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ADDRESSES  AND  PROCEEDINGS 

OF  THE 

NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 
''^         OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


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Addresses  and  Proceedings 

OF   THE 

FIFTY-SIXTH  ANNUAL  MEETING 

HELD  AT 

PITTSBURGH,  PENNSYLVANIA 

JUNE  29-JULY  6 

i9i8 

VOLUME  LVI 


19 18 
publfsbt  bi3  tbc  Hssociation 

secretary's  office,  WASHINGTON,  D.C. 


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Id 

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p.  his  Volume  of  the  Proceedings  is  reduced  below  the  usual  size  to  comply  with 
United  States  government  instructions.] 


Composed  and  Printed  By 

The  University  of  Chicagfo  Press 

Chicago,  Illinois.  U.S.A. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Act  of  Incorporation i 

By-Laws 5 

Calendar  of  Meetings 13 

Officers  for  1917-18 15 

Secretary's  Minutes  of  General  Sessions 21 

GENERAL  SESSIONS 

Addresses  of  Welcome: 

I.  Babcock 29 

11.  Hamilton    .        .        . 30 

Response  to  Addresses  of  Welcome — Preston 32 

President's  Address — Bradford 34 

The  New  Program  of  the  National  Education  Association— An  Opportunity  and 

a  Responsibility — Schaeffer 38 

The  Life-Career  Motive  in  Education — Ettinger 42 

The  Nation  and  the  Crisis  in  Its  Schools — Swain 45 

The  Nation  at  War — Scherer 49 

Democracy  Every  Day — Collier 53 

Education  and  Our  Democracy — Bagley 55 

Training  for  National  Service — Finegan 59 

Competent  Teachers  for  American  Children — Co f  man 62 

The  Enlistment  of  the  Profession — Pearse 66 

The  Reconstruction  of  the  Race — Peterson 68 

Why  Should  the  Government  Train  for  Foreign  Service  ? — Swiggett.        .        .        .  71 

The  R6le  of  Woman  in  the  New  Internationalism — Post 74 

Practical  Education  under  Federal  Guidance — Smith 77 

Education  toward  the  Formation  of  Moral  Character — Snedden       ....  79 

New  World-Standards  of  Educational  Efficiency — Brumbaugh 84 

The  Immortal  Confiict— West 87 

An  Interpretation  of  Life  in  Terms  of  Beauty  and  of  Color  in  Terms  of  Music — 

Miles 91 

Patriotism — Past,  Present,  and  Future — McElroy 94 

Some  Educational  Values  of  War — Hall 96 

The  War  and  University  Reform — Phillips 100 

The  New  Americanism — Lane '       .        .        .        .  104 

The  World's  Food  Supply  and  Woman's  Obligation — Addams 108 

The  United  States  Boys'  Working  Reserve — Wells 113 

War-Modified  Education,  the  Teachers,  and  the  Schools — Siders      .        .        .        .  115 

War-Modified  Education  and  Illiteracy — Stewart 117 

Character  Education — Fairchild 120 

War-Modified  Education  and  the  Rise  of  the  Common  People  thru  It — Winship   .  123 

The  Rebuilding  of  Civilization  thru  the  Schools — Blake 124 

Thrift  and  National  Service — Vanderlip 127 

The  National  Emergency  in  Education — Strayer 129 

The  Children's  Year  and  the  Opportunity  of  the  Kindergarten  for  Conservation 

Work  in  Congested  Cities — Woodward 131 

V 


vi  NA  TIONA L  EDUCATION  AS.SOCIA  TION 

THE  NATIONAL  COUNCIL  OF  EDUCATION 

PAGE 

Secretary's  Minutes — Pittsburgh  Meeting 135 

The  Patriotism  of  War  Savings — Straus 137 

Thrift  and  Commercial  Supremacy — Bexell 138 

Thrift  in  the  Public  Schools — Chamberlain 140 

Democratic  Factors  in  American  Education — Yocum 141 

A  National  Program  of  Health  Education — Wood 144 

Club  Work  and  Salvage — Daniel 146 

The  War  Garden  Movement — Wilson 148 

DEPARTMENT  OF  KINDERGARTEN  EDUCATION 

Secretary's  Minutes 151 

What  the  Government  Is  Doing  to  Conserve  Child  Life — Merritt     .       .       .       .  152 

