regular session on Wednesday afternoon, July 2, 1919, at 2:00 o'clock, the Main Hall, Auditorium, Milwaukee, Wis. The meeting was called to order by Lbbie Louise Day, president. In the absence of the secretary the president appointed Gail Calmerton, primary supervisor, Fort Wayne, Ind., as secretary pro tern. The general topic for the meeting was "Solving the New Problems in the Elemen- tary School," and the following program was presented: "Instruction of Elementary-School Children in the Use of Books and Libraries" — 0. S. Rice, state supervisor of school libraries, Madison, Wis. "Revision of the Elementary-School Curriculum" — ^Theda Gildemeister, State Normal School, Winona, Minn. "Reports on Practical Experiments in Everyday Schoolrooms in Revision of Pro- rams" — Anne E, Logan, assistant superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. "Cooperation of Homes with Schools" — Milo B. Hillegas, state commissioner of education, Montpelier, Vt. "Teacher Participation in School Administration" — Mary C. Harris, former chair- man of Teachers' Educational Council, Minneapolis, Minn. "Equipping and Furnishing the Modern School" — Ella Victoria Dobbs, University jof Missouri, Columbia, Mo. A motion was past authorizing the president to appoint a committee to cooperate with similar committees of the Department of Kindergarten Education and the National Council of Primary Education in working out common problems, and the following com- mittee was appointed: Theda Gildemeister, State Normal School, Winona, Wis., chairman. Almina George, assistant superintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash. Alice Payne, teacher. Ethical Culture School, New York, N.Y. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — Lillie Ernst, elementary school principal, St. Louis, Mo. Vice-President — Zenio C. Scott, assistant supenntendent of schools, Trenton, N.J. Secretary — Gail Calmerton, primary supervisor, Fort Wayne, Ind. Gaii- Calmerton, Secretary pro tetn 179 i8o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS INSTRUCTION OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL CHILDREN IN THE USE OF BOOKS AND LIBRARIES O. S. RICE, STATE SUPERVISOR OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES, MADISON, WIS. There is an age and stage when it is more important than at any other time that pupils succeed in their school work, and that stage is reacht in the borderland of childhood and youth, the upper grades. Then is the flood tide of formative stress and strain, and the issues of life are then being determined. Is school work, as it should be, most successful in these critical years ? Let us consider some figures that bear on this question. In Strayer and Thorndike's ''Educational Administration" there is a tabulation of the results obtained by questioning eighth-graders in the schools of the city of New York and nearby cities in New Jersey as to the grades which they had to repeat. According to these figures (the medians are given), 24 out of every thousand of these eighth-graders had to repeat the second grade, 39 out of a thousand the third grade, 43 out of a thousand the fourth grade, 46 out of a thousand the fifth grade, 70 out of a thousand the sixth grade, and 95 out of a thousand the seventh grade. If those who left school in the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades had continued until they were in the eighth grade the disparity in the number of repeaters between upper and lower grades would have been even more striking than that revealed by these figures. The fact that four times as many per thousand had to repeat the seventh grade as compared with the second grade can only mean that the upper-grade work is decidedly less successful than the work of the lower grades. The popularity of the junior high school idea, it may be said in passing, is doubtless largely due to the general recognition of this fact. There are, of course, a number of reasons for this failure in upper- grade work which will readily occur to you, such as the greater difficulty in controlling children at this age, the lack of proper facilities in the way of liberalized courses of study and equipment suited to the varied needs of the children, etc. It is not at all a question of whether the teachers in the upper grades are as good teachers as those in the lower grades, but one of relative difficulty in the securing of results. In lighter vein we may say too that the upper-grade teachers inherit all the faults of the teachers in the lower grades. What I conceive to be one of the main reasons why the work in the upper grades is less successful than that in the lower grades can be illus- trated with the subject of reading. In the primary grades the teacher sees to it that the child knows every word in the sentence and has the Department] INSTRUCTION IN THE\USE OF BOOKS AND LIBRARIES i8i thought before she calls upon him to read orally. With such a method the efficient teacher is sure to get good results, and frequently primary reading is found to be excellent. However, as the child passes along in the grades more and more new words occur in the advance lesson, and more and more allusions to literature, mythology, science, art, history, etc. This increasing number of new words and allusions makes the sum total of new matter in the advance lesson so large that the teacher cannot, as she could in the primary grades, make sure beforehand that the chil- dren know all these things before she calls upon them to read in class. Unless, therefore, the children can and do make large use of printed sources of information in the preparation of their lessons the reading must of necessity be poorer in the upper than in the lower grades. We can reason in the same way with reference to geography, history, and other branches in which reference work is a feature. I There can be no doubt that one of the main reasons why school work ; less successful in the upper than in the lower grades is because as chil- ren pass from the lower to the upper grades and need more and more the bility to find information for themselves from printed sources they are ot given training and facilities in proportion to that increasing need. Vhen they pass from school into life and are thrown entirely upon their - own resources they need this kind of training even more than they do for I school purposes. I Two years ago the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction tested Eighth-graders, and in some instances high-school students as well, in a pozen village and city school systems of the state to determine whether pr not they had received any training in the most obvious reference sources, luch as they should know not only for school but also for life purposes. i?here was not a single passing grade earned in this examination! There were many zeros, tho the examination was one in which a large propor- tion of the pupils should have scored nearly loo per cent. And yet Wis- consin has probably done as much in the way of school-library work as any other state in the Union. Why has not such instruction been provided in the course of study? The answer to this is: We need as laboratories therefor well-equipt, properly organized, and effectively supervised school Hbraries, and school hbraries of any kind, taking the country as a whole into consideration, are a very recent addition to the school equipment. But now many states have school libraries in practically every school, and pubUc libraries are accessible to a large proportion of schools, so we can no longer be excused for neglecting this vital part of education. The first need is a course of study in books and libraries which shall be as definite in scope and as rigidly required as the traditional school subjects. A number of courses have been workt out for the high school, notably that of the Central High School, Detroit. The Wisconsin Department of Public l82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary Instruction has issued a definite course of study for the grades in the use of books and hbraries. A mimeographt outUne based upon the Wisconsin course has been distributed here. I trust that it may at least prove sug- gestive to other school systems. To what extent can we depend upon the public library to give such lessons ? A glance at the course of study in your hands will reveal at once that there is altogether too much for even the best-administered public library to take care of. The great bulk of the lessons must and should be given by the teachers themselves. The few lessons in reference work which in our judgment can with advantage be taken care of by the public library are indicated in the outline course here distributed. But with a curriculum taking loo per cent of the teachers' and pupils' time now, how shall we find room for this new work ? Thru the introduc- tion of a labor-saving educational process. As children are trained to help themselves more and more the teacher will need to help them less and less, and at the same time she will be giving them valuable training for life-purposes. The proposition that we have here then is less work and more success, which is better even than less work and more pay, which it includes. Furthermore, if children are trained to help themselves to find information when they need it, it will not seem necessary to cram their crania with a multitude of facts, "tanking them up" for life, as it were. If the poHcy obtains of teaching only a reasonable minimum of things and, for the rest, training the children to be self-helpful in finding information when they need it, our crowded curricula can be greatly reduced, and both teachers and pupils and school and society will be gainers thereby. REVISION OF THE ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL CURRICULUM THEDA GILDEMEISTER, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, WINONA, MINN. ' As your program indicates I have been given the honor of emphasizing the revision of our elementary-school curriculum as one means of solving some of the new problems which we are facing, and that it is an exception- ally important one you must in part know from the place given it in the comprehensive program so ably outlined this morning by Mrs. McNaught, chairman of the national commission to study all the problems of ele- mentary education. A further brief consideration of why the elementary curriculum is of such importance, tho well known to you, is worth reviewing. First, because the perpetuity of any state or society depends upon the conservation of those conventions and ideals which the group has evolved and now values, and, second, since the adults of the group desire the youth of the race to acquire these conventions and ideals more quickly, more easily, and with better results than they did themselves, society Department] REVISION OF THE CURRICULUM 183 establisht schools as the most economical means of indoctrinating the youth of the race with those ideals which insure social perpetuity and progress. Hence any school curriculum must reflect the ideals of the country in which it is operating, and therefore must our own curriculum reflect those ideals which we as a nation beUeve worthy of perpetuation — the fundamental ideals of democracy. What only a few of those ideals are we must take time to note: First, there is the ideal of personal equality, or, differently named, self-respect. But self-respect depends so largely on respect for others and upon others' respect for the self that the second ideal, faith in others, can scarcely be separated from the first. The more highly one prizes his own individuality the greater regard he has for the rights and abilities of others. The more highly he respects the acts, ideals, and thoughts of others the greater faith he puts in them, and out of this faith in his fellows grows a third American ideal, cooperation — cooperation built on the belief that every individual's best is necessary to the effectiveness of the result. As the complexity of a situation increases, effective cooperation demands organization, system, a recognition of relative values, and the consequent need of leaders. The constant opportunity of alternating in leading and in following which a democratic society provides makes for superior leader- ship. Equally false with the notion that once-earned leadership should be continued is the notion that only the poor, the ignorant, and the hard- working ones should rule. There is no place in our land for either aristoc- racy (of whatever kind, wealth, or power) or for Bolshevism. All the people must cooperate for the benefit of all- — no class must be excluded! Participation then in the alternating capacities of leader and follower, so that each individual and his environment perpetually interact and grow together, is one ideal of democracy. Because up to the present time the average length of teaching service has been so brief (between two and three years), and because the prepara- tion so far demanded has not been great enough to permit young teachers at once to enter into the field of larger vision, and hence wisely to par- ticipate in curriculum-making, curricula have had to be made by the relatively few teachers who stayed longer in service, and especially by the few who had the coveted "vision" as well as practical knowledge of school administration and of curricula needs. The day is now at hand when, because of better salaries, but especially because of the social recognition being given to teaching, more of you, men as well as women, will remain in the profession; better and better preparation for educational work is also to be demanded, so that inexperienst teachers will earlier appreciate the larger problems of education. In consequence an ever-increasing number of teachers everywhere must be and will be participating in the revision of our national curriculum for elementary schools. Such a curric- ulum can never be finisht; it must be a dynamic thing, ever in the process 1 84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary of making as it is being used and checkt by all. In order that it may be effectively administered by the million or more teachers concerned, without destroying one iota of their individuality and initiative, it must be based on educational principles which are eternal — enduring in spite of mal- administration, and being capable of ever and ever richer interpretations as those who administer it obtain a greater vision. One of those principles is the consideration of the native endowment, interests, environment, and stages of growth of the child. A second principle is that of social continuity, or race development. Only from life itself can educators find what the race wants taught — what aims have been evolved, what materials selected as best for perpetuation, what methods have brought best results. Hence today more than ever before must teachers know life and live in the heart of it. Today the teacher must find motives as well as uses for educational activities in daily life. Because "man is inherently social, active, educable, and ethical" the aim of education is to free each individual from his limitations — to make of him the highest ethical being of which he is capable. This high- est self-realization can be attained not by self-seeking but thru the sub- ordination of the self in genuine cooperation. True, individuals must, for the good of the group, be encouraged to attain distinction, but it must be a distinction approved by the group as conducive to its- progress. And since individuals can be effective only when secure in their personal rights, law is necessary. All exercise of originality or attainment of distinction must be based first upon obedience to law. ''Obedience to law is liberty"; obedience to law — in composition or literature (oral or written), in music, in sculpture, or in daily living- — makes one free to exercise his original gifts (or idiosyncrasies) without molestation. No matter how able the individual is, the group mistrusts him if he is not fundamentally obedient to " the rules of the game " ; disregard of convention or law has occasionally prevented great talent from functioning in desired service to mankind. Furthermore, individuals who succeed in attaining socially approved distinction must, like rulers or leaders, continue to earn their right to this distinction. This can be done by making the individual more intelligent, by developing in him higher ideals, and by making him active in group life for the good of all. What materials of education shall be selected on which to do thinking is comparatively unimportant; the vital thing today is to get more thinking done; the spread of intelligence (independent thinking) will save the world. To see relations between facts, to see relationships between relations, so that wise judgment results, to see relations between what is and what is to be- — this is the coveted power which will make of us an educated rather than a trained people. Whereas training fixes a solution in a person, education helps him to vary the solution with the situation. A trained person is bound; an educated one is free. The trained person Department] REVISION OF THE CURRICULUM 185 acts the trainer's thoughts, sees cues, is externally controlled; the educated person adjusts himself by his own thinking, sees meanings, is internally controlled. True the educated person may very properly be trained in some specific habits, but to even these he need never be a slave. Informa- tion or knowledge is by the educated person acquired incidentally or as an aid to further thinking. He is tested, not by how much he knows, but by how and what he thinks with, and about what he does know. With all of our talking about independent thinking the error must not be made that only original thinking is meant. Not all of us can do original thinking, nor would it be economical always to do so even if we could. We need to reproduce the great thoughts of the past — in art, in literature, in citizenship — to secure the historical background essential to all worth-while vision. In independent thinking reproduction has a value commensurate with productive thought. Hence a course of study must provide for steady growth in the power to think, must keep a proper balance between productive and reproductive thinking, and must reduce to a minimum the amount of drill (in the old-fashioned sense of mechanical repetition with no new meanings added). In the place of drill we set up worth-while purposes (projects, problems) which utilize old facts but always with new meanings added, thus vitalizing the subject-matter even while it is being clincht. The ideals of democracy which a national curriculum must reflect, the principles on which its construction should be based, the aims of educa- tion and precepts of method which we have briefly developt or implied, must in practice be interpreted by each of us to fit his local need. There is no need to enumerate all the different problems that face us individually; enough if it is clear that a revised curriculum must help to solve all these situations. Since no one could know them all, the Commission needs the help of every one of you^ — grade teachers, rural teachers, supervisors, and school officers— and thru you hopes to secure the aid of citizens in every walk of life. Since the thousands of teachers concerned are so widely separated in this extensive land of ours, some must necessarily participate by repre- sentation, but what everyone thinks and feels and says in his local discus- sions should finally reach the Commission, whose task is the production of a foundation curriculum to be continually improved in the process of *= its administration. I vouch for the cordiality with which Mrs. McNaught I will receive every suggestion anyone has to offer on the subject. It is your curriculum, not that of the Commission! For the sake of our work, your work, everyone's work, will you not be thinking much of the curric- ulum and its revision, noting where things now in use are good or bad, what should be kept, what changed, and give suggestions as to how it should be changed? Please (i) think on these things, (2) discuss them at teachers' meetings, and (3) get some representative to send in your : I 1 86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary results to the Commission. Every failure to understand, every criticism — adverse as well as favorable — which you thoughtfully make will be your contribution to the cause. What you find true and make an effort to have reach the Commission will be of inestimable value either in holding up its hands or in forestalling error. Nor is this service to be needed but once! The Commission needs not only your help in preparing the curriculum but your faith in its practi- cality, your cooperation in trying it out, and your patience in making it progressively one important means of solving some of our new problems. REPORTS ON PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS IN EVERYDAY SCHOOLROOMS IN REVISION OF PROGRAMS ANNE E. LOGAN, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ^ CINCINNATI, OHIO Long ago we realized that the aim of education includes more than the training for "after-hfe," yet habits are so strong that we overlook the fact that the formal recitation still dominating our school practice clings to the tradition that knowledge is the purpose of education and overlooks the opportunity (i) for the development of initiative, originahty, organization, all powers contributing to leadership; and (2) for the build- ing of that intelligent group purpose that characterizes and supports true leadership. What are some of the difficulties that cause persistence in these habits today ? The great number of children assigned to each room, the equip- ment of rows of desks, the lack of concrete materials, the very require- ments of the course of study, the poorly trained and poorly paid teacher — ^all are hmitations that stand Hke "Hons in the way." The purport of this paper is to give illustrations of situations in some of Cincinnati's ordinary everyday schoolrooms, where the teachers, with these two aims definitely in mind, despite the obstacles found it possible for the children (i) to set up their own problems; (2) to plan to solve these problems; (3) to execute their plans and judge their own efforts; and (4) to use the results obtained. In attempting the experiments with the ordinary school environment, the teachers wondered (i) whether discipline could be maintained; (2) whether the plan would interfere with the work assigned in the course of study; and (3) whether the results would be educative. The first experiment was carried out in an average first-grade class of forty children. An hour for each of three days a week was allowed in which the children could choose and plan their own work and play. The equipment was that which seemed best for six-year-olds, but quite simple from lack of fimds on which to draw. The materials were such as are furnisht by the school board: books, crayons, scissors, pencils, papers of i I Department] PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS IN REVISION OF PROGRAMS 187 various kinds, paste, rulers, clay, weaving material, inch cubes, and black- boards. The rest of the equipment consisted of a large ball, three sets of dominoes, a set of lotto, two bean bags, six dolls of different sizes, doll bed and doll hammock, needles, thread, and scraps of dress goods and muslin. These were donated by, or purchast at, the ten-cent store. The children's attention was called to the materials placed around the room. They were told that they might choose their own work or play for an hour, and that any or all of the material was at their disposal. One rule was made by the teacher before the work was begun, namely, at the sound of a chord struck upon the piano the children must stop all work immediately and give the teacher their attention. At the signal to begin the opportunity was received differently by different children. Some were enthusiastic and wasted no time in finding something to do. Others seemed bewildered and even after being coaxt out of their seats fluttered about aimlessly, only to return to their seats. The third or fourth day, however, found everybody busy. During this time trouble arose. The one ball was wanted by many children, those playing bean bag knockt down the fort being built with inch cubes; there were three spools of thread, of which three Uttle girls took possession, while others clamored for thread; a dozen swarmed about the clay jar, pushing and pulling, so that no one could get clay, etc. The rule of the teacher was resorted to. The chord was struck on the piano, and the attention was secured. Then the teacher had the children state their difficulties to the class, asking what ought to be done. Discussion followed, which ended in their making the rules which to them solved the problems best. Every difficulty, as it arose from day to day, was handled in the same way. Very soon the following rules had been made and set up by the class: 1. Every child must work or play in such a way as not to disturb any other child. 2. A child must put back in place all matertals when he has finisht using them. [This included the replacing of the spools of thread upon the window-sill after taking a strand.] 3. Any child wishing material already in use must wait until the one using it has finisht (finding something else to do in the meantime). 4. When many want the same kind of material (for example, clay or paper) they ust get in line. 5. A "nurse" should be appointed by the teacher to watch any child who wastes r destroys materials. 6. Anyone unable to find something to do should be assigned work. The sense of fairness which the children displayed and their wisdom [in choosing a logical and natural punishment for each offense was quite remarkable. Gradually the children learned the meaning of freedom under flaw. A consciousness of the rights of others, self-control, adaptation, and Icooperation were developt. Those powers which go to make up character [were exercised. Inhibition and impulse became properly balanst. The 1 88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary timid child forgot himself when pressure from without was removed. The overly impulsive one learned thru sad experience the need of con- trolling his inclinations. The place of the teacher during the hour was an inconspicuous one. She moved quietly about the room, answering questions, helping when help was requested, making suggestions in a way that the children felt free to reject if they chose (and they did choose occasionally), and trying to guide their activities and interests and lead them into profitable chan- nels. At the close of the period each child told how he had used his time and showed, when possible, what he had made. The group discust it, making suggestions for improvements and further possibilities. A record was kept from day to day of the choice of material of each child and the use to which it was put. A study of the record reveals three things: first, the interests and needs of the six-year-old child; second, the stage of development of each individual child; and third, the relative value of materials. A report for one month shows in part a summary of the number of times each material was chosen during the month. From this the teacher learned that it is not the attractive material that is most often chosen, but that possessing the greatest possibihties corresponding with the the child's inner need. The results have been favorable beyond the teacher's expectation in all three particulars. The judgment of the children as to behavior was unusually fair; the course of study instead of being interfered with was continually aided; the teacher had so guided and guarded the hours that the results proved highly beneficial. A project quite different from these had its beginning in a plan offered in February. Over five hundred children from Grades V-VIII enrolled in poultry clubs. The most unique development in this line was the plant on the roof of one school in the crowded down-town district. This plant was in charge of an open-air class of anemic children to whose needs it was peculiarly adapted (i) because it kept them out of doors for a longer time; (2) because it furnisht possibilities of direct connection with life; (3) because it afforded information that might lead these children to induce their parents to seek a more healthful environment for homes and later serve in making a living in that environment. The construction of the necessary equipment, the care of the fowls, the bookkeeping required in order to keep a statement of expenditures and receipts, the sale of eggs and one-day-old chicks, and at the close of school of the entire flock, vitalized many opportunities for valuable lessons. The making of a pre vocational speller was accomplisht by a girls' industrial class thru an attempt to interest them in the technique of printing. The words were chosen with great care, keeping carefully in mind the actual needs of the Girls' Prevocational Class, and second, the correlation with other subjects studied. Opportunities for motivated drill arose thru ot i Department! TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 189 he necessary repetition in arranging the words alphabetically, in verifying them, in organizing them into special groups, in setting them up in the printshop, and in proofreading. When the dainty, artistic volume was finisht, it was no wonder that the girls said that they had enjoyed the work. The fourth experiment to be reported was the planning by an eighth de how to cover the study of the Civil War in a very brief period at the lose of the year. This led to valuable discussions by the children, revealing heir notions of how to study. Committees were appointed whose chair- en represented the commanders of the important campaigns. Their reports were frequently challenged by the class as they stated their objectives, plans, and results. Not a few parallels and contrasts were rawn with present-day world-conditions. Such experiments represent both a fulfilment and a prophecy. They ere the high spots of a city school system. , They look forward to the time when vital processes of education will be an everyday achievement, leading on to an ever-advancing goal. m-. I TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION MARY C. HARRIS, FORMER CHAIRMAN OF TEACHERS' EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. In the great upheaval of the past five years that mighty surge of hitherto unseen depths in the world's waters, two great principles ride the storm securely: first, that the voice of the many must really count the counsels of those who govern, and second, that knowledge, under- standing, and sympathy are essential for successful democracy. They are not new ideas, but they have been held up before the eyes of the world in the arguments for the League of Nations, and those who deny them either seek selfish aims at the expense of others or have no faith in the goodness of common humanity. The voice of the many must really count, not merely be heard and isregarded. There have been sometimes autocratic methods in school ministration even under a semblance of democracy. I have known a rincipal to appoint a committee, allow it to spend much time in making n investigation, and, when the report embodying its best judgment was brought in, cast it aside and thus nuUify completely its work. I have no ympathy with such camouflage. It is worse than a waste of time. I ould much rather take a clean-cut order than be askt my opinion only to have it flouted. I do not advocate such participation by teachers in school administration. What I do advocate and thoroly believe in is a eal conference of administrative officers with representatives whom the teachers choose, a conference in which there is mutual respect, and in which weight is attacht to the opinion of both sides, so that both contrib- ute to the outcome of the conference. Such an attitude on the part of I90 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary school officials toward teachers certainly comes nearer to our ideal of the schools of a free people. And where is it more necessary that the world be made safe for democracy than in the schools? We all admit, do we not, that it was thru her schools, managed by the same dictatorial methods as other departments of her government, that Germany built up that miKtary machine that has appalled mankind?, It is thru our schools that we must build up and keep triumphant the mighty forces of democ- racy, but we can succeed only if we teachers are fearless and independent in maintainmg our convictions, and if we can feel that our collective judg- ment is respected. I said too that knowledge, understanding, and sympathy are essential to a democratic regime. People who do not know one another are sus- picious, but acquaintance, the realization of common aims, and friendliness dispel that feeUng. It was in the beUef that there should be some means by which the teachers in a large city system such as ours in Minneapolis might know and understand the admmistrative officers and in turn be known and understood by them, in the beUef, too, that from those who are in direct contact with the children would come most valuable suggestions, that we began in 191 2 to seek the formation of an Advisory Council. After inves- tigation of the two or three councils which existed then in other cities and much discussion by a committee from the various teachers' organiza- tions a plan was formulated and put into operation in January, 191 5. This has been changed in several respects, each time with a view to more representative membership. At present the Council is made up of the following personnel: The city is divided into five high-school districts. Each district sends six grade teachers and one high-school teacher to the Council. Of the six grade teachers one represents the first grade, one the second, one the third and fourth combined, one the fifth and sixth combined, and two the seventh and eighth, including the special teachers. There are also the following representatives: one for all the kinder- garten teachers of the city, two for the grade principals, one high-school pruicipal, one from the Girls' Vocational High School, and one from a group made up of the seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade teachers of the junior high schools. Thus there are forty-one members. These are elected in September each year and since March, 19 17, have met once in six weeks during the school year at a dinner meeting. It was one of our long-headed Scotch teachers who suggested that a six-o'clock dinner served at the Girls' Vocational High School should be the regular time of meeting. Experience has proved that the atmosphere of hospitality, the breaking bread together, has been conducive to greater freedom of dis- cussion. Special meetings may be called by the chairman, or upon the petition of three members. A week before each regular meeting each Department] EQUIPPING AND FURNISHING THE MODERN SCHOOL 191 representative must call a meeting of his group for instruction as to its wishes. New topics to be considered in the Council are suggested in these section meetings, and on those already before the Council opinion is deter- mined and the representative is instructed. The superintendent, assist- ant superintendents, and supervisors are privileged to attend all meetings but have no vote. The duties of the Council are advisory. Its purpose is to hold conferences with the superintendent with regard to the practical operation of the city schools. The Council has now been in existence for four years and in that time has dealt with such vital problems as courses of study, textbooks, the merit system, length of day, typical school building, and salary increases. It keeps in touch with local conditions by attendance of one member at each regular meeting of the board of education and sends delegates to the great national conventions that it may know the trend of educational progress. It has been our experience that whenever the vote of the Council has been disregarded both it and the administrationr have suffered, but where its work has been effective both have gained strength and confidence. I believe that it is thru the administration's trusting to the judgment of the Council, even if there must sometimes be mistakes, that the Council can be an institution of value and a real help toward getting our schools out of the old autocratic, dictatorial, Prussian style of administration into the far more difficult, but far more worthy, plan of operation by which ^" initiative and courage are developt in the teaching corps, and the whole I force works together with one single aim — the development of the finest fctype of free American citizens. EQUIPPING AND FURNISHING THE MODERN SCHOOL I ELLA VICTORIA DOBBS, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MO. The National Council of Primary Education from the time of its organization has urged the greater use of activities in the primary school. The first call received from primary teachers askt for a reduction in the number of children assigned to each teacher and for equipment and furnish- ings which would permit a greater use of activities. They said, ''How can we play games in rooms which are literally full of seats all screwed fast to the floor? How can we indulge in activity when forty or fifty children must be herded in these seats? Give us smaller classes. Give us movable furniture, and something with which to stimulate and occupy the natural activity of the children." In response to this call the Council, at its annual meeting in Atlantic City, February, 191 8, appointed a committee to study this question and report on the number of pupils which can be successfully taught by one 192 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary teacher and the minimum essentials for a well-furnisht primary classroom. In February, 191 9, at Chicago the committee submitted the following report: In order to ascertain the attitude of leaders in primary education concerning fur- nishings and equipment, the committee sent out a questionnaire to about 100 persons. Nearly 80 per cent replied, showing much interest in the topic. The questionnaire with tabulated replies is given below. Additional replies were received after this table was made. We must cooperate if we are to bring about better conditions and better work. You can help. Please jot down your ideas concerning these two matters at once and return the accompanying slip, signed, to Miss Abbie Louise Day, professor of education, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada {chairman) ; or Miss Gail Calmerton, primary super- visor. Fort Wayne, Ind.; or Miss Mabel C. Bragg, assistant superintendent, Newton, Mass. The following is merely suggestive, not final. I believe, to obtain the best results, that — I. Classes should contain the following number of pupils per teacher: Replies Received, 71 SUGGESTED IN REPLIES! Minimum Maximum Median 1. Kindergarten to children 8-10 30-40* 20-30! 2. First grade to children 10-15 30-60* 20-30 3. Second grade to children 12-15 30-60* 25-35 4. Third grade to children 15-20 30-60* 25-35 * Suggested by one person only, t For two teachers. II. Prunary classrooms should be furnisht with at No of Replies No. Voting least the following equipment withm the room. Received Yes (This list is merely to stimulate ideas. Check those approved. Write additional suggestions and comments on the back of this sheet.) 1. Cupboard shelf space (below 4 ft.), 36 in.Xi8 in. X9 in. for each child in the class 71 59 2. Additional shelf space for general materials, 30 ft. Xi8in 3. Work tables or drop-leaf work shelves 4. Two sand trays (24X36X6 in. each) on one rolling base 5. Movable furniture: a) Chairs and tables h) Movable desks 6. Toilet, lavatory, soap, and towels 7. At least 96 sq. ft. of swinging display boards 8. Library book shelves and a good collection of story and picture books 74 62 9. Materials and tools to work with: building blocks, rubber type, etc 74 53 10. Free floor space at one side of room for constructed projects 11. Zinc trays for window sills or window boxes for plants and bulbs 12. Good framed pictures for the walls 13. Victrola or similar musical instrument 14. Filing drawers for teacher's use: for samples of work, reports, etc Signature Address 74 59 74 6i 74 57 74 48 74 62 74 63 74 48 both 36 Department] EQUIPPING AND FURNISHING THE MODERN SCHOOL 193 These figures speak eloquently for themselves. To the teacher who is used to "getting along" with insufficient blackboard and very little else they suggest not minimum essentials but ideal conditions; to the superintendent who spends all his funds upon the high-school laboratories they suggest the impossible, but progressive leaders who are already carry- ing out these ideals replied to the questionnaire, ''Certainly all of these"; **A place to keep unfinisht work from day to day stimulates continuity of effort on the part of the children " ; "The transition from a well-furnisht kindergarten to an average primary school must be a shock to the six- year-old." This committee will continue its work during the present year and we come seeking your cooperation. We ask that you assist in gathering information, not only as to the essentials of success for a progressive school but also information concerning the actual conditions under which pri- mary classes are working. The National Council of Primary Education asks that a committee be appointed by this section to cooperate with the committee already at work, and with a similar committee to be appointed from the Department of Kindergarten Education, in order that wide- spread interest in this subject may be concentrated and working standards set up which may guide architects, school boards, and superintendents in making desired readjustments in this important field. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION I SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Frank G. Pickell, principal, high school Lincoln, Nebr. Vice-President — Edmond D. Lyon, principal, Hughes High School Cincinnati, Ohio. Secretary — Anna Willson, principal, high school Crawfordsville, Ind. Wednesday Afternoon, July 2 The Department of Secondary Education of the National Education Association vened in regular session on Wednesday afternoon, July 2, at 2 : 00 o'clock, in Plankinton 11, Auditorium, Milwaukee, Wis. The meeting was called to order by Frank G. kell, president. • The general topic for the meeting was "Readjustment Problems in Secondary ucation," and the following program was presented: "Some outstanding Problems in Secondary Education from the Standpoint of the Cosmopolitan High School" — H. L. Miller, principal. University High School, Madison, Wis. "New Problems and Developments in Vocational Education" — Frank M. Leavitt, associate superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. "A Constructive Program in Physical Education" — J. H. McCurdy, secretary, American Physical Education Association, Springfield, Mass. "Pupil Responsibility as a Training in Democracy" — I. M. Allen, superintendent of schools, Springfield, 111. The following oflScers were elected for the ensuing year: President — W. W. Mclntire, principal, Norwood High School, Norwood, Ohio. Vice-President — Charles H. Perrine, principal, Wendell Phillips High School, licago. 111. Secretary — Anna Willson, principal, high school, Crawfordsville, Ind. ^^^Rii I^H The following resolution was unanimously adopted: I^H Whereas, The rejection of one-third of the men from the army for physical causes l^^ndicates an urgent need for the removal of remedial defects, for health instruction, and for wisely directed physical activity, and Whereas, Danger exists because of government aid of public high schools thru the War Department that a narrow policy of military drill be substituted for a broad health education policy; therefore be it Resolved, That the Department of Secondary Education urge the adoption of the physical-education program outlined in the Towner Bill (N.E.A. Bill), which provides for the removal of remedial defects, the furnishing of health instruction, and the promo- tion of a vigorous program of physical activity related to health, vigor, group loyalty, _self-pacrifice, and patriotism thru the wise leadership in group games. Anna Willson, Secretary 19s 196 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS NEW PROBLEMS AND DEVELOPMENTS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FRANK M. LEAVITT, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA. The problem of vocational education is to provide a complete and adequate scheme of education for the future workers in industries, in trades, on the farms, in commercial establishments, and in the homes. In other words, the problem of vocational education requires for its solution the formulation of plans for educating as fully as possible all those who are not led to their hfe-work by way of a university training, to the end that each individual may become economically efficient, and also that he may be given those cultural and social ideals that will make him a desirable noighbor. There are no new problems in vocational education, but it is of immense significance that these old problems, seen heretofore only dimly and by relatively few school men, have been brought out with startling clearness by recent demands that have been made upon the public schools, demands that on the whole have been met surprisingly well. The meeting of these new demands may be described properly as new developments in the field of vocational education. Three illustrations only will be discust here — the training of soldier mechanics in our public schools, the manufacture of supplies for the United States Army by the boys in our high-school manual- training classes, and the part-time work of high-school pupils on the farms, in the industries, and in commercial offices. Training of soldier mechanics. — Thruout the country school equip- ments and school faculties were requisitioned by the government for the training of recruits for the various branches of industrial work needed by the army. In many instances the young men so trained were of hardly more than high-school age. Certainly the methods that were used would work as successfully with high-school boys as they did with the young men in the army. The men were trained in one kind of work for eight hours a day, six days a week, and for a period of six weeks. At the end of that brief period these men had accompHsht more in every way than is accomphsht in the ordinary manual-training work spread over two years of a high-school course. The lesson to be learned from this particular work is that there is great economy of time resulting from intensive training in a single field. This procedure presents a markt contrast to the usual organization of high-school courses, where the pupil is required to change his habits of thought and work completely half a dozen times a day. No one observ- ing the success of this intensive work could help asking himself whether Department) PROBLEMS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 197 it would not be worth while to establish short, intensive vocational courses at least for those high-school pupils who drop out of school to go to work. Certainly we could afford to give six or eight weeks exclusively to specific vocational training even in our more academic high schools. Further- more, were such courses to be establisht in our high schools we might feel justified in curtaihng the so-called industrial courses, which are now commonly offered as electives for all pupils. It is probable that just as many pupils are wasting their time in following manual-arts courses with- out a clearly defined purpose as there are students wasting time in pursuing courses in the much-despised subject of Latin. Productive work for the Red Cross. — ^Long before the war high-school pupils had demonstrated their ability to do actual productive work of a commercial standard. It was not, however, until the Junior Red Cross opened the way for the schools to make the furniture for the houses for convalescents and nurses and to manufacture regular supplies for the United States Army that productive work on a large scale was shown to be both practicable and desirable for high-school pupils. Experience has now demonstrated that the regular manual-training time may be so spent to excellent purpose under the regular manual- training teacher even in those school shops that are only moderately well equipt. The plan was conceived and tentatively tried out in one school system. So promising were the results that an order for Red Cross furniture total- ing upward of $8000 for material alone was placed with the public schools. The distribution of the work thruout the country was made thru the thirteen divisional headquarters of the American Red Cross, reaching public high schools in every section of the country. This work was done so well that the army authorities were convinst of the desirabihty of utilizing the power thus offered. The Red Cross gave its assistance in making this power available by purchasing the rough materials and turning over the finisht product to the army. These army supplies included temporary artificial limbs, bed-occupation tables, drafting-boards, tableware chests, bedside tables, breadboards, laboratory chests, and ambulance boxes, involving an expenditure for materials alone of approximately $100,000 during the school year of 1918-19. There are now under construction 10,000 tables and 30,000 chairs for refugee work in northern France and Belgium. Part-time work.^-For many years promoters of vocational education have advocated the part-time plan, by virtue of which boys and girls may be both pupils and workers at the same time. Such part-time work has been effective but extremely limited in amount because of the fact that few employers believed that the work of such pupils could be really effective, and because few teachers believed that there could be anything better for anybody than full-time education. The plan involved so much in the way of persuading employers, teachers, and pupils that there might igS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary be something better than what had obtained in the past that few superin- tendents or principals had the interest and the patience necessary to carry it thru. The development of part-time work, which was faciHtated during the war by the shortage of labor and the consequent desire of employers to secure help on any basis, demonstrated the value of such work from every point of view. School children gave effective service on farms, in industry, and in office positions without severing their connection with their schools. It is too early to say whether these interests can be maintained, but there are promising signs that such is the case. But the most important development in the field of vocational educa- tion is the rapidly growing recognition that vocational guidance is abso- lutely essential if vocational education is to be genuinely significant. An adequate scheme of vocational guidance involves the collection and dis- semination of information regarding the way in which people earn a living; the ascertaining of facts regarding the personal equipment with which each individual goes forth to fight his economic battles in competition with his fellows ; placement ; and the work of following up the young people to give such help as may be necessary in the readjustments that must be made during the period of their early vocational experiences. The Pittsburgh plan of vocational guidance and placement, which is one of the most noteworthy developments in this field, is supported jointly by the Pittsburgh public schools and the federal government and utilizes the vocational-guidance department of the school system and the division of the federal employment work known as the Junior Section of the United States Employment Service. The v/hole is under the direction of the Board of Education. The complete organization for carrying out the plan includes, in addi- tion to the director, an assistant director, a general counselor for girls, a general counselor for boys, a placement secretary for children under sixteen years of age, a director of educational guidance, two clerks, and a vocational counselor in each high school. The Junior Section has at its disposal also the services of the placement offices in the Women's Division of the United States Employment Service, together with all the employment data col- lected by that office since its organization. The plan thus includes counseling and placement for all young people under twenty-one years of age, whether these young people are in school or not. In the pursuance of this pioject it has been found necessary to make a partial survey of the employment situation. A report from the school is required for each child over fourteen years of age who leaves school. A ''eport regarding home conditions is made by the school visitant. With this information regarding the stream of young workers coming into the employ- ment maiket, the centralized placement office has something of value to Department] CONSTRUCTIVE PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 199 offer the employers. Employers, therefore, are askt to cooperate by fur- nishing the office with pertinent employment information, which they do gladly. - ^ Such a plan for centralized placement might be workt out by a school system without federal aid, but in the case under discussion it would have been extremely difficult if not impossible to have carried on this work without the moral and financial support given by the Department of Labor thru the Junior Section of the United States Employment Service. The schools quite naturally and rightly emphasize education and a more or less idealistic guidance. The United States Employment Service quite as naturally concentrates on placement. The Junior Section, thru its cooperation with the public schools, becomes an ideal organization for coordinating these two equally essential functions of a genuine system of vocational guidance. It is the purpose of the Department of Labor to carry forward similar work in several cities and thus to provide federal aid for vocational guidance and placement. Information regarding this pro- jected work may be had by addressing the Junior Section, United States Employment Service, Washington, D.C. I firmly believe that this movement marks one of the most important of the new developments in vocational education. A CONSTRUCTIVE PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION J. H. MC CURDY, SECRETARY, AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. The men on the street as well as those technically qualified to speak agree in the necessity of changes. Thirty-five per cent of the men drafted for the army were rejected as unfit for fighting men for the country at large. Massachusetts, for example, as an industrial state, rejected approx- imately 47 per cent. During the stress of the war France, as well as England, has reorgan- ized its educational scheme. In physical education France has added seven additional normal schools of physical education, the idea being to train these teachers for the army, and as the army is disbanded to have these teachers go out into the public-school system as teachers. Thirteen states have adopted compulsory health- and physical- education laws (New Jersey, New York, Illinois, Rhode Island, Maryland, Delaware, California, Nevada, Washington, Oregon, Utah, Maine, Mich- igan). Twleve additional states have this year introduced bills before their legislators on this subject. The Towner Bill, which has just been intro- duced into the Senate, in its physical-education aspects reads as follows: That in order to encourage the States in the promotion of physical education, two- tenths ($20,000,000) of the sum authorized to be appropriated by Section 7 of this Act should be for physical education and instruction in the principles of health and sanita- tion md for providing school nurses, school dental clinics and otherwise oromoting 200 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary physical and mental welfare. The said sum shall be apportioned to the States in the proportions which their respective populations bear to the total population of the United States, not including outlying possessions, according to the last preceding census of the United States. Fifty square feet of free gymnasium space should be supplied for each pupil in a class. Enough space should be supplied to furnish each pupil, during the school day, one hour of vigorous exercise. Space should be arranged so that it can be used for after-school activities for both children and adults; 24,000,000 pupils in school; 10,000,000 additional between the ages of ten and twenty outside of school; these are all in the maturing age. Few institutions now have such equipment, with the exception of the private secondary schools and endowed colleges. All of the 287,000 schools should be equip t with adequate space for health activities. One hundred and fifty square feet per school pupil are needed for play- grounds. This is the figure adopted by the National Commission on Secondary Education. School buildings and parks of the city should be built adjoining to allow opportunity for directed activity and free play. The slogan should be ''Every school building and school ground a health factory for every child and a community center for all adults." Health examinations should include the removal of remedial defects. The bulk of the health examinations are largely useless because nothing happens. They . are merely statistical bureaus for collecting health statistics. The essential need is for the removal of the defects. Teeth, eye, adenoids, tonsillar defects, and deficient muscularity are all remedial defects. A prominent physician, a school examiner, states that it would be economy, from the standpoint of general education, if schools opened August I and the first sixty days were devoted to examination, removal of defects, and general health training. Organic efficiency tests should be given to determine the health power of the pupil. Heart-rate tests in horizontal and standing position and after definite exercise serve as good organic indices. Every building, in construction and equipment, should demonstrate the "Spotless Town" idea. Floors, walls, ceilings, windows, ventilation, heat, etc., should assist in the formation of correct health habits thru the living environment. Health instruction should demonstrate in school, home, and factory what can be done to improve health. Definite health instruction regarding diet, sleep, exercise, sanitation, etc., should be given. Every building should have equipment for an adequate health exam- ination, health instruction, and health activity. This requires gymnasiums, play fields, and baths adequate for bathing each pupil, at least in the high-school age, after vigorous exercise daily. The figures given below are on prewar conditions, as it would be abnormal to state present conditions. The number of physical-education teachers has been largely depleted during the war. Department] CONSTRUCTIVE PROGRAM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 201 I. Teachers Needed for Pupils Six to Twenty Years Old (43,737) 19,000,000 students in elementary schools, grades i to 6 480,000 grade teachers (basis 40 pupils per teacher) 4,800 physical-education teachers needed as supervisors (basis 100 teachers to each physical-education supervisor) 800 physical-education supervisors at work, June, 1916 4,000 additional physical-education teachers needed at present 4,500,000 students in junior and senior public high schools 15,000 physical-education teachers needed (basis i teacher for each 300 pupils) 1,000 physical-education teachers at work, June, 1916 14,000 additional physical-education teachers needed 155,000 students in private high schools, June, 1916 770 physical-education teachers needed, June, 19 16 (basis i teacher for each 200 pupils) 500 physical-education teachers at work, June, 191 6 270 additional physical-education teachers needed 403,000 students in college and university, June, 191 6 2,000 physical-education teachers needed (basis i teacher for each 200 pupils) 1,400 physical-education teachers at work, June, 1916 600 additional physical-education teachers needed 111,672 students in normal schools, June, 1916 1,167 physical-education teachers needed, June, 1916 300 physical-education teachers at work, June, 1916 867 additional physical-education teachers needed, June, 1916 10,000,000 youth (boys and girls), ages sixteen to twenty, inclusive, outside school, June, 191 6 20,000 physical-education teachers needed, June, 191 6 1,500 physical-education teachers at work, June, 1916, in Y.M.C.A.'s, clubs, etc. 18,500 additional physical-education teachers needed (basis i teacher per 500 pupils) SUMMARY OF TEACHERS NEEDED (Includes Both Men and Women) 43 > 73 7 total number of teachers needed 5,500 total number available teachers 39,237 total additional teachers needed 1,000 trained men teachers demanded 200 trained men teachers available 1,500 trained women teachers demanded 800 trained women teachers available These teachers demanded (1000 men, 1500 women) represent the recognized unfilled need. The remaining 36,687 represent the actual need, only partially recognized. The new state physical-education laws are an actual menace unless trained teachers are sup- plied to meet the broad health-reconstruction needs. Untrained teachers may do real injury to the growing youth. 202 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary 2. Teachers Needed for Adult Recreation and Physical Education (60,000) The United States Army needed, as a minimum, one recreation leader for each 500 soldiers. On this basis 30,000,000 wage-earners, spoken of above, would need 60,000 recreation leaders. These 60,000 recreation leaders could be furnisht the 30,000,000 wage-earners at a cost of two cents per day per worker for instruction. If the 281,000 school buildings were used the cost for additional heat, light, and janitor service would approximate two cents per worker, or a total of four cents per worker for instruction, equipment, and service. This is less than one-half the cost for illness by $135,000,000. These cost figures do not estimate the manufacturers' loss due to idle machinery. State laws are needed to make possible and obligatory such a program. Compulsory general education laws are not sufficient. Of the young men of Massachusetts 47 per cent are unfit physically to become fighting men. Such a condition means that they are not up to par as citizens or producers. PUPIL RESPONSIBILITY AS A TRAINING IN DEMOCRACY I. M. ALLEN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. No more important question can be raised than. How may pupils in a public-school system be trained in democracy ? That we have made progress in the solution of this problem is evidenst by the statement of the question. We used to say. How may we train pupils for a democracy ? We now say, How may we train pupils in democracy ? Training in democracy is a dynamic process: it is training in how to feel, think, and act cooperatively; it is another way of saying that we comprehend, appreciate, and share our common environment. Dewey would say that it is what we mean by the educative process. Regardless of whether we reduce our problem to an axiom upon which we shall agree, we shall assent, I am sure, to the proposition that no prog- ress in democracy is attainable that is not founded on education. In a democracy it has been well said, "There are no masters but the people, and the people themselves are only masters so long as they are masters of themselves." Conceding then that democracy is the rule of an enlightened and self- controlled people, it follows that the public-school system is a very important agent in democracy-building. Indeed I think it would be well for us school people to assume that the school is the most important democracy-manufacturing institution in our country today. Too many people do not understand that democracy is not an accom- plisht fact but a growing ideal, not a thing but a force, not a goal but a method of progress. When we really grasp this idea and apply it in the schools it will be as truly revolutionary as was the application of the idea that heat was a force. There was a time when it was supposed that heat was a thing to be bored out of matter and shot in globules thru planetary space. When, however, it was really understood that heat was not matter t Department] PUPIL RESPONSIBILITY AS TRAINING IN DEMOCRACY 203 but a mode of motion the manifold application of the new idea revolution- ized the world of science. Just so revolutionizing, when it is really under- stood, is the idea that democracy is not a thing but the socializing force that directs peoples to feel, think, and act cooperatively for the common good. If people are to feel, think, and act cooperatively, then they must be trained to do so. Democracy must become a habit. It must become an act as long as hfe. The excitement of the hour may make us soldiers in spirit. But only a long process of education can give us sanity of citizenship. There is according to Plato a pattern laid up in heaven of the true state and true citizenship. But Plato also pointed out that it is only thru long training that we become conscious of this pattern and learn to appre- ciate it. A revolution may produce Bolsheviki anarchy, but it cannot produce the spirit of cooperation and loyalty to a common good which are the essence of a democracy. Accepting then the proposition that democracy is the socializing force which directs cooperative action to the common good, how may such a spirit or socializing force be stampt into the nervous system as habit? Plainly we must not wait until the nervous system is crystallized. We must begin early in the public schools to train children in cooperative feeling. Numerous instances can be cited where schools have put into successful operation cooperative control of school discipline, classroom management, including the socialized recitation, and the social activities of the school. We could easily criticize the attempts at self-government and socialized recitation with which we are familiar. The involved plan of organizing the school into a school city or junior republic, and of creating courts, tribunals, and classes in parliamentary law for the purpose of teaching citizenship, have probably been found to be impractical and only suc- cessful in isolated cases. But the principle of learning to cooperate thru practice, the surrendering of individual rights for the common good, and the developing of social consciousness and conscience thru the assump- tion of cooperative responsibility in management of class discipline, recita- tion, and social activities are fundamental principles in democratic control that will remain with the children practist and trained therein. Indeed in this manner alone can we hope to stamp democracy as habit into the nervous system of our children. Shall we require our teachers immediately to introduce cooperative school and class management, socialized recitation, and democratized social activities ? No ! Teachers cannot be required to democratize their teaching and classroom management. They must first get the vision of what democratized education means. Too often we have visited schools to discover that the teachers therein knew nothing of the marvelous experi- ment which had been exploited at a teachers' convention in a distant city. We are entitled to impartial surveys, and it is most encouraging to note -204 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary that with reference to training in democracy the subcommittee on Super- intendents' Problems has sent out a questionnaire "for the purpose of discovering factors already existing in some American schools that tend to a truer and completer democracy in the hope that school superintend- ents and committees of teachers may be inspired to adopt to their own local systems the best means used by others and to pass on to others what is best in their own." Finally we cannot expect our teachers to train children in democracy and to stamp the nervous machinery of children with responsiveness to cooperative control unless the teachers find themselves in a cooperatively administered system of schools. Does the teacher have a voice in the making of professional rating systems and educational requirements for salary promotions and the opportunity to express herself on various educational and administrative policies ? If we really believe in democracy and expect to train children in it, then it must be practist in the administrative offices and organizations of the school system as well as in the classroom. There is no place for a vicarious democracy in a system of public schools. In Germany is illus- trated a nation seeking to establish autocracy thru a system of education. She succeeded. Is it possible for us thru training in the schools to estab- lish a cooperating democracy? Yes, but the task is more difficult than the education for autocracy. Training children to feel, think, and act cooperatively is more difficult than training children to feel, think, and act dependently. We shall not, however, despair because of the enormity of our task. Primarily we must believe that the teacher is a self-directing, cooperat- ing control machine placed in the school for the purpose of training similar machines to function. There will be many breakdowns in the school, and there will be times when the chief engineer will desire to switch back on to the old autocratic controls, but if he really understands himself, the machines intrusted to his care, and the purpose of the school he will be willing to blunder in the manipulation, to be disappointed in the day's quantitative output, because he is concerned, not in a product made in Germany, but in a product in the making in America. This chief engineer is the American school teacher, and the wonderful, coordinating, cooperative, self-directing, and self-improving machines are American boys and girls in our public schools. The force that operates within such a school is the socializing force of democracy. If we really beheve in it we shall operate our schools according to its laws. Our chief concern in the twilight of democracy is to discover its laws and then to apply them. DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Frank L. McVey, president, University of Kentucky ,^Lexington, Ky. Secretary — Edward L. Schaub, professor of philosophy, Northwestern University Evanston, 111. Tuesday Afternoon, July i The Department of Higher Education of the National Education Association con- vened in regular session on Tuesday afternoon, July i, at 2:00 o'clock, in Juneau Hall, Auditorium, Milwaukee, Wis. The meeting was called to order by Frank L. McVey, president. The following program was presented: "The Influence of the War on Higher Education" — James Sullivan, chief, Division of Archives and History, State Department of Education, Albany, N.Y. "The Effect of the War on Methods of Teaching"— A. A. Potter, State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans. "Modification of Business Methods in Educational Institutions" — Henry H. Hilton, chief of Settlement Division, Committee on Education and Special Training, War Depart- ment, Washington, D.C. "Effect of War on the Education of Women" — Kathryn S. McLean, dean, Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio. Discussion — E. A. Birge, president. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; James L. McConaughy, president, Knox College, Galesburg, 111. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President— Guy Stanton Ford, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Secretary — J. J. Pettijohn, director. Educational Extension, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. Edward L. Schaub, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE INFLUENCE OF THE WAR ON HIGHER EDUCATION JAMES SULLIVAN, CHIEF, DIVISION OF ARCHIVES AND HISTORY, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N.Y. Let US waive for the moment all questions which because of the absence of sufficient data must remain problematical for some years to come. College executives will undoubtedly occupy themselves with what they conceive to be the lessons to be drawn from the war. That these lessons are going to bring about any such great cataclysmic changes as their opponents advocate is doubtful. By that time the veil that covers much that has gone on in the army this side and on the other will have been withdrawn, and perhaps we shall be in a better position to take the impartial measure of the work accomplisht by executives and technical 20s 2o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher men trained, so to speak, overnight. In all this tempest of criticism the college executives will do well to remember that our country has never fought a war in which the college man played so large a part as in this one. The very men who were attacking the colleges were at the same time asking for the assistance of college-trained men. There is, however, another side to this question than that contained on the courses and methods of instruction in the colleges. This is contained in an attack, virtually unconscious, on practically all higher education. Those of us who have been away from the cloistered shadows of your institutions and have been mixing with the sordid world are inclined, when we hear you talking about what you are going to do with your student body in the future, to ask: "How do you know you are going to have a student body?" We think that there is grave danger of your not having any, or at least one very much reduced in size. Let us have some of the reasons for this pessimism. While this war was on, and even after the fighting was actually over, we heard much, overmuch perhaps, of how much labor had done to win the war. This was the one great thing that was exploited in the news- papers. Figuratively speaking we patted labor on the back — "You're hot stuff. You're it. Without you we would have lost the war." In very truth it was the apotheosis of labor, and labor was not slow to take advantage of it. If its head became a little swelled it was really the fault of the public. If labor was inclined to take the public by the throat and say, "Give us what we ask or we will stop the very breath of industry," it was largely the public's fault. "If we stop work, you'll starve," said labor, and we were not able to say "nay." Tho a little less vociferous about its accomplishments, capital did not hide its light under a bushel, and we reacht the almost unbelievable state of having the lion and the lamb lie side by side in peace. In order to stand in with labor one millionaire capitalist made the remark that "the time has come when the remuneration given to hand labor must equal that given to brains." He might have gone farther and not even have said "must" but "actually is being given as much and more than brain labor." We have lookt in vain for anyone to sing the paean of brains and the part they played in winning the war. We are not far wrong in saying that the first expression is in the subliminal consciousness of labor and of capital today. The latter has actually found itself able to employ well-trained brain labor at less than hand labor. It has been able to employ a man to design the bridge at less than the riveter who puts in the rivet. In the language of the Street: "If such conditions are to prevaij^ where does education come in ?" If hand labor, by a display of union force, can get all that goes to make up for the pursuit of happiness, why should a young man go thru a long and arduous training merely to find himself compelled to live huddled up in apartments Department] INFLUENCE OF THE WAR ON HIGHER EDUCATION 207 in our great cities, returning from his business day by day to help his wife with washing the dishes and even at times with the family washing? I can cite cases where this is done even in your colleges. Is the head of a grammar school or of a high school justified in encouraging a boy or girl to continue for four or eight or even more years for an education which, after it is attained, will bring him or her less than a plumber's assistant or a shirt-waist maker ? The biggest job of the college and technical school head at the present time is to convince an unbelieving, skeptical world not only that an education pays, but that it ought to pay. At present it does not. At a meeting of a society of engineers in Syracuse a short time ago a comparison was made of the remuneration received by the engineers, most of whom, as you know, are nowadays merely employes of great corporations, with the wages received by railway employes and in the trades. The discrepancy was markt. As one engineer remarkt, "Do you think I am going to send my boy to a college or a technical school as long as such conditions prevail ?" How long are you in the colleges going to acquiesce in such condi- tions? Are you raising an organized protest against the minimizing of the importance of education by allowing those who get it to obtain less than those who do not have it ? Labor cries out, "If we stop work, you starve." Have you met it with a similar statement, "If brains stop work, the world does not stand still; it goes backward to stagnation and death" ? The world has not yet been made to realize by a strike what would happen if the engineers of this country of ours quit work. The man who puts the bolt in the girder has not been made to realize how helpless he would be were the blueprint plans not forthcoming. The riveter can with a few hours of apprenticeship learn to put in the bolt, but he and the world at large must be made to realize in some forceful way that it takes years to prepare a man to be able to design a bridge. Until such a reali- zation is brought about, and the fact that brain labor must receive more than hand labor, then our higher educational institutions are going to have, and should deservedly have, lean years. The war has, to some extent, shockt many people because of the dis- covery of the amount of so-called radicalism found among our ministers and college professors. To those who know what some of these men receive it is no surprise to hear the cry for social justice coming from them. It is no surprise to be told by the president of one of our largest women's colleges that the words "teaching profession" are taboo with the graduates. The late Francis Joseph is said to have remarkt that the comforts of life made a good citizen. We must be glad that he did not use that much- abused word "spiritual." In these days of normal-school commencements Scrooges with long whiskers get up and tell the teachers, "Yours is not a profession in which you get a large material reward. It is in the spiritual satisfaction that you get in molding the minds of the makers of 2o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher the nation." The spiritual, however, does not feed an empty stomach and clothe a naked back. After some of our ministers and college pro- fessors have been rudely awakened to that fact, is it surprising that they are joining the ranks of the radicals ? THE EFFECT OF THE WAR ON METHODS OF TEACHING A. A. POTTER, DEAN, ENGINEERING DIVISION, KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MANHATTAN, KANS. The war has opened up a larger vision of education. Many of our educators took an active part in the war, and this has resulted in stimulat- ing and broadening their life and outlook. Teachers who were engaged in war work in the mihtary and in the non-military branches of our govern- ment were forst into doing things entirely unorthodox and unacademic, and this will certainly have a most beneficial effect upon the curricula and methods of teaching in our schools, colleges, and universities. Results accomplisht in the military-training camps for the technical branches of the army indicate that the following factors in our educational system will stand more careful analysis: Organization. — More effective results can be accomplisht if the duties of every person connected with the administration, instruction, and research activities of an educational institution are carefully workt out, showing lines of authority and responsibility. A diagram should then be drawn up which shows at a glance to whom each individual in the organ- ization is responsible and the main duties, whether executive, teaching, or investigational, every person is performing. This chart should be supplemented by departmental charts and by written instructions which should set forth details of organization. It should be the duty of the head of the institution to familiarize the heads of the various departments with the organization. The heads of the departments should be held responsible for the quality of the instruction in their departments. To correlate the work of the various instructors in any given depart- ment frequent conferences should be held of all instructors teaching the same or related subjects. The head of the institution should also hold frequent conferences of all department heads in order to correlate the work of the various departments and to discuss administrative details. Matters affecting the entire teaching force should be discust at general meetings, which should be attended by every person connected with the institution. When several instructors are teaching the same subject, but to dif- ferent sections, the schedule of instruction should be planned by a com- mittee including all such instructors, and in cooperation with the head of the department. If at all possible, where several instructors are handling Department] EFFECT OF THE WAR ON METHODS OF TEACHING 209 the same subjects, the sections should be so arranged that men possessing similar qualifications are assigned to the same section. Teaching methods. — The best teaching methods lay the greatest empha- sis at all times upon teaching men and not subjects. Every effort should be made to build upon a student's abihty, knowledge, and experience, while stimulating his originality, imagination, initiative, power of anaylsis, judgment, and leadership. This means that every student is carefully tested and sorted by objective methods before being assigned to any partic- ular class, and his progress in every class is carefully watcht. Educational institutions are becoming interested in the intelHgence or psychological tests of the army. Such tests, if carefully handled, should prove of considerable value in guiding students. More attention should also be given to rating students on certain personal traits as well as only academic performance. The intensive courses which were used in the training of about one hundred thousand vocational speciaHsts for the United States Army indicate that too much attention is often paid in higher educational insti- tutions to prerequisites in connection with technical courses. Several engineering colleges, as a result of their experience during the war, are now introducing practical intensive courses in the Freshman year to precede the more scientific and abstract courses. The Freshman students in mechanical engineering are given a course in the elements of power-plant engineering, those in electrical engineering a course dealing with electrical machinery and construction, and those in civil engineering considerable surveying. Those responsible for these courses feel that concrete courses will reduce the mortality among engineering Freshmen, will arouse and maintain their interest in their chosen work, and will better prepare them for the more abstract courses of the later years. Those who were intimately connected with the training of officers for the various army corps felt that the methods of teaching in our schools and colleges lack thoroness. Teachers. — The personality, abiUty, education, and experience of the teachers have more to do with the success of any educational institution than all other factors combined. A good teacher has a thoro knowledge of his subject, is familiar with the best teaching methods, understands human nature, and is able to interest and enthuse his students in the subject he is teaching, while stimulating the student's imagination and developing his initiative. The good teacher lives up to the best ethics of a professional man, does not make contracts which he does n'bt intend to keep, and has such human quaUties as enable him to keep the respect of his students, his colleagues, and the people in his community. While the time since the conclusion of the war has been too short to reach any definite conclusions concerning its effects upon teaching methods, 2IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher there is a markt improvement in the organization of the institutional staff and of teacliing methods in many of our higher educational insti- tutions, and such conditions should react in improving the quality of our instruction. MODIFICATION OF BUSINESS METHODS IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS HENRY H. HILTON, CHIEF OP SETTLEMENT DIVISION, COMMITTEE ON EDUCA- TION AND SPECIAL TRAINING, WAR DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, D.C. A business* man who has been more or less in touch with colleges for thirty years and who is called upon to discuss business methods of educa- tional institutions naturally makes a comparison of business and college to ascertain just what may be common ground in the application of busi- ness methods for the two. A business is organized primarily for profit, while the function of the college is the training of men. The principal assets of either business or college are financial resources and good-will. With the business house the financial resources have the greater weight. With the college, altho financial strength is important, good-will is a sine qua non. It is com- monly said that a college rarely dies, and we all have in mind institutions whose financial resources have been impaired or swept away, but whose friends have remained steadfast until in due time their old vigor was restored to the institutions. Under the heading of general administration the analogy between business house and college is readily observed. The same methods which are recognized as sound in progressive business must be used in the con- duct of any college which is to continue and develop. The good- will of a college is measurably dependent upon the confidence inspired by its management. Our colleges have commonly enjoyed the good-will of their respective constituencies. Yet they have not been spared by the Ameri- can public in its universal practice of criticizing and ridiculing people and institutions. The criticisms have not come altogether from non-college men. A railroad president, himseK a college graduate, said not long since that after many experiences with college men he had decided that there was something wrong in the training and that he would make no further experiments with men who had so much to unlearn. A Chicago lawyer of distinction remarkt the other day that unless a young man were well balanst, in nine cases out of ten a college education would be his ruin. Parents, anxious to do everything possible for their children, but startled by various undergraduate escapades and lawless antics, have found them- selves in the ranks of the doubters. The persistent query has been, What is the matter with our colleges ? Everybody apparently has been disposed to assert that something was wrong, and nobody has been quite able to Department] BUSINESS METHODS IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2II furnish the corrective. Remedies indeed have been discust and appHed, but still the public clamor has not abated. This was the situation at the beginning of the war. Upon the declara- tion of hostilities action followed automatically on the part of college faculties and undergraduates. The younger instructors and the students vied with one another in flocking to the standards of the fighting forces, and thousands were soon engaged on the various fronts standing shoulder to shoulder with the city clerk, the farmer, the miner, and those of every other walk of life which was there represented. Wherever there was a post of danger or one requiring special courage or unusual capacity the college was sure to have its representatives. The casualty lists tell their story. The rate of loss was probably as great among college men as was the case in any other body of Americans of equal number. The older members of the faculties were not less quickly responsive than their younger associates. From the very first they were keen in their interest and within a short time were participating in various kinds of war work. The records of the war will show, not only that the response of the college men was enthusiastic and unhesitating, but that their obligations were fulfilled with decision and ability. There yet remain other criticisms which touch subjects properly falling within the classification of business methods. Are these criticisms valid ? If so, how shall they be met ? The army turned to the colleges for assistance when overwhelmed by the call for mechanics which it was next to impossible to meet. The response was immediate and whole-hearted. So-called "vocational courses" were establisht at two hundred different points, the plants being adjusted to the exigencies of the occasion with total disregard of any incon- veniences arising from the upsetting of the regular schedules. Short courses were arranged. Thousands of students were promptly enrolled. The results were astonishing and gratifying. In courses of six weeks or two months men with no previous training, men pickt up anywhere and everywhere, were turned out with a working knowledge of the subject in hand sufficient to equip them for what was immediately expected. The Student Army Training Corps was organized later, absorbed the "voca- tional courses," and provided as well for curricula, including many of the regular college subjects, with emphasis upon those which would be of immediate value, and a shortening of the usual time given to such subjects. Satisfactory results would doubtless have followed but for the sudden cessation of war. Absorbing interest means concentration, and concentration means results. Can a definite purpose and the will to develop power be sub- stituted for the drifting indifference which now to a considerable extent prevails in every institution? That the war called forth these character- istics by an appeal that will not maintain under normal conditions is 212 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher undoubtedly true, but it is certain that some method should be evolved for giving practical application to this particular experience and bringing similar purpose and power. The student must be challenged, by the gUmpse of a definite goal which will bring about a quickening of effort and the eliminating of all that is waste. Concentration is demanded and practist in any business house of standing. Every college should have a man, or men in the case of the larger institutions, of ability and experience, whose time and thought should be especially given to questions involving money. The position of business manager should be one of authority, relieving the president largely, if not wholly, from the burden of conducting this phase of the college work. There should be the widest pubHcity given to the financial condition of the college. A typt or printed statement circulated annually and in terms easily understood would furnish this information to the public and afford an opportunity for a study of comparative costs which could not fail to prove advantageous. It goes without saying that adequate account- ing is the cornerstone of every business house. In any scrutiny of the business management the trustees should be included. In bank, corporation, or other business the directors are pre- sumed to be men who are conversant with the conduct of whatever they represent and active in their interest. Should less be expected of college trustees? Yet any general survey will indicate a widely varying degree of efficiency. This is necessarily true because of the differences in the methods of selection. These officials are appointed by the governor of the state, elected by popular vote, selected by geographical location, because of religious affiliation, social standing, or potential wealth, or chosen by the alumni. The trustee has often accepted the position as a rounding out of his career, altho possessing neither capacity for the obligation involved nor appreciation of that obligation. The college boards should be limited in size, should be chosen from the alumni wherever this is feasible, and two prerequisites for any nomination should be a college degree, or its equivalent, and leisure, wilHngness, and ability to serve. No business house can long continue if the management is lacking in strength. It is generally agreed that whatever may have been the shortcomings of the military regime in our colleges the experience was beneficial from the physical standpoint. The army officers insisted upon sanitary stand- ards, new plumbing, and better water supply. Fixt hours and habits were the imperative orders, and the housecleaning proceeded despite pro- test and without procrastination. Few colleges will fail to profit in some degree by the changes inaugurated. A progressive business is housed in modem quarters. The plan of dividing the year into quarters, eliminating the long summer vacation, was originally put into operation by the University of Department] BUSINESS METHODS IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 213 Chicago twenty-five years ago, was followed by others later, and is under discussion now in many colleges. This is sure to have a growing accept- ance as one of the lessons in conservation. In spite of some weighty arguments to the contrary the preponderance of evidence seems to favor the new plan. The summer quarter will become an integral part of the college work. In favor of the change the arguments which will be most convincing are the utilization of the plants in full measure, the opportunity which will be afforded to teachers to continue their studies on a regular basis, and the chance for the student to shorten the time given to his undergraduate course if he is so disposed, instead of proceeding leisurely for nine months of the year and marking time for three months, which is frequently, if not usually, the case today. Business houses use their plants to full capacity. The recent experience of college teachers in war work has been tre- mendously impressive. They have found themselves and have in turn been discovered by the business world. Will they go back to teaching ? Most of them will doubtless do so, but not under the conditions hereto- fore existing. With a new sense of power and the appreciation of their own adaptability to the business world, they will insist upon a different recognition by college authorities. Greater freedom will be demanded. Larger salaries will be expected and should be granted. One thousand dollars, instead of being usual for an instructor, should be considered ridiculous for any well-trained man. The business house knows from experience that underpayment of employes is false economy. With the consciousness of growing power there should come to college professors an increasing disposition to place themselves upon an identical footing with men of business. An important step in this direction would be for the life-tenure, in whose warmth they have baskt, to be discontinued, making their status become that of the corps of any business house of repute. In the past, to many dependent upon salary, such assurance of permanence has been an inducement, if not full justification, for selecting this vocation. With the readjustment of compensation to a higher level the argument of necessity disappears. Were this change to be brought about could anyone question the resulting benefit ? The courageous would not be thereby deterred from entering the profession. If it were otherwise with the timid, so much the better. The life-tenure principle in the busi- ness world would have a paralyzing effect. Disaster inevitably follows in the business house where this principle has been allowed to take root. Would anyone argue that if such a principle is fatal in the business house it is wholly without bearing in the college world ? The rise of the state universities has come almost wholly in the last thirty years. Their advance during the last decade has been phenomenal. The situation is not dissimilar to that of a half -century ago, when the private academy of New England found itself confronted by a new rival. 214 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher the rapidly developing public high school. The outcome has been the survival of only the better-endowed academies. The counterpart is seen in today's relation between the privately endowed college and the public institution. Every friend of education should welcome the prospect of such increasing rivalry. We have seen what a stimulus Leland Stanford Junior University was to the University of California, and how the Univer- sity of Chicago was a quickening influence upon all of the state universities of the Middle West. The analogy between business and college holds absolutely as to the advantage of healthful competition. If a modification of business methods should include the development of power thru concentration, and to that should be added an improvement in the accounting systems which in many cases must be radical, and to that a wiser plan for selecting the trustees, and to that a program which always measures up to assurances given, and to that improved sanitary conditions where such are faulty, and to that a fuller use of the physical resources, and to that a substantial increase in the whole salary scale, and to that the elimination of the Hfe-tenure, and to that the adoption of the pension system, and to that a recognition of growing competition — then the wealth of good-will which the colleges today enjoy will be not only conserved but increast, and as a matter of course that other important asset, financial resources, will follow. With the courage which comes of proved power, with the enthusiasm of large numbers, with the recognition of a more rigid standard of requirements, with the neW insistent call upon youth to civic responsibility, who can question that the colleges will respond to their larger opportunity, and who can estimate the resulting benefit to the world they serve ? EFFECT OF WAR ON THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN KA.THRYN S. MCLEAN, DEAN OF WOMEN, OHIO WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, DELAWARE, OHIO What the final effect of the war will be upon education is naturally a matter of conjecture. Of this one thing we can be sure, that, as it affects women, it has forced open doors of opportunity which will never be closed again. Into just what avenues of development these attractive vistas will lead us only time' — the final arbiter- — will tell. May it be given us, in these critical days of reconstruction, to have a vision that will look -well into the future, a saneness that we* may not be led off into attractive by-paths, and faith and courage slowly but none the less surely to follow the gleam and rear an educational structure that will satisfy the demands of today and anticipate the needs of tomorrow! Perhaps you are famihar with the poem of an Australian lad who early in the war lost his life for the sake of democracy : Department! EFFECT OF WAR ON THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN 215 Ye who have faith to look beyond the tragedy of a world at strife And know that out of night and death will rise the dawn of ampler life, Rejoice! whatever anguish rend the heart, That God has given you the chance to live in these great times And take your part in Freedom's Crowning Hour, That ye may tell your sons who see the light high in the Heavens, Their Heritage to take. I saw the Powers of Darkness put to flight; ^ / saw the Morning break I We have seen the morning break! Now what of the day? What is our heritage as women ? War as it affects women presents some striking contrasts. It brings us untold sorrow- — we are all agreed upon that. Since the beginning of time women have had to bear the brunt of war, and yet as if to atone for this unsought sorrow the reverse of the shield is seen in the fact that it carries in its wake great opportunities for progress and opens many doors of privilege, industrial, economic, social, and educational. It would be an interesting study to follow this line of development thru the wars of the centuries. Coming down to the history of our own country and to our own time, we know that the Civil War drove home the indisputable fact that women must be educated. As a result of the tremendous urge given the cause of education at that time college and professional education is a foregone conclusion for thousands of women, and technical training of all kinds is urged upon thousands more. It is not conceivable that the future holds any return for women to the limitations of ignorance. Today we have an aroused conscience regarding the need of education for women. We have silenst forever the fear that woman's mentality is of a different stamp and perhaps a bit inferior to that of men. We have colleges and technical schools, but we need as a permeating force that intangible, illusive thing, difficult to define, which is not a building, is not a college, but is a spiritual thing, which we find within these walls, and which makes us know that the longings pent up within us have been satisfied, and that because of life within these environments we can go forth women of all-round development, ready and glad to take our places as intelligent citizens of the world. To satisfy this longing, to meet this universal demand for the things of the mind, body, and spirit, is the duty and high privilege laid upon the educational institutions and leaders of today. Are "we looking well to the structure we are rearing to make sure that it is adequate and capable of wielding its destined and mighty influence in this day of days when democracy is in the process of being made ? The outstanding effect of the war on woman's education, a truth we are all agreed upon, is that in view of the many doors of opportunity open- ing for women we must have a curriculum which is more flexible and 2i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher elastic; a curriculum which recognizes a woman's desire, and often her need, to be economically self-supporting and fitted to enter practically all professions. This need recognized will mean that the colleges, particularly the women's colleges of the East — the West has already seen the light — must give up their time-honored traditions and offer so-called vocational courses with credit given for them. Why should our higher institutions of learning not educate all women who knock at their doors and educate them for something ? Col- leges, if they will thus listen to the demands of the day, will be the gainers in the long run, for they will thus be giving to the world women who have a technical training plus a trained mind and cultivated personality. This is the crying need of today — women of training, of culture, who are both a person and a personality. Our education for women must grasp that beginning of wisdom which is found not alone in cultural education, so called, and not in voca- tional education, but in social education. In the past so much of our college work has been carried on in an atmosphere far removed from warm human contacts with the life of our day. Social education will bring home to us the outstanding and all- encompassing truth which every woman sooner or later must grasp, and that is the oneness of all aspects of the woman's movement, whether in politics, education, church, or industry. This principle, understood, tested, and believed in, will give us solidarity and not the thing so often seen and de- plored, women working at variance with each other because of a difference of emphasis instead of all women working together for a common good. The projecting of women into avenues untried and alluring has tended to intensify a characteristic which has been both woman's bane and her blessing, and that is her individualism. This is a day for team work, working together for the common good. This leads us to a need which the war has made clear to us, and which the colleges must recognize and help to inculcate, and that is a group-consciousness among women for every other woman whether she be a homemaker, an industrial worker, a teacher, or a farmer. Together with this big general problem of group-consciousness we need to consider over and against it that other truth in matters pertaining to women, and that is in all our teaching to be sure we evaluate correctly both temporal and fetemal feminism. The power in the hand of woman of today is lost if she forgets this. Business and professional women recognize this truth. It is an empty thing to work unless there is some- one at whose feet we can lay the fruits of our work. Recognizing the force which feminism has and will wield because of the war, additional respon- sibilities will be put upon education. Education ought at every step to correlate the necessity of wisdom with the astonishing advance of women in all kinds of expertness. With Department] EFFECT OF THE WAR ON HIGHER EDUCATION 217 woman's advance into so many avenues of work there is a danger of an exaggeration of knowledge. It has been said that the "business woman has been hard, the university woman ha^ been bloodless," and we know that often neither has created fresh spiritual resources in her environment. There is a wisdom of the heart which we must accept, and a specific wisdom required of us as women. In all glory let it be said that many women who are working as men thankfully acknowledge the heritage of sex and gather courage and joy from the distaff side of life. How may this distaff kind of wisdom be transplanted beyond its ""indigenous habitat in the homes? Woman can help in the office, in the schoolroom, wherever she may be, to infuse democracy with the spirit of love. This is not a doctrine for woman alone, but to woman may well be apportioned the inculcation of the doctrine thru her innate wisdom of heart. How may this wisdom be attained? Not merely by knowledge as the prime requisite in life, but rather by consigning wisdom to a secondary place and putting the things of the heart, of the spirit, first. A tremendous responsibility, a responsibility such as the age will never see again, is put upon educational forces in thus directing educational trends and tendencies. We sincerely hope, and believe, that the women of today, those who have gone out from our educational institutions, together with the women of tomorrow, will justify the high hopes of society and constitute a force capable of organized and constructive work along all lines, whether industrial, social, or educational — women who can assume leadership because they have "seen the light high in the heaven" and have come into their heritage ! DISCUSSION: EFFECT OF THE WAR ON HIGHER EDUCATION E. A. BiRGE, president, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. — I have as little )cnowledge of the future as has any one of the speakers whose papers I am to discuss. But I have one advantage over them. I may base my remarks on their prophecies and need not venture any vaticinations of my own. It is rather impossible than difficult to predict exactly the effect of the war on higher education. But if the four speakers to whom we just listened have any skill in discern- ing the future there is no doubt as to the direction of that effect. It will lead toward two things: an increast attention to vocational studies and an increast efficiency of organization. I shall assume that these conclusions are right, and I do this the more readily because I agree with them. In my discussion I ask you to consider the effect on higher education of such changes, as far as this effect may be illustrated by a single point. Higher education has for many years been of two types, which may grade into each other, but which in extreme forms are not only diverse but incompatible. The first of these is the vocational type. In its extreme form it is the military type, since a strictly military education is necessarily the most exclusively vocational of all types. The other form of higher education is the university type. These two types seek different ends by different methods. The method of the vocational type in its extreme form was made known last fall to us of the Student Army Training Corps colleges by circulars from the committee on 2'i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher education of the War Department, The student was to "stand at attention"; he was to recite clearly and quickly. College work in the view of the committee is substantially a learning of lessons so that the student can reproduce the teaching of textbook or lecture completely, accurately, and promptly. The object of higher education in this sense is to furnish the student with the knowledge that he will need as he goes out from the school and to drill him in its effective use. Vocational education in general is of the same type as military, tho not so extreme, since the life into which graduates go is more normal and less definitely organized. But in all cases the course of study aims to give the student the specific knowledge which he will need to use on leaving college, and it gives it in a form suited for present, immediate, and efficient use. All vocational education has as its basic principle the utilization of the known. The university ideal of higher education is widely different. It seeks to cultivate a critical and investigating habit of mind. Where vocational instruction furnishes data and asks the student to form the habit of prompt decision regarding them, university training asks him to seek for data, to learn methods of investigation, to suspend judg- ment, to reconsider questions, to take time to see problems from all sides, to search for truth, not to utilize it; in a word, it aims to form the intellectual rather than the execu- tive temper. It therefore looks toward the more distant future for its results. It does not even attempt to send out men fitted to solve at once the practical problems which they will meet. It hopes to send them out with capacity for seeing and justly valuing these problems and trusts that experience will show the graduates how to reach the correct solution. It aims to form an independent personality rather than one which will secure prompt action under authority. I have intentionally presented these two types of education in extreme forms. In fact, both elements enter into most courses of higher study. University education in the most extreme form might wholly omit recitation and class drill. But in practice it is very far from doing so. Vocational education might confine itself to purely "practical" teaching and thus lead to a trade school rather than a professional school, but in fact this result is not reacht. But however the vocational and university elements may be combined, one or the other ordinarily predominates and determines the temper of the course or institution. Dean Potter's paper shows us how profoundly the admirable organization of the army has affected the academic mind. There is no doubt that one important effect of the war will be seen in numerous attempts to organize faculties more closely and to standardize teaching. It is worth while to remember that the organization of the army is successful because it dominates the entire life of the soldier. Its methods of teaching succeed because they have a very definite and very narrow aim — to fit men for success under rigidly controlled conditions. Perfect organization of industry means a perfectly standardized product, and the same law holds for education. A trade school can be thoroly standardized. Vocational instruction can be standardized in proportion as it aims at a vocation rather than a profession. But it is inconceivable that a university faculty should be organized as completely as Dean Potter indicates; for the purpose of a university is to develop intellectual personality in both faculty and students, and if this end is to be even partially reacht great freedom is necessary. In the academic as well as in the political world we may perhaps gain somewhat in efficiency if we are willing to abolish freedom. It is always worth while to ask whether the gain is worth the price. It is certain that in universities we must carefully avoid military and industrial ideals of standardization and organization unless we are ready to abandon university ideals. There are other aspects of the influence of the war which I should have been glad to discuss, but which did not occur to any of the preceding speakers. I therefore named them only. The establishment and development of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps Department] EFFECT OF THE WAR ON HIGHER EDUCATION 219 in so many colleges offer an interesting field for speculation. Here is a new subject offered and subsidized as an elective for Junior and Senior years. It is wholly alien to the intellectual work of most students; it is very highly vocationalized in standards and methods; it may easily occupy a third or more of the student's working time. The case is not one, either, where he must "take the cash and let the credit go." He can get both cash from the War Department and credit from the college at the same time. I wonder that no one has thought it worth while to guess the effect of this educational novelty. An even larger field for speculation lies in quite a different direction from any that have been entered today. Not only has the country been stimulated by war to see the value of vocational training, but its sympathy for humanity has been aroused as never before. And this feeling antedates by years our own entry into the war, which caused the prompt discovery of our vocational needs. What will be the effect in college life and work of our sense of an enlarged human brotherhood, of our interest in distant nations and alien races, and of our new responsibility for them ? I leave these subjects without discussion in order to touch briefly on one matter emphasized by Dr. Sullivan. He is, as he tells us, frankly pessimistic regarding the possibility of an adequate constituency for colleges, because the cash rewards of brain workers are so far inferior to those of craftsmen. I do not share his fears. The inad- equate reward of learning has been for centuries and for millennia the theme of poet and scholar. It is no new thing, or one brought to light by this war. It has rather been well known since the Trojan War. The world has had time to become adjusted to this fact. No man here, therefore, who went to college, I venture to say, did so in the expecta- tion of getting rich. We knew this fifty years ago as well as the youth of today can know it — that college offers no road to wealth. Yet we chose this higher education, as our spiritual ancestors had done for many generations, undeterred by the certainty of small financial gains. The reason for our choice is plain. Look at the plumber, or any other wealthy craftsman, of whom Dr. Sullivan seems to be somewhat envious. If we may trust the official attitude of the organization to which they belong they have little or no love.for their work. They regard it as the price which they pay in order to find enjoy- ment elsewhere and they constantly struggle to make this price as small as possible. We, on the other hand, chose the higher educaton in order that we might find happiness and pleasure in our daily work, not outside of it. The result has justified our hopes; and as long as human nature remains as it has been during all time there will be many who believe that life is more than meat, who will look for happiness in life's activities and will be more than willing to pay the cash price of such happiness. The facts are as the speakers stated them. Intellectual labor, now as always, is very inadequately paid. Its pay ought to rise, and it will rise; but the pay of other labor will similarly increase, and the comparative injustice wiU remain just as it has always existed. But in spite of this the colleges will not be deserted, nor will the num- ber who come there because "God has set the world in their hearts" be smaller in the present generation than it was in those that are past. DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS SECRETARY'S MINUTES MILWAUKEE MEETING OFFICERS President — D. B. Waldo, president, State Normal School Kalamazoo, Mich. Secretary— Aas A M. Tibbetts, Fargo College Fargo, N.Dak. •' The Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Thursday afternoon, July 3, at 2:00 o'clock, in Plankinton Hall, Auditorium, Milwaukee, Wis. The meeting was called to order by D. B. Waldo, president. The following program was presented : "How to Secure an Adequate Student Constituency for State Normal Schools and Colleges" — J. G. Crabbe, president. State Normal School, Greeley, Colo. "A New Type of Academic Work in the State Normal Schools" — George D. Stray er, president, National Education Association, New York, N.Y. "What State Normal Schools Should Do for Their Graduates "—Frank E. Ellsworth, chairman of Appointment Committee, Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo Mich. The following resolution was adopted by unanimous vote: The State Normal School, in this period of transition, occupies a position of trans- cendent importance, holding, thru its teacher-training function, the destiny of the nation in its hands. The position of the teacher in the training of a worthy and progressive citizenship is paramount, and the function has been recognized by the state in the organic law creat- ing the normal schools. We, here, representing the normal schools, accept the responsi- bility placed upon us by the state, and pledge ourselves to make the preparation of teachers for the public schools of the nation our chief purpose. In order that the normal schools may meet the responsibilities placed upon them, we favor: 1. The establishment of three- and four-year courses in institutions where they do not now exist in addition to the two-year courses. 2. The placing of the salaries of normal-school faculties on a basis which will hold the best of our teachers now in service, and which will attract the best talent when vacan- cies occur. 3. The providing of adequate buildings and equipment as attractive to the young men and women who enlist in the profession as the buildings of any other institutions of learning inviting any students whatsoever for whatever purpose. 4. The inauguration of a publicity campaign by all teacher-training institutions, as imperative in bringing to the people a clear realization of the function and importance of these institutions. 5. The establishment of well-organized courses of study in these institutions pre- paring teachers specifically for the field in which they desire to work. 6. The organization of plans for the improvement of teachers in service and for extension work. We favor also the nation-wide movement for the increase of the salaries of teachers in all grades. We favor the program for the equalization of educational opportunity, and pledge ourselves to secure the passage of the Smith-Towner Bill. 222 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — John R. Kirk, president, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. Vice-President — Joseph Rosier, president, Fairmont State Normal School, Fairmont, W.Va. Secretary — Anna M. Tibbetts, Fargo, N.Dak. Anna M. Tibbetts, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS HOW TO SECURE AN ADEQUATE STUDENT CONSTITUENCY FOR STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES J. G. CRABBE, PRESIDENT, COLORADO STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, GREELEY, COLO. The developments of recent months have already clearly set the prob- lem for the schools and colleges. No greater menace ever faced the American people than the present shortage of teachers. The choicest young men and women of the country must be attracted to the profession of teaching. This is fundamental. First of all in the objectives of the campaign for the improvement of the profession comes the urgent neces- sity for better salaries, and, in passing, it may be said that the campaign toward the professionalization of education should well begin by giving to competent teachers in teacher-producing institutions superior salaries. Radical and sweeping changes in the teachers' salary schedule should be made — and now. The exodus of teachers from the ranks of the pro- fession cannot be stopt by small increases of 5 or 10 or 20 per cent; and yoimg men and women of capabiHty will not begin to prepare for teaching unless they can see in the profession a living salary, a cultural wage, and an investment bonus. The immediate and sweeping changes in the teacher's scale of wage as noted would at once stay the rather alarming tide of teachers toward affiliation with union labor. Any sort of organization amoi^g teachers for mutual aid and interest is reasonable and proper and profitable, but it would be unfortunate for teachers to unite with other organizations in the interest of any particular class of people in a democracy. In all fair- ness the public-school teacher must be absolutely impartial in attitude and in his teaching. He must teach without discrimination "all the chil- dren of all the people." The American teacher should keep the fine impartiaUty that he has heretofore held in American education, thus eschewing all class distinctions. May we avoid entangling alliances ! The second objective of the campaign for the improvement of the profession is fully presented in the big "National Program of Education" as introduced in Congress and popularly called the "Smith-Towner Bill Revised." In this critical period in America our government cannot neglect a national program of education. We must see to it that the Smith-Towner Bill passes. Department] AN ADEQUATE STUDENT CONSTITUENCY 223 A third objective in the campaign for the improvement of the pro- fession— a third attraction toward it— is the securing of social respect and pubHc recognition for the teacher in the community. Beyond money compensation the rewards of the teacher are comparatively insignificant. Successful teaching brings no great honor. Apathy is the general rule with the public. "Anybody can teach school" obtains in thousands of homes, in business circles, and in whole communities. Teacher-producing institutions must be made attractive to young men and women who have been drawn to the profession of teaching. It matters not by what name the school may be called^ — normal school, normal college, normal university, or teachers' college; but it must maintain four-year courses of college grade. The full-fledged normal school is a teachers' college. As soon as practicable the normal schools and colleges should go on the quarter basis, which for years has been used by many of the leadmg colleges and universities. This practice is being followed in many schools which recently adopted the system. It is sure to grow in favor. The extension service of every teacher-training school should be defi- nitely organized under a competent director. Its purpose is to cooperate with superintendents in an offer of the school's resources to public-school leaders for the purpose of promoting their plans for public-school improvement. There are new demands for vocational training. We believe that vocational education is the work of all the public schools and not the work of a few special vocational schools. Funds from the Smith-Hughes Act ought to be available for these purposes, and every normal school should be prepared to accept the provisions of the act and to request a fair share of the money. Use the press everywhere with a publicity agent in every county in the United States. * The teacher-training schools are under-advertised. The meeting of this Department today will be worth all it cost if all its members go away with these words ringing in their ears: The normal schools are under- advertised! I offer the following sifted suggestions for a big program of institutional advertising — a plan of publicity. 1. A bureau of publicity: — The school must have a bureau of pubUcity with a "publicity man" in charge. Its activities include all sorts of advertising, school news, publication and distribution of bulletins, organ- ization and maintenance of mailing-lists, the handling of prospective students, various advertising plans and schemes, etc. The publicity man is first in importance in the matter of informing the people and increasing the school's attendance. If the president has nothing else to do he might be the publicity man; in any event some expert in this line should be at the helm, and he should be well paid. 2. A mailing-list. — This should consist of a series of classified maihng- lists. Any maihng-list must be kept up to date. A dead list is the poorest investment any mercantile house carries. 2 24 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal 3. A series of bulletins. — ^A monthly bulletin, entered as second-class matter at the post-office, is a very satisfactory method of issuing catalogs, circulars of information, departmental handbooks, illustrated booklets, etc. A quarterly bulletin will answer the purpose. In larger schools two or more series will be found necessary. 4. General advertising. — ^Hodgepodge, hurly-burly, haphazard adver- tising will be of little avail. Save the money which you have appropriated for pubHcity unless an experienst man plans for it. 5. A field agent. — A field worker, well informed, tactful, popular, proves her value. I say her. Try her out and you will be pleased. 6. Special visitation to high schools. — Since the next step from the high school, in the training of teachers, is the normal school or teachers' college, it is highly important that these higher institutions of learning focus the attention of the high-school student before he has made his choice of profession and of college. J. An alumni association. — Graduates are themselves the best adver- tisement for a school. Keep this organization compact and well officered. Keep its mailing-list a live one. 8. Free tuition and low cost of living.- — No tuition should be required in a state school, and certainly not in a teacher-training school. Inci- dentals and all fees should be fixt at a minimum. Dormitories should be establisht in most normal schools. 9. The married woman teacher. — I make a plea for a definite campaign for the married woman teacher, not in her behalf, but in behalf of the schools. We have made a botch of it for years in keeping married women out of the larger schools. "America has been improvident and wasteful in her failure to utilize the energies of the married woman teacher." It is silly to argue today that she might keep some man out of a job. A woman with a very small child should be at home, but aside from this situation no real reason can be offered why the married woman should be deprived of the privilege of teaching. She might render valuable service again in the school. Normal schools can make a "ten-strike" by campaigning for the married woman teacher and by insisting that all laws, ordinances, and regulations of school boards prohibiting married women from teaching in the pubUc schools be suspended or repealed. WHAT STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS SHOULD DO FOR THEIR GRADUATES PRANK E. ELLSWORTH, CHAIRMAN OF APPOINTMENT COMMITTEE, WESTERN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KALAMAZOO, MICH. All modem manufacturing concerns catering to more than a local trade estabHsh a sales department. This department is expected to dispose of the product, establish a permanent market, keep in touch with the Department) STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND THEIR GRADUATES 225 needs of that market, and keep the customers satisfied. Defects in the product as discovered by the trade and any changes in the demand of the market are promptly reported back to the production department. Not only that, but the sales department is expected to exercise prophetic vision over the field and wisely anticipate future needs. I appreciate the fact that normal schools are not manufacturing concerns but institutions engaged in developing young men and women with high ideals and pur- poses, who shall be capable of directing our boys and girls aright. The analogy holds, however, for the purposes of this discussion. Normal schools would do well to incorporate a sales department, so to speak, and give to it much the same support and consideraton as do the manufacturing concerns. The normal school has all of the reasons of the manufacturing concern for the existence of the sales department plus the advantage that comes to it from satisfied aliunni. In many normal schools this truth is but partially recognized, and the work of the Appoint- ment Committee is given over to a clerk in the general office, an over- workt faculty member, or the busy president, who should not be bothered with this problem, with no more success than this makeshift plan warrants. No business concern could afford so to treat its market and its product. Believing that the normal schools could, with much profit to them- selves, their alumni, and the schools of our country, give more consideration to appointment-committee work, I desire to present some of the oppor- tunities and problems of this committee. In discussing appointment- committee work I shall draw freely upon our plans, purposes, and experiences at the Kalamazoo State Normal School, not with the idea that, our system is perfect, but with the hope of being suggestive and helpful. The big responsibility of the Appointment Committee is to place the graduates where they can best serve and best grow. This problem involves the necessity of knowing the Seniors, knowing the alumni, knowing the field, and knowing as many as possible of the best ways and means of effecting the desired contract relationships. Our effort at Kalamazoo to know the graduates has resulted as follows: A committee of six members of the faculty, selected from different depart- ments, is appointed and assigned to this definite problem. Each Senior fills out a blank for the Committee, giving data relative to his age, previ- ous schooling, experience in teaching, church preference, etc. The critic teacher with whom the candidate teaches makes a comprehensive report of his practice teaching. Three faculty members with whom the candidate has done considerable work give their opinions of the candidate. With these data is filed the student's academic record, which is supplemented by the estimate of each member of the Appointment Committee as to the candidate's general fitness for teaching, exprest in the form of percentages ranging from 100 to o. From these data the chairman of the committee 226 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal forms the institution's opinion of the party. A conscious effort is made to make this opinion institutional rather than personal. This material is sup- plemented later by a report from the superintendent with whom the first year of teaching was done, and any other reports worthy of consideration that may come in, and all is filed in the office of the Appointment Committee. In order that normal schools and their alumni may cooperate to any considerable degree, it is necessary to take definite steps to secure and hold the attention and interest of the alumni. Many are so located and so constituted that they lose contact with their normal school. They take it for granted that the normal school is thru with them the moment they receive their certificates and are placed in their first positions. All should be kept on the mailing-list and should, from time to time, receive bulletins designed to keep them in touch with the school, its problems and achievements, and assuring them of the school's interest in them and its desire to be of further service. The problem of knowing the superintendents, school boards, and schools of the state is a much more difficult but not less important prob- lem. The chairman of the Appointment Committee should have a wide acquaintance with the school men and school systems of the state which are to be served, this acquaintance to be extended as much as possible and supplemented by any information which has a direct bearing upon work of the Appointment Committee that the faculty may gather. Normal-school presidents would do well to establish visiting days for every faculty member. Make out a regular schedule of towns and dates with the faculty assignment and see to it that the visits are made. The big advantage, of course, would come to the faculty members themselves by thus coming in contact with the real school situations to which their students go, and seeing for themselves their successes and failures. Inci- dentally the information gained concerning school conditions and the graduates would be of much value to the Appointment Committee. As to some ideas relative to the best way of serving the graduates and the schools, I would make the following suggestions: (i) Be strictly honest with the graduates concerning the institution's opinion of them, the posi- tion for which they are best fitted, and the character of the position for which they are applying. (2) Be strictly honest with the superintendents and the school boards concerning Candidates for positions. (3) Be ready to present the best candidates that are left to every superintendent and school board. (4) Give to every visitor the best service possible. (5) Never attempt to force a candidate upon a superintendent or school board. (6) Encourage superintendents and school boards to come to the normal school for teachers and discourage appointments by correspondence. Improve these opportunities to make them acquainted with the faculty, equipment, and ideals of the normal school and incidentally get their ideas and ideals. (7) Be suggestive, not dictatorial. Department] STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND THEIR GRADUATES 227 I Seniors in a normal school, as a class, are rather poor business people. JThere has been Httle in their training, up to the time of graduation, to prepare them to bargain with school boards and superintendents. Many do not meet people well, write poor letters of application, do not have definite notions of the kind of position wanted, do not know professional customs, do not know the meaning of a contract, are dominated by parents ho are not informed as to the school situation, and do not know what eir services are worth. This situation is met in the Kalamazoo State Normal School by a eries of twelve lectures given by the chairman of the Appointment Com- ittee and by private conferences between Seniors and the chairman of e Appointment Committee, at which their desires are noted, and they e informed concerning the institutional estimate of them and the pproximate cash value that they should place upon their services. Alumni are encouraged to communicate with the Appointment ommittee when they consider themselves ready for promotion. This ort to assist our graduates has resulted in a surprisingly large number f promotions, and "the tie that binds" has been strengthened in every stance. In attempting to establish a highly desirable relationship between he normal schools and its graduates the school superintendent is a most vital factor. The superintendent with positive character and abiUty, roperly recognized and supported by an intelligent school board and ackt up by rational public opinion, at once becomes an asset to every rogressive movement. It should be the policy of the Appointment Com- ittee to advise and cooperate fully and frankly with superintendents f this class, especially concerning the supply of teachers, the probable lary schedule, and the success or failure of our graduates, and to offer y suggestion that will tend to increase our abiHty to serve. The superintendent who is not able to establish a satisfactory school tuation in his community presents a different and more difficult problem, e must be helpt first to see his problems and then to solve them. It ay be necessary to develop his appreciation of first-class teachers. A few days spent in visiting good schools and observing strong teachers teach is helpful. If his knowledge of the salary situation is deficient, show him a list of the best salary schedules of the state and the list of the gradu- ates placed to date, together with their salaries. Also acquaint him with the supply of teachers and the demand. An interview with a few strong candidates who will decline any offer he may make, because of his salary schedule, will do him no harm. Talk large salary schedules to him until the first shock has worn off and the sound becomes commonplace. Mon- roe, Mich., with 47 teachers, has a minimum salary schedule of $1000 and only one grade teacher next year will receive less than $1100. Grand Rapids, Mich., applies the same salary schedule to the grades as to the 228 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal high school for the same preparation, that is, a grade teacher with an A.B. degree receives the same salary as a high-school teacher with an A.B. degree. It is good for him to peruse the long list of towns and cities with minimum schedules of $900, $850, and $800. The Appointment Committee may cooperate with superintendents who are not quite able to handle their school boards by helping some of their best teachers to get located in another school system at a very much improved salary. A number of instances of this kind have produced satisfactory results. The schools of Michigan that are most loyal to the Kalamazoo State Normal School are those that have been consistently hiring our best gradu- ates. By encouraging more schools to pay the price for some of our best graduates the demand for well-trained teachers can easily be kept far in advance of the supply, and competition for their services can be strength- ened, with a highly 'satisfactory effect upon the salary schedules. As a result of this extension of services to our graduates we have an advertising agency distributed about the state that can and will do effect- ive work since it can speak with knowledge and appreciation. Any campaign for students, for better teachers' salaries, for better school legislation, for better legislative support, will meet with prompt and hearty support from all who have been helpt after a term of service in the field. Superintendents and school boards do not forget courteous and efficient service when it comes to pointing the way to a good normal school or supporting such a school in the legislature. All this will tend to draw to the normal school more of tiie high-school graduates with discrimination and initiative. They, in turn, will leave the normal school as high-grade teachers, and the boys and girls will receive more of the kind of teaching that they deserve. In other words, the normal school that best serves will be best served. SECRETARY'S MINUTES CHICAGO MEETING OFFICERS President — D. B. Waldo, president, State Normal School Kalamazoo, Mich. Secretary — Anna M. Tibbetts, Fargo College Fargo, N.Dak. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, February 25 A conference of the Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association was held on Tuesday forenoon, February 25, 1919, at 9:30 a.m., in Masonic Hall, Auditorium Hotel, Chicago, 111. The meeting was called to order by D. B. Waldo, president. The following program was presented: "Adequate Compensation for Teachers in State Normal Schools" — John A. H. Keith, president, State Normal School, Indiana, Pa. Discussion — O. L. Manchester, State Normal School, Normal, 111.; E. O. Finken- binder, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. Department] ADEQUATE COMPENSATION FOR TEACHERS 229 "The Status of the Critic Teacher"— W. C. Bagley, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, February 25 The session was called to order at 2:00 p.m. by the president. The general topic for the meeting was "How May the Preparation of Teachers for American Public Schools Be Made Worthy of a Great Democracy," and the following program was presented: "The Preparation of Rural School Teachers" — Ernest Bumham, Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich. "The Preparation of Graded Elementary Teachers" — Thomas W. Butcher, presi- dent. State Normal School, Emporia, Kans. "The Preparation of High-School Teachers" — Alexander J. Inglis, Harvard Uni- versity, Cambridge, Mass. "Preparation of Supervisory and Administrative Ofl&cers " — W. G. Coburn, super- intendent of schools. Battle Creek, Mich. "How the Colleges and Normal Schools May Cooperate in the Preparation of Teachers for American Public Schools" — Lotus D, Coffman, dean. College of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Anna M. Tibbetts, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ADEQUATE COMPENSATION FOR TEACHERS IN STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS JOHN A. H. KEITH, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, INDIANA, PA. In 1 91 5-1 6 the state normal schools of this country received $10,121,884 for support. If 80 per cent of this amount were spent for the salaries of teachers, the sum thus spent, $8,097,507. 20, seems very large. But this sum was divided among 6642 teachers, thus equaling an average annual salary of $1219.13. There is no way of knowing whether 80 per cent is the correct figure or not. It is probably high enough for all schools whose only income is from the state. There are, however, many schools whose term and other fees become available for purposes of support in addition to appropriations from the state treasury. The matter may be pursued a bit farther to see how different sections of our country fare under the hypothesis of 80 per cent of support money going into salaries of teachers. The figures are arranged from data given in Vol. II of the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1917, pp. 447 and 452, and relate to the school year 19 15-16. TABLE I Section of Country Number of Teachers Received for Support Support per Teacher 80 per cent of Support Equals Average Annual Salary North Atlantic Division 1,945 2,233 823 1,030 611 $2,088,534 4,181,034 941,858 $1,073 1,882 $ 858.40 1,505.60 915.20 North Central Division South Atlantic Division South Central Division 1,416,894 1 1,375 T ACiT. c6a 1 ■> AAA Western Division. . 1,955 20 230 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal These figures are probably not far from the correct ones, and they arc probably above the' average. I know that they seem to belong to the Lower Devonian era, and yet they compare most favorably with $563.08, the average annual salary of all public-school teachers for the same year; and they not only prove that the Golden Age is in the future, if anywhere, but they show that the sage advice of Horace Greeley has not lost its value. I have gone to the trouble of getting reports for the current year from eleven widely scattered normal schools. I have grouped these by sections to show how the actual facts compare with the 80 per cent hypothesis. Table II follows and is self-explanatory. TABLE II Salaries at Eleven State Normal Schools, January, 1919 Section of Country Number of Teach- ers Total Annual Salaries Average Annual Salary Number of Weeks Average Weekly Salary North Atlantic States: 13 II 30 22 $ 13,525 00 13,575-00 51,140.00 28,150.00 $1,040.38 1,234.09 1,704.66 1,280.00 38 36 39 40 $27-38 34-28 43-71 32.00 2 ? 4 Totals and averages Southern States: e 76 15 29 22 18 16 43 $106,390.00 23,000.00 24,835.00 45,000.00 26,334.32 16,313.28 59,059.17 $1,399.00 1,313-32 1,201.21 2,045 -45 1,463.00 1,019.58 1,373-46 2940 47 39 42 36 32 36 $36.18 27-93 30.80 48.70 40.63 31-86 38.15 6 . . 7:..:. : : 8.... 0.. . . 10. . Totals and averages A Mid-West School, 11 143 35 $194,541.77 46,857.50 $1,360.43 1,339-28 5958 36 $32.65 (1260)37.75 Totals and averages 254 $347,789-27 $1,369.64 10,158 $34.23 Comparing now the average annual salary found by averaging current salaries at eleven schools with the 80 per cent hypothesis, the present actual average salaries are found to be $150 .51, or 12 .34 per cent higher than the 80 per cent hypothesis. But the hypothesis is workt out for 191 5-16, and three opportunities for war-time increases have intervened. Therefore the 80 per cent hypothesis is prpbably high enough for present facts. The normal-school teachers of Wisconsin (p. 6 of their mimeographt statement to the responsible boards and to the legislature) quote the average annual salaries for normal-school teachers for the present year — without any reference to the number of weeks of service rendered — as $1489 for 369 teachers in Wisconsin, or $41 .36 per week for 36 weeks. Departmentl ADEQUATE COMPENSATION FOR TEACHERS 231 As secretary of the Committee on Surveys and Standards of the National Council of Normal School Presidents and Principals I have had access to the working- sheets of some fifteen self -surveys. The average annual salary of the state normal-school teachers, revealed by these surveys, is a little above $1500. Schools with meager salaries are sensitive about publicity. There are very few states in which the salaries of normal-school teachers are publisht in any form. I cannot refrain from saying (parenthetically) that the general public does not know how inadequate these salaries are. There are three angles from which this matter of salaries may be viewed : that of the teachers themselves, that of the presidents and the governing boards, and that of the members of the legislatures of the several states. The latter are not usually well and truly informed on the matter, nor are they easily interested in it. The fundamental reason for this lack of interest is that the normal schools are removed from the turbulent currents of pohtics in the several states. Legislators are interested in public education in its general phases, but details are usually tiresome to them, primarily because there is no excitement about it. Everyone who has tried to get salary increases of any kind from a legislature has confessed to the power of general apathy — the winner of so many bloodless battles. The governing boards and the executive officers are usually aware of the need for salary increases, but they have to plan their campaigns with legislatures in terms of what they think they can get rather than in terms of what they know they ought to have. It is easy to criticise this attitude, and yet it has brought us all the advance that has been made. All of the straightforward attempts to get what governing boards know their teachers ought to have, and of which I have had personal knowledge, have come to naught. The great and crushing arguments are that it would create a precedent that would bankrupt the state, and that if the teachers are not content to work for the salaries they receive let them resign and go else- where. It is difficult for the teachers who have workt with unfailing devo- tion for the fundamental welfare of the state to appreciate this all too frequent legislative attitude. Every normal-school executive knows that he is losing teachers all the while because of inability to pay reasonably adequate salaries. This causes chagrin, pain, and disquietude of soul, for which no specific has yet been discovered, but which is intensified by the equally certain knowledge that he cannot command the services of the people who by training and experience in public-school work are best fitted to carry on the preparation of the next generation of teachers. What can a president do, say, when in search of a man to organize a rural -school department in his school having available $1800 as salary inducement to offer to men who receive from $2500 to $4000? What is he to do, say, when he can offer only $2500 to the principal of the training school, and when the men who are qualified to fill the position already command salaries from $3000 to $5000 ? 232 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal He does the best he can, partially recovers after a while, and decides to take it up with his governing board again, and go again to the legislature. Those who are to discuss this paper will present the matter from the point of view of the teachers themselves, and they will probably be able to convince you that mankind has been very unkind to them. They may also be able to suggest some principles of salary adjustment which will be effect- ive with the public generally and with legislatures. In particular they may be able to tell you what salaries would satisfy the normal-school teachers of this country at the present time. A salary schedule is not a contract or a binding obHgation until it has been adopted by the power which provides the money. This means that salary schedules for normal-school teachers must be adopted by legislatures before they become binding contracts. This, in turn, means that the schedule must be written into the law. When thus written into the law it is taken as a matter of course, as an establisht custom, and it is very diflftcult to change, as state officers have learned, as governmental employes of all grades have learned, thru exceeding great grief. During a period of decreasing purchasing power of the monetary unit such a fixt schedule always works injustice to the employe. If the movement starts the other way, those who guard the public purse are eager to reduce taxes, and salary schedules are easy prey to this eagerness. The matter cannot be handled satisfactorily by minimum wages, for the tendency of the mini- mum wage is always toward the establishment of itself as the prevailing wage. Salary schedules by governing boards which are dependent upon other bodies for their funds are at best temporary arrangements which are successful only until a crisis arises. Budgetary schedules are difficult of adjustment and rarely have the binding force of law. For my own part, I have never been willing to have written into the law any normal-school salary schedule that could have past the legislature; and, on the contrary, the legislature has shown equal reticence about the schedule that was satisfactory to me. It should be clearly kept in mind that any salary schedule that does not amount to a contract is, in a last analysis, only a generous wish. There is another difficulty with salary schedules. They must either be automatic, or else somebody must say that the employes under considera- tion are worthy of the increase. The automatic schedule creates a maxi- mum of injustice by its predetermined mechanism. It has not proved satisfactory to those who have been its beneficiaries. If the schedule is not automatic a great responsibility is placed on the executive, and teachers are apparently unhappy because the responsibility is not theirs individually. It was the wise, tho crusty, Carlisle who said: ''There is always a dark spot in our sunshine: it is even the shadow of ourselves. " No salary schedule can be a permanent affair. The fluctuations of the purchasing power of the money unit forbid. The proportionate share which Department) ADEQUATE COMPENSATION FOR TEACHERS 233 wages are of total production also fluctuates, and with their fluctuations should be fluctuations in the compensation of teachers. And there are great economic drifts — world-movements for which no one person or nation is responsible, and great cataclysmic wealth-destroying events, such as wars and disasters and ravages of disease — all of which have influence upon the rate of compensation for services of all kind, increasing some and decreas- ing others. There are also ideals and values which affect relative rates of compensation. All of these forces are beyond the control of schedule- making bodies and yet have their influence upon rates of compensation. After ten years' experience as a normal-school teacher, twelve years as a normal-school executive, and some occasional contacts with efforts to increase salaries, I have reacht a few conclusions which are here put forth in a tentative way as centers for discussion: 1. The salaries of normal-school teachers should be sufficient to com- mand the services of those teachers best qualified by native ability, training, and teaching experience to initiate the oncoming generation of teachers into the mysteries of the art. 2. After employment these salaries should increase, so that the indi- vidual teacher would have sufficient resources to study, travel, and dabble in other occupations from time to time. 3. These salaries would have to be stated in terms of a unit whose purchasing power is constantly fluctuating. With reference to the first proposition, salaries of teachers are relative, not absolute. The cost of living is relative, not absolute. The scale or mode of living is relative, not absolute. The wealth of the community is a large factor. One would not expect a state with $670 of wealth per capita to pay as large salaries to its teachers as does a state with $3350 of wealth per capita, and it does not. The economic surplus is a factor of great moment. Be the conditions what they may, however, the institution which is to pre- pare the ever-oncoming generation of teachers should be able to command the services of those best fitted for the task. This means financial ability to equal the best salaries paid in the public system. It does not mean equal salaries for all normal-school teachers any more than it means equal salaries for all public-school teachers. The opportunity for genuine serv- ice must ever be an inducement to qualified people to enter upon teach- ing in a normal school. It will be a sad day for public education, if the day ever comes, when normal-school teachers are actuated more by salary consideration than by the desire to be of service. Regarding the second proposition, teaching in a normal school should hold out some inducements, some incentives, to keep the soul alive and growing. The incentives should be both monetary and professional, so that the occupation has a future which the teacher strives to secure. It is thru such striving that growth comes. Over and beyond the reasonable current expenses of living there should be a surplus for the teacher. This 234 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Normal surplus should also supply the means for travel, for further study, for recreation, and for participation in the organized life of society. Any teacher who shows a disposition to use this surplus to run a dairy, a chicken ranch, or a moving-picture house should be warned once. Any teacher who invests this surplus in mining stock or market margins should not even be warned. Regarding the third proposition little needs be said. Teachers, execu- tives, governing boards, and taxing bodies should honestly accept the fact of fluctuating purchasing power. The teacher should not expect to have a salary which equals a constant purchasing power. We should all like to be assured of an economic relationship in life such that it would assure us of a constantly increasing purchasing power. If we consult our preferences we should prefer that the increase be in geometrical progression. Our social organization (including the economic, of course) has reacht the stage of interdependence at which it is impossible that losses shall not be widely distributed. The destruction of wealth in the recent world-war, the destruc- tion of potential wealth thru death and the forst dislocation of populations, and the reduced production of certain forms of wealth in order that things needed in war might be produced in larger quantities means in the last analysis that everyone must temporarily have a lessened' portion of wealth. Even unborn generations must pay their tribute to this latest exaction of the God of War. We in this land, however, are wondrously rich. We can do almost anything we wish to do. Not only are we the richest nation that ever existed, but our wealth is increasing at an astounding rate. Barring possible intervening accidents our wealth will have doubled itself in twelve years. (In the eight years from 1904 to 191 2 the taxable wealth increased from $100,000,000,000 to $175,000,000,000, according to the United States Department of Commerce, bulletin on Estimated Valuation of National Wealth, p. 18.) The most important question before our nation is: What are we going to do with this unexampled wealth? I, for one, believe in investing a liberal part of the surplus in present and future social welfare. I have no complete program to offer, and if I did have one this is not the proper occasion on which to present it. But it is proper to present here the claim of the normal school to an increast millage of this rapidly increasing wealth — not for the sake of the normal school as an institution, not for the sake of normal-school teachers as individuals or as a class, but solely for assuring that better civilization for which the whole world yearns, which can come into being only thru better individuals, and to which better teaching is related as cause to effect. If I could have my meek and humble will in the matter the following salary arrangement would become effective at once for normal-school teachers. I would not guarantee the retention of all present teachers, nor of any that might be selected as their successors; and I should want to Department] ADEQUATE COMPENSATION FOR TEACHERS 235 reserve the right to modify these arrangements from time to time in terms of the great variables already mentioned, and also to go beyond the limits which are set up whenever "the good of the order" demanded it, because every normal-school executive knows that, even among normal-school teachers, "there are teachers and teachers." Here is my present conception of adequate compensation for normal- Ischool teachers, based on the thirty-six week year: Class I. — Critic (room or grade) teachers, assistants in drawing, music, physical education, library, and all other subjects usually taught in a normal school. ' * Qualifications : Four years of work of collegiate grade beyond a standard high-school course and at least five years of public-school experience. Salary range: From $1200 to $2250 per year. Increases: From $100 to $150 per year. Class II. — Supervisory teachers, including supervisors of practice [teaching, music, drawing, physical education, library, etc. Qualifications: As above, with at least four years of experience in a normal school and at least one additional year of professional study. Salary range: From $1800 to $3000 per year. Increases: From $100 to $150 per year. Class III. — Heads of departments, i.e., persons who plan the work for a number of other teachers in a given subject, such as English, history, foreign language, mathematics, etc. Qualifications: As in Class I, plus at least six years of normal-school iexperience. Salary range: From $2400 to $4500 per year. Increases: From $150 to $200 per year. Class IV. — Directors of the training department, rural-school depart- jment, music department, commercial department, etc., including deans, [on condition that these are real departments demanding administrative ibilities (not mere courses) . Qualifications : As in Class I, plus three years of advanst study in the [Special field and four years of executive experience. Salary range: From $3000 to $5000 per year. Increases: From $200 to $300 per year. Leaves of absence without salary may be earned by teaching in the [summer school, provided that no teacher may teach in more than three [successive summer schools without taking advantage for the purpose of study or travel of the leave of absence thus earned. Every seventh year of continuous or aggregate service shall be granted ^teachers as a sabbatical leave with one-half salary, provided the time be spent in study related to the teacher's work or in travel. I am well aware that the foregoing proposals put normal-school teaching [On a much higher plane than it has hitherto occupied. That is where it 236 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Normal belongs by virtue of its general intellectual character, and by virtue also of its fundamental social values. While it is well understood, moreover, that this arrangement is beyond the immediate ability of any school in the land, I believe it will commend itself to everybody as a reasonable ideal toward the realization of which we can all work devotedly. DISCUSSION E. O. FiNKENBiNDER, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. — President Keith's paper does not seem to me very optimistic in tone. The salary situation is rather depress- ing, I admit. He finds that presidents and governing boards must ask for what they think they can get rather than for what they ought to have. Also he does not favor a salary schedule written into the law; and all others, he says, in the last analysis are nothing but a generous wish. Shall we try to find reasons for this state of affairs ? I shall consider then, first, the point raised by President Keith as to the attitude and devotion of a good teacher; secondly, the results that arise from such attitude; and thirdly, a possible remedy for the unfortunate condition of low salaries that has arisen. Great numbers of teachers have been taught to accept an attitude of mind that seems to me to be almost, if not altogether, pernicious in its effect upon the normal schools. President Keith's last two sentences on the point of the need of large enough salaries to command the services of the ablest men and women are, to my thinking, of the same order and out of place. Look at the first one. "The opportunity for genuine service must ever be an inducement to qualified people to enter upon teaching in a normal school." What has the opportunity for service to do with the amount of salary paid ? Will the payment of a high salary take away "the opportunity for genuine service"? It may be that the speaker was thinking that if high salaries were paid to normal-school teachers . some people would be induced thereby to enter the profession even tho they did not find in themselves the ability and the desire to be of service; and hence that it is necessary to hold salaries down in order to keep out any such avaricious kind of folk. The latter quotation is: "It will be a sad day for public education .... when normal-school teachers are actuated more by salary considerations than by desire to be of service." Let me suggest that this statement is bad in that some young people who accept positions in our normal schools actually believe it and then preach it to those many students who receive their modicum of training and go out to teach in our elementary schools. This missionary attitude of mind permits them to hire out at a wage that a good washerwoman nowadays would scorn. The trouble with the situation is this: The teachers cannot live as they should, take the part in the community life that they ought, nor grow in their profession with the salaries they are receiving. This is true of normal- school teachers as well as of all others who are thoroly taught to be actuated by the desire to be of service. Someone has even said that "a good teacher is a person who receives pay for doing what he would gladly pay for the privilege of doing, if he could afford to do so." Such may well be the devotion of the good teacher to the cause of civic betterment and social advancement. But being of this turn of mind he has been treated much as if he were following a profession of his own creation, parasitic on society, which the public tolerates to some extent and which it is willing to support in a way. In time, unless ways are changed, the schools may be considered to be charity institutions, supported rather unwill- ingly and reluctantly, but yet held to be a part of the social order that cannot be altogether dispenst with. Those who have the missionary spirit in sufficient amount will continue to enter the profession, and because of their inadequate salaries blindly lower it in fact I Department] ADEQUATE COMPENSATION FOR TEACHERS 237 as well as in public opinion. The financial condition of teachers in our normal schools is far from what would give the necessary encouragement to lead into the profession many red-blooded young men, even tho they have discovered in themselves the probable adapt- ability and desire to become teachers of teachers. Also it will drive from the profession many of the teachers it now has. Low salaries (made possible by the spirit of altruistic service) are not a matter of injustice to the teachers merely but have a more serious result — poorer schools and, in turn, injustice to the children of the public. Injustice to a few hundreds of normal-school teachers in each state, tho it be felt keenly, is a small matter as compared with less effective schools and the resulting injustice to the many thousands of children, tho they suffer the loss unknowingly. In our study of conditions in Wisconsin for the last five years we find that good teachers are leaving the profession, many of them at increases in wages of from $500 to $1000 per year. These are the amounts of increases in salary that should be made immedi- ately; and the teachers who have gained this experience should be retained. We find that the average length of service of the 74 teachers who left during the last year was 2 . 9 years. Their stay thus turns out to be a sort of apprenticeship to better-paying positions in other lines of educational work, or in business. The old-time tendency for young people to use teaching as a stepping-stone to something better is creeping, if not coming faster, into the normal-school faculties of today. I would ask the normal-school executives if the normal schools can claim to have a high grade of efficiency with so great a "turnover" as one-fifth (or in some cases one-third) of the teachers each year ? Can a high point of efficiency be reacht or maintained when the "turnover" teachers stay, on the average, less than three years ? Why is this "turnover" so great? A first reason is that salaries have been falling so far behind the rising cost of living that teachers are being forst out of the profession for want of the necessary wherewithal to buy a living. Even ten years ago normal- school salaries had fallen $100 ($120 in Wisconsin) short in purchasing power as compared with the decade 1890 to 1900. But they have fallen $1000 farther behind, generally speaking, since then. A second reason for this great "turnover" is that other forms of employment are more easily demonstrable of productive value than is teaching. What, for instance, is the money equivalent of the value to the child of his being taught to be truthful, or appreciative of the beautiful, or courteous and kind ? These cannot at present be defi- nitely measured, as can the value of a boy's work in the shop, or the output of correspond- ence of a typist. It is probable that at present the position of a stenographer is more attractive to an able young woman than the position of a teacher. High-school graduates are receiving $1200 a year as stenographers, while half of the normal-school teachers receive less than that amount. Should not their additional four to six years of collegiate training make them worth more than the high-school graduate ? Are the states so penurious that they will not pay more? No. This condition exists today because the teachers as well as the presidents have permitted it to be so, and the public does not know of it. The remedy, as we see it, is to be found in a campaign of public information. Presi- dent Keith once wrote that the aim of education could be no higher than the conscious aim of society. Normal-school conditions will be no better than the public is wise enough to make them. Is it not the business of the normal-school executives to point out the dire necessities now existing, to inform the public in an attempt to make the conscious aim of society higher than it is ? It may be because of their executive modesty that the product of the normal schools is not more fully advertised. Manufacturers advertise their products long before they are made; they create a demand and a market. They do not spend all their energy upon the manufacturing process, nor even their first energy upon it; they advertise first; they do not stay at home and attempt to create 238 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal a product so good that the world will come to their door to get it as some normal schools insist upon doing. If the normal schools and the elementary schools which are so directly dependent upon them are to make the much-needed progress; if they are, in fact, not to deteriorate, executives must present to the public urgent demands for a more vigorous educational program. If the normal-school executives believe thoroly enough in the necessity of a stronger program, they and those whom they should employ for that purpose will set about to create a public opinion that will favor more pay, more teachers, and fewer hours of class work per teacher. THE STATUS OF THE CRITIC TEACHER W. C. BAGLEY, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. The status of the critic teacher in the normal schools of the United States may be briefly described by saying, first, that the salary of the critic teachers in the average of cases is about one-third lower than the average salary of the so-called academic and theory teachers; secondly, that the standards of educational equipment for the critic teachers are significantly below the standards demanded of the academic and theory teachers; and thirdly, that the critic teacher in many if not most of the normal schools occupies a subordinate position in the normal-school organi- zation as compared with other members of the staff. It is a relatively simple matter to explain these discrepancies, but it is not so easy to justify them. Critics have been drawn very largely from the ranks of successful classroom teachers in the elementary service. Their standards of qualification and remuneration, therefore, have been determined very largely by the standards prevailing in the elementary schools rather than by the secondary and collegiate standards which the other departments of the normal-school work have more or less faithfully reflected. The normal schools have been able to compete successfully with the elementary schools for competent classroom teachers without raising salaries very far above the elementary-school level. The law of supply and demand, in short, has operated against the critic teacher and against an adequate recognition of the central position which this person should occiipy in the general scheme of preparing teachers. Normal schools have never been blest with a superabundance of riches. If they could secure the services of excellent critics at a low wage it is not a matter of surprise that they have done so. To reverse this policy and to place the critic teacher on a par at least with the academic and theory teachers will not be an easy transformation. There are, however, several good reasons why it should be undertaken. In the first place, the normal school should stand consistently on the principle that neither the difficulties nor the rewards of teaching are to be determined by the age of the pupils who are taught. If low standards are Department] THE STATUS OF THE CRITIC TEACHER 239 accepted from, and low wages arc paid to, the teachers in the elementary schools it is not because elementary teaching is easier than teaching on the higher levels, and it is not because elementary teachers could not profit by as extended a training as that demanded of the higher teachers. It is rather because the problem of universal education is so vast that the mere matter of supplying enough teachers to do the work has so far prevented the development of adequate standards. Un^'er the ideal conditions, which may approach realization sooner than wl now suspect, many of these discrepancies will disappear. The normal school can do something to hasten this day by making certain that these distinctions, which have now only an economic justification at best, are not retained in its own organization. Frankly, to make the standards and rewards of critic teaching equivalent to those of other types of normal-school service would demonstrate to prospective elementary teachers that the work that they are preparing to do can have and should have an equal rank with the types of teaching that they now look upon as more advanst — an attitude which the subordi- nate status now accorded to the critic teacher deliberately discourages. This advantage in itself would justify the normal school in reversing its present policies, even tho the layman might consider it to be an extravagant use of public funds. Much more attractive rewards and recognitions for the critic teacher would also provide a valuable stimulus to teachers in the elementary service. At the present time there are few opportunities for anything in the way of significant "promotions" in the service which do not take the teacher away from the actual work of teaching children and into administrative and supervisory duties. The critic teacher, of course, has supervisory duties, but one may safely say that her principal business is still to practice the art of teaching children. Indeed the present tendencies in preparing teachers are laying larger and larger emphasis upon the demonstration of good work by good teachers. With the vast extension of teacher prep- aration which must come in the near future, the number of these demon- stration and critic teachers must be greatly multiplied. If we take steps now to give these teachers a suitable status the positions will form a goal toward which the ambitious elementary teacher can well afford to strive. They will indeed be the posts of greatest honor in the teaching service. They will appeal to the young teacher much as a place on the bench appeals to the young lawyer; and they must be made just as attractive as the honor positions in other professions. I dwell upon this point, not primarily because the welfare of our pro- fession depends upon the creation of conditions that will make the actual work of teaching boys and girls a highly respected and richly rewarded career, but rather because the full effectiveness of the function that our profession must discharge depends ultimately upon the creation of such 240 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Normal conditions. Some of my good friends have regarded as impracticable and visionary the suggestion that the normal schools, if they are to occupy the place and do the work that the needs of the nation require, must pay salaries as high as those paid by the best universities. But the logic of the argument cannot be controverted. Every worthy ideal of democracy is bound up indissolubly with the welfare and progress of our public schools. Indeed, if we cannot see today that the ultimate safety of democracy itself will depend upon the stabilizing factors that can be estabhsht only thru a pervasive policy of universal education vastly more thoro and effective than anything that has yet been dreamed of' — if we cannot see this today, then our eyes must be blind; and if the public schools are to occupy in the future a position far more strategic than military establishments, or courts of law, or even legislatures have occupied in the past, it is clear that the institutions that prepare the teachers for the public schools must bear the most serious of all responsibilities in the new world-order. Mankind today is divided pretty generally into two great groups: those who have faith that human ideals can be realized, and those who say that it cannot be done — those who are dreaming dreams and striving to make the dreams come true, and those who either smile indulgently and point to their fore- heads, or rant and rave and cry out that Utopia is inconsistent with the Monroe Doctrine, with the obvious imphcation that the plans for Utopia must be instantly abandoned. The logic of events, however, has a relentless way of overriding obstacles, and mere expediency, if no worthier motive, should impel us to keep the highest goal clearly and constantly before us. If men of vision are planning for great things in the spheres of statecraft, economics, and industry, then we should strive in our field, upon the welfare of which the realization of their dreams will ultimately depend, to take an equally broad and compre- hensive view. We should, I maintain, look forward to, and work resolutely for, a vast enlargement of the normal-school service, and especially toward the improvement of the normal-school personnel to the point where it will present the very highest standards of ability and preparation that profes- sional recognition can secure and ample rewards purchase. My special plea at this time is thkt we should admit to this personnel upon an equal footing with other members the teachers who represent most clearly in the normal-school organization the work for which the normal school stands. I should not have it thought, however, that the critic and demonstration teachers should be arbitrarily advanst in status without paying a reasonable price in the way of preparation. Of course the general level of normal- school salaries should be raised to meet the greatly increast cost of living. I am speaking, however, of the more fundamental readjustments, and in these it is clear that markt advances in recognitions and rewards should be paralleled by proportionate advances in preparation. We should, of I # Department] THE STATUS OF THE CRITIC TEACHER 241 course, be false to our trust and open to the serious charge of feathering our own nests if we were to urge greatly increast rewards for teaching with- out guaranteeing a corresponding improvement in service. The critic teacher should have an equipment comparable in every essential respect to the equipment of the academic and theory teachers. The equipment must differ in kind, of course, for a larger emphasis should be laid upon the factor of experience in teaching children. Personally I believe that all normal-school teachers, whether in the academic, the theoretical, or the practical fields, should have served an apprenticeship in the elementary or secondary school before being considered for appointment; but the appren- ticeship of the critic teacher must obviously be more extended than that of the other teachers. This will compensate, perhaps, for some of the graduate work that will be demanded of other teachers, but it should not compensate for all of it. If these teachers are to work on an equal footing with their colleagues in shaping normal-school policies, they must be well grounded both in general scholarship and in professional equipment, and the amount of both that they can profitably use in their own elementary and secondary classrooms has no limit. How shall these critics and demonstration teachers be recruited? Personally I have long believed that all public-school teachers should be selected on a rigorous basis of merit and then be prepared for their respon- sible duties at public expense. Whether this poUcy can soon be adopted for all teachers or not, it can and should be adopted for critic teachers. The other day I met a man who had had several years' experience in normal schools and who last year enrolled in one of my classes to prepare for further normal-school service. He left the university last spring, however, to take an emergency position in one of the great banks of New York City. He had had no experience in business, but the bank was glad to get him. When I saw him last Saturday I askt him whether he intended to come back into our field. He told me that he would like to do so, but that he simply could not afford the luxury; and then I learned that the bank had taken this inexperienst man and trained him for an important position, meantime paying him a salary much larger than any that he had earned in his teaching experience, and with the prospect of a salary far beyond what he could ever hope to secure if he returned. That man had been ambitious enough to give up his position and undertake advanst study at his own expense to fit him better for normal-school work, but the bank was keen enough to take him and prepare him at its own expense for its service. If we are to compete in education for the kind of talent that we need in ^our iiormal schools it will be necessary for us to adopt a similar policy. The state or the nation (or both cooperatively) could well afford at once to undertake the selection and preparation of critic teachers and per- haps of other teachers for the normal schools. I repeat that this is not a matter of choice with us; it is a necessity that competition with other 242 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal fields of work has brought about and will continue to bring about in ever- increasing measure. The policy will not pauperize the student any more than West Point pauperizes its cadets by paying them a living wage while they are undergoing their training; any more than the bank to which I have referred pauperizes its high-class apprentices; any more than the universities pauperize their graduate students by granting scholarships and fellowships. It is fitting and proper that one who suggests costly readjustments be challenged to suggest also practicable ways in which these readjustments can be brought about. In the specific transformation of policy to which I have referred the great need, of course, is for larger financial resources. If the Smith-Towner Bill becomes a law it will make possible a long step toward the realization of these proposals. Once the principle of federal cooperation in the preparation of teachers is establisht the most difficult part of the problem will have been solved. It is to that immediate end, I believe, that our present efforts should be directed. THE PREPARATION OF RURAL SCHOOL TEACHERS ERNEST BURNHAM, WESTERN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KALAMAZOO, MICH. The fads. — ^According to the latest estimates of the Bureau of Educa- tion 210,000 teachers are needed in one-teacher rural schools, and approximately 50,000 teachers are needed in 10,500 consolidated schools, while 40,000 more teachers are needed for the small village schools. The Bureau estimates the annual influx of new rural teachers at 87,500, and says that at least 125,000 inexperienst teachers were employed in rural schools this year. When a peace equilibrium has been regained there will be a rank and file of 300,000 teachers for rural elementary schools to be kept prepared to give their part of a square educational deal to 17,000,000 country sclibol children. At least 100,000 of these teachers will be beginners each year for some years to come. Town superintendents in New England and outside New England, county superintendents with deputies, subject supervisors, nurses, and extension workers, will be needed to the number of 15,000 with an unknown number of annual enlistments. For teaching rural teachers at least 8000 normal-school teachers are needed to meet the present crisis, and not less than 6000 will continue necessary to handle at all adequately the annual influx of beginners. An increasing number of teachers for rural high schools are in demand. The needs. — Once upon a time in a rural school an enthusiastic teacher with a light in her eyes which never was on land or sea compelled the attention of her children for ten minutes on some great social problem. When she stopt to take breath, a small boy lookt her straight in the eyes, and in all sincerity askt, " What do you want us to do about it ? " Grant- ing that we have all become little children in humility and in a sincere Department] PREPARATION OF RURAL SCHOOL TEACHERS 243 purpose to solve the literally tremendous task of the adequate preparation of all rural school teachers, what are we to do ? a) Make all types of rural schools ready for prepared teachers in teach- ing equipment, living conditions, and salary. b) Replace average men in the positions of authority and leadership in education, with real educational statesmen. c) Use the means already well advanst in their evolution, i.e., local training classes where necessary, state normal schools everywhere, depart- ments of agricultural education in land agent colleges, and colleges of education in universities, with all possible supplementary means. - \ \ ... --- — — ^ ... \ \ \ -- »» .... ^ "o <»- "> - k \ --■ — — 1 — 1 — \ Of >0 U( 1-J \ \ ") ) \ Q \ >o < o 5 \ -' V ^ \ CURVES OF LEGIBILITY WITH CHILDREN We must not, however, be hasty in applying the results of this first phase of the study. Several qualifying factors need to be investigated. On several of these factors we have some data. In the first place, it is neces- sary to compare the reactions of children to different degrees of illumination with those of adults. We have not yet carried this and the succeeding Department] ILLUMINATION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 345 phases of the experiment as far as they must ultimately be carried, but the curves shown in Fig. 4, which are from six children of eight to twelve years of age, indicate that the illumination requirements of young children are radically different from those of older children and of adults. Younger children reach the point of maximum legibility much more slowly than do adults, and substantial returns from an increast intensity of illumination continue to higher intensities of illumination in young children than in adults. The case of the child who is represented by the middle curve on the right is a peculiar one, which has no parallel among the adults and for which no adequate explanation has been found. The study of the illumi- nation requirements for young children in comparison with those of older persons demands more extensive investigation and promises important practical consequences. SPEED OF READING UNDER DIFFERENT INTENSITIES The measure of legibility which has thus far been used is one which has important advantages for the purpose of experimentation because it is relatively accurate. Reading individual letters is not, however, a type of reading which is commonly demanded, and the question arises whether it is a good representative of reading in general so far as the matter of legibiHty is concerned. In order to get an answer to this question tests were made in which legibility was measured by the speed at which lists of words could be read. In this way speed of reading was tested under different intensities of illumination. Ten lists of words were first standardized to insure that the speed at which the ten lists could be read was approximately equal. The speed at which the ten lists were read by fifteen individuals and the average speed for all the individuals on each list are shown in Table II. TABLE II I Time Required BY Fifteen Individuals tc (In Seconds) ) Read the Word-Lists List No. Individuals A « C D E F G H I J k|l M N 0 Average I 11 Ill IV V VI VII VIII IX X 3.6 4.0 4.2 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 ^■l 3.6 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.2 4.6 4.6 3.4 3-4 3.8 3-4 4.0 4.6 4.0 4.0 4.8 S.o S.o 4.0 4.6 so S.o 5.4 S-2 SO SO S.4 S.4 5.4 SO 3.6 4.0 4.2 4.0 4.0 4.2 4.2 4.0 4.0 3-4 3.4 3.0 3.0 3.0 30 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 S.o 4.6 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4-2 4.6 SO 4.8 4.6 4.6 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.6 X.l 5.0 5.2 S.2 5.4 S.4 5.4 5.4 5.2 S.o 5.2 4-4 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.4 4.0 4.4 4.4 4.8 S.o 4.2 1.6 4.6 4.2 4.2 4.2 3.4 4.2 3.6 S.o 4.0 4.0 3.4 5.2 3.4 5.2 3.4 4.2 4.0 5.0 U 4.2 S.o S.o S.2 4-2 5.6 5.2 S.2 5.0 S.6 5.2 5.2 5-2 4.6 ^6 4.6 4.6 5.0 S.o 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.3s 4.41 Average 3.9 3.9 4.4 S.18 3.98 3.1 4.5 4.46 5-3 4.3 3.8 4.364.88 5.1 4.66 M.V 0.16 0.36 0.44I0.I7 o.iS 0.14 0.3 0.26 0.14 0.28 0.38 0.390.32 0.51 0.28 .... .... Five of the lists are read in the same time within o . i second, and the extreme difference is o. 3 second, which is 7 per cent of the average time. 346 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration The dijfference between the average time of reading of the first five lists and the second five lists is only 0.06 second. These two groups are com- pared in the test of the effect of illumination intensity on the speed of reading. TABLE III Time Required to Read with 0.5 and 5 Foot-Candles (In Seconds) List No. 0.5 Foot-Candle List No. S Foot-Candle A B C D E A B c D E I 4.0 3.8 4.0 3.8 4.2 30 3.2 3.4 3.0 30 3.6 4.0 4.'o 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.0 4.2 3.8 3.6 4.0 VI S.o S.o 4-2 4-2 4.2 4.0 S-o 4-2 4.0 4.0 4.6 4.0 4.2 4-° 3.8 4.0 3.8 4.2 4.2 4.0 3.6 3.6 II VII Ill VIII IV IX V X Average . . . 4.0 3.1 3.9 4.2 3.8 Average 4-5 4.2 4.r 4.0 3-7 Table III gives the results of the test in which five persons read five of the lists under an illumination of o. 5 foot-candle and five other lists under an illumination of 5 foot-candles. The lists which were read under the 'higher illumination were not read more rapidly than those which were read under the lower illumination. There is, however, a large difference in the legibiHty of letters under these two intensities as measured by the distance at which they can be read. The distance at which letters can be read appears, therefore, to be a more sensitive measure of legibility than the speed of reading, and the degree of illumination which meets the require- ments of this test of the legibiHty of letters will satisfactorily meet the reading requirement in general. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT INTENSITIES ON FATIGUE It is quite conceivable that an intensity of illumination which is sufficient to enable one to meet a severe legibility test might still be unsatisfactory because it entailed undue eye fatigue after prolonged reading under the given illumination intensity. Accordingly the fatigue effect was tested by having the subject read continuously for a given period under a low intensity of illumination and then determining the legibility curve and comparing it with the curve of the same subject under ordinary conditions. The test was carried out under several intensities. The results of these tests are shown in Fig. 5. The tests were all made on the same person. The measurements upon which the curves on the left side of the figure are based were taken after the subject had read for one hour or an hour and a half under an illumination of J or i foot-candle. For example, the broken line represents the legibility curve which was secured after the subject had read for i^ hours under an illumination of ^ foot-candle. The continuous line represents the legibiUty curve after the same period of reading with Department] ILLUMINATION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 347 I foot-candle illumination. These curves may be compared with the broken-line curve in the right-hand figure, which represents a test made without previous reading under low illumination. It is evident that as much as if hours of continuous reading under I foot-candle illumination does not produce evidence of eye fatigue as measured by a lowering of the legibihty curve. Reading for i| hours under J foot-candle appears to have no effect on the legibility curve up to 2^ foot-candles, but from that point on some lowering of the curve appears. On the right side of the figure are represented two additional fatigue tests. The dotted line represents the legibility curve estabUshed after 2J hours of continuous reading under \ foot-candle illumination. This - - ~ - - ~ r ~ - T - ~ ~ ~ '~ ~ 1 - - - 1 ' ~ ~ ' - - r 1 r > i -r ^ a <. tr T (. :>y / >j r r- U ^ U 7 1 / • - 1 • 6 . ... r" 6 . -. -^ - ^ ■5 r^- ■»H r"" 1 5 _, - -H -^ 1 y 4 ... / ^ r- .. - - 1 -A - 4 • ^ /" - -^ -- 1 f •\ - — - '~ J / f uf R p \( 'W - 'A f r 0 H ''I P|f -1 ^i,y) ; 2 r 2 - - { ■/ // / F c ? y. « tt '^p F c t \- 1 , r ; / // / F c 2. y. " » '/? F c T :i'7 f(\ p A>tP ■ • ■ A ; i ; f .- I -<} : f 0( m 1^ lA 0 / r,= _J _j ^ _L _ _ Fig. s curve is sufficiently below that of the unfatigued eye to indicate that \ foot-candle is not sufficient to permit prolonged reading without fatigue. The continuous line represents the same conditions as the broken line except that the test was made with adaptation to i foot-candle. This seems to be slightly favorable. The experiment with fatigue demands more extended elaboration, but the indications thus far are that fatigue is not a factor which demands much, if any, higher degree of illumination than is demanded on the ground of legibihty itself. EFFECT OF ADAPTATION TO DIFFERENT INTENSITIES The legibility curve was first workt out in a darkened room with the illumination as far as possible confined to the text to be read. This was done in order that the effect of the general illumination of the room might at first be eliminated and then later studied systematically. It is the general opinion that an increase in the general surrounding illumination reduces 348 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration the legibility effect of a particular intensity of illumination of the printed page and necessitates that it receive a higher illumination than it would require with a lower general illumination. This variation of the sensitivity of the eye with varying degrees of general illumination is termed adapta- tion. For the purpose of testing this hypothesis the legibility curve was workt out with four adults under several degrees of general illumination. The method of controlling the general illumination independent of the illumination of the text was to inclose the subject in a Hght-proof com- partment within which the lighting could be varied. A small opening was FEET 7 i, s EFFECT OF ADAPTATION ON LEG/BILITY 7 -r--.--- -^rrrrrrr: Fr^- y'^ '" J-A f.....j\ DMiH ^DhP\ 'ATIOA/ 1 -_^ 'l FC " 1 FC \ ,• --f --T'U - -- ^^-'' /■-■ ! TA T/OAI 1 — — I FC -! _ ■<, f S .^^^^^.^ " " /■7i \ DARK ADAf>T AVION 1 ~ / FC " J f % i H- s •=^ l/r- >^ .yy-'' ^ 1 DMiK ADAP. ATI ON ' 1 10 FC XS- FC 1 FOOT CA/^DLES Fig. 6 left in the inclosure, thru which the subject could see the reading-matter. The compartment was lighted by an incandescent lamp, the light intensity of which was controlled by a sliding resistance coil in circuit with it. The illumination within the compartment was measured at the height of the subject's eye by means of an illuminometer. By means of this arrangement the legibility was workt out for three adults under general adaptation to i foot-candle and 7 foot-candles, and for one adult under a general adaptation to ^, 5, 10, and 25 foot-candles. The results are shown in Fig. 6. The curves of legibility show rather surprisingly Httle effect of adapta- tion. In the case of the three subjects who were treated alike there is practically no difference between the dark adaptation curve and the curve Department] ILLUMINATION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 349 under an adaptation to 7 foot-candles when the illumination of the text is more than i foot-candle. Singularly enough the ability to read a text illuminated by i foot-candle or more seems to be greater when the eye is adapted to 7 foot-candles than when it is adapted to i foot-candle. When the reading-nmtter is illuminated with an intensity below i foot-candle adaptation seems to have greater effect. The results with the last subject, who was tested under four degrees of adaptation, are still more remarkable. For him the ability to read the text when it is illuminated above \ foot-candle appears to be greater under all degrees of adaptation to general illumination varying from | to 25 foot- candles than under dark adaptation. This individual had been the subject of several of the previous tests, and it is possible that he was beginning to learn the order of letters on the cards, tho there were twenty cards each with a peculiar order. Even tho we discount these results on this account, how- ever, the adaptation to surrounding general illumination appears to be a less important factor than we should expect in view of common observation. SCHOOL TESTS UNDER DIFFERENT INTENSITIES Since the laboratory experiment may not faithfully report all of the conditions of the schoolroom which may conceivably affect the child's efficiency under different degrees of illumination, a schoolroom test was made to supplement this laboratory study. Table IV presents part of the results of this schoolroom test. The tests consisted in asking the children TABLE IV Record of Cancellation Tests under Different Degrees of Illumination Grade Order of Degrees OF Illumination First Test Second Test Difference between First and Second Test Net Score Errors Net Score Errors Net Score Errors IVB.... .. IVA VB VA VIB VIA VIIB VHA. . . . High first .High second High first High second High second High first High second High first 43 43 44 43 59 59 56 65 3 2 \ I I 2 I 38 36 33 41 51 51 41-5 51 6 5 5 4 8 5 6 4 - s - 2 - 8 - 8 -14-5 -14 +3 +3 +4 +2 + 7 +4 +4 +3 I to cross out letters from a sheet on which all the letters of the alphabet were printed in miscellaneous order. They were first askt to cross out the letters a and e on one sheet, with the lighting of the room so adjusted as to secure either a low illumination of about i foot-candle in the middle of the room or an illumination of about 3 foot-candles. Then the second sheet was given them, the illumination was altered, and they were askt to cross out the letters 0 and i. In half of the rooms the low illumination was used first 3SO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration and in the other half the high illumination came first. This was done to equalize any differences between the two tests due to differences in the difficulty of the tests or to practice. It will be seen from the table that the conditions of the test in Grades IVB and IVA differed only in the order in which the low illumination was given. In IVB, in which the low illumination came second, there was a loss of 5 in the number of letters crossed and an increase of 3 errors in the second test. In Grade IVA, in which the high illumination came second, the loss was not quite so great. In this way we may compare each pair of grades. In Grades IVB, VB, VIA, and VIIA the low illumination came second. In the two lower grades the loss in the second test was somewhat greater than in the other of each pair in which the high illumination came second. In Grades VI and VII, how- ever, the low illumination of the second test did not cause any excess loss. We may now sum up the results of the first part of the investigation and indicate its limitations and the extensions which should be made. In the case of adults the legibility of print increases very rapidly with an increase in artificial illumination from 0.2 to i foot-candle, much more slowly from i to 2.5 foot-candles. In the case of children of eight and ten years of age the increase in legibility is more gradual and continues to be markt up to 2 or 3 foot-candles. Speed of reading does not appear to be so dehcate a test as does the legibihty test, and the legibility test is probably adequate for the purposes 'of the experiment. The fatigue tests were made after reading with illumination intensities of J and I foot-candles. Only the trial in which the subject read 2^ hours with J foot-candle produced evidence of fatigue. When the text is illuminated with an intensity of i foot-candle or more the adaptation of the eye to a higher general surrounding illumination appears to have very little effect upon the ability to read. The schoolroom test indicated that the difference in illumination between j foot-candle and 3 foot-candles has effect upon efficiency in reading as measured by the cancellation test in Grades IV and V but not in Grades VI and VII. The trend of the foregoing results is to indicate a necessity for only modest requirements of artificial illumination. As far as they go they indicate that the standards of the Illuminating Engineering Society are higher than necessary in the case of older children and adults. This con- clusion, however, is advanst for the present only provisionally. The investigation should be extended in the following directions: 1. The legibihty curve for a larger number of children of each age should be workt out. 2. The fatigue test should be made with more subjects and a greater variety of lengths of reading-period and degrees of illumination. Department] ILLUMINATION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 351 3. The tests for fatigue and for adaptation should be made with children. 4. The effect of higher degrees of illumination should be studied. 5. The possible effect of practice on the legibility curve should be tested with children. 6. The experiment should be repeated under dayhght illumination. This will of necessity be much less accurate than the study with artificial light, but it must be done before an appHcation of the results to conditions of dayhght illumination can be made with assurance. 7. The province of this study has been to study the amount of light required for reading. For an ultimate solution of light requirements the effect of different intensities of illumination on the feeling or emotional tone should also be taken into consideration and should probably be made the subject of direct experimentation. This experiment has dealt only with the question of the intensity of illumination which is required. The practical question of how to plan buildings so that the required illumination shall be obtained is a distinct one and requires an entirely new investigation. THE RELATION OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION TO ILLUMINATION REQUIREMENTS The study of the second phase of the general problem is being carried on in two ways. In the first place a survey is being made of the illumination in existing buildings. This will make it possible to see how much light is secured under various combinations of window-floor-space ratio, height of windows in comparison to width of room, the direction in which the win- dow faces, or the orientation, the color of the walls, and the amount of black- board space, the presence of buildings or trees which obstruct the Hght of the outside, the time of day, season, weather conditions, and latitude. To these considerations must be added the determination of the difference in illumination in different parts of the room. The difi&culty with this form of investigation is that there are so many complicating factors in any particular situation that it is difficult to assign to each factor its due importance. In order to study some of these factors in isolation a model room has been constructed which can be illuminated from without by artificial light, and in which such factors as the size and illumination of the window space, the color of the walls, and the effect of different positions in the room can be studied conveniently. A specimen of the type of comparison which can be made by the survey of school buildings is represented in Table V. In the second to the sixth columns of Table V are shown a number of the conditions which affect the light, and in the last three columns are given the amount of illumination in foot-candles which is found under these conditions. These measurements were made in each room, one on a desk 352 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration near a window, the second in the middle of the room, and the third on a desk somewhat remote from the window. TABLE V Comparison of the Illumination under Varying Conditions Hour Weather Window- Floor Ratio Orienta- tion Obstructions Illumination Room Light Desk Middle Desk Dark Desk A A B B C C D.... D.... E E F G.... 2:00 2:00 2:10 2:10 2:55 2:55 2:30 2:30 2:45 2:4s 1:50 2:00 Rain Clear Rain Clear Rain Clear Rain Clear Rain Clear Clear Clear 0-393 .393 •353 •353 •353 •353 •255 •255 •307 .307 .272 0.188 West West North North North North East East South South West East None None None None One story One story None None None None [Height, 60 ft. \ \Distance, 30 ft. / None 17-5 19.0 9.0 10. 0 8.5 95 30 4-5 9.0 10. 0 12. 5 16.0 3-5 45 3-0 4.0 2-5 3-0 1.2 2.0 3-0 4.0 2.0 30 1.2 2-5 I.O 2.0 0.9 13 0.7s 15 15 2.3 0.5 1.2 We may first compare the illumination in rooms which face toward different points of the compass. Compare in this manner rooms A, B, D, and E, which are quite similar in other respects than this. In the afternoon it is clear that the west room is the Hghtest and the east room the darkest. The north room is lighter than the east room and practically as light as the south room. We must discount ' somewhat the measurement of the east room owing to the fact that the window-floor ratio is less than that in the other rooms. Similarly the superiority of the west room is in part due to this factor, and the north room would be slightly inferior to the south room if it had the same window-floor ratio. The north room, however, seems to be at very little disadvantage as compared with the others. If this conclusion is confirmed it will have an important bearing upon the arrangement of schoolrooms. Another comparison may be made between the lighting on a rainy and on a clear day. This may be done for the rooms A to E. There appears to be an unimportant diminution in the illumination of the brighter parts of the room but a more serious falling off on the dark desks. This calls attention to the great difference that exists between the amount of light in the different parts of the room. This difference raises what appears to be one of the most serious problems in the field. It is one to which a large amount of attention will be given in the further prose- cution of the investigatioii. Department) PLANNING CHICAGO SCHOOL BUILDINGS 353 Comparison of rooms F and G illustrates the effect of obstructing buildings. While the window area of room G is only two-thirds of that of room F its illumination is very much superior to that of F owing to the fact that an obstructing building faces room F. These serve merely as illustrations of the type of comparisons which are being made. The purpose is to evaluate the various factors which were mentioned at the beginning of the description of this phase of the experi- ment and to determine which factors are the most important with a view to laying down certain broad requirements which shall be necessary to secure the desired illumination. PLANNING THE SCHOOL BUILDINGS OF CHICAGO A. F. HUSSANDER, ARCHITECT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, CHICAGO, ILL. The city of Chicago has at the present time approximately three hundred elementary schools and twenty-four high schools, with a total enrolment of about three hundred and fifty thousand pupils. Approximately three million dollars a year are expended for new school buildings and additions, the greater part of which sum is expended on addi- tions to existing schools, which in almost every case include the remodel- ing of the old buildings to conform as much as possible with modern practice in school buildings. Construction. — The schools of Chicago are in most cases three stories in height, with a few buildings four stories and a few buildings only two stories in height; but the large majority of all the school buildings in Chicago are three stories in height. In this regard Chicago stands midway between the many-storied school buildings of New York City and the one-story school buildings of California. All the new schools and additions to schools in Chicago have been required for a number of years to be of entirely fireproof construction. The standard width of corridors is 15 feet, which makes them available as play space and exercising room in rainy or inclement weather, when it absolutely impracticable to send the children out of doors. One of the radical changes made in Chicago school buildings some years ago consisted of providing wardrobe spaces with shding doors along the side wall of each classroom. These sliding doors are hung by chains, are counterbalanced, have hyloplate blackboards, and are so adjusted that they leave a space of approximately six or eight inches in height at the floor so as to draw the ventilation from the rooms thru the wardrobe space to an exhaust ventilation duct. This has proved very satisfactory, and instead of having complaints, as was anticipated when this wardrobe scheme was first adopted, it seems to have workt out very satisfactorily. Basements. — Another radical change has been the elimination of the basement, making the typical school three stories in height without a 354 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration "basement. In this type of school building the finisht first-floor Hne is kept about two feet above the level of the ground surrounding the building and extra precautions taken to insulate the first floor from the ground. The boiler-room, coalroom, engine-rooms, etc., are all located in the first story. The assembly hall is on the ground floor with a space about three feet in depth under the entire main floor, which is used as a plenum chamber for heating and ventilating the assembly hall thru registers in the floor. While there are some teachers, principals, supervisors, and others who still cling to the idea that basements are desirable in school buildings there seem to be so many good reasons for omitting them that it is well to state a few reasons. 1. The greater portion of a basement is taken up by heating and venti- lating apparatus, toilets, storerooms, etc., leaving such a small proportion for playrooms that when all the pupils are sent down into the basement on a rainy day they are packt like sardines in a can, which is a very unhealthful condition, to say the least. 2. Whenever the school is overcrowded the very first thing that is done is to fit up classrooms in the basement for the youngest and tenderest of the children and compel them to attend school in these basement-rooms, which are generally inadequately lighted and not always free from dampness. 3. As the school becomes older there is always an accumulation of souvenirs of bygone days in the basement, which often becomes a serious fire hazard. 4. The omission of the basement allows the bringing of the first floor approximately level with the grade, with only two flights of stairs to the third story of a three-story building, a condition that is desirable for safety even in a fireproof building. 5. Economy of construction and a minimum of floor space and cubic contents for heating and maintenance. 6. EUmination of the large basement toilet-rooms, which are difiScult to keep in a sanitary condition, and the substitution of small separate toilets on each floor. 7. The increast likelihood of all pupils enjoying the fresh outdoor air during recess periods instead of some pupils staying in poorly ventilated basement playrooms (and these pupils will generally be found to need most urgently the outdoor air). Some educators have advocated that all the children should be sent outdoors at every recess, rain or shine, with special precaution that they are properly clothed. In case this is considered too drastic in stormy weather the spacious corridors of the first, second, and third stories provide ample room for healthful recreation. Classrooms. — The standard size of classrooms in elementary schools adopted some years ago by the Chicago Board of Education is 24 feet in I _> I Department] PLANNING CHICAGO SCHOOL BUILDINGS 355 width by 32 to 34 feet in length. Unilateral lighting by means of windows on the long side of the room only is considered the best method; these windows must have a total glass area of not less than 20 per cent of the floor area of the room, with the distance from the top of the window to the floor at least one-half the width of the room, so as to provide ample illumination to the row of desks farthest from the windows. Congested districts. — In certain sections of the city the school population is so congested that large school buildings have to be provided within a few blocks of each other. In one square mile of territory there are nine schools with a total seating capacity of over twelve thousand. To illustrate the shifting nature of the population in this district one of the large schools, which was built in 1906 and to which an addition was made in 1908, has 38 classrooms with a seating capacity of about 1800. With approximately 1600 pupils in 191 2, the attendance of this school dropt to such an extent that the entire building was abandoned for ele- mentary-school purposes in July, 1918. This building has since been utilized, however, for the establishment of a vocational and continuation school. In another district a 32-classroom building was erected and opened in January, 191 5, with a total capacity of approximately 1600 seats to provide for a growing territory in which the schools are in close proximity, and which at the date of the opening was not only filled but required 10 one-room portables on the same site to take care of the pupils of the district, since which time additions to adjoining schools have been erected and sites for new buildings are being purchast to provide schools for the rapidly increas- ing population in this district. Portable building. — In 1905 the Board of Education obtained revision of the building code allowing one-story, one-room portable frame buildings, covered with sheet metal on the outside. These were built to provide for overcrowded and shifting populations in various districts, pending the growth of the territory and the erection of permanent school buildings, since which time the number of portables has been greatly increast, until at the present time the Board of Education has approximately 325 of these one-room portable buildings in use. Assembly halls. — Years ago provisions for assembly halls were considered ample if a large space was provided in the top story and divided by rolling partitions, so that the space could be used as classrooms during the day and the partitions could be rolled up and used as an assembly hall on special occasions. Later the assembly-hall requirements provided for an assembly hall on the first floor seating not over 500, which proved very satisfactory, but which was at that time considered expensive. In the year 19 10 a combination assembly hall and gymnasium, divided by sUding doors, was developt in which one half of the space had a level 356 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA TION [Administration floor and was occupied as a gymnasium, and the other half had bankt-up seats for 500 with the possibiHty of throwing open the sliding doors and seating 1000 in the combination assembly hall and gymnasium. This was an economical arrangement for the amount of accommodation provided but necessitated the sHding doors of excessive size and the moving of gymnasium apparatus and setting of chairs every time that the combined assembly hall and gymnasium was to be used for assembly-hall purposes. This became so burdensome that the rules were changed to provide for a separate assembly hall in each school of a capacity of approximately the total seating capacity of the school. Three sizes of assembly halls were determined on, namely, one seating 700, one seating 1000, and one seating 1500, and the size of the assembly hall selected in each case was the nearest to the total seating capacity of the classrooms of the school building. The larger assembly halls, those of 1500 capacity, were found to be excessive for school use, except on extraor- dinary occasions, and the practice has since been changed to include in elementary schools an assembly hall of small capacity and in no case over 1000 seating capacity. This, however, does not apply to high schools, in which the assembly halls are made as near the total capacity of the school as possible, but in no case has any high- school assembly hall in Chicago been built with a seating capacity exceeding 2000. High schools. — The problem of planning a modern high school necessi- tates grouping together under one roof practically all of the different departments of a modern university. Instead of a large campus with separate buildings for different activities the high school is crowded together into one building on a very limited site. In addition to the regular classrooms provisions are made for labora- tories, science-rooms, lecture-rooms, study-rooms, drawing-rooms, com- mercial rooms, assembly hall, gymnasium for boys, gymnasium for girls, swimming-pool, foundry, forgeroom, woodworking shop, machine-shop, pattern-shop, electrical-construction shop, and many other technical departments that go to make up a modern university. The pupil capacity of high-school buildings is always a difficult question to answer. It depends not only on administration but also on the proper balance of sizes of classes so as to fill to a maximum percentage every room during each period of the day. This is also dependent on the number of instructors, as, for instance, if a physics laboratory seating forty pupils has a lecture-room seating forty but only one instructor, then this unit is used only to 50 per cent of its capacity. It is suggested that the logical method of computing pupil capacity of high-school buildings is to add the maximum capacity of all classrooms, study-rooms, laboratories, shops, gym- nasiums, assembly hall, etc., so as to get a gross total capacity of the entire building. With this gross total capacity as a basis, determine by investigation of schools in operation a normal percentage of the gross total Department) AN EDITOR ON SCHOOL BUILDINGS 357 as the pupil capacity of the school. It may be advisable to omit the assembly hall from the gross capacity, but inasmuch as some high schools make use of the assembly hall for study-room and other purposes it may be well to make calculation both ways and note differences in normal percentage. High-school locations. — In determining on the site of a new high-school building it is often perplexing to determine whether the building will be filled within a reasonable number of years after its completion. The high schools of Chicago have a uniform course of study and require various rooms suitable for instruction in the various subjects, but it does not follow that a given subject that is very popular in one high school will be equally popular in another section of the city. This, of course, necessi- tates additional accommodations in each building to provide for the popular courses of study, but this again may be altered by the change in popularity of special studies from year to year. It has been said that the only real difference between the savage human beings of the jungles and the civilized men and women of today is edu- cation. School buildings, however simple, intricate, or complex, are only the housings provided for the proper and orderly instruction of the rising generations into that higher and nobler education that realizes that all men are brothers, and into that truer civilization that has for its ideal the good of all. The supreme effort of the architect should be to make the school buildings the best possible instrument of service for the use of the noblest of all professions, that of the educator. SCHOOL BUILDINGS FROM THE STANDPOINT OF AN EDITOR WILLIAM C. BRUCE, EDITOR, '' AMERICAN SCHOOL BOARD JOURNAL," MILWAUKEE, WIS. A member of a western board of education is reported to have remarkt in an address at the dedication of a school that " the building included all the improvements in planning up to the beginning of the nineteenth cen- tury." There is some truth in this malapropism when appHed to many school buildings. Hundreds of schoolhouses are a century old before they leave the drafting-board, and the causes are evident. On the one hand, the school authorities lack vision and initiative and do not appreciate the impor- tance of a well-planned building as an aid to an efficient school. On the other hand, the architects have not sufficient knowledge of school processes and needs and are unwilling to study the educational problems as such any further than is necessary to get the commission and to meet the ideas of the school board concerning the limit of the available appropriation. All of this may sound extreme, but it is true of 60 per cent of all schoolhouse plans which reach the writer in the course of his editorial labors. 3S8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration Among the most common faults of schoolhouse plans which deserve to be clast among the better types are too close adherence to architectural tradition and lack of flexibility. The former is due in part to a curious inversion of method, by which the average architectural designer seems to try to make the various facilities of a school fit the front elevation and carry out his notions of balance, proportion, and symmetry. The results all too frequently are classrooms, corridors, etc., which are beautiful to the eye but wasteful or crampt and lacking in serviceabiHty. The architect should not be blamed for much of the crampt condition of school buildings which results from the lack of flexibility. The insistence of principals and superintendents for exactly meeting present requirements and the unwillingness of building committees to permit generous planning for enlargement, rearrangement, and diversity of use are the underlying causes of much of the complaint against school buildings. To my mind changes in school practice are coming more rapidly and will be more radical during the next ten years than they have been during the past generation. This is true especially of such new forms of school organization as the junior high school, the continuation school, and the technical high school, not to speak of the trade school. Unless the buildings for these types of schools are of the most flexible plan for enlargement and for remodeling they will be outworn almost as soon as they are occupied. My real reason for being willing to say a word here today is to urge the energetic prosecution of the work of the Committee on Standardization and the widest possible publicity of the results of its studies. School boards are confronted with building problems such as never were thought of in the past. They are complicated by the growing scope of American education as well as by the difficulty of obtaining funds and the high cost of building construction. Standardization is, to my mind, the only effective means now at hand to keep the balance between needs and costs, to prevent extravagance in one direction and penury in another. THE SCHOOL BUILDING FROM THE LEGISLATOR'S STANDPOINT E. E. PATTON, STATE SENATOR, FOUNTAIN CITY, TENN. The school building from the legislator's standpoint is a question that should be of interest to every thoughtful citizen of this country. The architect is primarily interested in the school building from the artistic side; the school man is first interested in the school building from the practical-utility side; the ordinary taxpayer is usually interested from an economic side, but the legislator is interested from all of these view- points. He wants to see economy practist in the erection of all pubhc-school buildings, knowing that this means less complaint from meticulous object- ors against the erection of pubUc buildings and a consequent sweUing of Department! THE LEGISLATORS ON SCHOOL BUILDINGS 359 the school fund, or rather protection of these funds, for the lengthening of the school term where needed and the payment of larger salaries to teachers, which is universally conceded to be necessary to maintain a high standard of work and induce competent men and women to enter and remain in the service. He is interested along with the school man in having a practical build- ing, knowing that better results will ensue. He is interested with the architect in a building bearing the stamp of artistic design, knowing that beauty begets beauty, and that where an artistic public building is erected on a well-selected site, designed and built along harmonious lines and proper proportions, it will beget in the minds of the children, the future citizens, a taste for the aesthetic and cultural and lead to an increast desire for progress along cultural lines. The legislator is intensely interested in the school building along all the lines above enumerated but is particularly concerned in the con- struction of public-school buildings from the standpoint of efficient economy. To this end he favors the creation of the office, where it does not exist, of state architect. This would result in bringing about a new and better order of things. This officer should be charged with the duty of preparing suitable plans for all kinds of public-school buildings and making blueprints of the plans, accompanied by the proper specifications and directions which any master- carpenter can follow. Millions of dollars have been spent, yes wasted, by employing special architects to plan and superintend the erection of school buildings, which money, in large part, could have been saved to the public by having a state architect. The speaker has in mind an instance where an architect was employed by a complacent school board to plan changes in the prin- cipal's office and the reception room of a high school. The rooms were in existence, and not a stick of timber in either of the rooms was changed and no material of any kind was added or removed. His services con- [sisted in making a blueprint of the rooms, which could have been made jby any boy in the second-year manual-training class in that high school, [and yet he was paid the sum of $65.00 for his professional services. [Instances of this kind could be cited without number. These architects ^are often in league with contractors of doubtful honesty and recommend the allowance of ''extras," with the presumption strong in the public mind that they share in the perquisites. In addition to this, it is a fact that very few architects make a specialty of school architecture. The speaker has in mind now a large high-school building erected in one of the cities of this country where the pupils in the large assembly room and study hall would have faced the light from eight large windows. The plans were changed, but the new arrangement made a very awkward situation. 360 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration There is nothing that appeals to the legislator as strongly as the crea- tion and maintenance of the office of state architect. He could make a special study of the planning and erection of public-school buildings, save the state, counties, and cities thousands of dollars annually, promote the efficiency of school work, and stimulate the aesthetic and cultural tastes of the people. In adddition to the regular duties of the state architect he could and should make an intensive study of school sanitation, plumbing, water pollution, sculpture, art, and landscape gardening, so that he will be in a position to give advice and information to school officials and parent- teacher associations along these very necessary lines. The sculptural and mural decorations of 'our public buildings have too long been neglected. We have had to plead guilty to the indictment that our people, as a whole, are not artistic and have no proper apprecia- tion of art in its highest forms. The best place to begin the education of a people is with the children while their minds are plastic and susceptible of impression. This can be done by having school buildings designed by a real artist, with advice given by him as to the decorations best suited to the building from an artistic standpoint. An otherwise perfect building may be rendered unsightly by an improper selection of inside decoration as to painting, wall tinting, and sculptural adornment. Landscape gardening is another art that has received scant attention in this country, much to our shame. How many of us have seen hand- some buildings erected for school purposes and then the grounds left in such wretched and dilapidated condition as to mar the beauty of the whole! All of these defects and imperfections could be avoided or cured by having a competent state architect whose qualifications and duties should conform to the recommendations made above. Everything in education can be exprest in terms of an equation. Place the child on one side; against that you will need to put three things, the school plant, the school teacher, and the school book. Solve for good citi- zenship. Every effort is now being put forth to secure the very best teachers and the most beautiful and practical school books. Why not complete the equation and have the best and most attractive school plant that money will buy and genius can plan? I do not claim that a state architect will bring all of this, but in the last analysis it will go far toward this realization. I cannot close this paper without quoting from the Rotary Club's report on the schools of one of the most prominent cities of the South : The report stated that every school in the city, both white and negro, had been visited, and that only three schools in the whole system were modern and two of these needed repairs. Conditions vary all the way from "fair to impossible," says the report, as it referred to "plumbing of types that should not be permitted under any consideration." This, he said, was to be found in three-fourths of the schools. Departmentl AS THEY ARE AND AS THEY SHOULD BE 361 Muddy grounds, poorly ventilated rooms, floors so rotten as to menace the limbs of the children, dirty walls, improper heating, poor illumination, and many other phases were contained in the committee's voluminous report. It can be seen from this report that here is a wide field for constructive work. SCHOOL BUILDINGS AS THEY ARE AND AS THEY SHOULD BE W. R. MCCORNACK, ARCHITECT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, CLEVELAND, OHIO In this brief paper I am using the schools of Cleveland as my text, with the belief that they represent an average for the country. There are of course many buildings to which my statements may not apply in some respects, and my suggestions for future school buildings are offered, not because they are the only ones or the best ones, but because they represent careful study and I believe will .be adaptable to the various educational and social requirements which our schools must meet in the coming years. I will discuss my subject in three sections: I. DEFECTS 1. Architectural ugliness, due to poor design, an unfortunate selection of building materials, the lack of a proper setting for the building, and inferior workmanship. 2. Buildings unsuited for their functions because the plans are so inelastic as to make it difficult and expensive to adapt them to the rapidly changing educational policies. Too many buildings do not lend themselves readily to additions and contain few rooms suitable for assembly or recreation purposes. There is too much heavy construction to make a suitable grouping of rooms for special activities possible. Many buildings being built today are but blind copies of the old hack- neyed two- or three-story-and-a-basement plan with heavy walls and large stair halls which are always in the wrong place, and no concerted effort to change this defect seems to be under way. 3. School authorities are not buying sufficient land for the proper settings for the buildings or to provide sufficient playground and garden area. 4. School buildings are costly because of waste and unused space, and because little attention is being paid to the double use of rooms. Let no room ever be idle. It represents an economic loss. Let me say in this connection that many buildings which appear cheap because the pernicious cubic-foot-price basis of comparison says they are cheap are the most costly because of wastefulness of plan. The five chief causes of waste space are corridors, stair halls, oversized rooms, basements, and excessive story heights. 362 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION lAdministration Stair halls and corridors occupy from 20 to 25 per cent of the total area of a school building and are of no use except for communication, and there is no other use to which they can be put. Basements, except space for heating plants, should be prohibited in school buildings by law. They can provide no space suitable for school purposes. Where there are basements sooner or later they become class- rooms, usually poorly lighted and ventilated, and no place for any child to occupy for study. By common consent basements have been eliminated from school buildings in Cleveland for the past two years. In many buildings rooms of excessive size are found which indicate lack of study and a resultant waste of money. Excessive heights between floors is another source of waste. Poor ventilation is almost universal. Improper distribution of air in the room and failure to humidify and cl»anse the air are readily recognized defects. 5. Poor illumination. The defects of artificial illumination are quite general, and even in the case of daylight illumination, where the standard relation of an equivalent of one-fifth of the floor area in glass is followed, the wall opposite the window is usually poorly lighted. 6. Acoustical defects. School architects have taken very little care in the matter of sound-deadening and should take advantage of the very wonderful advance made in the science of acoustics. Many of our buildings are still unsafe and unsanitary and generally have not reacht the high standard of design, construction, and fitness for their functions which they should have in order to be suitable instruments in carrying on the great work of the future. II. CAUSES CONTRIBUTING TO THESE DEFECTS 1. Lack of cooperation between boards of education, architects, and educators. The school boards often forget that their functions are not educational but executive and financial, and they many times interfere with the educator in the development of his policies, while the architect often presents him with an elevation behind which rooms may be arranged provided they do not disarrange the fagade, and in some cases an uncer- tainty in regard to a definite building plan on the part of the educator adds to the confusion and prevents the proper result. The school building should be planned to fit the curriculum, and the architectural construction shall fit the plan. Let the school board find the funds to do the job right. 2. Lack of any definite ideas about school equipment also makes it difficult for the architect to construct a building economically, as usually the rooms are found to be either too small or too large when the equipment is finally selected. 3. Lack of proper state laws relative to school buildings is the cause of much waste of money due to unnecessarily stringent restrictions. I will Department] AS THEY ARE AND AS THEY SHOULD BE 363 cite as examples the law on stair widths and the number of toilet fixtures required in Ohio. 4. Another serious defect is the atrocious appropriation method of building schools. Someone hazards a guess as to the cost of a structure, perhaps architect looking for a client, and a board of education votes an appropriation based on the estimate. The result is often a building reduced in size below the absolutely necessary requirements, and the building structurally cheapened so that in a few years the cost of maintenance will become a burden. If the proper safeguards were taken to prevent waste in schoolhouse planning, the appropriation method would not be necessary. This war has taught us that the right is well worth paying for, and we must see that our schools are properly planned and built. Ruskin's words are most appropriate when he says, "All works of quahty must bear a price in proportion to the skill, time, expense, and risk attending their invention and manufacture. Those things called dear are, when justly estimated, the cheapest. A composition for cheapness and not for excellence of work- manship is the most frequent and certain cause of the rapid decay and entire destruction of arts and manufacture." III. SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE NEW BUILDINGS Since the day when the first school building was used for other than strictly school purposes there has been a gradually increasing tendency toward their wider use. There is probably no group of buildings used during such a small percentage of the time as the school plants of this country. Any business corporation would be bankrupt on such a basis. There is a serious duplication of effort in all our communities when one pocket-book pays the tax. Why does not the community benefit more from these great and costly plants lying idle so much of the time ? Why do libraries build so many separate branches, and city governments build so many playgrounds, and other civic and social bodies have to maintain separate quarters, when a union of educational and social activities in one plant would produce economy? The school should be the center of all the great educational, civic, and cultural activities of the community. The art museum exists for those who go to it, the symphony orchestra for its subscribers, neither generally reaching the masses. An interesting and remarkably successful experiment is now being tried by the management of the Cleveland Sym- phony Orchestra. Concerts are being given in various school auditoriums at which the regular symphony programs are given at much reduced rates. So far no auditorium has been large enough to accommodate the people desiring to hear the orchestra. Already many manufacturing concerns are booking concerts for next season for the benefit of their employes. Thus is the best music being brought into every neighborhood in Cleveland instead of only to the usual symphony patrons. School auditoriums are the logical places for holding such concerts, and surely education is not complete without the finer arts. 364 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Administration The proposal to incorporate a portfolio of education in the President's cabinet will do much to make the school plant of more influence because it will tend to broaden and lengthen the scope of education and include the immigrant and the native-born adult as well as the child. The great milHon-dollar industrial college just started in Cleveland by the Manufacturers' Association for the purpose of educating the employe and employer is another evidence of the broadening of education and will increase the functions of the public-school system and have a definite effect on its buildings. The adult and the child will both seek the school building for intellectual and physical training, the child in the day and the adult in the evening. With this broadening of education and culture and increast facihties for physical training our nation will be better fitted to produce citizens better trained to take up the great burdens of the future. Neighborhood medical and dental clinics, headquarters for societies to teach better care of children, school gardens, and even the greater activities in agriculture should be given space. Galleries for art and for industrial and domestic exhibitions and any other activity having to do with the culture and education of every member of the community must receive consideration. Universal mihtary drill, or, what is the same thing, universal physical training and discipline, should become a part of regular school work. I would have the school building first beautiful architecturally and placed in a charming landscape setting with ample garden spaces, for the reason that one of the functions of education is to teach the love of the aesthetic. I would have the building as near perfect in workmanship and in the choice of materials as possible, because the children of the public schools' are the artists and artisans of the future, and the school buildings in which they work day after day will be their standard, and it must be. a high standard if our craftsmen are to be masters. I beheve that buildings should contain auditoriums and gymnasiums, or a combination of both, kindergartens, medical-inspection rooms, open- air classrooms, lunchrooms, library rooms, artrooms, industrial-exhibition rooms, swimming-pools, shops, covered playgrounds for winter, and halls for military drill. I am not recommending that all of these activities be placed in each building, but that each community embracing several schools have all of them, many of the most important possibly being centered in the junior or senior high schools. It is not necessary either that each activity shall have a separate room, as the double use of rooms should be encouraged. I advocate the one-story type of school as offering the best solution of the various defects I have pointed out, because this type produces the most elastic plan. Department] SPECIFICATIONS FOR SCHOOL BUILDINGS 365 IS THE COUNTRY READY FOR THE NEW SCHOOL BUILDING? A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, "JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON, MASS. I am going to try to be brief. Ten days ago if I had answered this question whether the country is ready I would have said yes, in Oklahoma, Arizona, California, Orgeon, and a few other places west of the Missouri River. I would have said, however, that we are not at all ready for it east of the Alleghenies, but since Buffalo has voted eight millions to put the work into Mr. Ittner's hands I think we are ready. We built one one-story schoolhouse in Massachusetts, and it raised the devil, and the community hasn't got over it yet. My friend Cooper has built an ideal high-school house in Bridgewater, and I don't know that Bridgewater will ever get over it. It is a matter of locality, very largely. I had one great opportunity that I have put among the high spots of my life when I spent from eight o'clock in the evening until two o'clock in the morning with Mr. Ittner and the Salt Lake City Board of Education, and I saw Ittner turn that entire Board of Education right around from the time when they thought $400,000 was all they had until they had $650,000 that very night, and when we broke up at two o'clock in the morning that Board of Education was as far from where it was at eight o'clock as midday is from midnight; wholly a matter of leadership. We are extremely slow in the East. We like to talk about the spirit- uelle, but we want the mechanical and the material. We have an elegant vision, but it often turns into a nightmare when we try to visuahze it. The time has come when we must come down out of the atmosphere, down out of the spiritual, and put the school right down on the foundation. I remember when this auditorium was built, and three years ago they spent a million dollars modernizing it. I remember when the Congress Hotel was built, and they have been building it over ever since, and I think that a schoolhouse must be built to be adapted to ever-changing needs. I think what was said about the teaching of botany is true all along the line. Every architect wants to build a building that you never can change, and I think we have got to understand that change is the one requisite of a first-class architectural plan. EDUCATIONAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR SCHOOL BUILDINGS CHARLES H. JUDD, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. The intimate relation between the course of study and the school building which houses the school has been a subject of frequent discussion in recent surveys. The clearest statement of this matter appears in the discussions of Messrs. McComack and Hartwell in the St. Louis Survey. Both of these writers point out the fact that the school building must be adapted to the work of the classes. If the building does not permit certain 366 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration types of activity, class work will be inferior. For example, if a building has no space in which to carry on physical training there will be a strong tendency on the part of the administration to curtail, if not entirely to eliminate, this sort of activity. It has long been recognized in high schools that laboratory work cannot be adequately carried on without special rooms suited to this type of work. It is not necessary, however, to argue at any length for the adaptation of the building to school work. The more serious problem is to anticipate as far as possible the growing needs of the curriculum in buildings that are erected while the changes are actually going on in the course of study. One or two examples will make clear the kind of problem which is here referred to. We are at the present time in a period of transition with regard to recitations and study. Formerly the student was expected to get his lessons quite independently and come to a recitation where he was examined by the teacher on the results of his personal study. We now understand very clearly the importance of supervised study. We realize that the teacher must take a hand in training the students in methods of effective and economical work. It is not desirable, therefore, to send a student away to work by himself. Nor is it desirable to give him a seat in a large room where other people are studying but where there is no contact between himself and the teacher. The recitation also is undergoing a change, for it is recognized that school work will not be as productive as it might be if the teacher spends the whole of the recitation period in merely examining children on what they know. The recitation must be utilized as the opportunity of the teacher to help children in their study. This change in spirit of school work will ultimately affect very radi- cally the building accommodations. It has been suggested by some enthu- siasts for the supervised-study program that rooms be built in pairs so that half of the class may be studying while the other half of the class is engaged in a recitation of the new form. It has been suggested by others that small consulting rooms be provided for members of the faculty, with larger rooms in which groups may be supervised, possibly by two teachers at a time. It is certain that the supervised-study program will in some fashion affect the work of the school. I doubt whether anyone can prophesy at the present time just how this effect can be workt out. Before drawing the lesson which such an example as this suggests let us consider briefly another illustration of the change which is going forward in the course of study at the present time. It has long been recognized that the high-school course of study is very much more diversi- fied than the course of study in elementary schools. As a result the high- school building has usually been provided with a greater variety of rooms. There are rooms for laboratory work, rooms for libraries, rooms for reci- Department] SPECIFICATIONS FOR SCHOOL BUILDINGS 367 tations of various kinds, rooms for gymnasiums, and rooms for special subjects, such as sewing and manual training. The elementary course has in the past been so uniform that the rooms in the elementary-school building could be made exactly alike. In recent years the program of the elementary school has commenst to take on many of the character- istics of the high-school program. There is a differentiation of subjects, especially in the upper grades. Sometimes departmentalization has gone quite as far in the upper grades as in the high school, with the result that a geography room with unique equipment for that particular subject has been recognized as desirable. Sometimes a history room is now set aside, with a special teacher who gives all of the instruction in the school in that particular subject. Nature-study rooms are coming to be altogether common, and domestic-science rooms and shops for manual training are introduced into all of the modern elementary-school buildings, at least those that house upper grades. Here again it is difficult to anticipate what the future will bring forth. There is in many city systems some hesitation about going on with the program of building elaborate elementary-school buildings because of the expense which is involved. On the other hand some of the most interest- ing experiments which are being made at the present time in the organiza- tion of schools are directly related to the diversified program and the complete use of a diversified school building. These two illustrations make it clear that the school building of the future will probably be different in many respects from the school building of the present. We are, however, confronted with the great difficulty of trying to accommodate our buildings to school plans which are by no means completely workt out. The suggestion which I have to lay before the committee is not so much a suggestion with regard to the material construction which can be undertaken in the presence of these changing demands but rather a recommendation with regard to one method of deahng with the situation. If school buildings are put up to accommodate a certain educational program, is it not desirable that the educational program should at the time that the building is erected be specified with the same degree of clearness as the architectural and material considerations which enter into the plan? The architect describes minutely the material which is to be used in a building and gives all of the dimensions and working arrange- ments, so that there can be no doubt at all as to his intention in the plans which he has drawn up. There has been, however, up to this time a very great lack of what we may call educational specifications. If a certain building is erected to accommodate in each classroom twenty-five pupils, ought that not to be specified at the same time that the building itself is described? Boards of education will then have constantly kept before them in their future use of the building a clear statement of what was 368 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration intended when the building was put up. If the rooms in an elementary- school building are constructed solely for the purpose of hearing recitations of the examination type, should not that also be clearly specified, so that the introduction of a program of supervised study will be recognized by the board of education and by school officials as an innovation in the use of the school building as well as in the course of study ? The plea which I am making for an educational description of a build- ing is justified by the fact that in times past boards of education have not been clear in this matter. A great many superintendents have been askt by boards of education to introduce innovation into their course of study, but the same boards of education have neglected to supply the superintendents with the buildings necessary to carry out the ambitious program suggested. For example, there has been in recent years a very strong demand on the part of enthusiastic citizens for an imitation of some of the features of the Gary plan. Superintendents from all parts of the country have been sent by their boards of education to visit Gary, which is described as a very progressive school system. It has been said in the public press and in the meetings of the boards of education that the Gary plan uses the school buildings much more economically than build- ings are ordinarily used in other parts of the country, and a diversified course of study has been widely advertised as one of the greatest virtues of the Gary system. When a superintendent has come home after a visit to Gary and has described to his board the necessary building equipment to go with the enlarged program which has been demanded he has very frequently met with stolid opposition on the part of the same citizens who demanded of him an enlarged school program. The buildings in Gary which have carried out the elaborate program are, of course, among the most expensive and elaborate school buildings in the country. If this statement were clearly understood there would be a very much more wholesome attitude toward educational reform than there is at the present time in many boards of education. What I have described as educational specifications for school build- ings ought to be prepared in such a way that both architects and school people will clearly recognize the importance of the matter. Many archi- tects think of schoolrooms as uniform units. Many school superintendents realize that it is difficult to make an architect aware of the diversified uses to which rooms are to be put. The ordinary architect recognizes in build- ing a house the fundamental difference between the demands of a kitchen and of a parlor. This difference is no greater than the difference between a laboratory and a classroom. Furthermore the number of classrooms and laboratories necessary for the conduct of a school can be determined only by the most careful examination of the curriculum of a school. Such a series of specifications of the educational uses to which rooms are to be put as I have insisted upon in the foregoing paragraphs would, f Department] SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT FOR HEALTH 369 I believe, contribute very largely to the flexibility of our building program. We cannot anticipate the future in all details, but we can make ourselves aware of tendencies which are appearing at the present time, and we can prepare the way for a legitimate demand for the remodeling of a building by specifying clearly at the time the building is put up the uses to which it is to be put. A school superintendent who has a new program will then be in a position to say to his board with all definiteness : The original building which you erected has these and these characteristics which we now intend to change. Before you adopt the educational program you should consider as a part of the legitimate cost of this program the funds necessary for a remodeling of the building so as to adapt it to this program. We are at the present time reorganizing the seventh and eighth grades. A part of the difficulty of carrying out this program results from the uni- form character of elementary-school classrooms. If the junior high school raovement is to be a success the classrooms devoted to the work of the upper grades must be fitted to the new educational program that is being inaugurated. By way of summary then my recommendation is that a new type of specifications for buildings be demanded in every case. These specifica- tions are to describe the uses to which each of the rooms is supposed to be put according to the educational program in force at the time that the building is constructed. The educational specifications are to be made a part of the record of every building and of every action taken by a school system. The educational specifications are to be demanded by the archi- tect when he plans the building, and conformity to these plans is to be insisted upon by school men who are in charge of the school routine. All modifications and enlargements of the building shall be accompanied by further educational specifications, and the board of education shall in every case be kept aware of the intimate relation between the school program and the building program by constant cross-references to these educational specifications. SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT FOR HEALTH JAMES H. MC CURDY, INTERNATIONAL Y.M.C. A. COLLEGE, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. In speaking here informally, I want to bring just one word, if I may, from the French government, which I have been serving during the last six months. They have a commission for the reorganization of physical education and hygiene in the army, in the school system, and in the factory system. They had up before their committee a bill, which they hoped would be enacted as I was leaving, requiring each factory to deposit twenty francs per year per individual for recreation with their own factory 370 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration employes, that is, entirely outside the pubUc-school side of the work. I emphasize this because the chairman has askt me if I would not say a word about the environment for activity with reference to the health of school children. I have had the pleasure for some thirty years of working with archi- tects with reference to buildings, particularly in relation to the hygiene and activity problems in connection with those buildings. There has been to me a very interesting change in the viewpoint of the architect during that period of thirty years as to what ought to be in the building. I remember numbers of times earlier when the architect said, " You tell us how large it ought to be and we will do the rest. " In later years they have lookt upon the buildings more as a health factor and an educational factor, and they have come to the school people and said, "What are your needs?" "How do you need the thing done?" I think that is a very big step in the right direction, and I wanted, if I could, to point out a few things from health standpoint, and particularly the activity standards that seem to nie not emphasized, either indoors or out of doors. The first thing that stands out is the need for activity on the part of the school children. I think that anybody who has been familiar with and followed the results of the draft will assent to this. Some 30 per cent of the men from twenty-one to thirty-one were rejected, and then after they got into the army about 5 per cent more were rejected, for physical causes of one sort or another. I had the pleasure also in France of following the group that was pickt, roughly speaking, two million men from ten million. I had the opportunity for examination by taking a brigade at a time — 6400 men, the pick of American manhood. Those men were drawn up, the first regiment, 1600 of them, and given trench jumping — something they would need to know how to do. A trench six feet wide was formed. Inside of ten minutes those first 1600 men all jumpt over that trench or failed to jump. Twenty-eight per cent could not jump over a trench six feet wide. Here was something that was related to the military abihty of those men. Has the public school any relation to their ability, any respon- sibility for it? I have had the opportunity of testing three thousand grammar-school boys who had had opportunity for physical activity. A large majority could jump over trenches of that sort. We had then the chance of testing the men in running 220 yards. In each heat were 1600 men, the entire regimental officer force acting as the officials. Seventeen per cent of them could not run 220 yards in thirty seconds. As one of the officers exprest it, "Those men could never catch a Hun"; and I said, ''Those men could never get away from a Hun, if he was after them." They lackt ability to run fast enough to get away from a good man. Is the public school responsible for that ? I think that it is, in a measure. I think we who are interested in the architectural side are responsible for seeing that there is an environment for activity. Department] SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT FOR HEALTH 371 Is there need for muscular training that is related to vocational training ? It seems to me there is. Is there a need of oVganic vigor on the part of the schoolboy and schoolgirl not only for health but also for activity? It seems to me there is. Is there need for filling the leisure time, training the individual from the character-building side ? More young men and women go astray during their leisure time than at any other time. It seems to me that every school building ought to give, during the daytime, abundant opportunity for improving the health and vigor of its pupils and, during the evening, recreation and occupation for the adult life of the community. We are to close up over 700,000 saloons. These have been the poor man's club. What shall take their place ? Every school building should be open during the evening for recreation and use. The working day has been shortened year by year. The responsibility is upon us to see that the leisure time is related to character-building. If that is true, your school buildings should be arranged so that there will be adequate opportunity to do those things that seem to need doing. Just a few words with reference to the kind of equipment that is needed. First, with reference to the junior high schools. We hope to arrange, as a minimum, that every high-school pupil will have an opportunity for at least three hours per week of physical training and recreation activity. It ought to be arranged so that there will be an opportunity for bathing follow- ing the exercise. Unless that is done you are not going to get the best muscle activity of the organic type that is related to health, power, and ability to do. I said at a conference three or four years ago that it seemed to me that the average school program was arranged to prevent exercise on the part of the pupils. The period that was allowed to it was so short that they could not bathe and so could not exercise sufficiently to be sent away perspiring; so they could do a few corrective exercises, a few things that were necessary, but could not really get down to body-building woirk that was related to health. Every pupil should have three hours of exercise per week, as a minimum, and an opportunity for bathing immediately afterward, or you will cut down the type of work until it is simply very light work, and send the pupils away without the vigor they ought to have. Mr. Ittner's recommendation as an architect is that we have a gym- nasium 50 by 80 feet, adequate in size for the average class of fifty pupils. I would like to emphasize that. That means that you must arrange in your buildings adequate space for your gymnasium classes. It means in -the next place that you must arrange adequate space for bathing. I might put it in this way: With a class of fifty young men or women you ought to have for the young men ten shower baths; for the young women, fifteen shower baths. If yoU have a school of, say, four hundred, you can get along with the same number of shower baths for the boys and for the girls; but if you are to have them bathe rapidly in Units of fifty, you must 372 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration have at least ten shower baths for the class of fifty for the boys or fifteen for the girls. The reason for that is the privacy for the girls and bathing in inclosed compartments. With the boys custom has come so that they bathe in open rooms, and one or two or three will get under the same shower, and it makes it much simpler. You must use, counting the space for the bathing and the approaches, the drying-room, roughly twenty square feet per shower for space. That has been found, economically, the best space. With reference to lockers, that will depend upon whether you have those lockers also used as the general lockers for putting the street clothing in for the entire school. If you do that, then you must have eight square feet per pupil; but if they are not used for that and you arrange your classes so that they are distributed thru the entire locker-room, you may cut that space down to four square feet per pupil. Box lockers, single little boxes for gymnasium clothing, and enough larger lockers for street clothing for two classes— one dressing and the other undressing- — cut down to two and one- half square feet per pupil. You should see that there are rooms for the medical, dental, and physical examination of the pupils. A great many of the schools are not weighing their children. They are not taking growth records of them. Just one illustration — several years ago I was working at Clarke University studying the high-school boys of that city, Worcester. One came in. I found low blood pressure and high heart-rate. I said to the principal of that high school, "That boy is not progressing in his growth and vigor as he ought to." He said, "I have known that. Last summer his parents insisted on my furnishing him a tutor. He made up his work, just fairly got in with his class. It was then Christmas. He is now falling behind again. Won't you see that boy's parents and see if you cannot help them?" I was able to point out to them that it was essential that that boy have definite instruc- tion and help with reference to his growth and health. Unless that was done he would have a real handicap in life because of the conditions under which he was living. In closing let me emphasize just one point more with reference to out- doors. The minimum adopted by the National Association, 150 square feet per pupil, should be devoted to outdoor recreation. That means relatively a small amount of money; compared with what we have spent on the war it is nothing. It is a small amount of room and money expended compared with what is now being expended by the Department of Agri- culture for growing hogs. I believe children are as important, at least, as hogs, and they ought now to be considered; and I say to you solemnly that I do not beheve we have yet lookt to the health of the children as we ought. If we are going to get the health that we ought to have we must have an environment, and we must depend 'on architects to see that we have the proper sort of environment. Furnish the opportunity for recrea- tion and exercise, followed by a bath. Only in that way can we reduce that Department] SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT FOR BEALTH 373 30 to 2)3 per cent of inefficient men and get the right sort of citizens. That is your job, Mr. Architect, and I am glad to have the opportunity of saying these few words with reference to it. I beheve from the bottom of my soul that we are on the eve of getting plans for it, and I believe that we should have in our schools activity related to health as well as with reference to intellectual culture. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President—SAViA H. Fahey, teacher of English, Seward Park School New York, N.Y. Vice-President — Mary P. Lang, teacher in High School Pittsburgh, Pa. Secretary— Harv V. Donoghue, grade teacher, Stewart School Chicago, 111. The Department of Classroom Teachers of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Tuesday afternoon, July i, 1919, at two o'clock, in the Main Hall, Auditorium, Milwaukee, Wis. The meeting was called to order by Sara H. Fahey, president. In the absence of the secretary the president appointed Margaret E. Costello as secretary pro tent. The general topic for the meeting was "The Development of a Democratic Social and Civic Teaching Body for American Schools. " The following program was presented: "Need for the Substitution of a Cooperative Type of Organization for the Present System" — Lotus D. Coffman, dean. College of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. "Constructive Participation in Organization and Administration by Teachers" — Ethel M. Gardner, teacher, Park Street School, Milwaukee, Wis. "Necessity for Sharp Differentiation between the Teacher's Point of View and the Administrator's Point of View" — Lucius T. Gould, head, Department of Geography, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. "The Need of Civic and Economic Training for the Classroom Teacher" — John L. Tildsley, associate superintendent in charge of high schools. New York, N.Y. "The Teaching of Citizenship in High Schools" — Thomas M. Balliet, dean. School of Pedagogy, New York University, New York, N.Y. "Some Causes of the Present Decline of Teaching as a Profession" — Sara H. Fahey, teacher of English, Seward Park School, New York, N.Y. "Value of Teachers' Councils" — William J. Bogan, principal, Lane Technical High School, Chicago, 111. "A Plea for Greater Democracy in Our Public Schools" — Frances E. Harden, secretary, Chicago Federation of Teachers, Chicago, 111. "Need for Adequate Salaries, Pensions, and Tenure for Teachers" — Elizabeth S. Baker, president, Pennsylvania State Teachers' Retirement Association, Harrisburg, Pa. Discussion. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — Sara H. Fahey, teacher of English, Seward Park School, New York, N.Y. Vice-President — Ethel M. Gardner, teacher in Park Street School, Milwaukee, Wis. Secretary — Jeannette O'Rourke, teacher in High School, Seattle, Wash. Margaret E. Costello, Secretary pro tcm. 375 376 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS NEED FOR THE SUBSTITUTION OF A COOPERATIVE TYPE OF ORGANIZATION FOR THE PRESENT SYSTEM LOTUS D. COFFMAN, DEAN OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. A crisis in the affairs of nations tests the foundations of existing institu- tions. During such times the revolutionist, the reformer, and the reaction- ary, each in turn, brings forward his cures for institutional ills. The chief danger is that common sense will not get a fair hearing. The unscrupulous demagogue and the misguided sentimentalist make their specious appeals in behalf of the opprest while the stoHd conservative harks back to the good old days when there was no unrest or instabiUty. One does quite as much harm as the other, and neither in the long run can divert the stream of progress far from the channel in which wisdom and good sense have directed it. There are those who insist that pohtics, rehgion, industry, and educa- tion will never again be what they have been, and so they will not; but the changes that are taking place and those that are impending in education cannot be brought about by destroying our educational superstructure, digging up its foundations and casting to the four winds and high seas the traditions of the schoolmaster. There are those, on the other hand, who are urging us to exercise speed in dropping back into the grooves of custom. Each of these groups is receiving a hearing, each has its inning. The dis- satisfied mahgnant reformer maintains that the only cure for the ills of democracy is more democracy, while the incrusted conservative maintains that change is sought simply for the sake of change. The conservative is unwilling to accept the challenge of the new world because all his experience has taught him that innovation may be accompanied by chance failure or calamity. He fears change; the reformer fears tradition. The result is that both become critics and both are likely to be controlled more by their emotions than by their judgment. These two classes are found among the teaching population. There are those who insist that the schools must be reorganized. Admit it. There are those who insist that there is still much virtue in the present system. Admit that also. Both are true. Old lines of social cleavage are being cut across and new conditions and new problems lie ahead awaiting disposition or solution. A new order can be formed only out of the disintegrating elements of the old order. Before we permit the present system of school organization to be revolu- tionized we must ask ourselves. What is the organization of a school system for ? What is its primary purpose ? Until these questions are answered satisfactorily we shall continue to have what we now have, a school system which is architecturally a mosaic. Many answers are being given to these Department] COOPERATIVE TYPE OF ORGANIZATION 377 questions. Recent comments from certain quarters lead me to believe that a new organization is desired by some teachers to get rid of supervision, to secure shorter hours and more pay, and to have control of the details of operation. Not any one of these remedies puts the emphasis where it belongs. We do not need to get rid of supervision. It would be a calamity to do so. Next to better-trained teachers the greatest need of the public schools is more supervision, but it must be of the intelligent, cooperative type. To demand a new organization for the sake of reducing the working schedule cannot be justified if a recent investigation, which shows that teachers put in from six to eight hours a day upon their work, both in and out of school, is correct. Increast pay we must have, but it must always be accompanied by increast preparation and better service. To plead for control of the details of operation involves the setting up of a form of dicta- torship which must inevitably result in class hatreds, class dissensions, and inefficiency. A very clever damagogue, addressing a group of classroom teachers recently, said that ability and sound judgment are not characteristic of supervisory and administrative officers. He declared that only mediocre persons will be found in such positions and that they hold them by being creatures of the capitalistic boards of education. He said that initiative, resourcefulness, real ability, and sound judgment are found among the teachers only. The teachers cheered these statements and sentiments most vigorously. Such statements and sentiments are absurd. Neither stupid- ity nor talent belongs to any particular class or group. The man who utters such statements is guilty of intellectual degradation. Let me say without further comment that class consciousness is to be commended, but class dictation is the most insidious virus in American fife today. If persisted in it will result in institutional instability and insecurity. To be sure, wrongs must be righted, unreasonable autocracy eliminated, unfairness and injustice protested and corrected. Changes must come, but they should come as the result of intelligent planning. Teachers are entitled to and should receive more of a voice in school affairs than they have had in the past. They, however, must not forget that the way to convert is to convict by the preponderance of the evidence. That individual or that class that fixes its attention upon ends that it desires for its own sake, whether the class be teachers or supervisors, loses sight of the fundamental purpose for which schools are organized. A school is organized in order that it may be instructed. Whenever the element of instruction is removed, a school ceases to be a school. Every device, every detail, every working schedule, every salary, every teacher, every supervisor, must be evaluated in terms of the excellence of the work. Better conditions for work can be justified only on the ground of better work. With this as a guiding principle we have an intelligent basis for cooperative planning and cooperative organization. 378 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCTA TION [Classroom Teachers CONSTRUCTIVE PARTICIPATION IN ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION BY TEACHERS ETHEL M. GARDNER, TEACHER, PARK STREET SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. In these days of the glorious rebirth of democracy and the recognition of the right of peoples everywhere to determine for themselves the kind of government under which they shall live, the desire of teachers to participate in the organization and administration of the school system should cause no consternation or alarm to the people of this greatest democracy in the world. We have seen the greatest military machine crumple and vanish from sight; we have seen the greatest autocracies pass from history forever; and we have seen a model educational system "weighed in the balance and found wanting." The world has learned the value of team work, of co- operation. The victory of the Allies demonstrated its effectiveness. It is evidenst in the League of Nations. What should prevent its appHcation in the industrial and educational worlds ? The nation has awakened to the importance of the public schools. It is awakening to the need for better training for teachers and for better salaries that there may be better teachers, but it has not yet realized that the way to secure the best teachers is to allow them to become participators in the great scheme of education. We may appropriate milHons for the training of teachers; we may obtain better salaries for teachers; we may attract to the teaching profes- sion the brightest of our young men and young women; but we must allow them to be something more than mere automatons if we want them to be real teachers. Laymen are surprised when we teachers talk about "democracy" in , our school system. The average American citizen feels that the demands for democracy have been satisfied when a school board elected by the people has been provided for. He loses sight of the fact that school boards, as a rule, are composed of representative citizens, few, if any, of whom are trained educators; that such boards must necessarily employ educational experts to advise them in matters of which they admit they have no knowl- edge; and that within the last quarter of a century there has developt in the educational system of every large city in the country a veritable Junker class of administrative officers who are chiefly responsible for the "superior- inferior" relationship which causes so much dissatisfaction and unrest among the teachers of today. There can never be the right kind of co- operation in the school system until the representatives of the people on the school board and the instructors of the children of the people in the class- room are brought into closer relationship. School directors and super- intendents may call this "Bolshevism"; we teachers call it "democracy." An effort to accomplish this was made in Toledo, Ohio. In a letter from the president of the Toledo Teachers' Association, March 9, 1918, she Department] PARTICIPATION IN ORGANIZATION BY TEACHERS 379 writes: "Our advisory committee was appointed at the suggestion of the Board of Education. It consists of twelve members appointed by the board of directors of the Toledo Teachers' Association, and divided into three committees — Education, Building, and Finance, corresponding to the three committees of the Board of Education. The plan was that they were to be ready if called in conference by the Board of Education." For several years the feeling has been slowly developing in this country that teachers should have some right to express opinions on matters pertain- ing to school administration, and this has been evidenst by attempts in various cities to establish so-called "teachers' councils," or advisory committees of teachers. Some school boards have allowed teachers to express in writing their opinions in regard to changes in textbooks. Some superintendents have appointed committees of teachers and principals to report on textbooks and changes in courses of study. These attempts at democratizing the school system have met with varying degrees of success. Teachers soon discover that their written expressions of opinion serve but to accumulate dust and discontinue writing them. Committees of teachers and principals usually find that it reacts to their personal advantage to make recommendations which find favor with those higher up, and act accordingly. Some teachers' councils become involved in local political difficulties, or are rendered ineffective because of an antagonistic attitude of the school board or the superintendent. Of the most successful teachers' councils — those of Minneapolis, St. Paul, Toledo, Boston, New York, and Portland — no two are exactly alike either in constitution or purpose, except as they offer an outlet of expression for teachers. This in itself is of value, for teachers must express themselves and do, tho not always publicly; and school directors come into contact more or less with individual teachers and listen, tho not officially. It is because of this gossipy *' back-fence" method of communication that teachers are prone to magnify their grievances, and school directors believe that teachers have nothing to offer but complaints. Legalized recognition by school boards of representatives of organized groups of teachers would clear away these misunderstandings. Superintendents and other administrative officers seem to fear this form of participation by teachers, for the most generally accepted type seems to be that of an advisory body to the superintendent. A teachers' council created by the Board of Education in Washington, D.C., in June, 1919, is to consist of the superintendent of schools, two assistant super- intendents, and two representatives of the administrative officers, as well as delegates from the different groups of teachers. When a member of the Milwaukee Board of Education proposed that "the teachers of the various groups hold monthly meetings for the dis- cussion of matters pertaining to school administration; that each group should select annually a representative to the committee on textbooks 3^0 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers and course of instruction with which these representatives of the teachers should meet every month and have a voice but no vote," it was bitterly opposed by other members of the school board, who seemed to fear that direct communication between the teachers and the school board would disrupt the system. One director who feared that teachers would usurp the powers of the superintendent said that "teachers have not that all-round and distant view" which is necessary in order to administer a school system. All teachers will readily agree to this statement, but we do feel that we have the ''close-up" and intiniate view which no other group in the school system has. We feel that a school board that would give equal recognition to the "all-round and distant view" of the superintendent and the "close- up" and intimate view of the teacher, that would weigh them both judi- ciously and fairly, would be a democratic and American school board, and we should have no other kind in the United States of America. NECESSITY FOR SHARP DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN THE TEACHER'S POINT OF VIEW AND THE ADMINIS- TRATOR'S POINT OF VIEW LUCIUS T. GOULD, DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. The school as an institution exists for the sole purpose of carrying on the educational process in a very special sense. All the mechanical and personal factors of the educational process concentrate and find their reason to be in the teaching process. Whatever handicaps the eflftciency of this teaching process defeats the purposes of the institution. The teacher is the custodian of this process. Back of her or rather above her in the system are the various factors of administration. It is essential that these two factors or functions, i.e., the work of the teacher and the work of the administrator, be placed in sharp antithesis for the sake of clear thinking and constructive endeavor in the correction of certain anti-educational relations within the system. The form of association or organization of the school system is mihtary, feudal, an intrinsically superior-inferior class rule. This form of social control invariably induces and perpetuates many undesirable and unneces- sary relations between administrator and teacher. These relations are best exprest by the word "political" in the bad sense of that term. Politics permeates the institution from top to bottom. Among the causes of this state of affairs may be enumerated: (i) the traditional suspicion which a democracy has for its expert leaders, no matter who they are; (2) the brute fact that the so-called expert is con- spicuously inexpert in too high a percentage of cases; (3) the fact that both the expert and the inexpert administrator often allows his thirst Department! CITIZENSHIP IN HIGH SCHOOLS 381 for dominance over persons and things to spread into areas of life where he has neither vested power nor expert knowledge. This superior-inferior class rule begets certain attitudes of mind, among which are fear, duplicity, indifference, and bitterness in those over whom domination is exercised. A pernicious mental condition is thus generated in those who carry on the essentially spiritual process of teaching. Its results can easily be recognized in almost any school system. As the source and guardian of this most delicate spiritual work and under the necessity for personal survival it is highly important that the teacher realize clearly the strategic position which she holds in the social order to the end that she may preserve at its very best her own personality and hence her function as a teacher. This implies that teachers as a class should undertake a careful study of the details of the administrative system in order that these constructive changes in the system may be gradually effected: (i) The change from a military, autocratic form of school government to some form in which cooperation rather than dominance shall be the keynote. Provision must be made for mutual criticism among the parts of the whole. (2) A change to a system in which the teacher is assured of a very definite area in which she functions as expert. (3) A change which shall eHminate the isolation of the teacher and which shall substitute direct contact between her and the people whom she gladly serves, and to whom she is really responsible. u i THE TEACHING OF CITIZENSHIP IN HIGH SCHOOLS THOMAS M. BALLIET, DEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. Democracy to most minds means only political democracy, government of the people, by the people, for the people. This is the kind of democracy that was secured thru the wars of the eighteenth century, and mainly thru the American and French Revolutions. To make this democracy secure, we have ever since been teaching government and studying the Constitution of the United States. But today we are facing a new type of democracy. Just as the wars of the eighteenth century gave us political democracy, so the Great War just ended will give us economic and industrial democracy. ust as the Reign of Terror in the French Revolution represented the crim- nal, extreme phase of the movement toward political Hberty, so the anarch- ist movement of today in Russia is the criminal, extreme phase of the ovement to establish economic freedom. As there was then, so there is ow, a reactionary movement which, if less lawless, is yet equally dangerous. b solve the problems of poHtical freedom, it was necessary to teach the methods and machinery of government. In like manner, to prepare the citizens of a politically free country to solve the problems of economic freedom, we must teach them economics. Most of our great so-called i 382 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers political questions are at bottom economic questions, of which tariffs, laws relating to taxation, to the control of industries, to conservation of natural resources, to banking, are but a few examples. Hence to fit for citizenship economics should be made a compulsory study upon every pupil in every high school thruout the country, and in every type of college and professional school when the student skipt it in college. Again, many of our so-called poHtical problems rest on a sociological basis, such as hours of labor for men, women, and children, housing of the people, minimum wages, the sale of alcoholic drinks, the adulteration of food, and a hundred others. Hence sociology should be made a compulsory study for all pupils in high schools and for all students in colleges. Moreover, all economic and all sociological problems have ethical impli- cations. Hence applied ethics should be made a required study in all high schools and colleges. This will require a considerable readjustment of the curriculum of our high schools, and some studies now required must be either eHminated or made optional. What these studies shall be will naturally be a question on which there is going to be considerable difference of opinion. But I think a few suggestions even on this debatable question can be made with considerable confidence. For one thing, algebra should be made elective in all secondary schools. It does not touch life at many points. It is, in fact, made elective in some state courses of study. Geometry may well be made elective unless, as a compulsory study, it is confined to the rudi- ments which every mechanic finds useful. Latin should be wholly elective. While modern history should be compulsory and should receive. broad and ample treatment, ancient history should be made elective. Except in the domain of art and philosophy, it has very little bearing on modern life. A course in history in a secondary school should begin with modern European and American history and end, if there is time, with ancient history as an elective. History should in this sense be taught backward. The pedagogi- cal reasons for this change cannot here be developt. Rhetoric is a useless study in a secondary school. It belongs to the college. The minute discussions of sentence structure and of style which our texts on rhetoric indulge in are enough to paralyze the Hterary instincts and the feeling for style, if the pupil takes them seriously. They are about as useful as rules for winking and smiling. Such discussions are of prac- tical value only after the pupil has learned to write by much writing under judicious criticism, and has formed a feeHng for style by much reading of the best literature. In short, it cannot profitably come below the college. The study of the national Constitution and of the constitution of the state in which the school is located has been the sole training in high schools for citizenship until very recently, and in a great many high schools it is still the only training given. The study of the constitution is not of any value to secondary-school pupils beyond a general study of the machinery Department] CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF TEACHING 383 by which the people's will can be made effective in the control of the govern- ment. This means the power of the ballot. As for the rest, it requires a decision of the supreme court to determine what any one clause means in its appHcation to a particular case. These are but a few examples of changes and eliminations which may be made. To sum up, a course in training for citizenship in public schools should begin with community civics in the upper grades of the elementary schools and the first year of the high school, including especially public-health problems. The second year of the high-school sociology in its simplest aspects should be taken up and the third year economics and ethics. The highest duty of a citizen is not voting but helping to make the public opinion which controls government. The ballot is important chiefly in so far as it expresses intelligent opinion. It devolves upon the graduates of our high schools and of our colleges and professional schools to make this public opinion. It is the educated element in the community that must lead in public thought. There never has been a time before in our own history or in the history of the world when the safety of society depended so directly on a public opinion which is intelligent on the vital problems of economics, of sociology, and of practical ethics as they come up for solution by democratic and legal methods in our political life. SOME CAUSES OF THE PRESENT DECLINE OF TEACHING AS A PROFESSION SARA H. FAHEY, TEACHER OY ENGLISH, SEWARD PARK SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N.Y. Unless some radical change can be effected in the conditions under which teaching is done today in our public schools, thinking observers believe that we as a nation must face a permanent shortage of trained teachers. ' For the school year just closed, our United States Commissioner of Education reports fifty thousand vacancies in the teaching ranks of this country. There are in the field one hundred and twenty thousand new and wholly untrained teachers, mere boys and girls barely ahead of the classes they are expected to teach. In the schools there are thirty thousand teachers who have had no schooling beyond the eighth grammar grade. Furthermore, the ranks are being daily filled with weak men and with immature women who use the profession merely as a stepping-stone to some- thing they like better. This shortage of trained teachers is not primarily due to the war. For some years past a distaste for teaching has been growing among pro- f essionah workers . We learn from our reemployment bureaus that former teachers, men and women returning from war service, do not wish to continue in the 384 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers field of teaching. Not alone grade teachers, but high-school teachers and college professors show this same feeling. The Reemployment Board at 596 Pearl Street, New York City, last month gave out some very interest- ing data along this line. For example, one applicant characterized teaching as "not a man's job," altho he had taught for ten years. One desired "anything but teaching." Another said he would accept a position at teaching "only as a last resort." A poll was taken last May of the senior class in Columbia University. While twenty-eight expected to enter business, twenty-four law, eight medicine, twelve banking, ten engineering, and four the ministry, only two expected to teach. This dislike for teaching is not confined to the men. In the past the supply of women teachers was thought to be limitless. Today the facts do not bear us out in that assumption. A few months ago I visited a class of bright-eyed eighth-grade girls. All said that they intended to earn their living, but not one expected to be a teacher. Since then I have learned that their replies are typical of many other similar classes. Without doubt the most important reason for this decline in the teach- ing field is the fact that salaries continue to be pitifully small. The teacher of fifty children is not paid as much as the nursery maids of the well-to-do. Seattle recently received a deal of publicity because of the establishment of a minimum annual salary for teachers of $1200 — the highest minimum in the country — yet this is only $23 dollars per week. Yet with all this there never has been a time when men were so uni- versally agreed that the safety of the nation rests on its schools. No single fact brought out in the mobilization of our army caused so much alarm as the knowledge that hundreds of thousands of the young men of our country can neither read nor write. Out of the first two million men drafted, three hundred thousand could not read their orders or even understand them when they heard them. Moreover, one out of every four young men was found physically unfit to bear arms. We teachers have known for some time that three out of every four children in the schools are suffering from remediable physical defects. Malnutrition also is sapping the vital energy of many. Health Commis- sioner Copeland, of New York City, reports for 191 9 that 39 per cent of the children are suffering from its insidious attacks. These conditions present problems which must be met by mature, thoroly trained men and women teachers. Among adults education must go on if democracy is to be preserved. An ugly spirit is showing itself today- — a spirit unknown in America a few years ago. Class antagonism is rife. Ex-Secretary McAdoo said recently, speaking of the attempts by anarchists on the lives of an attorney-general of the United States and other noted citizens, "The remedy, to my way Department] CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF TEACHING 385 of thinking, lies in educating these men to a proper conception of what this country means." All thinking men and women agree with Mr. McAdoo that a lawless spirit cannot be curbed by the simple process of calling names. Such men must be taught that America's weapon is the ballot, not the bomb. They must be shown that if men cannot exercise self-control they defeat the ends of liberty and bring chaos instead. As John Ruskin aptly says, '' It is his restraint that is honorable to a man, not his liberty. The sun has no liberty. A dead leaf has much." All groups then need the teacher. In these perilous times we must be prompt in finding a remedy for this shortage of teachers or we may have to deal with something more serious than even a teacher problem. We have already seen the rapid disappearance of a whole class of women workers from the field of domestic service, and even high wages do not now attract them back. For some time women have not likt the conditions of this service, and no amount of wages can compensate for that. So with teach- ing. Conditions under which it is done today are frequently so uncom- fortable as to make the work itself disHkt. For the past one hundred years in our country this work has been the chief career of women with brains. Mary WoUstonecraft, Margaret Fuller, Lucy Stone, Susan B. Anthony, and innumerable other great women have been teachers. This hardly holds true today. Able women are turning to other callings. Low salaries are not the main objection which such women find in the field of teaching. The criticisms made in a recent survey for the purpose of learning why, aside from the question of salary, teaching has become so unpopular a line of work are exprest in the following comments : I. The public is unappreciative, due to its ignorance of the exhausting character of the teacher's work. a. The teacher is obliged to be unjust frequently toward earnest, capable pupils because of undue emphasis placed on written examinations 'and other imtruthfully exact methods of rating children. 3. In times past the school dealt with children of English-speaking [races and of similar ideals, while in many of our cities today the great mass I of children come from the homes of people foreign to our civilization. This fact makes the work of teaching much more difficult. 4. The public has envied the teacher her apparent five- or six-hour day so frequently that administrators have learned to exact every minute of it. The teacher does not like this spirit. Physicians have repeatedly testified that five hours of teaching is more arduous than eight hours of clerical work. ,The teacher is a high-class brain worker. A physician is not paid for the [actual time spent in prescribing for his patient but for the skill and knowl- [cdge that enable him to prescribe. 386 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers 5. Work is exacted of teachers which, under a really efficient system, would be done by cheap labor. Certain petty monitorial duties and exces- sive clerical work conflict with real teaching and exhaust the teacher in the process. If burdensome clerical work must be done, there should be formal assignment of a period in the teacher's program in which to do it. 6. Frequent interruption of work for matters outside the duties of the classroom causes the teacher to feel constantly prest for time. Maxi- mum speed is demanded all of the day. Professor William T. James's dictum, ''AH education is preeminently a leisurely process," is not accepted in the average city school. A noted woman said recently, "Teaching is no longer a profession. It is a sweated industry." 7. Public-school buildings are not holding their own as against well- equipt office buildings, or even modern factories. The environment is frequently monotonous, forlorn, often unsanitary, and depressing for refined people who know what proper living conditions should be. The physical needs of teachers are so minimized that even the washrooms are frequently utilized for offices or as classrooms for special groups. The fact that a million-dollar high school erected a few years ago has not a single restroom or study-room for its large corps of teachers points to the need of cooperation between the teaching body and the building committee when plans for schools are devised. 8. Complaint is heard because teachers are so frequently doomed to eat a cold lunch. At noon the clerk, the stenographer, the librarian, the social worker, the business woman of every description, flocks out into the open street to some nearby place where she knows she can get good food. But the teacher in most cases is obliged to sit down in the unchanged environment of the classroom to eat a cold sandwich prepared in the early morning. 9. Classifications of work calling for higher licenses and requirements for such licenses have little relation to success in the field of actual teaching. There is no inducement to become an artist in one's own field. A teacher must leave her own work for that of an administrative officer if she desires to be regarded as successful. This condition disheartens many able teachers. 10. Lack of professional standards leads some men teachers to seek to continue the absurd and archaic system of monetary discrimination against women teachers. The business world is more progressive than the schools on this point. The National Association of Manufacturers, meeting in New York City last May, declared that the war had shown the absolute equahty of the sexes even in the matter of mechanical intelligence in the usual pursuits. The labor clauses in the covenant of the League of Nations indorse the principle of pay for position regardless of the sex of the incum- bent. Why then should educational circles be slow to grasp its signifi- cance? Women know that they are underpaid and exploited, and they resent it. Bright women do not like this badge of inferiority instead of the old-time pride in the teacher's calling. Department! THE VALVE OF TEACHERS' COUNCILS 387 11. False emphasis on many trivial by-products of large schools and excessive hypercritical supervision bring about situations which wear upon the life and aspirations of the teacher more than does the conflict between her meager salary and the high cost of living. 12. The inteUigent, able teacher is no longer wilhng to be regarded as a mere custodian of traditional knowledge. She misses the give and take of her intellectual equals. She longs for broad contact with men and women of affairs. She wants to be engaged in a line of work where she is encour- aged to look the world in the face with the level gaze of one competent and unafraid. Again I repeat, intelligent women do not like the conditions of present- day teaching, and no amount of salary can compensate for that feeling. Today our nation finds itself in the forefront of the democracies of the world. Whether it holds its place there depends on whether it has the vision to foresee the importance of its public schools. Blind, deluded masses of men make war possible. The League of Nations, with its costly legal machinery to prevent war, would not be needed in a universally educated world. What American citizenship needs most is the patriotism, ^K the sound thinking, the spirit of virile manhood and womanhood which ^^ fine teachers are capable of inculcating in their pupils. Yet there is a seri- ous decline in the number of high-grade applicants for this most essential I field of service. This review of conditions suggests our problem rather than solves it. However, I have done something if I have brought home to my hearers the necessity for making teaching more attractive. All patriotic citizens, whether administrators of schools or members of an interested public, should carry on an active campaign for bringing about such favorable con- ditions for teaching that the ablest men and women in our country can find opportunity and satisfaction in that field. Closed schoolhouses should no longer be permitted to menace the safety and permanency of our nation. THE VALUE OF TEACHERS' COUNCILS WILLIAM J. BOGAN, PRINCIPAL, LANE TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. Some years ago a famous haberdashery in a large city spent in its advertising campaigns vast sums of money in proclaiming on the billboards and dead walls of the city: *'We cater to His Majesty, the American Citizen." This was before the war, in the days when majesty was sup- posed to be an attribute of kings. Times have changed and royal figures of speech are not so popular as they once were, even in a democracy, but this one serves my purpose so well that I shall use it in modified form as a text: "We teachers cater to His Majesty, the American Citizen." 388 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [classroom Teachers How shall we cater to His Majesty? We have been told again and again that we must develop character, initiative, resourcefulness, judgment, independence, and courage. We must inculcate the love of truth. We must teach the brotherhood of man. This prescription seems trite to our teachers, for they use it every day. In fact it has been used by all teachers, including Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Christ. It has even been used to a limited extent in the education of princes. Its universality of application, therefore, seems unquestioned. What should be our aim in attempting to develop these virtues in the embryo American ruler ? To cater effectively to the American citizen we should have a definite civic goal. As President Wilson has said, we should try to make the world a better place to live in. What a tremendous task* he has set out for us. Think of the opportunities to make the large cities of this country better places to live in. What a wonderful collection of horrible examples each of our large cities might furnish for the teaching of practical civics. And what would happen to us if we attempted to use these examples in the classroom ? What a task we shall have in trans- forming the apathy of our citizens into alertness, courage, and high-minded devotion to duty. Think of the task before us in attempting to develop a vision of the right, a desire to rectify wrong. What a task it will be to make literal the statement from the Declaration of Independence that among every man's inalienable rights are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The type of work outlined cannot be performed by slaves. Does this sentence seem to you to be a straining for rhetorical effect ? Does the idea of slave morality seem far-fetcht ? If so, you are destined to a rude awaken- ing, for a study of educational administration will show that most educa- tional lectures, books, addresses, notices, and directions are permeated at best by the spirit of benevolent despotism and at worst by the spirit of plain undiluted despotism. Many administrators seem to believe that the ideal teachers are docile children who need but to be directed kindly in the way they should go. Others seem to believe that teachers should walk with downcast eyes and listen to the voice of authority in fear and trembling. The attitude of the former is typified by the superintendent who said recently in organizing a new educational association, "The elementary teachers will be satisfied to listen to the inspirational lectures and leave the management to us." Doubtless he meant to furnish the inspiration too. When someone complained that the teachers did not have representation enough in the new organization that he was forming he said, curtly, "My teachers are not nearly so much concerned about their representation as you are." The pity of it is that he told the truth, in all probability. His teachers were probably governed by a type of slave morality. Chancellor, in his "Motives, Ideals, and Values in Education," touches upon this weakness of the schools: Department] THE VALUE OF TEACHERS' COUNCILS 389 The slavish morality of the school is due to its subordination to the institution upon which it is wholly or mainly dependent. The reasons why this has not been more fre- quently observed are two: first, most men are enslaved, unfree, traditional, subservient; and therefore they fail to note a characteristic like their own; and, second, the morality of servitors is entirely acceptable to the rulers and is, therefore, not reprehended. To the masses, the school, whatever it be, is in spirit like themselves; to the classes it is agreeable because lacking resistance. So long as the schools are dominated by boards of education and adminis- trative officers who believe that teachers cannot be trusted to aid in for- mulating and applying educational policies, so long will the schools be dominated by a slave morality. How shall we develop character, initiative, resourcefulness, judgment, and the civic virtues in His Majesty, the American Citizen ? In vocational subjects we insist that the teachers be practical men who have an expert knowledge of their subject. The teacher of carpentry must be an expert carpenter. The automobile instructor must have had long practice with autom.obiles. Likewise the teacher who would develop freedom and inde- pendence in her pupils must have had experience in the practice of those civic virtues. The teacher without skill or practice in her most important task will not be lookt upon with favor by the pupils, for honest pupils can have no respect for the teacher who accepts money under false pretenses. That the pupils lack respect for the profession is proved by the lessening number entering it, and that the public lacks respect for the profession is )roved by the low salaries it pays. To secure the respect of pupils and )ublic the teachers must leave the slave class. An excellent start might be made by establishing teachers' councils that all give an opportunity to those who do the real work of teaching to formu- ite and apply educational policies. It is said that teachers are not fit to lo this work. Possibly this statement is true, but it is certain that they ill never be fit until they have been given an opportunity to practice. 'he establishment of real councils will set teachers to thinking on educa- ional problems as never before. Thinking on these problems will solve 'most of them. The council will serve as a clearing house for the ideals and ideas of all the teachers in the system and it will release a pent-up enthusiasm for education at present unknown to educational administrators. It will bring freedom and independence to the teacher and through the teacher to the pupil. Intimidation will go out of fashion and truth will prevail. These desirable ends will be attained only thru the establishment of real councils. Councils without power or responsibihty will not serve a useful purpose except for the practice they may give in debating. They will be repudiated by all teachers with a spirit of independence, and unless such councils are repudiated teachers will be as helpless as before. The types of councils are usually graded as follows: I. The advisory council. This usually has little power and no re- sponsibility. Owing to its weakness administrators are free to flout its 3 90 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers recommendations with impunity or use its recommendations for their own selfish ends. This type is worse than useless, for it gives a false sense of strength to the teachers. 2. The advisory council whose recommendations are made a matter of official record. This is a decided improvement on Number i, for it permits an appeal to publicity and public opinion. It does not hamper good admin- istrators. It has been found that when recommendations of such councils are based upon experience and study they are nearly always accepted by administrators in good faith and acted upon favorably. In local school councils genuine freedom of discussion requires the elimination of all persons in administrative authority. The presence of principal, assistant, or heads of departments will vitiate the work of the council. Teachers must be free to discuss without fear all matters relating to educational policy. Only in this manner can the responsibility of teach- ers be given a genuine test. Even this kind of freedom will not prevent sycophants from running with their tales to wilKng ears, but it does provide a measure of protection. Again I say, slaves cannot teach free men the fundamentals of democ- racy. The preacher is expected to practice what he preaches. Does it not seem time to permit the teacher to practice what she teaches? The council seems to be a means to that end. Thru it, let us hope, autocracy will be forst to lessen its grip on our schools and democracy will some day be brought to the people. A PLEA FOR GREATER DEMOCRACY IN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS FRANCES E. HARDEN, TEACHER, STEWART SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. In our nation today there is no power more potent for good or for evil than that which lies in our public schools. The autocratic power exerted by the German ruling class and its influ- ence over the great mass of the people has been traced directly to the training received in the German schools. The mental attitude created by this train- ing, which began in the kindergarten and continued thruout the period of school life, resulted in that peculiar state of mind which made possible the Great War. This inherent power of the public schools rests in the hands of the class- room teachers who day after day touch directly the lives of the children in their care and thru this direct daily contact exert, either consciously or unconsciously, an influence which in a large measure fixes their point of view. "We want to raise public intelligence to a point where it will realize and strive and stand for the principles of justice and righteousness first. We want to realize in our twentieth-century civilization an ideal democracy. We want to make the American democracy a beacon light for the rest of Department] GREATER DEMOCRACY IN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS 391 the world, and set ourselves a standard that the rest of the world may follow, and we can do it only thru education. The pulpit, the press, and the bar have been in a large measure subsidized, leaving the pubHc schools as democracy's last line of defense." In the present organization of our public-school system there is an alarming lack of democracy. Our schools are supposed to train the citizens of the future for the task of operating successfully the multitudinous activi- ties of a great democratic nation. This would imply a training in funda- mental democracy from the day the child enters school, but our schools are not organized democracies. We have not even the beginning of the machin- ery of democracy. We will never have fundamental democracy in our nation until it is first establisht in our public schools. The only way we can train citizens for democracy is thru democracy, but our school system is an autocracy— autocratic in every phase of its organization where a small group at the top decides all questions of courses of study, textbooks, and general policies, while the great group below follows unquestioningly and often blindly. Not only is originaKty not askt for but it is discouraged, and one who dares to question the absolutism of those in authority is usually made to suffer. The board of education is the dominating element in our school system. I^B Boards of education for the most part are made up of successful business and ^^B professional men. They are not educators; they are business men, trained ^^Kin business, and when an order emanates from the board of education it I^Hgoes down through the superintendent to the principals, thru the principals I^Bto the teachers, and the teachers do what they are told. [ In this way our public-school system has become a ponderous top-heavy machine. Courses of study are all prepared and handed to the teacher with instructions to follow closely the contents. Then it is that she gets the first information as to what she is to teach. The subject-matter is also dictated by the textbooks adopted, frequently at the behest of some power- ful book company. Our schools today are being used as never before as the means of reach- ing and arousing public interest, but the teachers have had no part in plan- ning these activities. Surely this is an opportune time to bring to public attention the alarming lack of democracy in the conduct of our public schools and the fact that our American public-school system is adminis- tered autocratically- — the classroom teachers having only a negligible voice in the determination of its policies. While the very foundations of all our establisht institutions and customs are being upset, and new, and in many cases untried, systems are in process of formation, would it not seem advisable to make of our public- school system a model democracy, in the conduct of the policies and in the execution of the activities of which all teachers would have an equal share and an equal responsibility ? 392 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers This work might be begun thru the establishment of self-governing, advisory, educational councils of teachers, and so utilize, in the conduct of the schools, the experience, judgment, and initiative of the men and women in direct daily contact with the children and the problems of the schools. All questions, administrative as well as educational, affecting the wel- fare of the teachers, the children, and the schools should be recognized as proper subjects for discussion and finding by these councils. All recom- mendations of the councils, whether on questions referred to the councils by the superintendent or initiated by the councils, should be made matters of official record. The opinions and judgments of teachers could be thus brought to bear on the formulation of school policies, not alone for the sake of the policies, but because in no other way can a sense of responsibility be engendered in teachers for the carrying out of policies except by a voice in their determina- tion. In the administration of the schools teachers should also have a voice. Until such time as the members of the educational force are permitted to choose their leaders from the standpoint of inspirational leadership we will have in our schools an autocracy permeated by petty tyrannies, with a small group ruling despotically and a large group subserviently obedient to the power that controls the professional lives and activities of its members. People are thinking today, more seriously perhaps than ever before, about democracy and what it means. They are thinking perhaps that real democracy means more than political democracy, that it means industrial democracy as well, and if industrial democracy is ever to become a fact the training for it must begin in the schoolroom. If the ideals of democratic freedom for which the world-war was fought are to be realized, the period of reconstruction must have clear thinkers, men and women who are able to gather up the fragments of civilization, and out of them build a broader, better, fairer nation; one where justice will be assured even to the humblest member of society. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN SECRETARY'S MINUTES MILWAUKEE MEETING OFFICERS President — Kathryn S. McLean, dean of women, Ohio Wesleyan University . .Delaware, Ohio Vice-President — Eva Johnston, dean of women. University of Missouri Columbia, Mo. Secretary — Anne Dudley Blitz, dean of women, William Smith College Geneva, N.Y. FIRST SESSION— Monday Afternoon, June 30, 191 9 The Department of Deans of Women of the National Education Association con- vened in regular session on Monday afternoon, June 30, 1919, at 2:00 o'clock, in the Chapel, Milwaukee-Downer College, Milwaukee, Wis. The meeting was called to order by Kathryn S, McLean, president. In the absence of the secretary the president appointed Mina Kerr as secretary pro tem. The general topic for the meeting was "What Deans of Women Can Do to Encourage Group Consciousness among Women," and the following program was presented: "Industry and Politics" — Margaret S. McNaught, state commissioner of elementary education, Sacramento, Calif. "Education" — Eleanor N. Adams, president, Oxford College, Oxford, Ohio. "Salary and Rank" — Anna V. Day, dean of women. State Normal School, Milwau- ^kee, Wis. "What a President May Expect from a Dean of Women" — E. A. Birge, president, [University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis, ^ "What a Dean May Expect from a President." — Ruby E. C. Mason, dean of women, [University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Noon, July 2, 1919 The second session, held Wednesday noon, July 2, at the Hotel Pfister, was in the [form of a luncheon, Eva Johnston, dean of women. University of Missouri, Columbia, [Mo., presided, and the following program was presented: "Some Counsel to New Deans" — Sarah Louise Arnold, dean, Simmons College, Joston, Mass. "Am I My Sister's Keeper?" — Annie Webb Blanton, state superintendent of public ^instruction, Austin, Tex. "Professional and Social Loyalties" — Mina Kerr, dean, Milwaukee-Downer College, f Milwaukee, Wis. "The Work of the Bureau of Education" — Edith Lathrop, Bureau of Education, [Washington, D.C. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — Kathryn S. McLean, dean of women, Ohio Wesleyan University, Dela- ,ware, Ohio. Vice-President — Eva Johnston, dean of women, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo, Secretary — Anne Dudley Blitz, dean of women, William Smith College, Geneva, N.Y, Mina Kerr, Secretary pro tem 393 394 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Deans of Women PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS WHAT DEANS OF WOMEN CAN DO TO ENCOURAGE GROUP CONSCIOUSNESS AMONG WOMEN—INDUSTRY AND POLITICS MARGARET S. MC NAUGHT, STATE COMMISSIONER OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. There are many forms of group consciousness among the people of our time. There is a community consciousness of local interests as distinct from those of other communities. There is among immigrants and their descendants a racial consciousness of peculiar customs and creeds; there is a class consciousness among groups of workingmen of their economic solidarity in conflict with capitalism. There is a consciousness among an increasing class of women of the essential unity of their rights as women to readjust the existing social order so far as it is confused by any injustice surviving from a bygone age. The group consciousness of communities and of races need not concern us long. We may dismiss the first because one American community is so much like another that any conflict of interests is bound to be transitory and of little moment. The second is more lasting and more momentous, but as we are striving to rid our people of their racial differences and of their old-world customs, to the end that all may merge into a common consciousness of American citizenship, we can have no responsibility with respect to any s.ort of race consciousness among us, save that of teach- ing, preaching, and practising genuine Americanism, first, last, and all the time. There remain the two forms of group consciousness that have a claim upon our attention, our study, and our energies: the laborers' consciousness that they are entitled to a larger share of the profits of their labor than they have had in times past or have now; and the consciousness of women that they are entitled to a larger share in the world's work, the world's rewards, and the world's honors. The consciousness of opposing economic interests between labor and capital is the outcome of the change that has come over the industrial con- ditions of the people of the United States in the developments of the past fifty years. Time was when our people justly boasted there were no classes in our country. The farm owner himself was once a plowboy, and the plowboy knew that in due time he would own a farm. The mill owner had been a millman and the millman knew that he in his turn would some day own a mill. Farm lands were plentiful and cheap. Mills had but little machinery and were not costly. The owner and the hired man workt together with no slightest sense of a distinction of class or of conflict of interest. Department] GROUP CONSCIOUSNESS— INDUSTRY AND POLITICS 395 The increase in the price of farm lands and of farming machinery, the crushing of smalf mills and factories by those erected and operated by large corporations, has workt the separation we now know between the two classes : the capitalist owner that was never a workingman, and the worker that knows that he will never be a capitalist. Efforts to bring the two classes into unity by inducing workers to sub- scribe for stock in the corporation for which they work have in many instances been successful, but, numerous as have been these successes, they have had little effect upon the great mass of workers and of capitalists. Great gains have come to labor and thru labor to the nation as a result of the class consciousness of workingmen. In the old days it was only here and there that some man more strong, more skilful, or with larger business capacity than his comrades rose by good fortune from the ranks of the ill- paid hired man to the ranks of the employing class; but now by unity of effort and class cooperation all workingmen have advanst to a higher standard of living than was possible fifty years ago. Today, however, this -class consciousness menaces the prosperity of civilization. Wisely led it has the potency of becoming one of the highest constructive forces mankind has ever exerted; but ill-directed it is porten- tous of industrial disturbance, civil discord, and ruin. As education did not cause this class consciousness, neither can it set it aside. Our responsibiHty in connection with it therefore begins and ends with our duty as educators to continually remind both the contending groups of their solidarity with the general interests of the community and of the nation. That solidarity is the base upon which rests alike the prosperity of both capital and labor. Each side must be brought to under- stand beyond all doubting that in their conflicts there is a point beyond which a victory would be to the victor as disastrous as to the defeated. In every struggle for existence cooperation wins more than rivalry or triumph. However beneficial economic group consciousness has been in times past or may be when wisely led in the future, it will cease to be beneficial whenever a group loses consciousness of the higher claims of the community in which they live and of the nation that protects their lives and property, educates their children, and gives them the dignity of citizenship. The group consciousness of women seeking redress from further con- tinuance of ancient wrongs should have a consideration all its own. It is not a narrow issue like a community consciousness or a race consciousness or an economic consciousness. It includes the whole orb of life. It is mental and moral as well as physical and material. It is at once a politics, a philosophy, and a reHgion. It is spiritual as well as temporal. It appeals to the bosoms as well as to the business of humanity. If it could be summed up in one word, that word would be "Justice." As educators we ask for better pay, better training, and higher respect for teachers, better schoolhouses in which to teach, better equipments for 39^ ^A TiONAL EbUCA TION ASSOCIA TION (Deans of Women teaching, better playgrounds for recreation, better conditions, not only in the school, but in the home, for children that are to be taught. We wish for school trustees with broad culture and high aspirations. We wish for communities infused with a fuller and clearer understanding of the impor- tance of education and of the supreme value of the services of those that devote their lives to it. To achieve this justice to educators there is needed a group conscious- ness; a consciousness of the double claim of education and of womanhood. The encouragement, the development, the assertion of that consciousness among women of forward-looking minds and vigorous energies, is in a special measure our duty at this juncture. It is our particular responsi- bility. No one shares it with us. We must go forward in our own courage and seek thru our own efforts and our own will to win. We are not engaged in a forlorn hope. We appeal to a sentiment already formed among women and already recognized and respected among men. All the auspices are favorable and all the prospects promise attainment pro- portionate to our energies and our resolution. What has been achieved for labor by group consciousness will be achieved for womanhood by an equal zeal and an energy equally well directed. We may go forward the more confidently because we know that in our case there is hardly a possibility that by any chance our group consciousness shall cause us to lose sense of our responsibility to the community we serve and to the nation; for what is education but service rendered to community interests and national grandeur ? With the woman teacher group consciousness is nothing less than a consciousness of her professional duty and her womanly right to dispense thru the channels of her service all that is highest and best in her for the training of successive generations in all that tends to the happiness of indi- viduals, the honor of our country, and the growing good of all mankind. We can therefore accept our responsibility in encouraging such group consciousness with willing minds and glad hearts, and go forward with jubilant feet. We are fighting the good fight and keeping the faith of humanity. WHAT DEANS OF WOMEN CAN DO TO ENCOURAGE GROUP CONSCIOUSNESS AMONG WOMEN— EDUCATION ELEANOR N. ADAMS, PRESIDENT, OXFORD COLLEGE, OXFORD, OHIO There have been two great impulses toward education in the United States. The -first was the desire for personal culture, an inheritance from the aristocratic systems of Europe ; the second came with the sudden com- mercial expansion of our middle- western cities. It was then that high school was urged on pupils as a means of getting on in the world, and that high schools began to send students to college with the motto, " I can make I Department] GROUP CONSCIOUSNESS— EDUCATION 397 more money with a college education than without." The first check that came to this purely materialistic impulse toward education was from industry itself, which cried out that higher education was a hindrance rather than a help to financial success. The arraignment of the college man as a failure in efficiency had grown bitter when the great war exploded most of our pet theories and among other things opened the way for a new attitude toward the aim and value of education. Now we are entering the third phase of our educational impulse^ntensive training for good citizen- ship and service to society at large. This latter ideal has not sprung as a phoenix from the ashes of the old system, for its foundations have been carefully laid by many earnest workers who lackt only the support of public opinion in the rearing of their superstructure. As a rule the education of any individual has terminated with the necessity to get to work. The practical value of education was incidental to economic conditions. This haphazard method could not keep up with the changing intellectual, industrial, and civic needs. A certain consciousness of these unsatisfactory conditions is observable as far back as the formation of the Kindergarten Association, which has been followed in rapid succession by mothers' clubs, parent- teachers' associations, and other agencies which promote intelligent cooperation between the teacher and the home. All these efforts have been stabilized by the activities of the federated women's clubs. Aside from local organizations, two very active factors in preparation for new educational ideals have been the efforts of the Association of Col- legiate Alumnae and the Young Women's Christian Association. We behold, too, the Red Cross organizing the home-service work in small com- munities and Smith College establishing a psychiatric training school, that the interests of the abnormal child shall have equal chance with that of the normal youth. It becomes evident from the most rapid survey of existing agencies that women no longer consider education limited to the classroom, but extend it to the development, thruout life, of the best possibilities in each individual, that his qualities of mind and spirit may best serve the uni- versal need of a disrupted world. I believe that the dean of women is the great lever which controls the campus life of women, and this in turn ener- gizes the thought of much of the world beyond college precincts. A very definite problem, therefore, confronts the dean of women in every educa- tional institution, namely, how to increase group consciousness as regards education. Here, as elsewhere, group interest is born thru the personal influence and guidance of the individual, and fortunately the dean is the person on the campus who is accessible to the individual and whose province it is to work on the needs of each student. This is her oppor- tunity; as she convinces, persuades, enthuses this girl and that, she molds group opinion. 398 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Deans of Women Recently two things absorb the attention of educated women, mental hygiene and community work. The college girl must take these into her reckoning if she is to keep pace with those of her sisters already launcht in the world's work. Mental hygiene is closely alHed to that other subject of sex hygiene which has come to us with such vigor in the past few years. There has been a somewhat too hysterical attitude on these matters, both among advocates and opponents of the campaign for a frank discussion of the problem. Here the dean can be of inestimable value by her intelligent direction of enthusiasm for outdoor sports. The healthy, open-air girl does not spend much time in morbid analysis of the facts, however they may be presented. She will be more concerned with her practical part in bring- ing healthy children into the world or in gaining a degree of health for such children as come under her supervision in the capacity of nurse, physician, teacher, or social worker. To the college girl the phrases "training for service" and ''the thresh- old of opportunity" have already become trite; but she responds with sparkling eye, glowing cheek, and eager questioning when confronted with someone who is an actual worker, whether she be a rural community worker, a vocational expert, a pioneer among those who are revolutionizing the life of women in mining towns, a factory inspector, a child-welfare worker, one engaged in psychological or biological research, or a business woman who has made good in the competitive market. The dean of women can do much to make possible the contact of such people with our college girls. Many of the girls who come under my observation are from small towns and from farms; they have had no chance to meet people who do things in the big, outside world. They are galvanized when they meet women who represent this world. They even respond to the routine work of the class- room with renewed energy, for in it they begin to see a means of deepening, intensifying their own capacity to understand and to widen basic knowledge, qualities which they subtly feel these successful women have cultivated. The federal government has pointed the way in the past two years to a much wider sphere of activity for the college-trained woman. The demand for women in scientifically conducted industry has exceeded the supply of the adequately prepared. More than this, the government has urged the neces- sity for more education for the average worker and thus puts high authority behind the voice of college administrators in their effort to keep the girl in college until she has had sufficient time to mature some of the information which has been unloaded on her in her secondary training. Time is a very necessary element in preparation for after-college service ; it is necessary for the gaining of poise, of sure decision, for the formulation of ideas into a working principal. This is a thing which needs to be brought into the group consciousness, and can be furthered by the dean in her conference with groups of students who are working out plans for the various college organizations. Department] A PRESIDENT AND A DEAN OF WOMEN 399 The enthusiasm for any given study comes most naturally from the instructor, but the social aspect of education comes naturally from the dean, and it has been from this angle that I have approacht the topic under dis- cussion; and since society is a reciprocal phase of life, it is worth while getting help from the girls themselves, in the process of relating the indi- vidual consciousness of the aims of education to the much-desired group consciousness. I have found the leaders among college girls a splendid advisory board. The type of girl who is a member of the Student Govern- ment Board or the Y.W.C.A. cabinet is close to the student point of view, yet she has a certain detachment from the bias of such view which comes thru her sense of responsibility and her executive opportunities. Such girls develop a kind of intuitive understanding of how to get at the student body which is invaluable to the college authorities. Students are not hostile to education; they are merely, as a mass, unaware of its wide, deep significance. Too often we help a girl select her studies, arrange her schedule, and leave her to the routine of week in and week out, relying on the ability of the individual teachers to quicken the student. But here is a girl who '' loathes mathematics," and another who would "rather die than do chemistry," yet these are required subjects, perhaps. If her instructor has personality sufficient to win the girl to a liking of the subject, well and good; that not being the case, it comes back to the dean of women ;to instil into that girl some of the group consciousness which has made these ubjects attractive to her fellow-students. There is no set formula by which this miracle may be wrought, but the problem serves to illustrate two ings: first, that each girl must be brought to realize her relation to the ass purpose of education; second, that the mass follows its leaders and ,s decimated by stragglers who fall by the way, and that to keep a steadily progressive army of young women on the path to future usefulness the t'ean must reach both these leaders and these stragglers thru ready sym- athy, a sense of humor, and a large amount of common sense. WHAT A PRESIDENT MAY EXPECT FROM A DEAN OF WOMEN E. A. BIRGE, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, AIADISON, WIS. I limit my discussion of the topic assigned to me to coeducational insti- tutions, and especially to state universities — the type of college with which I am famihar. The problem which a dean of women is expected to solve is one which has arisen out of the discovery and exploitation of the college by American society as a means of furnishing a general preparation for life. This liscovery may be placed at a date about thirty years ago. The women who before that time came to college were brought there primarily by intel- lectual ambition. Since that time women in increasing numbers have come in whom social ambitions vie with or outrank purely intellectual aims. The 400 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Deans of Women number of such women increast until it became plain in the earher years of the twentieth century that the college needed special means of influencing them. The creation of the position of dean of women is an attempt to meet this need. There has grown up in coeducational colleges a social life of their own, a life which many students find, not a mere relaxation from study, but, like social life in the outside world, an end in itself. For some students social success becomes, in their own minds, the justification for time spent in college; and work in the classroom is the price which they pay for the opportunity to achieve such success. From these persons college society gains an importance which affects the life of the entire college community. In the Western world and since the Middle Ages the conventions of social life have been regulated primarily by women. Women determine the conditions on which the two sexes shall meet on the common social ground. If we may, for the purposes of this discussion only, divide the women of society into old and young, we may say that it is the first of these classes which determines social laws. The matrons, the mothers, the hostesses, in any organized civilized society determine the laws of that society which its members must obey on penalty of exclusion. In college society there is found a bit of general society cut out from the larger mass and strictly limited in its membership. All of its members are young, all are unmarried, all are sharing essentially the same daily routine of life. Practically none of these members belong to the society more than four years. Substantially one-third or more of the group are new every year. None of them have had social experience worth mention- ing. All are about equally ignorant of the future. Here then is a unique social condition. Here are large groups of young men and young women brought together for a common purpose, meeting constantly in class and on the campus, organizing their social life, estab- lishing their social conventions — or unconventions — and all without the presence of those natural social leaders by whom society at large is organized and ruled. Thus arises the fundamental problem which the dean of women must meet. College society, if it is to be properly organized, must depend, not on influences arising inevitably out of its constitution, but on influences consciously and in some sense artificially created. The creation of such conditions is not difficult in a college for women alone. Social life there is of the conventual type — by which I by no means imply that it is necessarily religious. There is but one sex present in this society. The institution can create its own surroundings, its own traditions, its own atmosphere. It is not open to the general social world on all sides as is the coeducational college. Its students can be limited to its dormitory capacity instead of being scattered among numerous sorority houses and private residences. All students can therefore be subjected to common influences and molded into a common character. Department] A PRESIDENT AND A DEAN OF WOMEN 401 The situation regarding the social Kfe in coeducational colleges has been emphasized because it offers that phase of the general problem of student life which is at once the most universal and the most difficult to control. Social activities are part of the normal life of every student. They require no special preparation or labor, as dramatics or athletics do. They easily grow from ordinary amusement and relaxation into primary ends of the college life. They are peculiarly difficult to regulate quantitatively either directly or indirectly. Experience has shown that scholastic standards are not an effective means of controlling student activities. Colleges cannot adopt or enforce the military method of occupying the full time of the student by assigned duties without losing much of the main purposes of the college; and if free time is allowed to students, they will use it as they please. Participa- tion in student activities which involve training or which issue in material products, like a newspaper, can be regulated by scholastic standing, tho the regulation is often not effective because slow in operating. But it is practi- cally impossible to control participation in social affairs on the basis of scholarship. Many other activities which came into college life as amusements have become ends in themselves for large numbers of students. Athletics, publications, dramatics, are examples. Colleges have found it very difficult to regulate any of these. But the social fife and its activities are even harder to control, since it is difficult to determine the amount which may be considered normal, and still more difficult to formulate principles for its regulation. I have made this phase of college life central in my discussion. The dean of women is by no means an arbiter elegantiarum. She deals with the Hfe of the women students in all its aspects. But the social side of that life constitutes its most pecuHar problem and that problem which made necessary the creation of the position of dean of women. She can handle this question successfully only as she is in sympathetic contact with all the other phases of student life and influences these as well as the specifically social activities. The problem of the dean of women is therefore that of maintaining and strengthening academic life in an academic society open on every side to the influences of the outer world and containing many persons who are more affected by these influences than by those of the college. She must aid in making the members of the college feel that work is a privilege, while most of the members of the outer world feel that it is a penalty. She must help the college community to feel that social matters and all other "student activities" are secondary and their rewards small in comparison to the main end of college. And she must accomplish this in a society which contains in itself all of the elements of a segregated social Ufe devoid of the natural social means of control. 