DEPARTMENT  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

Secretary's  Minutes 157 

Manual  Arts  for  Social  Needs  and  for  Daily  Living — Thompson       .       .       .       .  158 

The  Body  a  Fit  and  Perfect  Tool— 5Me 159 

Training  for  Social  Adjustment — The  Citizens  of  the  Future — Bradford  .       .       .  160 

A  Better  Appreciation  of  Cultural  Values — Schaeffer 163 

Discussion:  A  Better  Appreciation  of  Ethical  Values: 

Brubacher 164 

Chancy 166 

The  Kindergarten  as  a  Factor  in  Americanization — Hedger 167 

Spoken  English  as  a  Factor  in  Americanization — Barnes    .       .       .       .       .       .  171 

Americanization  thru  School  Gardens — Kilpatrick 174 

DEPARTMENT  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Secretary's  Minutes 177 

Mothers  of  Democracy — Allerdice 178 

Physical  Education  in  the  High  School  in  the  Present  Emergency — Small      .       .  181 

Citizenship  and  Athletics — A  Concrete  Example — Thistlethwaite       .       .       .       .  183 

The  Emergency  in  Secondary  Education — Stray er 187 

Education  of  the  Adolescent  in  England — Roscoe 188 

DEPARTMENT  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION 

Secretary's  Minutes igi 

The  Bill  for  a  National  Department  of  Education — MacCracken      .       ,       .       .  191 

Sex  Education  and  the  War — Coleman 195 

Education  after  the  War — Munroe 196 

The  Problems  of  Historical  Scholarship  and  Teaching  as  Affected  by  the  War — 

Greene 199 

The  Emergency  Council  on  Education — Cowling 200 

The  Committee  on  Education  and  Special  Training — Capen 205 

The  Present  Emergency  in  Education — Strayer 205 

A  New  Educational  Agency— Fori 207 

DEPARTMENT  OF  NORMAL  SCHOOLS 
PITTSBURGH  MEETING 

Secretary's  Minutes 209 

Training  for  National  Service  in  Normal  Schools — Coffman 209 


CONTENTS  vu 


PAGE 

Coordination  of  Theory  and  Practice  in  Normal  Schools — Sprague  .       .       .       .  212 

Report  of  Committee  on  Federal  Aid  and  the  Training  of  Teachers — Keith    .       .  214 

The  State  Normal  Schools  and  the  Problems  of  Child  Health— Small      .       .       .  217 

ATLANTIC  CITY  MEETING 

Secretary's  Minutes 219 

Bringing  the  College  to  the  Normal  School — Philips 220 

Prepare  Rather  than  Train  for  Teaching — Winship 222 

Maintaining  an  Adequate  Supply  of  Teachers  without  Lowering  Standards: 

I.  Pitman 226 

n.  Butcher 229 

The  Distinction  between  Academic  and  Professional  Subjects — Bagley    .       .       .  229 

DEPARTMENT  OF  BUSINESS  EDUCATION 

Officers 23s 

Resolutions 235 

Commercial  Education  after  the  War — Holds-worth 236 

Commercial  Education  in  Preparation  for  Foreign  Service — Swiggett       .       .       .  238 

Commercial-Education  Statistics — O'Keefe    . 240 

DEPARTMENT  OF  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  AND  PRACTICAL  ARTS 

Secretary's  Minutes 249 

The  Reeducation  of  Our  Returning  Disabled  Soldiers  after  the  War — Duffy  .       .  251 