402 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Deans of Women From this point of view it is easy to see why the dean of women holds a position so anomalous, why her duties are so hard to state and her authority so vaguely defined. The president of the college cannot alter these essential conditions of her place and her work, and his expectations must be as ill- defined as are the rights and duties of the dean. He looks to the dean to bring together and make efficient the influences which maintain and raise social standards among the women of the college. It might seem from my statement of the dean's problem that it was not so much a difficult as an impossible one. But college society has its especial advantages as well as disadvantages, its specific influences of control as well as its specific disintegrating forces. The love of study is a powerful influ- ence in the life of the great majority of college women. Ambition for suc- cess is hardly second to this and for that type of success which comes from the course of study. The great majority of college women are looking toward at least the possibihty of independent success in life. All, with negligible exceptions, look toward social advancement in college or after college. Here are abundant and powerful influences if they can be collected and directed. The dean must make them effective by organization by the aid of college rules, by the association of natural leaders among students and alumnae, as well as by personal influence. University traditions must be developt and maintained among the women. For leadership in this great work the college as well as the president must look to the dean of women. I shall go no farther. This is the central expectation, and everything else is a matter of detail. Special duties are subject to endless variation according as the personaHties of dean and president vary and as the problems alter with place and time. I have said enough to show the side of college life on which the president's expectation lies, to indicate the fundamental importance of the dean of women in college life, and, by inference, to show something of the powers which she should exercise. AM I MY SISTER'S KEEPER? ANNIE WEBB BLANTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, AUSTIN, TEX. Under the topic, "Am I My Sister's Keeper ?" I am to apply today an age-old question (i) to the obligation which the successful wage-earning woman of the present owes to those who, in the past, have made possible her success, and (2) to the duty which she owes to her sister-women less fortunate than herself. Shall a woman regard her own success as an oppor- tunity to aid in a great world-movement toward democracy and progress, or shall she view it from a narrow personal standpoint and use whatever power it may bring to further her own interests alone ? Department] AM I MY SISTER'S KEEPER? 403 I hold that the interests of man and woman are inseparable; that while man may have made this a man world, it was not so designed by the Creator; I hold that man cannot attain his highest development unless woman keeps pace with his progress; the Creator did not make brains hereditary in the masculine line only; a man is more likely to inherit his mental ability from his mother than from his father. Woman cannot reach her highest development so long as she has no part in democracy ; for so long will her ambitions be curbed and her initiative and originality crusht, since there are few lines of endeavor in which autocracy has place for these qualities in a woman. To my mind, then, whatever any woman can achieve toward the recognition of the work of womankind is a step toward the advancement of the human race. When we struggle to abolish sex dis- tinctions in wage-earning and in government, we are acting on the same principle which the world-war was fought to maintain — that might and power do not constitute justice and right. Every woman who has achieved success as a wage-earner owes some- thing to the past pioneers in democracy. Whatever may have been the courage, the talent, the struggles of her own career, it was the daring, the perseverance of her predecessors, that made this career possible. Whenever she can convince her own small part of the world that a woman can be a success at any kind of public work, without losing any of the feminine qualities which both men and women hold precious, she is paying part of this debt; whenever she can aid and encourage others less fortunate than herself to aspire along with her, she is proving herself worthy of the sacri- jfices which others have made in order that opportunity might be hers. Sometimes these less fortunate wage-earners are cowardly because others, children or invalids, are dependent upon their efforts. Frequently they do not stand by a movement to secure better conditions for the whole mass of women workers because of a stronger sense of duty toward those who look to them for bread and shelter. The spirit of democracy which America cannot carry to other nations and yet deny to the women of our country is now sweeping the world. It seems almost certain that before the next presidential election the Susan B. Anthony amendment will have become a part of our federal constitution. But even with the ballot, the woman's right to an equal opportunity in the fields of industry and in the various professions is still to be estabHsht. There is perhaps no other line of work in which sex privilege is more firmly intrencht than in the teaching profession. Usually when this well-known fact is timidly brought to Hght in public assemblies, someone remarks in a tone of bland reproof, ''Let us have no man-and- woman division in the teaching profession." There has always been a man-and-woman division in the teaching profession, but it has not been of woman's making. It owes its origin to the obsolete prejudices of some superintendents and school boards. Most women who have had to face the world alone, often with a 404 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Deans of Women living to earn for others dependent upon them, have found themselves up against a solid wall of sex prejudice. It has, in effect, been said to them, "It makes no difference what ability you may have nor how hard you may work, thus far you may go, and no farther — because you are a woman." There are some of us who have climbed to the top of that wall, and we are stretching out our hands to those who are still struggling after us; and we shall never be satisfied until it is beaten down forever. The question is. How is that to be done ? Ever since the time of Adam one of man's favorite diversions has been marking out woman's sphere and warning her off his own preserves. The men of most of our country, like ourselves, were born to the old order of things. The great task before womankind today is to prove her right to any work which she claims by performing its duties efficiently; to ask recogni- tion of the work of all women, because that is a part of humanity's progress; to secure representation of women in all lines in which they work, because that is a part of the task of breaking down sex prejudice. We must say to the world, " We want not only a brotherhood of men, but a sisterhood of women. We want an esprit de corps in our sex which recog- nizes the responsibility of every woman to do her part toward the advance- ment of the whole body of women workers." Most of you to whom I speak have the important duty intrusted to you of shaping the ideals of the young woman of our country. Teach her that no woman achieves man's respect who is a traitor to her own sex. Teach her that one who labors with a wholly selfish motive — who does not place above what may come to her personally from her efforts the welfare and the advancement of all of womankind — is an ingrate to the pioneers of the past who paved the way for her own achievement, and that she is a slacker in the battle for progress in the future. Teach her that, to do her full duty toward both man and woman, she must be, in the highest sense, her sister's keeper. PROFESSIONAL AND SOCIAL LOYALTIES MINA KERR, DEAN, MILWAUKEE-DOWNER COLLEGE, MILWAUKEE, WIS. Three great barriers in the lives of women have gone down within a month. The passage of the suffrage amendment, June 4, 1919, markt the fall of one barrier; the signing of the peace treaty, June 28, and, we hope, the end of war, another; and prohibition, July i, a third. New doors of opportunity for accomplishment and service are opening before women. Two aspects of the professional and social loyalties which we must acknowl- edge as we enter these doors are my concern here. The first form of loyalty which we must practice is institutional loyalty, loyalty to the state, church, school, to educational and professional, civic and social organizations. Loyalty to the state in time of peace means » bepartmeut] PROFESSIONAL AND SOCIAL LOYALTIES 405 casting our vote every time we have the right and privilege, and casting it with intelKgent knowledge of candidates and issues. It means associating ourselves with the new League of Women Voters which purposes to train women to be good citizens and to unite them in the support of right legisla- tion concerning public health, the work of women and children, education, and like matters about which women have special knowledge. Loyalty to the state means keeping track of state and city officials, of school boards, attending meetings, and seeing that the public interest is served by public officials. Loyalty to the state means being willing honestly to pay our property and income taxes, to carry our share of the expense of the busi- ness of the state. Most of us get from the state in protection, comfort, and general welfare far more than we ever pay for in taxes. Getting out of taxes is disloyalty. A part of our institutional loyalty should be directed toward the church. Many teachers and other professional women do not ally themselves with any church. The church has been and will ever be the institution of the Christianity which has been the great liberating and democratizing force in the history of humanity. We should belong to a church, give it our support in time and money, and so teach our students. Freely we have received, and freely we should give in institutional loyalty to the church. We may well cultivate in ourselves and our students a deeper and richer loyalty to our schools. The knowledge of the history of their development and of their vital relationship to the existence and growth of a democratic government should make us care about them and seek to serve them. Our schools are a precious possession and inheritance. How can we return to them some measure of what they have given each and all of us is the question we wish to put deep in the thought of our students as they go out to be men and women of active social influence. Other forms of organization must have our institutional loyalty. Why do we not make more effort to send our students into the teaching profession with a knowledge of what the National Education Association lis and does, and with the expectation that, as a matter of course, they will be active members? We women owe a great debt to the Association of Collegiate Alumnae for what it has done the past thirty years in creating opportunities, conditions, and recognition for women, both as students and as faculty members, in the field of higher education. Are we giving it our loyalty and are we teaching our women students to be loyal to it? To many professional, civic, and social organizations do we owe our loyal payment of dues and support because of what these have given us, whether directly or indirectly. If we are to keep our self-respect and do our part as citizens, we must reckon with such institutional loyalties, professional and social, and by living them and teaching them pass them on to our students. The second form of loyalty is loyalty to persons. The world has long talkt about loyalty directed upward from below, loyalty to the king, loyalty 406 NA TIONAL EDUCA TtON ASSOCIA TION [Deans of Womea to the superintendent of schools, to the president of a university or college, to the superior official. Loyalty from above downward precedes loyalty from below up. Loyalty begins at the top. I have a strong suspicion of the men and women in superior positions who berate those below them for lack of loyalty. Why have those in the superior positions not created loyalty ? Loyalty is a reciprocal relationship. The way to begin is for a chief to be loyal to his subordinates, whether in business, industry, church, or education. When loyalty from above has been attained, loyalty from below may readily be developt. There are three great characteristics of such loyalty from above down- ward: 1 . Reverence for the personality of others and trust in their ability. We must realize that members of our faculties and our students have knowledge, ability, initiative, if we give them field and freedom for action. We must renounce "the joy of controlling for the joy of releasing the powers of others." 2. Sincerity in our relations to others by word or action. We need to be what we seem and to seem what we are that there may be understand- ing of us as well as by us, that there may be confidence and cooperation. 3. Justice. Justice is a great part of our loyalty to those below us. Again, we must replace "the joy of controlHng others" by the joy of dealing justly with others. Without justice there can be no loyalty. Such loyalty we women who are in administrative work must cultivate in ourselves toward our faculties and students. Loyalty and cooperation begin at the top. If we give right loyalty and cooperation, we shall get them in return, and so shall the largest work be accomplisht and the great- est service rendered. SECRETARY'S MINUTES CHICAGO MEETING OFFICERS President — Kathryn S. McLean, dean of women, Ohio Wesleyan University Delaware, Ohio Vice-President — Eva Johnston, dean of women. University of Missouri Columbia, Mo. Secretary — Anne Dudley Blitz, dean of women, William Smith College Geneva, N.Y. Treasurer — Florence L. Richards, dean of women, Winona State Normal School Winona, Minn. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, February 25, 9:30 o'clock A conference of the Department of Deans of Women of the National Education Asso- ciation was held on Tuesday forenoon, February 25, 1919, at 9:30 o'clock, in Recital Hall, Auditorium Hotel, Chicago, 111. The meeting was called to order by Kathryn S. McLean, president. The general topic for the session was "Readjustment of Education of Women Fol- lowing the War," and the following program was presented: Addresses of Welcome: Marion Talbot, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.; Mary Ross Potter, Northwestern University, Evans ton, 111. Department] WAR AND HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN 407 "Industrial and Economic Adjustment of Women Following the War" — Mary E. McDowell, University Settlement of Chicago, Chicago, 111. "Women's Share in Social and Spiritual Readjustment" — Bertha Conde, student secretary. Young Women's Christian Association. "Some Phases of New Educational Leadership of Women" — Robert L. Kelly, exec- utive secretary, American Council of Education, Washington, D.C. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Noon, February 25, 12:00 o'clock Luncheon, Congress Hotel. Speakers — S. P. Caben, specialist in higher education. Bureau of Education, Wash- ington, D.C; Sarah Louise Arnold, dean of Simmons College, Boston, Mass. THIRD SESSION — Tuesday Afternoon, February 25, 2:00 o'clock The session was called to order at 2:00 p.m. by the president, and the following pro- gram was presented: "Reconstruction and Reeducation of Wounded Soldiers" — H. L. Smith, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D.C, " Some Effects of the War on the Higher Education of Women " — ^W^illystine Goodsell, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Address — Helen Bennett, Collegiate Bureau of Occupations, Chicago, 111. FOURTH SESSION — Wednesday Forenoon, February 26, 9:30 o'clock The session was called to order at 9:30 a.m. by the president. The general topic for the session was "Practical Problems Having to Do with the Work of Deans of Women," and the following program was presented: "Relation of the Faculty and Especially the Dean of Women to the Student Govern- ment Association" — Katherine S. Alvord, dean, DePauw University, Greencastle, Ind. "How May the Freshman Be More Easily and Quickly Adjusted to College Life?" — F. Louise Nardin, dean of wqmen. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. "The Work of a Dean of Girls and Its Relation to That of a Dean of Women" — Eula W. Deaton, dean of girls, Austin High School, Chicago, 111. FIFTH SESSION — ^Wednesday Afternoon, February 26, 2:00 o'clock The session was called to order at 2 :oo p.m. by the president, and the following pro- gram was presented: "Social Principles" — Florence M. Fitch, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio. Report of committees and discussion. "Possibility of a Quarterly Bulletin for Deans of Women" — Mina Kerr, dean, Milwaukee-Downer College, Milwaukee, Wis. "The Scoring of Rooms m Residence Halls" — Grace Greenwood, social director, Martha Cook Building, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Anne Dudley Blitz, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS SOME EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON THE HIGHER EDU- CATION OF WOMEN WILLYSTINE GOODSELL, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. The subject which has been assigned to me is ''Some Effects of the War in Women's Colleges." I shall speak, however, only briefly of the immediate effects of the world-conflict just ended and shall devote most of my attention to the question of the reorganization of our women's colleges 4o8 I^A TtOKAL EDUCA TION ASSdCIA flON [Deans of Womeft to meet new conditions in part created by the war. Quite naturally the full effect and meaning of the world- war was not felt in American colleges and universities until the entrance of the United States into the struggle focust the attention of every thoughtful individual upon the immediate necessities and problems of a nation at war. The response of the women's colleges and their alumnae to the country's call was prompt and effective. You are all aware of the splendid organized efforts made by women stu- dents in our colleges the country over to further the program of the govern- ment with respect to food production and conservation, the selling of Liberty Loan Bonds, Red Cross and allied relief work, and education in the significance and aims of the war. Almost every college organized a central war council or war committee, similar to those of Bryn Mawr and Columbia, under whose direction war work was carried on very effi- ciently. During the past year 20,000 diplomas have been awarded by the United States Food Administration to college women for successful comple- tion of government courses in food conservation. The program of war economy adopted in most of the colleges called for simplicity in social life and tabooed banquets and expensive parties. Vassar abolisht the Junior Prom and Class .Day and adopted as a war slogan "No frills and frip- peries." At the University of Wisconsin a committee on student expendi- ture was organized for the purpose of inducing more simple entertainment and greater economy in personal expenditure. College women's war gardens deserve honorable mention. You have all heard of the agricultural training camp at Bedford, N.Y., which was composed very largely of Barnard College students and alumnae and which did yeoman's work in demonstrating to a doubtful public that college women could make a real success of farm work. At the University of Wisconsin two girls in charge of the war gardens engaged a booth in the city market at Madison and sold their produce for the benefit of the Red Cross. Quite commonly the students working in these college war gardens not only raised the produce but salted down, canned, and dried large quantities of food. It is interesting to learn that Mount Holyoke girls were able to raise in their college gardens 125 bushels of potatoes to the acre, whereas the normal yield in the state of Massachusetts is only 90 bushels. These and many other facts go to show that the adverse predic- tions made by divers skeptics concerning the effectiveness of girls' farm work have been largely disproved. Another form of organized war effort which deserves mention is the Relief Unit. These units were equipt and sent to France by Smith, Vassar, Barnard, and Wellesley, with Radcliffe cooperating. Perhaps the unit of which America has heard most is the Smith College group composed of twenty women representing a wide variety of training, from social work and medicine to driving motor cars and cobbhng. These women under- took the rehabilitation of a district of sixteen devastated villages in France. I Department] WAR AND HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN 409 It is not too much to say that their inteUigent labors in the direction of providing food, clothing, medical care, and friendly aid made it possible for the wretched inhabitants of these villages to endure life at all. The educative value of these and many other organized activities undertaken by college girls in behalf of large social ends can hardly be exaggerated and will not be lost upon this group of deans and advisers, whose paramount problem is the socialization of women in the highest sense. After the entrance of our country into the European war women's colleges were confronted with the need of introducing certain war emer- gency courses which should give their students brief training in necessary war activities. These courses included statistics, stenography and typing, Imechanical drawing and drafting, first aid, elementary hygiene and home nursing, food conservation, gardening, and telegraphy, including wireless. It is significant that in the eastern colleges for women the general tendency was to grant no academic credit for these courses. In the western univer- sities, however, the opposite course was pursued. For example, the College for Women of Western Reserve University introduced during the war courses in business management, household administration, food con- servation, and drafting, for all of which the university granted credit. Likewise the University of Michigan offered for credit secretarial, statisti- cal, and actuarial courses, as well as courses in food conservation, drafting, and testing of war munitions. One after another the state universities of the West have shown their pioneer spirit by introducing into their cur- ricula courses of a distinctly vocational nature to meet the necessities of a nation at war. Thus the West has once more demonstrated a more open-minded spirit than the East toward change, when that change appears to be demanded by the conditions of the time. A word should be said of the new summer courses successfully carried on last summer in eastern colleges for women — courses which represent an interesting and possibly permanent departure from the traditional position of these colleges of liberal arts that the education they offer should be wholly cultural in character, with no taint of the vocational about it. Very briefly, the summer courses referred to were a three months' pre- nursing course at Vassar College, a course for training psychiatric aids at Smith College, a training course for health officers in industrial plants at Mount Holyoke, and a graduate course at Bryn Mawr designed to afford women holding the Bachelor's degree the training necessary to meet the increasing demand for supervisors in industrial establishments. In all of these summer war courses practical and cultural elements cooperated very happily in the attainment of a social purpose. The students attend- ing these various summer schools perhaps for the first time in their lives saw the immediate connection between their subjects of study and the needs and purposes of the community in which they lived and workt, 4 lO NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Deans of Women and the testimony of the managers of these courses is all to the effect that the young women electing them workt with a will and with results highly gratifying to their instructors. This leads me to consider the question which I believe to be the most vital outstanding problem in the collegiate education of women today, a question that has been more clearly brought to consciousness by the world-war. Are our women's colleges to return to their former aloofness from the real world of action and pragmatic thought? This traditional aloofness from the immediate problems of modern social living was partly broken down during the war. President Woolley testifies to thii, quoting from a student's article which appeared not long ago in the Mowit Holyoke News. This student writes: Undoubtedly now that the war has come we are more inclined to take the universal view of life .... of course we still think of our studies, but there is an added pur- pose in our thoughts now; we study, consciously or unconsciously, with new vigor because of the work of reconstruction after the war, in which we must help When we are trying to balance the book of the world, to find something to pay for this colossal war, put on the credit side the universal view of life which has come to many people. To have connected the college with the world is no small thing for college girls. In truth it is no small thing; yet generally speaking college life and college studies seem remote from warm, living, human contacts. A woman's college has been recently described as "a picturesque group of sleepy buildings, shadowy paths, and care-free youngsters . ..." of whom it may fairly be said that except for "the theoretical salHes into the world outside, the walls of the campus bounded their interests, their conversation, their enthusiasms, their experiences." In these days when society's house is being rebuilt from the bottom up can these quiet haunts of learning afford to maintain their historic attitude toward the immediate problems of social life ? What is the situation in organized society all over the world? An intelligent observer must be blind indeed who does not see that the old order is crumbling and must give place to new, by the methods either of ordered change or of struggle. At the Peace Conference in Paris is illus- trated the age-old struggle between the principles of competition and self- seeking on the one hand and of cooperation in the interests of a more humane international order on the other. Within each nation the same forces are at work. Labor confronts capital demanding greater equahty of opportunity, k larger share not only in the material but in the spiritual goods of life — education, leisure, and opportunity to appreciate and to enjoy the beauty of the world. How else can we interpret the restless- ness and dissatisfaction of the laboring classes the world over? Their demands for a time will take the form of higher wages and shorter hours of work and better conditions within the factories, but this is only prelim- inary to a demand for a complete democratization of industry, for the admission of the working classes to a larger, richer, and more satisfying Department! WAR AND HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN 411 life than any they have ever known. John Graham Brooks, the well- known economist, recently declared at a public meeting that labor intended to control both in industry and in political hfe. By what methods will it obtain control ? Will it be thru destructive conflict or by the methods of orderly revolution and legalized change? Here is the point where educated men and women may be of profound service; for I am deeply convinst that the enlightened liberals of every land have it in their power to throw their opinion on the side of ordered and progressive change in the direction of industrial democracy, thus preventing an era of bitter and devastating strife. Another radical social change has been going on in society, during several decades, in the life and opportunities of women. Doors of economic opportunity barred and bolted to them in the past are now swinging open, and women are entering upon a wider field of economic and pohtical and social life than they have ever known before. Here again is transition, and who can prophesy what the future will bring forth ? The world is in travail, bringing to the birth a transformed social order. Never has society been in such urgent need of enlightened counsel and trained leader- ship on the part of college women. Will it not be necessary for the admin- istrators in our women's colleges to reconsider the whole mooted question of the curriculum proper to a college of liberal arts ? Have they not too long assumed that a wide chasm yawns between vocational and cultural studies? There is no more pressing want in our colleges today than a reconsideration of the meaning of that much misused term "culture" and of its function in a democratic society. Long ago Professor Dewey pointed out the intimate connection that may and should exist between culture and useful work; and Professor Adler, educated as he was in the old academic traditions, has declared his conviction that — we must redefine culture and we must get it out of our vocational training. It is all wrong to think of general culture as consisting of familiarity with a set of subjects outside of our own specialty and unrelated to it We must departmentalize all our higher education, building up the departments along the lines of the great voca- tions We must insist upon the concept that general culture — not special merely, but general — is to be won by a rightly specialized professional training. At the present time our colleges are graduating every June large num- bers of enthusiastic young women unfitted for a hfe-career. Even teaching, that easy path so long open to the woman college graduate, is demanding increasingly sound professional training of those who enter it. The colle- tgiate bureaus of occupation, estabhsht in many of our large cities, bewail in no uncertain tones the fact that college graduates expect to obtain inter- esting positions commanding generous salaries with no preparation for any definite work. The Kansas City Bureau writes: ''This office has been trying to get some enthusiasm for training among the women who come to it— training for some particular line, no matter what, just so it is train- 412 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Deans of Women world glutted with untrained college women .... who have rusht in to take up the many opportunities open to women for which so few of them are equipt. There is a dearth of good stenographers, good bookkeepers, good anything, but there is an overwhelming supply of women who wish good pay." This is the situation, then, that confronts our women's colleges today. The war has revealed to us that the social organism no longer meets the legitimate needs of all its members. In the realm of labor and in the life of women profound changes are taking place. Society today demands as never before the woman of trained intellectual powers and large, sympathetic outlook on the life of her time, the woman student who has learned, not only in the college classroom but thru organized activi- ties having a social purpose, to see the relation between college life and the life of the world outside. In this great emergency what will be the attitude- of deans of women toward the girls committed to their charge ? Will they follow the well-worn paths of intellectual and social guidance to the end of fitting these young women for social life as it existed before the war, thus failing to understand that the status quo ante cannot be restored? Or with wide outlook and high hope will they envisage their task as supremely that of educating young women thru study, thru all forms of cooperative work, to do their part in a fluid world in process of a transformation whose ultimate form is hidden in the future. RELATION OF THE FACULTY AND ESPECIALLY THE DEAN OF WOMEN TO THE STUDENT GOVERNMENT ASSOCIATION KATHERINE S. ALVORD, DEAN, DE PAUW UNIVERSITY, GREENCASTLE, IND. In a recent number of the Survey there is an article on labor unrest which describes the new attitude that is being taken in many industrial plants. This is exprest by signs which appear in various places in certain plants, and if I were to have a text for what I want to say this morning it would be taken from these signs ^ — "Teach, not boss"^ — for nowhere is the necessity of leading instead of driving felt with greater keenness than among college students. If the relation between the dean of women and the self-government association is to be a forceful and effective one it is necessary first of all that the position of the dean of women in relation to the faculty should be one of power and influence. Not only should the members of the faculty have confidence in and respect for the ability of the woman who stands at the head of women's affairs of the college, but the position itself must mean much, and the stand that the dean of women takes in relation to the affairs of the women must have the support and cooperation of the faculty. To illustrate, suppose the S.G.A. desires judiciary powers in Department] FACULTY AND DEAN AND STUDENT GOVERNMENT 413 order to make its organization more effective, and the dean of women makes such a recommendation to the faculty. If the faculty has confi- dence in the dean of women that power will be conferred, even tho there may be those of the faculty who think that such an extension of authority is unsafe and unwise. On the other hand, let even a few members of the faculty express dissatisfaction or distrust of the dean of women, or let her position be what Mrs. Martin once called "an ornamental one only," without voice or authority on the academic side, and her leadership of the self-government association is nil. The first essential then in the relationship of the dean of women to this self-government association is the undeniable necessity of an effective, influential position for the dean of women on the faculty. No dean of women has ever organized an S.G.A. or taken up her work in a college where the organization was already establisht without realizing from the beginning that her relationship with the association would have two aspects, the one an unofficial and advisory one, the other official and perhaps mandatory. In just so far as there can be a tactful adjustment between these two relations does the dean of women succeed with the self-government association. If the dean of women is the adviser and interested helper of every- thing on the campus which makes for the well-being of the women students, the officers of the association, and particularly the president, will bring to I her questions and perplexities of many kinds. It may be that the nom- inating committee is disturbed about the suitability of material for the lext year. It is natural that they should talk over their difficulties, f particularly if the dean of women does not attempt to dictate the ticket [but merely to advise. The same thing may be true of 'those on the board fwho are shirking responsibility and are indifferent to their obligations. [a word from the dean of women may be given in a friendly way to the individual, perhaps without any reference to the real difficulty. I had such a situation to meet not long ago, when I was told by the president [of S.G.A. that a particular representative was having no influence on her [group because of her own disregard of the self-government regulations and [her indifferences to her responsibilities. Not long after, the young woman came into my office on some routine business, and I askt her how things ^were going in her house. From that we fell into a discussion of the whole Situation, and I found out that she had not taken any responsibility, that I she had not wanted to be on the board, and that after being put on by her group she was doing as little as she could. The shaking up that she needed from me was not as a dean of women to her as a board member of the self- government association but as an older woman who saw a college woman drifting along the line of least resistance. This same unofficial relation exists with the association as a whole as well as with the board. A flagrant violation of an S.G.A. regulation 414 NA TIONA L ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION [Deans of Women should be reported by the dean of women as by any member of the faculty or student body, but often the misdemeanor is of such a nature that the dean of women can suggest to the offender that she is a member of the self- government association and therefore has an obligation which she is for- getting. In my judgment the unoffical relation between the dean of women and the self-government association is a more potent influence and is more effective than is the official relation. To be sure, they overlap and run into each other in such a way that it is difficult to say where one begins and the other leaves off. In my own college the S.G.A. was establisht when I first went there, nearly four years ago, and, like all infants, that first year it needed great care and watchfulness. For this reason the unofficial relationship may have lookt strongly official to one who saw in student government the entire absence of faculty supervision. I went to all of the board meetings, the plans of work were discust with me before the meeting, and many of their new ventures were suggested to them. But by the next year they were on their feet, they knew how they wanted to proceed, and without saying so they showed that they felt able to work out their own salvation. Since then I have not gone to the board meetings except the opening one of each year unless I have something which I know must be presented to the board from the administration side. Such an'occasion arose a few weeks ago. Because of a situation that had grown up as an echo of the S.A.T.C. the administration had found it necessary to restate certain S.G.A. regulations as to out-of-town parties and include in it a provision regarding scholarship. When the announce- ment was made the campus buzzed with excitement and dissatisfaction because the authority of the S.G.A. had been infringed upon. After a day or two, when the agitation was keen and the college paper cutting, I askt the president of the association to call a meeting of the board, and I went before it, not as an adviser, but as an administrative officer. I read the new ruling, their own S.G.A. regulation, pointed out the inability of their body to deal with matters of scholarship, their own shortcomings during the last months in holding the standard which they had set for social regulation, gave them opportunties to ask questions, and dismist the body. The S.G.A. must realize the limit of its power even as it realizes its extent and opportunity. There are matters which are in the hands of the faculty, and perhaps that is one of the duties of the dean of women — to make clear just what things may be intrusted to the self- government association. In her official relation to the student association the dean of women should be in close touch with the work of women in other colleges and in the world so as to have something to offer in the line of new interests and activities. We have been turning our attention to war activities, and while the S.G.A. did yeoman service in a time of need much of the suggestion Department] ADJUSTING THE FRESHMAN TO COLLEGE 415 [for new forms of activity necessarily came from the deans of women, lut there again is an opportunity for my text. It is "teach, not boss," for the members of the group are very sensitive to imposed authority or to an intimation that they cannot take the initiative. And right here it seems to me is the most valuable contribution from le self-government associations to the young women of the college. It is le organization including all women in college, so that each has her chance make good if she has the ability and will to do so; for verily the asso- iation is the developer and conserver of responsibility, of initiative and )wer of leadership, among the young women students. This gives the dean of women her chance to lead the group to recognize le opportunity and to assist in developing these qualities, but only in far as she teaches and not bosses can she accomplish the end. The real relationship between the dean of women and the S.G.A. light be inferred from part of a prize essay which Mrs. Martin used several years ago in a paper on the position of the dean of women. This office is ideal, of course, but she is an inspiration even as she is a despair. She is a born administratrix. She marshals her forces even as a skilful general; she perceiveth the several capacities of her captains. Sh^ discovereth that talent which lay hid, as it were, in a napkin and showeth him its proper use. But while she exalteth the humble and enableth him to do that good work which he would have left undone, she also putteth down from his seat too towering self-esteem; and this also she achieveth with that gentleness which causeth the great ones, though abasht, to give her even more gratitude than others. She is of them that know well how to rule for that they have in their youth practist to obey. They then that follow her do this of love even ^more than of duty: they know no weariness in her service nor are any of her commands ird on them. low MAY THE FRESHMAN BE MORE EASILY AND QUICKLY , ADJUSTED TO COLLEGE LIFE? F. LOUISE NARDIN, DEAN OF WOMEN, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS. In part the problem of adjusting the Freshman to college must be solved kfore ever he becomes a Freshman. The fundamental problem is to select the right material for Freshmen, some cases the soundest and friendliest advice to those about to go to )llege is the laconic advice which a cynical wag advertised as guaran- jed wisdom for those about to marry- — ''Don't." In a meeting of deans ■probably no protest will be made against the suggestion that some young )eople should be dissuaded from entering college ; but the suggestion would many other groups be combated indignantly, the opponents even dubbing ich a proposal undemocratic. Often the indignant protestants have in lind chiefly, if not wholly, the class of unfit whom we are least concerned to liminate before entrance, young people of small mental power but patheti- illy bent on a purbHnd groping toward a light that can never shine clearly 4 1 6 NA TIONA L ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION [Deans of Women for them. For their own sake we would wish to save them from the pain and the inroads on their self-confidence that must result from repeated failure; but in their case we are not moved also by the desire to prevent harm to the college itself, for only when they constitute great portions of the student body do they seriously slow down the processes of the college, and never do they impair the intellectual morale. These have one great element of fitness; they have come to college, and not merely to the campus and its attractive environs. Our effort to dissuade people from applying for admission would benefit us most if we dissuaded those who are really not bent on college, who have gone frivolously and lazily thru all the varied program of high-school studies without a glimmer of real interest, and who approach college with no change of heart. College officials desire to prevent the entrance of the young person whose presence injures the proper functioning of the college; they are convinst that the college cannot maintain its true nature as a center of intellectual joy and adventure, even tho a larger and larger number of students scoff at its main purposes and pursue alien ends of their own with much pomp and circumstance. Often these scoffing students are the very ones who are most actively advertising college as they conceive it, and who attract others of their own kind. We need only contrast with their accounts of college, with no mention of work and intellectual interest, the picture which lads returning from officers' training camps gave of their strenuous endeavors there; their friends who went to such a camp later went properly adjusted, expect- ing to work hard and not to rely on genius and an occasional spurt of work. We cannot prevent all the ill-advised and misleading advertisement of college, but we can perhaps make a greater effort to see that there is more of the true, by earnest students, alumni, and professors who do not fear that youth will not come to college unless lured by a rosy fiction. An antidote is needed also for the misleading printed matter. City papers, interested chiefly in intercollegiate games, assist in the misrepre- sentation. College annuals, by their silence on all but the amusements of college, give the prospective student a misleading impression of everything but the buildings. These two agencies need careful supplementing. Would it not be worth while for state universities to reach all high-school Seniors in the state with a small weekly sheet of such news as would make them aware of the essential activities of college and enable each of them to face more fairly the question whether he really wants to go to college ? In an effort to keep the wrong people from clogging the Fresliman class the registrar at the University of Wisconsin has for two years (it was not sent in 1918 because of the special situation created by the establishment of the Student Army Training Corps) sent out the following letter to appli- cants for admission whose preparatory-school records were prevailingly poor: Department] ADJUSTING THE FRESHMAN to college 417 I beg to inform you that the preparatory report of your daughter, which has been submitted for admission to the University of Wisconsin, is not regarded as satisfactory by the university authorities on account of low standings. This record shows a grade of scholarship which is lower than the average of those who succeed in their university courses. We therefore ask you to consider carefully the advisability of allowing her to enter the university without further strengthening her preparation for a university course. While some students under similar conditions have succeeded in their work, we deem it not only a wise policy but a duty of the university to warn you of the danger of failure in this case, as based upon the previous experience of many of our students. If you still think it advisable that your daughter should enter the university at the opening of the year, she will be given, without discrimination, all of the privileges of any student but will be admitted on what is termed probation for the first semester and required to maintain a satisfactory standing in all of her studies during this probationary period to entitle her to continue her course during the remainder of the year. Of weak students thus admitted on probation only a small percentage succeeded. If students in preparatory school, and their parents, could know that there is little chance of a miraculous awakening in college and could know the binding power of the chains of habit forged in the preparatory-school days, considerable waste in our educational system would be eliminated. During the summer vacation between high-school graduation and the opening of college not a little can be done to relate the Freshman properly to college. A pamphlet would be valuable that answered in a few pages these three questions: (i) What does a woman want to secure by a college education? (2) What kinds of training may a woman get at ? (3) What may a Freshman choose ? State universities should place these pamphlets in the hands of girls graduating from all high schools in the state, and could send them to girls of other states who apply for entrance. Such a pamphlet would be an initial step in vocational choice. Such a bird's-eye view of their university would make safer the work which the young women, of the Junior class do in this vacation as advisers to pros- pective Freshmen. That such work by students can be valuable is certain, but it needs thoughtful planning and careful execution. A state institution cannot afford to leave to chance this student solicitation of prospective students. As long as only sorority girls are interested in girls who are ready for college, and as long as their interest is limited only to girls whom they estimate as sorority material, other girls of a community are less likely to look toward their own university than it is well that they should. In each county a well-organized student committee should see that all girls who are interested in college are made to feel the friendly interest of the girls who are in college. Cooperation between this committee and local alumnae is desirable. Young women of the Junior class at the University of Wisconsin issued last summer for vacation use with prospective students an inexpensive 4l8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Deans of Women booklet called /// Were a Freshman Again, giviilg, along with information concerning the extra-curricular activities, a few helpful suggestions and warnings from the student's point of view. The booklet contains a short letter from the dean of women, including, among other suggestions, a recommendation about suitable clothing. When registration days come, around the incoming Freshman should stretch a cordon of friendliness: guides at railway stations and on the campus wearing the insignia which the summer literature and meetings have taught the Freshman to recognize as the mark of the advising class; her official Junior adviser, to whom she may appeal at any time; and a student hostess and courtesy committee in all dormitories and rooming- houses, to see that the Freshman is made to feel that she belongs there. At the University of Wisconsin the three great organizations of women, the Women's Athletic Association, the Young Women's Christian Associa- tion, and the Self-Government Association, in turn give parties in the woman's building on the first three evenings of .the school year. Here the dean of women and the student leaders speak. To these all girls are invited. The ideal thing would be to have every girl come. If these meetings, by reason of conflict with rushing parties or other exclusive affairs, are slenderly attended and seem consolation events for the culls, they fail of their purpose, which is to make the Freshman see the college as a great unit and thrill with pride and loyalty. Where the body of women students is large, much ingenuity will always be needed to make these mass gatherings happy community occasions. They need to be something more impressive and more artistic than a mere party; they need to be appealing examples of community art- — song, pageantry, and festival. Particularly important is the girl's first impression of the Self- Government Association. This can never function well if it is felt to be only a repressive and police force. It should instead appeal to new students as the student expression of the ideals of the university, and the organized cohorts to reahze those ideals. The first activity of the Self-Government Association in house groups should be, not posting and announcing rules, but inducing every girl in the household to join with the rest in doing some- thing which will express the spirit and aspirations of the college. As the years pass, each institution will doubtless grow richer in art expression of its life, but no college is so poor in such art as to lack the germ, the college song. If the first meeting of the house group is for the purpose of getting acquainted and learning the songs, the Self-Government Association has a better chance to be rightly understood than if the first meeting is grudgingly called to tell girls what they must not do. These small groups, in a uni- versity enrolling many women, need to be members of larger groups, with a recognized community meeting-place. Here the constituent house groups might gather to meet the community leader in the Self-Government Association and the various student activities, and here form for the march Department] ADJUSTING THE FRESHMAN TO COLLEGE 419 to the general meeting. Each bit of this simple ritual of the first assembly, which would undoubtedly grow in beauty with the contribution of the years, would catch the feeling and imagination of students and start weaving them into a true community, which a college, as a training school for civic leaders, should assuredly be. The activities of these first days should be something more than a mere distraction to prevent boredom and homesickness. The Freshman came to college for something in addition to finding himself neighbor to cheerful and kind young people. Such neighbors he had at home in his father's house. Unless the idea and ideals of college are prominently set forth in the first impressionable days there is danger that the student may never clearly see the vision, and that the result of all our machinery and effort may only adjust the student to college life and not to college. The close of the college year brings on every campus some dramatic presentations of the spirit of the college: songs of consecration and farewell at campus spots rich in association; processions with chains of daisy or of evergreen that show and make the unity of the college. Such resources might early in the year be used to set forth the aspirations of the college. Such an undertaking would have the further advantage of bringing into prominence in the Freshman's impressionable first days the students who are interested in the intellectual and artistic student activities (which all I too often lead their lives shy and half misprized), the lovers of artistic drama and dance, the singers, and the writers. From his recognition of these phases of the amateur spirit the incoming student would receive a truer conception of the aims of the university. What a sad waste of oppor- tunity there is when the most noticeable activity among students during these first days is the gay fluttering of fraternity rushers and rushees! Where the college should mean unity, it shows separateness; where it should mean democracy and spiritual appraisal, it seems to mean privilege » and hasty judgment by the outward eye; where it should mean zeal in a .„ common effort, it seems to be obsession with individual aims. t Equally wasteful often is the use which the faculty makes of these first ays, important in the student's adjustment to the college. The first ^citation or lecture hour is used for meticulous details concerning textbooks nd supplies, not for inspiration. Yet every true professor believes ardently lat his subject means intensely in the slow march of the race to welfare tid happiness. He knows the heroisms and martyrdoms which have rought the subject to its present stage; he glimpses high and winding paths which other men are yet to tread. It is not that he has no light which might shine brightly upon the new student. Is it that it is fashion- ble to set one's enthusiasms under a bushel ? Or do those that receive the reshman count that the struggle to communicate their enthusiasms is oomed to failure? Whatever the reason, it remains very unfortunate t, after careful dissuasion of the most unfit candidates, after studied 420 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Deans of Women effort to present the true conception of college to the high-school student as she is examining her own desires and purposes and determining whether she can rightfully offer herself for college training, the individual professor should so often neglect the opportunity afforded him during the first days. In many colleges another impressive resource in the formation of Fresh- man ideals is neglected' — the splendid pageantry of the formal faculty procession, that tells eloquently how deep in history go the roots of the university, how persistent is the love of truth which has amast the riches that the Freshman now comes to enjoy and perchance to increase. Fre- quently on commencement occasions some wise word-artist voices with stirring appeal the meaning of the university, the adventures and ardors of the intellectual and spiritual life. How much of inspiration and of true adjustment such an occasion and such words might bring to the novices in university life if this high message were given at the beginning and not at the end of the college years! The Freshman is not successfully adjusted to college until he under- stands the spirit and purpose of college and has dedicated himself to these. To such understanding and dedication all agencies should strive. THE WORK OF A DEAN OF GIRLS AND ITS RELATION TO THAT OF A DEAN OF WOMEN EULA W. DEATON, DEAN OF GIRLS, AUSTIN HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. The office of dean of girls is a comparatively recent institution and in later educational history will be seen, I believe, to be only a part of the broader movement to socialize the schools, a realization that the educa- tional process is as complex as life itself. That the institution came in Chicago when it did was due to the vision and the wisdom of a great woman, one who not only told us that woman could be free and strong and could accomplish life's big tasks, but in her own life of splendid effort and great achievement showed us how to do it. I shall never forget our first meeting with Ella Flagg Young. She spread our task before us. Then she said, "How you are to do it rests with you.' I have no formula. But," she continued, "I have always craved for the girls of the public schools a certain quiet simplicity that belongs to the best of our private schools." I have felt in my own work that I could have no better ideal than the one so simply placed before us. Our work is perhaps more varied than that of the deans of women. It certainly lacks any element of academic calm. We teach, assist in the general administration of the school, act as a connecting link between school and community, and supervise the organized club and social life of the school. I have been, all in the course of a single day, an employment bureau, a vocational adviser, a self-appointed expert on colleges, a dis- tributing agent, a teacher, a chaperon, a social worker, a buffer between Department) DEAN OF GIRLS AND DEAN OF WOMEN 421 mother and daughter, perhaps between mother and daughter and the principal. To paraphrase the old philosopher, I am dean of girls, and whatever concerns girls concerns me, and whatever concerns boys concerns me, for I am dean of girls. Our province is all the uncharted land that lies outside the recitation, for I think none of us have taken our work to be simply arranging a series of parties. Social life is our life in relation to other people. It manifests itself certainly in social functions, but it also manifests itself when we speak, when we walk, when we pass each other on the street. It has to do with classroom and corridor as with social hour. It is the very air we breathe, the plane we live on, the key to which we tune our lives. All of the Chicago deans have the same problems fundamentally, yet the difference of environment gives to each one her own pecuhar problems. ''Back of the Yards" one of us is teaching high-school boys and girls the very rudiments of social intercourse, how to go to a party for instance, and is a real force in the Americanization of Chicago. At other schools the problem is to convince them that going to parties is not the chief end of man and the teaching of democracy in those schools is no less the Ameri- canization of Chicago. My own school is in a somewhat homogeneous I community, neither very rich nor very poor, of fairly unified social stand- ards, so I am more fortunate than some of my colleagues. The tasks that belong to all of us are as follows: I. To keep the children in school. 2. To connect them with what is best in their city and community and to train as best we may for citizenship. 3. To teach them the proper use of leisure and thru their school social life to unify and raise their social standards. 4. To satisfy in a sane way their love of organization and need for self-expression. 5. Above all and thru all to teach them how to work and live in harmony with other people, and to develop in them the sense of social obHgation and the desire for social service which is Aie essence of democ- racy. These problems are assuredly not ours alone; they pertain to all the forces of the school. But we have a great opportunity to cooperate with all these forces. In a way we are at the center of things. Our connection with the administration and the fact that we deal with all the students gives us an opportunity to see the school as a whole and, as far as in us lies, to guide it in its social relations — and by social, as I explained before, I certainly do not mean merely the giving of parties. To keep the children in school is an imperative duty. I believe that we all feel like the old woman in the shoe. These children are ours and they are "the hope of the world." We must stand between them and the blind and cruel forces that are reaching out to crush their childhood and I 422 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Deans of Women youth for a few dollars a week. Part of the tragedy is their pitiful eager- ness to meet these forces half way. We try, therefore, to make school a pleasant place, a human place. They may come to us at any time. We will give them the needle and thread to sew up the run in the silk stocking they ought not to be wearing, or help them plan a party, perhaps arrange for them to learn to dance, or we will organize a club for them or — and best of all- — we will get them to help us in something we are trying to do for the school or community. Some of us have a scholarship fund to tide over the gray days when the financial strain is too great. To think that two or three dollars a week may save a promising boy or girl from the ranks of unskilled labor or from a physical exhaustion that saps life at its source! A boy in our school was in the habit of getting up at half-past four in the morning in order to work on the elevated road two hours before school. In consequence he was failing in his work and was on the verge of a physical breakdown. Upon his promise to give up the morning work we gave him two dollars and a half a week, and you should have seen that boy redeem his scholarship and regain his health. We all look out for the first-year students specially. I have a group of fourth-year boys and girls, chosen by the faculty, called the Senior Coun- cil. Each one has a group of from five to ten Freshmen to whom he is guide, counselor, and friend. They combine in segregated groups for parties, hikes, luncheons. Like all human institutions, the value of this group to the Freshman depends upon the personal equation of the Senior councilor. Of its value to the school and the Senior there is not a particle of doubt. There is a certain standard below which no member of the Senior Council must fall, and this attitude of noblesse oblige is a wonderful mental and moral brace. To put our pupils in touch with what is best in city and community is no less a duty than to keep them in school; so some of our clubs are spe- cially deigned to lead them to an acquaintance with their environment. In our own school, for example, we have an art club whose reason for being is to visit the exhibitions at the Art Institute and report on them. We also visit such places as the studio of Lorado Taft when we can get an invitation. Some of that club will feel more than an ordinary citizen's pride in Mr. Taft's "Fountain of Time" when he gets it up at the end of the Midway, for he himself explained to them his great idea. Another memorable visit was to wonderful Ida Noyes Hall, the ideal expression of beauty and adaptability in a home for college women. Once or twice a year we have a tea at the Institute. Occasionally some girl will delight us by remarking that all of the family have gone with her to the exhibit. We have in many of the schools clubs fostered by the Association of Commerce called civic-industrial clubs. Thru the Association we have opportunities to hear the well-known business and professional men of F Department] DEAN OF GIRLS AND DEAN OF WOMEN 423 the city and are taken on excursions to see many of the great industrial plants and to watch the process of many manufactures. Best of all, we cooperate with the Association each semester in some bit of civic work for the good of the city. One task was to Hst for the Commissioner of Public Works all the street comers where Idinps were broken or signs lacking. Another piece of civic work was thru messages to homes of the children to induce the voters to register and vote. This last phase of club work leads me to one of our greatest opportu- nities, that is, to develop the sense of social obligation and the desire for social service. A democracy must do two things: it must develop indi- viduahty, and it must teach cooperation. "Liberty, equahty, fraternity" — may I say without irreverence that the greatest of these is fraternity, and that this is the one America needs to stress? These civic clubs act in many of our schools as a great school civic agency. They have represen- tatives in each section-room. Thru them we may reach the students quickly and effectually either to carry over an idea or to get a piece of work done. They acted as Red Cross and other war-work agencies. They sold thousands of dollars' worth of Thrift Stamps and Liberty Loan Bonds, distributed food cards at the request of the government, and put up war posters all over the ward. In my school, as in the others, we do a great deal in connection with the charitable institutions of the city, and these room representatives attend to the details of announcing needs and collecting things brought in response. Just now, for example, we are collecting games and toys for the children of the county hospital. From these civic clubs we select each semester a group to act as a conserving force among the students at the lunch periods and to serve as ushers or guides on public occasions. This group constitutes a form of student government, as they are expected to handle cases of discipline without appeal to the faculty except as a last resort. Then of course we have debating clubs and camera clubs and dramatic clubs, Spanish, history and French clubs, story clubs, commercial clubs, college clubs, and so on. These are partly social but are no less valuable on that account. We are all social, and the more we are accustomed to associate our good times with artistic, Hterary, or athletic interests the better for us. There are, of course, good times that are merely good times with no camouflage- — just parties. In adolescence there is a bubbling of the wine of life that we must take into account. We have in our school always one largely attended social hour a week, and there is no end to our hikes and Freshman frolics and class parties. But these are mostly very infor- mal affairs, involving very little time for preparation and taking up only an hour or two after school — if out of doors so much the better. In the club and social Hfe of the school many members of the faculty give invaluable assistance of course. In many of those in our school I 424 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Deans of Women attend only as an invited guest, but I am always made to feel that ex officio I am a part of the club. I must not omit our great interest in the athletic Hfe of the girls. In a degree greater than ever before we must stress the importance of health. In connection with our gymnasium teachers we must impress upon our girls that a sin against the body is a crime indeed. How is the work of a dean of girls related to that of a dean of women ? Fundamentally there is no difference. We are all working with the same human material. For four years I was dean of women in a small state university, and I can testify that girls are girls even when they are col- lege women. When they come to us in high school they bring with them the eternal problems of sex and dress. True, you have the selected group, while we have the mass. But right here we might be of some assistance in the selective process. Certainly in coeducational schools the principle of selection is not always sound, and we might be of real service in persuad- ing certain types of girls to stay away from college. As a converse propo- sition we should do all in our power to induce girls of character and ability to seek the higher education. In our school we have just organized a college club with the latter point in view. Then we might give them the ''dean habit" and lead them to feel the necessity for a guiding, restraining, and inspiring influence for a young woman in the more or less artificial environment of college. We hope that we shall so conduct ourselves that when they go to you they will go with confidence and respect. The dean at the Harrison High School does in a systematic way what we all do more or less. She keeps in touch with her girls who go to college and consigns to their care the new girls. When the college girls are in the city she invites them out to meet and talk with the older high-school girls. Such natural contact between college and high school can be so managed as both to stimulate interest in higher education and to smooth the path of the ever problematic Freshman. The Association of Collegiate Alumnae and such organizations as the Chicago College Club could do much to bridge the gap between high school and college, and there is hardly an American community without its nucleus of college-bred women. There are many things they could do; among the most obvious are talks to groups of girls and informal enter- taining. One small suggestion is that each one of you put each one of us on your college mailing list. I promise to keep a conspicuous shelf for your catalogues. Sometimes we have real difficulty in ascertaining the entrance requirements of some special institution. The long and short of the whole matter is that if we were all- wise and all-powerful we should send you young women whose social code would be that of gentlewomen, whose standards of honor would be high, and whose t)epartment] SCORING OF ROOMS IN RESIDENCE HALLS 425 ideals of citizenship would fit them for woman's place in our great new democracy. In so far as we approximate to those things we shall make your work more inspiring and shall work together with you to raise the whole standard of life in America, and jf of America then of the world. THE SCORING OF ROOMS IN RESIDENCE HALLS GRACE GREENWOOD, SOCIAL DIRECTOR, MARTHA COOK BUILDING, UNIVERSITY OE MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. So much is being spoken and written at the present time concerning the standardization of every phase of life that the moment for using a score card for women's residence halls seems opportune. The public is already acquainted with the score card in connection with its successful use in dietetics. There is also the score card for the dwelling- house, restaurants, hotels, and grocery stores. All phases of the dairy are scored, from the farm with its buildings and the cow to the milk, cream, and cheese products ready for the market. Bread, jelly, and canned fruit have also past successfully the vigilance of a committee which has sampled them, score card in hand, but so far very little has been done in using the score card in residence halls. During the year of 191 7 the already ubiquitous card made its appearance in the Martha Cook Building for the first time. Whether it was the novelty of being definite about what had hitherto been vague, or the uncertainty of the time of its weekly appearance, or just the simple fact that "unprepared- ness" was bound to bring embarrassment — whatever the reason, the results in keeping students' rooms in order seem to justify the continuance of the plan. Upon reflection there seem to be but two points on which stress must be laid. Its introduction must be dramatic. What has seemed heretofore not absolutely necessary, while in college at least, making one's bed, must suddenly challenge the potential skill of the undergraduate. To this end some of the nurses from the training school were invited to give a pro- fessional demonstration of bed-making in the Blue Room after dinner. In a similar way interest in the choice of couch covers, pictures, and other accessories for the college student's room will be aroused by talks and the actual rearrangement of a room according to the standards of good taste. After interest and discussion of this innovation are aroused, then there must come the follow-up work of the person in charge until order, cleanliness, and good taste — the requisites for the true home — become a habit or, better still, a necessity. So much discussion may be aroused over the card that it may be well to have it standardized by such a definition as the following: A score card is a schedule listing all the important aspects of the object or situation to be measured with proportionate numbers for each item (usually on the scale of one 426 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (t.e of Women hundred). In using the score card the object or situation is examined and allowance is made for each item according to its quality, with a perfect score or a reduction in propor- tion to disqualification; the sura of allowances made for the different items is the score for the object measured. The following simple form "or outline may be adapted or readapted according to the material, equipment, and circumstances of each house in which it is to be used: Martha Cook Building university of michigan SCORE CARD FOR SLEEPING-ROOMS Rooms Inspected Weekly Cards Graded Monthly Room — ioo% 11 0 '0 t p I" 11 Ah 13 .a 38 r (20) 10 ID (20) 10 10 (20) 10 10 (20) 10 10 (10) s (1^0) (20) 10 10 (20) lO 10 (20) 10 10 (20) 10 10 (10) s (/o) (20) 10 10 (20) 10 10 (20) 10 10 (20) 10 ID (10) s do) ' a) Order b) Aesthetic aspect 2 Care of property a) Surfaces (Absence of finger prints, ink, dust, defacements) 3. Bed b) Condition of clothing . . .... 4 Closet b) cleanliness a) Appearance 6 Ventilation On other side: Name Number of room Grades for October November December January February March April May June DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Ella S. Stewart 5464 Harper Ave., Chicago, 111. Vice-President — Gertrude S. Martin Ithaca, N.Y. 5ecretor)'— Charlotte Greenebaum Kuh 4346 N. Hermitage Ave., Chicago, 111. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Noon, July i, 12:30 o'clock The Department of School Patrons of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Tuesday, July i, 1919, the first session being in the form of a luncheon in the Fern Room, Hotel Pfister, at 12:30 o'clock. Ella S. Stewart presided. The general topic for the session was "The Value of Lay Effort in Educational Progress," and the following program was presented: Reports of affiliated associations: Congress of Mothers' and Parent-Teachers' Associations, presented by Elizabeth Harrison, Chicago, 111. Council of Jewish Women, presented by Fannie Sax Long, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. General Federation of Women's Clubs. Association of Collegiate Alumnae. Committee reports: Committee on Rural Schools, presented by Marie Turner Harvey, Porter Rural School, Kirksville, Mo. Committee on Vocational Supervision, presented by Mrs. W. W. Castle, Chicago, 111. Committee on School Revenue, presented by Margaret S. McNaught, state com- missioner of elementary education, Sacramento, Calif. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July i, 2:00 o'clock The second session was called to order by the president at 2 : 00 o'clock in Engelmann Hall, Auditorium. The general topic for the session was "Cooperation," and the following program was presented: "Cooperation between Boards of Education and the Public" — Harold O. Rugg, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. "Cooperation between the Public and the School Authorities in Securing Better Teaching in Elementary Schools" — Margaret S. McNaught, state commissioner of elementary schools, Sacramento, Calif. "Cooperation between the Public and the Schools in Taking Advantage of the Vocational Education Bill" — Arthur F. Payne, College of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; Hattie H. Harding, Chicago, 111. " Cooperation of Patrons in Solving the Problems of Social Life in the High School" — Olivia Pound, City Public Schools, Lincoln, Nebr. "Cooperation of School Authorities and the Public in the. Wider Use of School Buildings" — Raymond F. Crist, Bureau of Naturalization, Department of Labor, Washington, D.C.; Marie Turner Harvey, Porter School, Kirksville, Mo. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — Lou H. Francis, 913 Madison Ave., Columbus, Ohio. Vice-President — Gertrude S. Martin, 932 Stewart Ave., Ithaca, N.Y. The president was authorized to appoint a secretary at a later date. Charlotte Greenebaum Kuh, Secretary 427 428 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION tSchool Patrons PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS REPORT OF CONGRESS OF MOTHERS' AND PARENT- TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS ELIZABETH HARRISON, CHICAGO, ILL. As early as 1855 some insight into the ideals of the kindergarten was transported to America by the wife of Carl Schurz, and a school was estab- Hsht in her home in Watertown, Wisconsin. In 1858 Miss Caroline Louise Frankenburgh opened a kindergarten for young children in Columbus, Ohio. In i860 Dr. William N. Hailman, in a visit to Zurich, Switzerland, came in contact with the same idea and brought it back with him to Louis- ville, Kentucky. From that time on a vital insight into the need of under- standing the instincts and impulses of children and of being able to interpret the significance of play spread thru the home circles of America. Small groups of women met at various places for the study of child life and the best methods of nurturing and developing it. In 1884 the first Convocation of Mothers was called in the city of Chicago, but it was not until 1887 that a national association bearing the title of "The National Congress of Mothers" was organized at Washington for the definite purpose of training for parenthood. The awakening to the importance of the work has caused this association to increase in numbers and spread from the Atlantic to the Pacific until it is now an organized body of about 200,000 women, supported entirely by voluntary fees and subscriptions. It is purely democratic, reaching out in innumerable directions to mothers of all classes and along many lines of vital activity. It stands a convincing testimony of the potential power of motherhood which for ages has been slumbering in the heart of womankind. The mere mention of the activities which it maintains and those which it aids is sufficient evidence of its importance. We all know that the great ethical factors that have changed savagery into civilization are family, the economic world, the state and church, and, of course, the school, which has been the means by which steadily advancing ideals of these social relations of man have past from one generation to the next. At first the better training for motherhood, including all classes of society, grew rapidly in numbers. Then came the inclusion of fathers and a little later the cooperation with teachers and the Department of "Parent-Teachers' Association" was estabhsht in 1904. This work has gone steadily forward and the Americanizing of foreign-born immigrant mothers has become a part of it. The free distribution of hterature on the subject reacht overtaxt mothers who could not avail themselves of the regularly organized circles for study; scores of books on the subject have Department] REPORT OF CONGRESS OF MOTHERS 429 been publisht; and now a movement is on foot for a survey of all of our women's schools and coeducational institutions to see to what extent their curricula indicate any preparation for the great work of-homemaking and motherhood. The Association has been also active in the economic world. Classes in domestic science have been made popular. Conservation of food has been discust and the wisdom of knowing the relative values of food and their relation to health and mental vitahty. Again, a great national move- ment of encouraging children to purchase Thrift Stamps has been another of the activities of this Association. It has censored '^movies" and publisht a Kst of those of which they approve and has started vigorous opposition to those which they found were corrupting the hfe of the nation. Much work has been done for bettering the condition of working girls and a broad and wholesome sympathy for recreation for them on a large scale. The influence of the organization has gone so far that in many cases it has checkt immodest and unwholesome dressing of high-school girls in fashionable circles. In loyalty to state and in patriotism it has been equally zealous. War gardens were encouraged in the school grounds and in back yards of the homes that the children might have a part in the saving of democracy. The Association has cooperated with the schools in organizing Junior Red Cross associations and the acquiring of war stamp books. It long ago became active in the establishment and the enforcement of pure-food laws. A number of the state organizations have succeeded in getting mandatory laws concerning the estabhshing of kindergartens where needed, and other states are working in that direction. They have labored zealously for laws for mothers' pensions in order that the mother and her children may not be separated. Prohibition laws also have been pusht forward by them. One of the great inspirations of motherhood during the crisis we have recently past thru was the surrounding of our cantonments with the home atmosphere in recreation centers where mothers and sisters and girl friends were met and clean, happy hours of relaxation and recreation might be enjoyed. We cannot estimate the good being done by this movement, saving thousands of our young men from the pollution which heretofore has been supposed to necessarily accompany army life. This Association has been instrumental, in a large way, in persuading parents to keep their children in school when the strong temptation was to utilize them in the labor world for the astonishingly large wages offered. Again, they have been active in what is known as the "back to school" movement. Intelligent vocational training schools and continuation schools for those who must begin earning a livelihood have been part of their work also. Kindergartens have been maintained in many places 430 N/tIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons for the purpose of demonstrating their value. Playgrounds have been establisht in congested urban districts and have turned the empty, idle child life of small towns into better channels. We are now earnestly endeavoring to wipe out the stain of shame which has disgraced our communities in the meager salaries offered to those "foster-mothers" of the children of our nation, the teachers of the land, many of whom have been paid less than scrub women, altho they are expected to develop character, abihty, initiative, and all the other good qualities in our future citizens. These are but a few of the more prominent activities in which this steadily growing organization has "mothered." Those who have been in the work for any length of time realize that this is but the beginning of a great work which will be accompHsht when our women come to a full realization of their part in making or marring humanity. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL OF JEWISH WOMEN FANNIE SAX LONG, COUNCIL OF JEWISH WOMEN, WILKES-BARRE, PA. The Council of Jewish Women takes credit to itself for having done but little that is new in fields of education since our last report. It has struck an attitude of eloquent standpattism. Having turned every available talent into every conceivable channel of war activity while its usual fields held a sort of sabbatic year, the post-bellum work, no longer hitcht to the service star, comes to be a rebuckling into the previous but by no means outgrown harness of the Council's program. It counts its omissions not sins but service, its lack of novelty the very fulness of its former program. It has not been trying the "different" but applying the "definite," putting into service for ends of already proved worth the useful methods which were the precipitate results of past effort. Which means that: (i) "For Council members" many more sections in many more cities provide opportunity for child-study, household and social hygiene, current events, contemporary philosophies, poetry and drama, etc., hitching more groups to our old star, the "pursuit of wisdom. " (2) "In community service" it is not new affiliations that are counted, but a firmer, deeper grip on community purposes, for we are close-hookt to our many-pointed star of "serve thy neighbor" on school boards, parent- teachers, school lunches, recreation boards, etc. (3) "For the schools" our concern in our children is not new, but more widespread. Recently, however, it has taken the form of a signed statement that the council section in any community shall be held the vicarious mother to the col- lective Jewish childhood of the town and offers to mediate between the individual child and its necessity. This the national chairman holds to be the particular star of David, from which there can be no unhitching, for the Council knew themselves Department] REPORT OF COUNCIL OF JEWISH WOMEN 431 long ago, by this star's light, as indeed then: "brothers' keepers"; and so letters similar to the following are largely used by sections to make known the Council's abiUties and willingness: My dear Mr. Superintendent (or Principal) : With the approach of the holiday season I take pleasure in sending you the calendar of religious observances in order that you may be quite in sympathy with and understand- ing of the absence of those Jewish children who are conformists. It is sent with the hope that you will arrange no important test nor examination for those particular days. And may I call to your attention the services to which this organization is committed ? As "school friend" it will attempt to meet whatever the need of any Jewish child, no matter what that need may be. It offers itself as the agent in this large program of social responsibility and urges your cooperation in it, for the Council stands in each community where it is organized for this definite and devoted service. It is our hope that when you call to mind a case wherein some material, medical, or social adjustment should be made, you will also recall this ready instrument at your hand. Awaiting your pleasure. Sincerely yours. Local Chairman That, however, makes the responsibility not wholly theirs; the Council having spread the feast, the members and the pubUc must like the flavor and partake; and the Council having made of themselves a deHcate multi- sided instrument of social leverage, it remains for school ofiicials and community to see the obligation to use this instrument. The Council is one of the Hving ladders toward messianic times, with "education" as the sense and substance of its endeavors in each of its various committees. It has a practical, dynamic Americanization program that is educational; it has a vigorous, vital rehgious program that is educa- tional, and a plan of philanthropy working conspicuously thru education. The Council membership is now nearly twenty-five thousand women in one hundred and ten sections. The Council's program ahead will put the loud petal upon education for each one's own job, and whether as mother or club leader, saleswoman or American citizen, the opportunity will be provided that each may learn to do better that thing which lies at hand to do. Council objectives stand out clean and sharp: to quicken the physical and spiritual vitality of every root and branch of the House of David and to be the representative, responsible, respected agent toward that end, helping to solve the problem of one alien group and contributing in every way to , make real a dream- America. Have you a section in your community? I Have you made use of its offer to serve you ? For the measure of Council success is not in its program but in its performance. 432 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons COOPERATION BETWEEN BOARDS OF EDUCATION AND THE PUBLIC HAROLD O. RUGG, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. It is important that three outstanding facts concerning the present status of school administration be recognized by this audience, (i) In spite of the fact that we teach and administer schools better than we ever did before, the central administration of our medium-sized and large cities shows definite signs of a tendency toward a complete breakdown. (2) The fundamental cause for this is found in the prevalent misconception as to the true function of a school board in the administration of school affairs. (3) The only hope for definite relief from present evils and inadequacies of the central administration is to be found in organizing groups of our most intelligent lay citizens for the purpose of disseminating information concerning the true status of education in the public schools. I . The breakdown in the central administration of city school systems.- — During the past five years example after example has been recorded of the misconception by school boards of their true functions. In two of the larger cities of the country in 1916 large groups of teachers were dismist by the board of education without and even in opposition to the recommenda- tion of the superintendent of schools; furthermore, without charges of inefficiency having been brought, and in spite of the fact that a considerable proportion of the discharged teachers had been rated as ''excellent" or ''good" teachers. As a second illustration, the writer had personal contact in the year 191 7 with five superintendents of schools in small cities, each of whom had been discharged by a politically organized and politically minded board of education, after having had in each case a reasonably successf ul^ — in fact, in three cases, a very successful- — year. In one of our largest cities recently a district superintendent was demoted from his position to that of principal of an elementary school, the principal of the elementary school in turn being advanst to the position of district superintendent. This was done without charges of inefficiency or any other charge having been made. It was done over the protest of the teachers and citizens of the community. It was done in spite of the recognition of scientifically minded students of education that the man who was demoted was doing as satisfactory, if not better, work as district superintendent than was each of the other district superintendents in the city. In several cities within the writer's personal experience boards of education have commonly adopted the practice of initiating the appoint- ment and dismissal of teachers. In these cities educational pohcies which could be properly establisht and developt only by professionally trained and experienst officers have been establisht by laymen in the boards of Department] COOPERATION BETWEEN BOARDS AND PUBLIC 433 education without regard to the advice or cooperation of the professional officers. Questions of the selection of sites for school buildings, which should be decided only after definite information is available upon which to form a professional judgment, have been decided by lay citizpns on the board of education without the assistance of professional executives. In brief, therefore, we are faced in a most striking way with these examples from various phases of school administration with the fact that schools are being actively managed by laymen, who are thus usurping the activities of professionally trained and experienst executives. 2. The cause of the present tendency in school-hoard activity.- — It seems very clear to students of school administration that the underlying cause of the difficulty is a thorogoing misconception of the true function of a board of education. Students of school administration are agreed that boards of education are compact groups of representative citizens selected for the purpose of getting schools managed, and not for the purpose of managing schools themselves. They are no more equipt to decide school policies, initiate professional action within the school system, than a lay board of trustees in any business, medical enterprise, scientific activity, or what not. The most outstanding need in school administration at the present time is for the development of machinery by which two things may be consum- ated: (i) the education of members of boards of education to a recogni- ion of their real functions, powers, and duties; (2) the education of that ore intelligent portion of the population from which these boards will be lected, and who may be expected to give active consideration and support the furtherance of a sound school policy in the community. For the evelopment of the former the writer, in collaboration with several ecialists in school administration, has been preparing material intended r the enlightenment of boards of education concerning the true scope of e activities of the board, and outlining the procedure by which the board ay develop in a community a sound and progressive school system. 3. The remedy: the organization of intelligent lay opinion in the corn- unity.- — The third important fact enumerated above can be consummated ost directly thru the affiliation and cooperation of just such agencies as re represented by this audience. Certainly the help of the Federation of omen's Clubs, the organization of men's civic and business clubs, the ooperation of parent- teachers' associations, etc., thruout the country are definitely needed at the present time to coordinate the activities of a number of groups of inteUigent citizens thoroly interested in the progress f our schools. Laymen thruout the country do not know what has been oing on in the public schools in the past two decades. The man on the treet visualizes schools in terms of the little red schoolhouse he went to thirty years ago. The layman must be made interested, and thru his i^_interest thoroly acquainted with the developments in the public-school I ni i 434 ^^ TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [School Patrons education in our generation. The only possible means by which this can be done is thru the activity of just such organizations as you represent. The appointment of committees thru your organizations will result in little unless it is supplemented by a very considerable amount of discussion of school developments themselves. Citizens must be brought to the reading of lay material concerning what is going on in the schools. Progress in the education of the public concern- ing our schools will wait upon the preparation of adequate lay material. For the public and in turn for boards of education to ask professional educational officers intelligent questions concerning school practice in the city, those questions must be given them by specialists in the field. Sample or illustrative questions need to be put, so to speak, into the mouths of intelligent citizens, the response to which will make superintendents and educational officers generally more definitely conscious of the needs of a continuous policy within the school system itself. Thus, thru the prepara- tion of material of this sort, thru its dissemination by means of just such channels as your committees and executive councils, and thru its thoro- going discussion by your organization, will professional officers be made definitely conscious of their own shortcomings. COOPERATION BETWEEN THE PUBLIC AND THE SCHOOL AUTHORITIES IN SECURING BETTER TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS MARGARET S. MC NAUGHT, STATE COMMISSIONER OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. The proposed movement toward establishing a higher standard of pro- fessional training for teachers in the elementary schools is one of which I can speak with a knowledge drawn from personal experience. In 1907 the legislature of California enacted a school law providing that a graduate of a university should not be deemed eligible to teach in the pubhc schools without at least six months' training as a practice teacher. At the time the law was enacted there was no provision in California for practice teaching except in the normal schools; as a consequence there came to the normal schools a number of university graduates to take the practice- teaching courses. As I was at that time a member of the teaching staff of the state normal school at San Jose, I had under my direct and immediate observation the work of these university graduates in the training-school classes. The advantages of university training were so obvious they could not be overlookt. By reason of their superior education the graduates learned more rapidly and inore thoroly than other students; by reason of their superior age they had better control of the pupils; by reason of their wider reading they were better able to instruct the pupils; and by these combined Department] BETTER TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 435 advantages they were more inspiring to the pupils and got better results in all branches of teaching. This experiment, made unexpectedly and without purpose by a mere accident of the law, showed that there would be a great gain for the teacher, for the school, and for the pupil if school teaching were rankt as a profession and, like law and medicine, a high degree of general culture were required as a requisite to its practice. The truth shown by this experiment is by no means self-evident. A good many university graduates deem themselves unfitted for elementary teaching by the very fact of their university training; and we may be sure other people share the beHef . Once when I was an instructor at Stanford University, a young gradu- ate askt me to assist her in getting a position as teacher in a high school. I advised her to seek first a position in an elementary school, but to my surprise she set the advice aside by saying, "I am not able to teach an ele- mentary school, for there I would have to teach many things, all branches, in fact, and of some of these I have no adequate knowledge; but in a high school I would have to teach only the special subjects along which I have studied at the university, and these I am quite competent to teach." In a measure this young woman was right, but in an equal measure le was wrong. An elementary teacher under our expanding system of mblic-school education is required to teach a wide variety of studies, each simple in itself but complex in their numbers. Therefore she was right in Lssuming that as good an education is required for an elementary school as for a high school ; but she was wrong in presuming that her special culture ifitted her for the elementary work, since the results of the experiments rith. university graduates in the state normal schools of California prove that iniversity culture is an excellent training for such service. It is therefore gratifying to find every day and almost everywhere in the Inited States a growing consciousness among teachers that along with icreasing professional rank and dignity there must be increast professional raining and worth. Only a generation ago our best law schools and medical schools required ittle preliminary education for their students. Not so much was then required for admission to the Law School at Harvard as is now required for idmission to a normal school in California. The standards of law and of ledicine were raised by the exhortations, labors, influences, and examples of a few high-minded, resolute men. What those men did for law and for medicine can be done for school-teaching by leaders of equal ability and equal zeal. Therefore the advocates of this movement are not engaged in an idle agitation, but have good reasons for the hope that is in them of seeing their efforts crowned with success. The urgency of the movement is shown in the barest recital of the statis- tics of our educational system. They have been publisht often, but until 436 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [School Patrons a remedy is applied they cannot be too often recalled nor too strongly em- phasized. There are now upward of 300,000 teachers in the United States that have had no training beyond the high school; there are 100,000 that are less than twenty years of age; there are more than 30,000 that have had no training beyond the eighth grade. Bad as is the showing made by these statistics taken merely as arith- metical figures, they do not reveal all the evil of the conditions that make such low standards possible. It is hardly to be disputed that in many cases these untrained teachers lack not only training but competence. They owe their positions partly to the fact that teachers in many school districts are so illy paid and schoolhouses so badly equipt that competent teachers do not seek such positions; partly also because school trustees either thru personal favoritism or indifference to the importance of public-school educa- tion appoint teachers without regard to professional merit. To raise the professional standard of the school-teacher there must be then: increase of remuneration, improvement of conditions of school work, fuller freedom from control by politics or by favoritism, and higher education. Each of these deserves more elaboration than I can give. There should be increase in remuneration, not only that the professional standard of the teacher may be raised, but in justice to those now in service; there should be improvement of conditions of school work in order to meet the requirements of new ideals of democratic citizenship; there should be fuller freedom from control by politics in order that teachers may be permitted to go about their work with serenity; and there should be a higher education required for elementary teachers because elementary teachers have a more difficult and important work to perform than that of fixing facts in youthful minds. The national conference of normal-school presidents at Chicago in February of this year adopted a series of resolutions on this phase of the subject that merit our indorsement and support. These declare: We favor raising the standards for public-school teachers in the United States to the end that teaching may become a profession. The interests of public education require that the normal schools shall not be iso- lated from the main currents of higher education. We invite such cooperation from college and university authorities, and seek such improved organization, procedure, and standards for ourselves as will lead to an equitable interchange of credits. These are well-measured demands, yet their fulfilment will be followed by immeasurable benefits to the whole people. When school-teaching attains its rightful rank as a profession it will be better remunerated, better instructed, better inspired, better sustained, and the results will be correspondingly better in every department, every phase, every activity of a teacher's service, whether in the schoolroom or in the community center. When normal schools rank in higher education along with schools of law and of medicine and of technology; when the scholarship attained thru their Department] THE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION BILL • 437 training is recognized by universities and learned academies as an impor- tant part of the best culture of the age; when the teacher of the remotest rural school has the respect due to a member of one of the foremost pro- fessions of the country and feels herself supported by a consciousness of her professional worth, then public-school instruction in America will be equal to the demands that human destiny has placed upon the American people. Upon no other profession is there laid a more nearly universal task, none is confronted by a nobler duty, of none is there demanded a more patient service nor a higher ethics. Therefore there is none that has a more justly founded claim upon the people and the government alike for every aid needed to fit the candidates for the profession with all the training that our ever-advancing civilization requires of them in the practice of their profession. COOPERATION BETWEEN THE PUBLIC AND THE SCHOOLS IN TAKING ADVANTAGE OF THE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION BILL ARTHUR F. PAYNE, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. I Any plan for organizing a logical scheme of cooperation between the ublic and the schools in taking advantage of the financial and professional id in establishing vocational education offered by the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Law immediately resolves itself into a three-cornered arrangement with the general public, educators who favor vocational educa- ion, educators who oppose vocational education at each comer. The general public is heartily in favor of almost any type of vocational ucation, as they see in it an opportunity to make the work of our schools ore purposeful and practical, more rational and real, more in harmony ith life and living. Agriculturists for many years have been strongly in favor of vocational ucation. The success of their efforts may be seen in the splendid system f agricultural colleges all over our country, by the numerous short courses ffered every winter by our state universities, by the more recent movement oward consolidating the rural schools. Manufacturers and business men are among the most earnest advocates f vocational education; as the agriculturists want agricultural education, the manufacturers want industrial education and the business men commercial education. The Smith-Hughes Law makes provision for all ihree types and also for education in home economics. The large and growing class of labor-union men are perhaps the most arnest advocates of all forms of practical education. They see in voca- ional education an opportunity for a worth-while education for the children if the poor people that will equal the opportunity for a classical education low offered the children of the rich people. 438 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons There is still another small but influential group of people who will support any movement toward establishing vocational education. This group is made up of those interested in the betterment of the poorer classes — social-settlement workers, philanthropists who support the settlements, sociologists, and social workers of all kinds. This group of splendid people in their endeavors to develop and educate for "good citizenship" have found that the basis of good citizenship is the ability to earn an adequate livelihood; all else follows and nothing precedes this. The educators who will assist in establishing vocational education are those who keep in mind that golden principle of all educators, that education must fit for Hfe and for living. These are the educators who have organized the many new types of schools and classes that differ from the old formal scholastic type. Such schools as the continuation, the part-time, the cooperative classes, the ''junior high school," the "opportunity school," trade extension evening classes, all-day trade schools, are a few of the endeavors to break away from the scholastic t3^e of school which had its foundation in the fifteenth century. The first step, then, in any plan for cooperation should be that of an educational propaganda for a clear understanding of the principles and purposes of vocational education. Many educators oppose vocational education because they do not understand it and therefore are afraid of it; many of them see in it a danger of losing their positions and life-work. For this group our message is that vocational education needs the very best they have to give. They talk and write about correlation, motivation, unifica- tion, and schooling with life and environment; vocational education offers this in its finest form. They enthuse about "education for democracy"; vocational education is the democratic leaven in an aristocratic educational system. Our present system of education is aristocratic in that it offers its benefits only to those wealthy few who can afford to go thru high school and graduate from our colleges and universities. With more than 60 per cent of all children in this country leaving school before the end of the sixth grade, we can hardly claim to be educating the mass of people. Vocational education is not narrow; it does not train narrow specialists any more than do the professions of law, medicine, dentistry, architecture, and theology. Look over a course of study for any one of these professions and you will find that they are highly speciaKzed. Vocational education does not aim to displace elementary education; the Smith-Hughes Law grants no aid for any vocational education for pupils under fourteen years of age, with a minimum education of graduation from the sixth grade. The figures I have just given you show that most of our boys are out of school before this time, so that vocational education will help to keep them in school and bring them back to school. The Smith-Hughes Law also requires that 50 per cent of the school time shall be Department] THE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION BILL 439 spent in the classroom studying arithmetic, EngHsh, hygiene, drawing, science, civics, and citizenship. The second step should be the appointment of an advisory committee of representative citizens. All of the state laws with which I am acquainted require this. The purpose of this committee, with its necessary sub- committees, is to do research work, formulate plans, and make recommenda- tions to the school board and assist them in making campaigns for buildings, money, equipment, etc. The membership of this committee should repre- sent the leading activities of the town in proportion to its importance, agricultural, industrial, commercial, and home economics. In every case home economics should be represented. The first work of this committee should be a survey of the occupations of the town. A request for aid and advice in conducting this survey to the state board of education, the state university, or the Federal Board for Vocational Education at Washington, D.C., will bring an immediate response. This survey should show the opportunities for young people to enter wage-earning occupations, keeping in mind that we are interested principally in those occupations for which workers must be trained before they can enter them, as we are interested in vocational education. Next should come the survey of the public school to discover what train- (iing is being offered for these vocations. You will probably find that private schools offer more training for the vocations than the public schools, but lis will not concern us, as the Smith-Hughes Law gives aid only to schools mder public control. There should also be a survey of the public-school records to show the )ercentage of pupils retarded, the loss by grades to go to work, percentage )f those who enter high school, who graduate from high school, who enter :ollege. When you discover the very small percentage who enter college md remember that our present school system is organized almost entirely 'from the first grade up, with college entrance in mind, you will have little difficulty in showing people the real need for a different kind of education for the 95 p^r cent who never get to college. This school survey should also show which grammar schools send the least number of pupils to the high school. This will indicate the schools which should have their course of study vocationalized. The trade v/orkers on this committee should recommend the proper equipment and courses )f study for their separate trades. They should also see to it that suitable )uildings be provided. I regret very much that many towns give to voca- tional education only the old ramshackle buildings. Vocational-education )uildings should be as good as any other school buildings. The school board, the chamber of commerce, and other organizations should be askt to send competent persons to cities similar to your own where 440 NA TIONA L ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION [School ^atroAd vocational education has been started, and bring back full reports with photographs and samples of work done. In all of this work care should be taken to keep in close touch with the regional directors of the Smith-Hughes Law and the state directors of voca- tional education, as all vocational education must be approved by them before Smith-Hughes aid can be granted. These directors will furnish you on request with valuable material, and, if askt to do so, will visit your town and give advice. Finally in all of this work we must at all times keep clearly before us the ultimate aim of vocational education, which is the greatest good possible for the youth of our land. The particular group of children we are working for are mostly the children of that splendid body of workers who are the back- bone of this great country of ours, so at all times we must be sympathetic, generous, and open to conviction, working only for that untold good that will come from an effort to increase human efficiency and happiness, which will bring its own reward and blessing to those who work for that end. COOPERATION OF PATRONS IN SOLVING THE PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL LIFE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL OLIVIA POUND, CITY PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LINCOLN, NEBR. The problems of the social life of the high school are perplexing alike to school administrators and to school patrons. The social instincts of the pupils naturally lead them to form into groups, but unless these groups are wisely directed they may prove to be an endless source of friction. With the newly awakened consciousness that the public schools must train the pupils for active participation in our democracy has come also the realization that all the social situations of the school must be utilized to afford the pupils this necessary training. Formerly responsibility for the social Hfe of the pupils was avoided by the majority of school authorities because it was lookt upon as a problem of the home. Now, however, since education is regarded not as training for future living but as training for present living, the social activities and interests of the school have come to be considered as second in importance only to the pupil's classroom activities. The school itself is a miniature community, and may well afford the pupils many of the experiences they will have thru life. Consequently the school should foster such pupil activities as promote the aims of our secondary education and should curb such activities as tend to hinder their fulfilment. The test then of the value of pupil organizations should be the same as the test applied to any other department of school activity; namely, how far do such organizations promote the chief ends of education in our democracy ? In the report of the Commission on Reorganization of Second- ary Education, appointed by the National Education Association (Bulletin 1919, No. 35), it is stated that "education in a democracy, both within and I pic or( Kb Bo Department] PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL LIFE IN HIGH SCHOOL 441 thout the school, should develop in each individual the knowledge, inter- ts, ideals, habits, and powers whereby he will find his place and use that place to shape both himself and society toward ever nobler ends," In order so to develop the individual, the same report sets up seven main bjectives of education: health, command of fundamental processes, worthy ome membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical aracter. Obviously if the schools are to meet these aims the social life of the school must be utilized as a laboratory in which the pupil may be elpt "to find his place" and "to shape himself toward nobler ends." An investigation of the social organization of one hundred high schools f the country shows that they fall into the following main divisions : general organizations open to all pupils, such as class organizations, student repre- tative bodies, and the like; departmental clubs; and exclusive clubs nd fraternities. Of these groups the class organizations and student repre- sentative bodies are the most democratic. If properly handled they may afford the pupils opportunity to participate to some degree in the govern- ment of the school, and may give them to a. certain extent some real train- ing in citizenship. In many of our leading high schools the student council successfully handles such problems as the order in lunchrooms and halls, the launching of all school activities, such as athletic contests, debates, matinee parties, and the like. They also receive from the pupils suggestions for the betterment of the school and participate in carrying them out. To a considerable degree they are responsible for the general morale of the hool. Under departmental clubs one finds all manner of organizations, such as ebating or public-speaking clubs, music, art, household arts, nature, thletic, English, scientific and business efficiency clubs. All of these should open to the pupils on a try-out basis. If membership depends on social vailability, the society soon loses all interest in other than social activities d becomes unworthy of the time and attention of any school. Many of ese departmental organizations, especially those devoted to nature-study, , music, and dramatics, may make a distinct contribution to the pupil's ucation for the wise use of leisure. In small schools with limited facilities ese school clubs may be almost the only way to develop this phase of the upil's education. Thru these clubs the boys and girls may gain an ppreciation of the finer things of life not to be gained perhaps from their ther work. In many schools there are, in addition to the general and departmental organizations already mentioned, many exclusive clubs and fraternities, ese organizations almost without exception have proved a stumbling- lock in handling the social problems of the school. Because they are Imost free to do as they choose, the members of other organizations chafe der restriction and are inclined to ape the fraternities as far as possible, he result is that the exclusive clubs and fraternities become a source of 442 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons endless bickerings and annoyance. Moreover, the high-school fraternity seems to breed a certain bumptiousness of character and a disregard for others that is very undesirable. The scholarship of fraternity members is so notoriously poor that it actually interferes with the efficient management of the school. In one school of fifteen hundred pupils there were enough failures among fraternity boys alone in one semester to provide classes for one full-time teacher. In their form of entertaining, too, the fraternities set up a false standard that may counteract what the school is trying to accomplish in the way of training the pupils to use their leisure well. The main objection to high-school fraternities, however, is that they tend to keep the members from securing such civic training as the social life of the school might provide. The fraternity splits the school into small cliques whose interests are more important to the members than are the interests of the school. Tho some individual members may be interested in the welfare of the school, even the best of them seldom throw themselves whole-heartedly into projects of general interest. They stand aloof as if such activities were a little beneath them. Since it is the prime function of American schools to fit pupils to live in a democracy and to bear their share of the responsibility of government, the fraternity becomes a menace to the activities of the school which make for civic training. Such are a few of the social problems of the high school. How can school patrons help in solving them ? First of all, they can help by seeing that school officials are employed who have a broad social outlook, men who are able to work with pupils and teachers rather than over them. Patrons may need to stand firmly behind these men in their efforts to democratize the social life of the schools. If this means disbanding exclusive clubs and fraternities, it must be done, for they are distinctly antisocial in their tendencies. An effort to bring about a constructive social program in a high school where fraternities are tolerated is a mockery. The majority of the pupils will stamp any attempt to organize student representative bodies as a sham if clubs are allowed to exist which can blackball proposed members of sterling worth who do not seem quite socially eligible. Men who are unwilling to face the problem of the high-school fraternity are unworthy of a place in the modern democratic school. In the next place patron associations may be of inestimable help in seeing that the right social standards exist in the high school. This involves the whole problem of social usage, chaperonage, dancing, and the like. The social standards of the school almost inevitably are those of the com- munity. If there is to be a wholesome atmosphere in the school, the atmosphere of the community must be wholesome. Lastly, patrons' associations can promote interest in all the meaningful activities of the school by offering prizes and by affording opportunities for the pupils to put forth their best efforts. There should be prizes for all winning athletic and debating teams, for the best work in art and house- Department] WIDER USE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 443 hold arts, for the best readers and the best writers. The most valuable prize, however, the one regarded as the highest honor the school can bestow, should go to that pupil who in the opinion of the teachers by his services to the school and by his democracy, generosity, and loyalty best embodies the ideals of the school. COOPERATION OF SCHOOL AUTHORITIES AND THE PUBLIC IN THE WIDER USE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS RAYMOND F. CRIST, BUREAU OF NATURALIZATION, DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, WASHINGTON, D.C. There are many activities in which the public schools may widen their field of usefulness. The one which is devoted to instruction in civic responsi- bilities of the foreign-born offers quicker returns than any other. The rewards reapt by the teachers of adult foreigners — rewards in devotion, loyalty, endeavor, in appreciation of the opportunity our public schools are affording — are not found in the original field of instruction open to the teacher— the day schools. The testimony of the teacher of English to the non-Enghsh-speaking foreigner is unanimous upon this point. The rela- tion of teacher to pupil is enricht and becomes one of association. The community of purpose, of objective, of thought, becomes uppermost in the minds of both. The teacher is more than teacher; is at once guide, helper, adviser, a source of deep inspiration to the performance of a task that but a few short years since was believed possible only among those in the early years of life— the learning of a new language, in all that that means. True, notable examples of scholars stand out who have acquired languages after middle life. But to accept the conclusion that men and women of any walk in life can do this was unheard of. Today thru the activities of the officers and members of the Department for the Promotion of the Wider Use of the Schoolhouse, working in concert thruout the entire country, this conclusion is a fully accepted fact. Four years ago it was my privilege to be one of the thirty or more signers of the petition for the creation of the Department. This petition was signed and submitted to the National Education Association at its Oakland, California, meeting. Since then, in my connection with the Department as secretary, and later as president, I have put forth my best endeavors thru my official governmental positions to enlarge the field of activities of the public schools to embrace the illiterate adult population of our nation. The natural field of endeavor of that part of the federal government to which I am attacht is the adult alien population. During the past three years there have been approximately 3,000,000 men and women of the foreign body of this country who have come before the Bureau of Naturalization, with which I have been connected since its organization. It is this constant procession of aliens which has caused your government to 444 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons appeal to the public schools to open their doors both night and day and thruout the entire year, in order that they might be fitted to become citizens of this great land. And to this appeal the public schools have responded. In over 2200 communities the doors of the schools have been thrown open. In HOG more places the promise is that they, too, will join the ranks of workers in this rich field of endeavor. Many thousands of classrooms that heretofore were deserted and dark now beam forth their light of welcome night after night to increasing thousands of hungering and thirsting human- ity. Men and women by the thousands over fifty years of age are to be found in these rooms under the guidance of sympathetic, devoted teachers being led out of the bondage of ignorance into the beginnings of the Hght of learning and broader understanding. It means their reward after much travail for their coming to this new land. It means that America is being true to herself. It means the door of opportunity again opening to the native American which heretofore has been closed and seemingly finally clbsed. Let us in returning to our homes enlist in this cause of America. Let us go home and inform ourselves of the problem, each in his own home town. Are there any illiterate Americans, any ilhterate foreign-born, any who cannot speak, read, and write in our tongue ? Let each one here not cease in effort until all these have the opportunity thru the opening of the doors of the pubHc school to this wider use. Do not denounce and condemn the public school of your own making. Its deficient condition, and its inef- ficiency, are traceable right to you and to every other citizen of your town. Instead let each one inform himself upon the affairs of the school system and aid in uniting all forces of the community for the attainment of the highest efficiency by giving every needed support. LIBRARY DEPARTMENT SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — O. S. Rice, supervisor of public libraries, State Department of Public Instruction Madison, Wis. Vice-President — Delia G. Ovitz, librarian. State Normal School Wilwaukee, Wis. Secretary — Anne T. Eaton, librarian, Lincoln School, Teachers' College . . . .New York, N.Y. FIRST SESSION, Tuesday Afternoon, July i, 2:00 o'clock The Library Department of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Tuesday afternoon, July i, at 2:00 o'clock, in Lecture Hall, Public Museum, Milwaukee, Wis. The meeting was called to order by O. S. Rice, president. In the absence of the secretary the president appointed Irma M. Walker as secretary pro tem. The general topic for the session was "Children's Reading and Elementary School Libraries," and the following program was presented: "Supervision of School Libraries" — Carter Alexander, assistant state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis. Discussion — Sherman Williams, chief. School Libraries Division, State Department of Public Instruction, Albany, N.Y. "Young People's Reading Circles" — Johfi D. Wolcott, librarian, U.S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. Discussion— J. F. Haines, manager, Indiana Young People's Reading Circle, Indian- apolis, Ind.; D. F. Nichols, manager, Illinois Young People's Reading Circle, Lincoln, 111. "The Public Library and the Public School" — Lutie R. Stearns, platform lecturer on Education and Library Topics, Milwaukee, Wis. Discussion — Anna E. Logan, assistant superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. SECOND SESSION, Thursday Afternoon, July 3, 2:00 o'clock The session was called to order at 2:00 p.m. by the president. The general topic for the session was "High-School Libraries," and the following program was presented: "The High-School Library and the High-School Librarian" — Sherman Williams, chief. School Libraries Division, State Department of Public Instruction, Albany, N.Y. Discussion — Frank G. Pickell, principal, High School, Lincoln, Nebr. "Instruction of High-School Students in the Use of Books and Libraries" — Florence M. Hopkins, librarian. Central High School, Detroit, Mich. Discussion— Margaret E. Ely, librarian. Lake View High School, Chicago, 111. "The Relation of the School Library to the Teaching of Science" — Earl R. Glenn, Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. N.Y. Discussion — George R. Twiss, high-school inspector, Columbus, Ohio. "War-Library Experiences" — Mary Eileen Ahem, editor, Public Libraries, Chi- cago, 111. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — O. S. Rice, supervisor of public libraries. State Department of Public In- struction, Madison, Wis. Vice-President — Florence Hopkins, librarian, Central High School, Detroit, Mich. Secretary — Irma M. Walker, librarian, Biwabik School Library, Biwabik, Minn. Irma M. Walker, Secretary pro tem. 445 446 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS SUPERVISION OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES CARTER ALEXANDER, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WIS. The necessity of adequate library equipment for successful public- school work was very early recognized by the founders of the pubhc-school systems in various states. The specific mention of libraries in the items for which school support was sought, as laid down in the constitutions and old school laws, shows this. For instance, the constitution adopted in Wis- consin on that state's admission to the Union in 1848 contains this state- ment: The income of the school fund shall be applied to the support and maintenance of common schools in each district, and to the purchase of suitable libraries and apparatus therefor. But such recognition has been mainly a matter of mere intellectual assent, or simply of phraseology, only too often. Just as the Declaration of Independence declared all men to be free and equal, but the states sub- scribing to it had slaves wherever economically profitable; or just as some states provided for public-school systems but made the secretary of state or some other state official ex ofl&cio state superintendent of schools; in the same way there ha^ been a great difference between the legal recognition of the importance of effective library equipment in pubhc schools and the actual presence of such equipment for all school children who are being trained to use it profitably. *'By their works ye shall know them" is as good a standard for judging the school-library effort of a state ^school system as for judging endeavor in other fields. Measured by this standard, most- of our state school systems do not seem to consider school libraries of any particular importance. The real test of a state department's emphasis upon any phase of school work at the present time is whether or not it has a special supervisor for that work, or gives a very definite and material part of some supervisor's time to such matters. So many people are attacht to state departments these days that any well-differentiated line of work is sure to be placed in charge of a specialist responsible for its development. We have statis- ticians, vocational directors, supervisors for high schools, rural schools, teacher-training work, home economics, agriculture, manual training, etc. But this year's directory of the United States Bureau of Education, in its lists of the state department staffs, lists, of course, furnisht by these depart- ments, shows only three state departments with a library specialist' — New York, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin. In New York there is a chief of school libraries division. In Rhode Island the state department has a Department] SUPERVISION OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES 447 "library visitor." In Wisconsin the state department of public instruc- tion has a special supervisor of school libraries coordinate with the seven- teen supervisors in other Hnes of work. In still another small group of states the importance of school libraries is recognized by the state library commission, but the specialist for the school end of the work does not appear to be in the state department of education. Thus in Oregon the secretary of the free library commission is in charge of school libraries. In New Jersey such work is lookt after by the state supervisor of libraries in the state library commission. In Michigan the state library commission has a state organizer of high-school libraries. The aim in such states is doubtless to have a very close cooperation be- tween the state department of education and the library commission. But on the whole there is very little apparent conviction that school libraries are an important phase of public-school work and hence worthy of the attention of a special supervisor charged with developing his work as the other supervisors develop the interests intrusted to them. Now the good results from school libraries which the early laws had in mind, to say nothing of the values which our years of experience entitle us to claim for properly used school libraries, are today not possible except in ^very rare and isolated cases, without a positive and vigorous state control. Competent persons may perhaps -differ as to just where this control should lie, which officials should exercise it, etc. But there can be no differences I of opinion on the need for exercising this control in some way. For example, school libraries thruout a state cannot be effective unless I they contain good books bought at reasonable prices. The selection of ;ood library books for schools will challenge the best talent in the state and [take almost constant thought and work on the part of a person with both school experience and library training. It can be satisfactorily managed only thru some form of state list of approved school-library books. This list will amount to very little if made out by some super-stenographer, or even by a capable person if the latter has time only for compiling it from catalogs and price lists alone. Reasonable prices for school-library books can be obtained in practice only, as the prices are secured by the state authorities for all copies to be sold in the state. Again, all our ex- perience in library work for schools indicates that the matter of supporting local school libraries must not be left wholly optional. If it is, the very communities most in need of school libraries will frequently fail to provide them. School libraries are practical on a wide scale in a state only where there is some state appropriation irrespective of what the local community will provide, or when the state law compels the community to vote some minimum support, say so many cents a year for each child in average attendance. But money raised in this way will not be profitably spent unless this expenditure is under state oversight, such as may be secured thru I IB 44^ NATIONAL BDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library state lists of books and uniform prices. We wish teachers to include in their teaching systematic instruction in the use of reference books. We desire them to encourage their pupils to read books on a bigger and broader basis than heretofore. We expect them to bring about a general stimula- tion of the reading of young people thruout the commonwealth. But all such desires will not be realized until school libraries are pusht by an energetic state agency. The state control of school-library work here advocated must of course conform to the principles of common-sense administration. That is, there must be some one competent state official charged with the responsi- bility for results so that he cannot shift this responsibihty to any board, group of people, or a fellow-worker. Such an official may be any one of three persons: (i) a trained librarian specializing on school libraries; (2) a school man or woman knowing nothing of technical library work, who has for some reason been placed in charge of school libraries; (3) a school man or woman who has also acquired special knowledge of library work. Which of these is likely to make the best supervisor of the school libraries of a state ? To answer this question intelligently certain facts must be considered. First, in teaching the use of libraries, how to read books, etc., the school district is the only natural and practical unit for reaching everybody at the most profitable age for learning. City, township, or county libraries may attempt much of this work, but they can at best do it only with people whom they can attract, probably only a small fraction of the population and very likely those least in need of the teaching. If the use of books is to "get across" at all, it will have to be incorporated into school work and made a part of the state elementary course of study. Second, it is foolish to think of getting libraries used by any material number of children without trying to stimulate public-school teachers to have the children under them use books on a bigger and broader basis. Third, the matter of stimulating the reading in general of young people, a necessary preHminary to adult use of libraries, can best be done in connection with their regular school work, much of which is concerned with books. Whoever the state supervisor of school library work is, he must labor with the school as a unit, understand how to cooperate with teachers, and be thoroly equipt to see that library work becomes a part of the regular elementary course in a way adapted to the needs and capacities of school children. In all of this there is much greater need for a knowledge of school affairs than of details of library cataloging. The best person for such work is one having both pubHc-school experience and a knowledge of library technique. A successful teacher can add the library training within a reasonable time. But a trained librarian would find it a very difficult and lengthy process to get the teaching experience. The most satisfactory state supervisor for school library work, then, would be a Department] YOUNG PEOPLES READING CIRCLES 449 person of a reasonably varied and lengthy public-school experience, who has some practical knowledge of library technique and an educational background to enable him to do for school-library work what any other state supervisor is expected to develop in his special field. YOUNG PEOPLE'S READING CIRCLES JOHN D. WOLCOTT, LIBRARIAN, UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C. The state young people's reading circle as an institution had its origin in the Middle West, and it has attained its most successful development in the block of six middle-western states formed by Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Missouri, each of which maintains a flourishing pupils' reading circle. This territory is the stronghold of pupils' reading circle work by means of state organizations. Farther west the states of Kansas, Colorado, and Washington carry on reading-circle work, but not to the same extent as do the middle-western states. Kansas puts out a graded list of pupils' books which are offered for sale by the manager of the state reading circle, but has no state organiza- tion awarding credit for reading by means of certificates and diplomas. The State Board of Education of Washington prescribes a Hst of nine eighth-grade reading-circle books, five of which pupils are required to read for eighth-grade graduation. It also prescribes one seventh-grade reading- circle book. In the South Alabama and Arkansas are the only states having young people's reading circles. The school-libraries division of the New York State Department of I Education has issued a classified book-list entitled, "A Reading Course for the Elementary Schools of the State of New York," prepared by a committee of the New York State Association of District Superintendents. Testimonials are awarded by the state department to pupils who read fifty books from the list. A state young people's reading circle is usually administered by a board of directors under the auspices of the teachers' association of the state concerned. Most circles grant a certificate for one year's reading, amounting to from one to five books. The diploma usually represents the completion of the required reading for at least four grades of the elementary school, comprising from ten to twenty volumes. A gold seal to be affixt to the diploma is then provided for each additional year's reading. In nearly all cases the books in the recommended list are for sale by the management of the state reading circle at special reduced rates. These sales sometimes run to over 100,000 volumes annually in the case of a single state, Missouri for example. In Wisconsin, however, which is an exception to this rule, the members of the reading circle are advised to draw the necessary books from school and public libraries or from state and county traveling libraries. 45 o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Llbrafy The past two years of war have been a trying time for young people's reading circles as well as for schools and for all other forms of educational activity. In the autumn of 191 8 came the epidemic of influenza, causing the schools to be closed much of the time and tending still further to de- crease the participation in reading circles. Naturally, under these circum- stances, it was difficult for the reading circles even to hold their previous membership, not to mention any extension of their work. Nevertheless the reports of some state reading circles for 191 7-18 show a decided gain over the preceding year. For 191 7-18 the record of the Ohio pupils' reading circle in sales of pupils' books, and in the total number of books read, was nearly double that for the preceding year. In all the reading-circle states the managers are looking forward con- fidently to a notable extension of their work during the coming year. How may the state reading circle extend its constituency among city schools and among city public libraries ? In order to accomplish this, one prime requisite is a well-selected and comprehensive list of books for reading. Many city school men and librarians are now dissatisfied with the choice of books afforded by state lists, and therefore make up their own reading lists and organize local reading circles. A better selection of books for the pupils' reading lists would 'doubtless result if one or more members of every board of directors should be librarians, either from school or public libraries. In any case, the librarian appointed to the board should be one experienced in handling young people's books. The inclusion of a librarian will add a new point of view to the board's activities in book selection, and will tend to enlist the support of the library as an institution for the state reading circle. The state reading circle should have the combined support of both school and library, and should consult both in determining its policies. In states having a supervisor of school libraries, the reading circle should cooperate with him, and also with the state library commission. There is also another important point to be considered, as follows: Would it not be advisable for the state reading circles to abate some of the rigidity of their requirements and allow city readers to substitute other books of their own selection for those prescribed in the state list, provided the amount and quality of the reading done be kept up to the proper standard? Regular state credit should then be allowed for this reading. The state reading-circle managers should carry on more effective publicity work both in the cities and elsewhere regarding the advantages offered by the reading circles. Effective advertising of the reading circle could be accomplisht thru the public libraries, both in cities and villages, by displaying posters, bulletins, etc., in the library buildings. The reading courses should also be advertised to the teachers and pupils in the public schools, both in city and country. Department] YOUNG PEOPLE'S READING CIRCLES 4^1 The reestablishment of peace after the world-war is to be markt by a great revival of educational activity of every kind. Our country will need trained citizens as never before, and will need citizens who have the reading habit^ — who know how to obtain from good books the information and inspiration which they afford. In this educational readjustment the state reading circles should take a conspicuous part, both the reading circles for young people and those for adults, like that for school patrons in Wis- consin. I trust that this meeting inaugurates an era of greater cooperation between librarians and reading circles, and that hereafter it may become the general procedure to call upon librarians to contribute their part in determining the policies and selecting the books for young people's reading circles. Then the library may be expected to give that hearty and effective support to the reading circle which is its due. DISCUSSION r J. F. Haines, manager, Indiana Young People's Reading Circle, Indianapolis, Ind. — The organizers of the Indiana Young People's Reading Circle stated that to place the general reading of the half-million of children of the public schools under competent guidance and control, even to a limited extent, was regarded as a subject of the highest importance, and would be productive of most beneficial results. To substitute for the trashy and often vicious reading-matter which finds its way into the hands of children and youth a grade of literature at once sound in its contents, chaste in its language and imagery, and pure in its moral tone is an end which may properly commend the best and most earnest efforts of the teachers of Indiana. How well the hopes of these pioneers of the Young People's Reading Circle have been realized may be shown by the fact that during a successful existence of thirty-one years more than one and a half millions of carefully selected books have been distributed to the children of the state, and it is impos- sible to estimate how many millions of readers these books have had. The books are furnisht at greatly reduced prices, otherwise we could not compete with booksellers. The publishers of children's and young people's books have very kindly given us special prices so that in some instances our selling price is below the price at which the dealer can buy the book. This year the list price of our twenty-four books is $22.80. We sell the set for $14.90. The distribution of the books is a great problem. Many townships are taxt to support public libraries and the librarians have taken much pains to encourage teachers and pupils to use the books, but in many instances the patronage, especially from the rural districts, has been very meager. The books have to be placed under the very noses of the children, and I regret to say under the teacher's nose as well. A very large number of communities have no access to public^ libraries. The Young People's Reading Circle reaches every school district in the state. The list of books with prices is placed in the Course of Study and in the Township Institute Outline. The banner counties for the purchase of the books are among those that have no public libraries and whose school oflScials do not buy books for the schools. The pupils and teachers raise the funds, and I believe the books are appreciated more because of the efforts to obtain them. Anna E. Logan, assistant superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. — The best picture that I can present of ideal cooperation of library and school is one observed many years ago in a Pennsylvania state normal. Unusually fine lessons had been heard, but 452 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Library always at the word of praise the teacher would say, " Have you met our librarian ? Most of the credit of this work is due to her efforts. " The library was a dingy room, but material surroundings were forgotten ai one turned to the tables around which sat the children. It was the custom of the teachers to send her the topics to be discust the next few weeks. It was my good fortune to observe her work in various stages of progress with different grades. A fifth-year class had gathered for the first time to discuss whether it would be cheaper to buy oranges from Florida or California. Pictures and railroad folders of every variety were on the table. Here and there a few sentences in the folders were markt. The children selected such material as caught their interest. They talkt over what they saw and read. They askt questions of each other and the librarian. The son of the Greek fruit-vendor contributed, confirmed, or denied statements from his own experiences. The last ten minutes were spent in putting into shape what they had learned and in making plans for their next meeting. A library period with a seventh grade showed a series of lessons almost completed. For twenty minutes various members of the class gave remarkable descriptions illustrated by pictures, maps, blackboard sketches, diagrams of the route followed by Joan of Arc from the time she heard the call of the angel voices in the forest until she met her doom in the service of her country. This particular correlation of library and school was valuable (i) because of the proximity of the library, allowing such easy access that the children just grew up in the library; (2) because the teachers clearly recognized the aid that was theirs for the asking; and (3) because the librarian in her daily contact learned to know and to understand the limitations and possibilities of the individuals constituting each group and the needs of the community she was serving. "With this illustration in mind, the difiiculties therefore seem to resolve themselves into the following: i. When does a child need to begin to read? 2. How teach him to read? 3. Ho-w cultivate his taste so he will choose good books? 4. What will make him love to read? 5. How graduate him and every other child from the school library into the public library ? — how secure the cooperation of all forces to bring this about ? Before we enter on a discussion of the solution of these problems let us decide how valuable to the child, to the community, are these books of which you are custodians. Books are not the only means of bringing up children, but when one realizes that no phase of life exists but has its counterpart and interpretation in books, one recognizes their value. How then shall he learn to read ? Miss Stearns has told us how important to the child is the value of the content of that first contact with the printed pictured page. This contact usually occurs long before he comes to school. The recognition of this importance has changed completely the content and methods of teaching the early readers. Gone are the days when the normal child is dragged thru the intricacies of learning the alphabet in order to learn to read. Gone are the days of the torture of deciphering the meaningless sentences composed of one syllable. Gone the days when the statement is true that we used to hear so often, that the first three years of school must be spent in learning to read in order to read to learn. Before the end of the first year he has learned to read for himself and enjoy at least one book. What a power he has gained 1 Miss Stearns has emphasized the most im- portant fact that from the very first reading must be presented as a delight as well as an art. But it is not alone in these first days that content and method must be guarded. Every step of the way demands the wise cooperation of home and school and librarian. Recent investigations of the reading processes have shown how the domination of oral reading slows the rate of recognition and therefore the rate of interpretation. Dr. Gray's contribution to the superintendents' section of the N.E.A. in February revealed the value of reading as estimated by the high-school teachers to whom he had sent a Department] THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY AND LIBRARIAN 453 questionnaire; his study showed the weaknesses of the reading habits of high-school students, and suggested remedies for their improvement. Teachers and librarians should realize that knowledge of books is not an end in itself but a means of enriching life thru interpretation of experiences for conscious use. This will enable them to guard the child who is a dreamer and who dissipates by reading too much, as well as to lead the other child into the use and enjoyment of the great fields of literature. To do this both teacher and librarian should know child nature and should know library technique and love books, and have a vision of the ends which home and school and library must serve to bring each and every child into the fullest heritage. THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY AND THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIAN SHERMAN WILLIAMS, CHIEF, SCHOOL LIBRARIES DIVISION, STATE DEPART- MENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, ALBANY, N.Y. It seems rather late in the day to discuss the need of school libraries, but still it may be worth while to discuss some of their uses. School text- books on ^uch subjects as history, for illustration, are of necessity mere skeletons, and if a pupil's knowledge of this subject is limited to what he gets from his school text he will have but little knowledge of history and less interest in it. His textbook should be supplemented by popular his- tories, by a fuller knowledge obtained from such authors as Parkman, Fiske, and Eggleston, and the reading of historical fiction by such authors as Dickens, Hugo, Scott, Austin, Atherton, Churchill, Cooper, Frederick, and Mitchell, and historical poefns, biographies, and travels. These will enable the pupil to realize the truth of what Carlyle had in mind when he said, "These historical novels (referring to Scott's) have taught all men this truth, which looks like a truism, and yet was as good as unknown to writers of history and others, till so taught; that the bygone ages of the world were actually filled by living men, not by procotols, state papers, contro- versies, and abstractions of men." In connection with their studies the pupils, if properly trained, will have frequent occasions to consult the library. If they have to go to the public library after the close of school, their interest will have largely cooled. They should have immediate use of the needed books. Unless they have this, many of them will not consult the books at all. The purpose of the school is to fit for life, or should be that. About all that any person or agency can do for a child is to so train him that he will have higher ideals, finer tastes, and better habits than he otherwise would have. The right kind of reading contributes more to these purposes, espe- cially to the creation of higher ideals, than any other agency could pos- sibly do. Pupils, as well as others, will read for pleasure. Are they trained while in school to find pleasure in reading that which is worth while, that which will not only afford pleasure but enrich life? If not, the school has not 454 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library done its work well. It is an important part of the work of the school librarian to see that such work is well done. The right use of the school Hbrary during the whole of the school Hfe will be of more consequence than all else that the school can do for a child. Of course, everything else being equal, the more a child learns while at school the better, but there are more important things than mere knowledge. What one knows does not necessarily bear much relation to what he does. Our ideals and our feelings influence our actions to a far greater extent than does our knowledge, and for that reason there is danger that the great attention given to vocational education may not bring about the results that are expected by many. It is not merely common, but it is the general practice, to have specially trained persons to teach science, drawing, mathematics, languages, and other subjects, but school authorities quite generally seem to assume that the training of children to love good literature, by far the most difficult work of the school, is so simple a matter that any competent teacher can do it successfully. The time has come when every school should have its trained librarian. The need ought to be apparent to anyone who has given the question serious thought. The ideal librarian would be one who has graduated from college and from a library school as well, and has had experience in teaching. In most cases this would be tvholly impracticable now and is likely to continue to be so for a considerable period of time. Under ideal conditions the librarian would give all of her time to litfrary work. The librarian should be regarded as a teacher, as she really is, and the most valuable member of the teaching force, if competent, and should be paid as much as any teacher on the force. So far as I know, Wisconsin is in advance of all the other states in the matter of providing trained librarians for all high schools. It is likely that most of the other states will follow her example at no very distant date. New York has made some progress, but much is still to be desired there. Every pubHc school in the state of New York has a library, but in most cases some teacher acts as librarian, tho the number of trained librarians is constantly increasing. It is worse than idle to select books for school libraries that the pupils will not read except under compulsion, or at best will be read only by a very small number of the pupils. In this matter we need to remember that no one is helpt very much by being made to do that which he does not want to do. Of course this does not mean that children shall do as they please, or read only what they may chance to fancy, but it does mean that teachers shall so train the children that they will want to read that which they ought to read. This calls for much tact and good sense in making selections of books. We need to remember that the pupils are boys and girls, not men and women, that their minds are not mature, that their experiences have Department] THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY AND LIBRARIAN 455 been limited and their associations meager. Their work in reading should be graded as carefully as it is in other subjects. Children who read given books one year should be led to read those a little more advanst in thought the next, and so on. We are told by some people who understand books better than they do children that the pupils in our schools should read only the best books. Granted. But what do we mean by the best ? Best for whom ? Best for what purpose ? Best considered solely as to literary merit ? Best to : develop the reading habit ? ' Best for the teaching of moral truths ? Best to furnish needed information ? Best to develop a spirit of altruism ? Best suited to develop high ideals ? All these are worthy purposes, but no one 'book or one class of books will meet all these requirements. We should put into our school libraries books that the children will read and read with interest and profit, books that fit conditions that really exist or at least conditions that may be brought about in reasonable time. We must recognize not only the parents but also the children, teachers, and schools as they really are, and deal with the work on that basis. We should live in the clear air of facts, not in the clouds of theory. We need to keep constantly in mind what the effect of the reading done .will be upon the readers. Will it be helpful or harmful? Uplifting or degrading ? Will it tend to develop constructive or destructive ideas and tendencies ? Will it lead to higher or lower ideals of life ? Will it increase ,or lessen their faith in humanity? Will it tend to develop altruism or [selfishness? Will it increase their patriotism or breed disloyalty? Will it tend toward generosity or greed? Will it lead them to sympathize with the unfortunate or to be indifferent toward suffering ? Will it broaden ! their lives or narrow them? The answer to these and similar questions [will be determined to a greater extent by the use made of the school library [than by any other influences that the school can bring to bear. The teacher under the general direction of the librarian may very [profitably have a special literature period once a week. The teacher [might ask the pupils to report what they had read during the week that was worth while, or that which was not worth while, and state their reasons [for thinking as they did. This would cause more or less profitable discus- ^sion, more careful reading, and an acquaintance with many books and articles during their school life, and would help to lead to a greater variety 'of reading. The public school has done far more than all other influences combined toward making good Americans of our foreign-born people. They have ireacht the parents thru the children. The prevalence of schools that are not public, schools in which one of the main purposes is the perpetuation of I the language of the fatherland, has strongly tended to delay the process [of making our foreign-born citizens good Americans. This is in many ways very unfortunate. The school libraries might be made to aid in this work 456 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library much more than they usually do. They may reach the adults thru the school library if the pupils are allowed to take the books home under certain conditions. If our foreign-born people are to become good American citizens, they must know something of our history, what it has done, what its ideals have been and are. We must not expect that, in order to bring our foreign- born citizens into one with ourselves, they must go the whole of the distance between us. We are going thru trials in this country because' we have many nationali- ties represented by great numbers. Each race has its own ideals of social, political, and religious life, and ideal clashes with ideal. This must continue to be true until we have become more nearly a homogeneous people than we are now. The school will do the most toward bringing this about, and in the school the library will be the greatest factor if wisely administered. DISCUSSION Frank G. Pickell, principal, High School, Lincoln, Nebr. — In discussing Dr. Williams' paper on "The High-School Library and the High-School Librarian," I wish to emphasize three important phases of library organization and administration toucht upon by him: (o) the purposes of the library, (b) making the library of maximum service to the school, and (c) the librarian, her preparation, experience, and point of view. In a modern school the worthy purposes of the high-school library are: 1. To provide opportunity to both teachers and pupils to do reference and supple- mentary reading in the preparation of daily lessons. 2. To provide opportunity to both teachers and pupils to do recreational reading. 3. To provide opportunity to both teachers and pupils to do inspirational reading. 4. To provide a kind of intellectual workshop for the entire school — one that will serve the tastes of all kinds of pupils and teachers. 5. To encourage reading that will end in the habit of reading good literature, good current magazine material, and develop a taste for the best that is written. 6. To stimulate pupils to a real interest in books, to train them in the proper care and treatment of books, and to form the library habit. 7. To develop the artistic sense of the pupils through a wise choice of finely illus- trated editions of the world's best literature. 8. To afford the pupil instruction in and to permit him to become familiar with the technical features of library organization. 9. To provide a center for many of the school's social activities. The foregoing purposes make it clear that in the purchase of books the final aim of a well-rounded collection will always be kept in view. There will be representative books from the best of the world's literature — poetry, drama, essays, fiction, biography, history, travel, and scientific books not too technical in character. Attractive illustrated editions will be purchast when the funds permit and such reference material as encyclopedias, standard dictionaries, yearbooks, maps, indexes to periodical literature and to books will be supplied as plentifully as the funds will permit, or the needs of the school demand. Magazines will form an important part of the library collection, as will also a reader's guide. In the more progressive schools the librarian will develop a pamphlet and clipping file covering useful material, such as current events, local history, travel, and the like. The library must be properly organized. It must be organized for service according to the most up-to-date library methods. A library spirit must be built up among the Department] INSTRUCTION IN USE OF BOOKS AND LIBRARIES 457 members of the faculty. The librarian should discuss the work and various features of the library in faculty meetings for the benefit of the teachers. The pupils mutt be made to feel welcome in the library whether they come to sew, to read Popular Mechanics, to look up reference material, or to study algebra. It is very necessary that a course in library instruction be offered. This course might well consist of from six to eight lessons. With respect to the librarian, the implication of the foregoing purposes and the organi- zation of the library along usable lines is that the librarian should be well prepared and chosen with particular reference to the job which she has to do. She should be enthusiastic over her work and its possibilities. It is almost, if not equally, as important that she be a teacher with classroom experience. She should be a graduate of a standard college or university in which preferably she has given much attention to English and the social sciences. In addition she should be a graduate of some standard library school. In a library organized along these lines and in charge of a librarian who is enthusiastic about her work, knows her business, and has the confidence of the pupils and teachers, I can easily imagine that the pupils will develop a true library spirit and that they will begin to think of the library as theirs. The library under such forward-looking management will become one of the greatest positive factors which the modern secondary school offers for developing the boys and girls into strong, right-thinking citizens. I INSTRUCTION OF HIGH-SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE USE OF BOOKS AND LIBRARIES FLORENCE M. HOPKINS, LIBRARIAN, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. The marvelous rapidity with which camp libraries were developt has proved that the public recognizes the essential value of books when the sacred things of life are in danger. If a corresponding effort could be given to developing the library in times of peace, school men would soon be obliged to admit that librarians were right in choosing their slogan, ''The public library is an integral part of public education." Ten or fifteen years ago even the most optimistic of librarians would scarcely have dared to suggest that primary school buildings should be provided with a library as much as with a kindergarten room, and yet some progressive cities are now actually planning to include a room for a school library for the primary and grammar grades as well as for the high schools. The inevitable step which must follow is, of course, that the school authori- ties appoint a librarian especially qualified for her work as they do teachers in charge of other special branches. It is relatively a greater mistake to leave the library interests of the school to any teacher who happens to have a httle spare time and loves books than it would be to leave the domestic- science interests to any teacher who is a good cook. Emerson was in advance of his time when he said, ''Colleges, while they provide us with libraries, provide us with no professor of books; and I think no chair is so much needed." If we wish to lead our times, we must recognize that it may be even more important to provide a professor of books for primary, gram- mar, and high-school grades than it is for college, for taste is formed in youth; in mature life one is more capable of helping himself. 458 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library The public libraries have shown that the schools have neglected a very important field. A series of graded studies could be planned in connection with a course in the choice and use of books for the development of taste as easily as courses have been graded in music, manual training, history, and other subjects. The necessary equipment and teaching force would not be out of proportion with cooking centers, gymnasiums, typewriters, micro- scope, and laboratory apparatus, all of which are now considered essentials. A library hour would bear the same relation to school work as concerts and lectures do to civic life. A balanst educational system should consider the need of wide views of many subjects as well as detailed skill in a few. Many universities require that students preparing for law or medicine shall take work in the literary department also, that the professions may stand for refinement as well as for efficiency. A corresponding need exists all along the line, and we librarians think that the library hour under a graded system is the avenue thru which this need can best be met. The choice of a life- work is frequently determined by some apparent chance. I have heard a high-school science teacher say that his first interest in the marvels and beauty of science was awakened by a popular lecture on physics; another teacher was influenst to make language a specialty because of an interesting talk on the development of words. It was the inspiration which a child felt, while wandering with perfect freedom in a library, that led to the chain of Carnegie libraries in this country. Astronomers tell us that had it not been for the enlarging view of the heavens civilization would be centuries behind. Tho we can see much ahead of us, and tho we can realize that we have but scratcht the surface of possibilities, yet we must not lose sight of the fact that something has been accomplisht in the way of correlating the library with regular class work. The report of the committee appointed by the National Education Association on Reorganization of English Courses for Secondary Schools has emphasized the place of the library in school work, and has recommended that instruction in the use of important reference books be incorporated as a regular feature of the Enghsh course. Last year the North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges adopted certain requirements in regard to libraries, among the most definite of which is that of giving instruction in reference work to each English grade. Our next problem is, of course, how best to meet these requirements. For many years the Detroit Central High School has been giving simple lessons from pamphlets in reference work to each English class. Each pamphlet completes a general survey of some one subject, contains sample pages from the books studied, and gives a set of questions to emphasize important points. The inclusion of sample pages overcomes the difficulty of not having a sufficient number of copies of expensive reference books, and enables the class to study the necessary points without making a trip to the library, or waiting for access to books in great demand, or causing Department) INSTRUCTION IN USE OP BOOKS AND LIBRARIES 459 heavy wear on expensive reference books. Experience has proved that, when large classes are sent to a dictionary, for example, to find some one point, the page soon becomes so worn that it is not usable. The questions, with blank spaces left for answers to be written underneath, appear on a perforated sheet which can easily be torn out when the work is completed. Underneath the perforated sheet the same questions are repeated with the correct answer printed below each question. The value of each ques- tion on the scale of loo is indicated after the answer. By means of this key a student can correct his own or another's work in a few minutes in case the teacher or librarian cannot give the extra time to do so. The pamphlets are self-explanatory, making it possible for any teacher without special library training to conduct the work. The Subjects of the pamphlets are given below, listed in the order recommended, whether graded from VIIIB to Freshman college, or given more rapidly in upper grades. Webster's New International Dic- tionary New Standard Dictionary Encyclopedias Parts of a Book Atlases; City Directories; Gazet- teers Concordances Library Classification and Card Catalogue Indexes to Periodical Literature; Debates Year-books Commercial Indexes Important Publications of City, State, and Federal Governments Each pamphlet, except dictionaries, can be completed in two full recitation periods. The paper was followed by a demonstration. Each person in the audience was given a pamphlet on periodical literature; the main points were then gone over by means of the sample pages, to illustrate how such reference materials could be made clear even tho the class could not have immediate access to the books, and how the questions could be used to emphasize important points and to systematize the work for class records. DISCUSSION Margaret E. Ely, librarian, Lake View High School, Chicago, 111. — Last winter at the Chicago meeting I met and talkt with Miss Hume, Miss Hopkins' coworker. She explained to me at that time the course used in the Detroit Central High School. When I considered our modest ten-period course, which has been the idol of our eyes at the Lake View High School, I will confess I was skeptical. Perhaps none of you have encountered difficulties in establishing a course of instruction in the use of the library. In our Chicago Public Library High School Branches, started about three years ago, we have instruction in various degrees in each school. The Lake View High School Library has considered itself most fortunate in the matter of an instruction course, for ours is the most extensive of them all, and I must confess we have a very great pride in it. Therefore you will under- stand my chagrin when I discovered that a Detroit high school was surpassing us fourfold. 46o NATION AL^EDUCATION^ASSOCIATION " [Library Some of you may not yet have begun your course and may experience a mild interest in hearing about our little attempt at Lake View, which we hope very soon to supplant by installing a course more similar to that of Miss Hopkins. There are schools that cooperate readily with the librarian's ideas, and then there are other schools that are most skeptical. If yours is of the latter brand, you may need to feel your way a trifle. At Lake View we began our course, not the^rst semester of the installation of the library, but the following semester. After discussion with the English department we installed a six-period course, which was operated in cooperation with the English classes, taking periods of the time of each Freshman A English course. In our two-and-one-half-year career we have increast the number of periods to ten and have added a one-period talk to each beginning Freshman English class. So thoroly have we convinst the teaching body of the efficacy of such a course that we feel sure we are on our way toward a much more extensive one. The results from some systematic library instruction are self-evident and most grati- fying. Miss Hopkins must have many stories to tell of her results, except that she is so much farther along the way to success that she may have become hardened to them. We at Lake View are still in the soft condition where the discovery of results thrills us to the uttermost. A chaotic, book-strewn library has been transformed to an orderly, attractive room where books are replaced on the shelves, not by the librarians, but by the student body. Each pupil makes himself responsible for the replacing of his own material before the close of each period. This student cooperation has brought us into a closer relationship with the students. The library has become theirs and they know how to make use of its advantages. Our reference work is lessened by half. Circulation and attendance have increast by half, and the quiet and intelligent use of our library is the marvel of the entire school. The results from a course in library instruction are again to be realized when the student leaves school. We equip him for after-life perhaps more than any other teacher in the school, for we open up to him the method of pursuit of all subjects entered upon in his school curriculum — the intelligent use of books and libraries. You need have no doubts or fears as to the effectiveness of whatever instruction you establish, be it small or great; results will be tangible, and my great hope is that we may all adopt Miss Hopkins' able course and add to the effectiveness of our library service by making our school libraries efficient aids to better citizenship. THE RELATION OF THE SCHOOL LIBRARY TO THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE EARL R. GLENN, LINCOLN SCHOOL, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. This paper briefly reviews the work that has been done to provide adequate hbrary faciHties for the secondary school. The results of this labor which has been in progress for several years are embodied in a report^ which has been issued recently by the Committee on Library Organization and Equipment. This report of thirty pages, which is signed by more than a score of educational leaders, should be studied carefully by teachers and executives. There is some question whether the report is receiving the attention that it deserves. ' Certain, C. C, chairman, "Standard Library Organization and Equipment for Sec- ondary Schools of Different Sizes," N.EA. Report, 1918. Department] SCHOOL LIBRARY AND TEACHING OF SCIENCE 461 One brief quotation from the report just referred to is studied in detail by graphical methods in this article. The statistics from approximately 1000 high schools are exhibited in order to determine what might be con- sidered a well-balanst library with ample references in all subjects for schools of different sizes. Eighteen charts have been prepared to illustrate the facts. Among other points discust the following may be mentioned: a) A school wishing to build up a first-class collection of books of a greater number (about 2500 to 3000) than that suggested in the standard high-school library book lists has no guide to assist teachers and hbrarian. h) The aggressive interest of some departments and the indifference of others result in an unbalanst collection of references. c) The reports from approximately 1000 high schools in fifteen north central states in 1913-14 show that the great majority (over 70 per cent in the median library) of references in the library are listed under EngHsh and history. d) Neither the size of the school, the community, the type of school, the number of units of work offered, nor any other important factor seems to have influenst the distribution of references by subjects in any of the fifteen states. e) Unless some comprehensive plan of book selection for all subjects can be put into operation the five-year plan proposed by the Library Com- mittee in the report mentioned above will not greatly benefit the subjects fmost in need of reference material. /) The actual number of science references for the 1000 different schools ;may be listed as follows: Enrolment Pupils Science References (Median) Reported for 1913-14 Conservative Estimate of Number of References Required to Fulfil Five-Year Program of N.E.A. Committee I-IOO 101-200 201-300 301-500 501-1000 1000 and above 52 68 71 82 128 219 100 200 300 400 600 1000 g) These facts and others suggest the great need for a very careful survey of four or five hundred school libraries which are supervised by trained librarians— first, in order to disclose the actual practice in book [selection; and secondly, to determine what constitutes a well-balanst modern i library that will represent adequately all branches of knowledge. This investigation is still in progress. At a later date all of the informa* tion obtained will be put into permanent forrn for th^ use of any who may be interested. 462 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library DISCUSSION George R. Twiss, high-school inspector, Columbus, Ohio. — In 90 per cent of the science classes that I have visited within the past ten years there has been too Uttle practice in getting specific information from the library for specific purposes and too little instruction as to how to use libraries. Science teachers are too much concerned in having their pupils "do" a certain number of laboratory experiments and "cover the ground" of one of our modern plethoric textbooks, and are too little concerned in finding out how they can get the pupils to reading scientific books and articles and making experi- ments for themselves; for it is in this way only that permanent interests in science can be developt. It is immensely important that more of our high-school children who will be the leaders of our nation twenty or twenty-five years hence shall be able to read scientific books and articles understandingly, and shall become permanently interested in keeping up, at least to a limited extent, with the progress of science and invention. Everybody who knows even the principles of modern psychology knows that to accomplish this we must cause these boys and girls to form habits of using books, pam- phlets, reports, and periodical literature to get specific scientific information for specific purposes. We know that to form a habit an individual must frequently repeat the act that is to become habitual, that he must be interested in it and attentive while doing it, and that the result must invariably afiford him satisfaction. If the state of mind attending the completion of the act be one of indifference or discomfort, this condition works directly against the fixation of the habit. With this well-known psychological principle in mind, it is easy to indicate the kinds of methods for using the library so as to form reading habits in science that may result in the permanent scientific interests whose importance I have tried to make plain to you. 1. Library assignments should always be purposeful. The information for which the pupil is sent to the library should be information that is needed for the carrying out of some project or for the solution of some question, and the project or problem or question should be one that has taken hold of the pupil and aroused his interest. 2. The assignments should be specific. They usually should indicate the nature of the information wanted, the amount of it, and the title and pages of the publications where it is to be found. Vague and indefinite assignments of any sort should be avoided. The pupil should never be sent to the library to "read up on a subject and report." He should be given a definite assignment, with purpose and scope clearly delimited, so that when he has completed it according to directions, and prepared the written or oral report which should always be required, he will have the satisfaction of knowing it is done and done right, and that he has received the credit for it which is his due. 3. The assignments should be short; better several short references in one assign- ment than one long reference, and they should all have a definite bearing on the problem or question to be workt out. 4. The assignments should be frequent. The problems that furnish the motive for reading them should be as intrinsically interesting as possible, and they should be so presented as to arouse the curiosity of the pupils. This will secure the attentive interest and repetitions that are essential to fi:xing the habit of scientific reading. 5. The teacher should so arrange conditions that the pupil will get genuine pleasure and satisfaction out of the completion of every library assignment. This can be done by giving whole-hearted but discriminating commendation to the pupils when they do work in this line that is worthy of special approval. It can be done also by giving special credits toward the term standings for all library studies that have been satisfactorily completed according to the teachers' specifications. It can be done in another and most effective way, namely, by giving the pupils an opportunity to gain enthusiastic approval from their comrades in the class, by presenting to the class their reports of library studies when the teacher finds these to be especially good. Department] WAR-LIBRARY EXPERIENCES 463 If these five factors are skilfully combined in the teacher's methods of assignment and use of library work, it is reasonable to expect that many of the pupils will form in the school a habit of reading scientific books and articles for specific purposes, and that this habit formed in school will lay the foundations for a permanent interest in keeping abreast of the most significant scientific events and discoveries. The science teachers and the librarian should cooperate in this work, to the end that every pupil shall know how to use a library efficiently. He should be taught how to use [the card index, bibliographies, the cumulative periodical indexes, and the indexes and [analytical tables of contents of the books to which he refers. He should learn how to use dictionaries, encyclopedias, atlases, gazetteers, census reports. United States bureau bulle- tins, state bulletins, and books for rapid selective reading in gaining information that he wants for definite purposes. The high-school librarian and the high-school teachers should combine to teach high-school pupils that thoroness consists, not in reading all of one or two books, but in making sure that one has all the authoritative information that may be contained in all the available books on the one particular problem which at that time he happens to be interested in solving. The children should be taught to make card abstracts of the information they get on i their problems from the library, and these abstracts should be kept in a suitable filing drawer in the science room. They should be taught to make brief annotated bibliog- raphies on these topics, and these also should be kept on file and brought annually up to date by students from succeeding classes. Finally, when they read a book or read from a book they should be required to remember the title and the author's full name, as well as his official position and his standing as an authority on the subject about which he writes. If the science teachers and librarians of our high schools are not competent to do this, they must make themselves competent, and if they shall do this our country will not lack the scientific workers and the scientifically minded supporting constituency that is so necessary to its development in the strenuous years that are at hand. WAR-LIBRARY EXPERIENCES MARY EILEEN AHERN, EDITOR, "PUBLIC LIBRARIES," CHICAGO, ILL. The whole scheme of educational effort in the camps and military regions for the soldiers, as organized and carried out by the United States military Luthorities, presented a most unusual, perhaps a unique, endeavor in le history of military activity. The headquarters of the Overseas Library ['Service was in Paris. At this main ofhce was initiated the library activities [which extended thruout all parts of France wherever the American Expedi- tionary Forces were located. There were three areas. That of the Army loi Occupation, with Coblenz as the center, the first army at Chaumont, and [the S.O.S.jOr Service of Supplies, with several strong library points, LaMans, )t. Aignan, and Beaune. In all of these centers were post schools where regular instruction was given in whatever line of study the men wanted to [take up, and in addition, compulsory classes for the ilKterate. There was always a main library from which packages and single books rent out to camps and billets thruout the region. In the main centers isually mihtary authorities built one or several library buildings according [to the needs, but in the smaller places the books were distributed thru the welfare organizations. 464 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library It was a very remarkable educational experiment which was carried on at the A.E.F. University at Beaune, where something like 10,000 students were enrolled under the leading professors of various leading universities in the United States. In addition to these, there were large numbers of students in the universities of France who drew on the Paris headquarters for books and other material, tho little personal service was available. The library at Paris rendered splendid service to the students in Paris, not only those in the schools, but many who were studying for diplomatic service and other professions available to the American soldiers. The reading-rooms of this library were filled from early morning until the closing hour at ten o'clock at night, even on the brightest days. There was no opportunity to do service for any others except the Ameri- can soldiers, tho great appeal was made by the little children of France, who had forgotten how to play and who were slow to take up things that usually interest children of their years. Three changes will come to America from this A.L.A. library service abroad. The libraries themselves will be more highly regarded by return- ing soldiers. Here and there those who were helpt by the libraries recorded their resolution that when they returned they certainly^ would become attacht to their home libraries, as they had not been before. In the second place, librarians will find these returned soldiers an inteUigent clientele, who will be ready and willing to help push the library service in their com- munities and who will at the same time require from librarians a more inteUi- gent and more effective library service than has been available many times heretofore. And third, all of this will be to the advantage of the country as tending to create an intelligent interest, not only in local affairs, but in the progress of the country at large and to create a more intelligent interest in the affairs of the world than existed before the great disaster. r DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Arthur H. Chamberlain, editor, Sierra Educational News. .San Francisco, Calif. Secretary— Georgk L. Towne, editor, Nebraska Teacher Lincoln, Nebr. The Department of Educational Publications of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Thursday afternoon, July 3, at 2 : 00 o'clock, in Market Hall, Auditorium, Milwaukee, Wis. The meeting was called to order by Arthur H. Chamber- lain, president, and the following program was presented: "Free Textbooks from the Standpoint of Economy to the Community" — J. H. Beveridge, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr. "Experiments in State Publication" — H. L. Shirer, Topeka, Kans. "Should Authors Be Concerned with the Methods of Distribution of Textbooks?" — L. D. Cofifman, dean. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. "How Textbooks Were Secured for the Army Schools in France" — Arthur H. Chamberlain, editor, Sierra Educational News, San Francisco, Calif. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — George L. Towne, editor, Nebraska Teacher, Lincoln, Nebr. Secretary — Beulah Brown, assistant primary supervisor, St. Paul, Minn. George L. Towne, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS EXPERIMENTS IN STATE PUBLICATION Experiment, defined for the purposes of this paper, means "a, trial or special observation made to confirm or disprove something." There can be little question in these days that pubHc ownership, government, state or municipal, is doubtful, and the "trials and special observations" have only made more certain the doubt. If I should discover somewhere a valuable ore deposit, it would be an easy matter with money, men, and machinery to block out the content and determine its value. By laboratory tests I could also discover the method of separation and refining. Then with more men and money I could build my mill with confidence. That would not be a doubtful experiment- — it would be the certain experiment. This experiment in state publication that I speak of has had no such tests. It has produced schoolbooks at a higher cost than Kansas has been used to paying, and if the books are better or worse, they are not the best nor the worst. If they cost more money than under the previous method, it is not startling because pubUc ownership and business methods do not 465 466 NA TIONA L ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION [Educational Publications produce as cheaply as private enterprise. Public cost usually would mean private profit on the same basis. What I mean is that schoolbooks as supplied in Kansas today thru state pubHcation at cost could be suppHed by the publishers at a profit at the same cost to pupils. Therefore the first result of this experiment is a great waste of money. This waste is in the extra pennies the children must pay for their books and in the capital invested in the plant. The textbook has had its greatest development and growth in the United States, and this development has been fostered by the pubHshers. Any casual perusal of the history of the textbook will lead us to the con- clusion that no state has developt any single book and experiments in state publication have in no way benefited the public schools. Indeed, the basic texts now publisht in Kansas are so jealously guarded by law and penalty that a teacher dares not ask Johnny to purchase a supplementary primer or reader, and this narrowness, which might better be called small- ness, is a black scar on our educational system under state publication. I wonder when the people will wake up to the fact that there is but one time in a boy's life when he can be greatly and permanently benefited by good books' — but a short period in his early school life when a taste for good books and good reading may be easily acquired; and I wonder if we will ever discover why the boy is so ready to leave the farm and go to the city and town. How worth while would have been the effort at betterment if all the energy and money had been directed and spent in a well-organized system for the upbuilding of our rural schools. I am not too critical when I say that the glamor and romance of the little red schoolhouse is nearly all on the printed page. How many little red schoolhouses can you find scattered over the rich Kansas hills and prairies that have the first element of attract-' iveness and that cause the smallest bit of patriotic pride to surge up from the breasts of the boys and girls from the farms. Unattractive in exterior, dirty, poorly arranged for educational uses, badly heated and ventilated, many a building without a tree or vine on the acre, no walks, no porches, no vestibules, just a building with hard seats and a dirty floor, an ill-smelling stove and a lifeless, idealless teacher. What a work there is to do in and around the country schoolhouse; and I would put th&,t program thru if the kiddies never saw a textbook. A teacher with an ideal and an attract- ive school building would make textbooks of secondary importance and their cost of no concern whatever. What about the publisht results of the Kansas experiment ? Well, you can read the report of our state printer as presented to our 191 9 legislature and learn that the state has the best books she has ever had and that there is a saving of some 40 per cent to the pupils. Or you can read a criticism of that same report by your present orator and learn that the books are not Department] EXPERIMENTS IN STATE PUBLICATION 467 better. In fact, a part of the list has not been changed for state pubHcation, and you can also learn that there has been no saving to the pupils, but a very decided added cost, and that a further advance in cost may confidently be expected, and any change in texts will result in a very markt advance to the pupil. These two statements concerning the experiment were widely publisht by political papers circulating thruout Kansas and beyond, the state- ment by the state printer going out thru various political sheets, farm journals, and special magazines, free of cost to the state for the benefit of the people. The criticism of this report was publisht in two Topeka papers at advertising rates, not acceptable as pure reading-matter and such in- formation not wanted for the dear people. No answer was made to this criticism and none was needed. Indeed, it is fairly clear that there was no answer; it was a sum in arithmetic, and so exact a science admits of no discussion at certain points. The machinery of state publication in Kansas is vested in a School Book Commission, and this Commission has very naturally become a state publication commission. Recently our governor reappointed two members on the Commission solely and admittedly because they were unalterably for any old book, so it was printed by the state. . If schoolbooks and poHtics are complementary, then there is a happy combination in Kansas. State publication is a fact in Kansas today because the pubhshers have decided to promote the idea with help to the state in the rental of plates. As a proposition from manuscript to schoolhook, the scheme is a flat failure, and only by the grace of the rented plates has it been able to carry on. What is the incentive to further development of the textbook if the only object is to rent the plates to state-publication plants on a meager royalty ? Can you expect an active authorship- — can you maintain a competent editorial department — can you in any way test out your texts if such a scheme progresses farther? It is time to stop and think this thing out before you all become government employes and your intensive business interests are quieted by the state-publication sedative. Now what is to be the outcome of this experiment ? It will go on for years, probably many years, for the forces behind it will try to keep the mill grinding, whatever the grist. It will never be a money-saver, and it never should have been started with that idea. There was nothing to say in the beginning. The laboratory work was neglected — there were no values in the proposition that could be discovered by proper test. It is useless now to try to keep the proposition at par by boosting the assets with a lead pencil. It may fool the people for a time, but by and by they will refuse to meet the assessment and then the explosion will take place. Now let me summarize and close — state publication never had a reason for its existence in Kansas. It has added nothing, absolutely nothing, of 468 NA TIONA L ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION [Educational Publications educational value. It has been expensive to the pupils and taxpayers without hope of relief. It curbs the ideals of teachers and arbitrarily points out the rut in which they must travel. The law so guards the state-publisht texts with rules and regulations that pupils in our rural schools have little chance to see really high-class and artistic books. It is the product of thoughtless thinkers and moneyless financiers aggravated by a personal political press. SHOULD AUTHORS BE CONCERNED WITH THE METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION OF TEXTBOOKS? L. D. COFFMAN, DEAN, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. The answer to this question is yes, and for three reasons: first, because the distribution of textbooks furnishes a legitimate avenue of publicity for authors. Every author is dependent to a certain extent upon publicity for his professional standing and for the standing of his books. The second reason is that textbooks are made to sell. This may not be the only reason for writing books, but it is one of the chief justifica- tions that a company has for publishing a book. Most authors would be unwilling to undertake the labor and drudgery connected with the prep- aration of textbooks if they did not hope to sell them. A third reason why authors should be concerned with the methods of distribution of textbooks is that the books may and should more frequently be written for educational reasons. Many authors are dominated by a desire to im- prove the teaching of a given subject. In some instances they know full well that the book which they have written is ten years or more ahead of its time. They know that profits will be a long time coming. Temporary gain is sacrificed in the interest of an idea. It is to be regretted that this is not done more frequently. It seems that when business and education conflict, business usually wins. Perhaps one should say that they never conflict, that what is good for business is good for education. That may be true, but I do not believe that what is good for education is always good for business. I even sometimes doubt the truth of the converse. One of the chief reasons why books are not always sold on their merits is that we have no adequate standard for judging books. Book companies have attempted few experiments or investigations in the psycho-physics of book-making; they have not learned that many of the physical features of books can be standardized as the result of careful experimenting. Until this lesson is learned we shall continue to have companies representing the mechanical features of their books as the matters of prime importance. One reason why we hesitate to sell books entirely on the basis of the ideas they contain and the methods they exemphfy is that they have seldom been workt out in classrooms. It is not uncommon for a textbook Departmentl DISTRIBUTION OF TEXTBOOKS 469 to be written by a man or a woman very remote from the classroom in which it is to be used. No textbook should be publisht which has not been tested and tried in public schools. I call to mind two experiments which have been attempted recently in textbook-making which illustrate the thing I have in mind. One of these is an attempt to write a book on unified mathematics. After some months of assembling material it was organized into a tentative texbook. A thousand mimeographt copies of the book were then made and placed in the hands of teachers who used the material as a basis for instruction with seventh- and eighth-grade pupils. At the end of every month these pupils were tested; the tests that were used were tests that had been prepared by teachers who were teaching mathemat- ics to seventh- and eighth-grade pupils in the usual way. After two years of trial, conference, and modification the books were put into final form, but not until the authors were certain that the children who were taught by their methods actually did better in mathematics than those who were taught by the traditional methods. The second attempt to which I refer was an attempt to prepare a textbook in primary reading. First the authors made a careful study of the vocabularies of twenty-seven primary and first-grade books, listing the words in the order of their frequency. They then selected, rearranged, and adapted stories on the basis of the frequency of the recurrence of the words. The experiment was carried on for three years. The first year the children taught by this standardized vocabulary and method read twenty books; the second year, by improve- ^ments which the authors were able to make, thirty books were read; and the third year thirty-two books were read. The children were not pusht any more than they are in the ordinary school. In each of the above cases the books were based on practical schoolroom , experience. There is a certainty that they will work. They are not the theoretical productions of educational philosophers. Both ,authors and publishers should be quite as much interested in the preparation of sound books, based upon practical experience, as they are in the methods of their distribution. I dare say that some one may think that I should have addrest myself to the question of whether or not authors are interested in the distribution of free textbooks. So far as I can see, it makes absolutely no difference to the author whether books are distributed free by the state or sold to the pupils. II \ DEPARTMENT OF THE WIDER USE OF SCHOOLHOUSES SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President— Rayuond F. Crist, director of citizenship, Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. Vice-President — Charles D. Kelso, director of social center. High School. .Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary — Margarita Spaulding Gerry, Board of Education Washington, D.C. The Department of the Wider Use of Schoolhouses of the National Education Asso- ciation convened in regular session on Thursday afternoon, July 3, at 2 : 00 o'clock, in Engel- mann Hall, Auditorium, Milwaukee, Wis. The meeting was called to order by Raymond F. Crist, president, and the following program was presented: "The Federal Plan of Americanization Work with the Foreign-Born" — Raymond F. Crist, director of citizenship, U. S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. "Federal and Public-School Cooperation in Citizenship Training" — ^W. R. Ball, director of schools of citizenship, Minneapolis, Minn. "Experiences in Americanization, with Suggestive Plan for Development" — W. P. Roseman, superintendent of schools, Sheboygan, Wis. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — Raymond F. Crist, director of citizenship. Department of Labor, Wash- ington, D.C. Vice-President — I. B. Morgan, principal, Continuation Schools, Kansas City, l^ans. Secretary — Margarita Spaulding Gerry, Board of Education, Washington, D.C. Margarita Spaulding Gerry, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE FEDERAL PLAN OF AMERICANIZATION WORK WITH THE FOREIGN-BORN RAYMOND r. CRIST, DIRECTOR OF CITIZENSHIP, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, WASHINGTON, D.C. In 1906 Congress created a bureau which has a definite contact with the entire foreign population of the country over eighteen years of age. At the present time those of foreign birth represent about seventeen mil- Hon of our population. Approximately four million of these seventeen million have come into contact with the federal government thru this bureau, which is the Bureau of Naturalization of the United States Department of Labor. These foreign-born are to be found in every state in the Union, and in almost every county in every state. At the present rate approximately 471 472 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iSchooihouse one million of these foreign-born residents of our country are annually presenting themselves to the federal government thru the Bureau of Natu- ralization. Not only are they presenting themselves to the federal govern- ment, but the federal government has made arrangements with the state and territorial governments of the nation whereby all of these may be trans- formed into intelligent units in the citizenry of the country. In nearly twenty- two hundred communities thruout the entire nation, wherever foreigners are found, the public schools are opening their doors to work in concert with the federal government in providing the way for the Americanization of the entire foreign population of the United States. This relationship is the result of carefully workt-out plans, initiated by the federal government in 1914, thru the Bureau of Naturalization, and since then receiving the support of the American public in an ever-increasing number of communities and with greater effectiveness; by various enact- ments of the national legislature in Washington and of the legislatures of many states. In April, 19 14, this undertaking on a national scale was proposed in recognition of reactions in various parts of the country which were the direct outgrowth of the administration of the naturalization law by the federal government, commencing in 1906, for the first time in its history. In 1908 and 1909 classes were formed in various localities by the public schools to teach citizenship responsibilities as a result of the denials of petitioners for naturalization who were found too ignorant to be admitted to citizenship by highly conscientious members of the state and federal judiciary. Some of these classes were organized at the direct instance of representatives of the Bureau of Naturalization, while others grew out of the interest in the foreigner felt by many patriotic individuals who had devoted much of their lives to the study of the immigrant problem. Their interest and activities had previously been manifested in many ways, including care of the immigrant at ports of entry and at their places of destination. From 1908 to 1909 on, their activities broadened out in special localities in the organization of classes to teach the immigrant the rudiments and the principles of our institutions of government. They also took the form of public receptions, in which Rochester, Cleveland, and Chicago were foremost of the cities undertaking these enterprises on a large scale, with many other cities and towns, including Brockton and Boston, Lockport, Illinois, Omaha, Los Angeles, Baltimore, and others on a smaller scale. All of these, however, past with local limits upon their influence,until on May 10, 191 5, the greatest recognition ever given the immigrant problem occurred in Philadelphia, at which President Wilson was the chief guest. This reception was proposed by an official of the Bureau of Naturalization to the Honorable Rudolph Blankenburg, Mayor of Philadelphia, for the distinct and sole purpose of focusing the attention of the entire nation upon the i Department] FEDERAL PLAN OF AMERICANIZATION 473 necessity for a national undertaking that would deal adequately with the problems of the nation and its immigrant population. The realization of the hopes of those who initiated that reception and participated in the occasion has been all that could be desired. Within a fortnight organizations which had previously devoted them- selves to the study with the immigrant effected reorganizations with the slogan "Americanization" as the keynote and the objective of their organ- izations. Americanization meetings were held on the Fourth of July following in a large number of communities. Since that memorable occasion in Philadelphia, Americanization, Americanism, and Americaniz- ing, in all forms, have virtually become family and household words. ''Americanization" has become a word to conjure with. It has become a blanket under which to include practically every development of a local, state, or national character. It has become so popular in the public mind that it is being used to further almost any and every activity of definite usefulness and even those of a doubtful character. In the plan by which the present linking together of the public schools thruout the United States was accomplisht in this national undertaking, there was included the stimulation of the public schools to the organization of night classes for adults for the teaching of English, civics, and other educational and vocational subjects that would not only equip the foreigner for his political responsibilities but broaden his economic capacity. It proposed a closer relationship between the vocational schools in their development and classes where the subjects of EngHsh and citizenship responsibiHties were to be taught. It proposed the formation of community centers in the schools as a means of acquainting the foreign-born with American ideals and with American citizens; in these community centers the development of the effectiveness of the school departments devoted to recreation, entertainment, good-fellowship; the organization of the racial groups for the quickening of the interest in American institutions among those who had not yet sought, or thought definitely of acquiring, American citizenship; the establishment of public forums in the schools for the dis- cussion of current topics of a local, national, and international character; the organization in the school buildings of self-governing bodies in imitation of local government; the election of a mayor and other executives of the com- munity; the establishment of moot courts and laws for the self-government of the student body. In this development of the class work it was be- lieved that the sanctity of the ballot could be greatly preserved in its use by the new citizens. The duties of the officers of the city, state, and national government to be described to the student body by the incumbents of office was proposed in order to enlighten the coming American upon these duties and enable him to bring to bear his ideals in his exercise of American citizenship responsibilities after they had been transformed and refined to measure up, in their application, to American ideals. 474 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Schooihouse The functions of the police, health, and judicial departments of the government were planned to be presented to the student body in the same way. Their public discussion by the students was included in the course proposed to be used by many schools where this kind of instruction had never been contemplated, when they were prevailed upon by the Bureau of Naturalization to organize these classes. The plan also urged the forma- tion of school organizations by the student body in the various classes. This rather comprehensive plan was formulated after extended dis- cussions with public-school authorities, including state departments of education and state university representatives who unanimously indorst it and assured your speaker personally and ofhcially of their readiness to cooperate with the Bureau of Naturalization in the development of these features of educational endeavor upon a national scope. What has been the development of this plan? In August, 19 15, thirty-eight communities pledged their public schools in support and development of this work proposed to them by the federal government. This had grown by the end of the school year to six hundred and thirteen communities. By September 30, 1916, six hundred and fifty-four had come into this national undertaking, and this number had grown to seventeen hundred and fifty-four with the end of the fiscal year, on June 30, 191 7, an increase of eleven hundred over the year before. With the close of the year June 30, 191 8, eighteen hundred and two communities had pledged their schools to this work, and today twenty-one hundred and fifty-seven have pledged their best efforts to the realization of the plans of the government formulated in 1 914-15. The policy of the Bureau of Naturalization since its organization in 1906 has been to facilitate the naturalization of the candidates for citizen- ship. As we have more and more become acquainted with his aims and ambitions, his hopes and despairs, his difficulties, his trials, his tribulations, we have broadened our viewpoint, and the facilities which the Bureau of Naturalization now offers as compared with those during the first ten years are as different, probably, as America differs from some of the rigidity of former European countries. It is now really and actually facilitating him in every way possible. This does not mean that the limit of the breadth of administration has in any sense been reacht. As it comes into broader and broader contact with the ever-increasing numbers of school organiza- tions, with church organizations, with industrial organizations, with labor in the organized and unorganized manifestation, it is seeking the facilities by which the foreigner may have all of the artificial and unnecessary restrictions removed with none remaining save those necessary to safe- guard the citizenry of this country in the large and in the individual instance as well. It has sought the aid of all governmental agencies, both federal and state, in the support of the American public school to its highest efficiency. It has frowned upon those who would point to the inefficiency Department] FEDERAL AND SCHOOL COOPERATION IN CITIZENSHIP 475 of the public schools and who turn from them to construct artificial and in some instances un-American systems of instruction for the foreigner. In all instances where it has been able to do so, it has sought to divert private funds and influences which had organized classes to teach the foreigner and cause them to turn their support to the public school of the community. Church and industry, racial and non-racial organizations alike, have been approacht to give their cooperation to the public schools. They have responded with increasing readiness and forcefulness in aiding the schools to attain the efficiency they all hope for. In its activities it has invited the support of all federal and state educational agencies, believing that the development of the various educational branches of the federal and state governments should be along natural lines, in the faith that by so doing it was enlisting the best influences of the nation to strengthen education, wherever found, to the end that its development should be along those broad principles which are inherent in our democratic form of government. FEDERAL AND PUBLIC-SCHOOL COOPERATION IN CITIZENSHIP TRAINING W. R. BALL, DIRECTOR OF SCHOOLS OF CITIZENSHIP, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Americanization teaches both the native and newcomer the history and ;rowth of our ideals and institutions. It explains to the alien why he lould be naturalized, and to the native why he should make this educa- tional process mutually conducive to the progress and growth of both, lericanization is a call for the appreciation of America, that this country dth its grand possibiKties is only in the making, that our best interests lemand a common citizenship, a common language, a common standard of [ving, and that our governmental machinery shall be so arranged that this lay be secured. In 1 9 14 the federal government took definite steps to link together )r the first time the efforts of the Bureau of Naturalization with those of le public schools for the definite object of elevating the average of under- tanding of the most neglected of all professions— the professions of self- jfovernment — a profession most vital to the perpetuation of those principles Jtated so forcefully in the Declaration of Independence, that ''all men are reated equal and endowed with certain inalienable rights." The relationship which seems to us ideal, which should exist between the Bureau of Naturalization and the public schools, and also the high spiritual principles governing that relationship, were stated in the charge of a district-court judge last week in one of our large cities. Over one hundred men had been in our citizenship schools receiving instruction in EngHsh and the history and civics of citizenship. These men had satisfied the law as to education, residence, and character. They were in the court 476 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Schoolhouse each with two witnesses who gave evidence as to their moral worth and their five years' residence. The judge said: My brothers, the court, in the presence of these witnesses, officials, and the Bureau of Naturalization, and these teachers and principals from the public schools of our cities, extends to you greetings. We welcome you to the body of citizenship — we invest you with sovereignty. In a democracy the people rule. The nation so governed cannot rise above the average intelligence and moraHty of its citizenship. The fundamental ideals of this country of ours by birth and yours by adoption are those announst in the Declaration of Independence, and in the Constitution of the United States. In these documents all men are declared to be equal in opportunity, to have equal rights before the law. All reforms, all changes, in our law are expressions of the will of the majority; whether that is an intelligent or ignorant majority, we pledge ourselves to obey the law. Among this group are men from both Europe and Asia — you men from sunny Italy, we extend the right hand of brotherhood — we are indeed indebted to your beautiful land. You gave us the beginnings of law in the Justinian code. You have indeed enricht the world in art, literature, and science. You gave us the great discoverer Columbus who reacht the east by sailing west. He it was who intuitively felt that he was divinely called to open up the Orient with its great wealth to the Occident. He announst himself to be divinely called to carry the true faith to the uttermost parts of the earth. He belongs to you, but in a larger measure he also belongs to us. You gave us Galileo, Copernicus, Raphael, and Michelangelo. You are from the land of martyrs — you gave us Bruno and Savonarola, who died for us, for they belong to the whole world. We greet you men from downtrodden but now liberated Poland; you gave us Pulaski and Kosciuszko; you shed your blood to make this nation possible. You men from la belle France, in our hour of supreme need you sent us Lafayette and Rochambeau. We salute you. You men from Germany, you stand redeemed by the noble service of a Steuben and De Kalb; you gave to the world the immortal services of a Schiller, Goethe, and Lessing. We know you have no sympathy with that autocracy founded on the doctrine of a force that might makes right, a gospel of "blood and iron. " Reconstructed Germany shall yet take her place in the galaxy of the League of Nations. You men from the different parts of the British Empire, we extend to you the right hand of fellowship — your democratic people even in revolutionary days were with us in the person of your representatives Pitt and Burke. It was your Pitt that moved in Parliament that whosoever advised George III and his ministry to continue the War of the Revolution should be voted a public enemy. We say democratic, for there are two Englands — one autocratic, the other democratic. Autocratic England thru its mouth- piece. Lord Lansdowne, took issue with our President Wilson the other day by declaring that this war was not to make the world "safe for democracy." It has indeed been a great pleasure as well as a great privilege during the last year for us to visit you men in the citizenship class conducted in cooperation with the public schools and the Bureau of Naturalization. We spent many pleasant evenings visiting your classes and giving talks on our his to r^ and Constitution. We congratulate you on your privilege of attending these classes where teachers were so interesting and enthusi- astic. We compliment these teachers for having the opportunity to come in contact with your larger practical experience, for be it assured you gave to them as much as you received. We are all indebted to you for the creation of material wealth. Most of the large public buildings, schools, colleges, churches, and office buildings as well as the railroads, canals, factories, and machine-shops have been constructed by foreign-born brawn and brain. The government reports that 68 per cent of the material wealth of this country was created by you, so in coming to these schools for instruction, you are coming to your own. You built them. It is your work which creates the taxes from which these teachers and judges and government officials are paid. You see we are all members of one body. Department] EXPERIENCES IN AMERICANIZATION , 477 In this course in history and citizenship, you men in spirit have been with Washington at Valley Forge. You were with that revolutionary army when it left its footprints in blood. You were in Philadelphia when the Declaration of Independence was born. You heard Franklin say, "We must all hang together, boys, or they'll hang us separately. " You were at Yorktown when victory crowned our efforts and thus ended the Revolution. You witnest that period of chaos which is called " the critical period of American history." You saw this nation "drifting toward anarchy" when the best men of the nation feared that the results of the revolutionary struggle would be lost. You saw the best men of the nation meet in conference at Philadelphia to form that immortal document known as the "Constitution of the United States" which you have studied this winter with so much profit and interest. It was with extreme disappointment that you saw in that document the recognition of slavery which was a violation of the principles of the Declara- tion of Independence, that all men are created equal and endowed with certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and that governments are instituted for the good of the governed. But in spite of our mistakes, our ideals were grand and heroic. The government controlled by these high ideals continued to prosper, and as in the case of individuals, so with nations — what they sow they must reap. This nation could not exist half free and half slaves. Sometimes our banner has been stained by selfish consideration — we have been brutal, cruel, and despotic. In one of the lessons to which I listened, I heard presented to you men the history of the slave question in this country. I heard the teacher state in the language of Lincoln that the Mexican War was the most unholy war ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation, for its sole purpose was the extension of the institution of slavery. In imagination we were with Lincoln in his Gettysburg oration, which you men studied with so much interest this winter. We heard him say, "Fourscore years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, dedicated to the proposition that all men are equal." Shortly after this immortal document was given to the world, we read into the Constitution of Iie United States the thirteenth article of the amendment which said, "Neither slavery or involuntary servitude shall exist except for crime, " and then this country became in ict what before it was in name — the land of the free as concerns the right to traffic in uman blood. We will say in conclusion to you men that there are many problems before us for jlution. You are now to be coworkers with us in building this fair house of democracy. LS yet only the foundation is laid. The superstructure is to be reared in the future, t is your divine privilege that you be coworkers with us in this important work. In this country we proceed by evolution, not revolution. We must listen to everyone with a spirit of toleration. We grow by differences. No man or set of men have a right under our government to obstruct the will of the majority, even tho we believe the majority to be mistaken. We are to obey the law. I extend to you men cordial greeting. The clerk of the court will now issue to you men the certificate of citizenship, and I declare that you are a part of the sovereignty. May you never cease to be students of the larger affairs of life. EXPERIENCES IN AMERICANIZATION, WITH SUGGESTIVE FLAN FOR DEVELOFMENT W. p. ROSEMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SHEBOYGAN, WIS. To direct the strangers who came to our shores into the better channels of American life, to inspire them with American ideals, and to point out to them the advantages of our form of government over that of the one of their fatherland is not a one-man job. It is a community proposition. It 478 . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Schoolhousc is not only a community proposition but it is a state and national proposi- tion, and the greater number of people we can interest in the work the greater will be the results obtained. With this thought in mind, the -plan which I have handed you was developt. It is not entirely original. The suggestions of the Bureau of Naturalization sent out last fall have been enlarged upon and expanded until all classes in our city have become inter- ested. Not only myself and those most closely associated with me are determined to make Sheboygan loo-per-cent "American citizens," but there are hundreds of others from the different walks of life just as con- cerned over placing it in the loo-per-cent column as we are. We realized early in the campaign that the results of our efforts would be great or small in proportion to the number we got interested in the problem, who were willing to lend their assistance in order to promote the happiness of those less fortunate than themselves, and to make their community a better and safer place in which to live. Another very important consideration of any plan, perhaps more important than getting a great number of people interested in the problem, is to find a local organization to finance the scheme. This should be done by some municipal institution. It is a problem that concerns the life of the whole community too vitally to be left to charity, to social, or to fraternal organizations. The most logical body to finance an Americaniza- tion program is the board of education or the continuation school board. Referring to the organization plan which you have, you will notice that in Sheboygan the vocational continuation school Board assumed this responsibility. All night-school activities had been carried on by this board for several years, and, being composed of men of large cahber, it was an easy matter to expand the evening-school work to cover this very im- portant activity. The members became so interested in the problem that the Americanization classes were allowed to continue for a month after all the other classes closed. The superintendent of schools became the director and he called to his assistance the director of the Vocational Continuation School and a woman with a broad vision who had already shown social-service capacity as a kindergarten director and as a night-school teacher. This staff met frequently, studied the needs of the city, enlarged upon the plan of organ- ization, and increast the activities as conditions warranted. Early in the development of the plan it became apparent that a large number of people must be interested, and the committees as indicated on the outline were organized, each being assigned a specific problem to work out. The Women's Citizen Committee was composed of a central division with all sections of the city represented. This organization had four subcommittees as indicated under "i of section C," each working on an entirely different problem. The Committee on Information and Statistics Department] EXPERIENCES IN AMERICANIZATION 479 sent representatives to the county clerk's office, the employment bureau, the foreign agents, and factories frequently to collect the names of foreigners for our files. From these sources and the cards sent to us by the Bureau of Naturalization dupUcate Hsts were prepared, one for our permanent file and one for the Ward Solicitation and Attendance Committee. Thru this means we became acquainted with the magnitude of our problem and were able to distribute the responsibility among the citizens of the different sections of the city more equitably. The women on the Ward Committees made it their business to become acquainted with the foreign mothers and invite them to come to the afternoon and evening social groups and sewing and cooking classes. These committees were large enough so that each member had to act as chaperon to only three or four of their shy neighbors. Indeed, acting the part of sponsor for those lonesome mothers who longed for the scenes of their childhood days became so interesting that many committee members went beyond their jurisdiction in their eagerness to solace aching hearts. The Educational and Social Committees assisted the social workers and teachers during the conversational hour and in planning and executing simple social functions. The Men's Citizen Committee was organized along similar Hnes and functioned in somewhat the same manner as the women's committees. The Waiti SoHcitation and Attendance Division was perhaps the most important, as its problem was to solicit and interest the foreign-born men in Americanization classes, whose names were sent to the members by the Information and Statistics Committee. The keen interest manifested by ithe men of the city in the citizenship extension work is shown by the fact that when this committee met at the close of the campaign to check up the work the members askt to be continued until Sheboygan went "over the top" into the loo-per-cent-citizenship column. On the suggestion of the Naturalization Bureau, an Industrial Com- mittee was organized, made up of the men in each factory who had the interest of their employes to look after. This committee secured the names and addresses of every foreigner in their respective plants for the Information and Statistics Committee, and each member used his influence to have the employes of his factory attend an Americanization class. This committee also acted as a steering or advisement committee for the directors. The members were in a position to get the reactions of those attending the classes and in this way could advise the directors as to how to shape policies and often ward off approaching dissatisfaction. As to the interest taken by this committee, it is enough to say that its members, Hke those of the Citizens' Committee, refused to go out of office at the close of the season's activities. The Committee on Education of the Association of Commerce repre- sented the business men of the city, visited the classes, and finanst the New Citizens' Banquet at the close of the season. 48o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Schoolhouse It can readily be seen that with such an organization ramifying all phases of community life, one of the biggest problems to contend with in the administration of Americanization program, that of interesting the foreigner in the opportunities afforded, is solved. The activities carried on as shown in the organization plan consisted of class work in English for beginners; class work in English and citizenship for those more advanst; four-minute addresses on American opportunities, health problems, and citizenship; conversational hours, social hours, games, music, sewing and cooking; shoe-repairing, shopwork, etc. The program was varied in the different centers to suit the characteristics of the races in attendance. A nursery and clinic was made a feature of both the after- noon and evening classes for the parents who had no one at home to care* for their children while they attended the Americanization functions. This gave an opportunity to look after the health of the children who needed medical attention. The Choral Union and Musical Club were held responsible for the musical work, which, by the way, proved to be a Very important part of every program. The Europeans love to sing, and they enjoy listening to good music. The idea of having the men and women of the city take enough interest in them to come out in all kinds of weather to sing for them, and to lead them in singing, made a deep and lasting impression and had much to do with their regular attendance. The problem of securing competent teachers is a difficult one. The majority of these guests are still strangers in a strange land and must be handled diplomatically. To solve this problem we found it necessary to establish a training department. Before a teacher was put in charge of a class she observed several evenings a teacher skilled in handling classes of foreigners and attended the teachers' conferences, where methods and procedure were discust. Kindergarten teachers in the day school proved to be the most successful, perhaps due to the fact that they have learned to cultivate patience in handling children, and they have a shorter day than the teachers in the upper grades, therefore are less fatigued when the evening classes convene. Referring to our program again, you will notice that we establisht Americanization centers in the parochial schools as well as in the pubHc schools. They were too shy to come to us, so we brought the school to them. We trained and hired their teachers and made them feel that they really had a part to play in this great movement, and that our flag to be their flag was deserving of a knowledge of what it stood for. All nationalities and religious denominations should be and can be led to see the necessity of learning our language and our manners and customs as well as that of the country in which they were born. There can be neither national unity of ideas nor purpose unless there is some common method of communication thru which may be conveyed the righteousness, the opportunities, the possibilities, the liberty, the beauty. Department] EXPERIENCES IN AMERICANIZATION 481 the grandeur, and the thought of the nation. Prejudices must be for- gotten and the gospel of a united people thru one language preacht wher- ever crowds assemble. May I say in closing that this plan of organization may not fit the con- ditions of your city, but it may suggest something that will assist you in your efforts to do your part in making the world "safe for democracy," so far as the community in which you live is concerned. AMERICANIZATION WORK, 1918-19, SHEBOYGAN, WIS. Plan of Organization Board of Vocational Education A. Director, Superintendent of Schools B. Assistant Directors 1. Director of Vocational Continuation School 2. Special Organizer and Supervisor 3. Director of Centers C. Americanization Committee 1. Women's Citizen Committee (a) Chairman (6) Secretary (c) Subcommittees - i) Information and Statistics 2) Ward Solicitation and Attendance 3) Educational 4) Social 2. Men's Citizen Committee (a) Chairman {b) Secretary (c) Subcommittees i) Ward Solicitation and Attendance 2) Educational and Social 3. Industrial Committee *^ (c) Chairman (6) Secretary 4. Association of Commerce Committee (a) Educational Committee of the Association D. Activities 1. Instructional (a) English (6) Citizenship (c) Addresses 2. Recreational (a) Games, drills, dances, baths, etc. (6) Music 3. Social (a) Conversation (6) Sewing, darning, cooking, millinery, shoe-repairing, manual training (c) Visitations id) Music ie) Graduation-citizens' banquet, etc. 4. Nursery ^ (a) Clinic 4^2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Schooihouse E. Centers I. High School 3. U.S. Grant School 3. Lincoln School 4. Longfellow School 5. Jefferson School 6. Horace Mann School 7. Washington School 8. Trinity Luth. School 9. Immanuel Luth. School F. Afternoon teas, sewing clubs, cooking clubs, millinery clubs, social clubs, etc. G. Coordinating and Cooperating Agencies 1. Federal, State, and County Councils of Defense 2. U.S. Government, Bureau of Naturalization 3. Americanization and social organization DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE CHICAGO MEETING, FEBRUARY 24— MARCH i, 19 19 SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — E. C. Hartwell, superintendent of schools BuflFalo, N.Y. First Vice-President— David B. Corson, superintendent of schools Newark, N.J. Second Vice-President — J. R. Morgan, superintendent of schools Trinidad, Colo. Secretary — Marie Gugle, assistant superintendent of schools Columbus, Ohio FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS EVENING SESSION— Tuesday, February 25, 1919 The Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in the Auditorium Theater, Chicago, 111., at 8:00 p.m.. President E. C. Hartwell, superin- tendent of schools, Buffalo, N.Y., presiding. Following a musical program rendered by the Chicago High School Orchestra, the session opened with an invocation by Rev. R. A. White, People's Liberal Church, Chicago, 111. Addresses of welcome were given by Peter A. Mortensen, acting superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111., and Francis G. Blair, superintendent of public instruction, Spring- field,, 111., to which' response was made by Thomas E. Finegan, deputy commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y. Marion LeRoy Burton, president. University of Minnesota, delivered an address on "The New American." SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FORENOON SESSION— Wednesday, February 26, 1919 Twenty minutes were devoted to community and patriotic singing, under the lead- ership of A. J. Gantvoort, College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio. Announcement concerning question box was made by Paul C. Stetson, superintendent of schools, Muskegon, Mich., to the effect that answers to questions would be made by experts, would be mailed to those asking, and would be publisht in educational journals. President Hartwell announst the following Committee on Resolutions: Ernest A. Smith, superintendent of schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. T. E. Johnson, superintendent of schools, Cold Water, Mich. D. A. Grout, first assistant superintendent of schools, Portland, Ore. S. J. Slawson, superintendent of schools, Bridgeport, Conn. J. M. Gwinn, superintendent of schools. New Orleans, La. Frank L. Smart, superintendent of schools, Davenport, Iowa. I. B. Bush, superintendent of schools, Erie, Pa. Jessie H. Newlon, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, Nebr. President Hartwell announst the following committee to meet Major A. A. M6ras in conference on military training: Peter A. Mortensen, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. E. Morris Cox, assistant superintendent of schools, Oakland, Calif. William F. Geiger, superintendent of schools, Tacoma, Wash. C. L. Phelps, superintendent of schools, Ishpeming, Mich. William F. Webster, superintendent of schools, Minneapolis, Minn. Andrew W. Edson, associate superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y. 483 484 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago The general topic for the morning session was "Factors Involved in the Quality of Instruction at Present Oflfered in Our Schools." The following program was presented: "Adequate Compensation for Teaching Service in Public Schools"— D. B. Waldo, president, Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich. "Training of Teachers"— W. C. Bagley, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "Necessity and Difficulties of Supervision in a City School System" — Herbert S. Weet, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N.Y. "Defects of Supervision and Constructive Suggestions Thereon, from the Viewpoint of the Classroom Teacher" — Sallie Hill, president. League of Teachers' Associations, Denver, Colo. "What Are We Going to Do about It?" — ^William M, Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. AFTERNOON SESSION— Wednesday, February 26, 1919 The session opened with community signing, led by A. J. Gantvoort. The general topic for the afternoon session was "A National Program for Education," and addresses were given by the following: John H. Beveridge, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr.; C. N. Kendall, commissioner of education, Trenton, N.J.; Edmund J. James, president, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111,; George D. Strayer, president Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. EVENING SESSION — Wednesday, February 26, 1919 A preliminary musical program was rendered by the boys' chorus from Chicago high schools, led by A. J. Gantvoort. President Hartwell announst the following nominating committee: G. Stanley Brown, superintendent of schools, Joliet, 111., chairman. Charles A. Wagner, superintendent of schools, Chester, Pa. Fred E. Emmons, superintendent of schools, Elizabeth, N.J. George E. McCord, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Ohio. T. R. Cole, assistant superintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash. President Hartwell read a telegram from the Secretary of the Treasury thanking the schools of the country for their assistance to the government in its various activities. The first general topic for the evening was " Government Activities as They Affect the Schools." The following program was presented: "War Savings" — W. H. Carothers, War Savings Committee, Educational Division, Washington, D.C. "The Red Cross and the Schools" — J. W. Studebaker, American Red Cross Head- quarters, Washington, D.C. "Educational Service" — Lotus D. Coffman, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn, "Boys' Working Reserve" — H. W. Wells, Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. Joseph Swain, chairman of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions, made the fourth report of that committee (pubUsht by Carnegie Foundation, 576 Fifth Ave., New York, as Bulletin No. 12). The second general topic for the evening was "The Schools as They Have Affected the Government Activities," which was presented in an address by G. Stanton Ford, National School Service, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FORENOON SESSION— Thursday, February 27, 1919 After a preliminary program of community and patriotic singing, led by A. J. Gant- voort, announcement was made that the report of the Committee on Resolutions would be given Thursday evening. Superintendence) SECRETARY'S MINUTES 4^$ The general topic for the morning session was "What the War Should Do for Our Methods," and the following program was presented: "English" — Edwin L. Miller, principal. Northeastern High School, Detroit, Mich. "History" — S. B. Harding, Committee on Public Information, Washington, D.C. "Geography" — J. Paul Goode, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111, "Civics and Economics" — William B. Guitteau, superintendent of schools, Toledo, Ohio. "Physical Education" — E. H. Arnold, director, New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics, New Haven, Conn, "Education of the Immigrant" — Randall J, Condon, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. "Vocational Education" — William J. Bogan, principal, Lane Technical High School, Chicago, 111. President Hartwell appointed J. F. Keating, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo,, to take the place of T. R. Cole on the nominating committee. AFTERNOON SESSION— Thursday, February 27, 19 19 The afternoon session was devoted to conferences, and the following programs were presented: A. CONFERENCE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH POPULATION OVER 250,000 Chairman — David B. Corson, superintendent of schools, Newark, N.J. "School Expenses Considered as an Investment" — S. O. Hartwell, superintendent of schools, St, Paul, Minn, "Adjustment of School Hours to Meet Congestion and Community Needs" — Ernest L. Thurston, superintendent of schools, Washington, D.C. "The Opportunity School"— Emily Griffith, Denver, Colo. "Adjustments between the Junior and Senior High Schools in Boston" — Frank V. Thompson, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass. "The Adjustment of the Senior High School to Meet New Conditions" — A. B. Meredith, assistant commissioner of education, Trenton, N.J. B. CONFERENCE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH POPULATION BETWEEN 25,000 AND 250,000 Chairman — Alvin N. Cody, superintendent of schools, Flint, Mich. Topic: The Stipervision of Study "The Three Functions of the Class Period" — Alfred L. Hall-Quest, professor of education and director of school affiliation, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. "The Relation between Study and Reading" — William S. Gray, dean. School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Demonstration of Supervised Study" — Mabel E. Simpson, director of kindei^garten and elementary grades, Rochester, N.Y. "Supervised and Directed Study" — G. Stanley Brown, superintendent of schools, JoUet, 111. "Supervision of Study in the Grades" — Grace A. Day, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "Administrative Problems in Supervised Study" — D. J. Kelly, superintendent of schools, Binghamton, N.Y. " Training Teachers to Supervise " — J. W, Sexton, superintendent of schools, Lansing. Mich. C. CONFERENCE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH POPULATION BELOW 25,000 Chairman — Edmund T. Duffield, superintendent of schools, Ironwood, Mich. Topic: War-Consequence Education "The English Language — Its New Importance and Universality" — Henry C. Johnson, superintendent of schools, Ogden, Utah. "What Shall We Do with the Ancient and Modern Languages ? " — J. W.McClinton, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo. 486 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago "The Necessity for the Rearrangement of the History and Civics Program" — C. E. Rose, superintendent of schools, Boise, Idaho, "Changes Produced in the Modem-Science Courses by the War" — Arthur Deamer, superintendent of schools, Fargo, N.Dak. "The Part-Time Continuation School — Its Operation under the Smith-Hughes Bill and Otherwise — Its New Significance" — P. P. Colgrove, superintendent of schools, Virginia, Minn. "Supervision in the Small City School System" — R. B. Irons, superintendent of schools, Rapid City, S.Dak. "Intelligence Testing as an Aid to Supervision" — Theodore Saam, superintendent of schools, Council Bluflfs, Iowa. D. CONFERENCE OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS Chairman — Thomas A. Bock, county superintendent of schools, Westchester, Pa. "The County School Nurse" — M. Beatrice Johnstone, superintendent of schools, Grand Forks, N.Dak.; Amalie M. Bengtson, county superintendent of schools, Olivia, Minn. "The Educational Value of Play" — Samuel Hamilton, county superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. "The Work and Value of the Helping Teacher" — Zenos E. Scott, assistant commis- sioner of education, Trenton, N.J. "The Maryland Plan of Supervision" — William J. Halloway, state supervisor of rural schools, Baltimore, Md. "The Rural Community School in Pennsylvania" — L. H. Dennis, director of agri- cultural education. Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. "The Six-Six Plan in Indiana" — Clifford Funderburg, county superintendent of schools, Huntington, Ind. Discussion: "What Shall We Do with the Ancient and Modern Languages?" — Ernest Burnham, department of education. Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich.; W. S. Fogarty, county superintendent of schools, Eaton, Ohio; George A. Works, department of rural education, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. E. COUNCIL OF STATE DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION Chairman: M. L. Brittain, state superintendent of schools, Atlanta, Ga. This conference was originally scheduled for Thursday afternoon, but was held Tuesday afternoon, February 25, to meet the convenience of the superintendents. "Educational Readjustment Following the World- War" — Thomas E. Finegan, deputy commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y. Discussion: T. H. Harris, state superintendent of education. Baton Rouge, La. "National Aid for Education" — Margaret S. McNaught, state commissioner of elementary schools, Sacramento, Calif.; Harris Hart, state superintendent of education, Richmond, Va. EVENING SESSION— Thursday, February 27, 1919 A preliminary musical program was rendered by the Chicago High School Band, followed by community singing. Announcement was made that the Thursday afternoon program of the Conference of Superintendents of Cities between 25,000 and 250,000 would be repeated in full Friday at I :oo p.m., at the Blackstone Theater. The report of the Committee on Resolutions was presented by Ernest A. Smith, chairman, and was adopted by unanimous vote. Owing to severe illness Governor Frank O. Lowden was unable to be present Governor Lowden was to have spoken on "Efficient Democracy thru Education." Hugh S. Magill, field secretary, took Governor Lowden's place on the program and delivered an inspiring address on the work of the National Education Association and the legislation now before Congress. President Hartwell appointed the following Committee on the Apportionment of School Funds: Superintendence! SECRETARY'S MINUTES 487 F. M, Hunter, superintendent of schools, Oakland, Calif. F. P. Bachman, General Education Board, New York, N.Y. H. B. Work, superintendent of schools, Lancaster, Pa. F. M. Longnecker, superintendent of schools, Racine, Wis. J. H. Beveridge, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr. Harlan Updegraff, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. 0. G. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Fairmont, W.Va. Thomas E. Finegan, deputy commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y. J. F. Keating, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo. Charles S. Meeks, superintendent of schools, San Antonio, Tex. J. M. Gwinn, superintendent of schools. New Orleans, La. J. H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass. W. C. Bruce* editor. School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis. M. P. Shawkey, superintendent of schools, Charleston, W.Va. 1. B. Bush, superintendent of schools, Erie, Pa. W. L. Ettinger, superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y. President Hartwell read a report from Charles H. Judd, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., as chairman of the Committee on Publicity, whose work has been suspended to make way for that of the Commission on the Emergency in Education, and at His request the Committee on Publicity was discharged. FOURTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS MORNING SESSION— Friday, February 28, 1919 The session opened with community singing, led by A. J. Gantvoort. The following program was presented: "How to Teach Pupils That Democracy Involves Duties as Well as Rights" — Albert A. Meras, major, Infantry, U.S. Army, Washington, D.C. "How to Teach Pupils Respect for Properly Constituted Authority" — Frank S. Fosdick, principal, Masten Park High School, Buffalo, N.Y. "How to Teach Pupils to Respect the Rights of Others" — Kate Devereaux Blake, principal. School No. 6, New York, N.Y. "How to Teach Pupils Faithfulness in the Discharge of Responsibility" — William B. Owen, president, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111. In presenting its final report the Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education presented the following program: Introductory Statement — H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Topeka, Kans., chairman of committee. Presentation of Yearbook on Economy of Learning — Ernest Horn, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, chairman. Subcommittee on Economy of Learning. Discussion, led by the following: R. G. Jones, superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio; Katherine Hamilton, assistant superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn.; J. H. Newlon, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, Nebr.; William S. Gray, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.; W. W. Kemp, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. The report of the committee was accepted and the committee discharged. The nominating committee reported as follows, thru its chairman, G. Stanley Brown, superintendent of schools, Joliet, 111.: President — E. W. Graff, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. First Vice-President — D. J. Kelly, superintendent of schools, Binghamton, N.Y. Second Vice-President — H. S. Johnson, superintendent of schools, Ogden, Utah. Secretary — Charl Ormand Williams, county superintendent of schools, Memphis, Tenn. The chairman moved the adoption of the report and the election of the officers named. Motion duly seconded and carried. After discussion, on motion duly made, seconded, and carried, the Department requested that abstracts of the speeches delivered be printed and sent to the members, and that in future conventions such abstracts be distributed to members at the convention. Carroll G. Pearse, president, Milwaukee State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis., offered a resolution concerning Mrs, Ella Flagg Young which was unanimously adopted. 488 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago Invitations to hold the 1920 meeting of the Department of Superintendence were received from the following cities: Baltimore, BufiFalo, Chicago, Cleveland, Columbus, San Francisco, St. Louis, Washington, and New York. The final ballot resulted as follows: Cleveland, 352; St. Louis, 198. On motion of A. E. Winship the report of the tellers was referred to the Executive Committee, with power to act. J. L. McBrien presented a resolution indorsing the bill before Congress which appro- priates $100,000,000 for the purpose of providing work and homes for returned soldiers, -which was adopted by unanimous vote. Carroll G. Pearse presented a resolution asking that President Wilson attend the Peace Session of the National Education Association, to be held in Milwaukee, Wis., the first week of next July, which was adopted by unanimous vote. The meeting adjourned sine die. Marie Gugle, Secretary RESOLUTIONS OF DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE CHICAGO, FEBRUARY 24— MARCH i SCHOOLS HAVE MET THE TEST OF WAR The American public schools have met the test of the war. The entrance of America into the war on the side of right and humanity was due primarily to the fact that the schools had kept alive in the hearts of her youth the ideals of liberty and freedom. The schools nourisht the spirit of democracy, and produced a soldier whose initiative, resourcefulness, courage, and morals were the marvel of the world, who with only a few months' training demonstrated his superiority to the pickt soldiers of Prussian autocracy, trained from youth for war. While we recognize the defects of our educational system, with its glaring inequalities of opportunity, we take justifiable pride in the war-service record of the American schools. In the crisis of war the schools were a mighty agency for victory. Every classroom was profoundly toucht by the war. Patriotic instruction in the schools was a most powerful instrument in bringing the people to a full realization of their world responsibilities, and it was especially potent in guaranteeing the loyalty of millions of our immigrant population. In the light of a century of achievement in fostering American ideals, and in view of the devoted service of the American classroom teachers and pupils during the war, we pledge the continued devotion of the public schools to true Americanism and world- democracy. FAVORS LEAGUE OF NATIONS TO ENFORCE PEACE Affirming that the recent world-war was a war to end war, and that the formation of a League of Nations will preserve the peace of the world and perpetuate the ideals for which America entered the war, and believing that the League of Nations is a logical extension of the spirit of our American institutions to include the civilized nations in a world-democracy, we, the members of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association, do hereby go on record as favoring a League of Nations to enforce peace, and that we do hereby pledge ourselves to use our influence to secure its adoption by our own country, the United States of America. That the Secretary of the Association is hereby instructed to send by telegraph copies of this resolution to the President of the United States, Honorable Woodrow Wilson, Ex-President William Howard Taft, the President of the United States Senate, and the Chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. URGES CREATION OF INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON EDUCATION Since education is the principal means by which a responsible world-democracy can be evolved and a League of Nations maintained, be it resolved that the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association strongly indorses and gladly accepts the resolutions adopted by the National Council of the League of Nations now in session in Paris and sent to it at Chicago by cable. This Department urges the creation of an International Commission on Education that shall be an active organ in a League of Free Nations, whose duties should be to provide for a world-education in the elements of democratic citizenship and the extension of the privilege of education to all people and to all classes. IMMEDIATE CREATION OF DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Declaring that education in a democracy is the most important function of the government, that it is a national, state, and local responsibility, and that each should Superintendence) RESOLUTIONS 489 contribute to its support, we urge, therefore, the passage by Congress of the Smith- Towner Education Bill. In order that education may be given proper recognition by the national government, we ask for the immediate creation of a Department of Educa- tion with a Secretary who shall be a member of the President's cabinet. ERADICATION OF ILLITERACY AND AMERICANIZATION THRU THE SCHOOLS Insisting that our democracy shall be kept safe for the world, we demand resolute, sustained measures that shall eradicate illiteracy from all sections of the country. The complete Americanization of all native- and foreign-born residents is the paramount duty of the hour. The leadership of this should be assumed by the public schools. ADEQUATE PHYSICAL TRAINING FOR ALL In view of the fact that 30 per cent of those examined for military or naval service in the late war were found to be physically unfit, we call for federal, state, and local programs which will provide adequate physical training for all the youths of the nation. INDORSES NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION EDUCATIONAL AND LEGISLATIVE PROGRAM Noting that but a portion of the teaching force of the country contributes to the maintenance of the National Education Association, we recommend that professionally minded teachers shall become active members of that body. We heartily indorse' the campaign now under way to secure voluntary contributions in aid of the program of the Association, in order to obtain nation-wide publicity and support for the creation of a Department of Education. MINIMUM PREPARATION AND MINIMUM SALARIES Recognizing that more than half of the children of the United States are under the instruction of teachers inadequately trained and b.ut temporarily in the profession, we believe that a minimum of two years of professional training, following a four years' course in an accredited high school, should be adopted as a standard to insure that we have better teachers for American schools. To attain this end we recommend that this Department urge thruout the nation that the minimum salary of any teacher of any grade be not less than $1000. COMMITTEE ON APPORTIONMENT OF SCHOOL FUNDS In order to discover the practice and determine standards for a just apportionment to the several departments of the schools of the funds collected by Boards of Education for their current expenses, we recommend that a Committee of Superintendents be appointed by the president of this Department to make a study of this question and report at the next meeting of the body. INDORSEMENT OF NATIONAL PROGRAM OF THRIFT THRU INSTRUCTION As essential to character formation, to the welfare of the American people, and to the promotion of a national habit, we urge that the present national program of thrift instruc- tion and the sale of iThrif t and War Savings Stamps become a permanent part of the public- school procedure. We recommend that a Committee of the National Education Association be named to cooperate with the Savings Division of the Treasury Department in pushing a campaign in all state school systems. NATIONAL SCHOOL SERVICE We tender our highest appreciation to the United States government for its efforts to coordinate war-service activities thru the publication of National School Service. We request that this invaluable periodical be made a permanent organ of a Department of Education, with such a broad, independent policy as will enable it to continue to speak the message of all departments at Washington to the public schools of the land. INDISCRIMINATE CLOSING OF SCHOOLS We condemn the wholesale and indiscriminate closing by the state and local boards of health of schools which have adequate medical inspection and supervision during epidemics of contagious and infectious diseases, and suggest the isolation and quarantine of stricken persons. RED CROSS AND BOYS' WORKING RESERVE We recommend the Junior Red Cross for its announst purpose of interesting the pupils of America in the relief of the needy children of Europe. The program of the Boys' Working Reserve merits support under special educational safeguards. COMMENDS PRESIDENT HARTWELL AND HIS FORWARD-LOOKING PROGRAM We desire to congratulate the program committee of the Department for the virility, vision, and inspiration of the discussion presented during the sessions of this week. We 490 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago commend warmly our executive, Superintendent E. C. Hartwell, for his part in the preparation of the admirable forward-looking program, and as a Department we tender our sincere thanks for his firmness, tact, and skill as presiding officer. INVITES PRESIDENT WILSON TO ATTEND MILWAUKEE MEETING Recognizing the tremendous value which the word of our national leader. President Woodrow Wilson, may have in advancing the cause of education at this time; recog- nizing also his great interest in the cause to which he devoted many years of his life, and in the profession which the war has shown to be one of our greatest national assets, we, members of the National Education Association, assembled at the meeting of the Depart- ment of Superintendence, do hereby earnestly urge President Wilson to be present at and address the coming Peace Session of the National Education Association, to be held in Milwaukee, Wis., the first week of July next. We believe that nothing could do more good than his presence and his word of counsel and encouragement to advance the vital educational program which the National Educa- tion Association has undertaken. MRS. ELLA FLAGG YOUNG The Department of Superintendence takes this occasion to voice the sense of deep loss that has come to the members of the profession since the last meeting of this Department in the death of Ella Flagg Young, for many years honored leader in the schools of this city and former distinguisht president of the National Education Association. INDORSES BILL PROVIDING HOMES FOR RETURNED SOLDIERS The Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association indorses the bill now pending before Congress, appropriating $100,000,000 with which to provide work and homes for our soldier boys. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ADDRESSES OF WELCOME I. FRANCIS G. BLAIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. On behalf of its thirty-four thousand teachers, its forty-five thousand school officers, and its million and a quarter school children, I welcome you, the leaders of educational thought of the nation, to tfiis the common- wealth of Illinois, and to this its great metropoUs on the Great Lakes. I welcome you as the leaders of the nation's greatest standing army. Mobi- lized as your army is in every state and territory of the RepubHc, and bear- ing as you do the true culture of freedom which you seek to propagate only thru the process of "sweet reasonableness," our gates and our arms swing wide open to welcome and receive you. But to the army which seeks to force upon us its peculiar brand of culture, whether that army starts from Berlin with sabers of steel or from Washington with sabers of gold, our portcuUisses will be raised and our gates will be closed. We welcome you because we believe that yours is the only army whose victory will make the world permanently safe for free government and free government safe for the world. For three-quarters of a century, with- out the sound of fife and drum or the burst of shot and shell, you have been destroying the forts of ignorance and tyranny and laying the founda- tions of democracy deep and broad upon the solid rock of common standards Superintendence! ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 49 1 of intelligence, common standards of morality, and common standards of citizenship, the only sure foundations of a democracy in times of peace or of war. You have seized upon our best national traditions and our best national ideals and thru instruction have translated them into the thoughts and sentiments of twenty-five millions of children. You have so used our two greatest national and nationalizing resources — the lives of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln — that thousands of our children of foreign-born parents are reborn annually into true sons and daughters of America. Thru your work as members of this Association and as teachers of the nation's children you have done more than any other body or pro- fession to arouse and fix national sentiments^ and ideals, to create a national consciousness and a national point of view. I firmly believe that it was nothing other than the three-quarters of a century of this wide-flung system of free common-school instruction which prepared our nation for that quick and certain perception of the real meaning of this world-war, and for that instant and happy concord of thought and action which threw our noble army upon the firing-line in time to save the day for free govern- ment and free men. I welcome and congratulate you, not alone upon what you had done before the war that made it possible for a hundred million people to feel as with one heart and to think as with one brain, but as well upon the loyal and effective services rendered by superintendents, principals, teachers, and pupils during this war in response to every call of the President and his cabinet. I know that some of our learned brethren who had spent most of their fives in the cloistered precincts of our universities, and who, being shaken loose from their chairs by the great concussion of the war and com- ing forth into the light of day with blinded eyes, took a look at our common- school system and, with their souls filled with fear, chmbed into the highest belfries to ring the loudest bells alarming the world into the consciousness that the war had revealed a complete breakdown in our public-school system — that it had failed utterly to meet the needs of the nation in a crisis. Fortunately for the cause of truth and the welfare of the country these alarmed gentlemen were allowed to exhaust their well-meant but mis- chievous efforts in mere noise-making with the other owls and bats in the belfry. The President, himself a university man, and his cabinet suffered under no such illusions. Having to do things quickly and on a nation-wide scale, they soon discovered the strength and efficiency of this great system of common schools which had been made articulate and had been wrought into a compact and working organization thru many years of patient, courageous thought and endeavor. They soon discovered that the one institution in this country that had not broken down, the one institution that had not failed, was this very school system which you represent. The railroad systems, the telegraph systems, our boasted industrial systems, broke down and had to be taken over, reorganized, and operated by the 49^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago government, but our school system, under its old organization, went thru the war doing an unbelievable amount of extra work without a breakdown. How proud we are, and have a right to be, over the patriotic, enthusiastic way in which superintendents, teachers, and pupils leapt forth eagerly to seize and successfully to perform every bit of work requested or required of them by state or national officials. No history of America's part in this Great War will be other than a fragment unless it records the noble and effective services rendered by the school systems which you represent. You have a right to be welcomed and congratulated by every loyal American, not only for what you have done in the past in creating a national sentiment and a national point of view and for your loyal and effective service in helping to win the war, but more especially upon the great work which lies before you. In spite of the great strength and the great work of the system of education which you represent, it has certain shortcomings and weaknesses known to you for many years but revealed in a most pointed way to statesmen, lawmakers, and taxpayers by this crisis of war. We would be inexcusably stupid should we fail to see our opportunities and wholly unworthy of our trust should we fail to use it to strengthen and extend this the greatest of all democratic institutions. Beyond the question of needed modifications in our school systems and procedures, however, there lies a larger and a nobler vision. Whether we merit it or not, America has achieved a reputation among the allied nations for unselfish purpose and action in the war. Making deductions for much that may be nothing more than proper expressions of gratitude for the assistance which we rendered, there appears real evidence of an exalted regard and respect for the purposes and ideals of American Hfe and institu- tions. It is not too much for us to beheve that this appreciation and respect will extend to that greatest and most peculiar of all our institutions, the American free common school, extending from the kindergarten thru the university. There can be no real parliament of nations, no real federa- tion of the world, until all the children of all the people of all the nations of all the earth have a free and equal opportunity to an education; and I verily believe that the only League of Nations which gives any assurance of a permanent peace is the league which the teachers of this nation and the nations of the earth shall write in the hearts and minds of the children of these nations. Unless we seize upon the true lessons of this war and translate them by the magic of instruction into the thoughts and actions of the men and women who are to control the destinies of their several nations in the future, how can we hope that this world-catastrophe will not recur ? Therefore in your hands as teachers Hes the great work of helping to knit up the "raveled sleave" of the world's disorder, to bind up its wounds, to wipe out and cover over its bitterness and hates; and I cannot express, in conclusion, the importance of this field of your future work better than Superintendence] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 493 by quoting some lines of Kipling written just after the Boer War. Bitter feeling had been engendered, a deep sense of injustice, of wrongs done, filled the memories of the people. He puts them in the mouth of a farmer who, with his ox team, goes out upon a battlefield to turn under the dis- tressing evidences of the merciless destruction of war. As the work of the teacher is often Hkened to that of the sower, every word and figure in these Unes may easily represent our own work in the next decade. Here, where my fresh-turned furrows run, And the deep soil glistens red, I will repair the wrong that was done To the living and the dead. Here, where the senseless bullet fell, And the barren shrapnel burst, I will plant a tree, I will dig a well. Against the heat and the thirst. Earth,,where we rode to slay or be slain. Our love shall redeem unto life; We will gather and lead to her lips again The waters of ancient strife. From the far and the fiercely guarded streams And the pools where we lay in wait. Till the corn cover our evil dreams And the young corn our hate. Bless then, our God, the new-yoked plough And the good beasts that draw. And the bread we eat in the sweat of our brow According to Thy Law. After us cometh a multitude — Prosper the work of our hands That we may feed with, our land's food The folk of aU our lands! Here, in the waves and the troughs of the plains Where the healing stillness Ues, And the vast, benignant sky restrains And the long days make wise — Bless to our use the rain and the sun And the blind seed in its bed. That we may repair the wrong that was done To the living and the dead! II. PETER A. MORTENSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. This is an epoch-making year. It compares with but few of the critical times in history. The overthrow of the three great obstacles to the tri- umphant advance of democracy — the house of Hapsburg, the Romanoffs, and the HohenzoUerns — has been effectively accompHsht. Government of the people by the people is to become a universal fact. A new national consciousness, an idealism which holds that nations, no less than men, may 494 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago stand for a principle and defend its position, without hope of concrete return, has come into being. The war lord of the Central Powers was not only imprest by the fighting qualities of our men at the front but amazed at the efficiency of our builders of railroads and discouraged by the line of approaching transports that his submarines could not stop; but his spirit was broken by boys over here, assembling in training camps and animated by a standard of high idealism in support of a great nation that dared to tell him the truth. Criticism is in the air. We have applied it to the Y.M.C.A., to army officers, and even to our government; but in this atmosphere the American "doughboy" elicits only praise. And the "doughboy" is a product largely of the American public school. We have come to realize that* a training which is broad in scope, which fixes responsibility and encourages independence of thought and action, is vastly superior to an attempt to develop a very efficient cog to fit into an elaborate industrial machine. Educators are today thinking in new terms. The school is fast sup- planting other social agencies in providing ethical, moral, and vocational training. Schools are serving their communities as never before. We shall be called on to provide more systematic instruction in physical training, including lessons in clean living, ethical sports, and tactics. Millions of the young men of Europe — mere boys — have joined the silent army. Shoulder to shoulder they lie — all that remains of those who were to do the world's work. These boys who had been destined to be the chemist, the industrial leader, the journaHst, or the statesman lie there side by side. His alternate must be developt, and he will be produced by the schools of America. As educators the problem is "up to us." We are met to discuss the development of this citizen of tomorrow. His destiny is in your hands. The people of Chicago welcome you. Those engaged in education extend the hand of fellowship. This garden city offers its hospitaUty in the hope that you will consent to be, for the time, one of us. If you have difficulties or seem to be neglected tell us. The principals of the city have organized bureaus of information in the principal hotels. They will be glad to help you find the activities in which you are interested. We shall try to express concretely the pleasure we feel in being your hosts. ADEQUATE COMPENSATION FOR TEACHING SERVICE IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS D. B. WALDO, PRESIDENT, WESTERN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KA.LAMAZOO, MICH. The personnel of the teaching force is closely related to the compensation paid. There is a direct relationship between money compensation and the quality of teaching. In the long run the community gets what it pays for, Superintendence] COMPENSATION FOR TEACHING SERVICE 495 In the long run children are not given a square deal where the compensation to teachers is inadequate. I. Adequate compensation means more than an existence wage. It means more than a living wage. It means a culture wage, a thrift wage, and provides annually purchasing power sufficient to pay for the following items: (i) Food, clothing, housing, and laundry. (2) Incidental essentials — a long Hst of these from the purchase of which there is no escape in modern organized society. (3) Medical, dental, and sometimes surgical care. (4) Insurance against fire and against death. (5) Church expenses and contributions to legitimate organized charity. (6) Since 19 17 subscriptions to war-relief funds and purchases, on credit usually, of Liberty Bonds. (7) For a high percentage of all teachers, women as well as men, contribu- tions to family support. (8) Social and professional growth. This will include {a) necessary expenditure of money for reasonable social life; ib) books, magazines, and newspapers; (c) reasonable expenditure for music, art, and theater; {d) membership expenses of educational associations and the expenses of attending local, state, and national meetings; {e) travel, including lesser trips, and occasional extended trips in the United States ^ and abroad; (/) additional schooling in teacher- training institutions, technical schools, colleges, and universities. (9) A reserve fund for invest- ment against the non-productive period. A thrift wage will make it possible for the teacher to place $300 a year or more in interest or income- bearing investments. Trained teachers for the grades should now be paid an initial salary of not less than $1000, and this should advance rapidly under present price conditions to not less than $1600. In communities where there is a rela- tively high per capita accumulation of wealth the minimum salary should be $1200 or more and should advance rapidly to not less than $2000. II. Is adequate compensation provided for public-school teaching service ? The answer is most emphatically. No. Not a single state in the Union pays its teachers a just wage. This statement could have been made in 1896 and again in 1900. This statement was true in 1913, and since that date conditions have grown seriously and manifestly worse. Retail prices tabulated by Dunn, Bradstreet, the Annalist, and the Bureau of Labor indicate an increase of 60 per cent in the cost of living from July, 1914. to the fall of 1918. The conservative figures prepared by the National Industrial Conference Board indicate that the cost of living increast 52.3 per cent from July, 1914, to June, 1918. This percentage does not represent the actual increase for most of the communities that are represented in this meeting. The average salary of all teachers in the United States for the year 19 16 is given in the report of the Commissioner of Education as $563 . 08. The highest average salaries for the year 1915-16, those of California $998.45, and New York $967.20, are manifestly and pitiably inadequate. The 496 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago lowest average salaries, those paid by some of the southern states, leave one stunned. (The report of the Commissioner of Education indicates that in 1913 three southern states paid average salaries of less than $300.) Straws indicate the direction of the wind. Men have been leaving the profession by thousands and tens of thousands. In 1879-80 the percentage of men teachers in the public schools of the United States was 42.8. This percentage had declined to 19.6 in 19 14-15. In the school year 1879-80, 29 . 2 per cent of all Michigan teachers were men. In 1914-1 5 the percentage of men teachers in Michigan had dropt to 13.8. In the year 1879-80, 28.9 per cent of Wisconsin teachers were men. This percentage had declined to 10.8 in the year 19 14-15. These lower percentages in each instance are for a year before our entrance into the war. The war was not responsible for the decline. The inadequacy of teachers' pay has even become a matter of sorry jest. In a hallway, while children were passing, said one teacher to another, "A penny for your thoughts." "That's more than the school board will pay," flasht back the second teacher, one of whose chief assets was a saving sense of humor. Said the bank teller to a teacher who had presented her salary check to be cashed, " I am really very sorry to hand you these old, soiled bills. They are unhygienic and possibly dangerous." "Oh, never mind," repHed the cheerful teacher, " Really and truly there is no danger. A microbe couldn't Hve on my salary." And yet unjust to the teacher as is the present scale of salaries in the American commonwealth, its unfairness to the child is just as great. Fundamentally the school is not for the superintendent, the principal, the supervisor, or the teacher. The school is for the child. III. The inadequacy of teachers' pay is by no means inexplicable. 1. Teaching unfortunately is a profession for a minority only of the 600,000 teachers in the United States. Three hundred thousand untrained and poorly equipt men and women are competing for positions to which they should be entirely ineligible. Lack of professional standards and of legislative enactment, lack of community standards and ideals, crass ignorance of many school boards and other employing agencies, have rendered possible this competition of the unfit against those who are trained and equipt. One hundred thousand teachers in the United States are no more than nineteen years of age. Three hundred thousand teachers are no more than twenty-five years of age. One hundred thousand teachers have had no more training than the equivalent of ten grades in the pubUc schools. Three hundred thousand teachers have had no more training than graduation from a high school. 2. Some superintendents, some school boards, many teachers, and a considerable element of the public understand neither the value of education nor the nature of democracy. In many communities the ideals of public education are low. Standards have not been set, and many administrators Superintendence! COMPENSATION FOR TEACHING SERVICE 497 who from their official position should be fighting tooth and claw for public- school education have really no clear understanding of its importance and, if fighting at all, are fighting feebly. 3. To a considerable extent the general public is ignorant of the impor- tance and nature of good teaching. The public is educable, however, and under intelligent, forceful leadership responds rapidly to the preachment that personal quality, sound character, and thoro training are essential in high-grade pubHc-school service, and that these quaUties must be more adequately remunerated. 4. In too many cases school boards have been dominated by miniature watchdogs of the Treasury, who conceive that their official function is to hold down the tax lid rather than to serve the community by giving every child his right to a good teacher and good teaching. 5. Too frequently teachers do not know their own value. They have not learned to sell their own services at a fair price. They are not organized and do not make their claims felt, and sometimes superintendents are not strictly honest in assisting teachers to know the money value of their services. 6. Some superintendents cater to school boards by employing home girls, who may be listed in what President Swain calls "the part-pay class." Some superintendents have no clear conception as to what their teachers really earn and should command in cash compensation; and some superin- tendents who know lack the nerve to put up a fair fight for right and justice. If all of our employers of teachers had the vision, courage, tact, and leader- ship of those who are at the head of the profession with respect to these qualities, tremendous gain would be effected within two years. In five years the taxpayers would be giving even-handed justice to the teachers of our children. Too many superintendents side-step, pussy-foot, and fail to meet courageously the issue of a just salary schedule. 7. The explanation of low salaries is not to be found in our poverty. We are not poor. We are rich. Our national wealth will probably inventory from two hundred and fifty biUions to three hundred billions of tangible, measurable assets when the census of 1920 has been taken and tabulated. The war has left us richer than we were two years ago. We were able to raise over sixteen billion dollars in four bond issues, and the fifth Liberty Loan of six billion dollars or more will go over the top. The war has barely scratcht our resources. These resources are really immeasurable, and yet the problem of just distribution of our wealth has not been solved with respect to the important set of producers, the school men and school women of the United States. IV. By what legitimate methods may adequate compensation be secured ? I. As rapidly as possibly organize at least 100,000 teachers of the United States for a campaign of sound, whoksgme propaganda. Then have thi§ 498 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago organized force make liberal use of the press. We are a very rich nation. Make that known. Education in a democracy is imperative and rests on sound teaching done by trained teachers. Make that known. Teachers are producers and are entitled to a fair share in the distribution of wealth. Make that known. Salaries have been low and living costs have doubled in twenty years. Make that known. The unskilled teacher, the mediocre personality, is not an asset but a liability. Make that known. The selected, trained teacher returns her salary manyfold to the commonwealth. Drive this truth home. 2. Much may be done and must be done in local salary campaigns. The Committee on Salaries of the Michigan State Teachers' Association advo- cates the following methods of procedure: a) Keep down other expenses so that there may be funds for increasing teachers* salaries. h) Standardize expenses to the end that all waste in expenditure may be eliminated. c) Organize and maintain educational publicity committees of teachers and school patrons. The people want to know what the teachers really need in the way of support in order that the teachers may do their work most effectively, d) Formulate a minimum salary based on living expenses for teachers in your com- munity for twelve months. Give publicity to this minimum and urge upon the teachers and school-board members that it is unprofessional, if not immoral, for the teachers to sign a contract for the school year that does not carry with it a wage sufficiently large to cover the actual expenses of the calendar year of twelve months. e) Reprint in your local paper important material bearing on the salary problem. 3. The members of the National Education Association should with united forces back the Smith-Towner Bill and see that this bill, with any necessary proper amendments, becomes law during the next session of Congress. 4. The fight for higher professional standards should be unrelenting. State legislation providing proper requirements for pubHc-school service should be pusht as never before. States that require but six weeks of pro- fessional training should go quickly to one year of such training and then to two years beyond high-school graduation for all grade teachers. 5. John Sherman said in speaking of specie payment: ''The way to resume is to resume." The way to raise teachers' salaries is to raise them. A very successful campaigner in raising war-relief funds, when askt the secret of his committee's success, replied, " We hop to it." The time is fully ripe for all school men to "hop to it" in a campaign for decent and just salaries. We need more intelligent, aggressive fighters and fighting. Let us hope that those who have been fighting will keep up the fight and by their example and precept inculcate the fighting spirit in those school men who have been neutral or pacifists in this vital campaign. We need a Roosevelt of preparedness in every school district, in every country, in every village, Superintendence] • TRAINING OF TEACHERS 499 and in every city, large or small. Such men and such women never really fail. For the child of our day let us now and here highly resolve that this campaign must be fought and won without delay. TRAINING OF TEACHERS W. C. BAGLEY, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. American policies regarding the professional preparation of teachers have pretty faithfully reflected the attitude of the pubhc toward teaching as a career. It is unnecessary in this audience to rehearse the facts regarding our backwardness in this, the most important function of a democracy. We all know that our normal schools, generally speaking, are more penuri- ously supported than any other institutions of similar grade or approximate significance and responsibility. We know that they do not hold a place in the pubhc esteem that is comparable to that of the colleges of hberal arts, engineering, agriculture, medicine, or law. We know that they suffer in consequence, both in the advantages that they are able to offer and in their attractiveness to ambitious youth. All this is clear enough to us, but for some reason it is not clear to the public. There are certain fundamental facts that deserve to be reiterated until their deep significance has sunk home. There are four upon which I should lay particular emphasis. In the first place the high-school graduates now entering the nor;nal schools to prepare for public-school service represent a significantly lower level of mental ability than do the high-school graduates who are looking toward other professions. This fact is definitely suggested by investigations that have been undertaken in one large and typical state; that the same condition obtains in many if not most of the other states is voucht for by the testimony of those long familiar with the situation. Not only are the great masses of pubhc-school teachers relatively short-Uved in the service — half of all teachers remaining in the schools but four years or less, and fully one-fourth of all leaving at or before the close of the second year — not only are the majority of these teachers without professional training, but even the relatively few who are now preparing with any degree of seriousness for the work do not represent, as a group, the best available material. There is no doubt that this condition has developt chiefly within the past ten or fifteen years, and that the normal schools before that time were selective of a relatively better grade of student; but with the ever- increasing opportunities for women to enter other calHngs, the situation in the pubhc-school service is certain to become more and more serious unless immediate steps are taken to make classroom teaching a permanent, attractive, honored, and well-rewarded profession. 500 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago Another fact of which the public should become thoroly aware is the low rank that we hold among the civilized nations with respect to the preparation of our pubHc-school teachers. Just before the war began, for example, two-thirds of the elementary teachers in England were profession- ally prepared for their responsible work. I mean by this that these teachers had had a preparation that would be equivalent in this country to gradua- tion from a four-year high school plus two years of normal-school training. In the United States not more than one-fifth of the elementary teachers have had so extended a preparation. •Nor is our standing low only in comparison with countries like England and France. One of our South American sister-republics, Chile, supports sixteen normal schools for a population of 4,000,000 — five more than Massachusetts operates for a population about equal to that of Chile. While these Chilean normal schools do not require our equivalent of high- school graduation for admission, they keep their students in residence for six years and provide for them not only tuition but board, lodging, and clothing during this long period of professional study and training. Today 40 per cent of the teachers in the elementary schools of Chile are graduates of these extended professional curricula, and the remaining 60 per cent have had some professional preparation. It is clear that if our people wish to continue their leadership in a democratic world they must be awakened to the significance of this most important democratic function of providing competent teachers for the children of the nation. Practically every other civilized country has adopted for the education of its pubHc-school teachers the same liberal pohcy that we have adopted for the training of our officers for the army and the navy; that is, the selection of candidates upon a rigorous basis of merit and the careful education of these select candidates at public expense. In the United States as in other countries the overwhelming majority of the public- school teachers are recruited from families that are unable at their own expense to send their children to normal schools for extended periods of professional preparation. There are two ways out of the difficulty. One is to require adequate professional preparation and Umit certification to those individuals who can afford to secure this preparation. The other is to require professional preparation and then keep the profession open to all qualified candidates by providing the training at public expense. Our people have adopted neither method. They have kept the standards of certification so low that candidates readily secure licenses without any preparation worthy of the name, and they have estabhsht normal schools with the expectation that students will enrol voluntarily in large numbers for the privilege of securing training at their own expense and then compet- ing with those who have been permitted to enter the profession by the back door. The result is one that could easily be predicted. Not only do the normal schools^ as we have seen, fail to attract the best available talent, but Superintendence) fRAtNiNG OF TEACHEHS ^Ol they graduate less than one-sixth of the number of recruits needed each year to fill the vacancies in the elementary schools alone. Most of the graduates go into those city systems that are progressive enough to demand some measure of professional preparation, leaving to immature and untrained recruits the rural and village schools, in which more than one-half of the nation's children receive all of their schooling. A third fact that should be brought before our people is that the kind of education that they expect the public schools to provide for their children can never be provided unless the standards for the preparation of teachers are raised far beyond what they are today even in our most progressive city school systems. Of course not all of the miracles that some people expect from the public schools can ever be brought about, any more than anyone can ever square the circle, or construct a cube that will be double the contents of a given cube, or devise a machine for perpetual motion. The sooner we recognize some of these impossibiUties the better it will be for our cause, for good school men and even professors of education sometimes lose their heads over beautiful dreams that could be realized only if we were able to go back to the beginnings of things and reconstruct the human race on a different pattern. But even modest and eminently sane hopes of educa- tional betterment must await a general level of teaching skill and teaching insight now to be found only in the rarest cases. Many parents who have a vague but sincere conviction that their children are not getting what they should from the schools are not expecting miracles, but they are expecting goods that cannot be delivered by a teacher whose equipment comprises at most a four-year high-school education, with a little professional training which has attempted in one or two years to prepare her to teach every subject and supervise every activity in an eight-year educational program. A fourth fact deserves especially serious consideration. Our neglect of adequate preparation for teachers has led to the creation of a system which was designed to compensate for this neglect, but which in itself bears the seeds of very great evils. I mean frankly the effort to compensate for poor preparation thru elaborate systems of supervision. This is rapidly bringing into being a group of superteachers, if I may use the term, better trained and much better paid than the classroom teachers and bearing to the latter a relation akin to that of the foreman of a factory to the "hands" of the factory. More and more the plans and specifications for teaching are being prepared by these superteachers. While they have been selected in the past very largely upon the basis of their success in doing actual first-hand teaching, this condition is rapidly passing, and in any case their work means a detachment from the real first-hand problems of teaching and managing boys and girls. The classroom teacher, instead of looking upon his work as a fine art, is forst to look upon it as a mechanical trade; instead of being the artist that he should be, the present tendency is forcing him more and more insistently into the position of the artisan. 502 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago Now if a painter achieves success he does not forthwith surrender his pigments and his palette to a group of amateurs and expect them to paint great pictures under his direction. Nor does the successful actor retire permanently to the wings, with the expectation that the stage hands and the scene shifters can, even under his direction, read his lines to crowded houses. Nor does the successful novelist hire a group of hacks to put together his next great book. But if the great artist still agonizes over his first-hand materials, if the successful actor, not in spite of, but because of, the transcendent fame that he has won, still acts before the footlights, if the novelist still constructs his own plots and delineates his own characters, it is because they know that each added increment' of success brings its corresponding reward and recognition. Until in the work of education we can insure that the teacher can profitably capitalize his success and still remain in first-hand contact with the materials of his art, teaching will remain the sorriest of the trades. It may be too late to correct in industry the evils that the factory system has brought about. It is not too late in education. The problem is immediately to place teaching in the only position in which it can hope to render its all-important service— to give the actual work of first-hand teaching its true status as a fine art. This means above all a vast extension of our agencies for the initial preparation of teachers. This will solve the problem, and nothing else will. I am convinst that it is the most shortsighted of poUcies to attempt to prepare a teacher in two years to fit successfully into any grade that happens to have a vacancy when she seeks appointment. What the child of eight or nine or ten years needs in the way of teaching is not what the beginner needs or what the eighth-grade pupil needs. The teaching difficulties that are involved in only a circumscribed range of school work are enormous when one comes to catalog them. The demands upon even a fourth-grade teacher who would do well the work of that grade are as severe and as exacting as any individual should be expected to bear. Until we dispel the fatuous delusion that the equipment of the teacher must vary directly as the age of the pupil, we shall never have in the elementary school the level of expert service that we must have if these basic schools are to do their basic work. If the people will give our normal schools four years to prepare each type of teacher — rural-school, primary, intermediate, upper-grade, or junior high-school and high-school; if they will provide scholarships for quahfied students seeking entrance to these normal schools; if they will limi^ teachers' licenses to graduates of these normal schools; if they will insist that the normal school is to train teachers, and that this job is big enough and important enough to absorb all of its energies; if they v/ill insist that every normal school is operated for the benefit of the whole people and not for the pecuniary advantage of the local community in which it has been placed; if they will determine, in consequence, that all the schools of r Superintendence! TRAINING OF TEACHERS $0$ every community having a normal school shall be available as laboratories of teaching, and will be firm in their determination to the point of moving the school to another place if the profiteers are obstinate; if they will pay to normal-school instructors salaries just a trifle higher than instructors in any other group of higher or professional institutions receive (for this, in view of their tremendous responsibilities, is no more than the due of those who prepare teachers for the pubHc schools) ; if the people will take these simple steps the problem will be solved, and with it will be solved a host of other irritating and perplexing problems that beset public education. I have purposely characterized these as "simple" steps, for they are simple. In the aggregate they bear no comparison in difficulty to any one of a half-dozen collective achievements of our people during the past two years: the establishment of the selective draft, the floating of Liberty Loans, the inauguration of the shipbuilding program, the feeding of the AlHes, the sending of two milhon soldiers to France. Nor would the cost be prohibitive, even in this day of high taxes. The nation has spent for intoxicating liquors in past years no less than $1,500,000,000 annually. It seems that this is to be saved in the future. It will be augmented by the increast production due to the disuse of intoxicants. Let us assume, conservatively, that the available wealth of the nation will be increast by an annual increment of two billion dollars because of prohibition. Where should this increase go ? Is it improper to suggest that a fair portion — say one-half — should go to pubhc education? Certainly the pubhc schools have done their share to bring about this consummation. We are told, of course, that the prime cause of prohibition in this country has been the great development of industry; but other countries have undergone industrial development — are much more thoroly industrialized even than we are. Yet there seems to be no visible movement toward pro- hibition. In this country one factor, however, has operated in a measure unapproacht elsewhere. For two generations the schools have explicitly and systematically indoctrinated the children of the nation against alcohol. The mills of education grind slowly, but eventually they grind exceeding small. Is it unreasonable to claim for education one-half of the impending saving? A biUion dollars added to our annual educational budget would ^ solve our problem in a trice. We could raise the level of pubhc-school service to a point unapproacht and unapproachable by any other nation. We could put into every classroom in the country within a decade — into the rural and village schools as well as the urban schools — a teacher adequately prepared to do in a masterly way the work that that school involves. We could pay to that teacher a salary that would make him not only content but anxious to make the work a real and permanent career. We could pay to the rural-school teacher the differential that is needed to get into these schools and keep in them the men and women who, in these strategic 504 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATtON (Chicago positions, can do more for the future of our country than any other group. We could make our normal schools into great educational West Points, where the best talent that the country produces could be instructed and trained and inspired to do the most important work that can be done in a great democracy. NECESSITY AND DIFFICULTIES OF SUPERVISION IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM HERBERT S. WEET, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER, N.Y. We are inchned to believe that the heart of this problem is to be found not in the present plan of supervision but in the difficulties of so adminis- tering it as to have it accomplish the ends for which it is designed. He who would deny that there is a vast deal of discontent among the teachers of this country over this matter of supervision is simply blind to the facts. As far as I am aware no city is free from it, and no city has a monopoly on it. Perhaps the best approach to a discussion of the chief causes of this discontent is to be found in a consideration of the two extremes involved in it. At the one extreme stands the incompetent teacher or principal who objects to any standards of work except those which are self-imposed. The time will never come when supervision will be accepted by these members of a public-school system; but after all has been said that might be said concerning these we are face to face with the fact that they con- stitute a decidedly minority group in the city school system. The greater number of our teachers are fair-minded, intelligent, and devoted to the welfare of the children with whom they work. They are pubhc-spirited, and during the days that have past no body of people in any community gave greater evidence of ability to do pubhc service intelligently and devotedly than did the pubhc-school teachers of the cities of this country. We may well ask ourselves, therefore, how it happens that this small group, which seldom stands up to be counted, can spread its spirit of discontent thru the great body of worthy teachers to the point where the interests of the schools are jeopardized and the sound principle of supervision challenged. I believe that the answer is to be found in the other extreme for which you and I as superintendents must in common fairness be held responsible. It is the extreme of autocratic supervision. The fact that a teacher chafes under supervision does not necessarily indicate that she is incompetent. There is a type of supervision against which any self-respecting teacher ought to protest. It is first, last, and all the time supervision from the center to the circumference. Its great task is to get the wisdom of the center, which only too often comes thru introspection, out to those at the circumference in such a way as to keep them busy and contented. No one has ever yet succeeded in doing this in the long run. Superintendence! SUPERVISION IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 505 Between these two extremes stands the true principle of representative supervision. It goes without saying that the first requisite in securing representative supervision is the selection of one who by talent, training, experience, and personality is really able to lead. In general, where such a person is selected his work will be representative of all the common interests involved rather than of his own particular theories unmodified by the results of practical observation and experience in the classroom. And yet even a person who inherently has all the quahties needed may fail to be representative largely because of the attitude of the superin- tendent himself or of other supervisors of the force concerning the place which the principal has in the public-school system. As a general principle supervision in a city school system will be representative in precisely the proportion that the principal of the school is regarded as a vital educative force in the school over which he presides. The full significance of this distinction with reference to the place of the principal in the life of the school, as far as its bearing upon this prob- lem of supervision is concerned, came to me some two or three years ago while in conference with a superintendent of schools. We were discussing this same problem of supervision and attempting to establish the spheres in which teacher, principal, and supervisor might each claim his sovereign rights. When the discussion turned to the place of the principal, this superintendent related the following experience: During the first year that I was superintendent of schools a superintendent of several years of experience and a man who had met with good success in his chosen field, said to me that the most difficult problem which I would have to face as time went on - would be that of knowing how to get accomplisht in the schools the things that I desired to have accomplisht, in spite of the fact that each school had a principal thru whom the superintendent was obliged to work. This remark made a profound impression upon my mind. I had been a principal myself and had been conscious at times of a certain domination which had so restricted my own opportunities for professional growth that I had chafed under the burden. Then and there I decided that come what might I would test out the proposition that my great function as superintendent of schools was to stim- ulate so far as possible the principal to exercise initiative and educational leadership and then to bend my energies toward securing for these workers in the schools conditions favorable to a realization of the ends for which they were working. And he concluded with this significant statement: "I have been amazed at the power and resources that these principals have shown almost with- out exception." We may depend upon it that in that community the extremes of autocracy and of pure democracy are being avoided and that the sound principle of representative supervision is being carried out. In conclusion then I beheve that we must accept the necessity of supervision as nothing short of axiomatic. Without it no city school system can even approximate that cooperative working relation among its parts so essential if the whole is to be an organic unit. Without it neither the community, the child, nor the great body of worthy teachers can be protected against the incompetent who not only works an injustice 5o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago to the children but reflects discredit upon the profession of which he is a member. And lastly, without it, it is difl&cult to find any practicable way of gathering, organizing, and distributing the contributions which are being made to education from the teacher in the classroom to the speciaHst in the university and making them available as helps to the great body of those principals and teachers who need and are entitled to receive these contributions. At the same time we must have our super- vision more representative than it has been, if it is to stand the test. Some of us thru actual experience as teachers in the classroom and as principals in the school have learned some of the things to avoid if these larger needs of supervision are to be met. We had the task, but we may not have had the vision, and the task without the vision becomes drudgery. Like- wise there are those who are so far removed from the classroom and the field of administration as to have the vision without the task, and the vision without the task becomes visionary. Between these two extremes lies the real supervisor, the real leader. There is no such thing as over- supervision when such a one is found. Task and vision are so linkt in his work that the spirit of service becomes his great characteristic. Give us a sufficient number of this type, and America thru her pubHc schools will continue to bring out in the future even more than she has in the past the great fundamental values of democracy. DEFECTS OF SUPERVISION AND CONSTRUCTIVE SUGGESTIONS THEREON SALLIE HILL, PRESIDENT OF LEAGUE OF TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS, DENVER, COLO. As we all know, the largest number of children complete their school life with the elementary grades. The pubHc owes these children, who represent the great mass of our future citizens, the best elementary educa- tion which can be devised, in order that the results may be worthy of our labor and desire. To secure these best results it is necessary that the elementary teachers should work under conditions which are conducive to cheerfulness, hopefulness, and initiation. Such conditions do not now obtain, and for this our present system of supervision is largely responsible. From the long list of criticisms of superyision of special subjects I have chosen only those mentioned in the majority of the reports. There are good supervisors and they are not dead. There are supervisors who realize that their work should be constructive and not destructive, but I am not askt to talk of them. There is no democracy in our school systems today. Democracy cannot exist with the present system, which gives so much power to those who supervise. We have been trained to think; you encourage us to do extension work and attend summer schools. We have been your pupils. Superintendence] DEFECTS OF SUPERVISION 507 sometimes your fellow-students, we have learned your methods, have imbibed your theories on democracy in the schools, have learned to direct children in planning and executing projects, and when we take up our work what do we find ? We find a condition in which we are to use no initiative, in which we are not able to put into practice anything we have learned. Instead of training children to carry out projects, we are ourselves only the mediums thru which others work. Too many supervisors are lacking in training, personality, and teaching experience. When shall we learn that a department certificate does not fit a man or woman without experience to be a supervisor ? Or that a six to ten weeks' summer course does not fit an experienst teacher to be one? One class needs schoolroom experience, and the other class needs more training in criticism and supervision. The lack of these quaHties is the cause of constant irritation to the experienst teachers. It is humiliating and tends to neither cheerfulness nor hopefulness to have to submit one's work to the criticisms of those whose lack of training and experience has not fitted them for their positions. These limitations are so frequent as to disqualify a large number of those now doing supervisory work. More training and teaching experience are needed to see back of the form and into the spirit of a recitation. There should be less study of the teacher's plan and closer study of the effect of the teaching upon the class. Frequently psychological laws are utterly disregarded in a supervisor's methods of criticism. Teachers are taught that the worst possible method in dealing with children is to leave them discouraged, yet there are many times when a teacher is left without courage or self-confidence. For a teacher to be left in such a state is a crime against teacher and pupil. Unwise, un- feeling criticism from supervisors has contributed more to the hysterical, broken-down condition of the teaching body than any other one cause. Supervisors too often discuss unfavorably the work of the pupils before the class, which is a reflection upon the teacher. There are supervisors who mark the pupils' work, keeping up a running fire of criticism to the teacher all the while. The pupils during this time are given work to keep them quiet. Imagine the result and after-effects of such criticisms upon teacher and class. These are the ones who have no time to listen to a recita- tion or to give a lesson. The supervisor's mental and physical condition plays too large a part in the rating and reports made to superintendents. Favoritism is another disagreeable factor met with of tener than you perhaps realize. Too much is demanded by the system of the teacher. Each teacher is expected to be a specialist in all subjects supervised, and her rating de- pends upon the degree in which her class work measures up to the standard set by the supervisors, each of whom has to prepare only one subject, generally in an office during the time the teacher is teaching. Think what a superwoman a teacher must be to compete with speciaUsts in from one to 5o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iChicago five subjects and finish all work in these and the other branches in the specified time. Is it any wonder that school work is condemned on the ground that boys and girls know so little about any one subject ? Last and most vicious of all is the rating power of supervisors. Here let me say that I do not want to give the impression that we are sensitive. No person who has remained a teacher for ten years can be sensitive. She is either dead or has gone into some other business. But teachers are afraid. They must hold their positions, or think they must, and they follow the course that seems the most helpful; that is, they give all the time they can, and then some more, in preparation of supervised studies; for upon the principal's report, plus the superintendent's, plus the school board's, plus the parents' opinion, plus the pupils' approval, plus the supervisors' rating, do their salaries rest; but the feeling, whether right or wrong, is firmly estabHsht that the supervisors' rating makes or mars the teachers' future. Many schools give no credits for these special studies. The pupils receive marks, but these marks in no way afifect their promotion. The pupils soon learn this. Yet, note this well, the teacher's tenure depends partly at least upon the rating given her on class work done in the super- vised branches. Is this fair ? Pupils know the marks count them nothing, yet the teacher wins or loses by their work. In fact, our system is tottering because of too many of everything. Too many supervisors with big salaries and undue rating power. Too many pupils in one room. I could talk about that for hours, if I could only get someone to listen. Too many studies for one child. Do you ever permit yourselves to recall the recitations one teacher in the elementary grades is expected to hear — I cannot say teach — in one day ? For fear you can't recall them, let me remind you of the subjects, both the supervised and the unsupervised, in which she must be proficient and show enthusiastic interest: arithmetic, geography, history, civics, oral and written language and what technical grammar she dares to introduce, spelling, phonics, reading, memory work, literature, nature-study, use of dictionary, courtesy, how and where to find current topics, gymnastics, drawing, music, and sew- ing, with an occasional competitive composition thrown in for good measure. Yesterday someone said that we should be trained in health supervision. Could you do it ? Neither can we. Do away with supervisors in the elementary schools, as they have been dropt entirely from the senior high school and largely from the junior high school with most beneficial results. If this plan is good in the upper grades it will be even better in the elementary, for there is where the variety of studies prevails. Let the heretofore supervised studies be given to teachers who have proved themselves especially adapted and therefore especially successful in that work. Let one teacher have two of these subjects in one building, or one subject in two or more buildings, just as manual training and cooking are now taught. Do not require the regular teacher to be Superintendence! A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION 509 in the room during the recitation but give the responsibility of discipHne and teaching to the special teacher. This will unify the work in that subject in the building, which is even better than unifying the work of the system. With a course of study provided, these teachers of special work should need no supervisors, any more than the teachers of the essentials, or what used to be the essentials, need them. If this suggestion is too radical, however, and you think that we must have supervision in the large city systems, then limit the duties of super- visors to giving assistance to the teachers and unifying the work of the system, giving these studies, we still insist, to the few who can do them well, and deprive the supervisors of the power of rating teachers of the common branches. If the studies upon which so much money is expended are worth their cost, then they are worth doing well. All the work of the elementary teacher is under the principal. Let the principal be the judge of her fit- ness for her work, and let the principal alone give her standing. One " boss " is enough for anyone. A word as to principals — we ask that they be chosen from the stand- point of experience and training rather than from the standpoint of degrees. That principals be askt to serve one year at least on probation, for many criticisms made of supervisors apply equally to the administrative depart- ment of supervision. I am glad that I have had an opportunity to say these things for my own class of teachers, and if only one superintendent here goes home with a little better understanding of our side of the case, something has been gained for us. I believe that the time has come to speak freely of these matters to those who have the power to change conditions which are so burdensome to us, that the time has come to speak the truth frankly, for when you shall see the truth, the truth shall make us free. A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION J. H. BEVERIDGE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OMAHA, NEBR. I am told that somewhere in Iceland the rays of the setting sun and the rays of the rising sun mingle with each other. Within the last few months you have observed the rays of the rising sun of democracy mingle with the rays of the setting sun of autocracy. The sun of autocracy has sunk below the horizon. In behalf of humanity and in the interests of equal oppor- tunity to those now living and generations yet unborn, may the sun of autocracy never rise again. This is a matter of concern to your Commission on Emergency in Education. One great American philosopher says, "We have moved forward one hundred years within the last twelve months." Another states that since 19 14 one thousand years of progress have been made. These men may have spoken in the superlative. I know not, but 5IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago - — — — _ it seems safe to say that we stand on the threshold of a new era. Yea, we are now in the period of adjustment and reorganization. We find the commercial and the industrial world attacking the problems that this new era has thrust upon them. Since the signing of the armistice two great readjustment congresses have been held for the purpose of reorgan- izing and readjusting commercial and industrial situations to meet the conditions of this new order of things. It is fitting at this time that this great educational convention should ask, What is to be our contribution to this period of reorganization and readjustment ? My answer to this question is, in part, the organization of a Department of Education, with its secretary a member of the President's cabinet. This is the recommendation of your Commission. In some quarters the tendencies seem to be to relax and to recount what we have accompHsht in the last two years. True, the pubhc schools of this country were a factor in winning the war. They were a large part of "the man behind the gun." They constituted an organized army of more than 20,000,000 to work in order that the army of supreme sacrifice might be put into the field and kept there until victory came. We cannot relax. We cannot become static. We must go forward. This country of ours, whether it would or no, stands forth as the greatest exponent of a democratic form of government. The public school is in a sense the most democratic institu- tion in the country. It is the largest single organized institution in America. We are told that our work is the most important work in the country. Now is the time to test the truth of this statement. It is only fair and just that, representing as the schools do, one-fifth of the population — and that the most vital part — we should have one-tenth the representation in the President's cabinet and round out our decimal system of notation by thus memorializing the new era in which we today find ourselves. Some have suggested that this would be centralizing, that it would be usurping the rights of states; in fact, that it is autocratic in tendency. It is the exact opposite. Autocracy means to drive, democracy to lead, to encourage, to cooperate, to coordinate, to unify, to the end that there shall be a mini- mum of overlapping in organization, and that there shall be an elimination of waste of efifort thru a unification of the free expression of all concerned. The purpose of the organization of a Department of Education under Senate Bill 4987 is so to unify the work in education, thru careful and thoro research and investigation, that a composite of this individual expression may go out from this department. The bill is essentially democratic in plan and in provisions made. The characteristic words found in this bill are encouragement and cooperation. What are the significant provisions of this bill? It provides for an annual appropriation, by the federal government, of $100,000,000 to be allotted to the several states on condition that the state shall furnish an equal amount for each specific purpose, to be used as follows: $7,500,000 Superintendence) A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION 511 for the abolition of illiteracy, $7,500,000 for Americanization of foreigners, $50,000,000 for equalization of educational opportunities, $20,000,000 for the promotion of physical and health education, and $15,000,000 for the better preparation of teachers and extension of facilities for the improve- ment of those already in service. No one can justly question that the removal of illiteracy, the Americanization of foreigners, the equalization of educational opportunity, provision for the physical welfare of children, and the improvement of teachers are democratic in tendency. The administration and control of education are left entirely to the state and local authorities, thus securing state and local autonomy. Illiteracy. — What are the conditions concerning ilhteracy in this country ? The selective draft showed that we had 700,000 illiterate males between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-one years. The country was shockt when it learned this fact, and yet, had we been familiar with the census of 19 10, we would have known that there were in this country more than five and a half million illiterates ten years of age and over. Think of it! One illiterate to every thirteen people over ten years of age! If we are to save citizens of this country from exploitation and make them worth- while members of our social order, they should be able to glean facts and ideas from the printed page, and that printed page should be in the English language. If we are to maintain the perpetuity of our country, the develop- ment of right ideals must find a larger place in the future citizenship of this country. Ilhteracy is a menace to our nation. Americanization of immigrants. — Should we feel concern regarding the Americanization of foreigners ? There were more than thirteen and a half million foreign-born people in the United States according to the census of 1 910. This means that at that time one person in seven had been born in a foreign land. Of this number, more than one and a half million are illiterate. If we are to assimilate foreigners who come to our shores, they must be taught our language. If these people are to participate in our government, they must know how to read and write the English language, they must become acquainted with American ideals. The annual appropriation for this purpose, including the appropriation made by the state, will be sufficient to eliminate illiteracy within a period of ten years and to give training in Americanization to all people who need it. It is a national law that admits foreigners to this country, hence the national government should cooperate with the states in an Americanization program. These people will contribute to the national welfare almost in proportion to I their training in Americanization. The permanency of a democratic form of government depends largely upon the intelligence and patriotism of its citizenship. No one will question the importance of training in Americanization. Equalizing educational opportunity. — In the third place provision is made r 512 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago several states. For this purpose $50,000,000 is appropriated. No state, however, shall share in such an apportionment unless such state shall require every school district to maintain a regular school term of at least twenty- four weeks. This provision^of the bill is in perfect harmony with the funda- mental principles of our government. Such variations of wealth exist among the several states and in different sections of the same state that edu- cational opportunity for all children is practically impossible without state and federal aid. AbiHty.to pay is a measure of obligation. To illustrate, the per capita wealth for the United States as a whole is $1712, for North Carolina $726, for Nevada $4135. The wealth per teacher in the state of Mississippi is $119,272, in Illinois $437,491, in the United States as a whole $280,754. With this unequal distribution of wealth per capita and per teacher in the various states it is evident that equal educational opportuni- ties cannot be given without federal aid and distribution according to economic and educational needs. The unequal distribution of people per teacher in various sections of the country is also a fact to consider. Iowa has one teacher for every 82 people in the state; Louisiana, one teacher for every 240 people. Physical and health education. — ^To cooperate with the states in the pro- motion of physical and health recreation an annual appropriation of $20,000,000 is proposed. To carry out this part of the program provision is made for medical and dental examination of children of school age, the employment of school nurses, and the instruction of the people in the prin- ciples of health and sanitation. The need of such an appropriation is imminent when we realize that over 700,000 men were rejected under the first selective draft after examina- tion because of physical unfitness; 29 per cent could not quaUfy physically for military service. Every year we have an economic loss of 10 per cent of our total productive power thru preventable illness. The training received by those who were accepted in military service made them improve so strikingly in health, vigor, and general fitness that they astonisht them- selves, their families, and their own officers. This training made our men fit to fight. We should now make all our men fit to work. The problems of peace are no less important than the problems of war. They are no less perplexing. The solution of these problems requires mental alertness, keen perception, and carefulness of judgment, which at best is found only when supported by physical vigor, endurance, and physical efficiency. Generally speaking, physical programs have been provided for men only. We must realize that the girls of this country are entitled to the benefits of such a program to fit them for life and for citizenship. In fact, owing to conditions incident to their sex, they should have a more carefully planned program than the boys. With suitable training they would show just as much improvement in physical efficiency as men. The need is evident. Of our teachers, 30 per cent, according to their own testimony, are below Superintendence] A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION 513 maximum health standards. After five years' experience in teaching, physical efficiency is lessened. Some of these conditions are no doubt beyond their own control. Astonishing improvement would be made if proper consideration were given this problem. Ninety per cent of the teachers are Hving below the level of physical fitness attainable by them. Seventy-five per cent of our school children have physical defects at least potentially injurious to their health. To neglect giving attention to remedial defects is wasteful, unkind, and unpatriotic. It is our duty to provide programs, by constructive measures, for the inculcation of habits of healthful living and for the development of common physical fitness. It is not only your right but your duty as a citizen to have as much of health and physical fitness as you can get, and to maintain this by intelligent, faithful, and conscientious effort. Physical fitness is a national resource. The state should join hands with the federal government in the promotion of physical efficiency. Let us have a program that will avoid economic loss and give us a citi- zenship of happy, healthy, free bodies. No one will claim that physical fitness is the goal of hfe or the final aim of education. We have had some who, in spite of physical handicaps, have developt alert minds, strong per- sonalities, and powerful characters. They have won distinction in Htera- ture, but this in no way argues for physical weakness. Physical fitness is a fundamental requisite for completeness of life. The federal government offers to invest $20,000,000 in health-education programs. Such an invest- ment, met with an equal amount by the various states, will pay good inter- est in good cheer and happiness brought to 22,000,000 school children and eventually to all people. Let us remember that health coupons are pay- fable not only yearly but hourly. Better-trained teachers. — There is scarcely an educational meeting leld anywhere in the country, from those in the smallest hamlets to those the largest cities, where we do not hear a call for better-trained teachers, think this subject has been omitted from no program of the National Education Association since its incipiency. The justification of such a :all is found when we reaHze that more than one-fifth (100,000) of the [teachers of the United States are less than nineteen years of age; that [more than one- tenth (50,000) have no schooling beyond the eighth grade; lat every year 100,000 teachers begin teaching in September, and one- drd of this number have had no special preparation for their work. With conditions of this kind confronting us, how can we boast of equal oppor- tunity ? Should we not do everything in our power to make such provision for the training of teachers that every school will eventually have a good teacher? The sum of $15,000,000 is provided annually by this bill to encourage a more nearly universal preparation of prospective teachers, to improve teachers already in the service, and to encourage talented young men and women to make adequate preparation for public-school service. 