The  American  Homemaker  and  Reconstruction — Baylor 253 

A  State  Plan  for  Vocational  Training — Burdge 254 

The  Influence  of  War  Conditions  on  Vocational  Education  for  Girls — Woolman    .  256 

Preparing  the  Boy  for  Industry — Park 259 

Education  Is  Preparation  for  Life — Holder 261 

Vocational  Reeducation  of  Disabled  Spldiers — Canada's  Experience — Kidner        .  264 

The  Readjustment  of  the  School  from  the  Viewpoint  of  a  Manufacturer — Munroe  265 

Vocational  Education  under  the  Smith-Hughes  Act — Prosser 266 

The  Rehabilitation  of  Disabled  Soldiers  and  Sailors  or  Victims  of  Industry — 

Winslow 268 

Agricultural  Education  under  the  Smith-Hughes  Act — Greathouse    ....  269 

DEPARTMENT  OF  RURAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 

Secretary's  Minutes 271 

The  Relationship  between  Teacher-Training  Departments  imder  the  Provisions  of 
the  Smith-Hughes  Act  and  State  Supervisors  of  Agriculture  for  the  State 

Boards  for  Vocational  Education — Works 272 

Project  Methods  in  Teacher  Training  in  Vocational  Agriculture — Nolan.       .        .  275 

Project  Methods  in  Teacher-Training  Courses — Taylor 276 

Sectional  Conferences  and  Periods  of  Professional  Improvement  Work  for  Teachers 

of  High-School  Agriculture — Stimson 278 

Home-Project  Work  Too  Small — Something  Bigger  Needed — A  Substitute  in 

Operation — Welles 283 

The  Birth  and  Childhood  of  Vocational  Education  with  a  Forecast  of  Its  Develop- 
ment during  Adolescence — Snedden 286 

The  New  Education  in  Agriculture  Based  on  Sound  Pedagogy — Hart       .       .       .  287 

Effect  of  Rural  Continuation  School  on  Agricultural  Efficiency — Stimson       .       .  291 


viii  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

DEPARTMENT  OF  SCIENCE  INSTRUCTION 

PAGE 

Secretary's  Minutes 295 

DEPARTMENT  OF  SPECIAL  EDUCATION 

Secretary's  Minutes 297 

The  Practical  Value  of  Psychological  Tests— Do  They  Find  the  Bright  and  Dull 

Pupils? — Luckey 298 

The  Practical  Value  of  Psychological  Tests— Do  They  Find  the  Bright  and  Dull 

Pupils? — Sutherland 300 

The  Practical  Value  of  Psychological  Tests— Do  They  Find  the  Bright  and  Dull 

Pupils? — Cody 302 

What  and  How  to  Teach  Defectives — Steinbach 304 

Overcoming  the  Objection  of  Parents  to  the  Special  Class — Can  It  Be  Done? 

How? — Blackmar 305 

Overcoming  the  Objection  of  Parents  to  the  Special  Class — Can  It  Be  Done? 

How? — Kordsiemon 307 

After-School  Care  of  the  Feeble-Minded — Steinbach 309 

Does  the  Special  Class  Equip  Pupils  for  Industrial  Employment? — Whitney         .  310 
Does  the  Special  Class  Equip  Pupils  for  Industrial  Employment  in  the  Com- 
munity?    Can  the  Cooperation  of  Employers  During  and  Following  the 

School  Period  Be  Obtained  and  How  ? — Corson 312 

DEPARTMENT  OF  MUSIC  EDUCATION 

Secretary's  Minutes  ' 315 

The  Essential  Factor  in  Musical  Education — Ear  hart 316 

In  What  Direction  Is  Public  Music  Education  Tending  ? — McConathy    .       .       .320 

DEPARTMENT  OF  CHILD  HYGIENE 

Secretary's  Minutes 323 

What  Teachers  Ought  to  Know  about  the  Physical  Growth  of  Children— Ty/er    .  323 

The  Mental  Development  of  Children — Luckey   .  * 326 

Mental  Hygiene — Burnham 329 

A  General  Survey  of  Child-Study — Hall 332 

Children's  Sense  of  Time — Barnes 335 

DEPARTMENT  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Secretary's  Minutes 339 

The  Strength  of  a  Nation  Promoted  thru  Physical  Education — Bucke     .        .        .  340 
The  Influence  of  Physical  Education  on  the  Development  of  the  Individual — 

Replogle 343 

EflFects  of  Physical  Education  on  School  Morale — Prentice 345 

Physical  Education  in  Rural  Schools — Hill 347 

Creed  of  Physical  Education — Warden 350 

The  Policy  of  New  York  State  with  Regard  to  Physical  Training— i2«gg5         .       .  352 

Women  and  the  War — Baer 355 

Effective  Health  Education  thru  Public  Schools — Gregory 357 

DEPARTMENT  OF  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

Secretary's  Minutes 35q 

Introductory  Address — Wunderlich 360 

Recent  Growth  in  the  Admmistration  of  City  Schools— Deffenbaugh        .       .       .  361 


CONTENTS  IX 


I 


PAGE 

Americanization  as  a  War-Time  Duty  of  the  Schools — Becht 363 

School  Finances  as  a  War-Time  Problem — Taylor        .        .        .        .        .       .       .  364 

School  Budgets  and  School  Finance — Griswold 367 

Uniformity  in  School  Accounting — Stover 369 

War  Policies  for  Schools — Gerwig 375 

The  Responsibility  of  Boards  of  Education — Perkins 377 

DEPARTMENT  OF  CLASSROOM  TEACHERS 

Secretary's  Minutes 381 

The  Training  of  Teachers  as  a  Factor  in  Establishing  Professional  Standards — 

Fahey         .        .        .        .    ^ 382 

The  Status  of  the  Classroom  Teacher — Bagley .  383 

Causes  of  the  Present  Shortage  of  Teachers — Ennis 387 


DEPARTMENT  OF  DEANS  OF  WOMEN 

Secretary's  Minutes 391 

Organization  of  Social  Life  Where  There  Are  No  Dormitories,  and  Housing 

Students  under  Such  Conditions — Sanford 393 

What  a  President  May  Rightly  Expect  from  a  Dean  of  Women — Dick      .        .        .  395 

What  the  Dean  May  Rightly  Expect  from  the  President — Smith      .        .        .        .  397 

What  a  Dean  May  Rightly  Expect  from  a  President — Richards        ....  399 

The  College  Community  Life  as  an  Opportunity  for  Socialization — Kerr        .        .  402 

Deaning  in  the  Public  High  School — Purdue 404 

What  Constitutes  Social  Ethics — Stevens 407 

College  Women  in  Business — Prince 409 

Some  Ideals  for  Deans — Woolley 411 

Cooperation  between  School  and  College  in  Character  Formation — MacVay          .  414 

DEPARTMENT  OF  SCHOOL  PATRONS 

Secretary's  Minutes 419 

President's  Address — Harding 421 

Report  of  the  Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae  for  the  Year  1917-18 — Martin  .  422 

Report  of  Committee  on  Education,  National  Council  of  Jewish  Women — Long    .  425 

Report  of  Pennsylvania  Department  of  School  Patrons — Long          .        .        .        .  427 

General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs — Parker 427 

Guarding  the  Schools  in  War  Time — Barnum 430 

Conserving  the  Health  of  School  Children — Hobson 432 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Vocational  Supervision — Moore 433 

Guarding  the  Schools  in  War  Time — McN aught 435 

Rural  Schools  in  the  War — Harvey 438 

The  Status  of  the  Child,  State  and  National,  as  a  Result  of  the  War — Swift         .  440 

Health  Problems  in  Education — Jean 443 

LIBRARY  DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes 447 

The  Child  and  the  Book  in  War  Time?.— Hunt '     .        .448 

Selecting  Books  for  High-School  Boys — Miller      .        .        .        .        .        .        .  ,      .  449 