11 514 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago In behalf of the 22,000,000 children now in the public schools of America, in behalf of others yet unborn, I plead for this appropriation in order that these children may not suffer from inefficient teaching. It behooves everyone interested in the welfare of children to support Senate Bill 4987 now before Congress. Let us abolish ilHteracy; develop a more stable patriotism thru the Americanization of foreigners; show the true democratic spirit by the equalization of educational opportunities; promote the physical well-being, recreation, and health education in the interests of economy, health, and happiness; provide better facihties for the preparation of teachers and better training for those in the service, in order that the educational and social efficiency of each child may be more 4iighly developt. Let us dignify our profession by the creation of an execu- tive department known as the Department of Education. Let us have in this department a secretary, A man of God's own mould; Born to marshall his fellowmen, Give us a man of thousands ten, Born to do as well as to plan. Give us the department and then let the President of these United States give us a man — a man of vision, who will so organize, coordinate, and unify the educational forces of this country, thru the free expression of his associates from the most humble teacher to those most capable, to the end that this nation may be preeminent in public-school education, and that it shall be greater in this than in natural resources, production, manufactur- ing transportation, and wealth. Let us place the child above the dollar. A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION C. N. KENDALL, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, TRENTON, N.J. I believe in this bill. First, because education is in part a federal function. It is a long road from the old neighborhood school, which, some of us knew, to the state- controlled school of the present day. Who doubts that the schools have gained from this ? It is not so long a road from our present conditions to a partially supported system of schools by the federal government, I am not afraid that the federal government will control our schools, or dominate them, under the provisions of this bill. What is the situation ? Here we are, a great democracy, the greatest on earth. It is a democracy far from perfect. We have grave problems to face. Democracy is not license. Democracy must be restrained. The successful ongoing of this democracy can be settled only by education, and education not for some but for all. Our public schools have accomplisht wonderful results in the fifty years since the Civil War. Let us not forget this. Let us not fail to remind Superintendence! A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION 515 the lay public of this fact, with a bill of particulars, which can easily be presented. But is it creditable to the leading democracy that five or six millions of its people — native-born — cannot read or write ? Democracies, to succeed, must be based on two things — intelligence and moraUty. Railroads, the telegraph, the telephone, and the motor car have in a measure broken down state lines. Our people are more homogeneous because of these things. No state can live to itself alone any more than the individual can live to himself alone. We are all interested in the brand of public education carried on in South Carolina. Massachusetts is interested socially, indus- trially, politically, physically, in the brand of education in New Hampshire. Steel rails and copper wires have transformed the nation. People can and do move freely from one state to another. We educate our future citizens not merely for the local communities and for the states but for the nation. How many graduates of a given high school will remain citizens of their community, or even of their state, after twenty-five years have past ? Is the necessity of Americanization, which we all feel and which was uncovered by the war, a state or local affair ? Who shall say that Massa- chusetts and New Jersey shall pay the entire bill for Americanization in those states because of the fact that by reason of geographical conditions they have large numbers of foreign-born? States like Indiana and Iowa have a comparatively small proportion of foreign-born. Shall not these states help to pay the bill for Americanization, which is a tremendous problem in Massachusetts and New Jersey ? Shall not the wealth of these two great central states be taxt to pay in part for Americanization in these two Atlantic states? The proposed bill partially corrects this and other inequalities. Secondly, this bill encourages the states to make larger appropriations for education because the federal government likewise will make appro- priations for education. Human nature is such that under these conditions larger appropriations will be made by the combined sources for education. Thirdly, I remember when the original surveyor of city schools, Dr. John Rice, was almost ostracized by this department because he dared to criti- cize in a magazine certain school systems in the country. Those were days of universal and unstinted praise for our school systems on the part of school men. Those days have gone. The most serious critics of our public- school systems are now found among school men and school women them- selves. This bill if enacted will help to better our conditions. It cannot correct all of them. Its enactment will not bring about the millennium. Here are some of our weaknesses : I. The immaturity of teachers. One-half of our teachers are under twenty-five; one-sixth of them are less than nineteen years of age. Who shall say that we shall secure from young women of less than twenty-one years of age, who are without life-experience, the kind of teaching or training 5i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago of children that is worthy of schools in a great and wealthy democracy ? 2. The lack of professional training. Over 50 per cent of our teachers are wholly untrained. 3. The meager scholarship attainments of teachers. In one northern state one-fourth of the rural teachers have less than four years of high-school education. 4. The brevity of the teacher's service. The teaching experience of a teacher in this country is not more than five years. As a friend of mine puts it, teaching is not a "profession" in America, but a "procession." 5. The lax enforcement, or non-enforcement, of compulsory-education laws. We lose, for example, in New Jersey nearly a million dollars a year because children do not go to school as they might go. 6. The shortness of the school year. For only one-sixth of the hours that the children are awake, taking the calendar year as a whole, are they in school, and this under the best school systems of America, where com- pulsory laws are most strongly enforst. 7. The lamentable conditions of so many rural schools, both as to teachers' service and as to equipment of these schools. 8. The inequahty of wealth for the support of schools, which this bill aims partially to correct. 9. The gradual withdrawal of men — I mean vigorous, active men — from teaching. And why should not this be so ? New Jersey ranks fifth in average salaries paid to its teachers, and yet the average salary paid to high-school men teachers was last year $1724. These men are college or university graduates. 10. The beginning of the withdrawal of so many good women from teaching because so many of them nowadays are inclined to do social or clerical work for which better salaries are paid and which they regard as more attractive than teaching. For example, at Vassar College a year ago there were upward of ninety young women who wisht to become teachers. This year there are but nineteen. Fourthly, can the nation afford to pay this bill ? The federal govern- ment, so I am informed, paid out in cash in one day last August $125,000,000 for the promotion of the war — $25,000,000 more than this bill seeks to appropriate annually for the processes of education. When the war was at its height the cost to our federal government in eight hours was as much as the total current expenses of education for New Jersey for a whole year. We all approved of these expenditures. In 1908, six years before the outbreak of the war, we were spending more — considerably more — for our navy than this bill will provide annually for education. This committee has done an excellent piece of work. It deserves credit, in my judgment, for what it has done, and done so well. I believe it is our business to support the bill— to support it heartily, and to create pubhc sentiment to support it. Superintendence! A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION 517 It is our duty to bring pressure to bear upon senators and representa- tives, making them understand that the educators of this country want this bill past, not for any selfish purpose, but to make American schools worthy of this great democracy. It is the duty of forward-looking school men and school women to support this measure. If we who are leaders in education in this country do not support this bill whole-heartedly — a bill for the benefit of the children of America now in our schools, and for the benefit of the unborn children who will hereafter be our pupils — who will support it ? Education is the greatest enterprise in America, Let us not merely say so, as we are accustomed to do, but let us act as tho we believed it. A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION EDMUND J. JAMES, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL. More than thirty-five years ago I entered the Hsts for a comprehensive scheme of national education. In the columns of the Illinois School Journal, which at that time I edited in cooperation with Charles DeGarmo, whom you all know, I urged as vigorously and strongly as I knew how that the time had come when the nation as a whole thru its own organs and with its own financial measures should take up in earnest the promotion of popular education. Since that time I have never mist an opportunity to lend my voice and pen to the support of every scheme which seemed to promise the further enlistment and commitment of Uncle Sam in the support of edu- cation of all grades thruout the nation. It has been a slow process, this one of gaining public support for that idea. The journal in which I publisht my first argument has long since gone to that haven of repose to which all really good educational journals seem ultimately destined to pass — a sort of educational Nirvana which has swallowed up large and small alike, leaving no trace behind them except possibly good seed which will in the long run spring up and bring forth fruit. Then I was young, and now I am old. Then I was strong, and now I am weak. And during all these years there has been nothing nearer to my heart than federal support of popular education. The poet says that that which you do not see growing you find after a time grown. And so it is in this case. Each decade has seen some definite progress toward this end. The federal government by its establishment of the Agricultural Ex- periment Stations — one in each state by the Hatch Act of 1887, fathered, by the way, by a man who served four years in the Confederate armies — made the first really significant attempt to have the nation as a whole as- sume a part of the burden of national education in the form of cash pay- meii% out of the federal Treasury to the states for this purpose. It had long been accustoming itself — slowly, it is true, but steadily — to this idea 5l8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago by its land grants for popular education, culminating in the great grant of 1862 under the Morrill Act. But in the passage of the Hatch Act we see the first definite signs of a new policy from which all the rest has come. The second Morrill Act of 1891 represents another great step in the direction of federal aid to education — a great step in breaking down the old constitutional objections to federal support of national education; in famil- iarizing the public mind with the idea of national appropriations in support of education; in calling public attention to the needs of our educational system ; in overcoming the national inertia in thought and deed in this great field of public policy. The subsequent acts along the same line, known as the Adams and Nelson acts, and finally the Smith-Lever and Smith-Hughes acts, disposed once for all of the notion that the federal government under the Constitution had no right to support popular education. Now to the best of my ability I supported every one of these acts, not because I always believed in all the provisions of the acts, because I didn't, but because I felt that each one was a step, no matter how small or how halting or even how ridiculous, toward the point when it should dawn all at once upon the nation that national education was the nation's business, and that the nation should be about it! Thus for more than thirty-five years we have line upon line, precept upon precept, here a little and there a little, been breaking down the reluctance of old-time conservatism as to federal support of education, have been building up a national consciousness on this subject, have been enlightening the people on the importance and urgency of action in this matter, until now we are face to face not only with a great national crisis in American education but with a great educational opportunity which we ought by no means to let sUde. Educational progress is much like progress in other lines. A man has a new idea involving large and to many people inconvenient readjustments. It makes seemingly but little advance. A few of the younger men are in- oculated. The rising generation becomes more favorable. Finally there comes a time when all that is necessary for a sudden and immense forward movement is a few first-class funerals. That is true today. The Great War and the influenza have done their part. Let us do ours. The Great War has come and gone. Peace, it is to be hoped, will soon be declared, and the whole world will turn its attention to the works of peace, striving to forget the nameless horrors of the period thru which suffering humanity has past. This is well, of course, and yet we shall make a great mistake if we do not learn the lessons of the war and profit by them; if in our work of re- construction we do not utilize the advantage offered by an absolutely destroyed country to build up new and better cities, to replace those which war has destroyed; if we do not take advantage of the great moral |^d spiritual uplift which the gladly borne sacrifices of war have brought with Superintendence) A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION 519 them, in order to lay broader and deeper the foundations of a new order and a new society. I believe, my friends, that American education faces a very critical situation. Some of our greatest national interests are in very serious danger. The problems of our educational future cannot be successfully solved in my opinion unless the nation, through the federal government, the federal Congress, and the federal Treasury, assumes its fair share of the financial, administrative, and deliberative burdens involved in this great problem of national education. To perform this work successfully I beheve that the creation of an executive department of the federal government to be called the Department of Education, with a Secretary of Education as its head, who shall be a member of the cabinet with, the usual powers of such an officer in this [department, is necessary. I am pleading, therefore, for these two things: first, the assumption by the federal government of its fair share of national responsibility in educational matters; and secondly, for a suitable organization of the governmental machinery to enable it to do this. First, then, the federal government as the organ of the nation par excel- lence should take a more important part in the work of national education than it has thus far done, and this for three reasons: (i) It is the logical, natural thing for it to do so. (2) It is the fair thing. (3) It is a neces- sary thing. You often hear it said that the American people, when they drafted and adopted our present Constitution, assigned to the federal government the general or national functions and reserved to the states the local or special functions. A study of the history of the instrument, as well as of its text, will show that this is a very erroneous statement. Some of the powers granted to the federal government are indeed [general and national, such as that of national defense, but there was no desire on the part of most of our forefathers to invest the federal govern- ment with general powers of a sweeping character — in fact, they gave it as little power as they thought it could get along with. Our national develop- ment since has carried us far away from this view. If it hadn't done so the Union would have been dissolved long ago. Surely in a democracy the function of education is a national one. The whole society in such a state is based on the hypothesis that every citizen has received a degree of education which qualifies him to do his full duty as a citizen. Every citizen has a right to demand, not only that he himself shall have an opportunity to acquire such an education, but that every other person claiming the rights of a citizen shall also be educated to this degree; otherwise there can be no true basis for democracy. Thus, then, the function of providing facilities for such an education in a democracy is surely a general, a universal, a national function. The 520 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago nation as a whole must insist that this fundamental necessity of a free state shall be provided, and that every citizen shall have an opportunity to share in its privileges. Now it is conceivable that a nation, a free nation, a democratic nation, might safely delegate this function entirely to the locality, the city, the village, the township, on the theory that every community was so rich, so well educated, so pubHc-spirited that it could be safely relied upon to look after this public, this national, interest in a satisfactory way. Alas! Alas! That would not be a safe proposition in any country which ever has existed, or exists now, or in my opinion ever will exist. It is certainly not true of the United States of America. Here the nation as a whole ought to do its share as a whole in this work of national education — as a mere corollary of its own nature and of the nature of this function. Secondly, such an assumption of a part of the burden of popular educa- tion by the federal government is only fair and may be demanded simply on grounds of justice and square dealing. When the federal government was organized it received the most sweeping powers of taxation. While most of these were concurrent with the states and the localities, the course of our national development has been such as to make many of them exclusive in the federal government. Thus, if the federal government lays a sufficiently high inheritance tax, it may make it impossible for the states to get any revenue from this source. As a result our states and localities find themselves up against the situation of not being able to raise a sufficient revenue for the maintenance of good schools. Now the only help for this condition is to have the federal government take over some of the burdens itself, or distribute to the states funds which it has raised by taxation, or both. The federal government took the most lucrative sources of revenue and left to the localities the most expensive functions of government. Surely this is not a square deal. Again, while the burden of maintaining a system of schools was placed on the shoulders of the local unit, the advantages of such a system are distributed nation-wide. The lonely schoolhouse on the New England hills, while supported by the neighborhood, has in the last seventy-five years poured out a steady stream of able young men and women to build up the Great West. To take a concrete instance, Ilhnois has received thousands and tens of thou- sands of these young people and has profited by the education which they received in these New England schools, but it has made no return to New England itself for this magnificent gift. The blessings of education are nation-wide, and the burdens of its support should be correspondingly distributed. Finally, the assumption by the federal government of a considerable portion of the burden of national education is not only logical and just but Superintendence! A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION 521 necessary if the nation is to prosper as it should, and this function of the federal government should be taken over consciously according to a com- prehensive plan. Our present system of local support, with an occasional sop from the federal government in the shape of extension courses in agriculture and domestic economy, has broken down as a means of solving our great educational problems. The Great War has revealed to the nation what all of us whose business it is to study educational problems have long known, that as a nation we have not secured even that modicum of school training involved in the ability to read and write. It is a shame to our ancestors and will be a continuous shame to us as long as we put up with it. As was ^aid above, we are facing today a great national crisis in this matter. Take a single feature — the most important feature indeed of all, in my opinion, and yet only one element in the situation — the teacher. The American people are facing today the possibility of having the youth of the next generation pass under the school tutelage of inferior men and women. God knows we have thus far been content with a sufficiently low degree of ability and training in our teaching body, but now we are threatened with a very decided reduction in both respects. No nation can expect, nor does it deserve, to have an intelligent, conscientious, educated, and trained teaching body in its schools and col- leges and universities unless it is willing to offer to those who enter this branch of the pubHc service a decent living. The people of the United States do not today ofTer such opportunities to men and women who are thinking of taking up this calling. It ought to be possible for a young man who has the desire to teach and has natural qualifications for this work to look forward with reasonable certainty to an income which will enable him to marry and raise and support a family in the style which the community demands of him, purchase the books necessary for his work, and give time to necessary study and self- development; in other words, to live the life worthy of a human being in the vocation to which he is called. No young man of ability and training in canvassing the possible careers open to him can be blamed for turning down emphatically the teaching career whether in our grade schools, high schools, normal schools, colleges, or universities. And, of course, the same thing is true of women, tho perhaps in less degree because of the more numerous openings for men in other lines. In the days before the Great War we were making some slow progress toward an improvement in those conditions, but even then the people of this country outside of the large towns and cities — and even in some of them — were quite willing that the future of their children in certain most important periods of their lives should be intrusted to men and women the financial value of whose services to society was measured by the fact that 52 2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago they would accept a remuneration of fifty dollars a month for six months in the year. When the Great War broke out expenses of living began to increase immediately and, as the war developt, very rapidly, until it is not too much to say that the actual available income of the teachers was cut down at least 50 per cent. The nominal income — low at best — was not increast in anything like the same proportion as expenses went up, and so the whole profession, already little above the margin of subsistence and existence, suffered a most severe blow. Now, of course, many of us teachers, most of us old duffers in fact, who cannot easily take up new careers, will have to stick to teaching, even if the salaries go still lower and our situation becomes still more unfavorable, until it is plain that only the poorhouse opens before us if ^e outlive the age of active service. But who will take our places? Young men and women of little or no education or training or ability, who have not suc- ceeded in finding jobs in any other work. Is this what the American people want ? If not, they must change their policy. Many things are necessary, but just now the most necessary thing of all is a general increase of salaries corresponding in some degree at least to the increasing cost of living, especially in the lower positions, in the small salaries; and this is true of all kinds and grades of teaching — elementary, secondary, and higher. In my opinion it is absolutely impossible to do this unless the federal government and the nation make it their problem. The federal government should fix a minimum salary reasonable for a given degree of education, training, and experience in all public schools and then offer to pay half of such salary in all cases where the locahty will provide a school building and equipment which come up to a certain grade of excellence. Something large, something significant, must be done in this matter, if the permanent educational interests of the country are not to suffer. I am not criticizing what the federal government has done for education. I have favored every such step, much as I have been inclined to criticize certain features. I have been in favor of what has been done to promote agricultural and engineering education. But why Hmit it to these ? What right has the farmer or engineer to have the federal government favor him ? Why has not the lawyer, the doctor, the merchant, the teacher, and the mechanic the same right ? Aren't they as fundamental, isn't their work as important to modern society as either of the others ? And it is only on this ground that anything should be done for any of them. If the federal government is to assume this new and large function in national education, it goes without the saying that an administrative or- ganization must be developt, adapted for, and adequate to, this service. This means, as our federal government is organized, the creation of a federal department of education with a secretary of education at its head. Superintendence] A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION 523 who shall be a member of the cabinet, with the ordinary authority granted to the heads of our federal administration. This seems so plain that it does not call for further argument. One of the great incidental advantages of such an organization of education would be found in the fact that the nation would thus recognize education as a national function. It would be debated and thresht out in the Congress of the United States in connection with the passage of every budget. The newspapers would give to educational discussions of this sort a wider pubHcity. Public attention would thus be continually concentrated on the subject, and this great national interest would then be cherisht and advanst. A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION GEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. Any adequate plan for the development of American public education must take account of the fact that wealth is most unequally distributed thruout the nation. It is possible to find a state in which there is six times as much wealth back of the education of every child between six and four- teen years of age as is available in another state. The logic of the situation runs somewhat as follows : We believe in a democracy; we are not an aggre- gation of forty-eight independent democracies but rather a great nation — the United States. Democracy promises an equality of educational oppor- tunity and guarantees that the burden of providing this service shall rest with equal weight upon all who pay taxes. There is no equality of educational opportunity in the United States today. One boy goes to school in a hovel and is taught by a teacher relatively uneducated and without opportunity for professional training, without books, shops, apparatus, or suppHes, while another boy goes to school in a marble palace with a well-paid, splendidly educated, pro- fessionally trained teacher, with gymnasium, shops, and libraries available for his use. Half of our population live in the country, villages, and small towns. The children in these communities will rule the nation no less certainly than the children in our larger cities. Potentially they promise much for the perpetuation and development of our democracy. We have neglected them. The realization of the promise of democracy will come to pass when we accept the fact that the equalization of educational oppor- tunity can be provided only when the wealth of the nation is put back of the education of the children of the nation. If we seek to establish this democratic system of education we shall need to distribute large sums of money appropriated by our national govern- ment. We shall need in this field, as in the case of commerce, labor, agri- culture, and the rest, a representative in the President's cabinet. If once we admit the fact that it is the business of the nation to provide education 524 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago for all of the children, we must then acknowledge this function by the establishment of a branch of the government coordinate with those other departments now represented in the President's cabinet. We are the only nation in the world among those associated with the overthrow of autocracy and the establishment of democracy which has not its ministry of educa- tion. We needed the experience of the war to make us conscious of the national obligation to provide education. We have in other respects outgrown our neighborhood conceptions of the function of government. We have accepted our place in a great nation. With the problems of the removal of illiteracy, the Americanization of the immigrant, and the pro- viding of adequate physical education and health service before us, who will deny that we must have national action if the situation is to be met ? In time of peace, no less than in time of war, mental efficiency and physical efficiency determine the success of the nation, and the place of the nation in the world in which we live determines the opportunity of the individual. A message that Commissioner Finley, of the New York State Department of Education, brought back from France during the war should inspire us in these days of peace: Do not let the needs of the hour, however demanding, or its burdens, however heavy, or its perils, however heart-breaking, make you unmindful of the defense of tomorrow, of those disciplines thru which an individual may have freedom, thru which an efficient democracy is possible, thru which the institutes of civilization can be perpetuated and strengthened. Conserve, endure taxation and privation, suffer and sacrifice, to assure those whom you have brought into the world that it shall be not only a safe but also a happy place for them. WAR SAVINGS W. H. CAROTHERS, WAR SAVINGS COMMITTEE, EDUCATIONAL DIVISION, WASHINGTON, D.C. My brief message tonight is the announcement of a 19 19 thrift-education movement and a request for the support and cooperation of the National Education Association and educational institutions to make thrift a happy and permanent habit of the American people. I shall not relate the history of the national thrift campaign to a group of superintendents, because you have made much of that history yourselves, and it is one of the brightest pages in the annals of the war. Before us was the example of immortal France displaying a stability and solidarity never suspected. She turned forlorn hope into victory because she had reserve power, because her people had learned to "earn a httle and spend a Httle less." Herbert Hoover brought the lesson of France to America and taught it in such a way that out of the products formerly wasted or misused America kept the world provisioned until the fighting ceast. The big word in Herbert Hoover's message was Thrift. Superintendence! WAR SAVINGS 525 Thrift was one of the prime elements in winning the war, and thrift is to be one of the mightiest forces in building up the strength of our nation in the trying days of reconstruction. Thrift is care and prudence in the management of one's affairs; thrift makes the most of our resources, tangible and intangible; thrift is the foundation upon which every sound, enduring business enterprise is built; thrift is at the bottom of proper social relations; it means integrity and progress and dependability; thrift is an aid to highest culture — it is con- cerned with far more than the mere use of money and takes into account the proper use of time and opportunity. President Wilson has said, "I doubt that many good by-products can come out of a war, but if out of this war our people learn to save, the war will be worth all it has cost us in money and material." The Treasury Department has developt the suggestion which the President makes and has condenst in the Thrift Campaign of 1919 a method by which the American people may learn a lesson of permanent and growing value to the nation and to every individual in it. The Thrift Campaign of 1919 has two distinct objects: first, to teach our people the value of thrift as a habit, and second, to help supply necessary revenue to meet the debts of honor incurred in the war. In both of these prospects the teacher is vitally interested both as a citizen and as a framer of future poHcy. The Treasury is carrying its message to every organized group in the country, to the church and the lodge, to the factory and the mine, and, most important of all, to the school. Most important, I say, for if we are to obtain the two objectives of this campaign, the establishing of permanent thrift and the securing of necessary revenue, we must count upon your continued cooperation. The schools have taken the lead in this campaign, and their efforts have been largely successful. There are three good reasons why this has been so: 1 . For a quarter of a century school officials have exprest the need of a satisfactory plan of school savings which would encourage thrift by practice. Thrift Stamps and War Savings Stamps have met this need. 2. Teachers as a class have been without a convenient and safe form of investment which would accommodate small sums and yield a fair rate of interest. The savings stamp was an ideal investment for people with modest salaries. 3. The schools were preeminently loyal to the cause for which the country was at war and found the sale and purchase of stamps a service which teachers and pupils alike could render to the permanent peace and happiness of the world. The Treasury Department wants to express to you its appreciation of and congratulation on the loyal cooperation which it has received from the 526 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago schools. But this is a critical period in the history of the thrift movement. Are we to lose the benefit of the great lesson of thrift ? Surely no problem of reconstruction is more important than this. It is one which is in your hands, and the nation calls for your active support in solving it in a permanent way. The two objectives of this movement form the basis of a most desirable educational plan; for here we have the lessons of the benefits derived from the practice of thrift tied up to the practical application of these lessons in the investment in government certificates — the safest securities in the world. Almost anyone with a httle thought will accept the principles of thrift as sound; but the test comes in the application of those principles. What are we going to do about it ? For the teaching of these lessons you have the most complete facihties — a body of learners who are the American citizens of tomorrow and a body of teachers who influence every community in this nation. In the churches and shops we can impress lessons which will be of immediate effect; in the schools we can establish principles which will influence our national hfe ten years and twenty years hence, and down to future generations; they will show in every social and business and legisla- tive act for centuries. The strength of a government is a reflection of the individual habits of its people — teach the children of today care and prudence and foresight, and the nation of tomorrow will be dependable, independent, and progres- sive. A thrifty nation is a Gibraltar against the surf of anarchy and revolution and all the destructive forces that follow in the wake of extravagant, thoughtless, blind living. We must plan in collaboration with you the material on this great subject. From our combined efforts there must arise a structure logical and convincing and charged with human interest. If you and we together succeed in the erection of this structure, in the wise consummation of this plan, we have accomplisht a work for America which stirs the imagination and challenges the resourcefulness of every teacher in the land. We want your help, and we have askt the National Education Associa- tion to appoint a committee to cooperate with us in the better coordination of our work with the schools. I know that this request will be granted. The greatest enemies of thrift education in this country are apathy and indifference, and they are the archenemies of all progressive movements. It is not possible to make thrift a permanent habit among the American people without a vigorous campaign, because saving is not easy for the average person, and because we have to overcome the spendthrift habit. In the long run society gets about what it pays for, and pays for what it gets. The price of thrift is time, effort, and patience, but the rewards are commensurate. They are independence, security, and happiness. Superintendence] THE RED CROSS AND THE SCHOOLS 527 THE RED CROSS AND THE SCHOOLS J. W. STUDEBAKER, AMERICAN RED CROSS HEADQUARTERS, WASHINGTON, D.C. No complete history of the Great War can ever be written which does not record the glorious achievements of the millions of school children in every state of our Union who responded so magnificently to the call for service under the banner of the Red Cross. Their clear understanding of the meaning of the war; their eagerness to help; their willingness to sacrifice; their undaunted determination to serve with the nation and the world in order that the priceless principles of justice, freedom, and humanity might be preserved; and their skill in the execution of the responsibihties which they so readily accepted are the fruits of the untiring devotion and the far-reaching influence of the great contributor to the security of democracy — the American school-teacher. It is unnecessary in this audience, and impossible in the time allotted to me, to attempt an account even of the measurable accomplishments of this picturesque American army. The full story of the earning of over three million dollars — money which furnisht the means to further service • — can never be told. This led to the making of millions of surgical dress- ings, large quantities of sweaters and socks, a half-million refugee gar- ments, two million scrapbooks, puzzles, and games to brighten the tedious hours in camps and hospitals, and approximately two hundred thousand bedside tables, chests, splints, crutches, canes, and pieces of furniture. This record is a triumph for the schools. It is a concrete demonstration of their usefulness and efficiency, and suggests the possibility of a future development that will connect them even more directly with real purposes in modern life. No record of production, however, can measure the service of the children in the world-conflict, nor the effect which it may have upon our growing citizens. An intangible something has come into the lives of the American people with the war — call it spirit of service, or sacrifice, or spiritualization, or what you will. That spirit is typified by the Red Cross and all other organizations for relief and social helpfulness. It is manifested by millions of men and women the country over, noncom- batants who, thru their own war service, have felt their real obligations to the nation and the world and have somehow created in America a high morale which cannot end with the cessation of hostilities. The Junior Red Cross cleared the way for the children of America to share in this spirit. They could not have been kept out of the all- important business of winning the war. They demanded the opportunity to do their part. The Junior Red Cross merely opened up a channel for their efforts. Now with the end of the fighting these millions of youthful citizens, who have made their contribution to the winning of the war as an actual 528 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION . [Chicago part of the vital business of being educated, partake of the new American spirit born of the war. These children, who have felt the glow of happiness caused by unselfish and whole-hearted service, will never be content to settle back to interests solely personal and local. Their imaginations have been stimulated, their convictions deepened, and their social con- sciousness broadened. The provincialism of the past has broken down. It has been supplanted by an intense nationalism that must never disin- tegrate. The children no longer think of themselves as independent individuals unrelated to this great and more perfect union of one hundred million American citizens. They have become conscious of their social obligations. These attitudes and impulses are some of the war's cumulative effects upon our children. They face a future filled with demands for inter- national understanding and helpfulness. This is their heritage from the great struggle in which they have not been considered too young to play their part. They are growing up in the spirit of unselfish service which is that of the Red Cross. They have lived in that spirit and know how to answer the appeal of their country in need and humanity in distress. Shall this spirit ''carry on" and be turned to practical use in a world rent and torn by the ravages of the war which brought it into being, or shall it become relatively dormant? Shall we make good our promises as "champions of the rights of mankind?" Shall we divide the benefits of the victory without sharing equally in its hardships? Shall we now turn away from those who have suffered most for the cause which was as truly ours as theirs; those who have paid so dearly for a world made safe for democracy ? Are these problems regarding which American education, and you and I as teachers, should continue to feel a responsibility, even as much as during the actual fighting, when our own national safety was at stake ? Does it fall legitimately within the scope of good education so to utihze this exalted ideal of service and the calls for help from our friends across the sea that the school as an organization may become an active participant in world-affairs and establish real connections with fife? Is it impossible to carry over into peace, for a few years at least, the enrich- ment and vitalization of American education which has been so evident during the war, and can this be done with a plan thru which the school as a whole works in cooperation with the greatest and most powerful humanitarian organization ever built up in the history of the woild ? These are questions of profound importance at the present time. They are challenges of the New World wrought from the mutual sacrifices of free men everywhere; they spring from a new order of social interde- pendence which alters our conception of education and to which the school must respond in its teachings. This brings us immediately to a consideration of the future of the Junior Red Cross, a problem with which I happen to be somewhat more Supenntendencel THE RED CROSS AND THE SCHOOLS 529 directly connected than many of you, but in which I see no reason to assume that I should be more interested. Because of the unstable conditions in Europe, the unavoidable delay in receiving important decisions from the associated governments, and the tremendous and immediate readjustments following the signing of the armistice, it has been impossible for the Red Cross management definitely to formulate all the plans for the future. Certain fundamental policies have been agreed upon, however. To save time I shall enumerate them briefly: 1. In view of the widespread and intense suffering among children abroad, the Junior Red Cross, as a national organization, plans to continue for a few years at least, primarily for the purpose of giving to those sufferers the necessary reUef and comforts and any further assistance which seems appropriate. The relief work will take the form of specific projects in various countries and will be confined entirely to children. This will be the great gift of the Junior Red Cross of America to the children of Europe. Dr. Livingston Farrand, the new chief executive of the Red Cross, will sail for Europe on March 8 to select these special projects and make definite plans for their management. 2. The American Red Cross will be the medium thru which the Junior membership organized in the schools may render valuable services. It therefore asks for the cooperation of the schools, but it does not seek any degree of control over them. It recognizes the importance of continuing its efforts only for clear-cut and distinctive purposes which avoid a dupli- cation of the efforts of other national departments and organizations affecting the schools. Consequently it has no intention of attempting matters of general education. It views the school as the proper center for broad education in citizenship and offers an opportunity for partici- pation in the work which the Red Cross Is pecuKarly fitted to undertake, with the hope and confident belief that such participation will infuse into this education a few stimulating and essential elements. 3. The school-membership plan will continue in the future as in the past, the school becoming an auxiliary and each pupil a Red Cross member when a fund equivalent to 25 cents per pupil has been subscribed. This plan is thoroly democratic and offers an excellent opportunity for the socialization of the school if all pupils work cooperatively toward this 1 common unselfish purpose of world-wide importance. 4. A certain percentage of the membership fee for each school (this has not yet been determined) will be sent to national headquarters to be used for the foreign relief work suggested above. The remaining part of the fee and any additional money raised may be used for such state and community activities as are considered appropriate Red Cross work. 5. A part of the money now in the local treasuries thruout the country will be sent to national headquarters, so that necessary reUef work abroad 530 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago 6. To insure the practicability and educational value of the future program an advisory board of representative school people will be created. These are some of the policies already determined. Time will not permit a statement of others. Within a short time a complete and detailed announcement will be made public, so that we shall all know how to proceed with our plans for the immediate future and for next year. The possibilities of internationalizing education thru this program are almost boundless. From the standpoint of America this can be done by really attaching our children to their great projects for relief abroad. Their accomplishments must be made personal and vivid to them. They must become intelligent with respect to the needs of the children in Europe and the Near East. They must understand the conditions under which these children live, the industrial and agricultural difficulties resulting from the war, and the reasons for and effects of the prevalence of disease and the low physical vitality of the general population in the countries concerned. The Junior Red Cross plans to send to the schools of America at inter- vals interesting illustrated reports adapted to school use that will picture these conditions and show the progress made with relief work in its rela- tion to the reconstruction of devastated regions and the development of industrial and social Hfe. Thru material of this sort much can be done to teach in a very vital way the future problems of the various countries, as well as their traditions, customs, occupations, geography, and present social and industrial conditions. Pamphlets telUng stories and activities of the American children will also be distributed in the schools abroad. It will be the constant aim in the preparation of these reports to make the children of the several nations intimately acquainted with each other and to build up the kind of inter- national sentiment and understanding which is absolutely essential to the successful administration of a legally constituted League of Nations. This presents to you briefly the future program of the Junior Red Cross. It suggests a great system of service extending from the home, school, and community to distant parts of the world, where sorrow and pain are at every door. It unites the children of the nation under the banner of mercy. It dignifies and nationalizes simple acts of unselfishness. It gives international scope to the spirit of service and sets in motion the machine^ for practical action. It furnishes motives for purposeful school activities vrhich meet real issues and makes the school a more potent factor for social good. As the children of America answered so valiantly the call to "make the world safe for democracy," let us now give them the privilege of demon- strating their determination to help rebuild the world. If you doubt their willingness to serve in this new cause* give them a chance to decide. I Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL SERVICE 53 1 know what they will say. They are not "quitters" and will not be found lacking. Their memories of the Marne and Verdun will never fade, and their appreciation of the world made safe by the sacrifices at Chateau- Thierry and the Argonne will carry them on with greater energy to the new duties ahead. I say the American children are not "quitters." They will be as strong in the constructive pursuits of peace as in the trying emergencies of war. Their desire to serve is inherent; our province is to foster it. Then let us as their leaders help them to assume a full share of the continuing responsibilities and clear the way for complete action under the new slogan "Help Rebuild the World." Let us put new meaning into education and thru it develop in the hearts and minds of the millions of children in the American schools the spirit and understanding that will save the world from selfishness and hasten the day when a real and lasting peace shall settle upon all the peoples of the world. EDUCATIONAL SERVICE LOTUS D. COFFMAN, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. During the time that this country was engaged in active fighting the I^Hcosts of the war which could be interpreted in terms of money. The great I^Bnajority of the American people then thought of reconstruction, and still i™Kio, in terms of economic conditions; but here and there we find those who are putting their emphasis on spiritual values, upon the dignity and worth of human life, and upon the social obligations and responsibilities of the individual. The movement for the conservation of human resources is gaining in strength and in popularity. No phase of this movement touches us more deeply at the present moment than the rehabilitation of disabled soldiers. The health-broken, crippled, and disabled men that the war has left in its dreadful march are now regarded as one of its major costs. The President of the United States has declared that " this nation has no more solemn obligation than healing the hurts of our wounded and restoring them to civil life and opportunity. " He indorst the program of the War and Navy departments for the maximum functional restoration of the men and Iso the program of the Federal Bo^isd for Vocational Education for the ducation of the men after their discharge from service, and he urged e cooperation and interest of all citizens as a matter of duty, of justice, nd of humanity. He declared that such work is not a charity, that it is erely the payment of a draft of honor which the United States of America ccepted when it selected these men and took them in their health and trength to fight the battles of the nation. "They fought the good fight." 'They kept the faith." "They won." "Now," he says, "we must keep faith with them, and every citizen is an indorser on this general obligation." 532 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago Modern physicians and surgeons have rendered all the aid that skill and science make possible, but they conceded that the physical reconstruc- tion of disabled men is pecuHarly dependent upon their mental attitude. The more serious the disability the greater the danger of mental depression and indisposition to respond to medical treatment. The medical staff therefore urged that educational work should begin at the very earliest moment, if possible when the men arrive at that stage where they begin to worry about their future. The first problem, therefore, was to divert a man's attention by simple recreation, thru reading, pictures, games, handi- work, occupations with a view to securing a more genuine interest in spme end worthy to hold his attention and to claim his best efforts in his future vocation. By gradual steps his previous vocational experience was to be supplemented by academic, scientific, or technical training. This means that a new voice was heard in the interests of the maimed, the sick, the wounded from the battlefields. In the past it was the policy of this country to indemnify disabled soldiers with pensions and to build soldiers' homes for them. We encouraged a life of idleness and dependence. We regarded the cripple as a person to be pitied, not reconstructed; as a person to be supported, not self-supporting; as a helpless, useless person, not as a contributing member of society. Gradually, however, there was evolved by the crises thru which we have been passing a new social attitude which insists that every member of society shall contribute his full share and full measure to social welfare and social progress. It was with this high purpose in mind that educational service was introduced into the general hospitals of this country functioning in physical reconstruction. At first it provided for three classes of persons: those who could be restored to full military duty; those who could be restored to limited service in the army; and those who were so seriously disabled that they could never again serve their country in a military capacity. The problem was simplified after the signing of the armistice. Only the seri- ously sick and wounded now remain in the hospitals for physical recon- struction. These hospitals, now forty- three in number,' are located in the various mihtary areas from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In each hospital there is a department of educational service, staffed with college, normal- school, and public-school men and women. The first representatives of the educational department to reach the men are the reconstruction aids. These aids are women of maturity, unusual ability, and skill, animated by loyal, patriotic motives and a desire to be of service. At first they aided the men by interesting them in simple handicrafts, knitting, weaving, basketry, needle-work, designing, and mat-making. By using the various handicrafts they led the men step by step to see that they are simple elements underlying many trades. Ceramics and pottery grow out of clay-modeling, oriental-rug making out of knotting, and tapestry and designing out of weaving. In other words, handicrafts Superintendence! EDUCATIONAL SERVICE 533 were used as a means of contact to start the men on a liberalizing educa- tional career. The reconstruction aids regarded themselves as educational missionaries, and for this reason they exerted their energies to the utmost and improvised a series of new occupations. It was not long before the bed patients were studying stenotypy, stenography, library work, book- binding, jewelry and silversmithing, telegraphy, telephony, toy-making, and stenciling. As soon as the patients were able they were given the opportunity of taking up academic or technical work. The academic work consisted mainly of the elementary-school subjects. At each of the general hospitals a small room was provided where hundreds of men who had returned from the fighting front wounded and maimed for life, with ah arm gone, or a leg gone, were taught to read and write the language of the country that they had gone overseas to fight for. In addition to this they learned the elements of spelling, arithmetic, and history. In the technical department work of a pre vocational and sometimes of a vocational nature was offered. It is difficult to state exactly how many courses were provided in the tech- nical department of these hospitals, for the number and character of the courses varied somewhat with the hospital, but it is safe to say that instruc- tion was provided in at least one hundred trades, and that in addition numerous courses were provided in the fields of commerce and agriculture. No definite figures are available at present to show exactly how many men availed themselves of these educational privileges, but certainly in the neighborhood of 60,000 men have gone out from the general hospitals better equipt for the duties they have to face because of the work they took in hospitals. Now for several weeks the total number of registrants has been between ten and fourteen thousand. A teaching staff of over fifteen hun- dred persons is in charge of the work. Courses of study written in coopera- tion with the Federal Board for Vocational Education have been used, and sound vocational advice and guidance have been given the patients. They have been directed, wherever their disabilities warranted it, and urged to continue their work with the Federal Board for Vocational Education. The closest cooperation also exists between the Surgeon General's office and the Red Cross in providing wholesome recreation. It is not possible to mention the names of all those who have contributed to the success of the work, but one name stands out more prominently than all the rest, and that is the name of Dr. Frank Billings, of Chicago, who is the colonel in charge of the Division of Physical Reconstruction. It was due largely to his patience, diligence, steadfastness, courage, and vision that the educational service was establisht and maintained in the general hospitals. He kept his mind fixt upon the men to be reconstructed and urged the introduction of curative work for therapeutic purposes. At first it was assumed that only that kind of work would be introduced' which would aid in the restoration of partially disabled muscles and hmbs, but it 534 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago was soon discovered that any kind of work which helps to divert a man's mind from himself hastens his cure. One of the chief difficulties which we have had in carrying on this work thus far has been the people at home. They have urged that the wounded and sick men be discharged before their wounds were healed or they were well. Fathers, mothers, brothers, sisters, sweethearts, legislators, and congressmen have brought pressure to bear upon the War Department and upon the commanding officers of the general hospitals to hasten the dis- charge of individual soldiers, forgetting that the best educational and medical treatment that this country could provide was centered in these places, and that it was only by keeping men there that a safe, sure cure was likely to be secured. It is an interesting fact that as the educational service developt the commanding officers of the general hospitals grew more and more enthusi- astic about it. The statement was not infrequently made by them that this work was a most necessary supplement to the medical and surgical treatment, and also that it helpt more than any other one thing to preserve the discipline and to maintain the morale of the men while they were in the hospitals. The great danger which we now face is that when the work is over the idea which was responsible for it will become a mere matter of history. For months now we have stood for the proposition that what this country owes the men who fought for it is an opportunity to obtain a livelihood and to live a wholesome life. Our problem was that of raising the disabled again and alleviating their lot by restoring them to the joy in life which comes from the feeling of the renewed capacity to work and of mastery over them- selves and their disabilities. The reconstruction of disabled soldiers is but an incident in a wider movement. It is but an expression of a more fundamental and more impor- tant thing, and that is the conservation of human resources — a movement which is intended to express the dignity and worth of human life and to make every individual feel his peculiar obligations as a member of a social group. The fact that in the neighborhood of 60,000 men have felt the touch and spirit of this new movement should act as a leaven for us all. The fact that thousands of doctors and surgeons have come into contact with it and have seen and recognized its beneficent influences upon the men is a thing that should not be lost. But human life cannot be saved without money, and with everyone concerned with the mounting cost of living, the adjustment of the wage scale, and the social unrest which is expressing itself in the industrial and agricultural centers, there is danger that these finer and mote important things will be lost from view. The United States has done more for the restoration of disabled soldiers than any other of the great nations engaged in the war, and upon her rests the same peculiar obligation in this matter that rests upon her in the determination of peace, Superintendence] BOYS' WORKING RESERVE 535 and that is the obligation of perpetuating the idea of reconstruction, of insuring its expression in practice, and of making it serve as a model for the rest of the world. To stop with the salvaging of the men who offered themselves as sacri- fices, if need be, in the greatest cause that ever stirred the human imagina- tion, and who have returned to us maimed, wounded, or physically broken — to stop with these, to whom we and all succeeding generations owe a peculiar obligation, and to forget the thousands of children who are dying of hunger, the hundreds of thousands who are the victims of industrial plants, and the millions who are in the clutches of disease, means that we have not yet learned the lessons of reconstruction. Only when the social conscience of mankind includes all these in its schemes of restoration to usefulness and service will the lessons have been fully learned. Then opportunity will be valued higher than dependence, manhood higher than business, and the right to contribute and to serve higher than the extending and the accept- ance of sympathy. BOYS' WORKING RESERVE . H. W. WELLS, DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, WASHINGTON, D.C. The United States Boys' Working Reserve is a registered army of patriotic youth, organized under the Department of Labor, with branches in every state of the Union and in the territory of Hawaii. Its purpose is to mobilize for productive service, chiefly upon American farms, all physically fit boys of the United States of the ages of sixteen to twenty inclusive, to provide for the continuance of their education and training, and to prevent their exploitation while they are so mobilized. The program of the United States Boys' Working Reserve exhibits these significant items: 1. To enrol, chiefly in the high schools of the United States, all boys physically fit for service on the farms. 2. To anticipate the actual work upon the farm by such a course in the elements of farm practice as shall enable them to meet the reasonable expectations of their farmer employers. 3. To supervise at their work the boys mobilized, by the appointment of a supervisor for every group of 25 boys employed, so that the morale of the boys shall be sustained, their differences with their employers adjusted, the discouragements inherent in their new surroundings alleviated, and their efficiency maintained and increast. 4. To devise a program of wholesome and recreational activity for their leisure hours; to create and to sustain their esprit de corps, and to give them a sense of the national and patriotic character of their service. 5. To inspect the work places of would-be employers in order that the living and working conditions of such places may be found to be, or may be made to be, in conformity with accepted standards. 536 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago The training of boys is accomplisht first by the introduction into every high school of the United States the now famous Farm Craft Lessons, edited and almost wholly written by Eugene Davenport, dean of the College of Agriculture, University of lUinois. These lessons consist of a series of four-page monographs, every one of which deals with some element of farm practice general thruout the United States. The series is loose-leaf and capable of indefinite expansion. It is too, by its loose-leaf character, easily subject to a process of selection that chooses those lessons that are particu- larly applicable to conditions that obtain in various sections and locaHties. Whereas the Farm Craft Lessons make a text of very high quality in voca- tional education, their purpose will easily be mist if they are regarded merely as a text and not, as they are meant to be, as a manual of instruction to be taken to the laboratory, to the barns, to the implement-makers, to the fields, in order that in living touch with the actual conditions and equip- ments of farms they may help to illustrate the elements of farm practice. Training of boys is furthered in the next place by the estabHshment, in cooperation and in connection with agricultural colleges and schools, of central farm training camps, in which camps the boys are subjected to military discipline, are taught by the faculties of the colleges and schools, are brought into contact with the superior equipment of such colleges and schools, and so are sent forth to their work with a training a Httle more definite than that which it is possible to obtain thru the use of the Farm Craft Lessons. Professor William J. Spillman, recently and for eighteen years chief of the Bureau of Farm Management of the Department of Agriculture, says that the United States Boys' Working Reserve "provides a permanent solution of the increasingly difficult problem of harvest labor on the farm." One of the problems of schoolmasters in this country has been to devise a program that should be coextensive with the public-school system of the United States for the wise and helpful employment of the long vacation period. The common experience of schoolmasters with boys who return to school from their long vacation is that that vacation leads very com- monly to a demoralization which only the discipline of several weeks of the autumn semester can overcome. Character is invaded, and the time and energy of the teaching faculty are wasted. The United States Boys' Working Reserve provides an occupation for the vacation period that conserves the schoolboy's morale, increases it, builds him up in body and mind, adds immensely to his practical knowledge of affairs, and returns him to school thoroly fit immediately to undertake the education and train- ing provided by his school. Because of the sanity of this program and its immense practicality, and because the Reserve is the only organization that affects the whole public- school system of the United States, the Reserve desires the hearty support of superintendents, principals, and teachers of the public schools. Superintendence] REPORT ON SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS 537 Some change in schedules, some speeding of courses, and some elimina- tion of nonessential studies and of nonessential elements of essential studies will be necessary on the part of the schools to secure a frictionless coopera- tion with the Reserve. But enlightened schoolmasters in every state of the (Union are quick to see the advantages of such cooperation and are in increas- ing numbers supporting the work of the Reserve. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS JOSEPH SWAIN, CHAIRMAN The Committee which was appointed in 191 1 has now discharged two )f the duties that were intrusted to it. Three reports on teachers' salaries ive already been issued. An interim report on state pension systems for mblic-school teachers was issued in 1916. During the past year a final report was made on the subject of pensions, which embodies the results [of investigations and conferences held at the meetings of the Department )f Superintendence and of the National Education Association during the )ast three years. The Committee had the cooperation of the Carnegie ! Foundation, which has devoted especial attention to and has accumulated a :onsiderable amount of information on the subject of pensions since its jtabHshment in 1906. A report pubUsht for the Committee by the Carnegie Foundation as lulletin No. 12, Pensions for Public School Teachers, may be obtained with- out cost on apphcation to the Foundation, 576, 5th Avenue, New York, N.Y. The report has already had a wide circulation, not only among teachers, but also among civic, industrial, and commercial organizations interested in the subject of pensions, and has met everywhere with very favorable comment. The report itself is a clear and simple statement of the problem, free from the technicalities usually involved in such studies. It discusses pensions from the point of view, not only of the teacher, but also of the public and of the requirements of the school. In cooperation with the Commissioner of Education for Vermont the ''oundation was able to secure complete data relating to the life of the teacher, on the basis of which a "Suggested System of Retiring Allowances for Teachers in the Public Schools of the State of Vermont" is presented, 'he system so suggested has been considered and discust by a pension com- littee representing the teachers of the state and was submitted to local ictuaries. The plan has received the sympathetic interest and approval )f both the teachers and the speciahsts. A bill has now been prepared by le Vermont teachers' pension committee embodying the suggestions con- lined in the report and will be presented to the legislature at its present session. The bill incorporates the principle of a savings scheme and the 538 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago purchase of annuities with the accumulations. It distributes the cost equitably between the teachers and the state, insures simpHcity of adminis- tration, provides for protection in the case of disabihty and for the return of contributions in the case of death, dismissal, or resignation, and takes care of the vexed problem of accrued liabilities. The report has already led to numerous inquiries, and a number of states have been stimulated either to inaugurate or to reorganize pension systems in accordance with the sound principles there involved. It is essential at this juncture, when the great need of the country is to attract' good teachers to the school and to offer them a Hfe-career, to consider carefully the economic conditions involved. The problem of salaries is acute, and if suitable candidates are to be attracted into the teaching pro- fession a wholesale upward revision is essential. Salaries alone, however, will not keep persons within a profession; they must have some prospect of protection against the major risks of life, the loss of earning power thru disability or old age; at the same time the educational interests of the public must be safeguarded against teachers who become inefficient from the same causes. The only solution is a system of pensions that will provide generously for the teacher, will be fair to the public, and will promote the efficiency of the school. Such a system the Committee feels 'is presented in the report made at its request by the Carnegie Foundation. THE SCHOOLS AS THEY HAVE AFFECTED GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES G. STANTON FORD, NATIONAL SCHOOL SERVICE, WASHINGTON, D.C. The preceding speakers have discust government activities as affecting the schools. Six such necessarily brief accounts could in no way cover all phases of the effect of the war upon the schools. Yet one cannot listen to the addresses without realizing that the nation in the recent crisis has reacht out as never before and laid its hand upon the shoulder of the school teacher and said: If the war is to be won and the nation saved, you must help. If the people are to be fed at home and starvation abroad checkt, you must help. If the savings of the people are to furnish forth an army, you must teach saving. If the products of the farm are to be garnered, you must enlist your boys. If soldiers are to be trained, the teacher must prepare the way for the commander. If the heart of America is to be toucht and the heralds of mercy sent ladened with evidences of America's generosity, then the message of the Red Cross must be a part of the curriculum of world-citizenship. No appeal to the schools has gone unheard. The result is a part, and no small part, of the history of the successful prosecutioil of the war. There remains for my equally brief summary the topic of the schools as they, in their turn, have affected the government activities. We are at the [superintendence] SCHOOLS AND GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES 539 leart of the topic at once if we ask ourselves, What was the most amazing ig about America's participation in the war, the one thing which con- [ditioned and made possible all forms of government activity in the prosecu- tion of the war ? What was it that enabled America to take her part, and that a decisive one, in the overthrow of the Central Powers ? Some answer by counting our battleships, our destroyers, our cannon, our air craft, our heapt-up munitions, our Hfe-destroying inventions, and our hosts of armed men. Thus it is that they seek to show where the totals gave us preponderance. Force, and force to the uttermost, has indeed triumpht over force, and the battle of armaments and armed men is won. The fundamental question, however, would yet remain a puzzle to him who dealt only in statistics and strategy. We might count and add and multiply the handful of men who went in at Belleau Wood and Chateau- Thierry, and the result would never explain the turn of the tide if he forgot that they came, not only as a physical force, but as the embodiment of the spirit of a free people who held and cherisht a common ideal taught them in common schools. Let it be added by way of comment and tribute that they were directed chiefly by women whose very lives represented service and self-sacrifice. The final victory was won, in so far as America was a factor, because it had been preceded by the battle of the books, by the silent triumphs of an army of teachers in the schoolrooms and on the playgrounds, of this new world-experiment in democracy. In its last analysis this war was a war of ideals. It was a war of school systems. Germany had the model school system, as she had the model army, and in the same sense. They were both conferred upon her with doctrines and discipHne alike con- ceived in the spirit of the mediaeval class system. The patience with which the German people had labored and longed for national unity was ultimately rewarded, but Prussian feudalism crowned by the HohenzoUern dynasty and allied with German industrialism controlled the schools and the army and dominated the social system. They were models from the standpoint of the controlling classes, which sought to perpetuate class dis- tinction, social divisions, and national prejudices. They were models from the standpoint of an age that is past — the age of privilege, of international plunder by a state, which was above morals and human restraints. The American school system was conceived in another spirit. Its control has been in the hands of the people themselves. No dominant class has divided the stream of children at the schoolhouse door and said to the sons of the humble, "You are to be the nation's burden bearers, as your fathers were before you. Enter at that door, that you may be trained as a peasant or artisan for life." And to the children of the noble and the well-to-do, "Enter at this door, that you may have the higher education for places of power over the sons of the humble." The American school system has opened wide one door and said: "On those benches rich and poor alike must learn one lesson and be measured by one standard. Our business is 540 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago training for citizenship in a democracy that knows no class distinction and can tolerate none. We are building on the past, but we are training for the future. This schoolroom is a miniature of the democracy in which you must live. In its varied nationahties it is a miniature of the world in which all men must live. Here you may prepare to be banker, merchant, or chief, but here you must prepare to be a citizen of a democracy which endures, and can only endure, because its people cherish certain ideals in common and have absorbed the elements, crude tho they be, of a common culture. " The public schools of America have been the product and the guardians of American democracy; and when, but recently, the ideals taught in them confronted us, foe-beset, pursued, and askt of us the promise of our youth, the American people, educated in the common schools, responded to the challenge of the common ideals. The German people and army, perfect products of the German schools, shattered themselves against the forces disciplined in the democracy of American schools and playgrounds. The critics may be right when they say that we have an educational system which produces few if any educated men, fewer still who love books for life or do persistent thinking. But with all their shortcomings, it is the schools which supply the answer to the question: What was the most amazing thing about America's participation in the war, the one thing which conditioned and made possible all government activities in its prosecution ? The amazing thing was the unity of the whole nation from coast to coast, its response to every appeal made to it for the common cause, its power to combine and recombine in ever more effective forms of cooperation, to subordinate individual, section, party, race, and creed to simple and direct appeals to its love of country and its passion for human welfare. But this miracle of a hundred million thinking, speaking, and acting as one was not achieved overnight. It was the product of an education which taught all the people a few simple things in history, reading and writing, and the elements of government, thus giving to all Americans the common denominator into which they could translate the appeal of the nation's leaders in a great crisis. The boys who had gone to school as *'wops," "micks," "sheenies," "polocks," and "dagoes" had there played the same games and learned the elements of American living and thinking on the benches with those whose ancestors landed at Plymouth Rock or James- town. Their names, pronounceable or unpronounceable, are inscribed aHke on the roll of the honored dead, and the stars that have turned to gold shine with equal luster in the windows of millionaires' palaces and of the humble homes of the poor. The public schools, of which these boys were the common product, have deserved well of the nation, because they have taught, not all things to a selected few, but few things to all. That has been their most precious contribution, the one all-necessary contribution to America's participation in a war waged for the preservation of a nation Superintendence] SCHOOLS AND COVMHUMT ACTIVITIES 541 conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created free and equal. Nor must we think of the schools in too narrow a sense. From our colleges and universities, student body and faculty alike, went the men who quickly assimilated the training for military leadership. From our uni- versities and graduate schools came the scientists and investigators who could match discovery for discovery, device for device, with scientists whom Germany had for a generation enlisted in the preparation for war by means of all the ruthlessness that human brains could evolve. Higher education supported by the taxes of all justified in a year and a half all that democracy had spent on it in the last quarter of a century and opened up for itself the claim to greater consideration in times of peace. Indeed the whole service of education in a national crisis has made its importance so evident as a national matter that it cannot remain without the national recognition, support, and leadership for which it has so long waited, and which it so richly deserves. My friends, we are now face to face with that future toward which we have labored. It has stolen upon us in a night. America has reacht the end of the age of easy, unconscious, and inevitable democracy. That democracy was made possible because our great areas of free land kept us a nation of pioneers free from discontent. All things have been in flux. No man could be held permanently in employment or at wages that did not suit him, for he could go to a great West where land was cheap. He could carve out his own fortune and create for his children the opportunity to be free and well educated. That day is gone. The tree land that can be cultivated without capital is now taken up. We do not have it to offer to our returning soldiers, as we did to those who came out of the Civil War. With the end of free land, the rise of great cities, and the development of industrialism America is facing the economic conditions which Europe has known for a half-century or more. Democracy will no longer be something we cannot escape. It will be something we must labor for, something we must fight for, something we must sacrifice for. We must treasure it and guard it all the more closely because it now no longer embodies our hopes alone. This American democracy is now Hfted up as a light and a guide to the whole world* If our experiment fails, and fails because the American schools fail, that failure will bring the bitterness of despair to millions now longing for a new world under the leadership of America and American ideals. The responsibility upon the American schools is tremendous. The task will not be as easy as in the past, when the American schools expres.t American democracy easily and unconsciously, because all tides of our life, economic as well as poHtical, flowed smoothly in the one direction. The strain upon the schools will soon be evident. The future will call for educational statesmanship, for courage, for an understanding of the spirit of our Ufe and institutions, for an upUfted vision of the whole world's needs and longings. 542 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago Already new programs are springing up on every hand. The air is full of educational reforms and calls for readjustments. Let us welcome them all as expressions of the divine discontent which urges on people and schools alike to better things. But the war has shown us and peace is making it clearer that amid all the change, all the new types of schools, all the modi- fications of curricula, the schools must keep close to the heart of the whole nation's life, spurning the control of groups and serving no class except as they serve all. They must respond to many demands but hold fast thruout the whole land, city and country schools alike^ to those common things which have made and must keep us one people. WHAT THE WAR SHOULD DO FOR OUR METHODS IN ENGLISH EDWIN L. MILLER, PRINCIPAL, NORTHWESTERN HIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. Among the treasures which have recently been uneartht on the banks of the Euphrates is a Babylonian wall, on which is inscribed in cuneiform characters the following autobiographical fragment from the chisel of an unknown pedagogue: It was September of the year 1330 B.C. I stood trembling before Dr. Bulbul, super- intendent of the schools of Babylon. " So," said he, " thou desirest a job in a high school ?" "Yea, verily," said I. "What dost thou wish to teach?" said he, "Babylonian," said I. "Indeed," said he contemptuously. "Knowest thou not that any fool can teach Baby- lonian?" "That's the reason," said I, "Canst thou teach aught else?" said he. "Yea," said I modestly but unveraciously. "I can teach Chinese, Sanskrit, Arabic, Egyptian, Indo-European, mathematics, history, astronomy, and the art of baking bricks." Where- upon he interrupted me with boisterous but not ungenial cachinnations, saying: "Thou wilt report for duty at the Nebuchadnezzar High School on Monday at 4:00 a.m." The system of schools into which I was thus inducted was cursed with a course in Baby- lonian which was strictly up to date. It consisted of a list of Babylonian classics, some of which had been selected by the teachers because they liked them, but most by Dr. Bulbul because he had read their titles in a list of the hundred best walls compiled by Tiglath- Pelouzar, the imperial biologist. Of those titles I can remember only two, The Large Granite Mug and The Shoemaker Resoled. There was in the curriculum no vestige of those survivals of a barbaric past which are known to archaeologists as spelling, punctua- tion, capitalization, or the other essentials of good usage. In this fair garden of letters I luxuriated for some years, happy and beloved by my pupils. It so happened in those days that one Lithocrates, a man ^ low origin but great cunning, had acquired in trade much gold and unpopularity. Now, waxing old and fearing the wrath of the gods or desiring to corrupt the minds of the people, he founded at Babylon an university, bringing thither at great expense wondrous football players from the four quarters of the globe, among them from Palestine one Samson, who later attained an evil notoriety. But that is another story. He brought also from the Troad a young professor of Babylonian named Homer, who entertained the to nle novel idea that gradu- ates of high schools should be able to speak and write Babylonian with fluency and pre- cision. As those among my disciples who repaired to his classes could do neither, he made complaint of me to Dr. Bulbul, saying that I knew not how to teach Babylonian. Now be it understood, Babylonian meant to me literature, to Professor Homer composi- tion, and to Dr. Bulbul everything in general and nothing in particular. Whence, as Superintendence] WAR AND OUR METHODS IN ENGLISH 543 commonly happens when three persons enter into disputation about a question which none of them understands and a clear conception of which dependeth on the definition of a word to which each attacheth a different meaning, arose acrimonious strife both written and oral; and I retired from the fray humbled and chastened even as the grain of millet is ground betwixt the upper and nether millstones. After long meditation upon these matters I did finally perceive as in a glass darkly that the curriculum required me to teach literature, while Professor Homer, who was himself inordinately fond of scribbling, thought only of composition. Therefore, being a man of peace, I tried to teach both, and, as an end to that means, required that each of my pupils annually fashion and bake one brick. The result was that my own pleasures were seriously curtailed. I often sat up all night with my mallet and my chisel working upon the compositions of my disciples in the effort to bring them down to the level required by the professor. Strange to say, my labors were not appreciated. My fellow-teachers made bitter moan, saying that it was contrary to union ethics to work overtime. The children rebelled because Babylonian was no longer a snap. Certain parents insinuated that I owned stock in a brickyard. One mother even went so far as to inform Mr. Fortin- bras, my principal, that I was a crank on the subject of Babylonian. In his alarm that astute but timid functionary rebuked me, saying: "Each one has their own rights. The progenitors of Hilpah and Shalum wax wroth. Do not give so much work to her and he." The uncertainty of his syntax need occasion no surprise. I note increasing laxity of language in all grades of Babylonian society since the tower episode. When these things came to the ears of Dr. Bulbul, he sent for me and spake thus: "What the children need is not spelling but inspiration. As for punctuation, by hen, odsbodykins, and -likewise pish! When there is a break in the thoughts of thy disciples, let them put in a dash." " If that is thy system," said I, " thy compositions must resemble an untranslated Marconi cablegram." /'Moreover," I added, "if I were to print my opinion of thy system, I could express my^ sentiments only by a series of dashes." After which I abandoned the profession of pedagogy, formed a connection with a brick maker of Babylon, and went up and down in the land selling primers to school boards, an occupation which proved to be more lucrative than my previous one. The moral of this fable, I take it, is that the teaching of the vernacular presents problems that are baffling by reason of their complexity. As somebody once said somewhere of one of Emerson's lectures, it begins everywhere and ends nowhere. The most illuminating remark that I know concerning its real nature is to be found among the utterances of a pedagogical authority not as yet widely recognized as such, to wit, Dogberry in Much Ado about Nothing, Act II, scene 3. He says, ''To be a well- favored man is the gift of fortune; but to read and write comes by nature." In other words, wars may come and wars may go, but the same prob- lems in English teaching go on forever. Revolutions will consume much, but what is incombustible they will not consume. What is needed in the teaching of English today is not revolution but reaffirmation. To be specific, the fable indicates that there are five prerequisites to good English teaching: 1. A community that realizes its value. 2. A superintendent who understands what is required or who, if he does not understand, has sense enough to call in those who do. 3. Principals who have scholarship as well as political sagacity, i.e., former Enghsh teachers. 544 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago 4. Teachers who are well trained, adequately paid, and not o^erworkt. 5. Colleges with English faculties that are at once critical, fearless, and diplomatic. This happy combination of supermen will recognize that what we call English comprises two subjects, literature and composition. The object of composition is to teach pupils to express their ideas in plain English, that of literature to fill their souls with great ideas. In the teaching of composition they will find inspiration for their pupils in the joy of a good job well done. They will provide adequately for the instruction of new Americans in the EngHsh language. They will see to it that boys and girls are thoroly drilled in penmanship, spelling, punctua- tion, and technical English grammar. They will be especially trained in the composition of business papers and in the art of salesmanship. As a means to all of these ends, they will be encouraged to pursue the study of Latin, French, or Spanish. Patriotic and business considerations aside, the aid which Latin gives to an understanding of grammar and the light which all three languages throw upon our English vocabulary render them more valuable than German. Finally our boys will receive such training in oral English that never again can our military authorities complain that they cannot give orders. In the field of literature emphasis will be laid on the new poetry produced by the war, on the new American otatory, on the hitherto shamefully neglected field of American biography, and on the fresh significance of Enghsh literature. The fires that have blazed since 19 14 have illuminated indeed many an old page in Enghsh literature. They have invested with fresh significance the lofty idealism of Chaucer's knight, who "lovede trouthe and honour, fredom and curtesie." They have made more dear that earth, that realm, that England which Shakspere called a precious stone set in the silver sea. They have shown that Byron thought straight and thought true when he said: For Freedom's battle once begun, Bequeathed from bleeding sire to son, Tho bafl9ed oft is ever won. They have added a solemn dignity to Wordsworth's great lines: We must be free or die, who speak the speech That Shakspere spake, the faith and morals hold Which Milton held. Above all they have quickened the hope that, in spite^ of all the terror and the tragedy, the vision may be justified that was seen by Robert Burns and put in these words: Then let us pray that come it may As come it will for a' that; That man to man, the world o'er, Shall brothers be for a' that. SuperintendenceJ WAR AND OUR METHODS IN HISTORY 545 WHAT THE WAR SHOULD DO FOR OUR METHODS IN HISTORY S. B. HARDING, COMMITTEE ON HISTORY AND EDUCATION FOR CITIZENSHIP IN THE SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D.C. Even before the war there was a considerable amount of dissatisfaction with the history teaching in our schools. It was alleged, with some show J^; of reason, that history as usually taught was too much engrost with poli- l^wtics, war, and diplomacy, and too little occupied with the whole hfe of ^■society; it was too narrowly national and took too little account of the ^■peoples and governments of other lands; it was too didactic, too cut and ^B dried, and too little interested in problems and questions of evidence and ^B proof; it was too much a mass of facts and too Httle a discipline for hfe; ^■above all, it was too remote and antiquarian and lackt vital relation with ^^the interests and needs of the present. As one Chicago teacher feelingly put it in discussing United States history, it "took too long to get the damned country settled." There was undoubtedly exaggeration in these charges against history teaching, and some of the critics aroused derision by their ignorance of the nature and function of the subject, as well as of some of its funda- mental facts. In every part of the country there were to be found live, enthusiastic, well-prepared teachers of history who were getting results which educationally were as fine as those obtained anywhere by any teachers of any subject; but undoubtedly there was a feeUng that some- thing was wrong, that things were out of joint; and this attitude mani- fested itself in many meetings of history teachers, as well as in other quarters, in the years immediately preceding the war. With the beginning of the European struggle the study and teaching of history took on a new importance. The origins of the conflict were searcht out, partly to account for the catastrophe and partly in the endeavor to make clear the necessity of our participation, and "to give a reason for the faith that was in them" to the lads who were called upon to don khaki. The war-issues course of the S.A.T.C. and similar courses in high school and common schools alike increast the interest in history and directed new attention to the problems of its teaching. Incidentally there was revealed the disturbing fact that over lo per cent of the men called to the training camps were ignorant of the English lan- guage and presumably equally ignorant of the ideals and obligations of American citizenship. The old criticisms concerning the content and methods of our history courses were renewed and new ones were added. As a result we may be quite certain that history teaching is in for an over- hauling, and that if necessary changes are not made by its friends the task will be attempted by its enemies — with results which we may not like to contemplate. ^4^ ' NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago The specific question given me to discuss, however, is, ''What should the war do for our teaching of history?" I shall present my answer to this question in the form of six propositions : 1. The war should teach us all to think more internationally. It has been a world-war in the number and distribution of its participants and to a certain extent in the range of its operations. Whether the pres- ent draft of the League of Nations is .adopted as it stands or not, some form of world-organization is certain to result, in which we shall have an important part. Our thought must keep pace with the changing situation, remembering that — New occasions teach new duties, Time makes ancient good uncouth. The history teacher, without lessening the emphasis on our national ideals and duties, must perform his part in helping to educate the rising genera- tion to a sense of world-citizenship. This, I think, can best be done by giving adequate attention in our schools to the history, aspirations, and institutions of other peoples, as well as to the factors and movements which in the past hundred years have made for a new internationalism. 2. The war should enforce the old lesson, if it needs enforcing, that the present is rooted deep in the past. Just as the biologist and medical scientist invoke the aid of embryology and etiology in dealing with their problems, so the citizen and statesman need the aid of history in deahng with the practical problems of society. Almost none of the questions involved in the present war are capable of intelligent discussion save in the light of history. Serbia and the Balkan question, out of which the strug- gle immediately grew, require a knowledge of history for elucidation and settlement. Germany is inexpHcable without a knowledge of Bismarck and Frederick the Great, along with Goethe, Schiller, and Martin Luther. So it is with Alsace-Lorraine, Schleswig-Holstein, Poland, Morocco, the Turkish Empire — even Bolshevism, that last and most disquieting of all the problems staring us in the face. Our government recognizes the value of history in dealing with those questions and for over a year past has had working for it, under Colonel House's direction, a score or more of historical scholars, in conjunction with other experts, in order to supply the information needed for use at the Peace Conference. 3. It is, however, the recent past, the period since 1789, or 181 5, pr even 1850, which most deeply concerns us in our present national and international relations. This recent history must be taught in order to make twentieth-century citizens. There should be no break in our study and teaching between the past and the present. Whatever else is desir- able, this is indispensable. We must abandon the fetish which causes us always to begin with the beginnings and take first the things which are chronologically first. The earliest history course in the high school, instead of being a course in ancient history, may very well be made in fact if not in name a study o^ the origins and course of the present war. Superintendence! WAR AND OUR METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY 547 4. For the purpose of culture and the finer judgments, however, the longer view, stretching even to prehistoric days, is still as valuable as ever; hence instruction in the remote periods of history should be afforded, so far as is consistent with the preceding principle. Possibly this can be done by making a wiser use of historical stories in the lower grades, modifying somewhat the course outlined by the Committee of Eight. Possibly it can be effected by an enlarged use of historical readers, as is done by Superintendent Chandler, of Richmond, Va. Possibly it must be left to elective courses placed later in the curriculum, to be taken by the fortunate few who prepare for college. 5. I should say that historical-mindedness is the goal we should strive for, even more than the acquisition of specific historical knowledge. Its essence is understanding and sound judgment. In part it consists in seeing events in their true perspective and so presupposes a certain amount of historical background. Still more it consists in an abihty to weigh evi- dence, to criticize statements from the standpoint of good faith and accuracy, to distinguish between assertion, opinion, and proof. To help develop such an attitude of mind the problem method of teaching is extremely useful, implying as it does some consideration of sources and discussion of conflicting testimony. 6. Finally, any reconstruction of the historical curriculum, in order to be useful, must be practicable. It must consider a two years' course in history — I am speaking of the high school^which can be taken by all pupils, say one year devoted mainly to world-history with emphasis on modern Europe, and the other to United States history and government, as better than a four years' curriculum, whose courses are ordinarily com- pleted by no single pupil. It must take account of the 6-3-3 type of school organization, pivoting on the junior high school, as well as the older 8-4 organization. It must provide especially for the needs of the rural schools, in which at least half of our children of school age are en- rolled. And it must interpret the term history broadly, so as to include the Hfe of man in society — his industry, religion, science, literature, and art, as well as his wars and poHtics. These I regard as the principles which must especially be kept in mind in a reorganization of the history program in our schools. WHAT THE WAR SHOULD DO FOR OUR METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY J. PAUL GOODE, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. This Great War, more than any other war in history, has focust the world's attention upon the map. Every nation has been involved, some at grips with death, and even the remotest neutral nation paying tribute to the Kaiser, in unsettled markets and ruined affairs. And on us, in America, these disturbing influences have been very markt. We have been 548 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago keenly alert to every phase of the great conflict. We have watcht the tide of events day by day from Tsing-tao to the Falkland Islands, and then to the Skagerrak; the fighting in Togo, the Cameroons, Damaraland, and East Africa, the tragedies of Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Armenia, the varying flood of events on the Italian front, in Roumania, on the front in France from St. Mihiel to Flanders, and on the long east front from Riga to Odessa. We have learned of the heroism and dramatic travels of the 80,000 Czecho- slovaks and their deathless glory, in their desperate ventures in the cause of freedom, and now we are watching the birth of a flock of httle repubHcs, most of the names of which even were unknown to the mass of Americans four years ago. Our sons and brothers from every community in our broad land have gone by the million into service in various parts of Europe and Asia, getting geography at first hand and writing home innumerable letters from places unheard of by the folks at home. So suddenly has our attention been demanded from all four quarters of the earth, and so uneducated in geography are most of us, that our newspapers early found that the most valuable bit of news they could pub- lish was a map which would put before the eye the location of the event chronicled. All the magazines have learned the same good lesson, and even the most staid and sober of the literary magazines, which has always held itself in dignified superiority to the use of illustrations, has followed suit these years with maps. Our navy shares with Britain in the rule of the seas. Our shipbuilding program looks to the future. We built last year almost two miUion tons of shipping and are building now at a two-million rate. Our lads are still enHsting for naval service, and a half-million of them will soon be finding themselves in all the ports of the world, and we at home will be keeping track of them and getting lessons in place geography in the most natural and effective way. As far back as 1890 our country "reacht its majority" in the matter of foreign trade. Manufacture and commerce have grown vastly since then, and for the past two years the total value of our foreign trade has past the mark of $9,000,000,000. We are far and away the greatest nation on earth in foreign trade, and we are only beginning to grow. When we stop to think that our country has over one-half of all the known coal in the world, is producing almost one-half of the world's iron, three-fourths of the world's copper, two-thirds of the world's petroleum, and two-thirds of the world's cotton — and this is only the beginning of a long fist of advantages we claim as ours — we can see very plainly that our manifest destiny is to do the manu- facturing for half the world and to assume presently the responsibihty for half the world's foreign commerce. All this should make it as plain as a pikestaff that we as a people are not to be permitted longer to be a provincial people. We must look over the horizon and learn the geography of other lands. We must see to it that I Superintendence] WAR AND OUR METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY 549 all our children get this general acquaintance with the world at large. And if we are going to be the world's greatest commercial nation we cannot escape the call for a large and general development of commercial geography — the study of the geographic principles underlying the production of the raw materials of commerce and the distribution of these materials into the markets of the world. It is an inspiration to see the government, thru the Federal Board for Vocational Education, making a careful canvass of what education is essential in the development of our industry and com- merce, and discovering geography as an indispensable element in all preparation for industry, and especially commercial geography for the foreign-trade work. Now comes the conclusion of the Great War, when the victors are working out the details of a League of Nations which shall make it forever impossible for the world to be drawn again into a world-war, and we find ourselves as a nation, because of the great advantages bestowed upon us, bearing a large fraction of the responsibilities of the great league, sharing in policing the world and seeing to it that every people, however small, shall be given its right to hberty and the pursuit of happiness. We are likely to be called to act as sponsor to a flock of small nations all over the earth, and we are all going to have a patriotic pride in this business of assuring the "square deal" — and, willy-nilly, we shall all be drilled still further in geography. We as a nation are distinctly above the horizon. We are very much in the family of nations. We may not play the role of recluse any more nor be provincial any more. We must become good geographers and have a general acquaintance not only with our own country but with the family of nations outside our own. When we turn to our schools to find what provision there is for all this general training we find geography teaching at a low ebb. As a rule, in the common schools geography is ofTered only in three or four years. In many schools the pupil is given no training in geography after the sixth grade. Even so, what is done is often so poorly done that the pupil goes on into his life-work with as nearly nothing in the way of geographic training as can be imagined. A generation ago some emphasis was put upon place geography, and the older men and women of today have some knowledge of the map to fall back upon, as the horizon of our daily interest takes us out into the world. There came a protest, however, against this drill on the map, this "sailor geography," and without taking pains to inquire what was bad about it, or how better to do the part that was worth doing in place geography, it was easier to call it a bad name and drop it, and with it nearly all interest in the subject. So far has this lack of interest in geog- raphy as a school subject carried us that we hardly expect an entering col- lege student to know any geography at all. I have had in my own classes teachers of long standing in the schools of a great city who could not even 5 so NA TIONA L ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION (Chicago name half the states in the United States, and who in a test on a hundred important place names in general geography might get but thirteen to twenty right. Successful business men within my horizon have within the last two years been surprised to learn that the Ukraine was a region and not a breakfast food. One man interested in selling a product in Austraha askt what part of South America Austraha is in, anyway! And a professor in a prominent eastern university could not answer the question "What is Milwaukee?" A very slight search for the reason for this general apathy and the evasion of the opportunity and duty of getting all the students of our schools well establisht in geography shows that the study of geography for the purpose of teaching it is largely ignored in normal schools and other schools for the training of teachers. There are not many such schools where the subject has a fair share of the student-teachers' time, or where competently trained instructors are given an opportunity for developing such training, or where instructors who have the training are given adequate equipment for a proper development of the science. There are normal schools of some standing in which provision for training the young geography teacher is limited to one term, or one half-year in the course, and then as one of four or five subjects carried abreast. In many schools one or two years of Latin or German may be offered and in some cases required of young people who are presently requested by the principal to take classes in geography. Someone has pointed out that one of the largesi:; handicaps in the develop- ment of geography in our schools is that the geography text is printed in English. If it had a language of its own, or even a peculiar vocabulary, like Latin, or German, or chemistry, or domestic science, some preliminary preparation for its teaching would be granted. As it is, it oftens happens that a young teacher who has not even been exposed to geography since the seventh or eighth grade is required to teach a class, often with results which on the surface seem to warrant the principal or the school board in still further ignoring the subject. What then has the war done in indicating needed changes in our methods in geography? It has shown the absolute need of the reorganization of the course of study in our schools, bringing geography up to a par with English and arithmetic as an essential in the Uberal education of all our children. It might be profitable to have some work in geography in every year in the grades. It has shown the utter folly of expecting good geography teaching to be done without providing for the adequate training of the young person who is expected later to teach the subject. It is certain that, following all the work that can be done in the grades, there should be provided in the high school at least three separate units of work in geography, which might well occupy three terms or three half- years: I, The Principles of Geography; II, Commercial or Economic Geography; and III^ Commercial Countries, fsuperintendencej WAR AND OUR METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY 551 The first of these units is an element of the very largest significance in [the liberal education of every student and might with perfect propriety be (required as rigidly as a knowledge of common arithmetic. The second :ourse, Commercial Geography, is of the largest value in opening up the [horizon of the world's activities in industry and commerce, and by all means J-should be a part of the necessary general education of every boy or girl who to go into the business world, and is of almost equal value with the prin- :iples course just mentioned, as an element in a liberal education. The lird course. Commercial Countries, would be offered late in the high-school ^ork, it might occupy a whole year with profit, and it would be the beginning )f special training leading into active commercial work in the business world. It is plain also that adequate teaching in geography calls for a generous equipment in globes, maps, atlases, and other texts, and pictures such as )hotographs, stereographs, and lantern slides. It should be considered just "as essential to have this material equipment for geography as to have a laboratory and reagents and apparatus for chemistry. Finally the whole question of teachers' pay should be opened up. A young person cannot afford to get the preparation necessary for doing good work in teaching unless there is a decent living wage to look forward to. There are many city schools in which the janitors are better paid than any of the teachers, and where the plumber who comes to fix a leaky pipe is paid more than the principal of the school. That is because the janitors and the plumbers have unions and can demand a living wage. If necessary, the teachers should be encouraged to form unions and play the game too. The teachers' pay should be sufficient to do a little more than merely buy clothes and pay board bills. It should be possible for a geography teacher to lay by a little and travel a bit now and then out into the world and get at first hand some of the geographic relations and conditions he is teaching to his pupils. Under present conditions most of the able men and women avoid teaching, where no such margin is discoverable in the year's budget, and choose some other line where a better living is possible. Those who stay by are either missionaries, having an interest in the teaching and in the boys and girls, and knowing that it is a good service, or they are the left- overs— the servants that are "worthy of the hire" — that is, the kind of product the school board bargains for with the salary offered. One is reminded of the honest Minnesota girl, when someone railed at her for the quahty of her teaching; "Ah," she said, "it's Httle they pays me, and it's little I teaches thim!" These are some of the larger needs which the world-war has shown us. And if we could only realize that geography is much more than the knowl- edge of the map, much more than industry and commerce; that geog- raphy has as its special province the study of the relations between men and the physical influences in which men live, a study of the relation of all Hfe to its physical environment; if we could get the vision that "mod- ern geography is characterized by the search for truth in the field of science, 552 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago and even more by the desire to render its truths of service to mankind; if we could only see that its subject-matter touches the life and welfare of the human race more intimately and fundamentally than that of any other science; that geography possesses in itself high cultural and disci- plinary value, and that it contributes eminently to good citizenship," we would awake at the call of the new day and prepare our boys and girls for the new era now being ushered in. If we are wise, we shall examine our course of study carefully and throw out nonessentials, and we shall elevate the science of geography to the proud place it deserves in the general education of the future American citizen. WHAT THE WAR SHOULD DO FOR OUR METHODS IN CIVICS AND ECONOMICS WILLIAM B. GUITTEAU, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TOLEDO, OHIO As a result of the war there should be first of all a clearer conception of the aim and purpose of instruction in civics. There was a time when we believed that civics consisted merely in a study of the federal Con- stitution. Next we placed emphasis upon the machinery and activities of government. More recently we have strest the study of local govern- ment to a point where some teachers and a few textbooks have found no place for a worth-while treatment of our national political hfe and our national civic problems. This training for citizenship can be accomphsht only by a continuous course in civics; it cannot be achieved in a twelve or eighteen weeks' course tackt on at the end of the high-school curriculum. This suggests a second modification in our method of teaching civics, namely, that our training for citizenship can be accomplisht only by a training in citizen- ship, a training that shall begin in the kindergarten and continue thruout the entire school life of the child. As the pupil advances from the primary to the intermediate grades he should be taught the nature of the services performed for him by the public-community agents that he sees about him — the street sweeper, the fireman, the pohceman, the letter carrier, the soldier. Gradually the child's horizon broadens as he comes to realize that the community to which he belongs includes not only his home, his school, and his city, but the state and the nation as well. He begins to appreciate that each of these agencies is contributing toward the welfare of the whole commu- nity. It was in this field of individual service that the war gave our schools their greatest opportunity. The young citizens who knitted socks and sweaters, who made surgical dressings and built hospital tables, who sold Thrift Stamps and Liberty Bonds, who secured food pledges and distributed war literature, were receiving a civic training of infinite value, a training which will influence their lives for all time. These war-time activities have served to place the emphasis in civics teaching where it Superintendence] WAR AND METHODS IN CIVICS AND ECONOMICS $53 belongs — on the obligation of the individual citizen to serve the com- munity. It is just at this very point that our former instruction has been weak; we have failed to develop in the average citizen a sense of his own obli- gation as a member of a representative democracy to render continuous service for the common good. In other words, the ordinary American citizen, except during a great national crisis, apparently does not appre- ciate his own personal responsibility for the conduct of the government. Above all, civic training should be" secured thru the organization and discipline of the school. Hence student self-government should be encour- aged and developt under careful supervision; and it is for those opposed to this plan to point out how children can be trained to take their part in the management and control of a democracy unless they are treated as responsible members of the school community. Some of us are today managing our schools as despotisms merely because we are too indolent to organize them on the principles of a democracy. Participation in school management is a natural corollary of effective civics, and is essential to the proper training of citizens who are soon to have all the responsi- bilities of self-government. Coming now to civics in the high school, the war has demonstrated the need for a more intensive study of the problems of modern democracy. The question of immigration and its corollary, the problem of Americani- zation, should receive careful study. In this connection I wish to chal- lenge the rather common statement that the schools are responsible for the Americanization of the aliens in our several communities. You can- not have responsibiUty unless it is based upon authority; and under present conditions the school can do nothing except to invite and urge and plead with the aliens to enter its citizenship classes. What is urgently needed in this country is more of authority and less of supplication in deal- ing with this question of naturalization. By all means make it obhgatory for the schools to Americanize the aliens; but at the same time give them authority to report to the Department of Immigration, for the purpose of deportation, those aliens who are unwilling to become American citi- zens. As ex-President Taft has recently said, our traditional policy of welcoming the immigrant does not require us to keep an international boarding-house, or to conduct an anarchists' inn. Taxation is another present-day problem which the war has brought sharply into the foreground. With excise taxes upon almost every con- ceivable object of manufacture, with income taxes, excess-profit taxes, and higher postage rates, we are becoming reasonably familiar with the subject of national revenue, while at the same time the federal borrowing power has been exemplified on a larger scale than ever before in our his- tory. Federal control of the means of transportation and communica- tion constitutes another topic of new and vital interest. The same is true 554 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago of the problem of modern education, especially the trend toward voca- tional education and the expanding activities of the federal government in this field. Further, the importance of securing better health conditions 'and higher physcial standards should not be lost sight of in a democracy of whose drafted men 30 per cent were found to be physically unfit. Recent emphasis upon so-called community civics has been one of the most significant developments in methods of teaching; but unfortu- nately some teachers have regarded their community as limited to a par- ticular neighborhood. However important the study of local conditions and local problems, no study of civics deserves the name that does not regard the community as nation-wide. In 1908 the Committee of Five of the American Pohtical Science Association reported as follows: "It is the local and state governments which largely determine the conditions under which we live. The attention of the future citizens should be directed, therefore, primarily to a study of their organization and their problems, rather than to the national government, as the textbooks have done in the past." Whatever may have been true in 1908,- it is certain that henceforth the attention of our future citizens must be largely focust upon the national government and its activities. Without neglecting the study of local prob- lems, our students must be educated from the national rather than from the local point of view. The Great War has clearly demonstrated the need of instructing all of our citizens in the fundamental principles of American democracy; and it is upon the character of this instruction that our national unity will largely depend. Let us never hesitate to teach on every occasion true patriotism and true Americanism. Let us teach this in peace in the same effective way that our schools have done during the world- war. There will be no place for the advocates of internationalism and of class hatred in a republic ruled by free citizens who know their duties as well as their rights, and who while they may love all mankind nevertheless give first place to their own country and their own flag. WHAT THE WAR SHOULD DO FOR OUR METHODS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION E. H. ARNOLD, DIRECTOR, NEW HAVEN NORMAL SCHOOL OF GYMNASTICS, NEW HAVEN, CONN. New for the army at least has been the use of physical-training methods for fitting for service men with defects amenable to treatment by exercise. Here must be mentioned the work for flat feet and posture done by the Orthopedic Department of the Army Medical Corps. What is most impor- tant to us as educators is the fact that the greater part of the success of this undertaking rested on the educational features of the methods employed. The successful use of exercise for remedying circulatory disturbances, that Superintendence! WAR AND METHODS W PHYSICAL EDUCATION 555 is, those of the heart and blood vessels, and thus turning the physically unfit into able men is likewise highly gratifying to physical educators; so much the more so as the conclusion is warranted that if these methods were successful with young adults they will be much more successful if employed with individuals still in the formative period, that is, children and youth. Greater attention to this part of physical education is one of the tasks imposed upon the physical educators of the country by this experience. Last but not least is the great role that physical-education methods have played in furnishing recreation to the army and to war-camp communi- ties. The lessons learned will and must have a lasting influence upon physical education in the community in general and in the school community in particular. They must be awakened to the fact that two million men have become used to physical-training forms of recreation in their war hfe, and that the responsibihty for providing this wholesome form of recreation will now fall upon the communities in which our soldiers will live. The educational forces of the country must take a hand in this provision. If the experiences of the war have furnisht us no new methods, new impor- tance for physical education in all its aspects is gained from the considera- tion of the facts the draft has put so strikingly before us. Let us look at some of them. First of all 30 per cent of the drafted men were rejected for physical unfitness. What does this mean ? It means that one- third of the men in the prime of»life are physically unfit for war. How much greater will the percentage of unfitness be with advancing age ? If one-third of the men are physically unfit for the special business of life which war is, what greater ratio is physically unfit for the several specific businesses of hfe ? Undoubt- edly it will be found to be greater still. No consolation is contained in the fact that other peoples may possibly be worse off than ourselves. The question with us is, Have we done our duty by the individual and by the nation if we allow such a condition to exist ? Certainly not. Our duty is plain. This matter must be mended. How ? Before we can answer this question we must know the causes of physical unfitness. The present report of the Provost Marshal General may not enable us to answer satis- factorily. A later report may fasten the physical unfitness on special defects and causes. Nevertheless the report points lessons which we as physical educators must heed. In the first place the percentage of physical unfitness in the several states is instructive. Pennsylvania heads the Hst with 46 .67, Connecticut is a close second with 46.30, Vermont marches next with 43 .82. Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts are all high. And now who are the best in this column ? South Dakota with 14 . 13 leads the list here, Nebraska being second with 20. 15. Immigration, which is held responsible for so many of the ailments of our body pohtic, does not seem to have contributed to this deplorable state 556 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago of affairs, for we find states with a high percentage of immigration making a very good showing, as for instance South Dakota with over 50 per cent immigration, while on the other hand states with practically no immigration show up badly, as North Carolina with less than i per cent has 29.78 unfit. The fact that the states of the Middle West make a good showing might justify the conclusion that racial differences in the immigration play some role. The report has practically exploded the theory of the nefarious influ- ence of city life and of the unmitigated benefit of country hfe, for here is New York state, with a large urban population, having 30 per cent of unfit, while New York City shows a percentage of 27 .85. Philadelphia shows a percentage of 31 .07, as against 46.67 per cent for the state of Pennsyl- vania. It is quite evident then that if physical education is to remedy any of these defects in physical fitness its endeavors must not be restricted to the large city but must extend to the country district as well. A beginning with physical education in rural districts had been made in New York. Shortsightedness has curtailed it before it could prove its efficiency, but enough remains to show its value in due season. Extension of physical education into all the rural schools of the land is one of the urgent and important demands of the hour. The percentages of cities that have had physical education for a sufficient number of years to have influenst the physique of men of draft age are very encouraging, yet not such as to warrant the conclusion that physical exercise will to a markt degree prevent and cure physical unfitness. Such places are Cincinnati, 27 .96; Chicago, 21 .24; and St. Louis, 25 .77. The matter becomes still more confusing when we find that the differences in the several draft districts of a city are enormous. We have, for instance, the best district in Philadelphia 16.24 and the worst 57.4, in Pittsburgh the best 7 . 6 and the worst 36. It is quite evident then that neither nativity, nor industrial conditions, nor city or country life, nor presence or absence of physical education in the narrower sense has influenst the physical unfitness to any great degree. What are then the influences probably responsible for physical unfit- ness? Undoubtedly hygienic conditions are the deciding factor. Knowledge of the laws of health and obedience to them are the keynote. Obedience to the laws of health presupposes good-will to obey them and the means to carry them out. The latter is largely a matter of economic conditions. To supply the knowledge of the laws of health is the mission of education. More than ever before must the schools of our land devote themselves to the teaching of hygiene. It is the special function of physical education to be active in this field. According to the statement of the Surgeon General venereal disease constituted the greatest cause of physical disability in the army. Looking at the distribution of venereal disease among the draftees we find that the following states, namely Oklahoma, Texas, Georgia, South CaroHna, Vir- Superintendence] WAR AND METHODS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 557 ginia, Alabama, and Florida, furnish the greatest percentage, Oklahoma having 4 . 50 per cent and Florida 8 . 90 per cent. This is clearly a reflection on the educational efficiency of these communities, for even wicked New York withal .82 per cent shows up well. But once more the western and middle western states make practically the best showing. Are not a good many of the failures that are laid up against educational agencies due to the fact that the community does not furnish us material which can be developt and educated to a high degree of fitness ? If that be so there comes to the school in general and physical education in special the duty to extend the influence of the school backward, so to speak, into the first years of Hfe of the future school child. Physical education in its widest sense must look after the children under school age, in order to have children to make something out of with the now improved methods of physical education. A first step toward bringing the matter of physical development home to the person most interested in it, namely the child itself, has been taken by the Committee on Child Welfare of the American Physical Education Association, which has put out a scheme for growth and weight measure- 'ments to be taken at regular stated intervals all through the school life of the child. This purposes to bring home to the child, to the parent, and to the educational agencies the fact that the child is or is not developing physically. If it is not developing physically, why is it not ? What about its nutrition, its work, its rest ? It if is developing, if it devotes a great deal of energy to growth, what must be the conditions of nutrition, work, and rest to take care of this special expenditure of force ? It is stated that it takes about six times as many calories of foodstuffs to build on a new pound of tissue than it takes to maintain it. The management then of children, as based upon the growth phenome- non, is an important matter, which is as yet little understood, and what knowledge we have is not applied. Here is a new method of making physical education visible, tangible. One school principal who has introduced the measure in his school writes me: '' This is the longest step forward in practi- cal hygiene that has been made. I told our boys and girls that most of our talk about hygiene went in at one ear and out of the other because there was nothing between to stop it, and that we were going to try to put some- thing between, namely a motive to get them interested in their own health and growth." This is indeed what we wish, to visualize physical develop- ment and thereby motivate physical education. Now look once more over all the facts which the draft has brought to our mind, and realize for a moment that these facts relate only to one-half of our population, the males. What about the females ? What do we know about their physical efficiency for the various tasks that life imposes upon them ? Here is a great gap. Physical education must concern itself with establishing what physical fitness in the adult female signifies, what its 558 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago ideal is, and then go to work and evolve methods to bring about such physical fitness. This at once doubles the field for our endeavors. The field is wide, the harvest to be obtained boundless. Let us hope that physical education will find every worker 'ready to enter the field, to sow the seed, and finally to reap the harvest for the good of the coming generation. EDUCATION OF THE IMMIGRANT RANDALL J. CONDON, SUPERINTENDENT OE SCHOOLS, CINCINNATI, OHIO I am requested to mention particularly the work of education of the immigrant in Cincinnati. A year ago what is now the American House was a disreputable former saloon and rooming-house on the canal bank by the Mohawk Bridge in the heart of a section densely populated by Roumanians, Serbians, Hun- garians, and other nationahties. For years it had been a baleful influence, social, economic, and political, in the life of the district. Today it has been transformed into a community house of the best type. It is the headquarters of the Americanization work — a place into which all these people come for advice and assistance and for social and recreational opportunities. On the side of advice and assistance it is merely a clearing house teaching the people where to go and how to make use of the regularly organized city institutions and civic opportunities. We have conceived its main functions, however, to be to deal with people under normal conditions of social life. The organized Americanization work in Cincinnati has been unified and is being directed thru the American House by the Americanization Executive Committee, of which the superintendent of schools is chairman, not by virtue of his office, but by the election of the remaining members of the Committee, who represent the Chamber of Commerce, the Immi- grant Welfare Committee, the Council of National Defense, the patriotic and alhed women's organizations, the foreign groups, and the public schools. This Committee represents the cooperation of all the forces of the community in a disinterested attempt to unify and direct the work of Americanization in such a way that a higher type of Americanism shall result for both the older and the newer Americans, the native-born Ameri- can understanding that it is his duty thru neighborly kindness, good-will, and fellowship to teach the foreign-born American what America is and what it stands for, trying to help him thru the normal relations of social and civic life to know America, to love America, and to serve America. And the American House stands for this spirit and affords a concrete opportunity for its expression. It is not an end in itself; it is simply a frontier station, a "house by the side of the road" — the community's expression of good-will, where ideas are exchanged and ideals built up, and thru which the foreign-born are brought into right relations with the educational, social, civic, and recreational activities of the community. Superintendence) EDUCATION OF THE IMMIGRANT 559 We tried to think that the public schools could do it all, but we found that they couldn't. They stood with wide-open doors, teaching English, history, civics, and citizenship, and those who came were helpt; but those whom we most needed to reach never came. We askt the Chamber of Commerce and the industrial establishments to help, and they were entirely willing to cooperate. Everybody was willing and was asking, "What can we do to help?" — churches, schools. United States district court, social, civic, commercial, industrial, and patriotic organizations all wanted to do something. They askt for leadership and instructions. Then we realized that we didn't fully understand our problem, nor how to attack it; but we decided that the first and most necessary condition was to get acquainted with the people whom we wisht to serve; and that the best way to do that was to know them in their homes and thru their social rela- tions. We understood that it was not enough to influence the children ^thru {he schools and the men thru the factories. We must somehow reach and influence the homes, where the mothers abide, for we knew that the influences that center in the home life and that grow out of the social [relations of men and women are stronger and more enduring in their effect jthan all others combined. We knew too that a part of our problem was to reach and influence the men who have no family or home ties on this side of the ocean. They must be brought together and educated in and thru group action. We knew that we must break down isolation and segregation. We must teach English as a fundamental means of communi- cation, to enable us to put across the ideas and ideals that we wisht to [convey; and we must try to produce as many conditions as possible which would create a need for, and a desire to learn, English. We would visit the homes, not as paid or even volunteer social workers, but as neighbors, carrying messages of good cheer and friendliness. By personal invitation more than by the printed page or poster we would try to induce them to use the school, the library, the art museum, the parks, the health depart- ment, and all other civic institutions, and as friends and guides we would go with them. We would invite them to come to the American House for social activities in which both native and foreign-born should meet and mingle and come to have a greater respect for each other. And none of this should be done in a condescending spirit or patronizing manner. We would build up self-respect and initiative and would call forth creative activity. We would work together, play together, sing together, talk together; and together we would become better Americans. There would be certain great days for which the Committee would make arrangements, but always with the help and advice of the people themselves — Discovery Day, Patriots' Day, Thanksgiving Day, Forefathers' Day, Independence Day, New Citizens' Day, Washington's and Lincoln's birthdays, and others. There would be many other occasions when the people of their own initia- tive in their own recreational and social groups would plan to use the house, but we would be always alert to lead them thru this self-expression out S6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago of their racial and linguistic groups into the larger and more distinctly American groups. When we saw our problem in this light we planned the American House to meet these needs: a community house with a director's office for himself and his staff of assistants; library and games rooms; com- mittee and club rooms; a small auditorium, dining-room, and kitchen; shower-rooms, and a dainty bathroom for the little ones; and the choicest room in the whole house, the mothers' room, with a garden to take the place of the unsightly yard. And when our plans were formulated we asked the Council of Social Agencies to take care of the current expenses to the extent of $13,000, and the Council of National Defense to remodel the building to the amount of $10,000. . Thus you see that the American House is distinctly a community house, not only for the neighborhood in which it is located, but as a result of the cooperative efforts of the entire city. Ultimate plans call for similar houses in other centers, until the needs of the city in this respect shall be fully met; for if you can see your problem large enough and clear enough and can organize it small enough all the difficulties will resolve themselves into simple elements which can be solved. When the house was ready for opening we invited every patriotic, social, civic, educational, and religious organization to be present thru regularly appointed delegates; and every linguistic and racial organiza- tion in the city to send their representatives; and all the people of the Mohawk-Brighton neighborhood — men, women, and children — to come and help dedicate the house to the cause of Americanism. And we chose for the occasion Thanksgiving Day, that day on which in the long ago the native-born Americans and the foreign-born who had come to these shores seeking Hberty had united for their first joint celebration. We dedicated the house with religious ceremony and patriotic exercises in which rabbi and priest and minister joined, in which we sang "America" and saluted the flag, the gift of the Girl Scouts, while a great company of native and foreign-born filled the streets and stood about the house pledging alle- giance to "my flag and to the Republic for which it stands; one nation indivisible, with Hberty and justice for all"; and with a pageant in which the representatives from every land brought their gifts and laid them at Columbia's feet — lovers of liberty, voyagers across every sea they had come seeking "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," "inalienable rights," denied them in the land of their birth, guaranteed them in this land of Washington and Jefferson and Lincoln and Wilson. This is the way we built and dedicated the American House; this the way we are trying to educate the immigrant; and this the way we are Americanizing both the native and the foreign-born in Cincinnati. Superintendence! WAR METHODS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 561 WHAT THE WAR SHOULD DO FOR OUR METHODS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION WILLIAM J. BOGAN, PRINCIPAL, LANE TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. The god of war is a great teacher. His lessons are given to the accom- paniment of fear, hate, love, ideaUsm, and sorrow, burning at a white heat. These lessons are fixt in memory by rapine, destruction, and death. With such reminders ever present it would seem that the schools should continue to apply what they have learned under the stress of war, but unfortunately the history of civilization proves that the most important teachings of war are quickly forgotten in times of peace. Vocational education owes much to the Great War, but it remains to be seen whether the lessons will be utilized in peace. Our enemy will utilize these lessons and many others. He is noted for an adaptabihty that we are inclined to ridicule. Like Moliere, he believes in taking his own wherever he finds it. By clever adaptation and application of the work of others he will get the effect of originality and invention. One of our besetting sins is the failure to apply our own teachings to our own work. The war has taught many lessons that should influence our methods in vocational schools, but time will be taken to touch on a few only. The war has performed a great duty toward vocational education by proving that the public schools are able to give a very practical t3T)e of work with enough of the spirit that quickeneth to make an independent, self-supporting, cultured American citizen, able and wilHng to fight for his ideals with gas, gun, bare fists, or brass knuckles. To many this informa- tion will be surprising, for it was not long ago that men went up and down the land proclaiming the folly of vocational education in the public schools and the beauty of a separate system as exemplified in that ideal state, Germany. Have you forgotten that Germany cared for her boys like a loving parent? (Girls were not considered worthy of much education.) Have you forgotten that 90 per cent of her school children were driven like cattle over the same runway? The American boy, with less efficiency perhaps, but with much more spirit, will meet that kind of German com- petition and defeat it whenever he puts his mind to the task. When the United States declared war every school in the land was virtually at the disposal of the government. By a stroke of genius an unprepared nation was turned to the tasks of war. The schools, casting aside tradition and precedent, and cooperating with the officers of the army, the navy, and the industries, turned out the kind of product that was askt for, and did this in a remarkably short time. One of the most important lessons taught in these schools was respect for manipulative skill in shops and drawing-rooms. The educator in his ignorance frequently ridicules skill. He regards it as a bHght that must be 562 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago removed at any cost. He is forever preaching that the mechanical process must be discontinued when the pupil approaches the stage of skill; for when the pupil acquires skill there is no further educational value in the work. This troubled educator need not worry. The pupil who reaches the skilled stage is rare. If you doubt this statement ask the pupils after they have made a typical pattern or a piece of school furniture in the classroom to repeat the process from design to finisht object without aid of any kind from teacher or fellow-pupil. The many failures will prove that the pupils have not yet degenerated into skilled mechanics. They are still in the education stage. Who can draw the dividing hne between skill and education? Surely the pupil has not acquired an oversupply of skill until he is able to make a reasonably difficult article with economy of time and effort and without help from others. The tremendous waste of material in war time has proved over and over the need for greater skill among pupils of our schools. It is often- said that trades cannot be taught in the school. Using ''school" in its broadest sense it may be truly said that the school is the only place where trades can be taught. Thru a long period of apprentice- ship in factory and shop, trades may be "picked up" thru a process of sweeping, running chores, and observing, but to acquire a trade with related science, drawing, and mathematics the pupil must be taught by teachers whose business it is to teach. War has shown that the vocational schools must turn out a commercial product. The day of the fancy glovebox made for mother and usually finisht by mother has gone by. The schools cannot afford to build for the wastebasket or the junk pile. Economy of time and material may not have been taught during the war, but it has been taught by the war. Much of the success of the army vocational schools was due to the fact that every student knew that his product was to be put to practical use. Tasks that had been drudgery became interesting under the stimulus of reality. The war has taught the value of speed in school shops. Formerly there was much waste time and lost motion. For years boys had dawdled in the shops as if life were eternal and the necessity for earning a living only an annoying possibility. Time was no object. The padding of subjects and courses became an art in itself. The drawing necessary for butcher, baker, and candlestick-maker was based upon and closely resembled the course for architects. The carpenter who longed for a knowledge of the steel square was forst to digest the five orders of Greek architecture as a prerequisite. Our education for thrift should include time as well as food and money. With the submarine preparing to fire a torpedo at the helpless ship an elaborate toilet should not be considered by the passenger. The wise man in such an emergency strips off nonessentials and jumps. The schools should adopt the same guiding principle. A serious defect in the traditional schools was their practice of forever digging broad founda- tioiis— and shallow. These foundations were planned so broad and on so I Superintendence) WAR METHODS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 563 extensive a scale that the builders rarely had time to begin work on the superstructure. If the German Mars had played the war game fairly the schools might yet be digging broad foundations; but with an unscrupulous enemy knocking at the gates they were forst to build upward on the chance that the foundations would hold. The war has taught the value of intensive shop and drawing courses planned for a specific need. The army vocational schools have proved the value of long, daily periods in the shop. The intensive training given for eight hours a day over a period of eight weeks produced remarkable results. This plan is not workable in its entirety in the schools under ordinary con- ditions, but it points the way to a better system. The doubling or quad- rupling of periods adds greatly to the effectiveness of the work by eliminating loss of time in changing from class to class and from machine to machine. The war has demonstrated the need for cooperation between the schools and industry. Unless the schools keep pace with industrial development they will be discredited, and their value will be seriously reduced. The isolation of the schools tends toward a worship of tradition. To illustrate: After the war was well under way the War Department issued a call for mechanics, giving the proportion that would be needed from each trade. For this draft the automobile tradesmen led, with a percentage of seventy. Strange as it may appear, very few schools in the country except private ones had ever regarded the automobile as a subject for thoro study in its theoretical and practical aspects. As a result of this neglect new schools with complete equipments had to be opened in all sections of the country, during the war, for the study of the automobile. Many of these schools had followed the traditional program of the manual-training high school of the eighties, and some are doing it still. The automobile announst its coming with foul odors, loud noises, and sudden death, but the schools dozed on. War has taught another interesting lesson, namely, that schoolboys are often equal to the responsibilities of men. The Civil War was fought by boys. The Great War was fought by boys and very young men. Their work has proved that boys thrive under the pressure of responsibility. The schools have preacht, "The boy is father to the man," but they have practist, "Once a child always a child." Many schools give toys for realities — toy work, toy thoughts, toy responsibiUties — up to the day of graduation. The day after, the graduate meets real responsibiUties with- out preparation, it speaks well for his character that he so often succeeds. We have seen during the last few years immature boys, whom the schools had never considered responsible, go forth with high motives, and with a smile give up for an ideal the hfe which seemed so full of the promise of happiness and achievement. Surely the war has proved that boys of sixteen or eighteen years can be trusted to bear the responsibilities that devolve 564 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago upon men. Therefore the schools should place upon its older pupils genuine school responsibilities that will prepare for the responsibilities of life. Can the schools ignore the lessons of the war ? Only a few have been mentioned, but there are scores of others. Many of the needs of war are but the needs of peace in condenst form. Vocational education has had the opportunity to prove its worth to a doubting world as if by a miracle. To keep the confidence of the people it must minister to needs long neglected by the schools. It must aid in giving every boy and girl thruout the land not only the fundamentals of citizenship but the abiUty to earn a living and the culture to enjoy it. SCHOOL EXPENSES CONSIDERED AS AN INVESTMENT S. O. HARTWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ST. PAUL, MINN. After the great conflagration of war, which has burned into men's lives and souls, we are entering the period of readjustment. What are now the valuable things which should absorb interest and effort, which should be conserved and refined ? What centers of wealth and hope and peace shall we seek, and how are they to influence daily thought and action ? In this trial by fire we have seen the terrible waste and at last the downfall of a system of education conceived in sin and misshapen by the iniquity of two generations. We are seeing, perhaps less clearly, in the great achievements of our own men the sure, tho partial, success of a truer educational spirit — I say partial because the great occasion which has disclosed the virility and initiative of a trained democracy has also shown that the training offered in public education has not been so universal or so thoro as we had thought. Strange gaps in the former plan and new needs for approaching days have been revealed as never before. This may seem far from the immediate topic of our program. I do not think so. If the struggle of these years has shown anything of the principles of life it has emphasized the enormous profit and fundamental need of pubhc education. One of the two or three great sources of wealth spiritual or riches financial is education. Its investment value we must both realize and proclaim. Within our own circle we do in a way realize it, but we must do more. In the technical language of the street, we must sell it to a careless and sometimes doubting pubHc — furthermore, we must sell it for cash. Financial support, or lack of it, makes or modifies all sorts of progress. We sometimes hesitate to admit that, but the only wise way is to plan on that basis. The slow progress of education seems to me often caused by our easy-going acceptance of the public view of educational costs, which considers them "running expenses" and as such most acceptable when lowest, while in fact they are a vital part of the pubUc's investment Superintendence) SCHOOL EXPENSES AS AN INVESTMENT 565 in training. The mistake is natural; it comes in part from the superficial analogy between school accounts and production accounts of establisht business. The business man (and educational men are Hkely to concur, or at least talk, in the same way) usually regards buildings and plant, the things that are groupt as "outlays" in school reports, as invested capital. The general public, partly from the same view and partly because buildings and equipment are concrete and visible, holds the same opinion. As a result buildings and equipment of a fine type are frequently secured, and large problems of investment of this sort are sometimes met T^ith surprising ease. Witness the latest notable example, the voting by the city of Buffalo of $8,400,000 for a school-building program. The business view of the value of a large investment to secure good and economical working conditions is widely accepted, and then the business corollary of low running expenses is immediately applied. To an extent this comes as an accepted corollary, but it is strengthened as building costs make their appearance in tax returns because of the further theory that taxes repre- sent a Habihty, when in truth legitimate taxes, wisely expended, must be an asset. Right here we wish to question the easy-going analysis of business advantages mentioned. Is it not a fact that a successful business man or corporation reserves a portion of his investment for "working capital," a sort of reservoir for running expenses until the product begins to bring its own returns ? Frequently, as demand and then production grow, this reservoir has to be increast. Make any deduction you wish on account of manipulation or watered stock, yet each of us could doubtless name off- hand great lines of production in which this natural process is going on. The telephone, numerous other appHcations of electricity, the automobile, and the tractor will occur to us at once as recent examples. In these cases the working capital becomes a sort of revolving fund to which surplus and occasional new issues of securities, in the form of stocks or bonds, give periodic enlargement. Our contention then is simply this. The larger cost items of school maintenance, including that most important one, salaries of teachers, represent working capital. They should, of course, be managed with care and judgment, with all the financial insight we can gain; but they are a public investment for future profit. We hear at once this objection. Your analogy is wrong. The schools have no marketable product, and profit either does not exist or, at least, cannot be measured. On the other hand all school men ought to know and should be able to show the public that they are in the most profitable business there is — for others. Education is an immense dealing in futures, with none of the gambler's risk except on the size of the returns. Granting for argument that one part of the return is not easily measured in terms of money, it is never- theless clear and in extent immeasurable. I happened to five for many 566 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Chicago vears in Michigan, whose state seal carries in Latin the legend, "If you seek a beautiful peninsula, look about you." That motto was adopted in the days of pine forests and malaria and was true even then. Now it carries the content of a vigorous commonwealth, whose industries and citizenship bear the inevitable stamp of its strong public schools and colleges and its great state institutions, such as the Mining School, the Agricultural College, and the University of Michigan. Look about you in any of its towns or cities. Only the blind will fail to observe the civic returns from prompt and energetic investment in education. Most of our states can show the same sort of thing. Let us put that aside. There is an actual provable financial pft)fit, and we want to emphasize again the statement that it may be traced to early educational investment and is comparable to the size of that invest- ment. You will recall several studies in recent years of the results of training — on wages and hence on living conditions. Some have been made by school people, some by manufacturers, and a few by industrial commissions. A definite summary is found in Dr. C. Caswell Ellis' The Money Value of an Education, a pamphlet publisht by the Bureau of Education. On the prewar basis of wages no boy, considering his profit as capital, could afford to stay out of school for a lower wage than $9.00 per day, since the earning power of groups of boys who have finish t high school represents that investment advantage over the earning power of boys dropping out at the sixth, seventh, or eighth grade. Massachusetts, with the high per capita of educational costs, has a very high per capita of wealth. On the other hand the states showing the lowest school expen- diture are at the foot of the wealth scale. Illustrations do not prove a point, but in this case the illustrations used summarize the evidence. The war in its application of scholarship has proved the same thing. Some of the facts are already known, others are fast coming to public knowledge, and the increast appreciation of the practical value of general education is noticeable. Each one has doubtless found many illustrations - in his own line of war reading. I will refer here to only two. In a recent number of C oilier^ s Weekly progress in ordnance manufacturing and improvement was described in great detail. To my mind one of the most remarkable applications of science there shown is the method by which Dr. Millikan, of the University of Chicago, and his assistants improved . the range power and effectiveness of the small-caliber guns without any mechanical or structural change in the guns themselves. A second illus- tration is the wonderful work of the psychologists in shaping and success- fully applying the personnel system thru which recruits were supplied to all the parts of the army during 191 8. Truly, if we can carry over the capitalization of intellectual power into the arts of peace we may hope ultimately to make war impossible. We know that sentiment for and appreciation of education have increast, Superintendence] SCHOOL HOURS AND COMMUNITY NEEDS 567 but we must recall to the public mind that these victories of training and appHed science have come thru the most colossal backing of scholarship and statesmanship with funds. Are we willing to make even a reasonable investment in peace? We can talk of the high prices, increast cost of living, and needs for larger salaries all we please, but in our effort to increase school funds (an effort just now vital in almost every community) I believe that emphasis on investment by the public for the saving of its own life will have greater carrying effect. The latest figures pubhsht by the Bureau of Education show that the average school-maintenance cost in the United States meant, in the year 1914-15, a tax of twenty-five cents on each hundred dollars of true valuation. Of course many com- munities are above that, but that is the average for the country. We must admit, I think, that the pubHc is not yet acting on the theory of viewing educational expense as investment. Indeed, expenditure on that scale hardly reaches the dignity of a tax. It is rather in the class, some- times used by churches and itinerant lecturers, of a ''silver offering." The point of view we have tried to emphasize is not new, but in present conditions it should be stated again and again, for at least two reasons: (i) We need ourselves to realize that a basic test of educational progress lies in financial support. (2) Granted that the great aims of education are ideal, we must sell to the business world the fact that faith without works is vain, and that money used in support of ideals is simply crystal- lized work. We have had in late months three great investments in the tasks of securing righteous peace: an immense concentration of intelli- gence, rivers of blood, and oceans of wealth. May we not at least claim toward making the nation "in peace secure, in justice strong" an invest- ment basis for the expense of public education? We look to education for the increase of both general intelligence and general wealth. Only as we secure these can the investment oi blood, already made, be made secure. ADJUSTMENT OF SCHOOL HOURS TO MEET CONGESTION AND COMMUNITY NEEDS - ERNEST L. THURSTON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. The "war pohcy" of the superintendent of schools of the District of Columbia involved among other things broad adjustment of school hours to meet needs coupled with organization at any time of new classes in sub- jects proper to public education, for which a demand existed. The experi- ence of the war years measured in students saved to the schools and in new students attracted has opened our eyes to the opportunities that are ours by adjustments of time. We stand ready to teach around the clock face. 56g NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [chkago A school system is never too large to consider the individual student. War drew a host from school to outside employment. We saved many to full or part-time school work by adjustment of hours, or by organizing in night schools standard classes with credit in day courses toward later graduation. The part-time student needing special training for his outside work was given opportunity to get it. Groups of higher students were saved to school by organization of intensive courses — longer hours — fewer weeks — and thus earlier graduation. Our summer high schools are organized on the intensive plan. It is closely related to the plan elsewhere for the Working Boys' Reserve, whereby lengthened school hours and included Saturdays make possible the full units of work in shorter time and an earlier release to farm and industry. Certain flexibility of hours will increase the efficiency of the night-school service. Our white night schools and colored night schools open at different hours to meet the needs of the respective communities. The night schools, because of their attempt to give real service to meet community and govern- ment need, have grown tremendously. A three-night system was double- shifted as 'a six-night system. Early classes were organized in popular subjects to relieve stress and to accommodate those who could not come at other times. Afternoon classes were also organized. Moreover, classes for beginners in subjects hke shorthand were opened at frequent intervals, and frequent gradings made to classes of different speeds. Our night schools evpn ran thru the past summer. A proper working out of plans for part-time and trade instruction must depend in some degree on willingness to make time adjustments rather than on school insistence on certain fixt hours. Especially in Americanization work must there be freedom of time adjustment. The foreign element works under varied conditions and at all hours. We have only scratcht the surface in this work, in part because we have not recognized that fact. Many whom we seek to reach will not come if difficulties and inconveniences, however shght, stand in the way. We found that Greek waiters in restaurants could come only in mid- afternoon; now we have a mid-afternoon class and likewise morning classes for others. And to reach the women we are beginning to send out visiting teachers, who go into the homes, make friends, and gather little groups together at any convenient hour for instruction purposes. Congestion of laboratories, manual-training shops, typewriting rooms, and other special facilities may be reheved and greater service rendered by opening these facilities for extra classes before and after hours. Students are easily found — often the adjustment really benefits them. And as for the teachers — if we estabhsh a unit of work for day or night, adjustments of service and service hours are easily made. Let us use all the Hme there is for service to the community in the way of public education. Superintendence] ADJUSTMENTS BETWEEN HIGH SCHOOLS 569 ADJUSTMENTS BETWEEN THE JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN BOSTON FRANK V. THOMPSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASS. The term "intermediate or junior high school" is a name which is at present appHed to such a variety of modifications of our common educational organization that the term has no clearly defined and accepted meaning. As an illustration, consider the grades covered in the organization of junior high schools in various parts of the country. In some systems the junior high school covers only Grades V to VII inclusive. In other cities it covers Grades VII to X inclusive. All the possibilities between these extremes are also to be found. The most common type of organization, however, which is called intermediate or junior high school is the combination of Grades VII and VIII. The next most frequent combination is a grouping of Grades VII, VIII, and IX. In other respects likewise there is little common practice to be found in these schools thruout the country. Even tho the intermediate school cannot be defined exactly, some defini- tion of its essential characteristics is necessary. In making this explanatory definition it should be understood that modifications from this type are numerous and must be so for some time. The type described appears to be that best suited to the educational needs in Boston and the one toward which all preliminary attempts at organization may legitimately tend. This intermediate school for Boston has been defined as follows: The intermediate school is either a separate school or department of a school organized on a departmental basis, which receives pupils when they are expected to have completed the sixth year of elementary-school work and when they are about to enter the adolescent stage, which provides three years of work covering in general Grades VII and VIII of the present elementary school and the first year of the present secondary school, and which offers differentiated courses of study for pupils according to their interests, capaci- ties, and probable future educational careers. The intermediate school is either a separate school or a department of the school organized on a departmental basis. In introducing the intermediate school into Boston as an integral part of the present educational system, three possible types of institution may be considered: I. The intermediate school may be organized as an independent insti- tution, separate from either an elementary school or a high. school. The independent intermediate school means a centralized school to which pupils in Grades VII and VIII in the adjoining elementary districts would be transferred and first-year high-school pupils retained. It would have its separate master, and its organization and administration would be independent of other schools. The chief advantage of an independent school is that it would be free from present elementary- or high-school methods and practices and would thereby be the better able to work out 570 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago its own educational problems. While some masters have volunteered to allow their seventh- and eighth-grade pupils to go to an adjoining inter- mediate school if estabhsht, there is reason to believe that the elementary schoolmasters of the city as a whole do not look with favor on such a decapi- tation of their schools. From many points of view the independent school may be considered more promising than any other type of intermediate- school organization. If Boston is to have ' intermediate schools the city will not be satisfied with any type short of the best. However, it is probable that this type can be only gradually introduced. It is recommended that the independent school be tried whenever the opportunity presents itself. 