Practicable  Library  Cooperation  with  Junior  Red  Cross  Organizations  in  Rural 

Schools — Rice 450 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


PAGE 

Report  of  the  Elementary-School  Committee:    Library  Co-operation  with  the 

Junior  Red  Cross — Cutter 452 

The  High-School  Student  and  the  Book— Aley     .        . 454 

The  Relation  of  the  High-School  Library  to  Modern  Educational  Aims — Churchill  457 
High-School  Library  Standardization  Aims  from  the  Point  of  View  of  the  School 

Administrator — Newlon 460 

War  Library  Service — Brett 461 

Library  Co-operation  with  the  Junior  Red  Cross — Power 461 

DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATIONAL  PUBLICATIONS 

Secretary's  Minutes 465 

Needed  Modifications  in  Textbooks  as  Shown  by  the  War — Hunter         .       .        .  465 

DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  WIDER  USE  OF  SCHOOLHOUSES 

Secretary's  Minutes 471 

DEPARTMENT  OF  SUPERINTENDENCE 

Secretary's  Minutes 473 

Address  of  Welcome — Kendall 481 

Response  to  Addresses  of  Welcome — Bradford 483 

Address — Whitman 485 

Topic:  Centralizing  Tendencies  in  Educational  Administration: 

A.  Limitations  of  State  Control  in  Education — Smith 490 

B.  The  County  as  a  Unit  for  Local  Administration — Cook         ....  493 

C.  The  Township  as  a  Unit  for  Local  Administration — Teitrick        .        .        .  497 

D.  How  a  State  Department  May  Stimulate  Local  Initiative  and  Increase 

Efficiency — Strayer 501 

Topic:  Opportunity  and  Leadership  in  American  Education: 

A.  The  Place  of  the  State  Supported  and  Managed  Institution — Wheeler       .  508 

B.  The  Place  of  the  Educational  Institution  for  Women — McLean.       .       .  511 

C.  The  Place  of  the  Educational  Foimdation — Furst 515 

D.  The  View  of  the  Entire  Situation  from  the  Outside — Seitz  .  .  .  .  519 
Report  of  the  Committee  on  Economy  of  Time  in  Elementary  Education  .  .  520 
Economy  in  Learning  in  Relation  to  Economy  of  Time — Horn  .  .  .  .  526 
The  Problem-Project  Attack  in  Organization,  Subject-Matter,  and  Teaching — 

Kilpatrick 528 

School  Practice  as  Affected  by  the  Reports  of  the  Committee  on  Economy  of  Time 

— Kendall 531 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Publicity 533 

Report  of  Commission  on  Administrative  Legislation 535 

The  Report  of  Committee  on  Cooperation  of  Boards  of  Education          .       .       .  549 

A  Message  from  France — Finley 552 

Topic:  National  Responsibility  for  Education  of  the  Colored  People: 

A.  The  Status  of  Negro  Education — Miller 555 

B.  The  Nation's  Responsibility  to  the  South  for  Negro  Education — Williams  558 

C.  The  Nation's  Responsibility  to  Itself  for  Negro  Education  and  Its  Consti- 

tutional Power  to  Render  Aid  Thereto — Fisher 562 

Standardization  of  Schoolhouse  Planning  and  Construction — Cooper       .       .       .  568 

Work  and  Scope  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross— If acCracyfeew 576 

Scouting  Education  for  Girls — Leland 579 


CONTENTS  XI 


PAGE 

A.  Conference  of  State  Superintendents 

The  New  Responsibilities  and  Opportunities  Which  the  War  Situation  Has 

Brought  to  the  State  Department  and  the  Schools — Keeler    ....       583 

How  Shall  We  Conduct  the  Thrift  Campaign  so  as  to  Cause  It  to  Attain  Its 

Maximum  Effectiveness  ?—S hawkey 589 

B.  Conference  of  County  Superintendents 

The  Cotmty  Superintendency  and  Its  Problem — Fair 593 

Standardizing  the  Small  Country  School — Binford 595 

The  County  as  a  Unit  of  Organization — linger 598 

Rural  School  as  a  Social  Center — Hayes 602 

C.  Conference    of    Superintendents    of    Cities    with    Population    over 

250,000 

Financing  the  Public  School — Hartwell 605 

Why  the  Cost  of  Public  Education  Is  Constantly  Increasing — Shoop  .       .       .  607 

Educating  the  Public  to  the  Financial  Needs  of  the  School — Strayer    .       .       .  609 

Efidcient  Finance  for  the  City  School  System — Ballou 613 

D.  Conference  of  Superintendents  of  Cities  with  Population  between 

25,000  and  250,000 
Topic:  Leadership  in  Education: 

A.  Leadership  as  Found  Today  in  Instruction  in  Interpreting  the  Curricu- 

lum: 

I.  In  the  Superintendent — Thornhurg 618 

II.  In  Principals  and  Supervisors — Stoops 623 

B.  How  Leadership  in  Making  New  Adjustments  in  Education  Must  Be 

Provided — Horn 628 

C.  Direct  Instruction  in  Citizenship  in  the  High  School — Bennion       .       .       632 

D.  Thrift  in  Relation  to  Public  Schools — Smith 638 

E.  Conference  of  Superintendents  of  Cities  with  Population  between 

15,000  AND  25,000 
Topic:  War  Problems: 

A.  Economy  of  Time — A  Twelve  Months'  School,  Divided  into  Four 

Quarters — Palmer .641 

B.  Conservation  of  Resources — School  Savings  Banks  and  Thrift  Education 

— Eldred 645 

C.  Increast  Food  Production — Home  Gardening — Sherman  ....       649 

D.  A  Practical  Program  of  Patriotic  Instruction — Blair         .       .       .       .       652 

F.  Conference   on    Compulsory   Education,    School   Census,    and    Child 

Welfare 

Enforcement  of  the  United  States  Child-Labor  Law — Abbott         .       .       .  657 

Child- Welfare  Laws  of  Minnesota — Challman 662 

The  Need  of  a  Continuing  Census  of  Children  of  School  Age — Davis   .        .  665 

Causes  of  Absence  from  Rural  Schools — Clapper 668 

Part-Time  V.     The  Special  Teacher  as  the  Economic    Solution  of  the 

Speech-Disorder  Problem  in  Public  Schools — Swift 671 


xii  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

PAGE 

G.  Conference  on  Physical  Training 
Topic:  Physical-Welfare  Work  with  School  Children  in  War  Times: 

A.  The  Vital  Necessity  of  Physical  Training  for  the  Country  Boy  and  Girl 

— Sargent 677 

B.  Principles  Underlying  Minimum  Essentials  of  Exercises — Stecher    .  681 

Necrology 685 

Standard  Library  Organization  and  Equipment  for  Secondary  Schools  of  Different 

Sizes — Certain 691 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Teachers' Salaries,  Tenure,  and  Pensions  .       .  721 

General  Index 791 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  OF 
THE  UNITED  STATES 


1857-1870 

The  National  Teachers  Associaton 

Organized  August  26,  1857,  at  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 
Purpose — To  elevate  the  character  and  advance  the  interests  oj  the  profession 

of  teaching,  and  to  promote  the  cause  of  popular  education  in  the  United 

States. 

The  name  of  the  association  was  changed  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  on 
August  15,  1870,  to  the  "National  Educational  Association." 

1870-1907 

National  Educational  Assoclation 

Incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  February  24, 
1886,  under  the  name,  "National  Education  Association,"  which  was 
changed  to  "National  Educational  Association,"  by  certificate  filed 
November  6,  1886. 