2. The intermediate school might be associated with the present high school under the direction of the head master of the high school. Where the intermediate school is associated with the high school the elementary school consists of six grades, and junior and senior, high schools together make six grades. This arrangement is known as the six-six plan. In Boston the Public Latin School and the Girls' Latin School each maintains such an organization. Such a system of organization is not, therefore, new to Boston. In view of the fact that the high-school buildings of th^ city are now overcrowded there is no possibility of incorporating the seventh and eighth grades of the elementary schools into the present high-school organization. Indeed the intermediate school is urged for Boston in part because it will relieve materially overcrowded conditions in the high schools. This type of junior high school, therefore, does not appear to be adapted to educational conditions in Boston and hence is not recommended for this city. 3. The intermediate school might be associated with the present elementary school either in the same building or in a separate building under the direction of the master of the elementary district. This type of organization of intermediate schools differs from the independent school largely in its method of administration rather than in its primary essentials. In this type the intermediate school would be the middle three years of the six-three-three plan. It would be organized departmentally, and its organization would differ materially, therefore, from the organization of Grades iV, V, and VI, which might be housed in the same building. This arrangement seems to be a logical development. Two of the three years of the intermediate school now belong to the elementary school. To associate the intermediate school with the elementary school rather than with the high school will undoubtedly make intermediate instruction more economical than it would be if associated with the high school. Further- more the association of the intermediate school with the present elementary districts makes possible the utilization of some vacant rooms in elementary- school buildings. In addition there are several elementary-school buildings being constructed which will afford opportunity for the intermediate-school organization. In spite of one important disadvantage this is the type of Superintendence! ADJUSTMENT FOR THE SENIOR SCHOOL 571 intermediate-school organization which is recommended for immediate adoption in the city of Boston. The advantage of this type of organization hes in the fact that there is a possible danger that intermediate schools so associated with the earlier grades will represent altogether too largely merely a ninth-grade system, and that the present methods of instruction, organization, and administra- tion found in the earlier grades of the elementary school will dominate in the intermediate school. This possible danger becomes more apparent when one considers that it is proposed for the present to provide teachers for the three grades of the intermediate school largely or entirely from the teachers now found in elementary grades. Whether this danger becomes real will depend upon the extent to which teachers who are appointed to intermediate classes adopt the fundamental idea of the intermediate school, study its problems, and thereby quahfy themselves for the new work to rhich they are to be assigned. To what extent they do this will depend in part upon the supervision and educational leadership which they receive. THE ADJUSTMENT OF THE SENIOR SCHOOL TO MEET NEW CONDITIONS A. B. MEREDITH, ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, TRENTON, N.J. I. Among the new conditions for which a more complete adjustment of the schools is proposed are the following, and with the enumeration the educational corollary will in most instances at once suggest itself: 1. Education is being taken more seriously by the pubhc than ever before as a great national asset, and a greater wilhngness is being shown to expend larger sums of money for the realization of its purposes in a representative democracy. 2. The public is coming to appreciate more fully the vastness of our material educational investment in property and equipment, and is demanding that provision be made for its more complete and economical use, by increasing numbers of people, both within and beyond the usual school age. 3. The demand is insistent that our higher schools shall prepare a greater number of competent scientific and technical workers to meet the problems of industry and of peace, as they did with such promptness and vigor under the necessities of war. The senior high school is to lay the foundations and make a beginning in training those who are to become physicists, chemists, biologists, industrial and commercial experts, transpor- tation managers, and also welfare specialists. 4. There is also a keener appreciation of the truth that mere skill and technique, while important, are not the primary ends of endeavor, and that it is not these alone which determine educational efficiency. Again and 572 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago again it is being made evident that the moral significance of our actions and of our educational and social organization are matters of cardinal worth, and that the ultimate social objective is effective service. Moreover, we are made to realize that this service is not to be governed by selfish and parochial ideals of civic responsibility, but by a recognition of our common national relations and responsibilities. 5. There is observed everywhere a constantl^^ growing spirit of -coop- eration among individuals, organizations, institutions, both secular and ecclesiastical, industry, and all the agencies for social betterment, with the organized educational forces of the nation. 6. Another element of the new conditions is the fact that we have learned anew. the dignity of labor and the educational and moral benefits to be derived from continuous hard work, and we have further learned the hitherto unrealized extent to which pupils and adults are capable of persistent and intensive application. 7. There has been opened up a broader educational civic and social outlook for women. At the same time we have come to see with greater clearness than ever before the true significance of womanly qualities and of woman's ability and desire to serve in a much wider field. To this end the schools are giving more extensive training in the domestic arts as well as in the fine arts, which tend to make for more scientific and for more worthy home membership, and which will reduce the labor and narrowness of mere housekeeping and provide on the other hand for a pleasurable and profitable use of leisure. 8. We are imprest with the necessity for a strong and vigorous program of health instruction that may result in greater physical vigor on the part ■ of our entire population. For the schools this will mean a longer school day. 9. We have today greater confidence in the psychological method of approach to our educational, economic, social, and peace problems, and we recognize the dynamic quality of the emotional aspect of our motives, as distinguisht from the purely logical and intellectual processes. This con- dition is in evidence in our classrooms as well as in our civil hfe. 10. There has been reemphasized in a very concrete way the truth that while lessons of civic worth may be had as by-products of our instruc- tion in the social studies and from the social life of the school, nevertheless, if the tax-supported school is to serve its fundamental purpose it must require of all specific instruction in our national ideals and in our institutions, which are to make these ideals effective in conduct in the lives of individuals as well as in the corporate life of the nation. 11. As to a few specific readjustments, I urge the following: I. That there should be an extension of the period of compulsory school attendance and a greater flexibility of organization to provide for all groups up to eighteen years of age, unless previously graduated from the senior school. II Superintendence] ADJUSTMENT FOR THE SENIOR SCHOOL 573 This requirement is fundamental to the welfare, if not to the continued existence, of our democracy. The school of childhood, with its function of training in literacy and in the essential habits that make for health and elemental skill, is not long enough to give that broader intelligence and guided experience which make for more complete civic and industrial useful- ness. Provisions for these ends can only be had by extending the formal schooling at least thru the eighteenth year by some legal enactment which will recognize a part-time as well as a full-time school. An organization of part-time education would be thru some form of continuation school for general education, conducted preferably, if not by law, during daylight hours und^r a cooperative arrangement with industry, usiness, agriculture, or the home. The senior school cannot neglect to offer opportunities at its level, as ust also the lower grades. For those unemployed above fourteen years of age the attendance should be at least twenty hours a week, and for the employed eight hours. Such legal requirements would have to be approacht gradually. This continuation work should not be establisht, if we are to preserve our social solidarity and our common civic interests, as a separate system of hools and thereby create a dual organization with its dangers of social stratification. We must not lose sight of the fact that many leave school to work, not from economic pressure, and subsequently desire to return to the opportunities of higher schools for general education. This return is much easier for the pupil who is already a part of the larger organization of the school than if he were in a separate institution which made his education a matter of special concern and determination, or in any way set him apart from his fellows. With compulsory attendance thru the period of the senior school there •would be the necessity of greater flexibility in its organization and in the dministration of its work schedule. The following are some of the plans use: a) The all-the-year school, with its year divided into quarters of twelve weeks each, provides a way of shortening the period of school attendance for those who are able and willing to make more intensive effort and to be graduated earlier. b) The duplicate school, whereby the school plant serves two distinct groups of pupils during the day, with possibly another group at night, is a successful adjustment in some cities. This may be more practicable than the quarterly plan. The summer high-school session with its credit toward a diploma will afford opportunities for some young people to economize on time. c) Where conditions v/arrant, an alternation of half-years, of weeks, or of days between school and work may prove most effective. 574 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago d) The Washington plan, which involves "staggered" hours, is a further recognition of conditions which are being met with intelligence and courage. This enumeration is by no means exhaustive, since other adjustments have already been widely used. 2. In another phase of education, and in keeping with the spirit of the times, an adjustment in our thinking and in our practice should be made with respect to our standards of work and attainment. This is a recognition of a tendency growing out of the stress of our war situation to secure greater accuracy and definiteness in our school work. We have caught the spirit of doing a job according to specifications and at the same time have been devising means of measuring the results of our educational efforts by means of standard tests and scales. While a general scheme of vocational possibiHties has in many instances been introduced into the earlier years, in the senior school there should come more refined measures of intelligence and of special skills rather than the practice of placing reliance so largely on content tests. A more complete analysis to determine the essential elements that are inherent in school ends in various occupations and professions, including the personal as well as the intellectual and the manual capacities, will enable us better to organize and administer curricula and processes. Industry, business, agriculture, finance, and the management of home life are all being made more scientific and objective, in order that more attention may be given to the human aspects of these interests. The spirit of definite achievement is abroad in educational circles and has already had remarkable manifestations. It needs only to be applied more courageously. A comparison of the results of the traditional examinations used in selecting men for higher schools, and at first used in selecting men for certain branches of military service, with the recently devised measuring rods of general intelligence and ability to do a specific kind of a job, indicates already most satisfactory results, and there are fascinating possibiHties for the future. 3. The last adjustment of which I shall speak relates to required instruc- tion, in the senior school, in American ideals and institutions. If our pupils are to be intelligent and cooperating citizens they must come to understand the problems of our representative democracy. It is not to be expected that they will solve all the problems which they study. They will at least learn that all the difiiculties have not been overcome, they will comprehend something of the direction in which a tentative solution may be found, and they will become familiar with some of the factors to be taken into account. The habit of forming social judgments only on the basis of impersonal facts and in the light of high ideals is a goal to be sought. Some definite Superintendence) THE THREE FUNCTIONS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 575 study of the problems of immigration, standards of living, wages, socialism, taxation, and distribution, with a consideration of our personal responsi- bility toward their outcome, is not too much to require of all pupils in the last year of the senior school. The way to meet ill-considered panaceas and vicious thinking and propaganda is by positive instruction in rational ideals. This last adjust- ment is one of much importance. The whole process of education is adjustment. It is a process of becoming. I THE THREE FUNCTIONS OF THE CLASS PERIOD ALFRED L. HALL-QUEST, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR OF SCHOOL AFFILIATION, UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI, CINCINNATI, OHIO Anyone who has devoted much time to the observation or supervision of teaching will doubtless agree that the typical method of classroom pro- cedure, especially in the upper elementary grades and thruout the high school, involves (i) the consideration of a certain fixt amount of facts gleaned from a textbook or similar source of knowledge; (2) the assignment of a more or less evaluated amount of material to be learned; and (3) the testing of the pupils' obedience and intelligent reactions to the work assigned. Studying for the purpose of reciting, learning by attending school, where lessons are assigned to be mastered at home — this is the common routine of formal education in America. It is a comparatively easy method of conducting class work. It is, however, far from being an easy method from the point of view of the pupil. We are reminded these days that the chief aim of education is not knowledge, important and essential as this aim must be regarded. Ideas and ideals are equally vital in the development of a self-directing citizen; and there is a rapidly growing recognition of the fact that in addition to the foregoing purposes and goals of public-school education there are other equally essential outcomes to be expected from the amount of time and effort expended by all concerned in the enterprise of preparing a new genera- tion for efficient and joyful living. It is impossible for the pupil to attend school eight or more years without forming habits. Rousseau's dictum that Emile should fix the habit of forming no habits is not to be taken seriously. Whether we will or not, each day's reactions do contribute to the development of certain ways of thinking and acting. This is so obvious as to be almost an axiom. Rather should we follow John Locke, who insists that what habits we form in the youth is the important thing. It is the teacher's duty and privilege, therefore, to provide proper con- ditions of habit formation and so to instruct the pupil that his habits of 5 76 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Chicago mental work may become the safeguards and power of an efficient crafts- manship in the several fields of his endeavor. In the school there should be ample room, not only for acquiring knowledge of subject-matter and for the evolution of ideals and ideas, but also for forming correct habits of study. On this theory of teaching is based the increasing demand for supervised study. If now correct habits of study are to be developt in school it is clear that conditions thereto must be favorable. Forming correct habits is a process of constraint and restraint. It is a conscious, laborious, and care- fully controlled process. To teach and train pupils to study correctly must be the conscious procedure of each class period. It should be the method and the spirit of teaching. The usual routine of the classroom must needs be vitally related to this high purpose of formal education. This does not mean that prevailing methods are wholly inferior and inade- quate. It does mean that there will be a shifting of accent, a new weighing of values, a rearrangement of the scheme of teaching, so that everything planned for the class period may be directed toward the aim of developing in the pupil abihty to get knowledge for himself, to analyze meanings of problems, and to adjust himself to new situations most easily and effectively. The three functions of teaching referred to at the beginning of this paper become peculiarly significant in the light of this need to teach and train pupils how to study. The daily recitation cajinot be wholly dispenst with, but its value must be reweighed; the assignment is necessary, and under the plan of teaching pupils how to study it gains superlative impor- tance. The pupil's home study is not to be wholly eliminated perhaps, but it becomes more meaningful and effective if it has been begun under the direction of a teacher who knows how to work with pupils without working for them. These three functions, as they will be illustrated in Miss Simpson's demonstration lesson and are further illustrated in her book,^ may be named: the daily review, the assignment, the independent or silent-study period — all three of these functions constituting the technique of supervised study. I. The daily review. — ^Three aims especially are involved in shifting the emphasis from the meaning attacht to reciting or recitation to that underlying the daily review. Reciting so easily becomes in classroom practice piecemeal testing that it is felt in many quarters a quite different term would more adequately express the real function of this aspect of teaching. a) One of the aims in the daily review is to provide a sound basis of frequent recall. The importance of reviewing brief and longer units of reading-matter, as arranged in sentences, paragraphs, pages, chapters, or other units of assignment, cannot be overemphasized in the study process. By means of the daily review an intensive survey of the important- points in the lesson is provided for. In this review matters of primary importance * Supervised Study in History. New York and Chicago: The Macmillan Company. Superintendence] THE THREE FUNCTIONS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 577 are strest. It is a well-organized discussion of the facts or ideas that the pupils have discovered and evolved in their studying. These are clincht, coordinated, systematized, and summarized during the review period. h) The teacher's aim, however, in this review process is not confined to a recall and summary of each particular lesson. As far as possible, and in accordance with the nature of the subject-matter, during each review period there will be an enrichment of the knowledge gleaned during previous reviews on a particular topic or unit of instruction. Day by day the pupils are consciously directed in the construction of a unit of knowledge. They combine each day's results into a constantly enlarging system of knowledge. Revisions may be necessary. As parts are seen in relation to other parts their meaning broadens and becomes more intelligible. The pupil is being trained by this means to interpret new experience in the light of what he already knows. He is being taught and trained not only in the process of effective recall and summarizing but also in the method of building a struc- ture of knowledge by relating each new series of items learned to those already in hand. c) The third aim of the daily review has a twofold meaning. Under the teacher's guidance the review of the recently studied material may reveal to the pupils that their knowledge of the topic in hand is not yet complete. There are still uncertainties, questions, problems, that must be considered. Not infrequently the pupils will be able to state these prob- lems for themselves, but, if not, the teacher's direction makes the nature of the remaining difficulty intelligible to the pupils. This awareness of something still needing study, this sensing of the presence of a difficulty or of a problem, is an evidence of the pupils' ability to think. The third function of the daily review therefore involves the recognition of a need for the further study of the problem in hand and also the statement of this remaining difficulty as an aim in the assignment of new work. To recapitulate, the daily review rather than the familiar recitation is intended to make the pupil aware of the importance of effective recall and thereby to clinch and make very clear what has been studied, also to train the pupil in knowledge-building by requiring him to reinterpret each day's work in the light of what he has already learned, and also to make him aware of unsolved difficulties, these then becoming the reason for the new assign- ment. If the teacher has the course well organized into units of recitation and units of study it will be necessary to devote little more than one-fifth of the class period to this daily review. The exact amount of time, of course, cannot be predetermined. 2. The assignment. — At the close of the daily review the pupils become aware of needing additional light on the topic or problem under considera- tion. This problem is stated in a simple sentence, either written on the blackboard by the teacher or announst by a member of the class. The 5 7S NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Chicago assignment is thereby introduced. It has a specific aim. The pupils are required to study, not a certain number of pages or scattered problems, but a problem or a topic about which they will find information in such references as the teacher will supply. It now becomes the teacher's task to give the pupils some general directions as to how to proceed in their search for more knowledge about the problem or topic. The statement of aim or of the nature of the still unsolved difficulty acts as a compass or as an objective; but there is still room for much wasteful and perhaps unnecessarily discouraging effort. Valuable time may be lost if the pupil does not know how to seek. The explorer is controlled by a definite purpose, but if he hopes to succeed most quickly and successfully he will need to know something of the nature of the territory, the roads, the dangers, and other conditions controlKng -his search. He may still fail, but he fails intelligently. He has used a rational method of finding the object of his quest. The pupil will need to know the most economical method of seeking information. This part of the class period gives opportunity for the teacher to present a model example, as in mathematics; a demonstration lesson, as in science; or a cooperative assignment in these and other subjects like history or literature. Several functions of the assignment need to be borne in mind. a) It presents a definite and specific objective. The pupil is aware not only of the quantity limits of the new lesson but especially of the gains he is expected to make in skill or knowledge thru this assignment. b) The assignment makes clear to the pupil how such problems as he now must solve are usually attackt. What is the method that others have found successful in doing work of this kind? If he can understand the method of procedure as well as the nature of the problem to be solved he may proceed with a strong probability of success. c) During the assignment opportunity is given for cooperative studying. The main objective is considered. Pupils contribute by reading from refer- ences, or by discussion, to the solution of the problem. Controlled by the needs as stated in the aim and in the nature of the problem the pupils now work together in making the large plans, just as cooperative planning evolves a military campaign, an engineering project, or a commercial enterprise. The pupils are studying together under the direction of the teacher. They are conscious of working with one another in the construction of common knowledge' about the subject in hand. It resembles the spirit of the hive, or the activity of each beaver in building the dam that will be of benefit to the entire group. d) By means of this cooperative studying the pupils are taught and trained in the use of tools. Reading correctly and thoughtfully is empha- sized. The handhng of apparatus and the careful manipulation of num- bers, symbols, and signs in science and mathematics are given close attention. Critical reactions to what other members of the class offer are Superintendence! THE THREE FUNCTIONS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 579 encouraged. Discriminating notebook work is developt. The importance of concentration and system is prest home. e) When the cooperative studying has resulted in a general or a tentative solution of the problem in hand and in a well-understood method of pro- cedure the assignment is restated in the form of several detailed problems, either written on the board or presented in mimeograph copies. By this means the individual pupil's rate of progress is recognized. Pupils who can do the most work are not kept working on slow speed. They are not encouraged to idle. In this way also the third function of the class period is introduced. The foregoing analysis of the assignment will doubtless be regarded by many teachers as the usual teaching process. There is, however, a funda- mental difference involved in calling this the assignment. The pupil is held close to a definite goal. He is conscious of cooperating in reaching it. He is being taught how to attack the new lesson. As a member of the group he gives aid in working out a general solution of the problem. Nothing is left to chance or to loose, random activity. Everything points to a clearly understood goal. The class is a harmoniously working machin- ery humming its way to a worth-while product. About two-fifths of the class period may be required for this function. 3. The independent or silent-study function. — It is commonly and wrongly supposed that at this point the supervision of study begins. What has already been said about the daily review and the assignment is to be regarded as fundamental in any type of study supervision that aims to teach and train pupils how to study. During the time devoted to silent study each pupil works on the various aspects of the general topic or prob- lems as these are stated in the more detailed assignments. Pupils who are able to accomplish only the minimum amount of work have covered the requirements of the course at this point, whereas the members of the clas§ who can produce a greater amount of work will belong to the more advanst groups. While the pupils are at work the teacher may be called upon to confer with pupils who are unable to apply the general procedure illustrated during the cooperative assignment. At the point of wrong departure the teacher is at hand so to direct the pupil that he will not unnecessarily fail. Valuable time is thereby saved. The pupil's ability is tested during this part of the class period just as effectively as during the review and the cooperative assignment. Speed and accuracy may be noted. There is the further advantage that each pupil is doing his own work. If assistance is required it will be given by the teachers rather than by parents or others less competent to give the pupil wholesome help in his studying. Most of the pupils will not require any further direction from the teacher, but those who do need such direction may obtain it when most needed. These then, in brief, are the three functions of the class period as related to the supervision of the pupil's methods of work. The aim, it will be noted, 580 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iChicago is first of all so to direct the pupil that he will engage during the review of the preceding day's studying in efifective recall and in cooperative clinch- ing of the most important items in the assignment. The second aim is to give the pupil a very definite statement not only of the quantity of new work to be done but of its nature. The pupil's attention is directed not to a quantity of work but to an unsolved problem that may be solved in the manner illustrated during the cooperative assignment. Individual differences are partly provided for in the threefold apportionment of mini- mum, average, and maximum assignments. And finally the aim is to allow the pupil to begin his independent or silent studying in an environment favorable to the economical and effective pursuit of a certain number of tasks, all related to the common problem. The pupil is now engaged in piecework. He now works on particular parts of the general problem, but he does so under the coordinating and directive skill of the teacher. This to me is the meaning and general technique of the divided period. THE RELATION BETWEEN STUDY AND READING WILLIAM S. GRAY, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. Supervised study periods have been organized because pupils need help and direction in the preparation of their lessons. The extent to which a pupil needs help is determined largely by the character of his reading and study habits. The pupil who studies carefully as he reads and who selects appropriate methods of work usually progresses rapidly and requires Uttle or no help from teachers. On the other hand, the pupil who uses poor methods of study and who reads carelessly usually progresses slowly and requires frequent assistance. It is therefore a matter of first importance that pupils be trained to study effectively as they read. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the uses which are made of reading during study periods and to outline types of instruction which pupils should receive to develop economical and appropriate methods of study. In order to secure a list of the uses made of reading during study periods the teachers of the high school of the University of Chicago were asked to name the various ways in which reading is used in the preparation of assignments. Twenty-nine statements were submitted in response to this request, and they appear in the following list. Attention is specially directed to the starred statements. The Uses of Reading Ability in Preparing High-School Assignments 1. To stimulate interest in and appreciation for a given field of study. 2. To acquire more effective modes of expression. * 3. To interpret and remember for the purpose of reproducing what is read. * 4. To determine the main outline of a story or article. 5. To enlarge one's vocabulary. Superintendence] THE RELATION BETWEEN STUDY AND READING 581 * 6. To determine central ideas or fundamental principles. 7. To comprehend clearly and visualize described details. * 8. To determine and organize the principal points and the supporting details in a topic, article, or book. 9. To acquire more effective modes of thinking or reasoning. 10. To extend one's general range of information thru quantitative reading of materials directly related to a given subject. 11. To master sentence structure, grammatical relationships, word forms, idioms, etc. 12. To obtain definite information for the purpose of making specific reports or of asking intelligent questions. *i3. To analyze the argument of an address or article into its essential parts. 14. To increase one's rate of reading. 15. To find collateral and illustrative materials in regard to problems or topics under discussion. *i6. To follow directions with accuracy and reasonable speed. 17. To determine the relative importance of different facts. 18. To increase one's information in regard to specific topics. *i9. To draw valid conclusions from data or statements. *2o. To find facts or materials which will aid in the solution of a problem or in answering questions. 21. To review the material of earlier readings for information needed in the discussion of present problems. 22. To appreciate the significance of each word used in a concisely exprest statement or principle. *23. To gain a clear comprehension of the essential conditions of a problem which is to be solved. 24. To interpret and remember for the purpose of reproducing in another language. 25. To discover new problems in regard to a topic under discussion. 26. To determine whether statements are based on fact, opinion, inference, or supposition. *27. To determine the validity of statements or inferences. 28. To discover the full significance of fundamental laws or conditions by correctly interpreting descriptions of their applications. 29. To gain the meaning of words peculiar to a subject or to master the particular mean- ings they have in the subject. Each of these statements describes a familiar use of reading. Altho they are not all mutually exclusive, they are sufficiently different in char- acter to indicate clearly that numerous and varied uses are made of reading in school work. One cannot escape the impression as he studies the list that high-school pupils are confronted with a complex problem, if all of the purposes of assignments are realized during study periods. In order to determine the relative importance of the different uses of reading in the various subjects, the Hst was submitted to two hundred and fifty teachers representing all departments of typical high schools. The teachers were askt to check the five uses of reading which were most impor- tant in preparing assignments in their departments. The repHes were recorded by departments and the results exprest in terms of the percentages of teachers mentioning each use. The results are represented graphically for the departments of English, science, mathematics, history, modern languages, and for all departments combined. Each vertical column 582 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago represents a use which is made of reading. The uses are arranged from left to right in the order in which they appear on the printed Ust. The heights of the columns represent the percentages of teachers mentioning the different uses of reading. English 1234s Science 6 18 i 12 20 Mathematics 23 20 19 22 7 History 6 8 3 10 i Modem Language 5 11 24 i 3 The accompanying diagrams show the five most important uses of reading in each subject as indicated by the teachers who cooperated. When one compares the ways in which reading is used in the different departments he is imprest with the fact that different departments use reading for widely different purposes. This fact is illustrated in a very striking way in the modern-language departments, where some of the most important uses of reading have little or no value in other departments. Since reading is used for a large number of purposes in the preparation of high-school assignments, a significant question is brought pointedly to our attention. Are the same reading habits and attitudes employed in connection with all the uses of reading, or is each use of reading characterized by its own set of appropriate habits? An examination of adult reading habits reveals some interesting and relevant facts. When one reads the morning newspaper to determine what the important events are which have transpired recently, interesting sets of habits are employed. The eyes take in the large headlines and the column headings almost instantly, and certain columns are selected as the most interesting. The eyes run down a column, catching rapidly items of information here and there. After a short period attention shifts to another column, and the skimming process continues. In two or three minutes an effective reader has secured a large number of important news items. Again, one reads a popular novel rapidly for pleasure, dwelHng upon those parts which appeal to his interest. On the other hand, an article in the Atlantic Monthly, dealing with some modern social problem, requires more deliberate reading. One may read slowly in such cases, pausing on each sentence or line. Often each statement is carefully considered, and a judgment is reacht with regard to its vaUdity. The significant fact which attaches to the foregoing discussion is that the various types of reading can be carried on most effectively thru the use of different sets of habits. A comparison of reading for the purpose of remembering and repro- ducing with reading for the purpose of drawing valid conclusions reveals distinct differences in both the attitude of the reader and the habits of study which are employed. When a pupil reads for the purpose of remembering and reproducing what he reads, he sets about his task with a determination English 25 29 Ifathematios n n LPi_r^ ir C ^ 10 15 20 25 29 60 404 20 0. History s-n rn 5 10 15 20 25 29 80 ~ -j — Uodern Languages 40. _rL 80. 0. U L_j m n n p^ 10 15 20 25 29 60 All Departments Combined 'I"Ln_ri 5 10 15 20 25 Relative Importance of the Various Uses of Reading 584 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago to remember what he reads. He reads the selection rapidly the first time to see what it is about and to select the main points. He i:eads it a second time to select and organize the details which belong appropriately to each main point. He then closes his book and recalls as much as he can. It is probable that he will then skim thru the selection to verify his outline of the essential points and supporting details. Some time later in the day or before the next recitation period he will again recall the facts which he wishes to present and will check his memory of the content by skimming thru the selection. A pupil who reads for the purpose of drawing valid conclusions begins reading to discover evidence bearing on either side of a problem. The first reading is done carefully to determine the facts as they are presented. The reader then makes a summary of the evidence and draws a tentative con- clusion. The second reading considers each point carefully to determine its validity and the weight it should be given. As the reading continues the facts which point to a positive conclusion are markt -f, and those which point to a negative conclusion are markt — . These markt passages are finally reviewed, and a definite conclusion is reacht. The foregoing discussion has emphasized the fact that the procedure in reading differs in the two cases. Any number of comparisons could be made in which equally markt differences would be apparent. Enough has been said, however, to show that a large variety of reading habits are employed as one studies. The specific habits which are used during a given study period depend on the purpose of the assignment which has been made. These facts suggest a second important question. Should children be trained more definitely than they are at present in the establishment of reading habits which are appropriate for the various purposes of study? Recent tests of the study habits of college Freshmen show clearly that even the brighter pupils pass thru the elementary and high schools without acquiring effective habits of study. Tests and observations of high-school classes show clearly that a large majority of the pupils cannot read and study effectively. Teachers in the upper grades of elementary schools and in high schools admit frankly that instruction in the most important habits of reading and study is unorganized for the most part and very poorly done. The teachers of one of the best-organized elementary schools of Illinois recently stated that they were failing to give adequate instruction along these lines because they did not know how to train pupils effectively. Accumulated evidence justifies the statement that most boys and girls go thru the elementary and high schools without acquiring effective habits of study. Instead of developing effective habits which render pupils progressively independent of assistance during study periods, they are too frequently left more and more dependent on the teacher for assistance as the study problems change from a simple to a more difficult level. This situation cannot be remedied wholly in supervised study periods. It is one Superintendence) THE RELATION BETWEEN STUDY AND READING 585 of the fundamental problems of instruction and must be attackt intelligently and systematically in every grade, beginning with the earliest. In the remaining sections of this report a constructive program of instruction for developing effective habits of reading and study will be discust briefly. The basic training in effective habits of reading and study should be given in the elementary school. Instead of devoting all the reading time to training in oral expression, much of the time should be given to training pupils in the art of independent, effective silent study. Frances Jenkins in her book entitled Reading in the Primary Grades recommends that training of this type be started in the first and second grades. Two types of study problems are discust in detail, namely, finding the heart of the story and separating a selection into its main sections. As much training should be given along these lines as may be necessary to quicken the thought of the pupil, to broaden his understanding of a selection, and to deepen his appreciation. Instead of merely hearing reading lessons day after day, teachers of the lower grades should devote a large amount of time and attention to the development of a thoughtful reading attitude. This is prerequisite to effective expression and to the development of abihty to study independently and intelHgently. By the beginning of the fourth grade pupils should be able to read fluently untechnical paragraphs in Carpenter's Geographical Readers. When they have reacht this point in their development they are ready for specific instruction in the methods of silent reading and study. Altho instruction should be given in all phases of silent reading during the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades, the present discussion is limited to the methods of developing effective study habits as one reads. In the organization of instruction of this type three principles of organization should be observed: (i) Pupils should be trained definitely in specific habits of study. (2) Regular periods should be utilized for such instruction. (3) Instruction should proceed systematically from simple to more difficult study problems. By the end of the sixth grade the more important study habits should have been developt. The following illustrations describe some of the essential characteristics of instruction of the type which is recommended. I. Pupils should be trained to get the central idea of what is being read. Both understanding and appreciation depend on finding the central theme. In the fourth grade short passages may be chosen as the basis for this work. Pupils should be instructed concerning the most effective methods of pro- cedure. The important part should be markt. If two or three different sentences contain possible central themes, the pupils should mark them and then study their value and importance. The central ideas chosen by different pupils should be discust in class. Reasons should be presented for the final choice, and each pupil should recognize why his selection was approved or {ejected. There should be sufficient training of this type to develop the attitude on the part of the pupils of searching for the author's 5 86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago main point. The training should be continued in the fifth grade thru the use of more difficult passages and longer selections. In the sixth grade the pupils should be able to attack relatively difiicult passages and should be able to find the central theme of long selections or books. Twenty minutes of silent study to find the central idea of a selection fifteen or twenty pages in length provides excellent training in developing habits of effective silent study. 2. Definite training should be provided in finding a series of large important points. In the fourth grade the pupils may mark the passages in the selection which include the important points, or the teacher may write them on the board as they are suggested. After the entire series has been indicated the passages should be re-read to determine whether or not all of the essential points have been included. Instruction should be continued along this line in the fifth grade by requiring the pupil to select the points independently, to express them concisely, to place them in the form of an organization, and to include some of the supporting details. In the sixth grade pupils should be trained to organize effectively the mate- rial which they read and to develop considerable skill in working out refined organizations as to both form and content. 3. Pupils should be trained to determine the vahdity of statements. In the fourth grade the teacher must lead largely in this work. Selections should be chosen in which the writer's experiences or statements differ from the experiences of the class. By means of skilful questions the teachers can provoke discussion with regard to such points. In this connection pupils should realize that experiences may differ, and that two people may give entirely different accounts of the same event. In the fifth grade conflicting statements by different authors may be studied. In this con- nection pupils should learn that the author's qualification to write on a given topic determines to a large extent the amount of confidence which can be placed in his statements. In the sixth grade pupils should be taught the use of source-books in various fields and should be given frequent opportu- nity to check the validity of questionable statements thru the use of reliable sources of information. We must depend for leadership in this work on the superintendents, supervisors, and principals of the country. I am confident that our leaders will give this problem the consideration, stimulus, and impetus which it merits. Superintendence] DIVIDED-PERIOD PLAN OF SUPERVISED STUDY 587 THE DIVIDED-PERIOD PLAN OF SUPERVISED STUDY IN AMERICAN HISTORY MABEL E. SIMPSON, DIRECTOR OF KINDERGARTENS AND ELEMENTARY GRADES, ROCHESTER, N.Y. DEMONSTRATION LESSON Grade : Grade VIII B (first half of eighth year) from the Lawson Ele- mentary School, Chicago. Topic: Transportation. Teacher's Aim: To teach the pupils to do purposive thinking relative to a definite problem — an important factor in the acquisition of right habits of study. Lesson Type: A "How to Study" lesson. Factors of Study: The lesson provides for special attention to the recog- nition of the problem, collection of data, organization of data, the tentative attitude or the exercise of independent judgment, the applica- tion of ideas, and the provision for initiative upon the part of the child. The Pupils' Aim: To secure definite information upon the problem requiring solution. Parts of the Lesson and Time Schedule : 1 . The review 20 minutes 2. The assignment 10 minutes 3. Study of the assignment 10 minutes 4. Verification 5 minutes 5. Directions for further research 5 minutes Note: Under ordinary classroom conditions a more normal distribution of time might have been as follows: The review 15 minutes, the assign- ment 10 minutes, study of the assignment 20 minutes, and verification 5 minutes. For demonstration purposes, however, it has seemed wise to have a less prolonged period f9r silent study. Provision for Individual Differences: 1. Inferior group — Group I. 2. Average group — Group II. 3. Superior group — Group III. The Nature of Each Part of the Lesson: I. The Review — Subject-matter: Topics for review. Topic I, Early Methods of Transportation by Land (given by Group II). Topic II, The Cumberland and the National Road (given by Group I). Topic III, The First Railroad (given by Group III). Method — A socialized review. 588 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago 2. The Assignment a) Explanation given by the teacher. h) Recognition and statement of the problem. c) Location of data pertaining to the problem. The Problem (to be stated by the pupils) — How was the first trans- continental railroad built and why was it important ? 3. Study of the Assignment Part I (minimum assignment) — Directions: Read the refer- ence just located in the Mace History in order to find definite information upon the following points pertaining to our problem: a) What was the name of the first transcontinental rail- road and when was it completed ? b) Be able to tell the most important facts given in this text upon the construction of the first transcontinental railroad. c) Re-read the paragraph that is given completely on page 416 of the Mace History. Select the parts of this paragraph which tell two ways by which aid was given to the companies which built the first transcontinental railroad. Part II (average assignment) d) Read as much of pages 378-80 in the Gordy History as seems necessary in order to determine at least three great advantages to our nation resulting from the completion of the first and other transcontinental lines. Part III (maximum assignment) e) Today we are privileged to be citizens of a great nation which has the most highly developt system of trans- portation in the world. Decide upon one thing which would be a serious disadvantage to you or to your family if, for any reason, all means of transportation should suddenly be stopt in this city. 4. Verification — Results of the silent-study period determined: a) Quantitative result. b) Quahtative result. 5. Directions for Further Research: Problems for Committee Work — Merely one of innumerable ways of providing for the develop- ment of initiative and the socialization of jclassroom procedure. Committee I — Make a map of the United States and upon it show the following: a) The route of the first transcontinental railroad. b) At least two other transcontinental lines built since 1869. Superintendence] DIVIDED-PERIOD PLAN OF SUPERVISED STUDY 589 c) The Lincoln Highway. Be sure to show the importance of each. This map may be made upon the blackboard or in any way that it can best be shown to the class. Committee II — Gain all the information you can to show how the number of miles of railroad in the United States in 1869 compares with that of 1919. How does our mileage in this country compare with that of leading countries of Europe ? Committee III — In your opinion, how did the Homestead Act aid in creating a demand for a transcontinental railroad ? Give your sources of information in defense of your opinion. Committee IV — Explain the method of control of our railway system during the recent world-war. Show why this method of control was considered necessary. Committee V — Who was recently made Director General of Railroads? What are his special qualifications for this work ? Bring to class any magazine articles or newspaper clippings which illustrate the attitude of Congress or of the people toward the problem confronting him. THE DIVIDED-PERIOD PLAN OF SUPERVISED STUDY (The following explanation preceded the demonstration lesson.) Supervised study presents so many phases which are worthy of con- sideration that it is impossible to crowd into the few moments at my disposal all of the points generally recognized as of vital importance. I shall attempt to demonstrate thru my lesson the divided-period plan of supervised study which Dr. Hall-Quest has just outhned. In order that the various pajts of this lesson may be easily understood, I should like to explain my general plan and give some of my reasons for the different types of procedure employed. In the outline which has already been distributed I have listed the essential points for consideration. You will note that the pupils with whom I am to work have been selected from the Lawson Elementary School of this city. It is only as a result of the most generous cooperation of Superintendent Mortenson, District Superintendent John H. Stube, and Mr. Krauskopf, principal of the Lawson School, as well as the pupils themselves, that this demonstration has been made possible. I met these children for the first time Monday. Since that time we have workt together for one period each day in order that they might have some slight famiharity with the method which I shall employ in this lesson. Our unit of instruction requiring a series of lessons for completion is the subject of "Transportation." This was selected from the "Chicago 590 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago Course of Study in History" and is a unit upon which the pupils previously had had no instruction. Our work together Monday was merely for the purpose of becoming acquainted. On Tuesday we studied early methods of transportation by land, and on Wednesday the improvements made in about 1830 in methods of transportation by land. The pupils have been given no intimation of what their problem for today's lesson will be. They only know that it will be based upon the question of transportation by land. The facts they have learned in the two previous lessons will furnish the basis for review in this lesson. They have had no formal drill upon the points to be discust during the review. Since one of the great fundamental purposes of supervised study is to teach our pupils how to study, my specific aim in this lesson is to teach the pupils to do purposive thinking relative to a definite problem. This, as we know, is one of the important factors in learning how to study. One cannot hope to teach pupils how to study unless he is fully conscious of the meaning of "study" and the various factors involved. I hope to make it clear, during the progress of the lesson, just where the several factors noted in the outline are being employed. The pupils have not been made conscious of these terms. There is no necessity for so doing. It is only after continued use that habit formation results. Pupils have not learned to study profitably until right habits of thinking have been developt. Naturally the pupil's aim and the aim of the teacher, therefore, do not necessarily coincide. Their conscious aim during this lesson will, without doubt, be to secure definite information upon the problem which they hope to solve. In order that we may not devote too much time to a single phase of this lesson the fifty-minute period will be subdivided as noted in the outKne. Teachers who employ this plan of supervised study find it very helpful to appoint a pupil to be timekeeper. His duty is to watch the time and inform the class when to begin the next part of the lesson. The pupils greatly enjoy and appreciate this slight delegation of responsibility. It helps them to reaHze that they, as well as the teacher, are responsible for the success of the lesson. There are many arguments in favor of the employment of a time schedule, chief among them being the fact that a teacher is thus obliged to gauge carefully the amount he plans to accomplish during a given period. Those of us who have had considerable experience as teachers reahze that this has long been one of our vulnerable points. We either plan so much that it cannot possibly be accompHsht in the time allotted, or only a haphazard estimate is made. In each case the main value of the lesson is often lost entirely. On the other hand, this time element should not be made a "fetish." Like many other problems confronting the teacher, it requires "common V Superintendence) DIVIDED-PERIOD PLAN OF SUPERVISED STUDY 591 sense." The time allotment for the various parts of the lesson should vary from day to day according to the particular needs of the lesson under con- sideration. Teachers should never make this an arbitrary, rigidly fixed type of procedure. Variation greatly enhances its value. While one of the fundamental aims of supervised study is to teach pupils "how to study," the consideration of the individual differences existing in every class is none the less important. Regardless of how care- [fuUy a class may be graded, the pupils naturally fall into three distinct ! groups. The "inferior group" consists of the slowest, weakest pupils in the class. The "superior group" contains only such pupils as are readily recognized because of their particular intelligence and abiHty. All other i pupils are considered average. Pupils should never be made conscious of these terms. Assignment to a particular group should be based not on mere opinion but upon the ; result of scientific investigation thru the employment of standard tests. Dr. Gray has very kindly given me great assistance in this respect. My classification for this particular lesson has been based entirely upon data secured by Dr. Gray, who generously tested these pupils by means of his comprehension tests in reading. Pupils should be changed from one group I to another as frequently as they have proved their ability to work in a higher fgroup. I have purposely arranged the chairs for this lesson in such a way that the inferior pupils will be seated in this section, the average pupils here, and the superior ones here [indicating special section for each group]. This [may help you in noting the various reactions to the lesson by all pupils. I previously mentioned the fact that the subject-matter for discussion [during the review is based upon the subject-matter studied during the two [lessons preceding this lesson. You will note that three topics are listed [for consideration. We shall begin the review by my selecting a representa- ptive from each group, also one pupil to act as judge. The pupils have not )een informed concerning this selection. I have in every way tried to Leep conditions as similar as possible to those existing in the regular class- room. The judge will call upon the representative of the group to whom the 'first topic has been assigned (Group II). This pupil then becomes respon- sible for attempting to give a full discussion upon Topic I. At the close of his recitation any pupil in his group may rise and question him further, add any information not given, or correct an error. Pupils in the other groups have the same privilege. If at any time the judge considers that questions askt are unimportant, not to the point, or have already been askt, he has the privilege of rising and objecting to the question, provided he gives his reason for objecting. If his reason is accepted by the class the question will be rejected. At the close of the discussion of the third topic the judge will tell which representation he considers did the best work, also which group. His decision will be referred to the class for approval. 592 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago This is only one of a countless number of ways of socializing a review. Any ingenious teacher can devise many ways equally as interesting to children. Here also variation in method of procedure stimulates interest. My particular desire during this part of the lesson is so to conduct the review that the pupils as well as the teacher will be doing the work. Suffi- cient provision also has been made for the development of initiative upon the part of the pupils. You will observe that I assigned Topic I to Group II. There were two reasons for this. First, a pupil of the average group would be less timid and self-conscious than a pupil of the inferior group. The pupil of the inferior group is thus given a longer time in which to be ready for his recitation. Secondly, Topic I requires considerable organization of fact in order to answer it satisfactorily. Topic II involves memory only. In considering the second part of the lesson, the assignment, I hope to be able to demonstrate some of the points of difference between this type of assignment and that in which we superimpose upon the pupils a task in which they see little value and therefore have slight interest. The brief explanation which I shall give is merely to serve as a connecting link between the information on transportation hy land, previously studied, and the new facts to be discovered in today's lesson. The problem listed in the outline is merely suggestive of what the pupils may give. I shall endeavor, if possible, to use the problem which they propose. The "Study of the Assignment" is largely self-explanatory. After the pupils have discovered what they are to study, they begin at once to work out, silently and independently, the directions hsted under the "Study of the Assignment." During this time the teacher helps only those who are especially weak or those who encounter some difficulty. Assistance is given thru further questions or directions. Part I deals with the minimum essentials of the "Course of Study" and is the amount required by the class as a whole. It is also the maximum amount required of the inferior group. Pupils in this group, however, should be encouraged to complete as much of Parts II and III as possible. Impress upon all pupils the importance of careful, accurate work. Ques- tions I and 2 test the pupil's ability to get the thought quickly from the printed page. Question 3 tests his ability to make an independent judg- ment as well as to organize his ideas. Question 4 gives additional data concerning the topic under consideration and is a more severe test of the pupil's ability to follow directions and form independent judgments. Question 5 requires the application of facts or ideas to a personal situation. It helps to make the pupil conscious of the fact that national problems are problems affecting the individual also. During the brief time for verification I shall merely try to determine the number completing the various parts of the assignment and briefly touch upon some of the vital pcnnts discov6red during the silent-study period. Superintendence] DIVIDED-PERIOD PLAN OF SUPERVISED STUDY 593 In order that you may have some idea of how the study of this unit of instruction might be continued and further vitahzed I have noted in the outhne several problems for committee work. If this were a class of my own and I could devote another week to the study of transportation I should give the pupils directions similar to the following: The pupils would be told to read each problem carefully and select the committee upon which each wisht to work. The choice could be indicated by each pupil signing his name upon a small slip and giving the committee a number also. Five chairmen, pupils from the average or the superior groups, should then be appointed or, still better, elected by the members of the class. Pupils should be given until Monday morning (two days) in which to secure independently all possible information upon their problems. Monday morning each pupil should report in writing to the chairman of this com- mittee the sources of information which he has located. If none have been secured this fact should be reported also. The chairman will then help such pupils to locate data. All chairmen should report to the teacher for assistance if necessary. Before the final reports are given the chairman should meet with the teacher to arrange plans, and each chairman should, in turn, meet with his committee to complete all arrangements for the lesson, to which the entire period on Wednesday should be devoted. The class should be permitted to invite another class to hear its reports. The investigation of such problems as those already suggested will naturally lead the pupils to desire to learn about transportation by water and methods of communication. The question of inventions and inventors would need consideration in this connection. The outcome of such study might easily be the consideration of the influence of transportation and inventions upon the industrial development of our nation. This study would involve the questions of labor, immigration, tariff, etc. In fact there is no limit to the ramifications of such a subject if one follows the natural interest and desire for information which can be created when the child realizes that he is studying some of our real live problems of the times. The procedure just described is merely indicative of limitless ways in which work of this character may be made vital. When such means are employed, the child who formerly regarded history as dull and uninteresting and something to be avoided gradually begins to change his viewpoint. School no longer is a place where dreary lessons are ''learned" and "recited." It becomes instead a place where practical problems having a vital interest to each individual are discust and understood thru a study of past conditions by which they have been influenst. To those unfamiliar with Dr. Hall-Quest's viewpoint with regard to supervised study it may seem that alien elements have been included in the work here presented. If we agree, however, that supervised study is chiefly concerned with forming right habits of study, we must admit that this end cannot be 594 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago accomplisht during the silent-study period alone. The review and the assignment are equally important in providing opportunities for the employ- ment of the factors of study. Supervised study, therefore, must take into account the three functions of the lesson and utilize each to develop habits of purposive thinking. SUPERVISED AND DIRECTED STUDY J. STANLEY BROWN, PRINCIPAL OF JOLIET, ILLINOIS, TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL AND JUNIOR COLLEGE Educational process is unfixt; it is mutable, unconfined, independent, fluidic; it partakes of these qualities because of the force with which it has to deal. Applied to the schools and colleges, its quantitative element is largest apparently in the realm of intellect. Its qualitative force will be greatest in its effect on the individual as a whole. The process of instruc- tion involves the instructor and the individual to be instructed. There is demanded here a mutuality of effort if the resultant receives either tempo- rary or permanent approval of the participants. Long before Jesus trod the soil of GaUlee, and unceasingly down thru the centuries, men have sought untiringly to improve education, instruc- tion, and teaching. The residuum of theories which for their time met approval and were thought to contribute something permanent has been brought together from age to age and made a part of a fusion of a new process somewhat unlike either of the elements fused, but in a measure has met in a more acceptable way the newer conditions presented. The adoption of universal education in the United States of America long before many of the much older civilizations, developed under different conditions, conceived or thought of such an idea has hastened the training for teaching and has produced in our public mind the desire for thoroly trained teachers. Because men and women have appreciated the necessity of trained teachers, even tho the training had to be in the great majority of cases outside of an institution designated for the training of teachers, there has been a constant effort, a constant study, and, may we say, a constant improvement in the relationship between the teacher and the student. We have tried the short school day in secondary education, the period given up to study for all at the beginning of the day, the conference either in the middle of the day or at the close, the assignment of work to be done at home without direction, the keeping of students as a kind of penalty after the great majority had gone to their homes, and many other projects designed to help in the teaching process. Among the latest of these efforts at securing a closer, a warmer, a more sympathetic, and in many cases a more magnetic relationship between the teacher and the student or pupil is "supervised and directed study." We L- Superintendence! SUPERVISED AND DIRECTED STUDY 595 are not attempting to define this as by a dictionary definition. It represents a method of instruction, a scheme of teaching, which is based upon a mutual relationship, a mutual obligation existing between the two parties concerned. We are applying this method of instruction to all kinds of language work, our native tongue, and our foreign tongues. We are, however, per- suaded that its application is as defensible in all subjects when sanely and ^K thoughtfully applied. It forever condemns to the scrap heap of discarded ^^B pedagogy such expressions as "hearing the recitation," "hearing a class," "mere question and answer," when teacher and class have come together. Its application is not the same in any two different subjects; hence every subject to which it is applied must interpret the method in the interest of the subject and not the subject in the interest of the method. It means a longer school day; it means a larger expense; it means a smaller number of unsuccessful pupils; it means a larger percentage of pupils to continue I^K their work for a longer time ; it means that the educational expense attacht ^^B to this method of teaching is almost offset by the smaller number of repeaters I^B from semester to semester. ^^ The relationship between the teacher and the class takes largely the nature of a conference in which all participate; difficulties presented are discust in the open; the interest created in the first half of the period may be culminated to magnify the interest in the second half of the period. The keyed-up condition, which ought to be general in the conduct of a class after the first twenty or thirty minutes, may be skilfully used without cessation of interest in the continuation of the conference between the teacher and the pupil. Directed study means the appropriation of the positive and the con- structive and the minimizing of the negative and the destructive in the conference group of teacher and class to do, to build, to think, to act, to ^. construct, to produce such a group, and such conditions seem to us far more ^H vital than to memorize and to reproduce or recite what has been prepared ^ to show that it has been prepared. The examination of subject-matter thru common conference and discussion not only is made possible but is made the core and the heart of this kind of educational and instructional effort. The atmosphere of the group created by a common interest in the whole discussion and conference frees the group from the lassitude and indifference many times found when the teacher "hears a recitation," directs a question to an individual, and gets the response from the individual. The individual in turn, when he has performed his part of what is called the recitation, is inchned to be easy for the rest of the hour in the thought that his performance is ended, and that he is but an observer for the remainder of the time. Initiative may be cultivated in the extreme in well-directed study because of the stimulus which comes from the consideration of the entire matter before the group, and not from the small consideration given to ai^ 596 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago individualized question concerned with only a part of the complete topic under discussion. Reproducing has its main value in the earlier years of the educational process, when the power to think is undevelopt, and when the power to reproduce may tend to stimulate and develop the power to think. But certainly at the secondary-school period the power of initiative, the ability to think independently, is either in its inception or at a more advanst stage of development and ought to be carefully directed, encouraged, and developt. Let no one suppose that supervised and directed study may find its satisfaction at all in the large study-hall over which some teacher is placed for the purpose of keeping the room in order and looking after the details of the discipline of the room. In a broad sense there is a kind of super- vision, but it can never have any direct relation or application to supervised and directed study by the teacher especially prepared to do a limited field of work. It is clear that no individual teacher would attempt to direct and supervise the six or eight different fields of work which might be repre- sented in the group in the large assembly hall. The most that can be done under such circumstances is not individualized at all either in subject- matter or in class direction. Everything which savors of a purely mechan- ical performance, everything which savors of the deadness of routine, everything which savors of the "letter that killeth," will be eliminated when a real teacher magnetically in sympathy with the group under his care uses the first few minutes of the conference to enthuse the pupils and illuminate the topic for general consideration and then assists, by guidance only, the unfolding of all the difficulties presented and enlists a unity of attention and a warmth of interest literally irresistible. One subject in the curriculum is as vital and as important as another; one subject ought to be assigned on the daily schedule as much time as another subject. It is clear to me that all linguistic work, whether native- or foreign-born, whether the mother- tongue or the great-great-grandmother- tongue, whether in secondary school or in college, ought to be granted the same consideration in time as any other subject in the curriculum, the same chance for conference and production, the same chance for a kind of laboratory consideration for class and student, the same opportunity to confer, to construct, to criticize, to develop, to produce, to carry out, thru the process of guidance and directed thinking, their examination of subject-matter. In my judgment it is an error to presume that guidance belongs to the vocation only, and not to the whole field of education. Educational guidance thru directed and supervised study may produce as happy and satisfactory results, yea, will produce both happy and satis- factory results, when the individual who guides and directs is saturated with the subject-matter under consideration, is obsest with the best in sociology, psychology, ethics, and pedagogy. In this sort of a conference and consideration of the topics at hand all the best thought of the entire Superintendence] SUPERVISED AND DIRECTED STUDY 597 group may be put into the crucible during the conference, criticism, and debate, and when the whole mass has been fused thru the heat of interest and enthusiasm there will come to all individuals of the group a resultant under the guidance of the director of the group, and this resultant will be far superior to any which might ever come from a perfect recitation heard by a teacher when every question propounded has been answered correctly. The one shows the satisfaction which may come from the expression of mechanical fact; the other the inspiration and enthusiasm which come from the approval of the entire group. Even the individual student placed in the group of the latter kind is led to use his powers to the utmost, while in the other group he has to be driven to secure the use of his powers to the minimum. Under the stimulus of such a conference, influenst by the keenest con- centrated attention, the educational process will develop a brain power keener and keener day by day, and the ability to grapple successfully with fa new problem or a new question will be developt. Directed and well-controlled study produces a kind of independent thinking and induces an unpropt effort. The individual, under the influ- ence of the group, learns to stand alone, to think alone, to act alone, and ultimately to initiate alone. The contrast between the mere "question and answer" method of conducting a class is as definitely estimated as that between the husk and the kernel. Each may have some function, but the power and the vital force lie in the kernel itself rather than in the husk. The members of the conference group, teacher and class, are enabled from meeting to meeting to act as appraisers of their own efforts. They are easily able to detect the spurious and cast it out, to determine the genuine and retain it. A combination of judgment, including the entire group, director and directed, means an up-to-date advance of the level of atten- tion and effort day by day. In the manufacturing world the proudest records have been made thru intensified cooperation. Sometimes we have called it "efficiency." The group concerned with directed study forms the most defensible example of cooperation yet developt in the field of education. The contrast between this and the old type of recitation with question and answer may be seen if we think of the one as a cooperative group synchronized in the solution of a problem, and the other as an isolated individualized group attempting to solve the same problem. Working together we reach the all-inclusive goal; working separately we attain an exclusive individualized goal. As twentieth-century team work or a great constructive force brought to bear on a single point wins, so directed study controlling the large group and bringing to bear all its power on a single topic under discussion will meet the twentieth-century standard of education. 598 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago SUPERVISION OF STUDY IN THE GRADES GRACE A. DAY, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. There is great need to experiment with and work out in detail such factors of study as proposed by Professor McMurry until we know just what are the two or three hundred (or thousand) elementary stimulus- response bonds or habits which the child must form before he becomes an effective independent student in any field. Also we need to know how the supervision of study may facilitate the consolidation of these numerous elementary habits into a small number of hierarchies. Then we must continue unhmited scientific experimentation and quantitative measurement in our classrooms before we shall be able to state with trustworthy assurance just how in detail teachers and pupils should work to establish correct study habits. No one as yet has made a thorogoing scientific study of these details. > Professor Thorndike is constantly shocking his advanst students and colleagues in education by such experiences as this. He asks them to estimate how often a child in the first six years of school sees certain of the one hundred spelling demons in his school readers. Thereupon one is chagrined to find himself holding opinions quite contrary to fact. He is askt to estimate the number of times that a child would have to add seven to nine or five to eight, if he performed all of the work in the first two books in a standard three-book series of arithmetic. Again we are humiliated by our ignorance and are ready to agree when Professor Thorndike suggests that the intellectually elite of this country know nothing about the details and minutiae of the instruments of instruction with which they work. Recent progress in the science of mental measurements, however, gives us hope that in the future it will be possible to give scientifically proved facts concerning supervised study in place of the tentative theses which now are offered. The supervision of study in the elementary grades, or in any place for that matter, is a means to an end, and not an end in itself. The chief end or purpose is the emancipation of our pupils from poor and ineffective ways of studying. The supervision of study which accomplishes its purpose equips pupils with the tools (that is, the knowledge and consequent habits) of independent, self-directed study. Such independence rests upon facility in the mental functions involved in clear thinking. The test of success for any supervised-study period is, How much better able are these pupils to think and study independently ? Four years of experimentation in elementary classrooms, testing and measuring a considerable variety of methods used to teach children how to study, have brought me to the following tentative conclusions: I. The supervision of study or teaching children how to study is not one problem but many problems. It involves not the formation of a habit I Superintendence] SUPERVISION OF STUDY IN THE GRADES 599 by the pupil, nor of a few habits, but a very great and unknown number of highly specialized habits and hierarchies of habits, varying according to the school subject and the special problem within the subject. 2. Children in the elementary grades learn more rapidly and more effectively how to study under the supervision of a trained and skilful teacher than when left alone to work out their own methods. 3. The teacher must have a larger vision of supervised study than that it is a time for pupils to prepare subject-matter to recite at a later class period. Mere daily preparation is too frequently the only aim in the mind of the teacher during the study period, and such a conception leaves the pupils weak and dependent. An effective supervised study period is one in which the teacher and pupils are actively and consciously correcting and perfecting habits of study that will increase the students' total efficiency in school and in life outside of school. Such efficiency involves the factors in good thinking functioning habitually within a given field, and the formation of good thinking habits is controlled by the laws of learning. Attention to the application of these laws to the formation of effective study habits becomes the chief concern of a teacher during a skilfully conducted supervised-study period. Nothing short of a thorogoing course in the psychology of learning will give an adequate understanding of the laws of learning. Such books as How Children Learn by Professor Freeman, of the University of Chicago, contain the needed material in this field. 4. In the elementary grades, when the time which the teacher has to work with a class is divided sharply into distinct parts, one of which is called a supervised-study period, a common tendency among teachers seems to be to revert to the old, deplorable procedure wherein pupils try, during the study period, to fill up on subject-matter which they are unable to use, and the teacher spends the class period quizzing and testing the pupils upon this subject-matter merely to find out how much has been retained by brute memory. It has been found that better teaching results and elementary pupils gain more independent power when teachers regard all their instruction of the pupils as integral parts of the process of teaching children how to study. It has also been found that the procedure during the recitation or class period determines the pupils' habits of study to a far greater extent than does anything which goes on, as a rule, in the so-called supervised- study period. If the teacher in the class period is merely quizzing the pupils for memorized textbook facts, then in the study period the pupils' main purpose is to cram the mind with unevaluated and undigested facts. On the other hand, if in the class period the teacher is encouraging the pupils to weigh facts, to judge values, to select vital matter and to use it in the solution of live problems, then in the study period the pupil is far more likely to be weighing facts, judging values, selecting relevant matter, and, in fact, to be studying intelligently, effectively, and with growing independence. 6oo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago Furthermore we have learned that we have gone only a short distance when we have made all of the physical and mechanical conditions favorable to study. Even when a healthy, normal boy or girl sits comfortably at a model desk, in a perfectly equipt study hall, presided over in absolute silence by a perfect discipUnarian, he or she may be making a miserable failure of the business of study. Far more essential and often more difficult than the provision of favorable physical conditions is the matter of bringing about the favorable psychological conditions necessary to good study. The presence of strong, intrinsic motive and genuine zeal for the task quite surpasses proper posture, ventilation, bodily comfort, and the like, in their effect upon the formation of correct study habits. So also the satisfaction which comes from the ability and the practice of locating and measuring one's own failures and successes in the steps taken while studying counts for more in forming good study habits than does the mechanical device of recording the number of minutes spent in studying each subject. Abraham Lincoln is a classic example of a successful student in spite of most unfavor- able physical conditions. Not that I would deny any pupil the advantages of the most favorable physical and mechanical conditions, but I would also direct the teacher's attention to, and help her with, the more difficult problems involved in providing the necessary psychological conditions upon which her success in the supervision of study depends. I would ask you, as her supervisors, to help her better to understand the psychological laws of learning (namely, the laws of readiness, exercise, and effect) and their special applications in teaching children how to study. By way of summary, may I reiterate that the most valuable things which I have learned while cooperating with teachers in their experiments with supervised study are the following: The methods of study adopted by pupils come mainly from the teacher's ways of working during the class period and from her own methods of study. Only one who is something of a master in a given field of knowledge can successfully supervise the study by pupils in that field. Only by scientifically controlled experimentation and measurement will we learn what we should know about supervised study. Teachers in the elementary grades (and perhaps elsewhere) must be led to see how all of their work influences their pupils' habits of study, and that helping pupils to form correct habits of independent study is their major work, and that such habits are a large part of moral character as well as a basic equipment for mental efficiency. Superintendence] ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS 6oi ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS IN SUPERVISED STUDY D. J. KELLY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BINGHAMTON, N.Y. One of the best-grounded of the many complaints registered against the pubHc schools is that we have been accustomed to give pupils work to do without teaching them how to do it. Children have past thru the successive stages of our educational system, emerging somewhere along the line with 10 power of concentration or skill in application, those qualities most ^essential for efficiency or success. On the other hand habits of mental [slovenliness, wasting of time, and low ideals of achievement have developt. The educational call of |;he day forces this subject upon our attention, (and we are at last beginning, largely thru compulsion, to give it the con- (Sideration it deserves. The prominence it receives in this conference tends ;to verify my statement. School men and women are everywhere recog- fnizing it as a most pressing problem and are floundering around endeavoring [to reach a satisfactory solution. We find ourselves in exactly the same 'position as that imposed upon our boys and girls. We are given something to do, but no one has thus far shown us how it can best be done. In general, the answer seems to be found in a close and systematic supervision of the work done while it is being done. As study is the means principally used to perform the tasks of the schoolroom, then teaching how to study necessarily becomes the most vital function thereof. To organize and instal a practicable scheme for supervision of study is one of our greatest administrative responsibilities. The solution of the problem involves two elements. The first is time. It is necessary to arrange a satisfactory program or schedule and then secure sufficient time to carry it out. The former presents but little difficulty. The best plan unquestionably is the double period, with the various subjects coming in proper sequence and with adequate allotment. In attempting to secure the amount of time needed we encounter many obstacles. It has long been my opinion that all of the work of the schoolroom should be done between the opening and closing of school, so that when the pupils leave at the end of the last session the work for the day is completed. There are several reasons for this. First, boys and girls are entitled to the satisfaction which comes from definite achievement. To know positively that a certain piece of work is finisht is doubtless the greatest source of encouragement. The opposite is equally discouraging. We find this to be true in mature years. Why should it not be equally so with the young ? Secondly, the home is no place for study, for conditions are not right, and parents are not competent instructors. Very few homes offer suitable conditions. The immature mind readily becomes a victim of such distract- ing influences as the piano, the phonograph, or the family chatter, while parents as a rule have not the ability or the honesty properly to direct 6o2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago lessons. Furthermore, if it could be done, such an arrangement would not be fair to the teacher. If she is to be held responsible for training the child to work, then the work should be done directly under her supervision. Let us then extend our school day just as long as we can without over- taxing the children, overburdening the teachers, or causing unreasonable inconvenience to the patrons. The widely different home conditions in the various sections of the city present the main difficulty. In districts where one or both parents leave home early for their employment the children are usually up at a corresponding hour and can readily be induced to come to school accordingly. In fact, they are much better off thereby. The same pertains to the close of the session, i But in those homes where early rising is not the practice it is extremely difficult to introduce, at least without vigorous protest, anything that savors of the contrary. Objection also comes if an attempt is made to prolong the afternoon, for music lessons, dancing classes, and social engagements must be reckoned with. It is obvious that two different time schedules could not be introduced in the same system. To say the least, the one responsible would not be able to maintain his popularity in those schools with the longer hours, even tho it be for the benefit of those concerned. A satisfactory adjustment offers us an excellent opportunity to exercise our administrative skill. In summarizing I would suggest making the school day as long as it can consistently be made, eliminating all subject-matter that is not absolutely required, reducing the recitation, so far as it is a pumping process, to the irreducible minimum, and giving a definite time for the preparation of the lesson, either directly following or immediately preceding the so-called reciting. The second important element of our administrative problem is the teacher. 1. How are we to secure teachers who have a vision, so they can see clearly the meaning of supervised study and its possibilities ? 2. How can these teachers be made to acquire the necessary ability to meet intelligently and with skill the varying conditions resulting from differences in grades, subjects, and pupils ? 3. How can we eliminate the teacher who will not play fair and forego her pleasure in being a pedagogical pump instead of an inspirational director of work ? The answer to the last question I shall leave to my successor on this program. TRAINING TEACHERS TO SUPERVISE J. W. SEXTON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LANSING, MICH. Before being assigned a definite subject for this discussion this after- noon, I was notified that I was to discuss some phase of the question of "Supervised Study." In the few days that elapst before the subject, Superintendence! TRAINING TEACHERS TO SUPERVISE 603 "Training Teachers to Supervise," came to me, I had come to the con- tusion that in this, as well as in all other educational reforms, the teacher ^as the principal factor. Having solved all administrative and financial )roblems, having created the proper environment, having workt out an ideal plan for his particular locality, the success or failure of the superin- jndent's arrangement for supervised study will depend finally upon the Lcher. The attitude of the teachers toward this subject, together with leir natural ability and training, must be of first consideration to the idministrative officer who is contemplating the introduction of the system. There are two classes of teachers to be trained: those already in irvice and those in training. It is of the training of the former class that I lesire to speak, because we as superintendents can fall back upon the nor- lal schools and colleges to supply us in the future with teachers trained to supervise. But if supervised study is desirable we cannot wait for the )resent corps of teachers to pass off the stage of action before its intro- luction. The responsibility will rest with superintendents, principals, and supervisors to train the teachers already in the force. It seems to me that in doing this the first and most important step is to levelop in the minds of the teachers a sympathetic attitude toward the ppervision of study. Without interest and enthusiasm on the part of the jachers the best plan will fail, and with these qualities in the teaching corps a poor plan will attain moderate success. As a basis for the development of interest in some reform the superin- tendent should first create in the minds of his teachers a wholesome dis- satisfaction with conditions as they are today. To do this it would seem that nothing more would be necessary than to present to them the results of recent investigations. For example, Professor G. L. Jackson, of the University of Michigan, recently collected data from 97 high schools in Michigan. He found that 27.8 per cent of the boys are failing in Latin, 25.6 per cent of the boys are failing in algebra — a study that we have always considered a boy's subject — 24.9 per cent in English, 17. i per cent in history, and 0.12 per cent in general science. Other investigations can be cited to show similar results. In the light of these facts and figures no teacher can argue very strongly that no reform is necessary. The teacher must feel that these failures are due to some extent to lack of study or of proper study methods. Hence supervised study will give her the oppor- tunity to eliminate some of these elements of failure. The fundamental principle of the public schools is that of democracy ^itself, equal opportunities for all. The teachers must appreciate that when luch home study is expected, with little direction and no supervision, with the unequal conditions that exist in the homes of today — that is, the unequal opportunities and encouragement for study — we are not giving equal opportunities to all, thus subverting a fundamental principle. Students of today are surrounded by a multitude of conflicting interests. Teachers 6o4 ,NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION [Chicago must be brought to see that supervised study will enable them to compete with the present-day distractions in the way oif home study even at its best. That individuals differ markedly in natural endowments is, of course, an undisputed fact. The teachers should see in supervised study the means whereby they can accommodate their instruction to the individual differ- ences of the pupils in their classes. In developing this interest on the part of his teachers the superintendent would need to study with them the results of investigations along this Hne in other school systems. They should be led to cooperate in conducting some experiments in their own classes. Experiments in our own school in algebra, Latin, and spelling have done more to develop the interest of the teachers than any other line of work. After having aroused the interest of the teachers in supervised study, their sense of responsibility for the method of study employed by the students must be developt. It has been a well-recognized principle, in theory at least, for some time that the chief value which the pupil derives from his school work is the acquisition of a proper method of study. Still in the past much more attention has been given to the facts acquired than to the method by which they were learned. It has been said that supervised study deals not merely with subject-matter but with the method of learning it. In the past the chief concern of the teacher has been the assignment of lessons and quizzing the pupils to see how thoroly they have covered the work assigned. In fact, many times the assignments have been hastily made after the warning bell has sounded, with little direction in regard to how the lesson was to be prepared. Much of the time in the recitation has been spent in rehashing the material already learned. Supervised study changes the classroom into a workshop, with the teacher directing and super- vising the methods employed by the different workmen. Someone asks, "How is one to impart the art of study?" The time limit set for this discussion makes it impossible for me to say. However, this has been told, better than it would be possible for me to do if time did permit, by Sandwich in How to Study, by McMurry in How to Study and Teaching How to Study, by Hinsdale in The Art of Study, by Schaeffer in Thinking and Learning to Think, and a host of others. The study of these books or others of a similar nature is one of the best methods of ''training teachers to supervise study. " Having developt a sympathetic attitude toward supervised study on the part of the teachers, having created in their minds a greater sense of responsibility for the method of study employed by their pupils, the superintendent is now ready to develop a method of supervised study. The technique of supervised study remains to be mastered. Much has been written on the subject and many suggestions have been made, but "methods cannot be developt and reduced to algebraic formulas. " When the teachers have the new point of view the main problem in training Superintendence) TRAINING TEACHERS TO SUPERVISE 605 teachers to supervise has been solved. They must look upon the class period as a laboratory hour, with the teacher as a director of thought and action. It would seem that the teachers' meetings would be one of the most important devices for the working out of a method of supervised study suited to the conditions existing in a given system. In the larger systems these meetings can be conducted on the departmental plan, the teachers f each department developing a method best suited to their particular subject. Of course this would be impossible in the smaller systems. Here the method would have to be arrived at by all the teachers working together. hese meetings, in which the young and inexperienst teachers may profit y the methods of the older ones, will be invaluable in developing a proper ethod for a school. The opportunity of the teacher who is not succeeding well to visit thers in the same or similar lines of work who are succeeding with super- ised study will be another plan by which methods may be improved and erfected. Another form of visitation will be the demonstration lessons. The superintendent, being something of an educational expert and interested nough in supervised study to attempt to introduce the plan, should be ompetent to give demonstration lessons in some subject in which he is a pecialist, just as the supervisors of drawing, music, or penmanship give such lessons to bring out the points they desire to have emphasized. This work need not be done by the superintendent alone, but teachers who are in his judgment especially strong in supervising study may be called upon to give some of the lessons. I feel that it is not necessary to elaborate further upon this point, since the usefulness of the demonstration lesson has been so fully shown by Miss Simpson here this afternoon. Finally the superintendent who is contemplating the introduction of supervised study must acquaint his teachers with the current literature on the topic. A principal of a certain high school that had a state-wide repu- tation for supervised study, when askt what he did to train teachers to supervise, replied that they made a careful study of Hall-Quest's book on Supervised Study ^ in teachers' meetings. Practically all the modern books on methods of teaching, school administration, and classroom management have a chapter on supervised study, while the School Review and other educational periodicals have frequent articles on the same theme. In conclusion, in training teachers to supervise study it is necessary I for them to see that the present method of conducting the recitation, in which about 25 per cent of the pupils are failing, needs reform, and that supervised study furnishes the remedy. The teacher must develop a new attitude toward the pupil and the subject-matter. Her chief concern will be with the method of study, the doing, the thinking, the learning process » The Macmillan Company, New York and Chicago, 1916. i 6o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago of the pupil rather than the bare memorizing of facts. The method of supervising study will vary with the community and must be workt out by each department or corps of teachers, taking into consideration the conditions and limitations in their particular school system. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE— ITS NEW IMPORTANCE AND UNIVERSALITY HENRY C. JOHNSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OGDEN, UTAH The new importance of the EngHsh language and its universality is a broad question. It is possible for me to make only brief mention of its importance and to discuss in an outline form the teaching of the English language and the place of foreign languages in our schools, both elementary and secondary. We have been too easily content in our teaching to accept superficial understanding of English. Fron now on we must make every pupil recog- nize our language as an instrument of exactness which will reveal all the finer shades of thought. We must place special emphasis in our teaching on correct expression, clear sentence-structure, thoro understanding of the meaning of words, and the great value of our language to reveal all the finer shades of thought. The perpetual reading of good books and much writing will help to arouse an interest in our great mother-tongue. Make students feel not only that ideas are valuable, but that the way in which ideas are exprest is also valuable. Shakespeare is great, not only because he said wonderful things, but also because he said these things in so remarkable a way. At the present time of our history we must recognize the importance of the English language to give us the thrill of great ideals and enthusiasm. We need the inspiration that can come only to the individual who has been taught to feel and understand the power in which great thoughts have been exprest, as stated by Fernald: As you read a great poem, oration, drama, history, or essay, the bigness of life grows upon you — the majesty of mighty men and the administration of a nation, the wonderful power of human afifection and devotion, courage and resolve, ambition and self-sacrifice. You begin to translate all into terms of the present, and the present grows nobler before your very eyes. Undreamed-of possibilities of grandeur rise upon your thought; you are more because you have felt the magic power of grand and beautiful thought embodied in a noble, flexible, and richly exprest speech. The English language has become the most nearly universal of all tongues. It is not only the natural speech of Englishmen, Scots, and most of the Irish and Welsh; it is not only the tongue of the British Dominion; it is also the chief language of trade thruout the world. This is caused by the fact that of all languages English is the easiest to learn for practical pur- poses. It is not the easiest to speak correctly; but a foreigner can learn to get on satisfactorily in English more quickly than in any other language. i Superintendence! THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 607 The simplicity of English is entirely a matter of grammar. English has almost no inflections, almost no endings, and endings are the most difficult feature of other languages. A sufficient vocabulary of Enghsh words is all that the foreigner needs to get on in his vocation. In most other languages one must know the system of endings as well, in order to make oneself understood. Enghsh is therefore the natural language of commerce, because any people can learn a sufficient stock of Enghsh words. The speech used by the Chinese in deahng with other peoples in trade, known as "pidgin English," is an example of this. We need have little concern about making English universal. It is now the language of commerce, culture, and diplomacy in a large part of the world. Any attempt to browbeat, bully, or coax other peoples into speaking a tongue not their own is in itself an act of Prussianism. If English ought to win out, it will; but I should feel no pride in seeing our : own language needlessly crowd out others. May I add that one of the best things the school can do to further the use of English as an international language is to get sohdly back of the simplified-spelling movement ? From the foreigner's as well as the school teacher's point of view the worst thing about the English language is its spelHng. In response to a questionnaire sent to fifty heads of English departments in different colleges and universities of the United States I received answers which state that there can be no doubt that the result of. the war will have a strong influence toward extending the English language thruout the world. Its use will be extended by the process of social evolution and cannot be brought about by legislation or resolution. The study of English in the schools. — English should by law be made the only language of instruction in all schools, public or private or parochial, in our land, and it should be the only language required in the grades, the high school, and the higher institutions of learning. It should be mandatory for the high school to graduate its students and for colleges and universities to grant a Bachelor's degree without any foreign languages whatsoever. It is clearly stated by many of the fifty educators addrest that we can have the English language taught with more effectiveness in the grades and high school. My study leads me to think that it is our task to improve our methods of teaching English rather than to take time for it that belongs to other subjects. It should be taught in such a way that our high-school graduates may not only have a complete mastery of our language but may be proud of our great literature and of the noble history of our tongue. When they begin to feel that English is their mother-speech, in which is found a great literature, then they will take pride in becoming masters of Enghsh. 6o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago We must make our English teaching more definite in its aim and more and more systematic in its organization. Pupils who spend four years in high school at the present time do not come out with as much definite knowledge, skill, interest, and taste as they should. We must do more constructive supervision thru definite outlines on specific topics and by planning comprehensive courses. To make the teaching effective super- visors must work out illustrative material as a guide for teachers. We have left the selection of topics in composition and choice of books too much to the caprice of untrained teachers on the one hand, or to the tyranny of college-entrance examinations on the other. The teaching of composition and literature must be put on a distinctly social basis, serving a definite purpose in the life of the pupil at the time he pursues the subject. We must plan on a complete restatement of the course in English from the first grade up, basing the work more on actual life-experiences, allowing the child to work out larger unit topics. A questionnaire sent out to 150 cities with populations of from 10,000 to 40,000 west of the Mississippi River brought 130 answers. To the question, ''What changes have been made in the English course since the war?" the following answers were given: emphasis on oral work, patriotic work, magazine study, composition; less technical grammar; debating; applied English; war speeches; time doubled in seventh and eighth grades; concentration on essentials, spelling; American literature; separa- tion of composition and literature; public speaking, etc. A large compre- hensive plan of reconstructing the course as a whole was lacking. It simply indicated that disconnected additions have been made to the present course. In 26 cities more emphasis is given to English than before the war. Twenty-eight cities give more emphasis to history and 31 to civics. Current topics, thrift courses, American history and civics required, and use of government literature constitute the added work. Foreign languages in the schools. — Of especial interest as a war and recon- struction measure is the place of foreign languages in elementary and secondary schools. The 130 cities reported on the question, ''What languages other than English are taught in the senior high school?" as follows: Latin 81, French 94, Spanish 90, German 8, Greek 2. In junior high schools: Latin 23, French 23, Spanish 14. Two cities offer one foreign language in the grades. Answers to the question "Changes since -the war began": German has been dropt in 80 cities, Spanish substituted for German in 11 cities, French in 24, Latin in i. These changes were demanded, the answers stated, by public sentiment in 34 cities, by superintendents and boards of education in 10, by council of defense in 9, by state board of education in 9, by law in I ; no demand from students for German in 8 cities. Superintendence] ANCIENT AND MODERN LANGUAGES 609 The 130 schools were practically unanimous that foreign languages should be offered as an elective in high schools but should not be offered at all in the grades. The answers to this same question in the 50 letters sent to colleges and universities agree that foreign languages should be an elective in the senior high school. Some recommend it as an elective in junior high school. Dr. Snedden says that only one foreign language should be offered in the high-school course. They all emphatically state that it should not be given in the grades. This point seems worthy of special emphasis to me. In the period of a child's Hfe when he is attending the grades he should not be allowed to do anything that might weaken his Americanism. Besides, during that period of his life the child needs to pay more attention to his own tongue, if he is to speak it well. Many people speak EngHsh poorly all thru life because they spent time on foreign languages when they should have been per- fecting themselves in EngHsh. , May I impress upon you especially that all the answers received, as well as all the literature I have found on the topic, emphatically declare that first and foremost in our program in elementary and secondary schook must be the t'^aching of EngHsh ? All this means that we must restate our courses and improve our methods of teaching, placing stress on the so-called project method. Silent reading will occupy a big part in the new program, giving pupils better access to our great libraries of knowledge and better appreciation of our beautiful American literature. With this develop- ment of greater power to read thru more intensified courses in oral and written composition students will think effectively and more fully appreciate the great ideals of our literature. WHAT SHALL WE DO WITH THE ANCIENT AND MODERN LANGUAGES? J. W. MC CLINTON, SUPERINTENDENT OE SCHOOLS, PUEBLO, COLO. Is this an old issue or a new one ? Is it the conflict of languages vs. the sciences, etc., or is it a question of whether the war conditions have brought about a necessity for reorganization or elimination ? There are but three ways in which I can see that the war might affect the emphasis on language instruction: (i) We must know the language in order to know the people. This has its basis in the belief that if we had known Germany as well as we now know her or fail to know her, we would have been prepared to the extent that the sting felt by Germany from the doughboy punch at the close of the war would have been felt at the beginning. (2) Our foreign products have not been Americanized, and it is necessary to know their language in order to interest them in becoming Americans. I feel that the statement of Congressman Dies, of Texas, a few days ago is much to the point here. 6io NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago H w s^ ^ W § pq P o ^ U O W Q O ^ < X O ^ 1^ vO O O l^ rO lovo O ON O MM CO MM 00 N O t^ O lOMMCSOt^O MHMCOtO 00 O »0 CO H 0 cON^ti-iO^O ^>OfOOO HO) OMCSH OfOHTl-0»0 lorOHioO-^H t^roONcO 1-1 H CS O «s H O O O C/3 cats g c)?OOh4wfe^ c)d O O ^q a fa ffi. w o H -2 -go ^.a I I O 5Pfl 0) be 5.2 S^ d rt — ' (u o ® e^ •H 3 ri>^ o ?" H-^ ^^ o^ rC^ ts o ?n-« ^cV! :3 00 iz;'^ bO . TO '^^ ^*^ > '-*-' IS Is, S^ ^i3 (11 •r-! Superintendencej ANCIENT AND MODERN LANGUAGES 6ii tot-iHO«^0 "*0«^00 MOcoOOO *OOcOOOOt-" OOOO t1-«mOOmOn tsOOH fO^^wQfO NWmONO ioOfOOO^«M hOOh co»ONOOt-tMio OO^O vONC^Ow vocO^OwO t^O^tOOC^O tj-hhO hhhOOOOO Om NOOtON (NOwcOHH WOhnhOO hOOO powc^mmOO'* «mOOOO hhmOO OhhOOO whOOOOO mmOO >OmOOOOOO r.-«-52 B ^ u OOf_5c/2fiH CO H^ fa eg O O H-3 (A ;3 •3 rt t; M y^afafa hJ] O fa B c/: cAi c/) O s SB .S "U s > C o 3 o o " oj > ^ o Q II -s bO l| fl ti II -s bO bO oT •So a- I 4 I I •s 12; S. 6l2 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION (Chicago Y 1 "rt 1 -g t^ M fOOO U-) rt M fs M O »0 «^ H o H M f them could understand me. I told them that a fourth of the students ur high school were studying Spanish^ — tremendous applause. I [told them that by way of reciprocal relations they should be talking English their own home — faint, abbreviated applause. I later learned that this country during the last year very few of their countrymen became :itizens. (3) Has our point of view changed, as the result of the war, with regard to language instruction ? If it is the old issue, then it is a question of comparative cost as com- )ared with results, and a question of how to determine results. I naturally lookt to our own school system for the former. I find that 8.5 per cent [of our entire time is given to ancient languages and 6 . 9 to modern languages; 3 per cent of the total expenditures of the school go to the former, while I per cent go to the latter, or a summary of 15.4 per cent of the entire time given to languages, with an exact 15.4 per cent of the entire cost of the school for those subjects. With regard to results, what is the fair method of determination ? • I attempted to get a method of evaluating results and also to determine whether our viewpoint had changed. I used the medium of a question- naire, the results of which are shown in Table I. These questionnaires were sent to about forty lawyers, fifty physicians, twenty dentists, thirty ministers, and fifty representative business men. Returns would seem to indicate a renewal of interest in the classics, but some features must not be overlookt. Of the entire time given to languages in high school by those answering the questionnaire, I find that 74 per cent was given to Latin, 16 per cent to German, and the remaining 10 per cent to all other languages. I find that these same people devoted o^ly 53 P^^ cent of the entire time given to languages in college to Latin, 25 per cent to German, and the remaining 22 per cent to all other languages. Why the increase in the one and the decrease in the other ? Evidently the college-entrance requirements were a determining factor. I find in my results the startling condition that only two of the entire Lumber answering the questionnaire can now speak a foreign language luently as a result of their instruction. We can study English and talk terms of literature and expression; we can study history and talk in ferms of national development; we can study science and talk in terms of rander inventions and industrial development; we can study music and irt and talk in terms of soul expression; we can study language two hundred 614 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago strong and but two lonesome souls can give expression. If we cannot elevate we would better eliminate. The results from the questionnaire are more or less from a select class. That we might get the results from a general viewpoint I examined the records of all high-school students in a certain state taking Latin in the year 191 8. I selected Latin for the reason that a greater number would be taking that language than any other one language. I find 19,000 students taking Latin in the high schools of one of our western states, and of this number only 2000 were beyond Caesar. Either there is a remarkable renewal of interest in that state in the subject of language in the last two years or the death-rate is very high. I suspect the latter, together with the fact that most schools require two years of a language before giving credit and thus influence the choice of the student body. The professional and business men have decreed that the languages should remain to meet their interests. That is not half the solution. It remains for an examination as to whether the other 90 per cent are to receive the same benefits by following the same course. It is my impression that they will not. It is a conviction, not a conclusion. It remains to be workt out and a course formulated in keeping with the findings. The war has not afifected the situation. . THE NECESSITY FOR THE REARRANGEMENT OF THE HISTORY AND CIVICS PROGRAM C. E. ROSE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BOISE, IDAHO The American school system has not been a failure. This fact should be borne in mind, when at this momentous period in our history we pause to look for the imperfections in our past work or to consider the larger program which the future holds for the public schools. The world-war has given to education a place of prominence of which we little dreamed a few years ago. The children in our schools believe that they helpt to win the war for democracy and righteousness. This belief is well founded because of the many urgent calls made upon them for their help. This belief furthermore puts them into an attitude which should make their education easier and richer if we but take advantage of the situation. The war has taught us some valuable lessons. It has taught us con- servation and thrift. We have conserved food to feed our armies and our Allies. We have taught thrift for a noble purpose, but we have caught a vision of the conservation of time in our educational system. Under the guidance of a lofty motive aims have been reacht by intensive train- ing during these war times that have astonisht some and nonplust others. The impossible has been accomplisht. If we now fall back into our old ways we do not deserve the victory which we have won. Time and energy Superintendence] THE HISTORY AND CIVICS PROGRAM 615 must be conserved in all our school work. The value of a motive has been proved. In our schools, both elementary and high, the central theme of all history teaching should be to show how the present came from the past. We can well afford to learn a lesson from our oriental neighbors and teach more ancestor worship. A higher regard for the deeds of our forbears, a little more attention to their words of wisdom, a studied attempt to pattern after their virtues, will make of the present generation a race more worthy of the priceless legacy handed down to it. In the last few years there has been too much of an attempt to teach the history of other peoples and other nations, whether closely or remotely connected with our own history. Too much attention has been paid to the history of Greece and Rome and Europe and too little to that of the American Republic. High-school pupils have spent too much time upon Punic Wars and some pope of the eleventh century, when they knew noth- ing and cared less of the important events and characters in our own history. They could talk glibly of Xerxes and Xantippe, Zeus and Cleo- patra, when they knew nothing of their heritage from Samuel Adams, Alexander Hamilton, Daniel Boone, or Daniel Webster. Let us give time to American history first and to other history later, when our most mportant lesson is learned. Let us reduce the study of ancient and mediaeval history to a minimum in order to put time on modern history. Let us know that the most important of all history is not in the textbooks — I mean the history of the glorious Now. A more prominent place must be given to current events. In fact, current events can and should be taught in connection with all history. To do this, many. teachers must be made over, but that will do them good. We are worthy of our place in the present only if we make the most of it. Our honored senior senator from Idaho said the other day: I^H^ What we need in this country, Sir, is the fostering and strengthening of the national I^Bspirit, a rebaptism of national pride, a reconsecration to the purposes for which we organ- I^Hized our government. Preach the doctrines of the fathers for a while and see how the B^B American people like it. Tell our people anew how we are distinguisht from all the B^Bpeoples of the nations of the earth, the liberty, the prosperity, the independence, the B^Binitiative, the individuality, which we enjoy as compared with other nations or peoples. B^BWhen you have done that you will plant in the hearts of the American people again ■f and anew that which Bolshevism cannot uproot. ^ These words from Senator Borah constitute sound principles for the teach- ing of history in our schools. I As I have already stated, the children in our schools have been made ' to feel that they helpt to win the war. By means of the food-conser- vation program, the work of the Junior Red Cross, war gardens, and the War Savings Stamp campaign, school and life have been brought closer together. And in all this, real, live, worth-while lessons in civics have 6i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago been taught, for the essence of good civics teaching is to make the citizen aware of his duty to his state and inculcate such a strong desire to do that duty that immediate whole-souled action results. What is to take the place of these agencies for civic training ? Surely peace has as much to offer as war. Thru the work they have done during the past two years our millions of children have learned to know that all the world is kin; they have sacrificed without hesitation to relieve the suffering of unfortunates whom they have never seen. Cannot these feelings be transferred to their immediate surroundings and to the sufferers in their midst whom they have seen? They have saved and bought Thrift Stamps to help win the war. Cannot thrift now be taught for thrift's sake? School work of all kinds should be lookt upon as a civic duty by the children themselves. It should not be difficult to develop the ideal that a truly patriotic man owes to his country his whole self, the best mind he can develop, and the best efforts he can put forth, and that in giving all to his country he saves all for himself and posterity. Thrift and temperance, sanitation and health, work and play, each has its part in the duties of a truly patriotic citizen. Our civics program must include all these things. What shall be the course of study ? It must be arranged, not in terms of events, or epochs, or men, but with a view to the creation of ideals and right attitudes in the children themselves. Let us not teach history and civics to children, but by means of history and civics prepare our youth for a useful citizenship. History teaching is futile if children merely learn dates or about men and events; even cause and effect will be mean- ingless unless the motives and ideals that governed those men and con- trolled those events are made to animate the breasts of the children in their work and thinking. The teaching about government, or the rights and duties of individuals in relation thereto, is entirely inadequate unless accompanied by a participation in the work of the government and of the society of which the child is a part. In a democracy the child has a right to a preparation for useful citizenship as an adult, by that participation now to which he is justly entitled. CHANGES PRODUCED IN THE MODERN-SCIENCE COURSES BY THE WAR ARTHUR DEAMER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, FARGO, N.DAK. Our dependence upon a knowledge of science is no longer doubted. The struggle for the recognition of science as one of the basal subjects not only for college but for secondary education is over, the final chapter being written as a result of the Great War. It is no longer a question of teaching science but a question of content in the various courses, of relative Superintendence! MODERN-SCIENCE COURSES AND THE WAR 617 emphasis to be placed on the different divisions within the subjects, of meth- ods of presentation, and of determining the practical applications of each. The world-war showed the need of training along technical, scientific lines. During the war it was impossible to secure the services of a suffi- cient number of engineers, scientists, and skilled mechanics. In the great reconstruction period that is to follow, this demand will not lessen. There will be needed competent scientific and technical workers in large numbers. tThis will include chemists, physicists, biologists, physicians, surgeons, and >experts in sanitation, agriculture, and engineering. The demand can be ' met only thru the secondary schools and junior high schools making more ; of an effort to interest students in science. The programs in use at present in most high schools can be made to aid in accomplishing this end if their courses will contribute more constantly and effectively to the practical ' needs of the local community. This will interest a larger number of future citizens in science, will attract them to continued study, and will give [appreciation and respect for scientific processes. It may be askt, then, to what extent have the science courses in the secondary schools been modified as a result of the demands of the war ? To answer this question a brief questionnaire was sent to the science teachers in fifty cities varying .from 20,000 to 50,000 in population. A study of the replies convinces one 'that there are certain tendencies at work that are slowly changing the emphases in various sciences taught in the secondary schools. In the first place there is a tendency to recognize general science as a sort of introduction to the more detailed and definite sciences that are to follow. This is based on a recognition of the interests, curiosities, and needs of the children of junior high school age. The subject-matter should be derived largely from the immediate environment of the public and con- sequently should vary somewhat with each locality. The course should arouse the deep interest of the pupils, not only in an interpretation of the wealth of natural phenomena surrounding them, but also in the utilitarian aspects of the sciences. This includes appliances by means of which water, steam, and electricity are harnest; water and air are navigated; diseases are controlled; minerals, forests, and soils are conserved; plants, animals, and men are improved. The science of common use and the science of the schools should be the same. The range of material used should be limited only by capacity, needs, experiences, and abihty to appreciate on the part of the pupils. Thus as far as possible those materials should have practical values to the indi- vidual and the community and should arouse growing interest in the various fields of science. The thought should be imprest, as stated by Dr. Snedden, that "we are living in an age in which relatively complete and trustworthy explanations are available to the almost uncountable phenomena which ap»- peal to us from the skies above, the soil and rocks beneath, the air about us, and from our bodies, our minds, and the human groups that make our society. " 6r8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago This interest in general science gives promise of establishing the sub- ject upon a firm foundation in the junior high schools at least. The replies concerning the teaching of physics indicate that no great change has been made in content, but that the method of presenting the subject-matter is often quite different. There seems to be considerable interest in the "problems or project" method that is appearing in some of our best secondary schools. This method approaches the principle induct- ively, using as the basis a simple appliance that involves the principle of physics to be taught. Thus the common appliance of home and school, of public utilities, of the industries and agriculture, are used directly. The use of this method requires teachers of broad training and experience. Another tendency that seems to be quite common is to connect the teaching of physics more closely with its practical applications. This is the reverse of the project method but is less difficult to use, since it is the method that naturally follows the purely didactic method formerly used. Thus the submarine and balloons are taught in connection with the principle of Archimedes; the Stokes gun with pneumatics; the dropping of bombs, and the height at which rifles and cannon will shoot, with accelerated motion; the recoil cannon with Newton's third law of interaction; the trench and submarine periscope illustrating reflection by mirror and prisms; the long-range guns with the height and density of the air; absorption of gases by liquids and solids with the gas mask; force and energy with the steam and gas engines, and so on. These illustrations have been drawn mainly from the war, but a larger number can be drawn from civil life. What will be the final result of the war in the teaching of physics is a matter of conjecture. Possibly it will result in compromises that will make the teaching of sciences more reasonable and rational and the material to articulate more closely with the real life-conditions in which the pupils will live and later work. The teaching of chemistry has been less affected by the war than that of physics, save possibly in certain favored localities where the technical war needs were more pressing. The special need in these localities was for skilled technical work. This called for visits to industrial plants, for readings from up-to-date books on vocational and technical subjects, and for occasional lectures by men actually engaged in the industries. In most schools an attempt has been made to articulate the work in chemistry more closely with the home, which has been an outgrowth of war conditions. Thus topics such as conservation of fats, of clothing, of fuel, of soap-making, of testing water, and methods of softening water are quite common. The subject of chemistry has been given a firmer position as a result of the war. While its subject-matter has not been materially changed, yet its application to the various industries has shown it to be fundamental and has emphasized" the need for further development of work in this field. Superintenaencel THE PART-TIME CONTINUATION SCHOOL 619 The work in biology also has been affected by the war. There is a little less emphasis on anatomy, histology, and classifications. Instead there are such topics as food production and preservation, conservation of national resources, personal hygiene, home and community hygiene, and conservation of human inheritance. To sum up the effects of the war upon the teaching of science the follow- ing conclusions may be tentatively assumed: 1. General science as an introductory subject to the regular sciences should be recognized as a means not only of interpreting the environment but also of interesting a larger number of pupils in the regular science courses in the senior high school. 2. More attenticn should be paid to the applications of science in order to understand and appreciate the machinery of everyday hfe. 3. The relationship of science and industry should be assumed, and as far as possible the teaching should be directed toward that end. 4. One of the functions of the high-school science course should be to pick out and encourage those students who show special talent and apti- tude along the line of science. 5. The project method of teaching science is worthy of careful experi- mentation and consideration. THE PART-TIME CONTINUATION SCHOOL p. p. COLGROVE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, VIRGINIA, MINN. The great world-war will result in many important and lasting changes in our civic, economic, and social life, but in no department of human endeavor will greater changes be wrought than in education. It has revealed the one-sidedness and shortcomings of our past educational regime and has given us a new insight into the function of education in a democracy never before realized. Composed, as we are, of people from all nations, who have come to this country as a land of opportunity, we have grown to be a commercial and an industrial nation, not because of our system of education, but in spite of it. Our former school curriculum developt a certain kind of culture which was adapted to the needs of a small percentage of our people, and while it has unquestionably done much good, yet practically 95 per cent of the pupils in the public schools have been making their escape from school as soon as the compulsory-education laws would permit. The fact that a National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Edu- cation was organized as early as 1907 proves that a new conception of educa- tion was in the process of evolution. The revelations of the selective draft have given an illuminating view of the failure of our system of education to provide skilled workmen in the manual arts. This has now become a matter of national importance and is being encouraged by federal aid. 620 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ichicago Even yet, however, few school men and school boards outside of the larger cities have responded to the new demand. The Smith-Hughes Act pro- vides for federal aid for industrial work in the schools, and this is supple- mented by state aid. The people are demanding this new training, but the school authorities have been reluctant so far about responding. The attitude of organized labor toward this movement is well exprest in the following resolutions past at a recent meeting of the New York State Federation of Labor: Whereas, There is a continuous and insistent demand for more general and industrial instruction in all schools thruout the state, and Whereas, Such instruction can only be intelligently given after all the requirements of the different occupations are known; therefore be it Resolved, That the necessary legislation be introduced in the next session of the legislature, for an industrial survey of all industries in this state, and such a survey committee shall be representative of the legislature, the unions, the employers, the State Department of Education and the State Industrial Commission. Whereas, The educational law permits the establishment of compulsory continu- ation schools for children with working papers, between the ages of fourteen and sixteen; and Whereas, No school board in any part of the state has taken advantage of this opportunity to provide necessary education for the working children in their community; therefore be it Resolved, That the education law be amended to make the establishment of these schools compulsory; and the education law be further amended to compel regular attend- ance up to sixteen years and, for the continuation schools, attendance shall be com- pulsory for at least eight hours a week, between the hours of 8:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m., Saturday afternoons excepted, up to eighteen years, at the expense of the employer. We all desire to see labor come into its own, and the one dignified manner in which this can be done is for the laboring man to be trained and educated so that the quality of his work will command respect and admiration. Our public schools must give the laboring man a chance. He has been bound down by ignorance and lack of skill. No one feels friendly toward the workman who takes an excessively long time to do a job and still does it poorly. All admire a man who can perform a piece of work with neatness and despatch. I once witnest the driver of a balky horse using all his persuasive powers of swearing, kicking, and beating to no avail. The horse would not budge. A young man made his way thru the assembled crowd, took a rubber band from his pocket and slipped it over the ear of the horse. He then asked the driver to get up on his seat and speak to the horse in his usual manner; and lo, the horse started off. The young man gained the applause of the crowd. We Americans like the person who can do things. Our public schools must provide the laboring man with an opportunity to rise in his own and others' esteem. The laborer must be made worthy of his hire. The industrial school, the continuation school, and the evening school must assume this responsibility. Superintendence) THE PART-TIME CONTINUATION SCHOOL 621 The part-time continuation school is designed to take care of those boys and girls who have already past beyond the age of compulsory attend- ance and are yet insufficiently prepared to engage successfully in a good lifetime occupation. Any school system having facilities for doing industrial training — and all school systems of any size will in the future offer industrial training — should be able to offer part-time continuation work. I If a proper survey of the city is made before putting in the industrial work it will be closely identified with the principal industries of the city. A boy or girl may then come to school and take the particular work desired in the same classes with the regular day-school students. That there are a sufficient number of boys and girls in nearly any town who need the help of the part-time continuation school cannot be questioned when we consider the facts. The United States census shows that just about one- tenth of our entire population consists of boys and girls from the age of fifteen to nineteen inclusive. An investigation of the conditions in Cleveland, Ohio, which may be taken as typical of the entire northern section of this country, showed that, of those entering the first grade, 50 per cent were withdrawing before reaching the fifth grade, 75 per cent before reaching the eighth grade, and 95 per cent left without finishing the high school. This means that at least nineteen out of every twenty boys and girls from fifteen to nineteen years of age are candidates for the part-time continuation school of the general- improvement class, while these same boys and girls, together with many of those who go thru the ordinary high school, need the work of the trade- preparatory and trade-extension class. Special arrangements can be made with each individual employer to meet the requirements of his business. In some cases the part-time students may be spared from their work a portion of each school day. In other cases two sets of part-time students may be engaged by the employer and allowed to attend school at different periods. As soon as an employer understands that the boy or girl is to receive training which will produce a more competent employe he will welcome any arrangement possible, even at a temporary sacrifice. The advantages of the part-time continuation school are not intended tonly for the boys and girls of our large cities. These schools should be extended as far as possible to the smaller towns. Only when we have the combination of the industrial and the academic school curriculum are our schools truly for all the children of all the people. This means, not a lessening of the stress we have laid upon academic work, but the added value of technical training with a probable and desirable extension of allied academic work in English, in citizenship, in business practice, and in hygienic living for all those young people who now leave school before they get beyond the fundamental rudiments of the grades. 622 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago SUPERVISION IN THE SMALL CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM R. B. IRONS, SXJTERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, RAPID CITY, S.DAK. Before attempting a discussion of the topic "Supervision in the Small City School System" it is necessary to say that in this paper any system of schools which has no special supervisory corps is included. The small school system presents many peculiar problems to the admin- istration. Among these are the following: (i) lack of sufficient office help, (2) the truancy problem, and (3) the problem of supervision. There are no doubt others of equal importance. One of the most important and at the same time most difiicult problems to solve is that of proper supervision. Can the superintendent do all the supervising? If the system of progressive, modern ideas in education prevails the superintendent will be the chief administrator of the system. He will select teachers and principals, will inspect various school depart- ments and school buildings, will be responsible for results in each department, for the selection of textbooks, improvement of teachers in service, the apphcation of the salary schedule, and the promotion of teachers, and will act as a court of appeal for subordinates, parents, and teachers. He will also act as the agent of the board of education, will be a member of committees of the board of education, represent the board in the com- munity as a member of civic organization in public meetings and with the press. He will be responsible for the budget, buildings, janitor service, supplies, records, and reports. He will be responsible for the organization of the whole school system and of each department, and will be responsible for the policies of adminis- tration, instruction, inspection, supervision, and the courses of study. The foregoing shows briefly the functions of a superintendent of schools in a modern system. No matter how small the system, it would seem that most of one man's time would be taken in attending to those administrative duties. As a matter of fact, if these duties are performed there is little time left for the work of supervision of instruction. In addition to the lack of time to supervise adequately, is it possible for a man to become competent really to supervise all the instruction in a school ? Instruction may be improved by showing the teacher how. One who assumes to supervise should be able to demonstrate. Is it possible for a superintendent properly to supervise a primary teacher, to point out her weaknesses, and demonstrate how the thing actually should be done on one day, and on the next show a teacher in the sixth grade, for example, how best to teach silent reading, and then the next day do something really worth while in improving instruction in the junior high school, while all the time he has in mind the administrative duties related in the first part of this discussion ? If we find a man who is able to improve the instruction in any of the classes by helpful suggestion and demonstration, M Superintendence! SUPERVISION IN THE SCHOOL SYSTEM 623 if he is actually the administrator of the school, he will not have time to repeat his visits often enough to make his work really effective. Quoting George A. Mirick: When administration and supervision compete for the time and attention of one who has both responsibilities, administration always crowds out supervision. The work of administration must be done or the schools will close; therefore the superintendent will of necessity, for lack of time, translate his supervisory work in terms of inspection, criti- cism, and personal opinion. When thus translated, supervision becomes mechanical, destructive, irritating. Teachers endure it, but are not helpt by it. It never has and cannot be efficient. All schools should have a trained corps of supervisors. Administration ;and supervision have become so highly developt, so technical and special- [ized, that one person cannot master both. However, in a great many schools this is wholly impossible. The super- lintendent finds himself with these two great responsibilities on his hands. [He must be the administrator of the school. Supervision of instruction lis too important to be a "side line" and cannot be ignored. The following plan has some advantages: The grades of the school may be divided into groups as follows: first ^and second grades, third- and fourth-grade groups, fifth- and sixth-grade jroups, and seventh- and eighth-grade groups. In selecting teachers for [these groups the superintendent makes a special effort to secure one teacher 'who, in addition to being well trained and experienst, is well balanst and has those traits which tend toward making her a leader among her fellow- teachers. This teacher may be called the principal of the group. Thus a system using this plan will have four groups, each with a superior teacher in the capacity of a leader or principal. The teachers in these groups will meet at the beginning of the year and once each succeeding month and together go over the course of study. They will discuss ways and methods of accomplishing the work called for in the course. Each teacher will be permitted to make suggestions or ask questions. As a result of the first conference there can be no haziness or doubts about the requirements. In the subsequent meetings the teachers will discuss the problems of the past month and explain how they were solved. If any have had problems they could not solve and failed to accomplish the same amount of work as the other teachers in the group, they will be helpt by a free discussion with the other teachers. These meetings are always held under the direction of the principal of the group, who has been chosen because of her training, experience, and personality. Less experienst and less efficient teachers find these meetings stimulating and helpful and return to the classroom better able to cope with the situation. Another part of the plan is to employ a substitute who will relieve the principal so that she may observe the work of her various teachers. This 624 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iChkago substitute at other times relieves the various teachers so that they may- observe the work of the principal or of any other teacher who is especially strong in all her work or in any particular branch. Through these meetings and visits each teacher knows just what work each teacher in his group is doing. By cooperation between the principals of the groups she knows or can find out from her principal what work is being done by the grades above and below her. This is a benefit to teachers and students but is something which does not always prevail. When this plan is in effect the school has the advantage of any super- vision which the superintendent is able to give. He may meet with the various groups if he has time. He may have conferences with the various principals as often as needed, and he may visit classrooms just as often as he can. Nothing in the foregoing prohibits his supervising or inspecting as much as he would do without adopting the plan. Some of the advantages of this plan are: 1. The busy superintendent has someone of special abihty to confer with about any ideas or policies which he thinks might improve the work in any particular grade or subject. He receives her opinion, which is based on her mature experience in the grade or subject under discussion. If the new policy is thought to be worthy of a trial the principal may direct its introduction. 2. The principal is always able to demonstrate how she desires anything done. 3. The plan recognizes special abilities of all the teachers, since any are permitted to make any suggestions which they think will improve the instruction. Or if any teacher has special talent in any line teachers are sent to observe her teaching. 4. Teachers of a necessity must cooperate, or there is no place in the system for them. 5. Teachers have no just cause for criticism of the course of study or the policy which prevails, because each one is invited to make suggestions looking to improvement. They either accept the course of study as the best they know and the plans for the working it out as fair and reasonable, or they have an opportunity each month of bringing a suggestion of improve- ment. Each one is given credit for any ideas she may have. If they are worth while they are adopted. 6. Teachers gain confidence, since they know each other, they know what each is accomplishing, what has been accomplisht, and what is expected of them. 7. There is a tendency toward uniformity and efficiency, since all gain by a knowledge of the strong points in each teacher and may model their teaching after the best in the group. In order to check up on instruction and to know that effective teaching is being done the superintendent may use the various standard tests; and Superintendence) INTELLIGENCE TESTING 625 since his teachers are working together with so Httle friction and loss of motion he will find that the various classes are nearly on the same plane of efficiency, and that the curve from grade to grade will be quite uniform, which denotes that the system has been effectively supervised. INTELLIGENCE TESTING AS AN AID TO SUPERVISION THEODORE SaAM, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, COUNCIL BLUFFS, TOWA The method of ascertaining the intellectual ability of a child should be simple, so that the capable teachers within a school system may be able to use it successfully. It must be brief, in order to make possible the testing of every child. It must be reliable, in order that the permanent record of the child will be a correct and accurate record of his intellectual capacity. The experience of Council Bluffs with the Stanford Revision of the Binet- Simon Intelligence Test would justify the assertion that it possesses these characteristics. In October, 191 7, fourteen teachers, one from each of the elementary schools in Council Bluffs, were selected by the principals because of their general intelligence and sane judgment. By courtesy of the Extension Department of the Iowa State University it was possible to secure the services of Dr. Sylvester, who, in a period of two weeks, explained to this group of fourteen teachers the method of determining the intelligence quotients by the use of the Terman Scale. Children were tested by him in the presence of the group, and when a sufficient familiarity with the test had been secured each one of the group tested children under his supervision. With this limited training these fourteen teachers have tested 2360 children in the kindergarten, first, second, and third grades of the Council Bluffs schools during the period from December, 191 7, to February, 1919. The testing is done on Saturdays. Ten or twelve of these examiners can test eighty to one hundred children in one day. The data which follow will show, first, whether teachers in the elementary schools can give the tests successfully; and secondly, the value of these records in supervision. According to Terman the various intelligence quotients have the follow- ing significance : I.Q. Classification Above 140 Near genius 120-140 Very superior intelligence 1 10-120 Superior intelligence 90-1 10 Normal or average intelligence 80- 90 Dulness 70- 80 Border line of deficiency, some- times classified as dulness Below 70 Feeble-mindedness 50-70 Morons (7-11-year intelligence) 20-50 Imbeciles (3-7-year intelligence) Below 20 Idiots (3-year intelligence) 626 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago The general assumption is that the inteUigence quotient remains constant. It is possible that a child with a quotient of loo does better work than a child with a quotient of no, because of moral characteristics. The intelligence quotient merely determines the child's mental ability. It does not ascertain the child's motive powers. Table I shows the distribution of the I.Q.'s of the 905 unselected chil- dren tested under Terman's supervision and the distribution of the I.Q.'s of the 2360 primary children tested by the Council Bluffs teachers. The only striking deviation in the Council Bluffs distribution is shown in the large number of children with quotients less than 75. This can be partially explained by the fact that there is a larger percentage of subnormal children in the first three grades of school than there is in an unselected group, and secondly it is probable that diffidence among smaller children might also account for part of the discrepancy. TABLE I Comparison of the Distribution of I.Q.'s of 2360 Primary Children with Terman's Scale I.Q. Percentage of gos Unselected Children from 5 to 14 Years — Terman Percentage of 2360 Primary Children in Council Bluffs Below 6s 66- 75- 76- 85. 86- 95. 96-105. 106-115. 116-125. 126-135. 136-145. ».4 2.8 0.8 Table II, which shows the distribution of the I.Q.'s of 2360 primary children of the Council Bluffs schools by buildings, shows how unfair it is to compare the work of one school with that of another without knowing TABLE II Distribution of I.Q.'s of 2360 Primary Children of Council Bluffs Public Schools by Buildings I.Q. Building 14 Total Below 56. .. 56-65.... 66- 75.... 76-85.... 86- 95.... 96-105 106-115 116-125 126-135 136-145.... Above 145.. Total. . Median 1 I 0 A 0 5 .s 13 28 20 20 62 42 45 4Q 34 37 29 18 36 3 9 10 195 130 93 94 166 97 198 97 186 lOO 116 lOI 198 lOI 182 102 180 102 78 103 215 104 84 log 33 105 243 526 638 522 199 66 16 2 2360 99 Superintendence] INTELLIGENCE TESTING 627 the intellectual ability of the group of children tested. This table shows that in building No. 14 the median quotient is sixteen greater than it is in building No. i, and in buildings Nos. 12 and 13 the median quotient is approximately ten greater than it is in buildings Nos. 2 or 3. In order to ascertain the relation of the quality of school work with the intelligence quotients of children, an arbitrary standard for the distribu- tion of the quality of school work has been followed in the grading of the children of the Council Bluffs schools. The 10 per cent highest in each class are ranked as honor students, the next 30 per cent are graded "A'* or strong students, the next 30 per cent "B" students, medium work, and the last 30 per cent are graded ''C," the poorest grade given. The 2360 children whose quotients have been obtained are by Table III divided into three groups, those whose quotients fall below 85, those whose quotients range from 86 to 115, and those whose quotients are above 116. An examination of Table III shows that only J per cent of students with quotients less than 85 were honor students, whereas 24 per cent of students with quotients of over 115 were honor students. It also shows that over 60 per cent of the students with quotients below 85 did poor work, whereas only 9 per cent of the students with quotients over 116 did poor work. When it is recalled that this distribution does not take cognizance of the attendance of the child, the number of times the child has repeated the grade, nor the age of the child, it is very apparent that there is a very high correlation between the quahty of school work and inteUigence quotient. TABLE III Quality of School Work and I.Q. OF Council Bluffs 's of 2360 Children in Kindergarten and Primary Grades FOR the Semester Closing February 7, 1919 I.Q.'s Quality of School Work S6-8S 86-11 s 116-14S Total Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage H 2 39 113 237 o.S 10. 0 29.0 60.5 144 5 20 584 438 9 31 34 26 67 146 46 24 24 1-6 9 213 70s 743 699 A 30 B 31 c 30 391 100. 0 1686 100 283 100 2360 100 H — Honor students, 10 per cent highest in class A — Strong students, 30 per cent of class B — Medium students, 30 per cent of class C — Poorest, 30 per cent of class In Table IV, which follows, all eight-year-old children having quotients lower than 85 or higher than 115, who attended school 60 or more days in a semester of 87 days closing February 7, 1919, have been classified by the grade in which they were found, the quality of work which they did, and their intelligence quotients. In other words, of all eight-year-old chil- dren in the Council Bluffs schools, 4^ Jiad quotients below 85 and 51 had 628 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago quotients above 115. The 46 eight-year-old children with quotients below 85 are largely found in the first and second grades, nearly all of them doing medium or poor work. There are four of these students who reacht the third grade, but all of them are doing poor work. Of the 51 students whose quotients are above 115 only three did poor work. Nearly all of them were classified as honor or strong students. Most of them are in the third grade. If, then, nothing else is known of an eight-year-old child attending the Council Bluffs schools except his intelligence quotient it would be a safe statement to make that, if his quotient were below 85, then in all probability he would be found in the first or second grade doing poor work; if his quotient were over 115 he would very probably be found in the third grade doing strong or superior work. TABLE IV Classification by Half-Grades and Quality of School Work of All Eight-Year-Old Children Attending School 6o or More Days in a Semester of 87 Days Closing February 7, 1919 Grades Quality of School Work I-i 1-2 II-i II-2 III-i III-2 Total 46 Students— I. Q.'s below 85 H I S 7 I 2 A I 3 S 3 4 7 - s B 12 c 4 4 Total 9 14 14 5 4 46 SI students— I.Q.'s above 115 H I 7 18 7 2 4 3 I A 2 3^ I B c 3 Total 2 2 5 34 8 51 H — Honor students, 10 per cent highest in class A — Strong students, 30 per cent of class B — Medium students, 30 per cent of class C — Poorest, 30 per cent of class A year ago an attempt was made to promote children from the kinder- garten into the first grade on the inteUigence quotient. If a child were normally well and had a mental age of six years, regardless of his physical age, he was given a trial in the first grade. In an attempt to check up the young children who were promoted into the first grade on their high quotients an oral-reading test similar to the Gray Oral Reading Test was given by the primary supervisor in January, 1919, to every child who had entered the first grade in September, 191 8, and 408 students were tested. Of the 408, 128, or 31 per cent, were rated as superior readers in this test. Thirty-five of these 408 had been promoted to the first grade at five years of age because they had a quotient of over 115. Of the 35 students with a quotient of over 115, 22, or 63 per cent, were rated superior. If con- clusions could be drawn from this one test it would be safe to assume that Superintendence! • INTELLIGENCE TESTING 629 children five years old with quotients of 115 or over would do the first- grade work better than the unselected six- and seven-year-old children. Tables V and VI show the relation between the inteUigence quotients of children and the failures. It will be noted that for the semester closing January 25, 191 8, of the 698 children in the first grade not a child with a quotient of over 115 failed, whereas 31 per cent of those with quotients TABLE V Failures for Semester Closing February 7, 1919, OF 1884 Children in Grades I, II, and III I.Q. Number of Children Number of Failures Percentage of Failures Above lis 86-iis Below 86 1336 333 7 172 los 3 13 31 Total 1884 284 IS TABLE VI Failures for Semester Closing January 25, 1918, OF 698 Children in Grade I I.Q. Number of Children Number of Failures Percentage of Failures Above IIS 86-iis Below 86 S06 134 0 48 42 0 Q 31 Total 698 90 13 I below 86 failed. For the semester closing February 7, 1919, of the 1884 children in the first, second, and third grades whose intelligence quotients, had been ascertalfied, 3 per cent with quotients of over 115 failed, and 31 per cent with quotients below 86 failed. When it is recalled that many of the students with quotients below 86 are repeaters, overaged and retarded, and that many times these students are promoted on time rather than on efficiency, it is probably safe to conclude that of children with quotients below 85, one-third cannot do a year's work in a year, regardless of age or regardless of the number of times the grade is repeated, and that practically all children in these grades with quotients of over 115 can do the work. CONCLUSIONS 1. The Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Test can be given success- fully by intelligent elementary teachers. 2. The intelligence quotient may be safely used in promoting children from the kindergarten to the first grade. 3. There is a high positive correlation between high intelligence quotients and strong school work. 4. There is a high positive correlation between low intelligence quotients and failures. 