1907- 

National  Education  Association  of  the  United  States 

Incorporated  under  a  special  act  of  Congress,  approved  June  30,  1906, 
to  succeed  the  "National  Educational  Association."  The  charter  was 
accepted  and  by-laws  were  adopted  at  the  Fiftieth  Anniversary  Con- 
vention held  July  10,  1907,  at  Los  Angeles,  California. 


ACT  OF  INCORPORATION 

AN  ACT  TO  INCORPORATE  THE  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America  in 

Congress  assembled: 

Section  i.  That  the  following  named  persons,  who  are  now  oflficers  and  directors 
and  trustees  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  a  corporation  organized  in  the 
year  eighteen  hundred  and  eight-six,  under  the  Act  of  General  Incorporation  of  the 
Revised  Statutes  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  viz. :  Nathan  C.  Schaeffer,  *Eliphalet  Oram 
Lyte,  *JohnW.Lansinger,  of  Pennsylvania;  IsaacW.  Hill,  of  Alabama;  Arthur  J.Matthews, 
of  Arizona;  John  H.  Hinemon,  George  B.  Cook,  of  Arkansas;  Joseph  O'Connor,  *Josiah 
L.  Pickard,  Arthur  H.  Chamberlain,  of  California;  Aaron  Gove,  *Ezekiel  H.  Cook,  Lewis 
C.  Greenlee,  of  Colorado;  Charles  H.  Keyes,  of  Connecticut;  *George  \V.  Twitmyer  of 
Delaware;   *J.  Ormond  Wilson,  *  William  T.  Harris,  Alexander  T.  Stuart,  of  the  District 

*  Deceased. 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


of  Columbia;  Clem  Hampton,  of  Florida;  William  M.  Slaton,  of  Georgia;  *FrancesMann, 
of  Idaho;  J.  Stanley  Brown,  *Albert  G.  Lane,  Charies  I.  Parker,  John  W.  Cook,  *Joshua 
Pike,  Albert  R.  Taylor,  *Joseph  A.  Mercer,  of  Illinois;  *Nebraska  Cropsey,  Thomas  A. 
Mott,  of  Indiana;  John  D.  Benedict,  of  Indian  Territory;  John  F.  Riggs,  Ashley  V. 
Storm,  of  Iowa;  John  W.  Spindler,  Jasper  N.  Wilkinson,  A.  V.  Jewett,  *Luther  D.  Whitte- 
more,  of  Kansas;  William  Henry  Bartholomew,  of  Kentucky;  *Warren  Easton,  of  Louisi- 
ana; *John  S.  Locke,  of  Maine;  M.  Bates  Stephens,  of  Maryland;  Charles  W.  Eliot, 
*Mary  H.  Hunt,  Henry  T.  Bailey,  of  Massachusetts;  Hugh  A,  Graham,  Charles  G.  White, 
William  H.  Elson,  of  Michigan;  *William  F.  Phelps,  *Irwin  Shepard,  John  A.  Cranston,  of 
Minnesota;  Robert  B.  Fulton,  of  Mississippi;  *F.  Louis  Soldan,  *James  M.  Greenwood, 
William  J.  Hawkins,  of  Missouri;  *Oscar  J.  Craig,  of  Montana;  George  L.  Towne,  of 
Nebraska;  *Joseph  E.  Stubbs,  of  Nevada;  James  E.  Klock,  of  New  Hampshire;  James  M. 
Green,  John  Enright,  of  New  Jersey;  *Charles  M.  Light,  of  New  Mexico;  *James  H.  Can- 
field,  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  William  H.  Maxwell,  Charles  R.  Skinner,  *Albert  P.  Marble, 
James  C.  Byrnes,  of  New  York;  James  Y.  Joyner,  Julius  Isaac  Foust,  of  North  Carolina; 
*Pitt  Gordon  Knowlton,  of  North  Dakota;  Oscar  T.  Corson,  Jacob  A.  Shawan,  Wells  L. 
Griswold,  of  Ohio;  Edgar  S.  Vaught,  Andrew  R.  Hickham,  of