636 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA'nON ■ (Chicago DISCUSSION H. E. Gress, superintendent of schools, Monessen, Pa.: There are at present about five hundred newspapers in the United States that are publisht in other languages than EngKsh, and'we have twenty-five million people who cannot speak the English language at all. We have a large percentage of these people living in our district in Pennsylvania, and I know from experience that some of them do not wish to learn the English language. We have given them an opportunity for several years to attend our night schools in order that they might learn the English language. We have a small percentage of mills in that town that have taken it up and tried to get them interested. We cannot get them into our schools. I believe, as has been said in one of the other meetings of this convention, that "if those people after living here a number of years, and after having been given an opportunity to learn the English language, still refuse to learn it, they should be notified to go to some other shores." F. W. Arbury. superintendent of schools, Saginaw, Mich.: There are so many things that I would like to commend that have been given here this afternoon, but the time limit prevents that. I cannot help but think back some years ago, when I attended a history meeting and listened to the report of the Committee of Twelve made by Professor McLaughlin, of the University of Chicago. It was in the town of Ypsilanti, where the State Normal College is located. The occasion was the meeting of the History Masters' Club. Pro- fessor Hudson opened the meeting. There were gathered together teachers from Chicago, Cleveland, and other cities, because Professor McLaughlin was going to give a sort of synopsis of what the committee had decided with regard to the teaching of history in the secondary schools. They talked for three and one-half hours, each teacher making an appeal for her particular subject in history. One wanted so much of the time for ancient history; another wanted so much of the time for modern history; another wanted so much of the time for English history; those were the three topics which took up most of the time, ancient, modern, mediaeval and English history. Before the meeting closed Professor Hudson said, "We cannot close the meeting, altho, I know, we have been here a long time, without hearing from Dr. B. A. Hinsdale." Dr. Hinsdale, I am sure, some of you have heard. I shall never forget how the old doctor — I had been watching him thru the meeting — sat there stroking his beard, eyes closed. He said, "I have been intensely interested in this meeting. I came here as a listener, and I have listened." He then went on to analyze what each one had said about their various developments of history. He then said, "I cannot help but wonder, when, oh when, are we going to teach the history of the United States?" Mr. Mbyers: I think we shall make a mistake if in our consideration of the time of the continuation school we limit ourselves to the consideration of improving only the technical schooling of boys and girls. The thing we must concern ourselves with is in helping them to carry over into their business life what they have acquired in the regular day school, and in helping them to adjust themselves to industrial life as they pass from the day school into industrial employment; in helping them to appreciate the fact that education does not cease when the regular day-time school attendance ceases. In view, I say, of the importance that is now being attacht to this, it seems to me that it is up to us to give it our most serious thought wherever it is possible for us to do anything to help along this legislation and to help bring about this condition. Mr. Canteo: I think it was said that only two men out of fifty or one hundred and fifty could speak Spanish fluently in college. If that is the case in college, then I don't know what to say of our high schools; I think it must be worse. They say you Superintendence) DlSCUSStO^ 63 1 can always teach someone who knows less than you, and I understand some of the teach- ers who are teaching Spanish only know five lessons ahead. I think it is a sad commen- tary on the pa-t of the teachers, the pupils, or both. Not only for the sake of the boy but for the sake of the country — I come from Mexico, We have all kinds of oppor- tunities, I was told just two or three years ago by an engineer, an American, "You can take a message," "What is the message?" "Canteo," he said "the mountains are abounding in hemp and there is not one single machine invented to take care of the production of hemp that is going to waste in Mexico. Tell those boys that know any- thing about machinery to go to Mexico and enrich themselves and enrich the nation." In Mexico we have produced over four crops of corn off the same ground. It rains in Mexico from five to three hundred inches per year. Fully half or two-thirds of Mexico is not cultivated. There are wonderful possibilities in Mexico. R. T. Adams, superintendent of schools, Warren, Pa.: I do not exactly get the contrast from the continuation school that I should have been glad to receive. I do not wish my school to be measured by the Cleveland yardstick. We would not like to have it said of us that we had so few in the high grades. I am superintendent of a town in which there are about three thousand pupils, and the pupils who go to work — there is just one way in which pupils can get out of school, no, two ways, and that is by run- ning off and leaving the city when they go to work, that is, if they are under sixteen. Between fourteen and sixteen we have thirty pupils who are working, just about an average of thirty pupils who are working. Now in our state we are obliged to spend part of the time in academic subjects and part of the time in allied technical subjects. Our trouble comes in when we have about thirty pupils, say, who are working at about fifteen different subjects, different occupa- tions. We do not have much trouble in the academic subjects, but I should like to know how to teach those thirty pupils fifteen different allied subjects ? I should also like to hear something more about your million-dollar high school, the school that was erected for those continuation pupils. My question is, How do you teach allied subjects to the continuation pupils when there is a very small school of continuation pupils? I am inclined to think that nearly everywhere in Pennsylvania there is that problem. S. B. ToBEY, superintendent of schools, Wausau, Wis.: In answer to the question that the gentleman just put, you are saying the impossible; you cannot do it. There isn't an allied academic work that can be applied to pole or spindles back of a spindle machine or taking the sawdust away from a planer. The only thing we can do is to select those trades which are almost universally practist thruout the world, and such as we can adapt effectively, and apply our work to teaching boys and girls those trades, because they are not going to hang around the little home town for the next twenty-five or fifty years. They are going out into the world, and if we are going to send them out prepared to do something we have got to give them something that the world wants done. H. R, Fisher: Superintendent Rose seemed to speak on the rearrangement (4 history and civics program. He seemed to think that blind ancestorial worship was a necessity to get patriotic Americans, It is quite likely that in the lower grades we must teach that George Washington never told a lie and must idolize our great leaders of the past. In the upper grades, and particularly in the high schools, is it not safer to teach them that our ancestors were men of mixt motives, that we had shrewd politicians as well as great statesmen, and that it was the good sense of the common people and the events of history and the happy surroundings in which they were that has brought us thru in spite of the mistakes of these little fellows and these men of mixt motives ? Is it not well worth while to be honest with our children in the upper grades ? 632 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago Harriett E. Grimm, superintendent of schools, Dariington, Wis.: Great minds seem to run or must run along the same channels. I was going to make a remark something along that same line. While I believe that many others have had a similar experience, I think that the pendulum is going to swing toward teaching the history of our European ancestors. The Monroe Doctrine was a good thing in its time. I am for the League of Nations, and I beUeve in it. I think we could not get into the heart of that League of Nations, we could not possibly understand what it stands for, unless we teach real world-history in[our high schools and colleges. Perhaps we can swing away from some of the old teachings, but I believe that the real danger at this time is that we will look upon ourselves in the same egotistical way in which England and Germany and some of the other countries have been looking at themselves. That is one of the things to be avoided. I believe there is that danger. We do not want to get isolated from the rest of the world, but I believe that we are in danger of that. You cannot possibly teach government needs unless you teach world- history. H. E. Waits, superintendent of schools, Princeton, 111. : I do not think that I have ever attended an educational meeting that has been such an inspiration to me as the one that has been held this week. The thing that I regret most of all is that we cannot go back to our schools in the average small community and put into practice immediately the things that we know ought to be put into practice from what we have heard here. I indorse what has been said along the line of history, but we must all realize, espe- cially those of us who superintend schools in cities below twenty-five thousand, that the textbooks we have in our schools will be there tomorrow, and they will be there all the rest of this year, and the probability is they will be there next year — first of all, because there are no other textbooks in existence. In teaching United States history we must have a book that embodies that, because we cannot personally do that work in the schools. It must be intrusted to the teachers who are employed by the school boards in those communities, and often they are teachers who are not trained. Very frequently they are teachers who are hired by the board of education in that particular community. We talk about training teachers. Do you realize that there are not enough trained teach- ers in the United States at the present time ? If we had fifteen hundred dollars a year to give them to put them into the schools — but I do not see how we can get this sort of teaching in the schools until we have had, first of all, a good book written by a compe- tent author. The power of the school boards has already taken that out of their hands and can say that the book must go in. K. Van Dyke, Minnesota: I am in sympathy with this idea that some other history should be taught than American history. I was congratulating ourselves that we were getting away from teaching nothing but American history in the fifth to the eighth grade. It becomes associated with the children until they dislike it and become spoiled, like the old system of teaching physiology for eight consecutive years. We teach American history better, only when we bring in something else, and the fifth and sixth grades in our school have five textbooks, four of them being American history. They don't have to buy any of them. We do not feel that we want to change them, because they are the best that we can find. The American textbooks on history are the best textbooks in the world. We have them all, and we use them, and we don't want this idea boiled down to one little textbook. What we have in the sixth grade is three books, and they take one of them in four weeks. Why should they take all year in one and be examined for nine or ten months on the same subject ? Why not dispense with some of those books ? We take up one for four weeks and another for eight weeks because it teaches of the Mississippi Valley in which we live, and then Marquette, and Superintendence] DISCUSSION - 633 La Salle, and then read in the biography of the textbooks about Abraham Lincoln and Daniel Boone. Then we have Lewis and Clark in that little book for another four weeks. Then we come to the last half of the study. We have three whole months in English history, stories of English history. When they come to that, they say, "We like our English history stories the best of any of them." They are not less patriotic. I will tell you that every foreign-born boy or girl should have that background. Then for the seventh and eighth grades it is American history and civics straight for two whole years. H. E. Waits: I think the objection I raised is not yet answered. We do all the things that you suggest. We have history all thru the grades. There comes a time later on in the course when we come down to textbook study. Our books are not written today from the American standpoint. Everybody recognizes that. There is a law in the state of Illinois that you cannot change a book within five years after it is issued. What are you going to do in a case like that? Suppose your school board won't buy your books? There are a great many communities in the state of Illinois that won't buy seven or eight books for the seventh- and eighth-grade pupils. They don't do it down in Bureau County, Illinois, and maybe it is the only place in the United States where they won't do it. C. L. Broadwater, principal, Tyler County High School, Middlebourne, W.Va.: For the benefit of this gentleman here it would be a good thing to follow the legislature of West Virignia. It past a law which forst the board of education to buy those books and put them in the library of the schools so that they can be used. W. L. NiDA, superintendent of schools, River Forest, 111. : I just want to say that I beUeve in history from the third to the eighth grade. It seems to me that we should not undertake to teach the biography of characters that our children in the lower grades cannot appreciate and understand. For example, you take a great statesman and try to teach his biography to the second- and third-grader and you are shooting over his head. Take the simpler elements of civilization, take the great western move- ments. You give a great section of American history, in three, four, or five years, that will be valuable to him, and you can leave the more difficult political affairs to the seventh and eighth grades. I think as one of the gentlemen said that some part was written from the top down instead of from the child's viewpoint up. We can write any number of books that will be worth while to the children. Edward McLucky, St. Louis County (DesPlaines) : I want to say before closing that it is impossible to talk on this subject in three minutes. But the whole question puts me in mind of the colored man who went into the restaurant and lookt over the bill of fare. He lookt at it and called the waiter and said, "Waiter, if it is just the same to you, I will eat from there to there, and skip from there to there." That is the case this afternoon. It has been a wonderful program that has been presented to us, and I regret that we have only three minutes in which to discuss it. I want to say too that the great question as it has come to me out of this war is not what we have been doing in the past, but what are we going to do in the future. Thirty odd years ago as superintendent and teacher, and the past twenty years I as superintendent has kept my mind — for more than twenty odd years' attendance of the N.E.A. has kept my mind in the clouds and I have been trying to correlate those two. But I want to say that methods have changed. Fifteen years ago they were not teaching any sciences, and that reminds me of the story of a little girl being askt, "How many seeds has an apple ?" and while two little girls were out on the playground this one askt the other, "How many feathers has a hen?" We have gotten away from that, but now we are seeking ideals. In conclusion I will say that I was never known to talk for three minutes before, Mr. Chairman, and of the ideals and some of the lessons this Great War has brought us, 634 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago one of the greatest is that this great alien population of ours must be made citizens of the United States, and that is the great question that is concerning teachers of today. It is a bigger question than textbooks; it is a question of ideals, it is a question of morale, it is a question of spirit, and if that is inculcated into the children of this land the books will take care of themselves, and the child will take care of himself. We have been talking on the question of textbooks too long and too much, and we must get down to the ideals that confront us, and when we do our efforts will be crowned with success. C. E. Rose, superintendent of schools, Boise, Idaho: I seem to have drawn quite a little fire here this afternoon. You seem to have misunderstood some of the things I have said. Perhaps when you read my paper you will get a different view from what I was able to give you when I read it. If there are any schools thruout the country which teach more history than we do, you write to me about it, as I would like to know of them. The point I was trying to emphasize was the development of ideals. I was trying to make the statement that we should not neglect the study of American history for other history. I was trying to make the point that if we are to teach Americanism, we find no better place today than in teaching the history of the United States. If we are going to teach democracy right, I know of no other nation on earth where the teaching of democracy may be so well brought forward as in the history of our own country. If we are to take our place as people of the United States, in this democracy, if we are going to take our place in the world at large, we must first become good Ameri- cans. We must first learn the principles of democracy in the study of our own history and of our own government. The Chairman : The meeting will now be adjourned. THE COUNTY SCHOOL NURSE M. BEATRICE JOHNSTONE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, GRAND FORKS, N.DAK. After eighteen hundred years we are only now beginning to grasp the truth that the Master wisht us to grasp when he took a little child and put the child in the center of things. Our educational machinery all these years has been trying to fit the child to the curricula, course of study, and even the equipment, but the change has come, and the adjust- able seat is symboHc of this change of attitude. We no longer fit the child for the seat but the seat for the child. Modern methods in pedagogy teach the individual child. Education is socializing the individ- ual. Education is moralizing the individual, but education is not educa- tion until it individualizes the individual. In colonial days the child was taught to read, so that he could read the Scriptures and know for himself the way of eternal life. Later on we added the other two R's, but now we have come to believe that the child must have a sound mind in a sound body, which arrange- ment spells efficiency. We have also learned that the school must not only conserve the child's health in the classroom but must reach out into the home. Our teachers may well shrink from even the thought of so great a task, but be it said for them that they push ahead bravely and cheerfully and Superintendence! THE COUNTY SCHOOL NURSE 6$$ assume one by one the duties laid upon the school system of today. Is it not providential that the medical profession and the teaching profession are in step ? The progress of medical science, due largely to laboratory research and sociological investigation, has brought to light -the causative factors of disease and has shown that much of what we used to blame on Providence is preventable. Thus preservation of health and hfe by pre- ventive measures has become the watchword of the medical profession. This endeavor has brought the physician into contact with the school. Both teacher and doctor noted a markt variation in the mental capacities of different pupils and recognized the importance of a combined study of the causative factors. By the union of the medical profession and the teaching profession medical inspection was born. I shall not enter into a discussion of the history of medical inspection. You can read that in books, but nowhere can you find the wonderful story I have come to tell you, unless you come to our state and read it in healthier and happier childhood and in better and more wholesome home hfe. I shall only say in passing that medical inspection has past the experimental stage both in Europe and in this country, as is proved by the attitude of legis- lative bodies toward it. I wish I had time to speak of health legislation in our state. A bill has just past both houses making it mandatory that every county in North Dakota have one or more school nurses, provided a petition is presented containing a majority of the names of the school directors. Summing up the opinion of the physicians, it is safe to say that the consensus of opinion is this: A physician is more efficient to carry on the work, but a nurse carries it out more carefully and methodically, and it is therefore more expedient to have a nurse than many doctors. An all- time physician is the most desirable, but if we cannot have an all-time county physician, then let us have an all-time nurse. In this connection it might be of interest to describe our method of visiting schools. The driver leaves one of us at the first school to be visited and takes the other to the next. He then returns to the first school, and when the visit is concluded moves the nurse to the next school. He then returns to the second school and moves that nurse to another school. Her work is to examine each school child in the county and keep a record of such examination in the office of the county super- intendent of schools. She does follow-up work in the homes of the chil- ren who need attention, advises the mothers, and meets with them and with different rural organizations and speaks on hygiene and sanitation. Correct seating, hot lunches in rural schools, organized play, with a big county Play Day in May, clinics, and mentahty tests for abnormal chil- dren and the subsequent placing of them where they belong are a few of the results of the work of the school nurse. After a nurse was engaged for six months and the results were tabu- lated, the county nurse's work has been made a permanent institution in 636 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago the county. Her work has resulted in improved schoolroom sanitation. It has checkt the spread of contagious disease and improved the general health conditions of the county. Scores of instances could be given where pupils have had neglected eyes, ears, throats, teeth, and tubercular troubles attended to by competent physicians, and this none too soon to insure the permanent health of the children, simply because a school nurse inspected the child and sent home a little note advising the daily use of the toothbrush or the consulting of a family physician at once. The response to these little notes has been marvelous, for the work is needed and appreciated. But let us consider for a Httle while the percentage of cor- rections, for if there were no corrections this work would be entirely useless. The following is a report of a typical village school for the years from 1914 to 1918: No. of pupils examined 73 No. of defects found in eyes 10 No. of defects found in ears 3 No. of enlarged tonsils 14 No. of adenoids 6 No. of pupils with decayed permanent teeth 20 No. of enlarged glands 2 No. of granulated eyelids 3 This is 82 per cent. The next year the number of defectives went down to twenty-six, which would be 36 per cent. The next year the number of defectives went down to 16, which would be about 22 per cent, and during the last year ending June, 1918, there were 10 defectives, with 8 corrections. I do not say that this is a usual case; it happens to be ideal, but as it was the first village examined I have kept the data and have given it to you. The next is the case of a typical rural school: No. of pupils examined 22 No. of defective visions 8 No. of defects in hearing i No. of enlarged glands 2 No. of decayed teeth 12 No. of enlarged tonsils 6 No. of adenoids 2 The following year there were 13 defectives, the next year 10, and last year 9, with 5 corrections. This is also an ideal situation, but I give it to you because it was the first rural school to be examined in our county. The following record of concrete results for our county since the begin- ning of the work of the school nurse speaks volumes in favor of the system: Year Pupils Examined Defects Found Percentage lOIA— le 2413 2500 2270 2618 1986 •1625 809 738 82 ioi'>-i6 65 I916-17. 34 I917-18 28 Superintendence) THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF PLAY 637 The point that first attracts attention is the gradual lessening of the number of defects. In five years of examination, follow-up work, and applied remedial measures, the tangible, visible, physical defects were reduced from 82 per cent to 28 per cent. In the years 1917-18, with 738 recorded defects, 439, or 60 per cent, were corrected, leaving only 299 that did not receive attention. Careful investigation shows that the time required by children to complete twelve years of work in the public schools is thirteen years when they have enlarged tonsils and nearly fourteen years if they have adenoids. Therefore every child helpt in this way is a net saving to the state. Surely there is no better way of saving money in education than to prevent this waste. Had these children grown to manhood and womanhood without ^^this help the time lost in their education would have taken many years I^Bout of their working lives, resulting in a loss to themselves and to society; ^^Bbut there is another loss. A slow child requires more time and assistance ^^Bfrom the teacher than does a normal child, so that all the normal children ^^Bwill receive just so much less attention and in consequence will be robbed I^V'of just so much preparation for life. The earning power of a high-school I^K graduate is one hundred and thirty-eight dollars more per year than that I^Bof a grammar-grade graduate. Then if we estimate the working Hfe of W^a man as thirty years, those who leave early lose $4,140.00. Suppose I that these few cases of tuberculosis remained undiscovered. Is it not altogether probable that it would have been too late to save these lives ? Who can estimate the loss in money, time, and health if these had been allowed to expose other children; but money estimates are paltry compared with the relief of human misery, the correction and prevention of physical defects, the decrease in truancy, and the lessening of criminality, all proving the value of the work of the school nurse as a community investment. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF PLAY SAMUEL HAMILTON, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OF ALLEGHENY COUNTY, PITTSBURGH, PA. To make a plea for play as a necessary part of a system of education is the purpose of this address. It aims to show, not only that play educates, but that its training is so vital, so necessary, and so educative that the child, as Froebel suggests, cannot grow into the full measure of his manhood without it, that the school without play is a misfit in this age, and that the training it gives is an educational deformity, pushing the mental at the expense of the physical. It is difficult at times to distinguish between work and play. Play seemingly differs from work mainly in its purpose. The aim of work is utiUty, the aim of play is pleasure. One is economic, the other is recrea- tional. Work is physical activity directed toward some useful end; play 638 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago is physical activity intended to gratify one's desire for pleasure, recreation, or amusement. The element of pleasure is found of course in both. But the essence of work is duty, utility, responsibility, discharged obhgation; while the essence of play is fun, pleasure, happiness, amusement. There is a more significant difference, however, between work and play. Play involves contests, man against man and group against group, not found in work. These contests arouse belligerent emotions and combative instincts which make a vital contribution to physical development that cannot come from work. During these contests the belligerent emotions and primitive instincts contribute certain bodily secretions resulting in physical vigor and physical stamina which work, however important, can never supply. There is still another advantage that the physical contest in growing manhood and womanhood has over mere work. The death-rate from tuberculosis in the nation is rapidly decreasing, while that from organic heart trouble is increasing. The former is due to the scientific study of the disease and to the care of the afflicted, the latter to the neglect of the perfectly sound and healthful who are growing up into young manhood and womanhood. Physical contests, far more than mere work, enlarge and strengthen the vital organs during the stages of their growth and pro- mote deep breathing, which is so essential to the physical well-being. The heart and the lungs during these stages are like other organs. They develop by using them in exercises that are up to the measure of their full capacity. As the race horse will never increase his speed unless he is pusht under favorable conditions, so the heart and the lungs of the growing child need the spur of contest to promote full-sized growth and f ull-developt capacity. To this end the contest in games and sports is superior to mere work. I. If play educates, and if it is so educative as to be called a method of education by a distinguisht expert, it must develop in a more or less posi- tive manner certain powers of the mind that are essentially and funda- mentally a part of the child's education. In pointing out some of these powers of mind or of personaHty, six propositions may be stated, which, if reasoned out to a positive conclusion, like theorems in geometry, actually prove that play educates. These propositions may be stated, but for want of space the reasoning that forms the proof or argument must in the main be omitted. a) Games and sports develop the power of attention and general alert- ness of mind. If this is true, to that extent at least they are educative. In a game of ball, for example, the player is all eyes and ears. His mind is wide awake, alert, and attentive in a high degree. Not the minutest detail misses him. If you doubt this, watch the game and try to see if the umpire is correct in his decisions. Your own alertness will scarcely be equal to the task. Indeed this game is as valuable in the development of attention and alertness of mind as many classroom lessons. Superintendence] THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF PLAY 639 b) Games and sports develop the power of initiative. This is the ability to originate, to start, to do; the power to grasp the situation, to size up the conditions, to see what should be done at a given time, to seize the opportunity and do the right thing at the right time and in the right way, thus applying the necessary remedy effectively. No person as a rule tells a player what to do in a game. He knows that as a member of the team he is expected to do his part. He therefore watches the game, sees and seizes his opportunity, decides what is to be done, acts instantly and enthusiastically, plays his part, and helps to win. His personality acts without external suggestion or direction. All this develops in him the power of initiative in a very positive manner, possibly to a greater extent than textbook lessons. c) Games and sports develop the judgment and the will. Judgment id will are trained by having the mind examine critically existing condi- lons, weigh carefully the value of each, reach a definite conclusion concern- ig them, and then act accordingly. Many games furnish this training juite as much as textbook lessons. The player must observe, compare, reigh, conclude, and then act. This is the finest kind of training for both idgment and will. d) Play helps to cultivate the individuahty as it cultivates the individual :ill and efficiency of the player. The player is a part of the team, and rhile he must cooperate with the team his part is an individual contribu- tion to the work of the team. There are many games that aim to develop le individuality of the player; there are others whose purpose is to culti- Lte the spirit of team work and cooperation. As a rule the plays for keadolescent children emphasize individual skill and individual effort, rhile those for adolescents call for team work and cooperation. e) Play develops the imagination. This is especially true of little lildren. Their play world, thru the imagination, becomes a real world. i^he hobbyhorse is transformed into a real horse, and the crude pile of locks, brought together by the child, into a real house. The " three little ittens that lost their mittens" are not a matter of fiction; they are the ial thing, to be fed, loved, and petted. No one can watch a child at play Lthout noting that his imagination is active in a high degree. He is iking make-believe journeys, chatting with make-believe companions, mstructing make-believe castles, feeding make-believe pets, and cooking id eating make-believe meals. But this make-believe world which his mcies create is always intensely real to him, and this almost constant exercise of the imagination is the best training possible for it. /) Play develops the power of thought. It requires the player to )bserve the progress of the game, to follow its rules, to wait and watch for an opportunity to help, or to make that opportunity at will, to control mind and body until the opportunity is at flood tide, to conclude that the supreme moment has arrived, and with judicial equiUbrium and 646 NATIONAL nWCATlON ASSOCIATION (Chicago well-balanst effort to throw himself into the game at the right point, in the right way, and at the right moment. To hesitate, to reach a false conclu- sion, to make a mistake in judgment, to be ahead of time or behind time, are errors that might give the game to the other team. Surely such a course develops a mind quick to see, quick to compare, quick to weigh, and quick to conclude in no less degree than it trains a body to act quickly and accurately. The reasoning in the six preceding propositions will probably satisfy most minds that play educates; at least to the extent indicated by these propositions, play activities develop the mind. 2. Mental development, however, is not the only aim of education. It must build character as well as train the intellect. Indeed character is the great aim of education. It is therefore legitimate to ask if games and sports build character. a) Play thru games and sports develops self-control, the great balance wheel of character. Any agency that contributes this essential factor to the group of virtues that make up what is called character is distinctly ethical and primarily educative. Games and sports do this. In them the player is free to act his part, yet it must be played according to the rules of the game. By masterful self-control he holds himself in check, waits until the supreme moment has arrived, and then acts. b) Play develops the player's sense of honor, justice, and right, three of the cardinal virtues of moral and civic life. A good sport must be honest, fair, just, and honorable. The rules of the game require such action. To cheat or to take a mean advantage debars the player. In games the pupil soon discovers that "honesty is the best policy." To win a game thru dishonesty or trickery is highly dishonorable to the individual and to the team; and because it is, the individual is under the strongest soHcitations and the most urgent reasons for playing fair and acting honorably. The impulse to be unfair and dishonest is swept away by the stronger impulses of honor and justice. Narrow, self-centered ambition and personal selfish- ness are supplanted by the spirit of generosity, candor, and altruism. c) Play in many games develops team work and cooperation. The team is composed of individuals, but it acts as a unit. The player sacrifices selfish ambitions and personal aggrandizement for the good of all. d) Games teach respect for law. In order to have any standing with his companions and competitors the individual must play fair; he must conform to the rules of the game; he must be a genuine sportsman. He must respect the laws of the game and the rights of others, and thus he learns to yield a wilHng obedience to all rightful authority. Without this respect for law character is an empty husk and citizenship an idle dream. e) Games develop genuine leadership. Leadership in sports and games is often vastly different from leadership in politics. The former is always genuine, while the latter is so often spurious. The one is always purchast rTT)e( Superintendence) THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF PLAY 641 by real merit; the other is often purchast by money. The United States Senate is like the New York Stock Exchange. A seat in either may be secured if you have the price. Not so in sports and games, where real leadership is unhampered in its right to win. /) Games and sports tend to lessen juvenile crime and juvenile accidents. Sociologists point out that three-fourths of the juvenile crimes in the nation are committed during the summer vacation. The overcharged nerve centers explode in crime and lawlessness because society fails to provide suitable vent for surplus energy thru organized play activities. g) Games and sports help to Americanize the children of foreigners. 11 admit that the school is the great melting-pot of democracy, but few e that the fusing of social factors is accomplisht far more rapidly and ectively in the games and sports than in the work of the school. The est Side in Chicago before the inauguration of play centers was the scene f many rough-and-tumble fights between Italian and Slavic boys, in hich stones, clubs, bottles, and even knives were weapons of defense. ecreation centers and supervised play have eradicated racial rivalries nd brought peace, harmony, and cooperation. Instead of pitcht battles between groups, Jews, Germans, Poles, and Irish play side by side on the same team. Bitter jealousies and racial antagonisms have been supplanted by the American spirit of democracy and cooperation. h) Games train the players how to accept victory and defeat. Conduct is the outward index of character, and never does conduct reveal the real man better than in a closely contested game or in the hours of victory or defeat. A few years ago the speaker was one of the judges in an intercollegiate ebate. The meeting was held in the college town of what proved. to be e vanquisht team. The faculty, the student body, and the audience ere naturally interested in the home team. Yet the manner in which the feated team and its friends applauded the decison of the judges and treated e victors actually robbed defeat of its humiliation and sting and thus added to the joys of victory. The vanquisht were real sportsmen, and heir unstinted courtesy, their spontaneous appreciation of the decision, en tho against them, their overpowering sense of loyalty to the victors ecause they deserved the crown, did much to turn a forensic defeat into an ethical victory. i) Play activities cultivate loyalty to associates and the desire to make good not only for self but for the group. This desire is the taproot of many virtues. Eliminate from a boy's life loyalty to associates, the spirit of cooperation, the individual desire to make good, the ambition to do something and to be something, and you kill hope, suppress the growth of manly virtues, and bring into his life the greatest tragedy of youth. The aim of the school is not scholarship alone but the developing of good, strong, healthful men and women, with a sense of honor, justice, and right, with loyalty to friends and a willingness to surrender to a higher power, with 642 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago moral integrity and personal worth, and with a consuming heart-hunger to do something and to be somebody. The general thesis is that play activities educate. If the speaker in these propositions has failed to convince, if he has failed to show that they develop certain powers of mind and build into character certain funda- mental quaUties, the reason is found in the briefness and weakness of his arguments rather than in the possibilities of the subject. If games and sports are a positive factor in the educative process, aside from their physical value in the domain of health and recreation, then they must be given time and opportunity to do their work. If they develop certain powers of mind, certain qualities of character, and certain social virtues essential to democracy and civic responsibility, then they must be systematically organized as a fundamental part of our American system of education, and directed, not in the interests of the few as at present, but in the interests of the many. More time and better facilities for games and sports must be provided. THE WORK AND VALUE OF THE HELPING TEACHER ZENOS E. SCOTT, ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, TRENTON, N.J. Three years ago the state legislature of New Jersey enacted a very excellent school law which enabled the commissioner of education to appoint in counties where he deemed necessary rural supervisory officers called ''helping teachers." The maximum salary to be paid was $1500. The traveling expenses were to be borne by the helping teacher. At the present time there are twenty-four helping teachers working in sixteen different counties. These teachers are all normal-school graduates, and several are college graduates. One has earned a Master's degree, while four or five are doing work toward such a degree. All have attended summer school during each summer since they have been helping teachers. The majority have taught in rural and small- town schools. Each one has had sufficient experience in teaching to insure that she really knows how to teach. These teachers are recommended by county superintendents. They are visited by the commissioner or his assistant and accepted or rejected for the position according to the judgment of these officers. Naturally these women must possess organizing ability. They must be real community workers, with a true missionary spirit. Their leadership qualities must be amenable to counsel and guidance. They must be rugged in constitution, with strength sufficient to stand the strain of long hours and hard work. They must be able to teach with a high degree of skill, and in addition they must be able to inspire those whom they supervise to strive continually for greater and greater skill in teaching. The work of the helping teachers is principally in rural and small-town schools. Each supervises from eighteen to fifty teachers. There are in the I Superintendence! WORK AND VALUE OF THE HELPING TEACHER 643 state of New Jersey about seven hundred one-room schools. The majority of these schools are under the direct supervision of the helping teachers. In addition to the one-room schools many of the helping teachers have two-, four-, and eight-room buildings. Those who are working solely in rural districts must cover great dis- tances in traveling from school to school. To save time these women need automobiles, and nineteen of them have automobiles. During the year they travel several thousand miles visiting the various schools. Their expense ccounts range from $300 to $550 per year. In a few of the counties there are trolley systems which make it possible for the teachers to reach all the schools by trolley. In such counties the teachers do not have automobiles but depend upon the trolley system for transportation. The position of helping teacher was created in order that the teachers one- and two-room schools might receive more adequate supervision than ould be given by the county superintendent. The county superintendent in New Jersey has many and varied duties to perform. The administrative duties of his office are necessarily heavy. In the majority of cases the work of the county superintendent is to direct and stimulate the supervision of teaching rather than directly to supervise teaching. The county super- intendent therefore must have supervising principals and helping teachers in order to insure that his schools may receive adequate supervision. As a rule the teachers in rural one- and two-room schools have had limited training and experience. The tenure of service of these rural teachers is very short; in many cases the teiacher stays not more than one or two years. These facts indicate all the more the great difficulties confronting the helping teacher. One phase of the supervisory work of the helping teacher is to meet these inexperienst teachers and show them, by giving examples of good teaching, how to secure good school work in rural and small-town schools. Another one of her duties is to select from her better teachers the ones who can give successful demonstration lessons. The helping teacher often secures full attendance at these meetings by bringing in her automobile the teachers who are farthest away. In this way the demonstration teaching is brought directly to the teacher in the rural schools. As a rule the helping teacher can visit a given teacher often enough to indicate to her what work is to be done, to show her how to do the work better, and to institute a follow-up system sufficient to insure that the teacher improves in her method of work. It is the commbn practice of these helping teachers in the beginning of the year to make a rapid survey of their supervisory problems and to determine what teachers will need most help and what help it is necessary to give. The second problem is to begin with the teachers who need the greatest help, spending a half-day or more in each schoolroom to teach demonstration lessons for a given room or building. At Ihe noon period, or at the close of the day, the helping teacher spends 644 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago an hour or more discussing the full work of the day with the teacher in charge. She leaves with the suggestion that at a given time she will return to help further the teacher along definite lines of work. If in a given case the improvement in the teacher is not sufficient the helping teacher may suggest that a visit be made to a good teacher in the district. If still the teacher is not making sufficient improvement the helping teacher again visits her room and spends a half-day or more teaching and giving constructive criticism upon the work in hand. This indicates in brief the immediate problem of the helping teacher's supervision of classroom instruction. There are many other duties, however, closely related to those already named. For example, she meets with the county superintendent once or twice a month, when the plans of work are outlined for the future. This makes it possible for the county superintendent and the helping teacher to keep in close cooperation in the supervisory work. The helping teacher is also a factor in organizing local institutes, where a group of ten to twenty teachers meet on Saturday to give demonstration lessons and talks on methods of teaching certain subjects, and to have social times together. These local institutes are very important phases of the helping teacher's work. In the county institute also the helping teacher has a part to bear. She is placed upon the program to talk to her rural teachers. Here she presents problems dealing with the method of teaching, or illustrates how the forces of the community may be organized for better school work. The state of New Jersey issues suggestive courses of study in the form of monographs. The helping teachers are called upon continually to illustrate how these monographs are to be used by the teachers. They are askt to contribute toward improving the monographs already in existence and also to give their services in making new ones. They are organizers of the boys' and girls' clubs in the various counties. The majority of the rural districts in the state have organized, thru the work of the helping teachers and the county superintendents, boys' and girls' clubs, the work of which is directly connected with the regular program. Another aspect of the helping teacher's work is to promote parent- teacher organizations in rural and town communities. In some of the rural counties as many as forty parent-teacher associations are now at work. Many of these organizations have been brought about thru the cooperation of the helping teacher and the county superintendent. The work of the parent-teacher association in practically all cases is an encouragement to the local schools, to the teachers in those schools, and to the boys and girls of the community. In three or four of the counties the helping teachers have planned and carried out community festivals. These were attended by all the adults and children of the community. As a rule the festival was held at a one- or two-room rural school. One-half of the day's program consisted of the Superintendence] WORK AND VALUE OF THE HELPING TEACHER 645 regular work of the school day, conducted out of doors, the fathers and mothers being interested observers. In the afternoon plays, games, simple pageants, speUing contests, and athletic contests were held. From two to eight hundred people attended the festivals. All the interests of the com- munities centered in these exercises. The days were red-letter days for the school teachers, the boys and girls, the fathers and mothers, of the county. During the war the helping teacher performed another very important service thru her efforts in mobilizing the forces of her community for the winning of the war. The rural sections of the state did proportionate work in all war drives. The boys and girls of the rural schools enthusiastically bought Thrift Stamps and Liberty Loan Bonds. They workt for the Red Cross, for the Belgian and French orphans, for the Victory Boys' and Girls' Drive, and gave liberally for all war measures. The pupils in practically all the rural schools of the state made and displayed service flags in honor of those who went to serve their country. The campaign for four-minute speeches was carried on as successfully in rural schools as in town and city schools. In all this war work the helping teacher was the direct stimulus to the teachers of the one- and two-room schools. She was a moving force in the community, organizing the parents of the community and securing their cooperation in the school work as well as in the war work. In these undertakings she proved herself a community organizer and leader. The county superintendent is immediately responsible for directing the work of the helping teacher. He maps out for her the districts in which she is to work; he makes it possible for her to meet the members of the various boards of education; he calls teachers' meetings for her when several dis- tricts are concerned ; he holds sufficient conferences with her to insure that there is unity in the program of supervision; he keeps on file in his office reports of all the work which she is doing; he helps to map out her future work and stimulates her to do constructive supervision. I meet with the helping teachers and the county superintendent of a given county. A day is spent visiting the best, the average, and the poorest schools in the rural sections. Note is made of the work which is being done, as well as the progress which the teacher has made. The helping teacher may be askt to supervise the work just as she would if she were alone, or she may be askt to teach a lesson for the benefit of the teacher in charge and the other supervisors. At the end of the teaching day a conference is held with the helping teachers and the county superintendent. The entire work is discust in the light of definite, detailed principles of supervision. The helping teachers make note of the conclusions reacht at the end of the conference. The notes are guides to them for their future work. As a rule I write a letter to the helping teacher, a copy of which is sent to the county superintendent, following up the personal visit. 646 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION IChicago THE SIX-SIX PLAN IN INDIANA CLIFFORD rUNDERBURG, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HUNTINGTON, IND. The conditions of education are so nearly uniform in the various states of the Union that what I have to say respecting the schools of Hunt- ington County, Indiana, will undoubtedly apply in one form or another to all the schools of all the states. The experiences which have been ours in the two years' operation of six-year high schools in all eight of my high schools will certainly be the experience in large measure of those here, if this plan is placed in operation in the schools which you supervise. A six-year high school is different from the junior-senior schools of the cities in that there is no division between the ninth and tenth grades. In the former all grades are assembled in one large study, where room permits; otherwise the twelfth or perhaps eleventh and twelfth grades are segregated. The whole purpose is to give the seventh- and eighth- grade pupils the correct high-school associations and instruction, because with the best arrangements there will be a tendency to treat these grades as still part of the elementary grades. There is no question that we have succeeded remarkably well in making seventh- and eighth-graders know that they are an integral part of our high schools. The six-year high school is particularly adapted to country schools because they are small. In schools of 125 pupils or fewer the addition of the seventh and eighth grades usually does not make the numbers unwieldy; and in some instances we have found that the life of the high school really required the addition. One of our schools had an enrolment of only about thirty pupils, but by the addition of these grades we now have in this school about sixty. Schools formerly of fifty or sixty now enrol ninety or more. On the other hand the large high schools profit by dividing the school into junior and senior schools. The old schools are thus relieved by subtracting the ninth year, while the junior school takes care of the earlier grades. A readjustment in the extent of elementary- and secondary-school courses is necessary today because of the nature of the growth of educa- tion in this country. In the early days just the rudiments of learning were considered attainable by the rank and file of the people. From the elementary schools of those times one went directly into schools of higher learning, but it was a mighty small percentage who ever entered such schools. The secondary or high school was an unknown thing to our school system. In this state of affairs the elementary-school system developt out- of all proportion to its real province. Who here does not remember how but a few brief years ago boys and girls in rural districts attended the elementary school until eighteen to twenty years of age, and the teacher in such schools taught all he knew to these boys and girls Superintendence! THE SIX-SIX PLAN IN INDIANA 647 — rather to these young men and women ? Then the pubHc high school was introduced into our school system by bold students who had been to college or to the university. These high schools were small affairs at first and copied the schools of higher learning in curriculum, their teachers were poorly prepared, and a small percentage of the pupils from the ele- mentary schools entered them. The high school grew, however, in every way, until today it is a mighty force in American education; it is develop- ing a curriculum of its own which articulates with life; the large majority of pupils in the elementary schools go on into the high school, and the part of secondary education usurpt by the etementary-school system of a decade or so ago is now being taken over by its rightful owner; and my notion is that the logical and psychological time for such ownership to begin is with the seventh grade. Indiana lays many claims to an advanst school system, and in high degree her claims can be substantiated by what she really is doing; but while this is true, there are many one-teacher schools in our state operating under all the evils of such schools. Most of these one-teacher elemen- tary schools offer courses thru the eight elementary grades, and a multitude of subjects are offered in the upper classes — as many as eight and nine to seventh- and eighth-grade pupils. The instructors in these schools are our most poorly prepared and paid teachers, the equipment is so deficient that one wonders that it can claim the name "equipment," promotion proceeds by grades rather than by studies, and final admission into the high school is by one great test called the ''diploma examination." Truly it makes one heartsick to see the great amount of "cramming'' done in the upper elementary grades to go thru with this awful ordeal; and so many of those who are successful seem to gain the idea that this is the last desired goal in educational endeavor, and this of itself should condemn the procedure. The six-year high school changes all this. While it relieves the elementary-school teachers of two grades and much work, it gives to the pupil the very things and just such treatment as he should have. I claim for it the following points of superiority over the former way: I. The placing of seventh- and eighth-grade pupils in the high school is proper because it is at this time that the child is entering' adolescent life, and his education should be made scientific and social to a greater extent than ever before. The high school does this, while the usual coun- try elementary school does not. Prepared teachers teaching their favorite subjects with proper equipment are at work in the high school, and each teacher promotes his own pupils in the subject or subjects which he teaches. This does away with the cramming for the diploma examination spoken of before. Then by collecting *the pupils into a high school from a rela- tively large area our seventh- and eighth-grade classes usually average around fifteen. It is plainly evident that the chances to develop socially in groups of this size and along with other high-school classes is almost 648 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago infinitely superior to the opportunities out in district schools having one teacher and few pupils. I have visited dozens of schools every year in the last eight years where there was but a single pupil in grade after grade, and the usual size of classes in the district schools I should say is about three pupils. With dawning young manhood and womanhood, what social impetus does such a school afford ? 2. The overcrowded curriculum of the present seventh- and eighth- graders can be done away with, and a curriculum which articulates with the remainder of the high-school years can be substituted. This can be done because there is no "grand final test" coming at the end of the elementary-school period, and because there is but little lost motion in articulating the elementary grades with the high school. We also believe that a pupil can do twice as much real work in the seventh and eighth grades under the more nearly ideal conditions than can be accom- plisht in the one-teacher, eight-grades, no-equipment district school. At present we are offering a course in the study of English and American classics in the seventh and eighth grades, also to seventh-graders Ameri- can, history complete, arithmetic to algebra, domestic science to girls, and agriculture to boys. To eighth-graders we offer, besides, English, algebra, general science, community civics, and art. Technical grammar is elimi- nated from these grades but is incorporated in the ninth grade as a subject in itself. Geography is eUminated from these grades, but general science is offered, and the student has a chance to take both physical geography and commercial geography in higher grades and study them in a more scientific manner than can possibly be done in the usual elementary school or in the lower grades. We should like to teach geography in every year from the first grade thru the twelfth, but there is a limit to the number of subjects to which one can give serious consideration at any time. The study of physiology and hygiene is discontinued with the sixth grade until later years in the high school, where it can be taken up again in a scientific way. The six years thus devoted to high-school work give the best opportunity for reorganization of the curriculum and a proper artic- ulation of subjects. More teachers are required, of course, so that each teacher has a better chance to handle just his desired line or lines. 3. We have found in particular that the teaching of such subjects as agriculture and domestic science in the one-teacher district school is a farce, but in our high schools we can handle these subjects with profit. The teachers in the district schools are seldom prepared to take care of these subjects; the time for recitation is too short; there is practically no equipment, and the number of pupils is too small to create a real interest. These conditions in the high school are all reverst, and the results attained are satisfactory. 4. The six-year high school is the longest step that can be taken in the consolidation of schools, and the result is brought about with the Superintendence! EDUCATIONAL READJUSTMENTS AFTER THE WAR 649 perfect good-will of the patrons concerned. It can at once be seen that the subtraction of seventh- and eighth-grade pupils from the district schools cuts their waning numbers down to a still smaller working basis. Then at the time these pupils are going into the high school, which in our state is usually a centralized school, younger members of the same and other families go along to the better school. In two years now this plan has killed off ten district schools out of sixty where it has operated. Our county is now on the verge of a great landslide of consolidation, which is being brought about pretty largely by our new type of high school. I am not a believer in forst consolidation of schools ; but where the system can be gradu- ally establisht without opposition of the patrons served, there is no danger of a return to the old and obsolete system of one-teacher district schools. In conclusion may I say that the six-year high school in Huntington County, Indiana, has come to stay. Patrons, pupils, teachers, and school ^ officials consider it a greater success than our first fond anticipations l^^pictured. I V su ■ ar ft of f th EDUCATIONAL READJUSTMENTS FOLLOWING THE WAR T. H. HARRIS, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION, BATON ROUGE, LA. Our participation in the war has deepened our pride in the fact that e are American citizens, and it has emphasized certain essentials which the schools of the nation should not neglect. No shortcomings have been suggested, however, which should cause the least hysteria among teachers and school officials. We are on a firm foundation in all the essentials of good citizenship : the home, the school, and the church have been doing their work in such a sane manner that when the supreme test came to our people they met it wisely, gloriously. We are proud that we are Americans because public sentiment in this country unanimously condemned the practices of the Beast and was willing to sacrifice to the limit American wealth and man power in defense of principle and honor, and this when the country was full of Hun spies paid to corrupt public opinion. We are proud that we are Americans because it has been demonstrated that a democracy can meet promptly and efficiently a great crisis that threatens the peace of the world. We are especially proud that we are Americans when we consider that four millions of our boys, reared in an unmilitary atmosphere and hating war, cheerfully laid aside their citizen clothes and habits, donned the uniform, subjected themselves to discipline, underwent the grueling physical exer- cise necessary to convert useless fat into muscles of steel, and threw them- selves against the Beast with a dash and courage unsurpast in the history of the world, because principle and honor were at stake. Our accomplish- ments in the war hinted at in these statements prove conclusively that in the essentials that make for intelligence and character the school, the church, and the home are establisht upon firm foundations and have 650 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago been doing their work well. I am not sure that the war has pointed out readjustments which the schools should make. It has, however, called pointed attention to the need of the- emphasis of certain things which we have been working at for years, or which we knew we should be working at, a few of which I desire to enumerate : 1. The schools should reach all the children. In the South they have not been doing so. A few of the white children and many of the negro children have not enjoyed educational advantages. Good schools should be provided for all, and strong compulsory-attendance laws should be rigidly enforst and require their attendance. Sentiment in Louisiana is in accord with this view and adequate funds have been provided for its realization. 2. The census returns show that there are in this country large num- bers of adult illiterates. These people are not confined to any particular section of the country — they are found everywhere, North, South, East, and West. While the numbers are decreasing in many states, especially those of the South, they are increasing in many other states, particularly in the manufacturing centers. It would be a waste of time to look for the causes of our adult illiteracy, or to charge ourselves with neglect of duty for having denied some of our people the advantages of education. The constructive thing to do is to determine to reach now our adult illit- erates with elementary-school facihties and organize at once to act favor- ably upon that program. The national government is askt to assist in the education of adult illiterates, and the assistance should be forthcoming; but the states should not wait for national initiative; they should organize locally to wipe out the illiteracy within their borders. In Louisiana we consider the instruction of adult illiterates an important matter, and with no thought of waiting for the federal government to come to us with funds we propose to organize immediately to attack the problem seriously and vigorously — we hope to allow some other state to occupy the lowest rung of the ladder when the census is taken in 1920! 3. Much more attention should be given to the physical training of children than has been given in the past. A sound, vigorous body is as necessary as a sound, vigorous mind. We have always believed this, but we have not acted intelligently upon the belief. We have given little attention to the health of children, or to the physical development of children. The results of the army medical examinations have disclosed the enormity of our losses, in mental and physical vigor, from our neglect of this field of education. We should make it our business to see that competent j)hysicians regularly and systematically examine all children and give directions and assistance that will lead to the eradication of any existing defects that are subject to treatment. And it is of still greater importance that physical exercises suited to the physical needs of the children be planned and executed for all children in all schools. Our Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL READJUSTMENTS AFTER THE WAR 651 ■ experience in Louisiana, however, where we have a highly competent and efficient state official to direct the work, is that the problem is much more difficult than apparently it should be. The inertia of officials and teachers will have to be overcome, and the disposition of people to adhere to old customs and to avoid new and untraveled paths will have to be broken I down before we shall give to medical inspection and physical training the same intelligent attention that we give to the teaching of the usual school subjects. If, however-, we appreciate the importance of the lesson which the war has taught us we shall find a way to overcome all obstacles and to give physical training its proper place in our systems of schools. 4. Aside from any question of morals or religion this war has clearly pointed out to the medical profession the importance of reducing the evil of venereal diseases to the lowest possible minimum. Tens of thousands of the young men who were examined for mihtary service were found to be infected with syphilis and other venereal diseases. These diseases make for impaired intelligence and for physical bad health, for a weakened, debilitated population. The medical profession of the nation should take seriously upon its conscience the duty of protecting our manhood against this scourge, and the schools and all other branches of government should give unstinted assistance. 5. Our experience in the war has taught us that the work of farm and factory should be done by intelligent, skilful workmen. To realize this ideal it will be necessary for the schools to give much more attention to practical courses for boys and girls than they have given in past years. Agriculture especially should be fostered by the schools, with the definite end in view of educating for the country men and women who can live happily and successfully under country conditions. Then we should act upon the fact that many boys and girls drop out of the elementary classes to enter gainful occupations. These people are inadequately educated and poorly equipt for any kind of useful work. They should be found and brought into part-time and evening classes for the additional instruction needed to make good citizens and skilful workmen of them. 6. We appreciate' more fully than ever before that government is organized and maintained for the benefit of the people governed, and that every individual owes sympathy for and cooperation with all his fellow- individuals in providing a government that will serve the people to the best purpose; and aside from government in the fostering of all move- ments organized in the interest of the progress and happiness of society. The war has taught us to disregard selfish motives and to join with our neighbors in the advancement of a great cause. We have learned to pool our efforts and our money in order that the public, that is, all the individ- uals constituting the public, may be safe and prosperous. We know as we have never known before that no man can live apart from his fellows, but that everyone must contribute to the maximum of his ability to the 652 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago success and happiness of all. Upon our devotion to this ideal in the years to come will depend the greatness and the security of our institutions. We have reacht the conclusion in Louisiana that the public school is the most important 'of all public institutions; we have provided funds to finance the public schools adequately, and we propose to bid for the best talent in the nation to teach our children, to pay the salaries which the best talent can earn, and to have the daily instruction of the child directed and measured by supervisors who know what should be accomplisht in the classroom and possess the ability to direct teachers to accomplish it. NATIONAL AID FOR EDUCATION MARGARET S. MC NAUGHT, STATE COMMISSIONER OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. I have been invited to present for your discussion the subject of federal aid to education among the states. Whether this subject be considered with respect to the magnitude of the nation as a whole, or with respect to the needs of some of the smaller and poorer school districts, it will be found one of the most important that engages the attention of educators. Furthermore, when considered in relation to the effects that education has upon the prosperity of a people, it will be found one of the most impor- tant that demands the attention of statesmen. It is therefore with a high appreciation of the greatness of the issue, as well as of the honor con- ferred by your invitation, that I take part in your conference and enter upon the task assigned me. The Secretary of the Interior, Mr. Lane, has in his recent report so well summed up the revelations brought out by the war of our deficiencies in these respects that I quote statements not more for their official authority than for their terseness and vigor of expression. He says: What should be said of a world-leading democracy wherein 10 per cent of the adult population cannot read the laws which they are presumed to know ? What should be said of a democracy which sends an army to preach democracy, wherein there was drafted out of the first 2,000,000 men a total of 200,000 men who could not read their orders, nor understand them when delivered ? What should be said of a democracy in which one of its sovereign states expends a grand total of $6 per year per child for sustaining its pubUc- school system ? What should be said of a democracy which is compelled to reach many millions of its people thru some foreign language ? What should be said of a democracy which expends in a year twice as much for chewing-gum as for schoolbooks, more for automobiles than for primary and secondary education, and in which the average teacher's salary is less than that of the average day laborer ? Surely that which should be said we will say here: That we will plan a structure of education national in scope and service that shall be a tower of strength to the Repubhc, and out of the magnitude of our wealth provide the cost not only of construction but of maintenance. Superintendence) NATIONAL AID FOR EDUCATION 653 Fortunately the plea for such education appeals to a sentiment already formed in the minds of so many men and women of light and leading that it may be accounted as the sentiment of all whose sentiments are worth counting. The force of pubHc sentiment is made manifest by the consideration now given in Congress to a bill for the establishment of a national Depart- ment of Education, to be administered by a secretary of cabinet rank, to be sustained by an appropriation of $500,000 for current expenses, and to be authorized to expend $100,000,000 annually to cooperate with the states of the Union in various educational activities. As you are familiar with the bill, I need not give even a summary of its various features. Suffice it to say that the passage of the bill will put the national government into its rightful place as the leader in national education. Such leadership will not only incite the states to increast ambition and energy in school work but will give encouragement to educa- tors in even the remotest school districts. The rural teacher will feel an increast dignity in the consciousness of being a paft of a national body, and her influence in the community will be augmented by the popular consciousness of the national importance of her position and her work. That an increase of state, county, and district revenues will follow the adoption of a genuinely national system of education appears to my mind so self-evident that I find it difiicult to invent a method of demonstrating it. We had ample experience during the war to prove that the patriotism of the people responds far more promptly to a national than to a local appeal. We are not citizens of a district; we are citizens of the nation. We do not build with ardor for a district, but we are willing to give all when the nation calls. We would find it difficult to raise a hundred mil- lion dollars more for education by appealing or even beseeching in the states separately, but if the nation leads with a hundred miUion the states will give another hundred million and never count it a sacrifice. The advantages which the proposed measure will have over the present system are many. To begin with, it will coordinate and unify the scat- tered efforts which the federal government is now making toward aiding education. A part of the federal educational work is done by the Bureau of Education in the Department of the Interior, a part by a bureau in the Department of Agriculture, a part by the Federal Board of Vocational Education, which is attacht to no department; and during the war a good deal of educational work of a non-miUtary nature was done by the War Department and by the Navy Department. If all these bureaus were groupt under a single head and provided with ample appropriations, results much better as well as much larger would surely follow. Furthermore, unity of education would tend toward infusing the whole people with a unity of patriotism. Thru the schools thus nationally 654 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IChkago directed and inspired the youngest children would be brought into a daily consciousness of their relation to the nation. They would derive there- from a sense of patriotism much keener and much more deeply interfused thru all their mental life than they could ever derive from lessons learned from a book and repeated by rote. The immigrant also would be more deeply imprest by instruction that came to him from the nation than by any that came from the city or county or even from the state. A national system of education would, in fact, emphasize nationalism every day in every schoolhouse and promote Americanism in the truest and fullest sense of the word. Most of all, in our planning for the schools and for federal aid to encourage, promote, and sustain them, let us not forget the problem of the teacher. It would be vain to expend millions for the schools if the average teacher is to receive less pay than the average day laborer. It is then to federal aid to education that I most confidently look for a solution of some of the most serious problems of our national life. It is a wonderful future 'that lies before the American people. That her teachers and her statesmen will have mighty tasks to do and perplexing problems to solve in every successive generation cannot be doubted; but it is not likely that any will have a graver problem than this before us, or one whose solution can be more readily provided by the exercise of common sense united with patriotism and cooperative energy. The lessons of the war have made known the extent of the evil. The remedy is too plain to be mistaken by any except those whose blindness is due to an unwillingness to see. Let us then go forward and provide nationally for a system of education that will fit the American of the future to solve the problems of the future by an intelligence Hberally enlightened and patriotically inspired. OUR LEGISLATIVE PROGRAM HUGH S. MAGILL, FIELD SECRETARY President Hartwell askt me late this afternoon to fill the vacancy on the program caused by Governor Lowden's inability to be present. I cannot take the Governor's place. He always has a message, and by his absence you have mist a real treat. I have been askt to tell you what we are doing in Washington to promote the National Education Associa- tion's legislative program. In the first place, what is our program? Without going into detail we recall that one of the results of the war was a general recognition of the need of a carefully thought-out program of readjustment in education. Mrs. Bradford, then president of the Association, recognized this need and appointed a Commission to formulate such a program. This Com- mission, under the chairmanship of Dr. Strayer, made a preUminary report Superintendence] OUR LEGISLATIVE PROGRAM 655 -1!- at the Pittsburgh meeting last July, which was approved and the Com- mission continued. After the most careful consideration of the whole subject the Commis- sion prepared a bill providing for a Department of Education and making an appropriation of $100,000,000 to encourage the states in the promotion of education along certain definite lines. This bill was introduced in the Senate on October 10, 1918, by Senator Hoke Smith, and later, in a revised form, in the House of Representatives by Congressman Horace Mann [Towner. The Smith-Towner Bill embodies the present legislative pro- gram of the National Education Association before Congress. In order to carry out its program the Association desires to secure the enactment of this bill by Congress, and it is my particular duty as field secretary to represent the Association in the accomplishment of this purpose. To be successful we must have the cooperation of all forward- looking men and women interested in the cause of education and in our national welfare. In order to secure such cooperation and support we must be able to give very definite reasons why our program should be enacted. We need a Department of Education, with a Secretary of Education in the President's cabinet as its head, in order to coordinate and admin- ister efficiently the various educational activities of the federal govern- ment and give to education the recognition which its vital relation to our national welfare demands. Education has been recognized and dealt with by the federal government for many years, but its various educational activities are scattered thruout the several executive departments and administered by scores of unrelated boards, bureaus, and divisions. Issues of vital importance to the nation, involving complex educational problems, are continually dealt with by the President and Congress without the advice and counsel of one whose sole duty it is to consider such problems from the standpoint of education. Every valid argument that was used for the creation of the Depart- ment of Agriculture, the Department of Commerce, and the Department of Labor applies to the establishment of a Department of Education, and it can be shown that our government is now dealing with the subject of education more generally than it dealt with the subjects embraced in any of these departments when they were created. The importance of education from the national standpoint is recognized by all of the other leading nations of the world and is represented in each by a cabinet minister. The war brought out facts that emphasize very forcibly that education is a question of national concern. The vast number of illiterates, even among our native-born population, presents a serious problem which the federal government must help the states to solve. The physical exami- nations conducted by the draft boards revealed the fact that as a nation 656 NATION AL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago we have neglected the conservation of our human resources. The Ameri- canization of our immigrant population, the guaranteeing of educational opportunities to every child and to every American citizen, the providing of competent teachers to carry on the great work of education, are subjects of such importance to our nation that it cannot afford to neglect them, but should encourage and assist the states in bearing the burdens which they impose. I have found that members of Congress are interested in this proposed legislation so far as their attention has been called to it, and that they are generally favorably inclined. However, with the multitude of ques- tions now before Congress, all clamoring for recognition, our bill will not receive the serious consideration necessary to secure its passage unless we carry on an organized and vigorous campaign in its support. In the first place the educational forces of the country must support this movement unitedly and aggressively. We cannot hope to interest others until we show ourselves deeply in earnest. We must obtain the indorsement and support of chambers of commerce, women's clubs, parents' clubs, rotary clubs, and scores of other organizations and socie- ties. Resolutions indorsing the bill and letters and telegrams urging its support should be sent by these organizations and by individuals to the members of Congress. Congressmen are, as a rule, very responsive to the wishes of their constituents. We must first convince the people that our bill will promote education and the welfare of our country, and then we must get the people to express their wishes to Congress. I am very glad to report that we have secured the active cooperation and support of the American Federation of Labor, which exerts a very powerful influence on the members of Congress. The enactment of the famous Fisher Educational Bill by the Enghsh Parhament was accom- pllsht by the united efforts of the educators and the labor people. Organ- ized labor stands for the fundamental principles in education for which this Association stands. Mr. Fisher, in addressing Parliament in support of his bill, declared: The boundaries of citizenship are not determined by wealth, and the same logic which leads us to desire an extension of the franchise points also to an extension of educa- tion. The industrial workers of the country are entitled to be considered primarily as citizens and as fit subjects for any form of education from which they are capable of profiting. They do not want education in order that they may become better technical workmen and earn higher wages. They want it because they know that in the treas- ures of the mind they can find an aid to good citizenship, a source of pure enjoyment, and a refuge from the necessary hardships of a life spent in the midst of clanging machinery in our hideous cities of toil. Convinst as we are that our program is essentially and fundamentally sound, we should be able to answer all arguments in opposition to it and to bring to its support all those forces of society which we might expect to favor such a constructive program. The most common argument which we hear against our bill is that it will bring about federal control I Superintendence] OUR LEGISLATIVE PROGRAM 6$^ of education. Let me say that the revised bill will contain specific pro- visions making federal domination impossible and preserving very jealously state autonomy and local control. Among Congressmen we frequently hear arguments against the further enlargement of the President's cabinet. One Congressman remarked to me that he much preferred a small cabinet of big men to a big cabinet of small men. I told him that I would agree with him if it were necessary to have small men in order to have a larger cabinet, but that I was not willing to concede that we could not find in this country big, capable men for at least a dozen cabinet positions. Then of course we meet those who feel that $100,000,000 is a very large appropriation. Such persons are not able to think in terms of bil- lions, in which our national finances have come to be considered. I have listened to discussions in both the Senate and the House of Representa- tives on the large appropriation bills now before Congress. An addition or reduction of $100,000,000 on either the War or the Navy bills would hardly be notist. It is estimated that the salvage on our war materials in France will amount to about two biUion dollars, or sufficient to meet the appropriations contained in our educational bill for twenty years. Again, there are those who point out that some of the money contrib- uted thru federal taxes by the rich people of the North may be used to educate the poor children of the South. As Commissioner Kendall remarkt yesterday afternoon, the man who offers such an objection, tho born in America, needs Americanization much more than do some of our foreign- born citizens. Did anyone during the war raise a question as to who was paying most for the support of our country and the preservation of our liberties ? The objects promoted by the provisions of this bill may be no less vital to the future welfare of our nation and the perpetuity of our free institutions. Of course we always have the chronic objector, the born reactionary, who opposes every forward movement and enjoys being on the opposing side. We must be careful not to permit such people to take up too much of our valuable time nor to disturb our equanimity or to lessen our zeal. Then we may encounter the honest objector who because of some small obstacle fails to see the large issues involved. He belongs to that class who cannot see the forest because of the obstruction of a single tree. If it were possible to get such a person up on the heights his soul might be filled and thrilled with the vast prospects before him. When askt to state what constitutional authority we have to justify our program and the provisions of our bill, we reply that it is found in every one of the six phrases of the preamble of our federal Constitution: (i) "in order to form a more perfect union"; (2) "establish justice"; (3) "insure domestic tranquilKty " ; (4) "provide for the common defense"; (5) "promote the general welfare"; (6) "and secure the blessings of Uberty to ourselves and our posterity," I do not need to offer any arguments to 658 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago this audience to prove that the promotion of education in the broadest possible way is vitally related to the accomplishment of these fundamental purposes set forth by our fathers when they brought forth this nation "conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal." Finally, may I suggest that in our campaign in support of this great educational program our slogan shall be the words of Abraham Lincoln, who askt for all "an unfettered start and a fair chance in the race of life." HOW TO TEACH PUPILS THAT DEMOCRACY INVOLVES DUTIES AS WELL AS RIGHTS ALBERT A. MERAS, MAJOR, INFANTRY, U.S. ARMY, WASHINGTON, D.C. Duties cannot be taught by force. Without ideals there can be no real loyalty, without loyalty there can be no full appreciation of the mean- ing of duty. Loyalty to national ideals alone will create a deep-rooted sense of civic duty. For many years, in our schools, great emphasis has been placed on the glories of our democracy, with its inalienable rights and privileges conferred on its citizens by the Constitution. It is perfectly clear to every American citizen that he has the opportunity of becoming the chief execu- tive of the nation, that he has the right to enjoy life and hberty, the right to worship, to hold property, and to speak as his conscience dictates. In appreciation of these privileges schools have unquestionably taught that it is a duty to vote, to accept jury assignment, and to attend primaries. There are, however, many other civic duties in a true democracy. What do we mean by national ideals upon which loyalty and love of country are dependent ? A vandal nation once said, "Germany may in less than two centuries succeed in dominating the whole globe — if only it can in time strike out on a new course and definitely break with Anglo-American methods of government and with the state-destroying ideals of the French Revolu- tion." From a pulpit these words were uttered: "What does Right matter to me ? I have no need of it. What I can acquire by force, that I possess and enjoy I have the right to do what I have the power to do." And a philosopher added, "The State is the sole judge of -the morality of its own action. It is, in fact, above morality, or in other words whatever is necessary is moral." Briefly, this nation beheved that the future of humanity depended upon German world-dominion. To gain this divinely inspired end force was necessary; to obtain world-control by force was therefore right. For four long years a great nation and its Allies held the upholders of this doctrine of brute force at bay. That nation also had its ideals, which united its defenders into a noble, heroic, unconquerable people. "Liberty, EquaHty, Fraternity," the ideal of the French RepubHc, was at r i Superintendence! DUTIES AND RIGHTS OF DEMOCRACY 659 stake. For these ideals of freedom, brotherhood, and equal rights France fought and conquered. We can say today, as Walt Whitman did in 1871: Again thy Star, O France, fair, lustrous Star, In heavenly peace, clearer, more bright than ever Shall beam immortal. What are our own ideals? What motto crystallizes in a few words the ideals of America? "E Pluribus Unum" is an uninspiring statement of fact. ''In God We Trust" represents passive self-satisfaction. What are the ideals which make every American feel that membership in this democracy involves duties and responsibilities as well as rights and privi- leges? There can be no clear sense of duty and responsibility where loyalty does not exist, and loyalty can only reign where it is created, enricht, and expanded by service. The average American's life is not inspired by genuine love Of country, because he has not been taught the ideals which will make him perform acts of loyal devotion to his country in peace as well as in war. To many loyal citizens patriotism means passive admiration for Ameri- can institutions, kept alive by thrilling manifestations of emotion occa- sioned by a passing flag, the marching of soldiers, the notes of the national anthem, or a news item of victory. That is not the patriotism which will keep burning the glorious fires of democracy. Democracy, then, means organized national service, social, political, industrial service. Every citizen must individually share in the glorious machinery of democracy. Without efficient loyal service on the part of every citizen there can be no true, progressive, permanent democracy. It is service that must be taught and not patriotism. Real love of coun- try, the patriotism of service and sacrifice, will grow of itself into a vital national force. A successful democracy must be a group in which the individual is physically able to perform his daily tasks efficiently and to protect this group should it be assailed; he must have the knowledge and training necessary to solve the constantly changing social, political, and economic problems; he must have initiative, force, tact, loyalty, and leadership; he must work with fidelity and perseverance in the vocation best suited to his ability; he must contribute to science, industry, and literature; he must hold sacred the principles of freedom; he must uphold justice and therefore equal privileges, duties, and opportunities for all; he must understand the full value and beauty of brotherhood, which means charity, courtesy, helpfulness, and friendship, and lastly he must respect and revere the family, the nation, humanity, and the Supreme Being. Health, intellect, character, industry, contribution, liberty, equality, fraternity, and reverence — these ideals of civic duty demand constant stress, on the part of schools and schoolmasters, on the vital importance of national service. 66o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago How shall these duties be taught ? 1. The school must give every opportunity for service. The school must not plan its work with a view to future service but must train daily habits of duty, service, and sacrifice by assigning duties in such a way as to make it clear that without cooperative service the school will fail. There must be enthusiastic and sincere encouragement and super- vision of school and community activities and also of national activities, such as mihtary training, Boys' Working Reserve, Boy Scout work. Camp Fire Girls, Red Cross, etc. The school must seriously assume the duty of preparation for American citizenship and for a world-citizenship. I hope to see definite rewards in the form of medals and scholarships, not for proficiency in ecclesiastical history, geometry, and composition, but for character, service, and leadership. 2. The -schoolmaster must foster in the young hearts under his charge the sacred love of country, by an example of service, in time of peace as well as in time of war. With all the force of their reason, with all the strength of their hearts, the children of France have always learned to perform their duty toward their beloved country; the master has ever been the exemplification of duty and service; never was the lesson more clearly taught than in the past four years, during the absence of their teachers, for they saw their masters, by the voluntary and joyful sacrifice of their existence, attest the commanding beauty of the national ideal. Let us then teach ideals of health, character, industry, contribution, liberty, equality, fraternity, and reverence, not by lectures on ethics and civics, but by a demand for the sincere fulfilment of definite civic duties and the performance of definite acts of national service. Let us emphasize the fact that democracy means organized national service; that unless every citizen shares in the progressive movement government by the people will fail. May I go one step farther ? I hope that this active citizenship may go beyond the boundaries of the United States. A httle French child once wrote this thought on France and America: There is in France a river so narrow that the voice can be heard from one bank to the other. With one stroke of the wings birds cross it. Great armies cover its banks, but the distance which separates them is greater than the space between the stars and the earth, for it is the distance which separates right from wrong. There is also a great ocean. It is so vast that sea gulls do not dare to cross it. On its shores there are two great nations, but they are close together, for their hearts touch. This little girl saw boundaries destroyed, distances overcome, by a great love. Is it not time to teach a new ideal which will strengthen our love of country by increasing our love for humanity ? We shall see with pride a new citizenship, a citizenship which in the words of Lowell will contribute ''to the knowledge, the moral energy, the intellectual happi- ness, the spiritual hope and consolation of mankind." That, I hope, is the new duty and responsibility of the American citizen. Superintendence! TEACHING PUPILS RESPECT FOR AUTHORITY 66 1 HOW TO TEACH PUPILS RESPECT FOR PROPERLY CONSTI- TUTED AUTHORITY FRANK S. FOSDICK, PRINCIPAL, MASTEN PARK HIGH SCHOOL, BUFFALO, N.Y. In times of unrest like the present the most comfortable thing for one to do is to imitate the ostrich, bury the head, metaphorically speaking, in the nearest sand pile, and neither see, hear, nor sense anything, especially anything disagreeable. But we cannot all be ostriches, tho the temptation to transmigrate our daily existence in that direction probably comes to all of us. It is undeniable that at present there is sweeping over the country, over the entire world in fact, a wave of disrespect for authority. If it affected only the older people, that is, those whose age would presuppose some linger- ing fragments of gray matter — somewhat atrophied it is true — the condition would not be so serious. Time and a series of first-class funerals, more or less continued, would gradually effect a cure. But the young, by heredity and environment, by precept and example, are being rapidly imbued with the same spirit. Our boys and girls have become infected with the identi- cal virus, and one of the most important problems that confronts a genuine educator today is how to combat this widespread disaffection. The first difficulty that faces us is the fact that there is a large amount of duly constituted authority that is not worthy of respect. The business of our schools is to teach pupils to think and, having thought, to come to definite conclusions. It does not take much effort on the part of the average boy or girl to recognize most decided deficiencies, mental, moral, and otherwise, in some of those who sit in the seats of power. Noting these, respect gradually vanishes, and into the vacuum thus caused rush dis- respect, criticism, contempt. Now the discussion of the topic gets down to this solid basis. We have properly constituted authority, as every well- regulated democracy should have. It is an axiomatic fact that some having office are neither worthy of, nor entitled to, respect. It is also axiomatic that our pupils judge authority by the persons exercising it. Therefore how are we to teach our pupils respect under these circumstances ? Some may say that it cannot be done. Oh, yes, it can! Was any hard problem ever left to the schools that was not solved and solved successfully ? Did the schools fail on any proposition that has been recently put up to them ? Were their efforts negligible in Red Cross campaigfis, in the drive for the United War Work activities, in the strenuous plans that led to the success of four Liberty Loans? When our cooperation was askt we furnisht enthusiasm, verve, pluck, that carried all these ''over the top" with a rush. There is no proposition too hard for us, not even the one under consideration, ''How to Teach Our Pupils Respect for Properly Constituted Authority." First counteract as far as possible the influences of about 70 per cent of the homes. If ever there was properly constituted authority, the setting 662 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago for it is found in the homes. When there is intrusted to a father and mother a new Hfe there goes with that trust a parental jurisdiction that reaches out to eternity. It is fitly called jus divinum. It is a lamentable fact, how- ever, that in a great majority of homes that prerogative is not fully recog- nized or, if recognized, is inadequately or wrongly used. One of the inalienable rights inherent in childhood is the right of obedience to parents, enforst obedience if necessary. No one knows as well as the teacher how few enjoy that inestimable privilege. The natural sequence is reverst. The child becomes the boss — the word is used advisedly — and daddy and mother the wilhng bossees. That is endurable, nay even pleasurable, while the child is young, very young, but it cannot relapse into a continued performance without somewhat dire results. Most of us who have children can recall the fateful time when a decision had to be made whether there should be baby rule or parental rule; whether, in other words, the child should be the one in authority or be a willing subject amenable to fair restrictions and gladly recognize that fact. Do you remember that day? How we side-stept vigorously for a time, and how we did hate to face the issue. Well, what was the outcome? Either there began to be incul- cated into the immature mind a feehng of love and respect for the wise parents who with affection unspeakable were patiently caring for the biggest, best investment God ever committed to their charge, or else there commenst a period when the youngster realized that daddy and mother were easy marks, that their authority was a sham, that a howl at the right moment or a sulk at an opportune time would knock all opposition to its wishes higher than an aeroplane in the hands of a skilful ace. A few years — not many are needed — go by in such an environment uncorrected, and naturally but very surely respect for all prohibitions wanes, and we have a Uttle untutored barbarian to deal with, a Bolshevik in embryo. Now comes the teacher's opportunity. This untrained bit of human- ity, impatient of restraint, restive under restrictions, comes to the kinder- garten or the lowest elementary grade. Bit by bit there must be implanted into the child's mind certain new ideas. He must understand from the beginning that above his fancies, his wishes, there exist certain fixt standards that must mold his life, that the Golden Rule and due regard for the rights of others are still dominating forces in the world, that individualism cannot supplant the greatest good to the greatest number, that authority is to be respected primarily as a principle, not because of the personality of those exerting it. These, with kindred truths, so exprest and taught as to fit his mental caliber, must be his meat and drink thruout his entire school life. We should seek to instil constantly into the minds of our pupils ideals that are lofty, upbuilding, and sane. Everyone, old or young, has some vision for the fulfilment of which he is constantly looking. It may be to become a whole ''Wild West Superintendence! TEACHING PUPILS RESPECT FOR AUTHORITY 663 Show," a detective, an alderman, a judge, and so on ad infinitum. Among the girls we find hopes scattered among movie artists. Red Cross auto drivers, actresses, and so on likewise ad infinitum. Early in life the basic principle of choice is either pleasure, excitement, change, or pubhcity. These different phases of intellectual evolution are very interesting to study and more interesting to utilize for our purpose. To laugh at or in any way ridicule a child's pet ambition is to commit a grievous error. Never again will the former confidence between the ridiculer and the ridi- culed be reestablisht. Gone forever is the opportunity gradually to change the childish ideal step by step to something that is more suitable. Here as before the greatest burden lies upon the teacher of the so-called lower grades; for if this process of eliminating these premature ambitions of life is begun in a simple, tactful way in very early childhood, and higher aims are first hinted at, then openly suggested to the child, the work of the school in after-years is made much easier. It has a good foundation on which to build. Elimination of the lower and suggestions of the higher are two great factors in getting the child headed right. It is in the high school, however, that the impress of lofty ideals can be carried most rapidly to the desired end. The age from fourteen to eighteen is an interrogative, a susceptible one. They want to know the reason of things — Why such an economic policy is allowed? Why some men are put in office? What really is success in life? Is wrong ever justi- fiable? It is to this everlasting "why" and "what" of these minds that sane answers must be given. It is worse than useless, it is criminal, eter- nally to condone, to excuse, to side-step, or, to use an expression of that great American who so recently past over, "to pussy-foot." Calmly, with great care and keenness of vision, there should be presented the lofty ideals that influence all good men and women, that filled to the full souls of our heroes who founded this nation and made the word Ameri- can synonymous with freedom, that, while all men are not created equal, it should be our aim to give all an equal chance, and that those who are temporarily in authority are entitled to our respect because we chose them to be our officials, and because they must have made good use of their opportunities. They will respond to this teaching and will "highly resolve" that authority should be respected, and if the men in power are not first-class in every respect they will, by the votes of men and women actuated by high ideals and exalted patriotism, be relegated to a well- earned oblivion. The teacher should be a concrete example of what properly constituted authority really means. There is no use of endeavoring to counteract the false ideas of all the homes this side of Vladivostok, nor of holding up lofty ideals hourly, daily, all the time, unless we ourselves in our everyday life are fair, just, fit exponents of power. Our efforts will fail, as they ought to, and we shall 664 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago only add to the disrespect that our pupils naturally have. No teacher has any right to hold his position who does not represent at all times those quahties that commend themselves to his boys and girls. When I use the terms "he" and "his" I do not by any means exclude the "she" and "her" in the discussion. No teacher is fit to have pupils under his care who does not personify to them the highest type of manhood or woman- hood. Bring to mind the various men and women to whom you lookt for guidance and inspiration. What is it that stands out most promi- nently in your memory ? Two characters, unless you were more fortunate than most of us. One a teacher unworthy of the name, a perfect example of prejudice, of petty spite, which was vented on the pupils. One who sought to control you when he could not control himself. One who sought to be a little tin god on wheels and expected a certain amount of adulation which none of you, if you were boys of spirit, ever gave. Do you remember such a man, such a woman ? "Look on this picture, then on that." Most of us recall one whose memory is sacred to us after these many years. His sole ambition was the good of his boys and girls, and for them he workt day and night. He was one who would never stoop to an unworthy action, not even to accomplish a laudable purpose. He was interested in everything that concerned those under him. His heart, filled with sympathy for young life, was ever open to help, to counsel, to raise up. He invited our con- fidence by his hfe, not by his words. We went to him with our perplexi- ties, whether a question of lessons, of athletics, of etiquette, or love, and he Hstened and helpt. Do you remember such a one ? Do you ? Thank God, most of us do; and we recall how his influence gave us the greatest uplift that we had ever known. Early last summer there came from General Pershing to the officer in command of a brigade of our boys at the front a message asking for two thousand men to volunteer for the most dangerous service of the war. Four thousand men had just come back from the trenches and were having a rest spell back of the lines. For eight days they had been in hell, under constant fire in continuous fighting. They surely deserved a respite if ever men did. They were ordered out as if for inspection, and the wishes of General Pershing were made known to them. "The General wants two thousand of you men to volunteer for one of the most hazardous duties of the war. As many of you as will volunteer step two paces to the front." Four thousand men without a moment's hestitation stept for- ward— a splendid exhibition of American spirit. The General detailed half this number and then said, "You are hereby ordered to leave for Paris tonight, and two days from now march in the great procession in honor of Lafayette." "Most hazardous duty of the war"? Had some- one lied ? Wait a moment. For eight days they had been in hell. Now they were to go to Paris the beautiful, Paris the seductive, where love- I Superintendence! PUPILS' RESPECT FOR THE RIGHTS OF OTHERS 665 liness and temptation walk hand in hand. They traverst the streets crowded with people whose admiration and applause were unstinted. The crowds vied with one another to do them honor. At one o'clock they were dismist for the day with this brief order: "Be at the station at six o'clock tonight to entrain for the front." Five hours of liberty in a city which seemingly could not do enough for them, which lavisht upon them attentions and expressions of affection without limit. Five hours amid snares and pitfalls, enjoying this wonderful freedom. The time past all too quickly. Singly and in groups they began to assemble at the station. At six o'clock, when they were lined up and the roll call taken, how many of the two thousand, think you, responded, weary but sober, clean, fit for immediate service? Nineteen hundred and ninety- three. Only seven failed, and the General was not ashamed of the mois- ture in his eye or the huskiness of his voice. Did it pay ? Did not this quiet but most powerful influence encircHng our men prove its great worth ? Our endeavors, our influence, our constant efforts toward civic upbuild- ing of those committed to our charge are as full of potentialities as was the grand movement in behalf of our army. Followed up from early childhood, year after year, it will result in there being instilled into our boys and girls an intense scorn for everything that is petty or mean, unworthy of a true man, a true woman. They will be alert to place on guard only the upright, the tried. When this addition to public opinion has been accomplisht there will be no need to discuss respect for authority, for there will be none that is not entitled to it. It will be regarded with a feeling akin to reverence. HOW TO TEACH PUPILS TO RESPECT THE RIGHTS OF OTHERS KATHERINE DEVEREAUX BLAKE, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 6, NEW YORK, N.Y. Ever since your chairman askt me to talk for fifteen minutes on ''How to Teach Children to Respect the Rights of Others" I have askt successful teachers, mothers, and fathers, and they have all agreed with me, that to give the correct answer requires not fifteen minutes, but three words — "Respect their rights." This is the unanimous verdict of a number of people who have proved their ability as parents or as teachers, and it was interesting to see not only how the idea was conveyed, but in most instances how those three words came almost immediately after the question was askt. Thus this ques- tion turns from an attack on the children into an arraignment of all of us grown-ups. One gentle little mother of two fine men said, "Not long ago I was inter- ested in a little girl in the park and said, 'Little girl, what's your name?' Like a flash her question came back, 'What's yours?' and I realized how 666 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago rude I had been. I should have given her my name first, as I would to a grown person, and then she would have gratified my curiosity." Children are our keenest and cruelest critics. When the teacher says, ''That boy come here," or "The girl with a red bow take the back seat," she is not respecting their rights to individuality. We do not allow them to address us as "teacher," then why should we say, "That boy," or "That girl," without a gentle apology for the rudeness? It is the autocrat dealing with the masses that speaks in this rude fashion — and children are instinctively democratic. Untaught by their elders to differentiate, they associate on terms of complete equality with the negro and celestial. I remember my pleasure when my two VIII B classes elected the only colored girl as their club president. She was unusually brilliant and they recognized that fact, and she was chosen by a very large majority on the first ballot. Let us leave these little instances which, like straws, show which way the wind blows, all toward autocracy on the part of the grown-ups. Our familiar proverbs show this tendency, "Children should be seen and not heard." How repressive! Then when they reach the high school the teachers complain that they have no power of expression, that everything they write is stereotyped and commonplace. How can it be otherwise when fifty little ones in I A learn as their first lesson in the public school to sit still and ask no questions ? Leaving the little homely proofs of the fact that the rights of children are not respected, let us turn to the , broader aspect. Our wonderful Declaration of Independence states as an axiom that human beings "are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Do grown people infringe on these inalienable rights ? Consider them seriatim. Life. — One has only to turn to the reports of Miss Lathrop, chief of the Children's Bureau, to know that the infant has a more slender right to life than had the soldier in the trenches; to know further that this ghastly loss of life is preventable, and that where the rights of the infant to proper nourishment, fresh air, and proper care are respected the baby generally lives. There would be no need of Baby Week were the child's right to life universally respected. Liberty. — The right to explore and to rove as we gray-haired ones did when we were children, untended and unafraid — that too is gone. The child who presumed to do as his father did is too often punisht by death or maimed for life. In school, with forty to fifty in a class, with furniture screwed to the floor, with examinations to face at the end of the term, what liberty is there here ? In industry, how children are exploited ! The respect- able old gentlemen sitting in the Supreme Court solemnly declare that the Child Labor Law, designed to free our child slaves and give them a little liberty, is unconstitutional. Thus with a few strokes of the pen the child's Superintendence! PUPILS' RESPECT FOR THE RIGHTS OF OTHERS 667 right to liberty is destroyed, and the work of thousands of unselfish men and women is relegated to the scrap heap. How astonisht our great-great-grandfathers, who drafted the judicial division of the Constitution, would be could they know what powers the Supreme Court had- arrogated to itself, thus to set at naught the will of the people. It is not only in the cities, however, that the children are robbed of their liberty; the heavy work of the farm falls early on the weak shoulders of the child, and it is sadly true that those who should love them most are often their worst oppressors, sometimes unconsciously, for children are so willing and so patient. The pursuit of happiness. — How wisely farseeing was the writer of that marvelous document, in that Puritanical day of simplicity, to count the [pursuit of happiness as the third inalienable right. This right demands (both Hberty and leisure — the time to work out what you yourself desire to [do, to get acquainted with your own soul. Our jokes show how Httle this l^right is respected in childhood. ''Go and see what Johnnie is doing and tell him to stop it." The presumption on the part of many grown-ups is that Johnnie is always wrong. There is no patient investigation as to why Johnnie did what seems wanton or as to what was in his mind, but just, " Stop it" and "Don't," and in reply to his intelligent curiosity, ''Don't bother me" — oftentimes because he has askt a question father cannot answer, and is unwilling either to study out with the child or to acknowledge ignorance. Supervised play is not the pursuit of happiness. How often oh Satur- day or Sunday do children play games they learn under supervision? Almost never. The pursuit of happiness means an open mind, yet there are 7,000,000 unlettered persons in this great free country, and more than half of them were born here, our own sons and daughters growing up so ignorant that the pursuit of happiness in its higher form is impossible to them, and vice in the garb of joy makes an appeal that is difficult for them to resist. How can these conditions be cured ? First by facing them and realizing the beam that is in our own eye before endeavoring to extract the mote from our little brother's eye. The remedy as far as school is concerned is so expensive that we shall doubtless muddle along with big classes for many a year; but there is one remedy that can be begun immediately, and that is the education for parenthood. Let us train the boys and girls of today to be right-minded fathers and mothers, knowing how to treat the children that will come into their arms. That will cost nothing but a little intelli- gent thought on the part of superintendents and school authorities. Is that too much to ask ? Such a course could easily be started in every elementary school in this country in September. Don't leave it for the high school; 90 per cent of our boys and girls never get there. Begin in I A and complete the course before any child can obtain working papers. Then you will reach the parents of the next generation, and you will have started on the road toward teaching the child to respect the rights of others. 668 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Chicago REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME The chief addition to its previous reports which the Committee on Economy of Time wishes to bring to your attention at this meeting is the report of the Committee on Economy in Learning. This report was pre- pared by a subcommittee of the Committee on Economy of Time consisting of the following persons: Ernest Horn, chairman, Frank N. Freeman, William S. Gray, Walter S. Monroe, Fred C. Ayer, Carl E. Seashore. You may recall that the purpose and main features of this report were projected in an address by the chairman of the Committee, Dr. Ernest Horn, before this Department one year ago. While the general scope and the salient features of the report are indi- cated in the printed circular which has just been distributed to you, the complete report has been issued as Part II of the Eighteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, to which organization this Department is likewise indebted for issuing in printed form the three pre- ceding reports of your Committee. The complete report may be had of the Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, 111. Only a brief characterization of the Yearbook on Economy in Learning is possible or necessary here. In addition to the chairman's introduction, six studies are reported, dealing with writing, reading, spelling, arithmetic, drawing, and music. The aim of the Committee in this report, in the language of the chair- man, has been "to gather all available data pubhsht and unpublisht per- taining to economy of teaching in the subjects discust and base upon them summary statements applicable to classroom work. " Altho, as they point out, in the case of many problems the investigations are not conclusive, the Committee has accepted the responsibility for making a definite recom- mendation as to the procedure of the classroom teacher, that the learning process may be undertaken with economy and efficiency. In his formulation on ''Method in Teaching Writing" Freeman states twenty-eight rules for the guidance of the teacher. Nine of the rules relate to the position of the body, arm, hand, and paper and the slope of the writ- ing, four to the writing movement, four to the effect of age and maturity on writing, and the remaining eleven to methods and devices. This formula- tion closes by indicating a plan which the classroom teacher may use for testing and establishing records of the pupils' proficiency in handwriting. There are twenty-two references in the bibliography. Gray's study of " Method in Teaching Reading " deals with the following seven topics: 1. Growth periods in the development of reading abiUty^nine guiding directions for the teacher. 2. Suggestions relating to the teaching of oral reading — nine guiding directions for the teacher. Superintendence) REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME 669 3. Factors influencing the rate of silent reading — seven guiding direc- tions for the teacher. 4. Suggestions relating to the improvement of rate of reading — five ^guiding directions for the teacher. 5. Suggestions relating to the improvement of comprehension — five guiding directions for the teacher. 6. Suggestions relating to the hygiene of reading — thirteen guiding lirections for the teacher. 7. Current tests of reading — thirteen are discust. There are thirty-five references in the bibliography. Horn's study of "Method in Teaching Spelling" contains thirty-nine ^specific directions for the guidance of the teacher. These are followed [by a terse formulation in nine points of the rules for learning to spell a word. Directions are also given for testing spelling ability. This study closes [with a bibliography containing one hundred and thirty- three references. The study on "Method in Teaching Arithmetic" was made by Walter S. Monroe. In this study twenty-five rules or specific directions for the guidance of the classroom teacher are stated. The study closes with the discussion of seven tests or scales for measuring ability in arithmetic. There are thirty references in the bibhography. Ayer entitles his study "The Present Status of Instruction in Drawing with Respect to Scientific Investigation." His discussion is organized about the following topics: 1. The present complexity of drawing standards. 2. The application of scientific method to drawing. 3. Rules and principles applicable to drawing instruction. Eighteen rules are formulated for the guidance of the teacher. The bibliography relating to this study contains thirty references. Seashore's study deals with the "Role of a Consulting Supervisor in Music." -The study shows that such a consultant should be concerned with the following responsibilities: 1. Making survey tests in the fifth grade. 2. Following up the results of the tests. 3. Doing individual testing and counseling. 4. Organizing the instruction in the schools. You have already noted that this Yearbook is concerned with the prob- lem of method or technique in teaching in relation to economy and effi- ciency in teaching. The preceding reports of the Committee have been concerned with an effort to determine scientifically the minimal essentials in each of the elementary subjects regarding which reports have been made. The total results in the four pubHsht reports of the Committee are briefly summarized in the accompanying table: 670 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago § ^ 3MO 0 0 W 0 CO ^-^0 0 •ofo 0 i^ a 10 w t^ ^0 fO -+0 W «ONWI-(MH«MH % a* 1 Oh ^:?^ : 00 MH* : : : CO .a 1 t/2 M H M ■ - Jm H M . • • >o PLi 0 • M ^4 H to « • • M 1 1 H i M N H N N ^ • 0 ill P^ t^ tOMVO M 0 • • 0 fO • • M • -00 • • i w5 - — -- « • i M • ■ M ■ • » iii 1^ 1 (2 Tj- t- M vO "OO 0 -VO • -* ■* 1 « i" i : Imhh > : 8 : : :-2 : : :S 1 iM : iS-B"© nit Superintendence] REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME 671 The activities and efforts of the Committee are further indicated by the following bibliography: National Education Association Proceedings, 191 2 "Economy of Time in Education": H. B.Wilson, pages 510-13; Frank E. Thompson, pages 513-17; J- H. Francis, pages 517-24. National Education Association Proceedings, 1913 "Report of Progress by Committee on Economy of Time": H. B. Wilson, pages 217-25. "A Seven- Year Elementary School": Charles H. Judd, pages 225-34. "Mobility of the Teaching Population in Relation to Economy of Time": Lotus D, Coffman, pages 234-41, "Economy of Time through Testing the Course of Study and Time Allotment": Leonard P. Ayres, pages 241-46. National Education Association Proceedings, 19 14 "Report of Committee on Economy of Time in Education": H. B. Wilson, pages 206-9. "Economy of Time in Arithmetic": Walter A. Jessup, pages 209-22. "Economy of Time in Education": H. B. Wilson, pages 390-95. National Education Association Proceedings, 19 15 "The Objectives and Guiding Principles in Determining the Minimal Essentials of the Course of Study": H. B. Wilson, pages 402-10. "Discussion of Report of Committee on Economy of Time": Thomas M. Balliett, pages 410-15. National Education Association Proceedings, 191 7 "Report of Committee on Economy of Time": H. B. Wilson, pages 668-69. National Education Association Proceedings, 191 8 "Report of Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education": H. B, Wilson, pages 520-26. "Economy in Learning in Relation to Economy of Time": Ernest Horn, pages 526-28. "The Problem-Project Attack in Organization, Subject-Matter, and Teaching": William H.- Kilpatrick, pages 528-31. "School Practice as Affected by the Reports of the Committee on Economy of Time": C. N. Kendall, pages 531-33. To this bibliography will be added the discussions to be presented in the remainder of the program allotted to the Committee on the Economy of Time on the value of the reports of the Committee on the Economy of Time in relation to school practice, by R. G. Jones, Superintendent Katharine Hamilton, Superintendent J. H. Newlon, and Professor W. W. Kemp. t, As the foregoing bibliography shows, this is the eighth meeting of the I Department since the creation of your Committee, the Committee having been appointed following the adoption of the following proposal of Professor Suzzallo at the Mobile meeting of the Department: \ The main requirement at this point in our progress is to investigate the waste in the elementary school and to make definite proposals for eliminating the archaics and less 672 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chicago useful material of the course of study, and to propose more economic methods of teaching. To this end I move that the Department of Superintendence appoint a Committee of Five on Economy of Time in Education; this Committee of Five to cooperate with a general committee of the organization on Economy of Time and Education. Various changes have occurred in the organization of this Committee since its original appointment by Superintendent C. E. Chadsey. Origi- nally the Committee consisted of Calvin N. Kendall, chairman, John H. Francis, E. O. Holland, C. S. Meek, Frank E. Spaulding. Before this Committee began its work the organization had been changed as follows: H. B. Wilson was made chairman, and vacancies were filled from time to time by the appointment of the following persons: Frank E. Thompson, 0. I. Woodley, J. F. Bobbitt, F. M. Hunter, V. A. C. Henmon. The results of the Committee's work have been quite as much due to the labors of a large number of cooperating investigators who aided the Committee, as to the efforts of the Committee itself. Indeed the Com- mittee has served chiefly as an executive committee and a clearing house for centering the efforts of others who were interested in the problems com- mitted to us. The Committee has not sought to synthesize or modify the work done by the cooperating investigators but has sought to deter- mine the character and scope of studies undertaken by them and to provide for the printing and distribution of their studies when completed. The pro- cedure in developing our work has necessitated holding a meeting annually, early in autumn, in Chicago, of the Committee and cooperating investigators. These meetings have been held without expense to the National Education Association, those attending giving their time and defraying their own expenses. The fundamental interest and genuine devotion of all who have been concerned with the work of the Committee cannot be too strongly commended. It is hardly necessary to attempt to point out the effects which have followed from the Committee's reports. These were very ably emphasized in the meeting of this Department one year ago by Commissioner C. N. Kendall. They will be further discust in the last fifteen minutes assigned the Committee for the presentation of this report. With the conclusion of this report, your Committee asks to be dis- charged. This is not because it has completed all of the responsibihties properly included under the resolution creating the Committee, nor because all of the studies and investigations under way have been completed and printed. We feel, however, that eight appearances before Department meetings should gain us the right to be discharged, either because we have done too little to warrant continuation, or because the results of our work have been such that you are willing to consider that we have already completed a reasonable responsibility. Further, we feel that with the appointment of a Committee on the Reorganization of Elementary Edu- cation and with the appointment of a Committee from the National Society SuperinteDdence) REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME 673 for the Study of Education, on Reorganizing the Materials of Education, the phases of our work, which should be carried farther, can receive more adequate attention at this stage of development by these committees than by our own Committee working independently. Your Committee would emphasize that at best the method which it has employed in the work it has done is quite as important a contribution as the publisht results. There has been no effort to discharge our responsibihty by gathering the opinions of others. The effort rather has been to interest those to make studies who were qualified and in a position to make them fundamentally and scientifically. Every such study, however, had before its publication the benefit of criticism by the entire corps of the Committee on the Economy of Time and cooperating investigators. It is believed that this democratic, cooperative, scientific procedure must be more generally employed in all progressive educational efforts to set up improved programs for the public schools. Your Committee is genuinely mindful of the courteous consideration which^as always been extended it by this Department, and the generous provision which has always been provided on the programs of this Depart- ment for the hearings of its report. For all of this and for the stimulating opportunity to study the problems fundamental to progressive modern education its members are sincerely grateful. H. B. Wilson, Chairman Frank E. Spaulding Frank E. Thompson o. i. woodley j. f. bobbitt F. M. Hunter V. A. C. Henmon REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SUPERIN- TENDENTS' PROBLEMS PART I. ADMINISTRATIVE COOPERATION IN THE MAKING OF COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS PREPARED BY HARLAN UPDEGRAFF This report contains the results of a study of the personal factors involved in the making of courses of study in city public-school systems. While it presents information upon a number of features of the subject, the principal aim of the study has been to ascertain the extent to which cooperation among the various officers and teachers in the schools has pre- vailed, and the measure of success that has been achieved thru cooperation in the performance of one of the most important functions in the conduct of schools in which it is possible for teachers to participate with their superiors. Altho it is primarily a study in school administration, yet it may be considered as a study in the field of management of enterprises in general. It deals with one of the most important phases of that subject, and one which is now receiving increasing attention from managers of all kinds of enterprises. From this viewpoint the report may be defined as a study jn the field of administrative cooperation, meaning by that term those plans and procedures by means of which subordinates in an enterprise participate with managers in the determination and execution of policies and in plans and methods for carrying on the work. I. THEORETICAL FOUNDATION , The participation of teachers in the formulatton as well as in the execu- tion of the policies, plans, and methods of the school can be justified on a number of valid grounds. I. Certain of the principles of efficiency, which have been developt mainly from the study of commercial and industrial enterprises to the point that they are now embodied in the new science of efficiency, and which are applicable to enterprises of almost every sort, demand the practice of cooperation am6ng all engaged in any undertaking in order to secure the desired results with the least effort or the best product with a given effort. These principles, each of which has its application in the conduct of schools, are as follows: a) It is necessary to the highest efficiency of an enterprise that, in so far as possible, the fullest and most reUable available knowledge of every feature of the enterprise be taken into account in the determination of policies, plans, and methods, as well as in their execution. This means that 67s 676 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National ideally the knowledge of every person in the enterprise should be brought together into a common body of knowledge and each parcel given its due weight and position in the institutional mind. It means furthermore that each individual, from the head manager to the lowest employe, should have all of this common knowledge that will help him better to perform his par- ticular function in carrying on his part of the enterprise. The operation of this principle requires the constant interchange of knowledge and experi- ence from superiors to subordinates, from subordinates to superiors, as well as among those of equal rank. No fact having a real bearing upon the work in hand is too trivial to be communicated, nor any person so competent that he cannot learn from every other person who has new experiences or knowledge not already in his possession. The knowledge of the superin- tendent and of the supervisor should permeate thruout the school system and govern, so far as possible, the activities of every teacher; the actual conditions faced by every teacher should be known by the manager and by the expert and should determine in part their contribution to the con- trol of the system in its general features as well as in its details. The quality of this common institutional mind, if this ideal common body of knowledge and thought may be lookt upon as constituting it, is attained largely in" the degree to which cooperation is developt. h) The science of efficiency also demands for the greatest success of an enterprise that there be fostered a spirit of genuine loyalty to the institu- tion, from which will result the building up of an intense pride of member- ship in it, and the inculcation of high standards of workmanship and of mutual and cordial fellowship, so that infraction of rules and inefficiencies of work will be corrected thru a strong esprit de corps and without attention from superior officers. The participation of all upon a common plane in cooperative endeavors which will at the same time permit to each person equal opportunity to do his full part in the conduct of the enterprise is a necessary desideratum to the attainment of this principle. This combina- tion of cooperative endeavors with freedom for exercise of the full contribu- tion of each to the common good should extend for its full fruition to the widest practicable bounds, but first to those features with which each worker is most intimately connected, as, for example, in the case of schools, to the course of study. c) It is necessary to the highest efficiency of the enterprise that the individual and personal welfare and happiness of each individual in its personnel be promoted in every practicable way. Not only should each be given the work that he is fitted to do, but his capacity should be developt in the best way to do the task in hand. He should also see his own work in relation to the work of the entire enterprise. The plans for his welfare and happiness should include the future as well as the present. He should be satisfied that his life is developing satisfactorily and in the right direction. This principle demands a study of the needs of the individual teacher and an honest, careful effort to promote his individual and professional Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 677 welfare. Cooperative efforts in the making of courses of study furnish opportunity for achieving both of these ends. Furthermore such efforts begin at a point where it is possible to secure the teacher's interest and open the way to further advancement. 2. Administrative cooperation in the making of courses of study may be justified on educational grounds apart from the application of efficiency principles to the conduct of schools. The aims, the standards, the methods — all the features of instruction in fact^ — are so variable with different pupils and at different times, that the full knowledge of the expert is needed more than in the case of most enter- prises. Furthermore the knowledge and opinion pf experts are much more dependent upon the daily experiences of teachers and pupils than in the case of experts in fields where aims, standards, and methods are relatively constant. New scientific investigations on the one hand coming in to the system thru the expert, new life-situations on the other hand coming in thru the teachers — these need to be welded together. Constant coopera- tive activities are necessary to accomplish this, and it is especially neces- sary in the planning of the work thru the course of study. 3. Administrative cooperation can be justified also on social grounds. Cooperative endeavors are essential in a democracy. Each member of society should work in and realize himself thru his own social group. Ideals of service, of mutual forbearance, and of mutual help should find their out- lets thru this channel. Frequent opportunity for contact of teachers with principals, supervisors, and superintendents should be fostered in order that each class may serve every other, that all may attain their best develop- ment, and that a basis of common understanding and mutual appreciation be developt. Finally, on both educational and social grounds, it is difficult to see how teachers can teach democracy unless the life in the institution thru which they are making their greatest contribution to society is controlled by democratic ideals and is replete with democratic activities. How can they teach the ideals and practices of democracy if they do not have a rich experi- ence in a living democracy ? II. ACTUAL CONDITIONS AS REVEALED BY THE STUDY The purpose of the study of actual conditions was to describe actual practice in cooperative efforts in this field and to ascertain opinions of superintendents based upon their experience. A questionnaire covering the various features of committee organization and operation was pre- pared with the assistance of the members of the seminar in Educational Administration in the University of Pennsylvania.^ After a preliminary study made a year and a half ago the questionnaire was revised and sent to ' Two of its members contributed largely — Mr. L. I. Loveland, now superintendent of schools, Chatfield> Minn., in the preparation of the first questionnaire and in the preliminary tabulation of the results, and Mr. J. M. Fisher, supervising principal, Ambler, Pa., in the preliminary tabulation of the results of the present study. 678 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National all cities of a population above five thousand. Special effort was made to get replies only from cities above ten thousand. This study includes 329 cities distributed as follows among the various population groups. The number of cities in each group and the percentage of the total number included are given in Table I and in Diagram i. Of these 329 cities, 176 had committees and 153 did not. These were distributed as shown in Table II and Diagram 2. In these 176 cities 499 committees were appointed, distributed as indicated in Table III and Diagram 3. TABLE I Population of Cities Number of Cities in Group Number of Cities in Study Percentages 5,000 fo 10,000 629 572 120 59 70 133 61 ■ 31 17 17 II 10 000 to 25 000 36 51 S3 55 94 25 000 to 50 000 50,000 to 100,000 100,000 to 300,000 Over 300,000 TABLE II Population of Cities Committees No Committees Percentage Having Committees 5,000 to 10,000 31 52 43 21 15 14 39 81 18 10 2 2 43 39 74 68 10,000 to 25,000 50,000 to 100,000 100,000 to 300,000 88 Over 300 000 . 88 TotaL 176 152 54 TABLE III Population of Cities By Grades By Subjects Arith. Read. Spell. Geog. Hist. Eng. Total 5,000 to 10,000. . 10,000 to 25,000. . 2 <. 000 to "vO.OOO. . 16 II 19 38 26 9 8 12 II 25 13 9 4 9 5 14 10 10 3 7 12 32 19 9 - 7 14 9 32 15 9 9 10 10 22 13 4 3 II 82 74 96 40 50,000 to 100 000. . 100 000 to 300 000 . 34 73 Over 300,000 10 Total 27 112 71 49 93 84 63 499 Forms of committees. — There is wide diversity in the forms of committees appointed to participate in the making of courses of study. Twenty-three different types have been noted. These may be divided into two main groups: (i) those committees composed entirely, or almost entirely, of Council) COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 679 e G o2 UJ o c^ fl 02 IlJ CO 18 10 z z UJ -J o f <0 U. oj O S| 1^ Z Z E u a2 uJ IQ 3 o Z U-i o II f 1 § Q-a §1 S8 68o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National CO *0 O I Council] COURSES OP STUDY IN ELEMENTAkY SCHOOLS 68 1 M 682 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National administrative and supervisory officers; (2) those committees having teachers included in their membership. To these two main groups may be added two other special types, which, altho they might be included in one of the two groups above, deserve separate recognition: (i) committees to review and edit the work of other committees, and (2) standing com- mittees on the courses of study. Practice with regard to the assignment of work to subordinate com- mittees varied greatly among the different cities, especially those included in the first main group. Altho most cities do not report the appointment of such subordinate agencies, yet the part played by them in those cities in which they were utilized was so important that they must be considered in any analysis of the administrative organization created to secure a revision of the course of study. We therefore find that both of these main groups must be divided not only into divisions but, in the case of the second group, into classes and even subclasses. While this extended differentiation creates a somewhat complex outline of the existing situation, it is the simplest which will adequately reveal the facts. It is hoped that by intro- ducing uniformity into the classification and by associating names of cities in which each type is found the matter will be found by the reader to be adapted to his comprehension and retention. CLASSEFICATION OF TYPES OF COMMITTEES USED IN THE REVISION OF COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN 176 CITIES, I916-18 A. Composed entirely, or almost entirely, of administrative and supervisory officers I. Board of Superintendents — New York, N.Y.; Newark, N.J. II. Principals (subcommittee for each subject) — Chicago, 111. III. Principals who selected teachers to assist them with particular topics — Duluth, Minn.; Granite City, 111. IV. Principals whose committees selected a corps of teachers from grammar and primary groups to assist them — East Orange, N.J.; Wilkinsburg, Pa. V. Principals who askt teachers in their own buildings to assist — Rutherford, N.J. ; Waterbury, Conn. VI. Supervisors with assistance of teachers — San Antonio, Tex. B. Committees on which teachers were well represented I. To revise courses in certain subjects 1. No subcommittees appointed a) No organized means of receiving help or suggestion. (This is the most common form of committee.) b) Advised by grade meetings held especially for the purpose — Baltimore, Md.; Pittsburgh, Pa. 2. With small subcommittees formed entirely from membership of committee to prepare material covering a) Certain grade or grades — Cincinnati, Ohio; Detroit, Mich,; Milwaukee, Wis.; Kansas City, Kans.; Columbus, Ohio; Richmond, Va.; Des Moines, Iowa; Aurora, 111. (Eastside); Aberdeen, S.Dak.; Chelsea, Mass.; Hunt- ington, W.Va.; Superior, Wis.; Long Beach, Calif.; Streator, III.; Kokomo, Ind.; New Ulm, Minn.; Long Branch, N.J. Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 683 b) Certain topics or problems — Cambridge, Mass.; Allentown, Pa.; Boise, Idaho; Rock Island, III.; Elkhart, Ind.; Butte, Mont. c) Either certain grades of topics — San Francisco, Calif.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Pasadena, Calif. d) Not stated — Chattanooga, Tenn.; Burlington, Iowa; Hannibal, Mo. 3. With small subcommittees composed in part from outside membership of committee to prepare material covering a) Certain grades (i) Without organized means of receiving help or suggestion — Boston, Mass.; Minneapolis, Minn.; Fort Wayne, Ind.; Stamford, Conn.; Kansas City, Kans.; Portsmouth, Va.; Fresno, Calif.; Fort Dodge, Iowa. (2) With assistance of grade meetings held by members of subcommittees — La Crosse, Wis. b) Certain topics or problems — Wichita, Kans.; Sheboygan, Wis. c) Either certain grades or topics — Newton, Kans. 4. With small subcommittees formed entirely from membership of committee which in turn secured assistance from teachers by each member a) Appointing subcommittees in his own school — Los Angeles, Calif. b) Asking all teachers in his building to assist — Scranton, Pa. 5. With subcommittees formed entirely of committees but their membership so large that practically every teacher was a member of some committee and subcommittee — Tacoma, Wash.; Stamford, Conn.; Topeka, Kans.; E. Waterloo, Iowa; Richmond, Ind.; Pomona, Calif.; Eau Claire, Wis.; Misha- waka, Ind. II. To revise courses in certain grades — Denver, Colo.; Portland, Ore.; Galesburg 111.; La Salle, 111.; Corvallis, Ore.; Latrobe, Pa.; Butte, Mont. III. To revise courses in certain buildings — Vincennes, Ind. IV, A general committee to direct revision of all courses in all grades with special committees 1. For each subject in all grades — St. Louis, Mo. 2. For each subject in particular grades — Decatur, 111. C. Committee to review and edit work of committee — Cincinnati, Ohio; Lynn, Mass.; Ogden, Utah; Boise, Idaho. D. Standing committee on course of study — Minneapolis, Minn.; Burlington, Iowa. Size of main committee. — The number of persons upon the principal committees for the revision of the course of study in the various cities may be most conveniently set forth by giving, for each population group, the TABLE IV Population of Cities 5,000 to 10,000 10,000 to 25,000 25,000 to 50,000 50,000 to 100,000 100,000 to 300,000 Over 300,000 Smallest 25 per cent Median 75 per cent I 5 6 10 2 6 7 10 3 6 10 16 5 7 8 14 3 5 9 15 5 7 10 14 Largest 98 51 42 211 32 20 number (i) on the smallest committee, (2) on the committee at the 25 percentile point, (3) at the median point, (4) at the 75 percentile point, and (5) the number on the largest committee in each population group, as pre- sented in Table IV and Diagram 4. 684 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National ^ O Q »o n n U 2 3 Q^ » ^ i o d t'O P *^ ^ O Q **5 -^ 8 S § 8 8^ ^ ^ ^ 8 ^ & o Q ^ ut Q a 10 2 B Q 6 i ^ n ^ Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 685 Size of subcommittee. — The number of cases in which the size of the sub- committees was definitely reported is so small that only tentative estimates of actual situations can be fumisht. The median-sized subcommittees in each group of cities, together with the number of subcommittees, are shown in Table V. Undoubtedly there were but few cities in the first group that had subcommittees. The small number of cases in the 100,000-300,000 group is due to the failure of superintendents to answer in definite numbers this part of the questionnaire, owing in part to the variety of numbers in different subcommittees. It would seem safe to conclude, however, that the number in the subcommittees increases with the size of the cities. Appointment of committees.— The superintendents chose the members of all the committees without formal recommendation or assistance in a great TABLE V Population of Cities 5,000 to 10,000. ,, 10,000 to 25,000. . . 25,000 to 50,000, ., 50,000 to 100,000. . . 100,000 to 300,000. . . Over 300,000 Number of Committees Median TABLE VI Population of Cities 5,000 to 10,000 10,000 to 25,000 25,000 to 50,000 50,000 to 100,000 . 100,000 to 300,000 Over 300,000 Total Cities Reporting Superintendent Appointed Percentage 28 SO 36 16 13 14 157 24 41 29 13 8 II 126 81 majority of the cities, as may be seen from Table VI and Diagram 5. The exceptions are noted below: 1. Superintendent appointed certain committees and some other officers, other committees: assistant superintendent — Spokane, Wash.; principals — Scranton, Pa.; Boise, Idaho; Bellville, 111. 2. Deputy or assistant superintendents or supervisors of grades — Buffalo, N.Y.; San Antonio, Tex.; Iowa City, Iowa. 3. Chairman of committee who was appointed by superintendent — Little Rock, Ark.; Kansas City, Kans. 4. Superintendent appointed on nomination of principals — East Chicago, Ind.; Douglas, Ariz.; Lakewood, Ohio. 5. Superintendent and other officers shared responsibiUty — superintendent and chair- man of committee — Louisville, Ky.; superintendent and supervisor — Houston, Tex.; superintendent and general committee (three members) — Fort Wayne, Ind. 686 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National ^ ^ b 2 g 8 At o £ o 00 CM z o lU U iL O 8 1^ 00 aa u iL o I- 8 00 s E IL. o 'o a (U -§ I •3 8 2 o Council) COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 687 6. Principals — Savannah, Ga. 7. Teachers' organization, committee revised and enlarged by superintendent — Columbus, Ohio. 8. Superintendent appointed committees after each teacher had exprest choice of committee upon which she desired to serve — East Waterloo, Iowa; Fort Scott, Kans.; Hannibal, Mo. 9. Superintendent on nomination of teachers in grade meeting — Topeka, Kans. 10. Teachers' council — Minneapolis, Minn. 11. Chairman of grade teachers appointed members for that grade — Willian^s- port, Pa. 12. Teachers of grades they represented — Denver, Colo. The superintendents apparently dominated also in the appointment of the subcommittees, if we accept as representative the few returns to this question. Fifteen cities report that subcommittees were appointed by the superintendent or by an assistant superintendent, three that he acted with the chairman of the committee, and one with the principal, three by the committee, and four by principals, while but eight reported that they were appointed by the chairman alone. Personnel of committees. — In studying the personnel of committees two types are apparent, (i) those committees upon which but a single class of position is represented as supervisory principals, teachers, etc., and (2) those TABLE VII Distribution among Cities of Committees Composed Solely of Representatives FROM A Single Administrative Agency or Class of Position Population of Cities Supervisors Supervising Principals Teaching Principals Teachers Total 5,000 to 10,000 0 II I 0 2 0 12 7 6 8 I 2 7 I 4 0 0 0 22 29 13 I 0 0 41 48 24 9 3 2 10,000 to 25,000 . . . . 25,000 to 50,000 50,000 to 100,000 100,000 to 300,000 Total 14 36 12 65 127 committees made up of persons from more than one class of position. Table VII and Diagram 6 furnish data regarding the first type of committees from which at least two interesting facts may be observed: (i) This type of committee is confined almost entirely to cities of less than ten thousand population. (2) The number of committees composed entirely of teachers is just a little larger than the combined number of committees composed solely of supervisors, supervising principals, and teaching principals. The preponderance of committees composed entirely of teachers holds true in all subjects except spelling. Here the number of teachers' committees is less than one-half that of the sum of supervisors and principals, as may 688 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National be seen from Table VIII. There is but one committee in cities above fifty thousand composed wholly of teachers, while eleven of the thirty-six committees composed of supervising principals alone are in such cities. The second large type of committees, that upon which representatives of various positions are included, is far more numerous. The number of times that each class of position is represented is shown in Table IX and TABLE VIII Distribution among Subjects of Committees Composed Entirely of Representa- tives FROM A Single Administrative Agency or Class of Position Subjects Arithmetic Reading Spelling Geography History English Total Supervisors Supervising Principals Teaching Principals Teachers Total 14 36 65 25 20 13 25 24 20 127 TABLE DC Distribution among Cities or the Number of Committees upon Which Repre- sentatives Appear from Each of the Various Administrative Agencies, or Class of Position, When More Than One of Such Are upon the Committee Population of Cities Supervisors Supervising Principals Teaching Principals Teachers Others Total 5,000 to 10,000 10,000 to 25,000 25,000 to 50,000 50,000 to 100,000 100,000 to 300,000 Over 300,000 8 47 25 35 21 25 17 73 53 19 24 ' 36 32 83 23 33 12 5 45 130 61 48 29 38 0 9 5 3 6 8 102 342 167 138 92 112 Total 161 222 188 351 31 953 Diagram 7. It will be noticed that while "teachers" is the most frequent group, yet the preponderance is not so markt as in the former type of com- mittee. Number of persons upon committees. — The number upon committees composed entirely of representatives from one class of position (Type i) was distributed necessarily in the case of the supervisors and principals over a narrower range than in the case of teachers. However, the median number is 5, or very nearly 5, for all types of cities in all population groups. Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 689 ^ ^ CM h n vO CM SI 00 ILI UJ ^ 5^ SS «) I bJ a 690 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National When we come to consider the number of representatives from each class of position on committees made up from more than one class (Type 2), we find the median numbers as given in Table X. Attention should be called to the wide deviation from these medians in all three classes of positions. It is necessary to give the entire distribution TABLE X Median Number of Representatives from Each Class of Position on Committees IN Which More Than One Class of Position Is Represented Population of Cities Supervisors Supervising or Teaching Principals Teachers Total 5,000 to 10,000 10,000 to 25,000 25,000 to 50,000. . . . 50,000 to 100,000. . . . 100,000 to 300,000 Over 300,000 I I 2 2 I I 2 2 3 4 3 5 4 8 6 8 6 6 7 II II 14 10 Total 1 2 6 9 * Cases so few that median is not reliable. TABLE XI Number of Cities Having Various Numbers of Assistant Superintendents and Supervisors on Committees Composed of Representatives FROM Several Classes of Positions Number of Population of Cities (in Thousands) Persons 5 to 10 10 to 25 25 to 50 so to 100 100 to 300 Over 300 Total I . . 2 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 29 3 6 0 8 I 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 13 5 0 0 2 2 0 9 4 0 0 5 19 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 97 26 2 a . 18 I C 9 2 2 6 7 12 5 Total . . 8 47 25 35 21 25 161 in order adequately to present the situation. It is evident that superin- tendents who believe generally in having a representative from all positions are not at all agreed as to the number of representatives from each. These distributions are given in Tables XI, XII, and XIII. Members of committee from outside personnel of school system. — Certain cities added to their committees persons who possest knowledge or experi- ence that would be of benefit in working out a course of study. Heads of departments or teachers in city normal schools were called in by New Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 691 Orleans, Boston, and Detroit. The director of the Agassiz Museum served upon the geography committee of Cambridge, Massachusetts, and a mem- ber of the School of Education of the University of Indiana assisted the committee on history in Kokomo, Indiana. Topeka, Kansas, went outside the ranks of education for advice. Upon the committee on arithmetic were an accountant, a bank clerk, and an insurance agent; on reading, two TABLE XII Number of Cities Having Various Numbers of Supervising Principals and Teaching Principals on Committees Composed of Representa- tives FROM Several Classes of Positions Number of POPDLATION OF CiTIES (IN THOUSANDS) Persons S to 10 10 to 25 25 to so 50 to 100 100 to 300 Over 300 Total I ... 22 s 60 22 16 7 II 27 13 6 5 8 6 12 2 8 I 2 3 6 3 2 5 I 6 5 10 8 5 2 124 59 48 . 2 ■z 4 8 6 2 30 29 9 9 7 3 5 2 e 6 I 7 7 I 8 I 3 3 2 2 5 5 4 16 . . 4 Total... 43 130 56 46 28 31 334 authors; on spelling, a printer; on geography, a United States consul; and upon language, an editor. * Factors influencing in choice of committee members. — In order to ascer- tain what considerations influenst superintendents and others in their selection of teachers for these committees, the following question was askt: In the selection of teachers for these committees, what plan of representation was followed ? (Answer for each committee in the left-hand margin below by placing the letter for that committee opposite the plan observed.) a) An approximately equal number of teachers chosen from each grade covered by the course under consideration. h) An approximately equal number of teachers chosen from each building or district. c) All departmental teachers in branch covered. d) An approximately equal representation of departmental teachers from various buildings or districts. e) All elementary teachers in corps. /) Teachers chosen primarily because of their qualifications for the work without regard to equality of distribution among buildings and grades. g) Any other plans. Describe them. 692 ^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National TABLE XIII Number of Cities Having Various Numbers of Teachers on Committees Composed OF Representatives from Several Classes of Positions Number of Persons Population of Cities (in Thousands) S to 10 10 to 2$ 25 to so so to 100 100 to 300 Over Total I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 30' 31 32 36 42 SO 90 200 300 Total 3 38 40 36 55 31 16 19 7 24 2 6 5 S 10 4 1 6 I 4 6 3 I 4 5 I I I 5 6 I 2 45 [30 61 48 29 38 351 ^ TABLE XIV Number of Times Each Factor Was Considered Alone, According to Size of Cities (Letters refer to points in paragraph from questionnaire quoted above.) Population of Cities • Total a h c d e / g 5,000 to 10,000 5 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 0 0 0 0 5 17 0 I 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 3 7 I 2 0 0 9 61 \l 13 IS Ko 000 to ioo,oob 100 000 to ^00.000 Ovpr 700 000 Total 27 10 23 5 13 129 Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 693 The replies were first tabulated by committees in the various school subjects, arithmetic, reading, etc., but, as no significant differences were found among the subjects, only the total number of committees in the appointment of which each of the foregoing considerations was a factor will be given. In many cases but a single factor was taken into account. The number of committees in the appointment of which each factor was considered alone are given in Table XIV and shown graphically in Diagram 8. Table XV and Diagram 8 give similar data when more than one factor entered into the choice. They give the number of times each factor was taken inN:o account. The most important factor, as shown by these tables, in the selection of teachers for committees is their qualifications for the work, while the second in importance is the desire to have an equal number from each grade. The TABLE XV Number of Committees in the Appointment of Which Each Factor Was Considered in Combination with One or More Other Factors Population of Cities Total a b c d e / 5,000 to 10,000 10,000 to 25,000 25,000 to 50,000 50,000 to 100,000 100,000 to 300,000 Over 300,000 21 24 28 9 0 7 13 10 4 0 0 2 13 13 12 3 0 2 0 I 0 0 0 3 II 5 5 0 0 2 13 22 22 10 0 4 Total 89 29 43 4 23 71 former was observed in 62 per cent of the cases when but a single considera- tion was taken into account, was named in 27 per cent of the cases when used in combination, and was found in 43 per cent of the cases when both frequencies are added together. The corresponding figures for the second consideration are 21 per cent, 34 per cent, and 25 per cent. In other words, the factors should in the judgment of these superintendents be roughly weighed as follows: approximately equal representation from all buildings or districts, i ; approximately equal representation from all grades covered by the revision, 3; qualifications of teachers for the work to be done, 5. Qualities in principals and teachers most valuable for committee work. — If the qualifications of individual teachers is, according to the judgment of superintendents, an item of so much prominence, the replies of these same superintendents as to the qualities in teachers which they consider of greatest worth for this particular work are entitled to very careful consideration. The question askt was as follows: "Check those five qualities in the list below which you consider the most valuable in principals and teachers 694 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National 9\ I \2^ vO ^n V3 h- Z K) *o 3 ID C^ VSI Si CO 0> SO a2 O vO 2S 2 V9 § 8 Q W cn O CO o o (A C3 tn (A s Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 69s for successful committee work of this kind. Add other qualities if you do not find them in your first five." The qualities are named in Table XVI together with the number of cities in each population group which included each quality among the five most valuable quaUties. TABLE XVI Number of Times Each of the Various Qualities Were Included in the Five Qualities Considered Most Valuable in Principals and Teachers for Successful Work in the Making of Courses of Study Qualities* S to 10 Population of Citie^ (in Thousands) 10 to 25 25 to 50 so to lOO TOO to 300 Over 300 Total Personal equipment: 1. Intellectual capacity 2. Initiative and self-reliance 3. Industry 4. Enthusiasm and optimism 5. Integrity and sincerity 6. Tact 7. Sense of justice Professional equipment: 8. Academic preparation 9. Professional preparation 10. Understanding of pupils 11. Appreciation of needs of students to meet demands of social life 12. Grasp of subject-matter Sense of relative values of subject matter Cooperation and loyalty , Professional interest and growth — sci entific attitude toward educational problems Use of English Skill in technique of instruction Insight into work of schools as a whole Interest in problem Leadership in teaching corps 13- 48 40 24 18 12 3 24 12 27 68 48 26 42 5 8 34 10 8 * These qualities were those named by superintendents in the preliminary study without suggestion of any sort. Experts assigned responsibility connected with making of courses of study. — It will be recalled that a few cities have permanent committees on the course of study. It has also been revealed by this study that many cities have officers or teachers specially delegated to carry on scientific studies, part of which are devoted to the operation of the course of study, and to keep informed of the results of similar studies elsewhere. Most of them are assistant superintendents, supervisors, or principals who give but part of their time— most of them from one-fourth to one-half. In the largest cities, however, we find full-time experts called directors of educational research or some similar name. Table XVII gives the number of cities in each popu- lation group. 696 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National s % : ^ f— I c &5 ^ X. •43 -c 1 ^ .-t! -o ti +j y fl >q h5 >5 W h5 H c/3 H N CO •«f 10 O ti »-i . <: Ah ^ c-a -2 .2 «-- S C5 .2 o CI, •SO 3 • 1 • a s in o ■§2 2 a3 y fl '" ^ "«^ o tn tn >-i 1^ 000 PM 3 . o3 O O y »- s Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 697 Procedure followed by committees. — From what has been said regarding the various features comprised in the form of the agencies created to carry- out revisions in the courses of study it is evident that there must have been the greatest differences in the procedures actually followed. We have seen that 153 superintendents out of 329 kept the work closely in their own hands; that a few committees were small and composed entirely of assistant superintendents and supervisors or of principals, in other words, of the superintendent's cabinet; some included a few teachers on the main committee or on subordinate committees; others called upon the entire body of teachers to assist by placing them all on committees or by securing their suggestions thru grade meetings held by committee members. TABLE XVII Number of Cities Having Experts to Study Operation of Curriculum Population of Cities All Time Part Time 5,000 to 10,000 0 I I 2 2 8 2 10 n 50,000 to 100,000 8 100,000 to 300,000 4 4 Over 300,000 Total 14 39 Most of these committee members owed their appointment to the superintendent or a member of his cabinet, altho in a number of cities the appointment came from a source once removed from the head of the system and in a few from the teachers themselves. Not only the methods of carrying out the project in hand but also the extent and the freedom of the teacher's participation and the amount of cooperation among all members of the system were greatly influenst by these formal differences. We need now to get a glimpse of the working of some of these different plans, and particularly of those that provided for the participation of teachers in the largest degree. The typical procedure of a superintendent in a smaller city, who revises the courses of study himself, probably includes the observation of classroom procedure and the making of mental or written notes thereon, the making of incidental inquiries from teachers as to the practical workings of various portions of the course, the observing of the results of examinations given by himself, the analyzing of courses for study in other cities and of other literature in this field, and in some instances general discussions in grade meetings. There are possibly other features involved, but its distinctive characteristic is the non-participation or at most the incidental participa- tion of the teachers who are later to carry it out. 698 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ' (National The procedure in one of our largest cities using the same type of organi- zation is given as follows in a letter from one of the departmental heads: The Eoard of Superintendents has a standing committee which considers all matters relating to courses of study. Any changes in the course of study are submitted by this committee to the Board of Superintendents, which in turn makes its recommendations to the Board of Education. A new course of study is generally adopted as a tentative* course, put into operation in the schools for one year, at the end of which time suggestions and criticisms are submitted by teachers, principals, supervisors, and district superintend- ents. The course is then modified to meet these suggestions and is then finally adopted. In another of our largest cities the control of the superintendent over the courses of study seems to be even more complete, altho the form of organiza- tion for revision extends out farther from his office. His statement reads: There was a committee for each of the major subjects of the curriculum. Each of the committees workt under a district superintendent as chairman. They workt about four months. Each committee covered all grades in its subjects. The committees were made up mainly of principals. A few teachers were added. As the committee met during school hours it was difficult to put a large number of best teachers on the committee. Revision was made by the Board of District Superintendents as a whole, sitting as a body. Teachers, as such, contributed a very small part. The large contributions of content and suggestion were made by the principals. The final revision was made by the super- intending staff under the direction of the superintendent. In this way it may be said that the superintendent was responsible for the whole course of study. It is also stated that the modification made by the Board in the courses submitted to it were large, that teachers had no opportunity to revise any of the courses, and that they were not supposed to depart from them at all in their teaching. Another example of centralized control is furnisht in a middle-sized city, the superintendent of which writes as follows: I prepared an outline and presented it to a committee of five of our supervising principals to review. Changes were made When suggestions were approved by the com- mittee. This course was then put into use in the schools in typewritten form and was used for at least a year. Before it was given to the printer it was revised or approved in. its present form according to the principals after they had conferred with their teachers. This plan was followed in most of the subjects. A few of the subjects, however, were outlined in my office and presented to a committee of five supervising principals for approval and revision and then presented to all the supervising principals for approval. A good example of procedure in a middle-sized city, in which the super- intendent, while preserving the usual course of administrative action thru his cabinet of principals, also placed upon his teachers, selected by their principals, real responsibility in the making of the courses of study and at the same time working with them, is furnisht in the following letter from Super- intendent E. C Broome, of East Orange, N.J. : The nine elementary principals were divided into committees. These committees workt directly with the superintendent. Each committee associated with itself commit- tees of teachers, divided into a primary group and a grammar group, recommended by the principals of the several schools. There was one delegate from each school, two teachers. Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 699 one primary and one grammar. They met with the committee of the particular subjects in question. As soon as any portion of a syllabus was ready it was discust by the com- mittee of principals and then presented at a meeting of all of the principals for discussion and adoption. It took somewhat over a year for this process. When the entire work was finisht, it was approved by the principals and adopted by the Board of Education. The procedure followed in committees in which the regular administra- tion organs were not used may be gathered from letters and circulars from typical cities. The first, from the city of St. Louis, shows a general com- mittee and subordinate committees from each subject, all appointed by the superintendent. The part performed by the general committee should receive special attention. A similar practice has been followed in a number of the other cities. In placing upon this committee the responsibility of determining the general principles which should be observed in the working out of the course of study in all subjects, the superintendent transferred to it the immediate exercise of a function which has been in most cities performed by the superintendent himself. He did, however, exercise the power of revision after the courses were completed. Superintendent Withers says: A general committee consisting of the superintendent of instruction, the assistant superintendents, the principal of Harris Teachers College, the principal of one of the high schools, and a number of principals of elementary schools was formed, appointed by Superintendent Blewett, to consider the general question of the principles which should determine the selection, arrangement, and general organization of the content of the i course of study, the public school's place in the total work of education, and the relation [which it would sustain to other educative agencies found in this community. The ['superintendent made me chairman of this committee, on the "purpose and scope of the . course of study," and the outcome of its year's study was reported by me at the Richmond -meetings of the Department of Superintendence. You will find it in the Proceedings for that meeting. The general committee, of course, discust the meaning and scope of education, the [aims to be employed, the agencies involved, and other questions of this sort. Special committees, subcommittees of the content of the course of study, were also formed, [appointed by the superintendent, at the head of which in each case was placed a principal [of an elementary school in the case of the course of study for the elementary schools, and principal of a high school in the case of the questions which were to be discust in formu- Lting the high-school course of study. These committees were made up of principals of :hools, supervisors of special subjects, and teachers of the grades and high schools. [Altogether there were about 250 teachers, principals, and other persons in these various :ommittees. In the light of the general principles laid down by the general committee each sub- iordinate committee considered the subject for which it was responsible, determined the ^grounds on which its inclusion in the course of study should be justified, decided what [content of instruction should be included, how it should be organized and graded, and the [amount of time which the subject should have in the course of study. When these sub- ordinate committees were ready they made reports to the general committee and their findings were discust and criticized by the general committee, and in some instances referred back to them for further study and organization. As soon as the course of study in each subject was agreed upon it was printed in the form of a messenger and sent to all of the schools to be tested out for six months or a year, with the understanding that 700 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National criticisms which should be made on the new course of study should be referred to the superintendent's office so that these might be considered, the course revised again, and put into final shape before being recommended to the Board of Education for adoption for the city. Decatur, 111., furnishes an example of a similar procedure, but with com- mittees on each school subject appointed by the general committee and with the further difference that practically all teachers served upon some committee. The superintendent workt with the general committee but reserved his power of independent action. Superintendent Engleman describes their procedure as follows: About three years ago we revised our whole course of study. We spent approxi- mately one year upon it, during a portion of which time, indeed for two or three weeks, the schools were closed because of a scarlet-fever epidemic, and the teachers met day after day during this period and workt as faithfully as if they were teaching school. The whole task was a cooperative one. I askt the high-school principal to appoint committees from his faculty to revise and in some instances to formulate for the first time the high- school course of study. I appointed an elementary supervisor, two or three principals, and two or three strong teachers and charged them with the responsibility of revising the elementary course of study. These committees in both high school and elementary schools appointed subcommittees for different subjects in different years until finally every teacher in the whole school system, two hundred in number, was at work upon the task of formu- lating and revising the course of study. As these committees completed their work they submitted it for review to the committee that had appointed them. With the two original committees appointed I went over the work of the whole course of study making such modifications as seemed desirable before recommending its adoption by the Board of Education. Acting upon my recommendation the Board was unanimous in adopting the course, without even attempting to make changes. It should be stated of both the original committees and of my own contribution that in some instances their work and mine caused slight modification only, in some phases of the work medium and even large modifications were made, and in many phases of it none were made. On the whole, I should say that the major portion of the work was done by the teachers, and that only medium modifications were made by the two original com- mittees or by the superintendent. An example of the appointment of committees for particular subjects without a coordinating and consulting agency in a general committee — their members appointed in part by teachers and exercising large responsi- bility in the framing of the course of study — is furnisht by three different cities of twenty-five thousand to one hundred thousand population in the Middle West. In Topeka, Kans., the teachers of each grade nominated three of their number as members of committees from that grade for each subject. These were appointed by the superintendent. The chairman of each subcommittee was a member of the general committee for that subject. The superin- tendent workt whenever there was need for his help, but his particular function was to help teachers ''in getting outlook, point of view, and funda- mental attack made." Laymen were called in to assist. The general com- mittee revised the work of the subcommittees, and the superintendent edited all courses for printing. The superintendent was assisted by a Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 701 general supply teacher serving in a supervisory capacity in keeping in touch with the work of the various committees and subcommittees. Prac- tically all of the teachers served upon some committee. The Kansas City, Kans., plan differed from the Topeka plan in that the superintendent appointed the chairmen of the "general committees" for the various subjects and conferred upon them in turn the power to appoint one teacher from each grade to serve upon his "general committee" and also three subcommittee members from each grade upon nomination of its members upon the " general committee." The superintendent also divested himself of responsibility for the work of the various committees until after the reports of the subcommittees had been completed. These he revised and returned to the chairman of the general committee. The report of the general committee when completed was to be sent to the superintendent, together with its recommendations. Whether he expected to revise these reports is not stated (their work is not yet finisht). Members of subcom- mittees were expected to consult freely with other teachers and avail themselves of their suggestions. The following "suggestions" set forth the major part of the plan. Committees are advised as far as practical to follow the following suggestions: 1. A committee to be known as a General Committee on shall be selected from special groups of teachers by a district supervisor or supervisors in charge. 2. There shall be one teacher to represent each grade; also one high-school teacher. 3. There shall be a subcommittee of three teachers from each grade to be nominated by the grade members of the general committee and approved by the district supervisor, or supervisor in charge of the subject at hand. 4. The general committee with the district supervisor, or supervisor in charge, as chairman, shall work out plans for reorganization and suggest definite methods of pro- cedure. 5. All reports of committees shall be reported to the superintendent for revision and suggestions. 6. The superintendent shall return all reports of subcommittees, with such modi- fications and suggestions as may appear to him advisable, to the chairman of the general committee. 7. That the work of subcommittees may be wholly from the teacher's viewpoint, it is wise that all subcommittee work be done independently. 8. District supervisors, or supervisors in charge, shall see that places of meeting are provided and properly announst for subcommittees and that all needed literature and helpful material are available. 9. The general committee shall work to the end that a complete and final report shall be prepared by the close of the school year, and that partial reports may be ready for use from time to time as they are prepared. 10. The district supervisors, or supervisors in charge, shall carefully review all com- mittee reports and submit the same, with their recommendations, to the superintendent. In East Waterloo, Iowa, we have an example of extreme decentraliza- tion. While the committees were appointed by the superintendent, each teacher previously exprest her choice as to the committee she preferred. Every teacher was upon some committee. No principal was assigned to 702 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National any committee except in an advisory capacity. Committees were consti- tuted for portions of subjects, as in arithmetic, Grades I to III. The details of working out the course was left almost entirely to the chairman of each committee. All teachers had an opportunity to participate in the revision, first in a general teachers' meeting to which each committee report was made, and later by actual trial in the classroom. The superintendent "may make a few final changes in the course when it comes to its final form, but the whole course will be essentially a course of study by the teachers who are doing the work in the classroom," but he has not actively partici- pated with any of these committees in their work. Superintendent Kline says: At the beginning of school last year we decided to revise our Course of Study and at our general teachers' meeting I announst that an opportunity would be given for teachers to work on any subject they might choose. When they did make known to me their choice of subjects I grouped practically the whole corps of teachers into different com- mittees with a chairman designated for each committee. Inclosed you will find copies of the announcement of these various committees with the names of the various members. The details of working out the Course of Study in each subject was left almost entirely to the chairman and her committees. Committees were appointed to cover certain grades of a subject. Reports were considered in a general teachers' meeting. When the work was all finisht the report was filed with me, and during the summer vacation I had copies of all reports of the committees copied, and these were distributed to the various teachers at the beginning of school this year. It is our plan to work these Courses of Study over during this school year and get the suggestions of the various teach- ers as to how these courses work out in actual practice. With these suggestions at hand, the Course of Study in each subject will be entirely re-written during our next summer vacation. I have not decided fully how this will be done, but I think we shall have these same committees go over the suggestions that the teachers make after using the Course of Study in the classroom and revise them with these suggestions in mind. The superin- tendent may make a few final changes in this course when it comes to its final form, but the whole course will be essentially a Course of Study by the teachers who are doing the work in the classroom. We expect to put this out by subjects and in loose-leaf form so that we may make revisions at any time we desire. I regard this work as the most beneficial that has ever been done by teachers under my charge. I feel quite sure that they all enjoyed the work and that they received a great deal of benefit from the study they made of the problem of writing a Course of Study. I feel that it has accomplisht much more than would have been accomplisht if I had tried to formulate a Course of Study and handed it out to the teachers in finisht form. This last group of three cities furnishes most interesting contrasts in the part their superintendents played in the work in which teachers were taking a prominent part and exercising a real responsibility. In Topeka the superintendent kept in close touch, guiding and helping where help was needed, but without dictating; in Kansas City, Kans., a carefully organized plan gave him a definite and authoritative part to play, but not in coopera- tion with the teachers; while in East Waterloo the superintendent expected to exercise but little authority and left each committee free to work out its own problem. Council] (BOURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 703 Revision of committee reports. — We turn now to that portion of the ques- tionnaire which dealt with the disposition of courses of study as formulated by committees. Did superintendents, teachers, or school board review and revise them and to what extent in each case ? The replies have been tabu- lated and are given in Tables XVIII, XIX, XX, XXI, and Diagram 10. TABLE XVIII Number of Superintendents Who Did or Did Not Revise the Work of the Com- mittees IN Which They Did Not Participate, and the Extent OF Such Revision Population of Cities Did Not Revise Did Revise Percent- age Who Did Revise Extent of Revision None Slight Medium Large Varies 5,000 to 10,000. . 10,000 to 25,000. . 25,000 to 50,000. . 50,000 to 100,000. . 100,000 to 300,000. . Over 300,000 4 6 2 3 2 I 16 34 28 II 7 13 80 85 93 79 78 93 I I 8 25 II 8 5 3 2 6 6 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 Total 18 109 86 2 60 20 6 8 Percentage . . . 2 63 21 6 8 TABLE XIX Number of Superintendents Who Did or Did Not Revise the Work of the Com- mittee with Which They Workt, and the Extent of Such Revision P0PUI.AT10N of Cities Did Not Revise Did Revise Percent- age Who Did Revise Extent of Revision None Slight Medium Large Varies 5,000 to 10,000. . 10,000 to 25,000. . 25,000 to 50,000.. 50,000 to 100,000. . 100,000 to 300,000. . Over 300,000 S 9 5 4 3 20 36 19 10 8 S 80 80 74 71 73 100 I I IS 20 12 9 6 4 3 8 3 I I 2 I 2 I I Total 26 98 79 2 66 18 3 2 Percentage. . . . 2 73 20 3 2 The conclusions to be drawn from these tables are: 1. That supernitendents revised the courses produced by the committee "with which they workt" in almost as many cases as courses produced by those committees "in whose deliberation they did not participate" — 79 per cent and 86 per cent respectively. 2. Courses as formulated by committees were not greatly changed by the superintendents. 704 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National s w w iLi i ^ CO s S \0 \0 1 o > lU CO iLl 5 ^ g O z Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 705 3. The extent of the modifications of the courses produced by the com- mittee was not so great when the superintendent had workt with them as when he had not. In the first case the percentage of no and slight modi- fications combined was 65 per cent; in the second, 75 per cent. TABLE XX Number of Cities in Which the Teaching Corps Did or Did Not Revise the Work OF THE Committees, and the Extent of Such Revision Population of Cities Did Not Revise Did Revise Percent- age Who Did Revise Extent of Revision None Slight Medium Large Varies 5,000 to 10,000. . 10,000 to 25,000. . 25,000 to 50,000. . 50,000 to 100,000. . 100,000 to 300,000. . Over 300,000 10 2 II 6 3 6 13 23 15 6 8 4 57 92 58 50 73 33 3 I 6 17 6 3 5 3 I I 3 2 I I Total 40 69 63 4 40 7 2 Percentage. . . . 8 75 13 4 TABLE XXI Number of Cities in Which the Courses Were Not Submitted to the Board of Education for Approv4l or Adoption, and the Extent of Revision Made by It Population of Cities Did Not Submit Did Submit Percent- age Who Did Submit Extent of Revision None Slight Medium Large Varies 5,000 to 10,000. . 10,000 to 25,000. . 25,000 to 50,000. . 50,000 to 100,000. . 100,000 to 300,000. . Over 300,000 10 31 13 2 3 4 9 19 23 13 8 10 47 36 64 87 73 71 7 14 19 12 6 6 I I 2 Total . . . 63 82 6i 64 3 I Percentage. . . . 94 4 2 4. The proportions in these respects vary but Httle among population groups. 5. Revision by teachers of the courses as workt out by committees occurs in less than two-thirds of the cities. 6. The proportion in this respect varied widely. In cities of more than three hundred thousand population, revision by teachers was least fre- quent— in but one-third of the cities — while in cities of from ten to twenty- five thousand the percentage was 92. 7o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National 7. In six cities out of ten the courses, as finally approved by the superintendent, were submitted to the board of education "for approval or adoption." 8. In but one out of twenty cases in which the course were submitted to the board was any modification whatever made and in but one out of eighty was the revision more than "slight." Summing up this section, these facts seem to indicate that of those superintendents who believe in using teachers in the making of courses of study two-thirds desire to have all their teachers participate in that process in some way, four-fifths consider it necessary to revise the courses when formulated by teachers under their guidance and with their assistance, and one-seventh are willing to put into operation the courses formulated by teachers without their participation in the work or revision of it. Proportion of courses prepared by superintendents. — Another effect of the participation of committees in the preparation of courses of study which should be notist in this connection is the smaller proportion of the courses of study f umisht by the superintendent in cities in which committees workt out these courses. Superintendents were askt to express in percent- ages as nearly as they could the amount of material contributed to each branch in the various grades. The percentages given for supermtendents, supervisors, and teachers have been tabulated into grand divisions, (i) those cities having committees, (2) those cities not^ having committees, and within each of these divisions by subjects and grades. The number of cities replying in each of the lowest three population groups for arithmetic, first and second grades, was as follows: 5,000 to lOjOoo 17 and 19 10,000 to 25,000 35 and 30 25,000 to 50,000 10 and 4 Total 68 53 When comparison is made of the median percentages given in each sub- ject in each grade for the amounts contributed by superintendents, those in the cities in which the superintendent prepared the course of study were found in nearly all instances to be larger. The range of differences was from. — 10 to 50. The crude mode of these differences was 25 and the median 25. In other words, under the committee system the central tendency is for superintendents to contribute one-fourth less and supervisors and teachers one-fourth more than when committees are not appointed. From what has been said in the previous section this should be reckoned as a gain. These medians are given in Table XXII. Initiative given principals and teachers. — While there has not been time to interpret and tabulate the data, I am reasonably confident from the Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 707 reading of the replies to question 12 that another important effect of teachers' participation in the making of courses of study is to secure for them larger initiative and freedom in modifying the courses of study to meet TABLE XXII Comparison of Median Amounts of Courses of Study Contributed by Superintendent Subjects PoptJLATiON OF Cities (in Thousands) 5 to 10 10 to 25 25 to so s to 10 10 to 25 25 to 50 A. In Cities Having Committees Grades I and II Grades III and IV Arithmetic, Reading. . Geography History. . . Spelling . . . Arithmetic Reading. . Geography History. . . Spelling. . , I Arithmetic . Reading. . . Geography. History. . . SpelUng. . . Arithmetic . Reading. . . Geography . History. . . Spelling. . . 20 25 25 25 20 25 20 20 10 20 25 25 30 30 25 Grades V and VI Grades VII and VIII 40 40 35 40 40 40 40 40 50 40 B. In Cities Not Having Committees Grades I and II 50 40 40 50 50 50 40 25 40 40 30 30 10 20 10 Grades V and VI 60 50 60 75 75 70 40 50 50 50 40 10 40 40 10 Grades III and IV 50 40 50 40 50 30 10 10 20 10 Grades VII and VIII 75 50 50 50 75 40 40 40 40 10 the peculiar situations that are constantly arising, in cases of both indi- viduals and classes. If we accept the principle of individual differences in pupils, we must say that any administrative agency which will promote its realization should be approved on that ground. 7o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National I I •^ ■M O .a -^ .S3 12 2 ° a ^ o .ti fe-S bO 3 & H o Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 709 III. RESULTS FROM EXPERIENCE WITH ADMINISTRATIVE COOPERATION AS EXPREST BY SUPERINTENDENTS OF SCHOOLS In order to ascertain what superintendents thought of the value of teachers' cooperation in the making of courses of study, the following ques- tions were askt: (i) What does your experience show was lost by having teachers upon these committees? (2) What was gained? (3) Which form of committee do you now prefer ? I. What was lost? — The replies to the first question mentioned above are presented in tabular form in Table XXIII. This table offers convincing proof of the desirability of cooperation between teachers and school officers in the preparation of courses of study. The large percentage, 68, which say that nothing whatever was lost, when added to the 17 per cent which say a little time but nothing more, furnishes an example of unusual unanim- ity of opinion upon a live educational question. TABLE XXIII Tabular Digest of Statements of Superintendents Regarding What Was Lost BY Using Committees of Teachers in Revision of Courses of Study by Cities Grouped According to Population 1. Nothing 2. A little time 3. Much time 4. The broad view; opinion of specialist 5. Compromises necessary with conservative teachers 6. Teachers at times poorly prepared Total 14 17 17 7 7 6 3 10 0 3 0 I 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 5 2 0 0 I 0 I 0 0 I 0 0 I 0 I 0 0 17 35 19 11 8 8 The most frequent objection was in such words as the following: ''Broad conception of underlying principles" (San Francisco). "Scope and correlation of subjects" (Minneapolis). "Tendency to narrow the work" (Lancaster, Ohio). "Breadth of vision in aims" (Richmond, Ind.). But this objection is not considered of much weight by some who make it, as is seen in the following replies: "Possibly a little something in the broad view and dovetailing of courses from grade to grade" (Streator, 111.). "To some extent broad vision of the superintendent" (Sheboygan, Wis.). One reply tabulated under this head raises the issue whether this objection cannot be avoided. "Experience of expert, altho thru proper supervision this is negligible" (Topeka, Kans.). It must be borne in mind too that all of these superintendents who said that something was lost also named gains from the use of committees, which it is fair to say in their opinion overbalanst the losses. Nevertheless it is well for superintendents in the use of this form of administrative cooperation to be on their guard against these possible, dansers in order to 710 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National avoid them, for, as the data show, they can be avoided in a large degree, if not entirely. 2. What was gained?- — The replies have been gathered under fifteen heads and classified into four divisions in Table XXIV, as follows: (a) gains TABLE XXIV Tabular Digest of Statements of Superintendents Regarding What Was Gained or Lost by Using Committees of Teachers in Revision of Courses of Study by Cities Groupt According to Population Statement of Gains Population of Cities (in Thousands) S to lo ID to 25 25 to so SO to 100 TOO to 300 Over 300 Number of cities using committees . Replies to this question I. Course of Study: 1. Course of study more practical II. Teachers: 2. Increast teachers' interest in course of study T 3. Increast teachers' interest (indefi nite) 4. Teachers gained better knowledge of course as a whole and of relative values 5. Promoted professional growth of teachers , 6. Teachers did better work , Total III. Superintendent: 7. Superintendent became better ac quainted with abiUties and capacities of teacher • 8. Superintendent got in closer touch with details of schools 9. Peace — avoided friction ^ Total. IV. Administrative Cooperation: 10. Developt spirit of cooperation 11. Knowledge and experience of teachers utilized 12. Teachers felt more closely identified with system 13. Made school organization more demo- cratic 14. Silenst opposition to progress — a safety valve 15. Developt appreciation of difficulties in administration and supervision. . Total. Grand total Percentage of Gains: For course of study For teachers For superintendents For administrative cooperation , 19 26 57 27 "3 23 51 2 24 39 18 25 13 IS 123 13 Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS- 711 I. I CA3 en •si g I 3 o ■ ^ s • O t^ ■ C -) rt • rt 3 (fl oj • be o «*;--*-' • tn O w oj a, 13 S cj u on "-3 -2 ti :2^ O) en J1 ^S "5 U .ti •z; c ^ f B a e^ ' o) E pj ) tn .1 o^ SJ crp-2-3 ;c72^ffLH M O s s o a tn-o t« S O rC •-< (1) tn •c O) a, 3 is o o 3 rf ci a, '. bO 712 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National for the course of study, (6) gains for the teachers, (c) gains for the super- intendents, {d) gains for the system as a whole thru administrative cooperation; 133 superintendents gave 259 gains, or about two gains to each superintendent. ' The repHes may be said to represent not all the benefits of each super- intendent but only those that had made the strongest impression upon him. They are valuable for what they do not show as well as for what they do show. Furthermore it is fair to assume that, while superintendents have realized many benefits from the cooperation of teachers, they may not have realized them all. Regarding the benefits named by the superintendents the following points may be made: a) Superintendents appreciate most the gains to the course of study itself. One-third of the superintendents said that the course was more practical than it would otherwise have been. It was "intimately adapted to each grade"; "concrete illustrative material printed for use" (Topeka, Kans.). "It made a practical, workable course because those on the ground better appreciated their own problems" (Bay City, Mich.). "Better approach to solution of actual difficulties met by teachers" (St. Joseph, Mo.). "Based on classroom experience; sympathetic understand- ing of course by teachers" (Boston). These are typical replies upon this point. h) A larger number of points are made under the head "Benefits to teachers" than under any other head — almost one-half of the total. First in rank among them was the increast interest in the course of study, which in turn had the effect of increasing their efficiency as teachers. This interest must, in most cases, have stimulated the professional growth of teachers, for the number of superintendents including this idea among their gains is almost as great as those mentioning the increast interest in the course of study. Typical replies are as follows: "The greatest possible stimulation; broader outlook; more scientific viewpoint; greater insight into the work as a whole; cultivation of initiative and cooperation" (Cin- cinnati, Ohio). "A feeling of responsibility for the course of study; a knowledge of what children should study and why; a critical study of the best courses of study; a desire for professional improvement; a realization of difficulties confronting courses of study" (Baltimore, Md.). "Developt a wider interest, tho the findings of the subcommittee were meager; teachers lookt upon results with greater favor" (Sheboygan, Wis.), "A course workt out by teachers even if poor and incomplete is worth far more than the most perfect course workt out for them and placed in their hands" (WilHamsport, Pa.). The large percentage which mentioned the benefit to the teachers indi- cates that it is the present opinion of superintendents who have used com- mittees in revising courses of study that this form of cooperation constitutes Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 713 one of the best agencies for promoting the efficiency of the teachers them- selves, that thru its operation teachers come to know the course of study better, that they are more interested in making it a success, and that it improves the quahty of their work. These are formidable arguments in favor of formal teachers' cooperation in the making of courses of study. c) Superintendents do not mention many benefits to themselves in committee cooperation. Naturally they were not the benefits that made the strongest impression upon them. The few benefits mentioned are real, and altho referred to by only a few superintendents undoubtedly apply to many. d) Only one-third of the points indicated here were under the general head of administrative cooperation. In this division are included all those which made for a more intelligent, a more enthusiastic, a more effective, a more unified school system by reason of the different elements in the personnel working together for a common purpose. It would seem that these benefits, while recognized, are not so fully appreciated among super- intendents as are those more immediate and apparent gains included under the first two heads. Typical replies are as follows: *' Teachers lost feeling that school system was an autocracy." "Much finer spirit, better understanding, more abid- ing interest, helpful cooperation, individual democracy and development, a breaking down of old lines of cleavage" (Pasadena, Calif.). " Cultivation of cooperation" (Cincinnati, Ohio). "Enthusiastic leadership in behalf of whole-hearted adoption of changes proposed." Studying these four classes of "gains" in relation to the population groups, we observe that benefits to the course of study and to teachers were notist more frequently in the smaller cities and the benefits to superintend- ents thru administrative cooperation in the larger cities. 3. Relative worth of various forms of committee organization. — In an endeavor to ascertain the views of superintendents as to which form of committee they considered best, the following question was askt: "What form of committee do you now prefer ? " The answer in practically all cases in which an opinion was offered was either that the form which was used was the best, or that none better to meet the local situation was known. Some statements indicate a lack of experience with other plans and a consequent inability to answer the question satisfactorily. The study shows clearly that we have not as yet had sufficient experience in this feature of adminis- tration to discriminate closely between the different plans. Furthermore evaluation of committee forms presents certain difficulties. Forms and procedures must be adapted to local conditions; no one will serve equally well in all places. It is also true that, while certain forms are better suited than others to the attainment of desired aims and principles, a superintend- ent or a committee of teachers with superior enthusiasm and devotion can overcome the disadvantages inherent in a deficient form of organization or procedure. 714 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National IV. CONCLUSION The conclusions drawn from this study may be stated in the following paragraphs: 1. Administrative cooperation in the making of courses of study in elementary schools has been approved by a sufficiently large number of superintendents of schools in cities of twenty-five thousand population and over to estabhsh it as an accepted principle of administration of schools in such cities. 2. In cities below _twenty-five thousand administrative cooperation has not been tested in a sufficiently large number of places to conclude that superintendents of such cities as a whole have set their approval upon it. Nevertheless a large majority of those who have tried it express such judg- ments as to indicate their approval, altho in some cases with minor reserva- tions. 3. There are still a large number of superintendents, particularly in the smaller cities, who prepare courses of study themselves or with only inci- dental and unorganized assistance of teachers and principals. Many of these superintendents have not in all probability given extended thought to the advantages that are to be derived from cooperative effort in the making of courses of study. Other superintendents, in both large and small cities, firmly believe that centralized control of details and strict uniformity in courses of study are essential to efficient schools. These practices are not in accordance with the principles of administration deduced from the science of efficiency nor with the practices approved by the majority of superintendents in their repUes to the questionnaire used in this study. 4. There is no general agreement as to the best form of committee for cooperative effort. So few superintendents have tried more than one form of committee and their experience has been so limited and so recent that their judgments as to the best form of committee do not furnish a reliable index of the best committee organization. The form of committee most frequently found includes but a small number of the supervisory and teach- ing force working with the superintendent without organized contacts with other teachers. These were chosen by the superintendent primarily because of their abilities for this work; representation of an equal number of teachers from each building or district was of minor consideration. 5. The procedure in the preparation of courses of study was also of such variety as to indicate no conclusion as to the best practice. The limitations exprest in the previous paragraph regarding the experience and the reflective thought given this question apply also here. 6. In the absence of sufficient definite experience in these particulars the theoretical principles derived from the science of efficiency as formulated by the students of management may be reUed upon as furnishing the best available criteria by which to test the various forms of organization and procedure which a superintendent may be considering for adoption in his Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 715 city. The criteria deduced from the principles stated in Part I may be formulated as follows: a) Which form of organization or method of procedure best promotes the coalescence of the practical knowledge of all the teachers with the expert knowledge of the superintendent and supervisors and gives to each its due weight in determining the course of study? b) Which form of organization or method of procedure best promotes the realization in the classroom of a common body of institutional ideals and principles relating to the course of study, made up in proper proportion of the superior knowledge of the experts and of the more intimate experiences of the teachers ? c) Which form of organization or method of procedure best promotes the morale of the entire corps ? d) Which form of organization or method of procedure gives the best opportunities to each individual to make his best contribution to the work and to feel that he has received in return the proper appreciation for his efforts ? 7. While application of the criteria to determine a choice between any two or more forms of organization or courses of procedure would necessarily be made in the light of the conditions in the school system concerned and so would lead to conclusions differing slightly from one another in different cities in accordance with those varying conditions, nevertheless there are certain forms and procedures which under typical conditions tend more than others to secure the best results. Thus it can be said: (a) That a committee of supervisors or principals is not so good as a committee of teachers, and that neither is as good as a committee upon which all are represented, (b) That the larger the number of persons engaged in committee work or in some related capacity the better, (c) That any plan is much strengthened if formal agencies are provided by means of which members of committees can constantly ascer- tain the attitude of teachers whose work is covered by the proposed course. (d) That the method of selection of members upon the committees should be such as to secure, if possible, the most competent persons and also those in whom the teachers have confidence and to whom they can and will express themselves freely as well as receive from them adverse opinion without Jiaving their interest chilled. Appointment by superintendents, by principals, or by teachers does not always secure this. A plan of nomination by teachers and appointment by the superintendent is better adapted to meet this end. {e) That qualifications of teachers for the work should have greater weight relatively in the selection of members of the central or main committee, while representatives of grades or buildings or both should have greatest weight in appointment of subcommittees. (/) That the plan should include the largest possible participation of the superin- tendent or of the expert representing him in all phases of the work, including 7i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National that of the subcommittees, (g) That revision of courses of study workt out by committees should be reduced to the minimum and if possible avoided altogether. 8. It would promote the scientific study of educational administration if superintendents would in the future try out experiments in this field so designed as to test the validity of these tentative conclusions. While such experimentation might lack the conclusiveness produced by objective measurement of results, nevertheless the weight of professional opinion, based upon systematic and careful observation and recording, with the aid of such objective measurements as might be available, would have great value. It is just such procedure that must, for some time to come, be largely depended upon in the building up of a science of educational administration. PART 11. REPORT OF THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON CURRICULUM SECTION I. EXISTING DEMOCRATIC FACTORS IN AMERICAN LIFE AND EDUCATION Atlantic City, 1918 PREPARED BY A. DUNCAN YOCUM The most immediate and conspicuous effect of the war on education is an emphasis of the scientific and technical. The movement, already begun by Dr. Elliott and Dr. Flexner, to broaden the scope of scientific instruction in the elementary school has received new impetus from the opportunity for service and promotion given to scientifically and techni- cally trained men in various war activities and the consequent inrush of students into scientific and technical courses in colleges and universities. In the model school conducted by the Russell Sage Foundation at Teachers College, Columbia University, Dr. Caldwell is assembling and organizing into a conspicuously impressive whole all forms of instruction which further this movement. Even Dr. William Allen's questionnaire, with its applied doubt of the newness or necessity of what is being attempted in this school, has made school superintendents all over the country more generally con- scious of similar work already being done in ordinary schools. President Wilson's letter to school officials, in which he declares that "the war is bringing to the minds of our people a new appreciation of the problems of national life and a deeper understanding of the meaning and aims of democracy," has been introductory to the bulletins issued by the United States Bureau of Education under the general editorship of Dr Judd. While the resulting "Lessons in Community and National Life" give new emphasis to the little economic and social subject-matter already included in school textbooks and add to it suggestive ideas and principles which tend to give a right viewpoint on social and economic problems, there is no little danger that what is in itself a great national service may unite with the pressure due to war to broaden and give national sanction to an emphasis of science in the course of study to the exclusion of a defi- nitely democratic training. Mere efficiency not democratic. — It must be remembered that efficiency in the economic and material sense is not in itself democratic. It is rather an essential condition to the continued existence of any form of govern- ment, including Prussian aristocracy as well as American democracy, and in the main must take the form of the training of scientific specialists rather than the general scientific training of a whole people. General education and especially elementary education are concerned with it only 717 7i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National to the extent of keeping the door wide open to every necessary form of specialization and insuring an adequate supply of specialists. As Dr. Prosser^ has pointed out, it was necessary to the winning of the war that the fifteen specialists available in America who were able to mend or destroy by fusion any sort of metalhc war apparatus should be multi-- plied until they were equal in number to the eighty thousand German cripples recently given that skill. But an instruction which makes Ameri- can skill quantitatively equal to German skill does not inahenably carry with it anything which makes American spirit and habits of service different from Prussian spirit and habits of service. Nor does the Smith-Hughes legislation, with its milhons for vocational and agricultural training, inalienably add to its democracy of equal vocational opportunity all or even many of the other factors necessary to make democracy complete. Dr. Dewey ,^ philosophically inclusive as ever, has pointed out that education after the war must include not only vocational training but education for health, education for citizenship, and general education with an emphasis upon preparation for leisure; and that all of the vast material machinery assembled for training to war should, after the war is over, continue to be used for this completer training for peace. But he does not sufficiently emphasize the immediate need of anticipating thru present-day education the problems that follow the war, or with clean-cut realization seize upon a completer democracy as our supremest imme- diate aim. Professor Briggs^ in masterly fashion indicates the complete reorgan- ization which must take place in secondary education at the close of the war." The final selection of irreducible essentials to a completer democ- racy, the determination of the definite associations which make their essential usefulness sure, the inclusion of every kind and form of usefulness which are essential, and the most adequate and economic methods of teaching each must be left to groups of experts, as he suggests, nationally selected and organized, employed for long periods of time, and given official authority. But in preparation for their work every effort should be made to arouse a national consciousness of democratic aims, and a realization that they must be taught not merely as information and skill but as ideals, incentives, and habits strong enough to compel democracy. The democracy questionnaire.^ — To this end, as subcommittee on the Course of Study of your Committee on Superintendents' Problems, I have issued a questionnaire which in concrete detail seeks to determine the extent to which American education is as yet democratic. The duty of reading it and answering it will constitute a difficult but highly important service to democracy which no one but school men can perform. •See Report of National Council Sessions, Atlantic City Meeting, National Education Association Addresses and Proceedings, igig, 'Ibid. *Ibid. 4 See sec. 2 of this Report. Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 'Jig From the standpoint of the program necessary to a completer democracy the following objectives must be consistently held in mind: Fundamentals in the readjustment of education to world-democracy.^ — 1. American education must become more democratic in its adminis- tration and methods of instruction. 2. In courses of study the specifically useful must be made more definitely democratic* 3. Specific social training must not only be prevented from excluding general education but must become a means to a general education as definitely and efficiently democratic as specific training itself. 4. Not only school officials but the American people as a whole must be made more concretely and certainly conscious of the immediate and preeminent importance of every phase and detail of school work which are essential to a completer democracy. 5. The education of Americans to a completer democracy is a national function which must not be left to the varying consciousness and efficiency of community or state, but, like school attendance itself, must be compelled. Time does not permit the discussion of the more obvious among these aims. Democracy in school administration may be illustrated by a high- school education or adequate continuation-school instruction for all Ameri- cans in place of, or in addition to, high schools or corporation schools for the training of leaders; participation of all pupils in school government; and the cooperation of all pupils in occasional study ''projects," so planned as to include only relatively useful educational values, especially along the line of community service.^ The obvious need of more definite training in specifically democratic rights and duties.' — The necessity for more definite democracy in specifi- cally social phases of instruction is even more obvious. The school must teach not only obedience to law but equality of legal rights, not only the necessity for taxation but equality in levy and assessment. Education for citizenship will be neither essentially American nor truly democratic until the ward politican will not only be afraid to interfere with the equal rights of every individual to cast his ballot but will wish to see that an opponent's vote is cast without interference and counted without attempt to defeat majority rule, and until every citizen is as much interested in paying his full, equal share of a tax adequate for the purpose for which it is levied as in insisting upon his just part in the expenses of a dance or a fishing excursion. With the same sort of efficiency every aspect of equal service must be definitely included and adequately and economically » See the reprint of the Democracy Questionnaire in next section of this Bulletin. •See the report of this subcommittee on "The Course of Study as a Test of Efficiency of Supervi- sion," National Education Association Addresses and Proceedings (igi6), pp. 2S4-6g. »See the accompanying report of Professor Updegrafifon "Administrative Cooperation in the Making of Courses of Study in Elementary Schools." 720 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National taught — not merely as information, but as ideals, viewpoints, and habits strong enough to control action and constitute character. The undemocracy of leisure which results from equally trained skill.' — The form of democracy with which Americans, both native- and foreign- born, are most familiar is the democracy of equal opportunity, which in some of its ultimate outcomes is not democratic at all. All legal and social provisions for public morals and public health tend to insure an equal pursuit of happiness. Together with a free common school and education adapted to every type of ability and consequent form of public service they constitute an ideal democracy which breaks down under the inequahty in leisure that results from inequality in skill. InequaHties in mental abihty are made more unequal thru education. Moreover, dif- ferences in ability become vastly greater as they are transformed by equal education into inequalities in skiM. The wish to perform public service in accordance with one's ability, intensified as it now is thru the work of the school as a cooperative community, is splendidly democratic. But skill itself is undemocratic, because it is unequal in its immediate financial compensation and in the ultimate social compensations which represent the individual side of community service. Democratic social intercourse essential to a stable democracy.- — If it is to remain democratic equal education to unequal skill must have as its inseparable concomitant equal enjoyment of leisure. In our present state of society material enjoyments' — food, clothing, houses and lands, means of transporation^-may continue to be unequal. But they, with all that wealth can buy, are nonessential to the most fundamental factor in the domocratic enjoyment of leisure-equality in social intercourse. In the social relationships, where equality is most democratic and democracy most social, the man whose unequal skill has won him wealth often finds himself as helpless and unhappy as King Midas with his golden touch. The essential factors in equal social intercourse.- — The essential factors in equal social intercourse are as follows: correctness of speech and a natural observance of fundamental social conventions combined with the common feelings and ideals of which they are but the outward expression; ordinary skill in games and amusements; common tastes and appreciations; a breadth of experience and interest which thru its many-sidedness is more likely to include much in common; the possession of general ideas with common and definite associations which suggest common interests in the most varying individual knowledge and experiences; and common feelings, ideals, and attitudes of mind as the educational product of a literature that emotionalizes the older moralities and what is most fundmental in democracy. Leaders, citizens, teachers, and pupils — the American people as a whole- — not only must become conscious of the democracy of every exist- ing phase of education that contributes to these ends but must consciously I Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 721 strive to multiply and emphasize those phases and make them more endur- ing. The abiHty to write a short story and frequently to quote and apply the rules of grammar is not necessary to unembarrast social intercourse, but the ability to speak without glaring grammatical errors and ridiculous mispronunciations or misuse of words is necessary. The courageous insist- ence of Dr. Van Sickle, years ago in Baltimore, that no teacher should be appointed in the public schools who did not use ordinarily good English, and Dr. Briggs's effort to determine the extent to which familiarity with grammatical principles is correlated with correctness of speech, are not only moves toward a completer democracy but should be recognized and approved as such. An ultra-fashionable boarding-school, with its over- emphasis of superficial graces peculiar to particular stations in life, is undemocratic, but such efforts as that of the Washington Irving High School and a host of others to train American girls in ordinary social experiences, the emphasis of table etiquette in domestic-science courses, together with really effective courses in morals and manners, and social training in courtesies to visitors and constant practice of graciousness on the part of pupils toward each other, in place of being fads to be jeered at by carping parents, are among the most fundamental of the guaranties of the continued existence of the Republic. Common participation in plays and games a means to democracy.' — Closely related to common participation in varied forms of play are com- mon tastes and appreciations in the fine arts. It is fortunately not too late for us to learn that courses in literature which seek a mastery of tech- nique and development of literary ability possible only to the few, or an ability to draw and paint as a requirement for all, must not take the place of a common love of the beautiful in all of its fundamental forms. From the standpoint of the fine arts, the only thing undemocratic is our art education. On the one hand moving-picture shows, phonographs, cheap literature and art reproductions, public exhibitions, and free libraries and art institutions give democracy of access to the beautiful, while school courses in music, literature, and art place overemphasis on the develop- ment of artistic skill. Skill in art as in industry is uncommon, unequal, and undemocratic, except in the sense of the contribution of each individ- ual's best to community efficiency and enjoyment. Appreciation is demo- cratic because of the common tastes that can be developt in all for what each age has contributed to the spiritual inheritance of the race. We must therefore more fully comprehend that the use of the phonograph to make masterpieces familiar to all and beloved by all, the growth of a many-sided love for all forms of literature, the development of common aesthetic taste in both personal dress and domestic decoration, are all essential elements in an enduring democracy.^ » See " Appreciation of Music, Literature, and Art as a Social Aim" in New Possibilities in Education, Vol. LXII of the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Philadelphia, September, 1916. 72 2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National The democracy of general education. — To all this must be added a general intellectual training in the sense both of knowledge and intellectual interests many-sided enough for most individuals to have them in common, and of general ideas with a common enough suggestivemess to interrelate widely different individual experiences. There are two ways in which men may talk together and comprehend and enjoy each other's thoughts and experiences. Where their education and experience have been broad enough to include what is most frequently recurring in ordinary life from every branch of knowledge and field of experience, in addition to being narrowly efficient in some specialized form of service or achievement, they are certain to embrace the greatest possible amount of what is commonly interesting and intelligible. Where education involves the common mastery by all individuals of the most frequently recurring general ideas in the definite associations that give them their most varied suggestiveness, what is most remote in individual experiences, and often most interesting because it is most remote, is brought into common interest and compre- hension. Social intercourse is not equal and democratic when men look down upon each other or up to each other from isolated intellectual levels and unrelated phases of human experiences. The necessity for a democratic literature.- — Finally no people can be truly democratic if its popular literature develops feelings, ideals, and motives that are unmoral, individualistic, or aristocratic. Nietzschianism and supermanism interpreted and made appealing enough thru popular German literature, with its contempt for the "older morahties," its free- dom of development for strong individuals, and its justification of the neglect, the misuse, or the elimination of the weak, is the emotional justi- fication for the Prussianism of today. What is most democratic, both in American life and in the history of the race, emotionalized both by the dramatic content of history and by the emotional form of literature, must with equal completeness and efficiency be transformed into the ideals and motives that will compel democratic feeling and democratic life. A growing consciousness of these democratic elements already existing in American education, their consequent emphasis, conspicuousness, and efficiency, is the only means by which democracy will be made safe for the world thru education while the world is being made safe for democracy by war. SECTION 2. QUESTIONNAIRE ON DEMOCRATIC ELEMENTS NOW EXISTING IN AMERICAN EDUCATION FIRST SECTION. GENERAL MEANS FOR TEACHING DEMOCRACY Does your system or institution use any of the following general means thru which democracy may be taught? I. Provision for training teachers for the specific teaching of democracy? Must teachers show proficiency in the study of civics before being granted a certificate to teach? Do the following emphasize any large proportion of the democratic Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 723 aspects of civics outlined under the Second Section of this Questionnaire: (i) A text prescribed for applicants for certificates? (2) An examination syllabus or sets of old examination questions furnisht in advance? Is training for the specific teaching of democracy a definite aim in required reading courses? Is such training given thru a series of lecture courses planned for teachers' institutes or other meetings? Are teachers given any financial aid or recog- nition for attendance upon summer-school courses? If so, are they specially recommended to take courses in the teaching of education, civics, sociology, or economics? Have you made any other sort of provision for training teachers for the specific teaching of democracy? (If so, briefly outline it.) II. A course in community civics? In what years do you use a textbook in civics or civil government? III. The "Lessons in Community and National Life" issued by the U.S. Bureau of Education? Is your work in community civics limited to these lessons? Are they used as textbooks by individual pupils? IV. History? In what grades or classes is United States history taught? Underline each in which general history or the history of foreign peoples is taught. Do your historical textbooks or course of study in history give a systematic and conspicuous presentation of the development of democracy in such form as to encourage or to compel the growth of democratic ideas and feelings? V. Some form of participation by pupils in the government of the school? Does it involve participation in an election of pupil or student ofl&cers, or in the approval of school rules or laws? Does it seek to assign to every pupil some form of responsibility or service other than the foregoing? Does it involve drill in the use of parliamentary law, election procedure, etc.? In what grades and in how many schools in each is some such form of self-government used? If it is a well-known scheme or system of pupil government, name it. If not, will you in returning this blank inclose all available printed material bearing upon your own plan? VI. Cooperative projects in the regular work of the school? Are they suflficiently numerous and varied to insure as nearly as possible equivalent contribution by every pupil or student? Is this a general scheme common to all schools in your system? Or to particular grades? (If so, designate the grades.) Or does it merely represent the personal initiative of exceptionally progressive teachers? VII. An elementary course of study that in each successive grade is made as inclusive as possible of all that will serve to broaden common information and interests? In what grades is story-telling a prominent feature? How many school readers and supplementary books are usually completed in the first grade? In the second? In what grade is the study of written geography begun? In what grades is oral geography taught? Nature-study? Hygiene? Manual training? Is the informational side of manual training given especial empha- sis? How many elementary schools use laboratories and require any labora- tory work of all pupils in common? r Systematic effort to increase common experience and interests beyond the regular work in the school subjects? In what grades are there common readings of any sort required of all pupils? In what grades are photographs, lantern slides, etc., extensively used? In how many grades or schools is there a moving- picture machine? Are especially educational moving-picture performances outside the school systematically recommended to pupils? The use of school collections? In what grades are natural history or geography expeditions 724 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National prescribed? Trips to points of interest, such as museums, public offices, industrial plants, etc.? How many schools have auditoriums used in accord- ance with the Gary plan? IX. Conscious and conspicuous emphasis in all these broader phases of elementary- school work, of ererything that will tend to democratic living as distinguisht from other phases of patriotism and good citizenship ? Does the story-telling include much that will make for democracy? Are the readers characterized by democratic selections? Does geography disadvantageously contrast undemocratic features of national life elsewhere with our own and teach what we can gain from the democracy of other peoples? Does hygiene emphasize individual health precautions for the sake of community welfare? (For the teaching of democracy thru history see Question II.) Are many of the required readings selected with special reference to the development of demo- cratic living? Is contribution to democracy a definite aim in such other extra- academic activities as are detailed under Question VIII? X. A high-school course that parallels specialization with a common culture, inclusive of selected parts of a great variety of subjects? Is the high-school course pre- ceded by an elementary course or junior high school that parallels general education with at least sufficient specialization in mathematics, a foreign language, etc., to increase the time that can be saved for common culture in the high-school course? Are the common requirements outside of "English" largely limited to mathematics and foreign language, to the exclusion of other required subjects richer in commonly suggestive ideas? Is the course in literature largely confined to the detailed study of a few selected masterpieces? Or does it result in familiarity, thru short selections, with most forms of literature, the most representative writers in each, and the names of the principal works of each writer? Does it include preeminently conspicuous foreign writers? Does it result in widely varied individual reading? Does it result in the formation of groups or clubs for the reading of particular writers or forms of composition? Are all pupils given ample training in conversation thru periods set aside for it? Is the only mathematics required of all students in common a course in general mathematics in the sense of selected portions of algebra, geometry, etc.? Does the high-school course require general history in the sense of the larger periods and epochs of civilization in connected sequence as a common basis for associating ideas related to the past? Are students who lack general history in this sense permitted to study one or two periods of history to the exclusion of most others: e.g., Greek and Roman vs. English and American vs. mediaeval and modern, etc.? Does the advanced course in history require an intensive study of such periods as the Renaissance or the French Revolution, which will of course vary with different systems? Or does it require the most generally suggestive periods, names, and ideas in the history of literature, art, economics, sociology, and government, which, on account of their exceptional suggestiveness, would be largely common to all textbooks and systems? Are all students required to take a course in general science in the sense of the most generally suggestive portions of a variety of sciences? Or are they required to study a "general science" in which the basis of selection is mere social usefulness and laboratory training and the common education resulting is largely limited to laboratory habits? XI. Emotional material adequate to the development of essential democratic feelings and ideals, cumulatively used in successive school grades? Are exceptionally impressive historical incidents and songs, selected emotional extracts from poems, letters, and orations used in sufficient number and at effective enough Council] J COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 725 intervals to emotionalize the more frequently recurring forms of common rights and equal service? (See Second Section.) (Wherever possible, please inclose lists of such incidents and extracts groupt under the idea they emotion- alize.) In the recommendation or requirement of books and writers to be read, are those which idealize aristocratic or undemocratic social life omitted, and those which strengthen democratic feeling especially emphasized? (Librarians and teachers of literature are urged to send in lists of books notably democratic or undemocratic in their mass impression.) Where the course of study or ordinary experience unavoidably presents strongly emotional material, leaving a probably undemocratic association — such as Napoleon as a historical character, or the Ku-Klux Klan in a moving-picture film — is a definite procedure pre- scribed to make the undemocratic associations repulsive or to counteract them thru more impressive democratic ones? XII. Systematic effort greatly to broaden vocabulary in general and democratic vocabu- lary in particular with a view to increasing the number of words and ideas common to all individuals ? The memorizing of general terms and word roots in association with three or four ideas or habits most suggestive for the retention of words in general and the multiplied association of ideas? Of words and suggesters most effective for the multiplication of democratic words and ideas and of democratic associations for them? Do you avoid textbooks so "simplified" as largely to confine their vocabulary to what is already possest by the pupils? Do you avoid the recommendation and use of literature so juvehilized as to lose much of its vocabulary and richness of association? Are your teachers trained or encouraged to make recitations conversational? XIII. Sufficient drill in the repetition of correct forms of speech and opportunity for their use to insure the unembarrast use of good English in conversation and letter- writing? Are applicants for teaching positions rejected who habitually use incorrect speech? Is there concentrated drill on the quick choice of a limited number of correct forms until mastery is gained, in place of miscellaneous cor- rection of errors in general? XIV. Adequate training in ordinary social conventions for every pupil, thru receptions, entertainments, etc., similar to those formerly given by William McAndrew in the Washington Irving High School ? Is this training confined to the high- school grades? If not, in what grades is it given? In what grades are there domestic-science courses involving etiquette at table? XV. Habituation to social intercourse thru common participation in indoor and outdoor sports? How many school buildings are there in your system? How many have supervised playgrounds? How many public playgrounds are there in your community not connected with school buildings? How many school buildings are regularly used by the surrounding community as social centers? In what grades, if any, is supervised social dancing regularly arranged for? In what grades, if any, is there any period assigned for the mastery and enjoy- ment by all pupils of indoor games commonly used at social gatherings? Does supervised play encourage or even compel each individual to take part in the greatest variety of play? How many schools have athletic grounds large enough to make provision for most forms of outdoor sport for pupils in general . as distinct from those expert enough to represent the school in competitive |^K| athletics? Is each pupil required to take part in some athletic sport unless V^K^ physically disqualified? ^^V XVI. The development of common tastes and appreciations? Does the course in litera- I^V ture have as its chief aim a common love and appreciation of the largest possible variety of forms of composition, books, and writers? Is its primary purpose a 726 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National knowledge of technique and a development of skill possible only to the few? At what point in the school course is opportunity given for specially gifted pupils to specialize in art? Is the development of personal skill in the mass of pupils a means to appreciation? In what grades does the course in drawing or art chiefly emphasize appreciation of the beautiful in drawing, painting, sculpture, architecture, etc.? In what grades or school are all pupils taught appropriate- ness and personal becomingness in dress? Does this instruction take the form of actual personal selection of hats, dresses, clothing, ribbons, ties, shoes, etc.? In what grades or schools are all pupils taught the tasteful selection and arrangement of furniture, pictures, and ornaments for particular kinds of rooms and houses? Is this selection and arrangement actual and personal as opposed to mere class work? In what grades or schools are pupils taught the • simpler phases of outdoor ornamentation *hru the proper planting and grouping of flowers, trees, and shrubbery? In how many schools and rooms are phono- graphs in use? Are they used to develop a common love of what is most beauti- ful in instrumental music? If they are used in the formal teaching of music, is the chief aim of instruction the cumulative development of musical feeling thru selections that strongly emotionalize such fundamentals of technique as theme, repetition, balance, etc.? Is there a special emphasis of enjoyment of good music thru part singing in which practically all pupils are interested enough to join? In how many schools are all pupils members of some form of musical, art, or literary club? SECOND SECTION. ESSENTIAL FACTORS IN THE SPECIFIC TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY Is democracy taught so that it definitely and surely suggests: Equal personal rights — a personal insistence upon common rights and opportunities for oneself? Common and eqtial social intercourse ? Common political service — personal and so far as possible equal or equivalent cooperation with all others in common service to the community and the state? _- Common rights and duties for all others — a personal insistence upon common rights and duties for all others equal to those insisted upon for oneself? World-democracy — America's responsibility for the encouragement and support of democracy in other lands? I. Does the teaching of personal rights include: Invariable association with each of the following personal rights, of corresponding personal duties, and common and equal rights and duties for all other citizens: Educational equality — the equal right to education, associated with free schools of every grade from primary schools to state colleges and universities? Compulsory education — the compelling of parents and employers to keep children in school? Indi- vidual education — the provision of special schools and kinds of education adapted to the abilities of each individual? Civic training — the training of each individual to full realization of all other rights and duties both personal and public? School taxes — the taxation of all citizens and property to support every grade and kind of education? Legal equality — Equality before the law, associated first, with obvious rights, such as police protection? Habeas corpus? And trial by jury? Second, with rights frequently ignored, such as freedom from compulsion to testify against oneself (the undemocracy and illegality of the "third degree")? Con- stitutional precautions against class legislation? And third, with such conditions favorable to the enforcement of legal rights as the necessity for Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 727 nominating and electing just judges, police oflacials, and prosecuting attorneys, and sheriffs who will impanel non-partisan and non-corruptible jurors? Political equality — First, equal suffrage — associated with birth, naturalization, and the extension of the right to the negro, woman suffrage, etc.? Educational quali- fications necessary to true equality? Legal conditions? Non-interference with registration, the payment of taxes or actual voting at the polls (vs. absentee registrars or tax collectors, the corruption or kidnaping of voters, etc.)? The exclusion from voting of all not legally qualified? An honest count of the vote? The fundamental importance of honest, intelligent, and just election officers? Second, the equal right to qualify for, aspire to, and to hold public office? The democracy of civil-service legislation as opposed to the "spoils system"? Third, the liberty of individuals and the press to criticize the govern- ment or public officials? Fourth, the right to equality in the support and serv- ice demanded of individuals by the state, associated with the equal levy, assessment, and payment of taxes? Equal military service and exemption from it, including the conscription of every citizen to the form of public service in which he can best serve the community and the state? Industrial equality — Industrial equality associated with the right to enter upon any non-criminal vocation, limited by governmental licensing in vocations where inefficiency would be dangerous to the public, such as medicine, automobile driving, etc.? Limited also by the payment of local taxes, such as by non- resident merchants, public carriers, etc.? The right to enter industrial organi- zations not engaged in such illegal restraint of industry or trade as the boycott, or the crushing out of competition thru unfairly discriminatory railroad rates, etc.? The need of common cooperation in which one kind of ability or skill is as essential as another, in spite of inequality of natural ability increast thru equal educational opportunities to a still greater inequality of skill? Govern- ment reservation, ownership, or control of water power, forests, mines, ports, and transportation in so far a^it may be necessary to insure equal industrial rights or governmental efficiency? Social equality — Equal right to the pursuit of happiness, associated with the absence of titles of nobility or of laws and customs demanding special deference to rank or social classes? Equality of access to public carriers and places of amusement? II. Is common and equal personal intercourse taught as more essential to democracy than mere absence of compulsory deference to rank or legal access to public forms of social life? Does its teaching include the following essential or favor- able conditions : Realization of its lack of dependence upon wealth or birth, and its dependence upon social training? Realization of the undemocracy and ill taste of ostentatious display? Correctness of speech? Habituation to ordi- nary social usages and courtesies? Good morals? The ideals and attributes of mind that lie back of social forms? Ordinary ability in popular sports and games? The subordination of individual wishes concerning amusements and control of individual moods, when either tend to interfere with common pleas- ures? The many-sidedness of interest and information which insures common topics and common interests in conversation? The development of a sense of humor? Practice in conversation? Commonly suggestive general ideas thru which the otherwise isolated experiences of different individuals are interrelated and made interesting to all, and individuals are able to meet on a common intellectual level? The little skill in composition, vocal music, and drawing, and the elementary technique in the fine arts which can be eco- nomically made common for all normal individuals? A common good taste 728 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National and appreciation of the beautiful in literature, music, and art possible for all normal individuals, as distinct from the specialized skill necessarily confined to the few? III. Does the teaching of common and equivalent political duties and service include: The duty of getting the fullest possible education — the duty of getting the fullest practical education — associated with training to take the most efficient possible part in industrial cooperation? Individual responsibility for reaching the highest possible level in common training for democracy? Realization of the fact that present-day political problems demand a more intelligent citizenship, or, as Dr. Claxton has put it, at least a high-school education? The duty of common obedience to law — Common obedience to law, associated with cheerful individual obedience to all law that is past by representatives of the whole people for the common good? Respect for justly constituted authority? A serious attitude toward laws governing sports and amusements? The undemocracy of special privilege for oneself or the group or class to which one belongs? The treason to democracy in using political pull to influence legal procedure? Political duties — The intelligent and conscientious performance of all duties con- nected with suffrage, associated with the realization that a vote by every citizen at each primary and election is essential to true majority rule (other- wise minorities can get out a greater proportionate vote.)? The habit of meeting the conditions necessary to the right to vote, and the habit of voting at every election? The habit of satisfying oneself of the competency and honesty of candidates before giving them personal support? Realization of the importance of reaching an intelligent and independent judgment on election issues and party policies? The necessity of active participation in politics with groups of citizens to counterbalance the otherwise unequal power of other groups? All practicable cooperation with other citizens in varied forms of community service and betterment? The ideal of self-sacrifice for the public good in time of peace as well as war? Office-holding as a personal duty and a public trust? The necessity for taxation fully adequate to every common public need? The undemocracy of seeking or accepting a tax assessment proportionately lower than that placed upon the property of other citizens? The undemocracy and inequality of insisting that because you are a local tax- payer the community should pay you more for service or supplies than the amount charged by non-residents? Or of charging the public more for work or supplies than the usual charge to a private individual? The cheerful paying of equally shared taxes? The treason to the common welfare involved in a heavy taxpayer's hypocritical opposition to needed public improvements on the ground that they are not needed? Equal or equivalent service in war, secured thru a selective draft, heavy taxation proportionate to one's ability to pay and including all citizens in common, and common acceptance of every form of self-sacrifice requested by governmental authority? Industrial duties — Support of self and family so that no unnecessary burden is laid upon the commonwealth? Effort to discover the vocation in which one can be most efficient? Acceptance or encouragement of public vocational guidance? Personal utilization or support of prevocational training and continuation schools? Effort at improving one's vocational efficiency thru continued training after being licenst in a profession or accepted as a master- workman? Social duties — Personal participation in public forms of social life with a view to common social contacts rather than to mere personal pleasure or profit? Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 729 Both financial and personal assistance to selected forms of social service? Familiarity with such forms of service and the community needs which they serve? IV. Are common rights and duties for all other individuals so taught as to associate them inalienably with the corresponding rights and duties demanded as one's own? Are the following conditions and means to this end especially empha- sized? Common educational rights and duties for all — Concern for the education of all others to the fullest possible realization of their rights and performance of their duties in a completer democracy? Interest in schools and realization of the duty of financially supporting them even when one's own children are not attending them? Insistence upon the right of individual workers to continue their education thru continuation schools, trade schools, etc., even tho it lessens one's own profits made thru investment in industries? Cooperation with the Ameri- canization movement? Cooperation in enlisting all individuals in various educational betterments and social reforms of community life, such as home and school leagues, civic associations, community and group interests, women's clubs and mothers' clubs, literary societies, drama leagues, etc.? Common legal rights and duties for all — Willingness to perform jury service in order that it shall not be left to hirelings or henchmen who can be influenst to unjust decisions? Support of legal aid societies, juvenile courts, and mental tests of juvenile delinquents, to insure common and just treatment of offenders against the law? Common political rights and duties for all — Insistence upon the rights of suffrage for political opponents as rigidly as for those of fellow-partisans? Insistence that others shall not bear a proportionately heavier burden of taxation than oneself, and especially that the property of others shall not be assest at a higher rate than one's own? Common industrial rights and duties for all — A living wage for every worker? The prohibiting of all child labor injurious to health or preventive of education, even when it diminishes one's own income as parent or employer? Refusal of patronage to stores that sell sweatshop products, no matter how cheap and good their merchandise? Sympathy and support for the work of such organi- zations as the Consumers' League? Support of such legislation as working- men's compensation and insurance? Active opposition to all efforts to secure unequal profits and compensation — especially the destruction of foodstuffs to keep up prices, combinations of manufacturers or dealers to prevent com- petition, and any attempt of labor organizations — even of one's own — to increase wages to a grade prohibitive of just profits on capital employed or to diminish the quality of service rendered? The popularizing of profit-sharing with employes at the expense of one's own income? Common social rights and duties for all — Cooperation with all efforts at better hous- ing, even when it decreases one's own income from rent, and improvement of streets and neighborhoods altho far removed from one's own? Willingness to see public funds expended for public playgrounds, parks, and supervised play? Realization that instruction in music and the fine arts, domestic science, physical education, etc., is not a fad, but a means to equal social intercourse? Insistence upon proper provisions for public convenience and comfort in trolley cars and other forms of transportation, even tho it decreases personal income from dividends? A personal avoidance of all forms of osten- tatious display? A personal participation in all public amusements and recreations that can be shared by all, and effort to get all others to share theni ftnd enjoy thenj? 730 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National V. Does this teaching of common rights and duties for all other individuals include the teaching of America's responsibility for the encouragement and support of democracy in other lands? Are the following conditions and means to this end especially emphasized: (i) The Monroe Doctrine as a protection to South American republics? (2) The alliance of South American republics for their own protection, and their growing resentment of any appearance of arrogant patronage by the United States? (3) President Wilson's recognition of this fact by "watchful waiting" in Mexico and his asking cooperation and counsel from Argentina, Brazil, and Chile? (4) America's support of world- democracy thru entrance into the European war? (5) The difference between a true democracy and class government as represented by Bolshevism? SECTION 3. PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE DEMOCRACY QUESTIONNAIRE Chicago, 1919 Our democracy is not only still incomplete because it has not been carried far enough, but incomplete in the more dangerous sense that on the side of individual freedom and the right to individual development it may be carried too far. There are six propositions more essential to the continued existence of democratic government and civilization than the preamble to the Declaration of Independence itself. Unlike those of the Declaration, not being self-evident, they become the first and most sacred aims of education in a democracy: 1. Limitation of individual rights.' — Individual rights are limited by common rights and have as their safeguard every self-restraint and self- sacrifice on the part of each individual necessary to equal rights for all, and submission by each to all the compulsion that is essential to the common welfare, but to no more than is essential. 2. Compensation for rights thru service. — Individual rights received thru the community or the state must be paid for as fully as possible by equal or equivalent individual service. 3. A leveling up the only means to permanent equally.- — From the stand- point of both the individual and the state, democratic equahty demands a leveling up in place of a leveling down. 4. Self -achievement.- — The higher levels of democracy and equality, while open to all thru common legal opportunities, must be won by each individual for himself thru personal effort, including all the education necessary to make it successful. 5. Equality thru highest individual effort.' — Except in those exactions of the state which are independent of relative individual ability, equality of individual achievement, whether of rights or of service, is possible only in the sense of the highest and therefore equal individual effort. 6. Common compulsion of all essential equalities not individually self- achieved.' — Both in life and in education the minimum standard set up by Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 731 majority rule as essential to the common welfare, in so far as it is not individually self-achieved, must be compelled of all. Existing tendencies toward higher compulsory standards for democracy in morality, health, and other phases of social life. — While there is at present a distinct tendency toward higher standards of citizenship in various phases of social life, and toward a more effective compulsion with a view to their attainment, leaders of thought and of action have not generally enough and seriously enough askt themselves to what extent health, religion, industry, social service, leisure in the sense of social intercourse, even citizenship itself, are contributing to a truer and more complete democracy. Educational leadership must sense and further all- popular tendencies toward higher compulsory standards.- — If democracy is to be a leveling up, and education is to be the chief means to reaching its higher levels, educa- tional leadership must be the first to sense the higher standards and play a dominant part in creating, if not the popular demand or majority com- pulsion, at least the general acquiescence without which new standards will not be self-achieved by each individual thru the school. The committee's investigation therefore includes expert inquiry into exist- ing tendencies toward greater compulsion. — From this point of view I am asking representative leaders in each great social field what it has con- tributed, is contributing, and can be made to contribute to democracy; for example, not how much democracy must let rehgion alone, but what, if anything, democracy for its own sake must compel of and thru religion; or whether in addition to the compulsion exercised to safeguard the com- munity against contagion there is not a minimum health standard which every individual should as far as possible be compelled to attain. Similarly, at the request of the committee experts are seeking to determine contributions to democracy and a compulsory minimum stand- ard in industrial training, social service, and the enjoyment of leisure in the sense of social intercourse. The concern of education in all this is not merely to learn to what extent the democracies compelled in war are likely to be continued and extended in time of peace, but to accept and further all higher democratic standards. A national system of education, especially in a democracy which is a growth and an individual struggle or common compulsion toward higher levels, must be anticipatory and prophetic. Education rightly becoming more individualistic- — In so far as the prevalent tendency in education can be said to be the superimposing of more definitely social aims upon democracy in the form of adaptation to individual abilities and needs it is steadily moving toward a fuller vision. In the school, as in democracy in the large, it has been necessary for individualism to assert itself against all forms of autocracy. Pesta- lozzianism, the kindergarten,^ and Montessori; the elective system; 'See "The Kindergarten as a Factor in Democracy," Annual Report of the International Kindergarten Union, loio. 732 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Dr. G. Stanley Hall's popularizing of the biological point of view, and Dr. Frank McMurry's insistence upon initiative for children and teachers, all have been powerful factors in breaking down the bars to a truly individual training. Such unlimited individualism as Tolstoi's destructive to true democracy. — But just in so far as Rousseau has been followed to his theoretical goal and all compulsion and appearance of compulsion have been put aside democ- racy, even individuahsm itself, is in danger. The extreme to which Tolstoi carried it in his Russian peasant school is sure to fall short of a benevolent anarchy in which everyone can do as he pleases, because everyone pleases to do good and to realize the best that is in him. The schoolbell rings, and Tolstoi smilingly waits until the boys' own initiative brings them into the schoolhouse. They tumble over each other because some take the wrong seats, until their own self-activity brings them to order. Tolstoi announces the arithmetic lesson, and, when someone exclaims, *'No, let's have history!" cheerfully follows the lead of boyish impulse and approves it with his ''Well then, history it shall be!" In so teaching, Tolstoi on his peasant estate was far more truly- the prophet of Bolshevism than Rousseau in his garret was of the Reign of Terror. In training for democ- racy the necessary complements of self-expression are self-restraint, self- sacrifice, and willing acceptance of what is best for the common good. Individual rights must be bought thru individual service, equahty won thru a struggle to higher levels, the more individual and personal rights realized thru self-achievement, equality in the actual results of achieve- ment and service attained in the sense of highest individual effort, and all things necessary for the safety and permanency of democracy, which are not self-won, compelled by the school far more surely than school attendance and support are compelled by the state. Indeed, even in a triumphant democracy a selected and limited compulsion is more essential than under any other form of government and more necessary thru the school than thru the state, because the school must not only, like the state, compel all democracy which individual self-expression fails to attain, but in addition must compel all that is essential to making individuality realize itself. The four means taken by the subcommittee to further the teaching of democ- racy.— The four means that the subcommittee has seized upon to further the teaching of democracy are: 1. Effort to determine thru groups of experts the extent to which the war has raised compulsory standards of individual achievement in the fields of religion, morality, health, industry, social service, pohtics, and social intercourse, with a view to the anticipation and furtherance of existing tendencies toward higher standards. 2. Effort thru the Democracy Questionnaire to discover factors already existing in some American schools that tend to a truer and completer democracy, in the hope that school superintendents and committees of Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 733^ teachers may be inspired to adapt to their own local systems the best means used by others, and to pass on to others what is best in their own. 3. Collaboration of committees of experts in the teaching of the various school branches, in order to determine what contributions they are making or can make to democracy. 4. An attempt to interest pubhshers, especially publishers of school textbooks, in the specification and emphasis of contributions which their publications have already made to democracy, as well as in an increast pubhcation of democratic material and the elimination of all that is defi- nitely undemocratic. Each of these forms of inquiry is already in more or less successful operation, with a promise of astonishingly large results. The democracy questionnaire. — The Questionnaire itself deals only with existing factors, the very presence of which in some American schools proves that they are not vaguely ideal. So far only two hundred copies have been issued to a group of cities selected on the ground either that they are known to be doing good work in this field or that good work is hkely to be found there. They were sent out in the summer, at the height of various war activities, and no follow-up letters have as yet been written. That more than a hundred replies have so far come in is remarkable and in part is due to the accompanying letter from Commissioner Claxton telling of the Bureau's cooperation. As a statistical inquiry the Question- naire is, as one well-known superintendent frankly characterized it, "the most impossible" report school men have ever been askt to fill out. Accepted, however, as a patriotic effort to be definite and inclusive, with a view to suggesting concretely "high spots," and accompanied as it has been, where any sort of reply was received, with the request that a committee of local teachers, and so far as possible experts in the field of civics, should be appointed to study it, the results have been cumulative and astonishing. Local committees to sttidy it in many cities. — Baltimore, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Philadelphia, Providence, Racine, Rochester, Springfield, Mass., and other cities have appointed committees, the purpose of which is to report upon the following: 1. Any "high spots" in the local school system, or other systems with which the committee is famihar, along any of the lines suggested in the Questionnaire, Return penalty envelopes furnisht by the United States Bureau of Education were inclosed for the forwarding of any mate- rial descriptive of such "high spots" — definitely detailed outHnes or courses of study, reports, newspapers, etc, 2. Any factors in the teaching of democracy not now emphasized in the local system which the committee beheves would be helpful. 3. Any factors specified in the Questionnaire which should be elimi- nated, together with the ground for negative judgment. 734 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National 4. Factors not included in the Questionnaire which the committee judges effective for the teaching of democracy. 5. Any material or references to material helpful under any of the various Questionnaire heads, whether used in the local system or not, such as selected passages in books, poems, historical incidents, novels, short stories, plays, Hsts of musical compositions, programs for social activities, schemes of self-government, etc. In Cincinnati, under the leadership of Mr. F. P. Goodwin, a committee of fifty or more has been organized into subcommittees for particular grades on democratic elements in school organization, social school activi- ties, and the course of study and methods of instruction. Such experts in the field of civics as Dr. Jesse Law, Dr. Barnard, Mr. Charles E. Finch, Mr. William C. Casey, and Dr. W. D. Lewis are included in the member- ship of similar committees in other cities. Already invaluable material has been received from this source alone. Too great detailing and reiteration of democratic teachings likely to become tiresome and ineffective. — ^Associate Superintendent Eddy, of Providence, frankly states that "any attempt to carry out the lines of action proposed in the Questionnaire would result in having the subject of democracy so constantly before the child's mind that the force of it would be weakened by constant repetition. To my mind, the lines of action proposed are altogether too numerous to be carried out." If, as is obvious, the "fines of action" Mr. Eddy has in mind are the whole body of specific means to democracy collectively detailed in the definite items of the Questionnaire, he is probably right. Altho with democracy, as with school discipHne or morality, we need the cumulative effect of all influences that tend to make us good, there is certainly no disposition on my part to criticize a school system as undemocratic because it leaves some of the Question- naire items out. I am not sure that some of them are contributory to democracy at all. The fundamental aims of democratic training can be realized through a great variety of selected means. — The fundamental purpose of so definite a detailing is not exhaustive application but exhaustive inquiry with a view of finding out every element judged peculiarly effective for democracy in the work of any system, of making school men conscious of the democratic bearing of elements which they have accepted for other reasons or find matters of course, and of suggesting and assembling the greatest possible variety of means to essential democratic aims. Each school system can be left to select its own means to the teaching of democracy if, however different they may be from those depended upon by others, they adequately and economically realize every essential phase of each fundamental aim. Most school systems teach some phase of democracy extremely well, but the answers to the Questionnaire indi- cate, not merely the failure of most schools to use the particular means Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 735 inquired for, but failure to substitute anything equally effective in their place. School systems must not only be democratic in their school organi- zation, their social activities, and their course of instruction, but democratic enough. Existing tendencies toward democracy which are manifest in many schools must become effective in all. The present report is based upon too few returns to have any statis- tical value whatever. Indeed its main purpose is propaganda, in which statistics, however convincing, are never a controlling factor. But at the very outset and before any one phase of inquiry is fully under way enough "high spots" have been shown to exist to blaze the way toward efficient training in democracy. A growing democracy in school organization.^ — Enough cities report schemes of pupil self-government to indicate a growing tendency toward democracy in school discipline. Increasing democracy in the determina- tion of the material and method of instruction is shown by Dr. Updegraff's study of the extent to which teachers or committees of teachers participate in the making of courses of study ,^ as well as by the willingness on the part of most superintendents interested in the Questionnaire to appoint com- mittees to study it. There is not yet sufficient evidence to indicate what proportion of high-school principals and teachers have come to regard the high school as a means to raising the general intellectual level by making each individual "surpass himself," as opposed to the theory that higher training exists only for the development of those most fit for leadership and the earliest possible weeding out of academically weaker pupils. The growing democracy in social activities of the school/ — WiUiam McAndrew, in his old Washington Irving High School in New York, and W. D. Lewis, in the William Penn High School of Philadelphia, long ago strikingly demonstrated what could be done for democracy thru organizing and directing the social activities of the school. Even the first scattering responses to the Questionnaire indicate further develop- ment in this direction. Los Angeles, for example, sent in as its particular "high spot" in democracy the report publisht by "the student body organization" on "The Life of the Manual Arts School," and a chart visually representing the plan of organization of the student body at the Doyle Heights Intermediate School. Mr. Charles F. Finch, chairman of the Questionnaire Committee at Rochester, lists forty-two different kinds of clubs, open to all, to particular grades, or to selected groups, besides describing in concrete detail a much more varied machinery for student participation in school control than that of Mr. Gill's "School City" or ordinary schemes for pupil self-government. A careful study of even the few student activities just mentioned should equip school superintendents and principals for local leadership in this fundamental phase of democracy. 'See Dr, Updegraff's section of this Report. 736 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National The school as a center for democratic social intercourse.- — Powerful move- ments familiar to all progressive school men are already under way; movements that are, on the one hand, educating all pupils into common taste and appreciation, ability and wilKngness to play ordinary games, correctness and ease in manners and conversation, and the common ideas and associations necessary to social contact on the same intellectual level; and, on the other, opening the schoolhouse as a community center for the various forms of social intercourse for which the foregoing instruction is a preparation. In Chester, Pa., under Mr. Charles F. Weller, formerly in charge of play activities in Washington, Americanization has taken on forms of social entertainment to which each nationality proudly makes its peculiar contribution. In Lansdowne, Pa., the young women of the town come together in ordinary and familiar activities with the mill girls of the neigh- boring village. Americanization, the school-playground movement, the Home and School League and Mothers' Congress, community singing, rural-betterment activities, and, as a possible organizing basis for all, the effort of the United States Bureau of Education nationally to further the movement toward the schoolhouse as a location for an expanded and multiplied town meeting, all are themselves ''high spots" and have local "high spots" of their own which the Questionnaire is bringing to light. Detailed courses in community civics fail to emphasize democracy. — Perhaps no better illustrations of courses in civics could be selected than the Indianapolis course and the course just adopted for Philadelphia. The Philadelphia coursp, I think, leads the country from the standpoint of emphasizing impressions, vocabulary, and transfer, in addition to the local information and pupil activities usually included in the better courses. The Indianapolis course is admirable thru its consistent furtherance of law, order, service, cleanliness, and progress, of the relating of the home to every civic interest, and of reciprocal cooperation between the individual and society. Courses such as these contain splendid material basal for all government, including democracy, but so far as I have as yet examined them contain little material which would not do equally as well for a Prus- sian city under the imperial regime as for democracy itself. None of us, for instance, can forget Dr. Kirchensteiner's emphasis of cooperation in the schools of Munich. To be sure, many answers place emphasis upon the necessity for individual service, already illustrated by IndianapoHs, and the interdependence of communities and of nations, each of which can be given a definitely democratic turn' — service as compensating for rights and interdependence as a reason for our concern for world- democracy. In Sioux City Superintendent Clark and Principal Bone ennoble their high-school course of study with the caption " Service — Not Self" and include in it a unique questionnaire on each individual pupil's fitness for service and social life. In Stamford, Conn., a committee headed Council] COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 737 by Principal O'Neil organized, a course of study in geography which it calls ''The Inter-Dependence of Communities." The earlier movement of the American Peace Society to insure this point of view is familiar to all. Mr. Gosling, supervisor of high schools for Wisconsin, in a supple- ment to the Educational News Bulletin for November i, 191 8, published a highly useful syllabus on "The Debt of America to England," which emphasizes both recent services and the origin of many of our older democracies. There is no doubt in my mind that, with tendencies such as this to the fore, when courses of study in civics are re-written in the light of recent events they will teach democracy as effectively as they are now teaching community life. Since the Democracy Questionnaire itself is being care- fully studied by a widely scattered group of experts in this field, it may have some influence in hastening this achievement. Every moment gained may help throw the balance toward a completer democracy, faihng which all democracy is threatened with extinction at the very moment of its triumph. Pioneer work necessary by committees of experts in the teaching of the various school subjects.' — The very necessity for individual and local selec- tion makes it imperative that committees of experts shall seek out the most effective material for the teaching of democracy which can be found in the various school subjects. Bulletin 32 in the 1918 series of the United States Bureau, Henry Neumann's Teaching American Ideals thru Litera- ture, is a striking example of what can be accomplisht in the field of Eng- lish. Dr. Hosic and others have already accomplisht much along the same and other lines. Mr. Lowery, of the Germantown High School, Philadelphia, has done fine preliminary work in assembHng an exhaustive list of democratic feelings and attitudes which can be emotionalized thru literature, and in history thru literature. When the committee, already referred to, on the Teaching of Democracy thru English completes its work, many more means of teaching democracy thru composition and vocabulary development as well as thru literature will be revealed. In the field of history Mathew Page Andrew's little book, A Heritage of Freedom, displaces the commercial setting usually given to American colonial history, with the attempt of Sir Edwin Sandys and other English- men to realize in America the democracy then impossible in England. Mr. Gosling's bulletin just referred to includes some fundamental democ- racies. Dr. William Lingelbach, of the University of Pennsylvania, and other supervisors of war-aims courses for the S.A.T.C. have been re-writing courses in history partly from the standpoint of contributions to democ- racy. A committee organized with the specific purpose of making such contributions selective and inclusive cannot fail to accomplish much. In sociology and economics Dr. Judd's "Lessons in Community and National Life" give many of the general ideas which all American citizens must t 738 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National possess in common, not only in order to vote intelligently on specific political issues, but to meet together in social intercourse on a common intellectual level. Professor James H. Tuft's book on The Real Business of Living is the fairest and most democratic book on the elements of eco- nomics yet pubHsht. Each general economic idea or famihar business or special situation is made definitely to suggest the viewpoints and associa- tions essential to just and open-minded thought and action. Mr. Rocker- feller's monographs on Brotherhood and Representation in Industry are invaluable contributions to democracy in industry and the complex relationship of capital and labor. It is not possible within the compass of this report to tell of the start made by committees in this and other academic fields, but enough has been said to indicate what is under way. The contribution of hook publishers to democracy. — Copies of the Ques- tionnaire sent to pubHshers of school textbooks and of books especially useful to schools, with the request that they in some manner indicate any contributions made in their publications along the fines defined in the Questionnaire, have already brought a generous response. D. C. Heath & Co. mounted on cardboard all passages in their textbooks and anounce- ments which in their judgment have democratic bearing. Henry Holt & Co. put in evidence Professor Tuft's remarkable book. The George Doran Co. made an impressive showing thru a large fist of books which include Dr. Andrew's Heritage of Freedom, several volumes of war poems, some of which are strikingly democratic, books which, like Mr. Wilson's addresses and those giving the German viewpoint, contribute to war aims, and others which tend to put us in sympathetic touch with the life and aspirations of other peoples. The American Book Co., after pointing out how serious a task it would be for a firm publishing hundreds of books to seek out the democracy in each, promised to take the matter up if it could be shown that sufficient use would be made of the result for such a labor to be worth while. This is after all what will determine the seriousness and extent of each phase of the investigation. The most difficult question the subcommittee faces is the way in which the material it unearths can be put to the most efficient use. Means of giving publicity to "high spots^' in the teaching of democracy. — It must be evident to anyone that this preliminary report merely scratches the surface of democratic achievement in and thru the American public school. As the results of a many-sided inquiry pour in they must be assembled and pubHsht. Some material can and probably will be issued thru governmental bulletins. School Life, educational journals, the proceedings of educational associations, bulletins and news letters of state superintendents, etc. The reports of committees on the contributions of the special school subjects will naturally be printed in special journals, and those of at least the larger pubfishing houses in their regular advertising matter. Council! COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 739 The only part that the Council should play is the issuing from time to time of printed questionnaires, summaries of progress, and guides to fuller articles and reports. Investigation should prepare the way for national control of training for democracy. — ^Af ter all an investigation such as this finds its greatest signifi- cance in preparing the way for a national determination and control of essential factors and elements in training for democratic citizenship. As surely as citizenship is a national function, training for citizenship — especially training for the democracy which is the common heritage and future guaranty of all the states — must become a national function. The limitation of individual rights, compensating service in return for rights, democracy as a leveUng up, the self-achievement of ability both to enjoy and to serve, the equahty that comes thru highest effort, and the compul- sion that must insure what is not self-achieved — these are fundamental truths that United States law must compel and a national scheme of administration maintain, supervise, and exact, leaving to each individual and to each state the particular form which instruction will take. Training to completer democracy the chief stabilizing element for a League of Nations. — The chief stabilizing element not only for the American Com- monwealth but for a League of Nations must be a program of instruction planned to further all existing factors in life and in education that tend to insure to all states and nations in common a truer and completer democ- racy; and the extent to which instruction is stabilizing depends upon the extent to which it educates for the democracy that is a leveling up. In education as in government the means to democracy must themselves be democratic. But the initiative allowed the individual teacher and a partic- ular state school system in methods and procedures, like that allowed the individual citizen and the state government, must be checkt and directed whenever it results in a leveling downward or is satisfied with a lower level. The education which insures social betterment within and peace without is not education for anarchy or education for peace but education for the democracies of the higher levels, thru which alone peace may be made certain and abiding. TREASURER'S REPORT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION June i, 1918, to May 31, 1919 A. J. Matthews, in Account with the National Education Association BALANCE ON HAND, JUNE I, 1918 Balance brought forward from Treasurer's Report for year ending May 31, 1918 $ 3,102 .76 RECEIPTS From Annual Meeting: Advance enrolment — From W. A. Chambers $ 2,168.00 From J. B. Richey 1,230.00 From C. E. Dickey • 272.00 From George W. Flounders 160.00 From R. C. Shaw 48 .00 From W. H. Hurt 20.00 Convention Registration 2,848 . 00 6,746.00 From membership, Chicago Meeting of Department of Superintendence 1 1 ,42 2 . 00 From Secretary's office during the year: Membership fees $32,412.00 Enrolment fees 3,802 .00 Sale of back volumes 493 . 25 Sale of special reports 523 .05 Magazine subscriptions 160.00 Special subscriptions 2,672 .95 Miscellaneous (exchange, etc.) 8.31 $40,071.56 From interest on Permanent Fund 7,500.00 From royalty on sale of reports of Committees of Ten and Fifteen 13 .90 From refund on second-class matter 8.82 From refund on express 1.85 From rent at 1400 Mass. Ave. (J. W. Crabtree) - 70.00 From refund on railroad ticket i . 66 From Commercial Exhibits, Chicago meeting 1,802 ,08 From interest on deposits on First National Bank, Chicago 89.56 49.550 43 70,830.19 DISBURSEMENTS Board of Trustees: For investment — For expenses Executive Committee expenses: President First Vice-President Treasurer Chairman, Board of Trustees Member by election Carried forward $ 448.37 219.51 470.49 246.03 231.48 $ 1,615.88 $ 2,306.68 742 . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Brought forward $ 2,306.68 General Secretary's office: Salary of Secretary $ 4,9QQ.92 Postage 1,659.94 Telegrams and telephones 468 .04 Freight and express 141 .46 Clerical services 5,045 . 70 Rent, light, power, and fuel i^gog . 55 Stationery and office supplies 623 .35 Traveling 536.95 Miscellaneous 86 .42 \ 15,471.33 Express and freight: Distribution of volumes and reports 1,290 . 66 Printing: Proceedings (1917) $ 1,693.95 Yearbook (1917) 2,825.37 Journals (1918-19) 3,136 . 60 $ 7,655.92 Reprints from Volume 77-34 Special reports 5Qg . 89 N.E.A. Bulletins 3,468.31 Miscellaneous Getterheads, blanks, etc.) 319 . 50 12,120.96 Special appropriations: Committee on Organization % 647 . 48 Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions 50 . 00 Committee on Economy of Time in Education 89 . 82 Committee on Elementary-School English 114 . 25 Committee on Problems of High-School Libraries 50 . 00 Committee of Library Department 65 . 57 Committee on Vocational Education and Vocational Guidance. . . 31 .05 Committee on the Reorganization of Secondary Education 333 . 1 1 Committee on Superintendent Problems 46 . 55 Committees of Department of School Patrons 397 . 41 Committees on Standardization of Schoolhouse Planning and Con- struction 563 . 17 Committee on Illiteracy 139 . 71 The National Education Association Commission on the National Emergency in Education and the Readjustment During and After the War 5,368.73 Field Secretary on Teachers' Problems and Expenses 8,354 . i7 Unclassified disbursements: Auditing accounts of the Association $ 220 . 00 Bonds of Secretary and Treasurer 50.00 Insurance premium 92 . 00 Refunds of irregular membership fees 41 .00 Legal advice 25 . 00 Press clippings 58 . 23 Purchase of files , 936 . 25 Purchase of office furniture 623 . 05 Interest on loan 106 . 09 Balance paid on note of $5,000.00 847.52 Subscriptions to education journals 30 . 80 Lettering window 12 .00 Miscellaneous (repairs, thermos bottles, copyright, etc.) 41 . 75 Moving books from L Street 75 . 00 Membership drive 10,348 . 70 16,251.02 13,507-39 Carried forward $60,948-04 TREASURER'S REPORT 743 Brought forward $60,948 . 04 Conventions: Annual convention — Department expenses I 308 . 46 State directors 595 . 88 Clerical services: Registration Bureau $ 314 . SS Stenographers and typewriters 427 . 15 741-70 Publicity 553 . la Printing: Programs $ 436 . 11 Miscellaneous 74 . 00 Sio.ii Express and freight 8.77 Stationery 119.80 Miscellaneous: Music $ 103.66 Badges 986.93 Reader 147 . 26 Speakers 96 . 78 Sundries , 102.80 1,437.43 4,275.27 Department of Superintendence: Clerical services: Registration $ 116.52 Printing: , Programs $ 745-91 Miscellaneous 19-75 765.66 Miscellaneous: Music $ 108 . 59 Publicity 523-73 Expenses of President 87 .06 Sundry expenses 13-75 733 - 13 1,615.31 $66,838.62 SUMMARY Receipts Balance brought forward from Treasurer's Report for year ending May 31, 1918 $ 3,102.76 Receipts for year June i, 1918, to May 31, 1919 67,727 .43 $70,830.19 * Disbursements Total expense for the year 66,838 . 63 Balance in treasury, May 31, igig ' $ 3,991 -57 Respectfully submitted, A. J. Mai THE ws. Treasurer To the President of the National Education Association: The books and records of the National Education Association and the accounts o f the Treasurer and of the Secretary have been audited by us for the present fiscal year, and we hereb> certify that the fore- going statement of Receipts and Disbursements is correct and in accordance with the books of the Association. Mar WICK, Mitchell, Peat & Company Washington, D.C. Certified Public Accountants THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDU- CATION ASSOCIATION FROM JUNE I, 1918, TO MAY 31, 1919 PRINCIPAL ACCOUNT RECEIPTS Cash on hand or investment, June i, 1918 $ 1,542 .71 $io,cx5o West Chicago Park bonds due April i, 1919, paid 10,000.00 $11,542.71 DISBURSEMENTS $10,500 United States of America Fourth Liberty Loan bonds 4} per cent purchast at $93 .66. . $ 9,834.30 Cash on hand, awaiting investment, May 31, 19 9 1,708 . 41 11,542.71 INCOME ACCOUNT RECEIPTS $ 5,250 St. Louis and San Francisco R.R. Co. prior lien bonds, 1950, at 4 per cent. $ 210.00 1,750 St. Louis and San Francisco R.R. Co. idjustment mortgage bonds, 1955, at 6 per cent 105.00 3,000 Los Angeles, Cal., School District bonds, 1921 \ . 1 7,000 Los Angeles, Cal., School District bonds, 1922 J 10,000 Seattle, Wash., school bohds, 1931, at 4j per cent 450.00 15,000 Terminal R.R. Association of St. Louis general refunding bonds, 1953, at 4 per cent . . 600.00 20,000 Pittsburgh, Lake Erie and West Virginia System refunding bonds, 1941, at 4 per cent. 800.00 10,000 Oregon Short Line R.R. Co. guaranteed refunding bonds, 1929, at 4 per cent 400.00 17,000 City of New York registered bonds, 1957, at 4^ per cent 765 .00 10,000 Atlantic Coast Line R.R. first consolidated bonds, 1952, at 4 per cent 400.00 10,000 Chicago, Indiana and Southern Railway Co. guaranteed consolidated bonds, 1956, at 4 per cent 400.00 4,000 Manhattan Ry. Co. consolidated mortgage bonds, 1990, at 4 per cent 160.00 10,000 Kansas City, Mo., school bonds, 1925, at 3§ per cent 350.00 1,000 Clearwater, Kans., Water Works bonds, 1930 1 ^ 2,000 Clearwater, Kans., Water Works bonds, 1931 >at 5 per cent 300.00 3,000 Clearwater, Kans., Water Works bonds, 1932 J 2,000 Maine Real Estate Title Co. first mortga e bonds, 1932, at 5 per cent 100.00 10,000 West Chicago, 111., park bonds, 1919, at 4 per cent 400.00 10,000 Salt Lake City, Utah, Water bonds, 1934, at 4^ per cent 450.00 41,500 United States of America Second Liberty Loan bonds, 1942, at 4i per cent 1,763.7s 9,000 United States of America Third Liberty Loan bonds, 1928, at 4i per cent 325.35 10,500 United States of America Fourth Liberty Loan bonds, 1938, at 4i per cent 212.10 Interest on cash balance in First Trust and Savings Bank, Chicago 49.82 $ 8,691.02 DISBURSEMENTS Continental Trust Company, Washington, D.C., as per order October 16, 1918 $6,652 .48 Accrued interest on $10,500 United States of America Fourth Liberty Loan bonds, 4i per cent, 5 months, 16 days 205.77 First Trust and Savings Bank fees: J of I per cent on permanent fund $252.50 J of I per cent on new investment of $10,500 26.25 278.75 J. W. Crabtree, Secretary, National Education Association 1,554.02 $ 8,691.03 744 REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES 745 STATEMENT OF SECURITIES HELD FOR THE PERMANENT FUND MAY 31, 1919 MUNICIPAL AND SCHOOL BONDS Par Value Security Acquired Interest Book Value $ 8,000 Q,000 City of New York registered gold bonds, due Nov. 1, I9S7, Nos. 554 to 561 City of New York gold bonds, due Nov. I, 1957, Nos. 26816 to 26824 February 29, 1908 June 12, 1908 June 12, 191 2 December 30, 1912 November 8, 1916 October 21, 1915 December 20, 1916 December 20, 1916 4J % May and Nov. 4J% May and Nov. 3i% Jan. and July 5% Feb. and August 4l% March and Sept. 4i% Jan. and July 4i% Jan. and July 4J% Jan. and July $ 8,510.00 9,810.00 9,500.00 10,000 6,000 Kansas City. Mo., School Dis- trict bonds, Nos. 3127-29, 3133. 313S-36, 31Q0-92, and 3200, due July i, 1925 Clearwater, Kans., Water Works bonds, Nos. 18 to 23 inc., $1,000 due Aug. 1, 1930, $2,000 due Aug. 1, 1931, and $3,000 due 10,000 Seattle, Wash., school bonds, Nos. 586 to 595 inc., due March i, 1931 10,266.30 10,000 Salt Lake City, Utah, Water bonds, Nos. 310 to 319 inc., 3,000 7,000 Los Angeles, Cal., School District bonds, Nos. 496 to 498 inc., due July i, 1921. . Los Angeles, Cal., School District bonds, Nos. S7i to 577 inc., due July i, 1922. . 3,049 . 29 7,137.20 $63,000 $64,272.79 RAILROAD BONDS Par Value Security Acquired Interest Book Value $ S.2SO St. Louis and San Francisco R.R. Co. temporary prior lien mtge. bonds, Nos. M4S96S to 45969 inc.. Y2644, due July i, 1950. . . January 3, 1907 4% Jan. and July $ 4,331. as i,7So St. Louis and San Francisco R.R. Co. temporary ad- justment mtge. bonds, Nos. M16938, D1674, Y2222, due July I, 1955 January 3, 1907 6% April and Oct. 1,443.75 15,000 Terminal R.R. Association of St. Louis general refunding • sinking fund gold bonds, Nos. 16311-16325, due Jan. I, 1953 Tanuarv ^0. looc 4% Jan. and July 15,050.00 20,000 Pittsburgh. Lake Erie and West Virginia System re- funding gold bonds, Nos. 13496-13500, 21236-21250, due Nov. I, 1941 January 13, 1906 4% May and Nov. 19.942. so 10,000 Oregon Short Line R.R. Co. guaranteed refunding gold bonds, Nos. 4013-401 7, 4025-4027, 4976, 13810, due Dec. i, 1929 February 3, 1908 4% June and Dec. 8,895.00 10,000 Chicago, Indiana and South- em Railway Co. bonds, Nos. 11386 to 11394, inc., and 13786, due Jan. i, 1956 January 18, 1909 4% Jan. and July 9,500.00 10,000 Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Co. first cons, bonds, Nos. 5130, 6494, 11639, 14335, 14339, I7S79, 24601, 37565, and 50251, due July i, 1952 /August 3, 1909 ] June 5, 191 1 / 4% March and Sept. 9,600.00 4,000 Manhattan Railway Co. cons, mortgage gold bonds, Nos. 2843, 6522, 16083, and 16087, due April I, 1990. . . June 5, 191 1 4% April and Oct. 3,900.00 $76,000 $72,662.50 746 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION CORPORATION BONDS Par Value Security Acquired Interest Book Value $2,000 Maine Real Estate Title Company first mortgage gold bonds, Nos. 151 and 152, due Aug. 1, 1932 October 11, 1915 5% Feb. and Aug. $2,000.00 $2,000 $2,000.00 GOVERNMENT BONDS Par Value Security Acquired Interest Book Value $ 1,500 United States of America 10- 25 year 4% convertible bonds, Nos. 218262 at $500, 34550 at $1,000, due Nov. 15, 1942 . . . November 15, 191 7 November 15, 1917 April 15, 1918 April 10, 1919 4% May and Nov. 4% May and Nov. 4,h% March and Sept. 4J% April and Oct. $ I 500 00 40,000 United States of America 10-25 year 4% convertible bonds, Nos. 320001, 32004, and 23897 at $5,000 each, 89345, 8989346, and 330767 to 330774, inc., at $1,000 each, 494933 to 494937, inc., at $1,000 each, due 38,896.00 9,000 10,500 United States of America Third Liberty Loan bonds, Nos. 572807 to 57281S at $1,000 each, due Sept. 15, 1928 United States of America Fourth Liberty Loan bonds, Nos. 2584841 to 2584850, inc., at $1,000 each. No. 1043 1 24 at $500, due October 15, 1938 9,000.00 9,834.30 $61,000 $59,230.30 To the Trustees of the National Education Association: Gentlemen: The above and foregoing is a correct statement of the account of the funds of the National Education Association of the United States as the same appears on the books of this bank. First Trust and Savings Bank By Louis Boisot, Vice-President Chicago, III. July I, 1919 To the President of the National Education Association: We have examined the books and records of the Board of Trustees of the National Education Asso- citation and certify that, in our opinion, the foregoing statement correctly shows the condition of the Permanen Fund as of May 31, 1919. We have examined the securities listed in the foregoing statement, deposited in the custody of the First Trust and Savings Bank of Chicago, Illinois. Marwick, Mitchell, Peat & Company Certified Public Accountants Chicago, III. 1 1 1 iate. dues .H % -m fl . . — -s s • ^ cj ^c* >£t X •- a^ t 5 o s>si C9 ^ 5 ^"^ X ^H ^^1 ^Hl 1^1 IB HI ^«\Ai- n^jki O ■ ■■■■■ 606r-806l «*=• 2 Q +j »-|| z g a, S ^ !■■■■■ soei-t'oei - ^ 13 o *^ aj .2 X ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ tr06l-£06r b g € 2 a> rt 1- 1 ■ ■ ■ ■ £06I-'Z06I III o: a^Z X o 2 o 1 ■ ■ ■ ZQ61-I0GI ^ ;^ ^ oJ ooooooooooo '^ 3 ^ jooooooooooo .52 VQ >ooooooooooo ^>.o ooooooooooooc ooooooooooooc SSSNS22t:^!l3l!2S: GENERAL INDEX [Names of authors are set in small capitals] Abt, Isaac A. — Cooperation of Physicians in the Health Work of Schools, i6i Act of Incorporation, i Adams, Eleanor N. — ^What Deans of Women Can Do to Encourage Group Consciousness among Women — Educa- tion, 396 Addresses of Welcome (Francis G. Blair), 490; (C. P. Cary), 31; (Peter A. Mortenson), 493; (M. C. Potter), 32; (Ellen C. Sabin), 35 Addresses of Welcome, Response to (Annie Webb Blanton), 38 Adjustment of School Hours to Meet Con- gestion and Community Needs (Ernest L. Thurston), 567 Adjustment, The, of the Senior School to Meet New Conditions (A. B. Meredith), 571 Adjustments between the Junior and Senior High Schools in Boston (Frank V. Thompson), 569 Administration by Teachers, Construc- tive Participation in Organization and (Ethel M. Gardner), 378 Administration, The, of Vocational Educa- tion (Frank M. Leavitt), 332 Administrative Officers, Preparation of Supervisory and (W. G. Coburn), 250 Administrative Problems in Supervised Study (D. J. Kelly), 601 Administrator's Point of View, Necessity for Sharp DiflFerentiation between the Teacher's Point of View and the (Lucius T. Gould), 380 Ahern, Mary Eileen — War-Library Ex- periences, 463 Alexander, Carter — Supervision of School Libraries, 446 Allen, I. M. — Pupil Responsibility as a Training in Democracy, 202 Alvord, Katherine S. — Relation of the Faculty and Especially the Dean of Women to the Student Government Association, 412 Americanization, Experiences in, with Suggestive Plans for Development (W. P. Roseman), 477 Americanization Work with the Foreign- born, The Federal Plan of (Raymond F. Crist), 471 Ancient and Modern Languages, What Shall We Do with the? (J. W. Mc- Clinton), 609 Anna Howard Shaw, Memorial to, in Arnold, E. H— What the War Should Do for Our Methods in Physical Educa- tion, 554 , , Art as an Essential in General Education (George William Eggers) ,157 Bagley, W. C— The Status of the Critic Teacher, 238; Training of Teachers, 499 Baker, Elizabeth S. — The Contribution of Teachers to the Development of Democracy: C. Elementary Schools, 104. Ball, W. R— Federal and Public-School Cooperation in Citizenship Training, 475 Balliet, Thomas M. — The Teaching of Citizenship in High Schools, 381 Ballou, Frank S. — Discussion: Essential Factors in the Teaching of Democracy, 156 Barth, George P. — Educational Control of School Health Work, 310 Baylor, Adelaide Steele — Consolidation of Rural Schools, 1 24 Beveridge, J. H. — A National Program for Education, 509 BiNZEL, Alma L. — The Contribution of Teachers to the Development of Democ- racy: A. Kindergarten, 96 Birge, E. a. — Discussion: Effect of the War on Higher Education, 217; What a President May Expect from a Dean of Women, 399 Blair, Francis G. — Address of Welcome, 490 Blake, Katherine Devereaux — How to Teach Pupils to Respect the Rights of Others, 665 Blanton, Annie Webb — Am I My Sister's Keeper? 402; Response to Addresses of Welcome, 38 Boards of Education, Cooperation between, and the Public (William L. Pieplow), 325 Boards of Education and the Public, Co- operation between (Harold O. Rugg), 432 Board of Trustees, Thirty-third Annual Report of the, 744 BoGAN, William J. — The Value of Teachers' Councils, 387; What the War Should Do for Our Methods in Voca- tional Education, 561 Books and Libraries, Instruction of Elementary-School Children in the Use of (O. S. Rice), 180 Boys' Working Reserve (H. W. ^ells), 535 749 750 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Brace, George M. — Vocational Educa- tion, 333 Bradford, Mary C. C. — The Work of the Commission on the Emergency in Edu- cation, 79 Brown, J. Stanley — Supervised and Directed Study, 594; Teachers' Salaries, 147 Bruce, William C. — School Buildings from the Standpoint of an Editor, 357 BuissoN, Ferdinand — Education for the Establishment of Democracy in the World: C. France, 93 BuRNHAM, Ernest — The Preparation of Rural School Teachers, 242 Business Education, Department of, Secre- tary's Minutes, 259 Business Methods, Modification of, in Educational Institutions (Henry H. Hilton), 210 Butcher, Thomas W. — The Preparation of Graded Elementary Teachers, 245 By-Laws, 5 Calendar of Meetings, 13 Callahan, John — Part-Time Vocational Education, 272 Carothers, W. H. — ^War Savings, 524 Carr, John W. — Salaries, 137 Gary, C. P. — Address of Welcome, 31 Caulkins, E. Dana— The Promotion of Physical Education thru State Legisla- tion, 318 Causes, Some, of the Present Decline of Teaching as a Profession (Sara H. Fahey), 383 Challman, Samuel A, — Discussion: The Intermediate School, 330 Child Hygiene, Department of, Secretary's Minutes, 303 Child-Welfare Agencies Cooperating with the Schools: A. The Children's Bureau (Julia Lathrop), 113; B. Girl Scouts (Laura Peirce Holland), 116; C. Red Cross (Minnie Lee Davis), 116 Citizenship in High Schools, The Teaching of (Thomas M. Balliet), 381 Citizenship, Music for (A. J. Gantvoort), 292 Citizenship Training, Federal and Public- School Cooperation in (W. R. Ball), 475 City School System, Supervision in the Small (R. N. Irons), 622 Civics' and Economics, What the War Should Do for Our Methods in (William B, Guitteau), 552 Class Period, The Three Functions of the (Alfred L. Hall-Quest), 575 Classroom Teachers, Department of, Sec- retary's Minutes, 375 Claxton, p. p. — Education for the Estab- lishment of a Democracy in the World: A. The United States, 81 CoBURN, W. G. — Preparation of Super- visory and Administrative Officers, 250 CoFFMAN, Lotus D. — Educational Service, 531; Essential Factors in the Teaching of Democracy, 152; How the Colleges and Normal Schools May Cooperate in the Preparation of Teachers for American Public Schools, 253; Need for the Sub- stitution of a Cooperative Type of Organization for the Present System, 376; Should Authors Be Concerned with the Methods of Distribution of Text- books ? 468 Colgrove, p. P.-^The Part-Time Con- tinuation School, 619 Commercial Education, Recent Develop- ments in (F. G. Nichols), 260 Commission on the Emergency in Educa- tion, The Work of the (Mary C. C. Bradford), 79 Commission on the Revision of Elementary Education, The Work of the (Margaret S. McN aught), 75 Committee on Economy of Time in Educa- tion, Final Report of the, 132 Committee on Economy of Time, Report of the, 668 Committee on Health Problems in the Schools, Report of (Thomas D. Wood), 159 . Committee on Resolutions, Report of the, 22 Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pen- sions, Report of the (Joseph Swain), 135; 537 Compensation, Adequate, for Teachers in State Normal Schools (John A. H. Keith), 229 Compensation, Adequate, for Teaching Service in Public Schools (D. B. Waldo), 494 Condon, Randall J. — Education of the Immigrant, 558 Congress of Mothers' and Parent-Teachers' Associations, Report of (Elizabeth Harrison), 428 Consolidation of Rural Schools (Adelaide Steele Baylor), 124 Constructive Participation in Organization and Administration by Teachers (Ethel M. Gardner), 378 Constructive Program, A, in Physical Education (J. H. McCurdy), 199 Continuation School, The Part-Time (P. P. Colgrove), 619 Cook, Katherine M. — The Course of Study Reorganized to Meet the Needs of Modern Rural Life, 282 Cooper, Frank Irving — Discussion: The Intermediate School, 330; Hygienic Problems in Schoolhouse Construction, 303 Cooperation, Better, between the Public and the School Authorities in Securing Better Teaching in Elementary Schools (Margaret S. McN aught), 434 Cooperation between Boards of Education and the Public (William L. Pieplow), 325; (Harold O. Rugg), 432 INDEX 751 Cooperation in Citizenship Training, Federal and Public-School (W. R. Ball), 475 Cooperation of the Medical Profession (Frederick R. Green), 165 Cooperation of Patrons in Solving the Problems of Social Life in the High School (Olivia Pound), 440 Cooperation of Physicians in the Health Work of Schools (Isaac A. Abt), 161 Cooperation between the Public and the Schools in taking Advantage of the Vocational Education Bill (Arthur F. Payne), 437 Cooperation of School Authorities and the Public in the Wider Use of School Buildings (Raymond F. Crist), 443 Council of Jewish Women, Report of the (Fannie Sax Long), 430 Course of Study, The, Reorganized to Meet the Needs of Modern Rural Life (Katherine M. Cook), 282 Crabbe, J. G. — How to Secure an Ade- quate Student Constituency for State Normal Schools and Colleges, 222 Crist, Raymond F. — Cooperation of School Authorities and the Public in the Wider Use of School Buildings, 443; The Federal Plan of Americanization Work with the Foreign-born, 471 Critic Teacher, The Status of the (W. C. Bagley), 238 Curriculum, Subject-Matter of the (Alice Temple), 175 Davis, Minnie Lee — Child-Welfare Agencies Cooperating with the Schools: C. Red Cross, 1x6 Day, Grace A. — Supervision of Study in the Grades, 598 Deamer, Arthur — Changes Produced in the Modem-Science Courses by the War, 616 Dean of Girls, The Work of a, and Its Relation to That of a Dean of Women (EuLA W. Deaton), 420 Dean of Women, WTiat a President May Expect from a (E. A. Birge), 399 Deans of Women, Department of, Secre- tary's Minutes: Chicago Meeting, 406; Milwaukee Meeting, 393 Deaton, Eula W. — The Work of a Dean of Girls and Its Relation to That of a Dean of Women, 420 Defects of Supervision and Constructive Suggestions Thereon (Sallie Hill), 506 De Forest, Charles M. — The National Legion of Modern Health Crusaders, 307 Democracy Involves Duties as Well as Rights, How to Teach Pupils That (Albert A. Meras), 658 Democracy in Our Public Schools, A Plea for Greater (Frances E. Harden), 390 Department: of Business Education, 259; of Child Hygiene, 303; of Classroom Teachers, 375; of Deans of Women, 393; of Educational Publications, 465; of Elementary Education, 179; of Higher Education, 205; of Kindergarten Edu- cation, 171; of Library, 445; of Music Education,- 291; of National Council of Education, 119; of Normal Schools, 221; of Physical Education, 315; of Rural and Agricultural Education, 281; of School Administration, 323; of School Patrons, 427; of Science Instruction, 289; of Secondary Education, 195; of Superintendence, 483; of Vocational Education, 271; of the Wider Use of Schoolhouses, 471 Department of Superintendence, Resolu- tions of, 488 Development of Democracy, The Contribu- tion of Teachers to the : A. Kindergarten, (Alma L. Benzel), 96; B. Rural Schools (Marie Turner Harvey), 100; C. Ele- mentary Schools (Elizabeth S. Baker), 104; D. Secondary Schools (Essie V. Hathaway), 107 Developments, Recent, in Commercial Education (F. G. Nichols), 260 Directed Study, Supervised and (J. Stanley Brown), 594 Discussion, 630 Discussion: Adequate Compensation for Teachers in State Normal Schdols (E. O. Finkenbinder), 236 Discussion: The Course of Study Reor- ganized to Meet the Needs of Modern Rural Life (G. M. Wilson), 285 Discussion: Drawing as an Essential in General Education (Walter Sargent), Discussion: Effect of War on Higher Edu- cation (E. A. Birge), 217 Discussion: Essential Factors in the Teaching of Democracy (Charles S. Meek), 155; (H. B. Wilson), 155; (Frank S. Ballou), 156 Discussion: The High-School Library and the High-School Librarian (Frank G. Pickell), 456 Discussion: Instruction of High-School Students in the Use of Books and Libraries (Margaret E. Ely), 459 Discussion: The Intermediate School (D. H. Perkins), 329; (Frank Irving Cooper), 330; (Samuel A. Challman), 330 Discussion : Music in Education (Eugenie Dussuchal), 301 Discussion: Office Training in the High School (Frank C. McClelland), 263 Discussion: The Relation of the School Library to the Teaching of Science (George R. Twiss), 462 Discussion: Vocational Education (E. E. GuNN, Jr.), 2,2,1 Discussion: Young People's Reading Circles (J. F. Haines), 451; (Anna E. Log.an), 451 752 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Distribution of Textbooks, Should Authors Be Concerned with the Methods of? (L. D. Coffman), 468 Divided-Period Plan, The, of Supervised Study in American History (Mabel E. Simpson), 587 DoBBS, Ella Victoria — Equipping and Furnishing the Modern School, 191 Drawing as an Essential in General Edu- cation, Discussion (Walter Sargent), 158 Driver, Lee L. — The Organization of Public Education for Service in the New Democracy: A. Rural Education, 64 DussucHAL, Eugenie — Discussion: Music in Education, 301 Economics, What the War Should Do for Our Methods in Civics and (William B. Guitteau), 552 Education for the Establishment of a Democracy in the World : A. The United States (P. P. Claxton), 81; B. France (Albert Feuillerat), 89; C. France (Ferdinand Buisson), 93; D, South America (Aurelia Viera), 95 Education of the Immigrant (Randall J. Condon), 558 Education, National Aid for (Margaret S. McN aught), 652 Education^ A National Program for (J. H. (Beveridge), 509; (Edmund J. James), 517; (C. N. Kendall), 514; (George Drayton Strayer), 523 Education of Women, Effect of War on the (Kathryn S. McLean), 214 Educational Control of School Health Work (George P. Barth), 310 Educational Institutions, Modification of Business Methods in (Henry H. Hil- ton), 210 Educational Publications, Department of. Secretary's Minutes, 465 Educational Readjustments Following the War (T. H. Harris), 649 Educational Service (Lotus D. Coffman), Educational Specifications for School Buildings (Charles H. Judd), 365 Effect of War on the Education of Women (Kathryn S. McLean), 214 Effect of the War, The, on Methods of Teaching (A. A. Potter), 208 Effects; Some, of the War on the Higher Education of Women (Willystine Goodsell) 407 Eggers, George William — Art as an Essential in General Education, 157 Elementary Education, Department of. Secretary's Minutes, 179 Elementary Education, Music as an Influence in (Mabelle Glenn), 298 Elementary-School Children, Instruction of, in the Use of Books and Libraries (0. S. Rice), 180 _ Elementary-School Curriculum, R^ision of the (Theda Gildemeister), 182 Elementary Teachers, The Preparation of Graded (Thomas W. Butcher), 245 Elliott, E. C. — The Organization of Public Education for Service in the New Democracy: D. Higher Education, 73 Ellsworth, Frank E. — What State Normal Schools Should Do for Their Graduates, 224 Ely, Margaret E. — Discussion: Instruc- tion of High-School Students in the Use of Books and Libraries, 459 Emergency in Education, The Work of the Commission on the (Mary C. C. Brad- ford), 79 English Language, The — Its New Im- portance and Universality (Henry C. Johnson), 606 English, What the War Sould Do for Our Methods in (Edwin L. Miller), 542 Equipping and Furnishing the Modern School (Ella Victoria Dobbs), 191 Experiences in Americanization, with Suggestive Plan for Development (W. P. Roseman), 477 Experiments in State Publication (H. S. Shirer), 465 Factors, Essential, in the Teaching of Democracy (A. E. Winship), 150; (Lotus D. Coffman), 152 Fahey, Sara H. — Some Causes of the Present Decline of Teaching as a Pro- fession, 383 Federal Plan, The, of Americanization Work with the Foreign-born (Raymond F. Crist), 471 Feuillerat, Albert — Education for the Establishment of a Democracy in the Worid: B. France, 89 Finkenbinder, E. O. — Discussion: Ade- quate Compensation for Teachers in State Normal Schools, 236 Finn, M. Teresa — President's Address, 291 Ford, G. Stanton— The Schools as They Have Affected Government Activities, 538 FosDiCK, Frank S. — How to Teach Pupils Respect for Properly Constituted Authority, 661 Freeman, Frank N. — Illumination Re- quirements of School Buildings, 339 JFreshman, How May the, Be More Easily and Quickly Adjusted to College Life? (F. Louise Nardin), 415 Functions, The Three, of the Class Period (Alfred L. Hall-Quest), 575 Funderburg, Clifford — The Six-Six Plan in Indiana, 646 Furnishing, Equipping and, the Modem School (Ella Victoria Dobbs), 191 Gantvoort, a. J. — Music for Citizenship, 292 Gardner, Ethel M. — Constructive Par- ticipation in Organization and Admini- stration by Teachers, 378 INDEX 1SS Gecks, T. C. — The Organization of Public Education for Service in the New Democracy: B. Elementary Education, 67 General Education, Art as an Essential in (George William Eggers), 157 General Education, Drawing as an Essen- tial in, Discussion (Walter Sargent), General Sessions of the Association, 31 Geography, What the War Should Do for Our Methods in (J. Paul Goode), 547 Gildemeister, ThEda — Revision of the Elementary-School Curriculum, 182 Glenn, Earl R. — The Relation of the School Library to the Teaching of Science, 460 Glenn, Mabelle — Music as an Influence in Elementary Education, 298 Goode, J. Paul— What the War Should Do for Our Methods in Geography, 547 Goodsell, Willystine — Some Effects of the War on the Higher Education of Women, 407 Gould, Lucius T. — Necessity for Sharp Differentiation between the Teacher's Point of View and the Administrator's Point of View, 380 Government Activities, The Schools as They Have Affected (G. Stanton Ford), 538 Graduates, What State Normal Schools Should Do for Their (Frank E, Ells- worth), 224 Gray, William S. — The Relation between Study and Reading, 580 Green, Frederick R. — Cooperation of the Medical Profession, 165 Greenwood, Grace— The Scoring of Rooms in Residence Halls, 425 Group Consciousness among Women — Education, What Deans of Women Can Do to Encourage (Eleanor N. Adams), 396 Group Consciousness among Women — Industry and Politics, What Deans of Women Can Do to Encourage (Margaret S. McN aught), 394 GuiTTEAU, William B. — What the War Should Do for Our Methods in Civics and Economics, 552 GuNN, E. E., Jr. — Discussion: Vocational Education, 337 Haines, J. F. — Discussion: Young People's Reading Circles, 451 Hall-Quest, Alfred L.— The Three Functions of the Class Period, 575 Hamilton, Samuel — The Educational Value of Play, 637 Harden, Frances E. — A Plea for Greater Democracy in Our Public Schools, 390 Harding, S. B.— What the War Should Do for Our Methods in History, 545 Harris, Mary C. — Teacher Participation in School Administration, 189 Harris, T. H. — Educational Readjust- ments Following the War, 649 Harrison, Elizabeth — Report of Con- gress of Mothers' and Parent-Teachers' Associations, 428 Hart well, S. O. — School Expenses Con- sidered as an Investment, 564 Harvey, Marie Turner — The Contribu- tion of Teachers to the Development of Democracy: B. Rural Schools, 100 Hathaway, Essie V. — The Contribution of Teachers to the Development of Democracy: D. Secondary Schools, 107 Health Crusaders, The National Legion of Modern (Charles M. De Forest), 308 Health Education, A Practical Demonstra- tion in (Alice H. Wood), 306 Health, School Environment for (James H. McCurdy), 369 Health Work of Schools, Cooperation of Physicians in the (Isaac A. Abt), 161 Helping Teacher, The Work and Value of the (Zenos E. Scott), 642 High School, Office Training in the (Lillian Neipert), 262 Higher Education, Department of, Secre- tary's Minutes, 205 Higher Education, Effect of the War on, Discussion (E. A. Birge), 217 Higher Education, The Influence of the War on (James Sullivan), 205 Higher Education of Women, Some Effects of the War on the (Willystine Good- sell), 407 High-School Library, The, and the High- School Librarian (Sherman Williams). 453 Hill, Sallie — Defects of Supervision and Constructive Suggestions Thereon, 506 Hilton, Henry H. — Modification of Busi- ness Methods in Educational Institu- tions, 210 History and Civics Program, The Necessity for the Rearrangement of the (C. E. Rose), 614 History, What the War Should Do for Our Methods in (S. B. Harding), 545 Holland, Laura Peirce — Child- Welfare Agencies Cooperating with the Schools: B. Girl Scouts, 116 Hopkins, Florence M.— Instruction of High-School Students in the Use of Books and Libraries, 457 Hussander, a. F. — Planning the School Buildings of Chicago, 353 Hygienic Problems in Schoolhouse Con- struction (Frank Irving Cooper), 303 Illumination Requirements of School Buildings (Frank N. Freeman), 339 Immigrant, Education of the (Randall J. Condon), 558 Influence of the War, The, on Higher Edu- cation (James Sullivan), 205 ^. Instruction of Elementary-School Childwn in the Use of Books and Libraries (O. S. Rice), 180 754 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Instruction of High-School Students in the Use of Books and Libraries (Florence M. Hopkins), 457 Intelligence Testing as an Aid to Super- vision (Theodore Saam), 625 Intermediate School, The (William B. Ittner), 328 Irons, R. B. — Supervision in the Small City School System, 622 Ittner, William B. — The Intermediate School, 328 James, Edmund J. — A National Program for Education, 5I7 Johnson, David B. — Pensions, 145 Johnson, Henry C. — The English Lan- guage— Its New Importance and Uni- versality, 606 Johnstone, M. Beatrice — The County School Nurse, 634 Jones, Olive— How the Salary Bill Was Past in the New York Legislature, 139 Journal of Proceedings, 19 JuDD, Charles H. — Educational Speci- fications for School Buildings, 365 Junior and Senior High Schools in Boston, Adjustments between the (Frank V. Thompson), 569 Keith, John A. H. — Adequate Compensa- tion for Teachers in State Normal Schools, 229 Kelly, D. J. — Administrative Problems in Supervised Study, 601 Kendall, C. N. — A National Program for Education, 514 Kerr, Mina — Professional and Social Loyalties, 404 Kindergarten Curriculum, The, as Modi- fied by Modern Educational Thought (Nina C. Vandewalker) , 171 Kindergarten Education, Department of, Secretary's Minutes, 171 Languages, What Shall We Do with the Ancient and Modern? (J. W. Mc- Clinton), 609 Lathrop, Julia — Child- Welfare Agencies Cooperating with the Schools: A. The Children's Bureau, 113 Leavitt, Frank M. — The Administration of Vocational Education, 332; New De- velopments in Vocational Education, 196 Legislative Program, Our (Hugh S. Magill), 654 Legislator's Standpoint, The School Building from the (E. E. Patton), 358 Library Department, Secretary's Minutes, 445 Logan, Anna E. — Discussion: Young People's Reading Circles, 451; Reports on Practical Experiments in Everyday Schoolrooms in Revision of Programs, 186 Long, Fannie Sax — Report of the Council of Jewish Women, 430 I^al Citizens a Product of Physical Train- ■^g (George Wittich), 316 Loyalties, Professional and Social (Mina Kerr), 404 McClelland, Frank C. — Discussion: Office Training in the High School, 263 McClinton, J. W .— What Shall We Do with the Ancient and Modern Lan- guages ? 609 McConathy, Osbourne — Music as an Asset in School Administration, 323 McCoRNACK, W. R. — School Buildings as They Are and as They Should Be, 361 McCuRDY, James H. — A Constructive Pro- gram in Physical Education, 199; School Environment for I^lth, 369 McLean, Kathryn sT— Effect of War on the Education of Women, 214 McN AUGHT, Margaret S. — Cooperation between the Public and the School Authorities in Securing Better Teaching in Elementary Schools, 434; National Aid for Education, 652; What Deans of Women Can Do to Encourage Group Consciousness among Women — Industry and Politics, 394; The Work of the Com- mission on the Revision of Elementary Education, 75 Magill, Hugh S. — Our Legislative Pro- gram, 654 Matthews, A. J. — Treasurer's Report, 741 Medical Profession, Cooperation of the (Frederick R. Green), 165 Meek, Charles S. — Discussion: Essential Factors in the Teaching of Democracy, 15s Membership Growth, Chart Showing, 747 Memorial to Anna Howard Shaw, 1 11 M£ras, Albert A. — How to Teach Pupils That Democracy Involves Duties as Well as Rights, 658 Meredith, A. B. — The Adjustment of the Senior School to Meet New Conditions, 571 Methods in Civics and Economics, What the War Should Do for Our (William B. GUITTEAU), 552 Methods in English, What the War Should Do for Our (Edwin L. Miller), 542 Methods in Geography, What the War Should Do for Our (J. Paul Goode), 547 Methods in History, What the War Should Do for Our (S. B. Harding), 545 Methods in Physical Education, What the War Should Do for Our (E. H. Arnold), 554 Methods of Teaching, The Effect of the War on (A. A. Potter), 208 Methods in Vocational Education, What the War Should Do for Our (William J. Bogan), 561 Miller, Edwin L. — What the War Should Do for Our Methods in English, 542 Modern Educational Thought, The Kinder- garten Curriculum as Modified by (Nina C. Vandewalker), 171 Modern Languages, What Shall We Do with the Ancient and? (J. W. Mc- Clinton), 609 INDEX 755 Modern Rural Life, The Course of Study Reorganized to Meet the Needs of (Katherine M. Cook), 282 Modern Rural Life, The Specific Equip- ment to Meet the Requirements of (Rosamond Root), 287 Modern School, Equipping and Furnishing the (Ella Victoria Dobbs), 191 Modern-Science Courses, Changes Pro- duced in the, by the War (Arthur Deamer), 616 MoRTENSON, Peter A. — Address oi» Wel- come, 493 Music as an Aid to School Enthusiasm (Glenn H. Woods), 295 Music as an Asset in School Administra- tion (Osbourne McConathy), 323 Music for Citizenship (A. J. Gantvoort), 292 Music Education, Department of. Secre- tary's Minutes, 291 Music as an Influence in Elementary Edu- cation (Mabelle Glenn), 298 Nardin, F. Louise — How May the Fresh- man Be More Easily and Quickly Adjusted to College Life? 415 National Aid for Education (Margaret S. McN aught), 652 National Council of Education, Secretary's Minutes: Chicago Meeting, 148; Mil- waukee Meeting, 119 National Education Association Prograjn of Work, The (George D. Strayer), 41 National Legion, The, of Modern Health Crusaders (Charles M. De Forest), 307 National Program for Education, A (J. H. Beveridge), 509; (Edmund J. James), 517; (C. N. Kendall), 514; (George Drayton Strayer), 523 Need for the Substitution of a Cooperative Type of Organization for the Present System (Lotus D. Coffman), 376 Neipert, Lillian — Office Training in the High School, 262 New World, The, and the Demand That It Will Make upon Public Education: A. Manufacturing and Commercial Interests (John H. Puelicher), 47; B. Agricultural Interests (Henry J. Waters), 51; C. American Homes (Ella S. Stewart), 55; D. War Edu- cation Abroad (Frank E. Spaulding), 58; E. Organized Labor (Henry Sterling), 60 Nichols, F. G. — Recent Developments in Commercial Education, 260 Normal Schools, Department of, Secre- tary's Minutes: Chicago Meeting, 228; Milwaukee Meeting, 221 Occupations Open to Boys and Girls under Seventeen — Required Training (C. M. Yoder, 264; (H. M. Winkel), 266 Office Training in the High School (Lillian Niepert), 262 Officers for 1918-19, 15 Organization and Administration by Teachers, Constructive Participation in (Ethel M. Gardner), 378 Part-Time Continuation School, The (P. P. Colgrove), 619 Part-Time Vocational Education (John Callahan), 272 Patton, E. E.— The School Building from the Legislator's Standpoint, 358 Payne, Arthur F.— Cooperation between the Public and the Schools in Taking Advantage of the Vocational Education Bill, 437 Pensions (David B. Johnson), 145 Perkins, D. H.— Discussion : The Inter- mediate School, 329 Physical Education, A Constructive Pro- gram in (J. H. McCurdy), 199 Physical Education, Department of. Secre- tary's Minutes, 315 Physical Education, The Promotion of, thru State Legislation (E. Dana Caulkins), 318 Physical Education, What the War Should Do for Our Methods in (E. H. Arnold), 554 . . Physical Training, Loyal Citizens a Product of (George Wittich), 316 PiCKELL, Frank G. — Discussion: The High-School Library and the High- School Librarian, 456 PiEPLOW, William L. — Cooperation be- tween Boards of Education and the Public, 325 Planning the School Buildings of Chicago (A. F. Hussander), 353 Play, The Educational Value of (Samuel Hamilton), 637 Plea, A, for Greater Democracy in Our Public Schools (Frances E. Harden), 390 Potter, A. A. — The Effect of the War on Methods of Teaching, 208 Potter, M. C. — Address of Welcome, 32 Pound, Olivia — Cooperation of Patrons in Solving the Problems of Social Life in the High Schools, 440 Practical Demonstration, A, in Health Education (Alice H. Wood), 306 Practical Experiments in Everyday School- rooms in Revision of Programs, Reports on (Anne E. Logan), 186 Preparation, The, of Graded Elementary Teachers (Thomas W. Butcher), 245 Preparation, The, of Rural School Teachers (Ernest Burnham), 242 Preparation of Supervisory and Admini- strative Officers (W. G. Coburn), 250 Preparation of Teachers for American Public Schools, How the Colleges and Normal Schools May Cooperate in the (Lotus D. Coffman), 253 President's Address (M. Teresa Finn), 291; (George D. Strayer), 41 Preston, Josephine Corliss — Rural Health and Sanitation, 128 756 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Problems, New, and Developments in Vocational Education (Frank M. Leavitt), 196 Professional and Social Loyalties (Mina Kerr), 404 Program of Work, The National Education Association (George D. Strayer), 41 Public Education, The Organization of, for Service in the New Democracy: A. Rural Education (Lee L. Driver), 64; B. Elementary Education (T. C. Gecks), 67; C. Secondary Education (John L. Tildsley), 70; D. Higher Edu- cation (E. C. Elliott), 73 PuELiCHER, John H. — The New World and the Demand That It Will Make upon Public Education: A. Manu- facturing and Commercial Interests, 47 Pupil Responsibility as a Training in Democracy (I. M. Allen), 202 Reading Circles, Young People's (John D. Wolcott), 449 Readjustments, Educational, Following the War (T. H. Harris), 649 Rearrangement of the History and Civics Program, The Necessity for the (C. E. Rose), 614 Red Cross, The, and the Schools (J. W. Studebaker), 527 Relation of the Faculty and Especially the Dean of Women to the Student Government Association (Katherine S. Alvord), 412 Relation, The, of the School Library to the Teaching of Science (Earl R. Glenn), 460 Relation, The, between Study and Reading (William S. Gray), 580 Report of the Committee on Economy of Time, 668 Report of Committee on Health Problems in the Schools (Thomas D. Wood), 159 Report of the Committee on Resolutions, 22 Report of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions (Joseph Swain), 135; 537 Report of the Committee on Superin- tendents' Problems: Part I. Admini- strative Cooperation in the Making of Courses of Study in Elementary Schools (Harlan Updegraff), 675; Part II. Report of the Subcommittee on Cur- riculum (A. Duncan Yocum), 717 Report of Congress of Mothers' and Parent-Teachers' Associations (Eliza- beth Harrison), 428 Report of the Council of Jewish Women (Fannie Sax Long), 430 Report, Final, of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education, 132 Report, Thirty-third Annual, of the Board of Trustees, 744 Reports on Practical Experiments in Everyday Schoolrooms in Revision of Programs (Anne E. Logan), 186 Residence Halls, The Scoring of Rooms in (Grace Greenwood), 425 Resolutions of Department of Superin- tendence, 488 Respect for Properly Constituted Author- ity, How to Teach Pupils (Frank S. Fosdick), 661 Response to Addresses of Welcome (Annie Webb Blanton), 38 Revision of Elementary Education, The Work of the Commission on the (Mar- garet S. McN aught), 75 Revision of the Elementary-School Cur- riculum (Theda Gildemeister), 182 Revision of Programs, Reports on Practical Experiments in Everyday Schoolrooms in (Anne E. Logan), 186 Rice, O. S. — Instruction of Elementary- School Children in the Use of Books and Libraries, 180 Rights of Others, How to Teach Pupils to Respect the (Katherine Devereaux Blake), 665 Root, Rosamond — The Specific Equip- ment to Meet the Requirements of Modern Rural Life, 287 Rose, C. E.— The Necessity for the Re- arrangement of the History and Civics Program, 614 Roseman, W. p. — Experiences in Ameri- canization, with Suggestive Plan for Development, 477 Round Table Discussion on Business Training in Evening Schools for Persons Eighteen Years of Age or Over (Louis B. Austin), 276; (H. F. Pratt), 276; (A. H. Sproul), 276; (Irving V. Cobleigh), 277; (I. R. Garbutt), 277; (Arthur Dahne), 277; (Harry B, Marsh), 278; (Roberta. Grant), 278; (J. Ferbush), 278; (W. C. Locker), 278; (Seth B. Carkin), 279; (J. L. HoLTSCLAw), 279 RuGG, Harold O. — Cooperation between Boards of Education and the Public, 432 Rural and Agricultural Education, Depart- ment of. Secretary's Minutes, 281 Rural Health and Sanitation (Josephine Corliss Preston), 128 Rural School Teachers, The Preparation of (Ernest Burnham), 242 Rural Schools, Consolidation of (Adelaide Steele Baylor), 124 Saam, Theodore — Intelligence Testing as an Aid of Supervision, 625 Sabin, Ellen C. — Address of Welcome, 35 Salaries (John W. Carr), 137 Salaries, Teachers' (J. Stanley Brown), 147 Salary Bill, How the. Was Past in the New York Legislature (Olive Jones), 139 Sanitation, Rural Health and (Josephine Corliss Preston), 128 Sargent, Walter — Discussion: Drawing as an Essential in General Education, 158 INDEX 757 School Administration, Department of, Secretary's Minutes: Chicago Meeting, 338; Milwaukee Meeting, 323 School Administration, Music as an Asset in (OsBOURNE McConathy), 323 ^ ^ School Administration, Teacher Participa- tion in (Mary C. Harris), 189 School Building, Is the Country Ready for the New? (A. E. Winship), 365 School Building, The, from the Legis- lator's Standpoint (E. E. Patton), 358 School Buildings of Chicago, Planning the (A. F. Hussander), 353 School Buildings, Cooperation of School Authorities and the Public in the Wider Use of (Raymond F. Crist), 443 School Buildings, Educational Specifica- tions for (Charles H. Judd), 365 School Buildings, Illumination Require- ments of (Frank N. Freeman), 339 School Buildings from the Standpoint of an Editor (William C. Bruce), 357 School Buildings as They Are and as They Should Be (W. R. McCornack), 361 School Enthusiasm, Music as an Aid to (Glenn H. Woods), 295 School Environment for Health (James H. McCurdy), 369 School Expenses Considered as an Invest- ment (S. O. Hart well), 564 School Health Work, Educational Control of (George P. Barth), 310 School Hours, Adjustment of, to Meet Con- gestion and Community Needs (Ernest L. Thurston), 567 School Libraries, Supervision of (Carter Alexander), 446 School Nurse, The County (M. Beatrice Johnstone), 634 School Patrons, Department of. Secretary's Minutes, 427 Schoolhouse Construction, Hygienic Prob- lems in (Frank Irving Cooper), 303 Schools, The, as They Have Affected Gkjvernment Activities (G. Stanton Ford), 538 Science Instruction, Department of. Secre- tary's Minutes, 289 Scoring, The, of Rooms in Residence Halls (Grace Greenwood), 425 Scott, Zenos E. — The Work and Value of the Helping Teacher, 642 Secondary Education, Department of, Secretary's Minutes, 195 Senior School, The Adjustment of the, to Meet New Conditions (A. B. Meredith) 571 Service, Educational (Lotus D. Coffman), 531 Sexton, J. W. — Training Teachers to Supervise, 602 Shirer, H. S. — Experiments in State Pub- lication, 465 Simpson, Mabel E. — The Divided-Period Plan of Supervised Study in American History, 587 Sims, John F. — Teacher Training, Includ- ing Observation Schools and Courses of Study for Rural Schools, 120 Sister's Keeper, Am I My ? (Annie Webb Blanton), 402 Six-Six Plan, The, in Indiana (Clifford Funderburg), 646 Social Life in the High School, Cooperation of Patrons in Solving the Problems of (Olivia Pound), 440 Spaulding, Frank E. — The New World and the Demand That It Will Make upon Public Education: D. War Edu- cation Abroad, 58 Specific Equipment, The, to Meet the Requirements of Modern Rural Life (Rosamond Root), 287 State Legislation, The Promotion of Physical Education thru (E. Dana Caulkins), 318 State Normal Schools and Colleges, How to Secure an Adequate Constituency for (J. G. Crabbe), 222 State Publication, Experiments in (H. S. Shirer), 465 Status, The, of the Critic Teacher (W. C. Bagley), 238 Sterling, Henry — The New World and the Demand That It Will Make upon Public Education: E. Organized Labor, 60 Stewart, Ella S. — The New World and the Demand That It Will Make upon Public Education: C. American Homes, 55 Strayer, George D. — The National Edu- cation Association Program of Work, 41 ; A National Program for Education, 523 Studebaker, J. W. — The Red Cross and the Schools, 527 Student Constituency, How to Secure an Adequate, for State Normal Schools and Colleges (J. G. Crabbe), 222 Student Government Association, Rela- tion of the Faculty and Especially the Dean of Women to the (Katherine S. Alvord), 412 Study in the Grades, Supervision of (Grace A. Day), 598 Study and Reading, The Relation between (William S. Gray), 580 Subject-Matter of the Curriculum (Alice Temple), 175 Substitution, Need for the, of a Coopera- tive Type of Organization for the Present System (Lotus D. Coffman), 376 Sullivan, James — The Influence of the War on Higher Education, 205 Superintendence, Department of. Secre- tary's Minutes (Marie Gugle), 483 Supervised and Directed Study (J. Stanley Brown), 594 Supervised Study, Administrative Prob- lems in (D. J. Kelly), 601 758 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Supervised Study in American History, Divided-Period Plan of (Mabel E. Simpson), 587 .. Supervision in a City School System, Necessity and Difficulties of (Herbert S. Weet), 504 Supervision, Defects of, and Constructive Suggestions Thereon (Sallie Hill), 506 Supervision, Intelligence Testing as an Aid to (Theodore Saam), 625 Supervision of School Libraries (Carter Alexander), 446 Supervision in the Small City School System (R. B. Irons), 622 Supervision of Study in the Grades (Grace A. Day), 598 Supervisory and Administrative Officers, Preparation of (W. G. Coburn), 250 Swain, Joseph — Report of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions, 135; 537 Teacher Participation in School Admini- stration (Mary C. Harris), 189 Teacher Training, Including Observation Schools and Courses of Study for Rural Schools (John F, Sims), 120 Teachers for American Public Schools, How the Colleges and Normal Schools May Cooperate in the Preparation of (Lotus D, Coffman), 253 Teachers' Councils, The Value of (William J. Bogan), 387 Teacher's Point of View and the Admini- strator's Point of View, Necessity for Sharp Differentiation between the (Lucius T. Gould), 380 Teachers' Salaries (J. Stanley Brown), 147 Teachers in State Normal Schools, Ade- quate Compensation for (John A. H. Keith), 229 Teachers, Training of (W. C. Bagley), 499 Teaching, The, of Citizenship in High Schools (Thomas M. Balleet), 381 Teaching of Democracy, Essential Factors in the (A. E. Winship), 150; (Lotus D. Coffman), 152 Teaching in Elementary Schools, Co- operation between the Public and the School Authorities in Securing Better (Margaret S. McN aught), 434 Teaching as a Profession, Some Causes of the Present Decline of (Sara H. Fahey), 383 Teaching of Science, The Relation of the School Library to the (Earl R. Glenn), 460 Teaching Service in Public Schools, Ade- quate Compensation for (D. B. Waldo), 494 Temple, Alice — Subject-Matter of the Curriculum, 175 Textbooks, Should Authors *Be Concerned with the Methods of Distribution of? (L. D, Coffman), 468 Thompson, Frank V. — Adjustments be- tween the Junior and Senior High Schools in Boston, 569 Thurston, Ernest L. — Adjustment of School Hours to Meet Congestion and Community Needs, 567 TiLDSLEY, John L. — The Organization of Public Education for Service in the New Democracy: C. Secondary Education, 70 Trained Teachers, An Adequate Supply of (D. B. Waldo), hi Training in Democracy, Pupil Responsi- bility as a (I, M. Allen), 202 Training of Teachers (W. C. Bagley), 499 Training Teachers to Supervise (J. W. Sexton), 602 Treasurer's Report (A, J. Matthews), 741 Twiss, George R. — Discussion: The Rela- tion of the School Library to the Teach- ing of Science, 462 Updegraff, Harlan — Report of the Com- mittee on Superintendents' Problems: Part I. Administrative Cooperation in the Making of Courses of Study in Elementary Schools, 675 Use of Books and Libraries, Instruction of High-School Students in the (Florence M. Hopkins), 457 Value of Play, The Educational (Samuel Hamilton), 637 Value, The, of Teachers' Councils (Wil- liam J. Bogan), 387 Vandewalker, Nina C. — The Kinder- garten Curriculum as Modified by Modern Educational Thought, 171 ViERA, AuRELiA — Education for the Estab- lishment of Democracy in the World: D. South America, 95 Vocational Education (George M. Brace), 333 Vocational Education, The Administration of (Frank M, Leavitt), 332 Vocational Education Bill, Cooperation between the Public and the Schools in Taking Advantage of the (Arthur F. Payne), 437 Vocational Education, Department of, Secretary's Minutes, 271 Vocational Education, New Problems and Developments in (Frank M. Leavitt), 196 Vocational Education, Part-Time (John Callahan), 272 Vocational Education, What the War Should Do for Our Methods in (William J. Bogan), 561 Waldo, D. B. — Adequate Compensation for Teaching Service in Public Schools, 494; An Adequate Supply of Trained Teachers, iii War-Library Experiences (Mary Eileen Ahern), 463 War Savings (W. H. Carothers), 524 INDEX 759 Waters, Henry J. — The New World and the Demand That It Will Make upon Public Education: B. Agricultural In- terests, 51 Weet, Herbert S. — Necessity and Diffi- culties of Supervision in a City School System, 504 Wells, H. W. — Boys' Working Reserve, 535 Wider Use of Schoolhouses, Department of the. Secretary's Minutes, 471 Williams, Sherman — The High-School Library and the High-School Librarian, 453 Wilson, G. M. — Discussion: The Course of Study Reorganized to Meet the Needs of Modern Rural Life, 285 Wilson, H. B. — Discussion: Essential Factors in the Teaching of Democracy, 155 Winkel, H. M. — Occupations Open to Boys and Girls under Seventeen — Required Training, 266 WiNSHip, A. E. — Essential Factors in the Teaching of Democracy, 150; Is the Country Ready for the New School Building ? 365 WiTTiCH, George — Loyal Citizens a Pro- duct of Physical Training, 316 WoLCOTT, John D. — Young People's Reading Circles, 449 Wood, Alice H. — A Practical Demonstra- tion in Health Education, 306 ,WooD, Thomas D. — Report of Committee on Health Problems in the Schools, 159 Woods, Glenn H. — Music as an Aid to School Enthusiasm, 295 YocuM, A. Duncan — Report of the Com- mittee on Superintendents' Problems: Part II. Report of the Subcommittee on Curriculum, 717 Yoder, C. M. — Occupations Open to Boys and Girls under Seventeen — Required Training, 264 Young People's Reading Circles (John D. Wolcott), 449 L 13 N3A13 1919 National Education Association of the United States Addresses and pro- ceedings... PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY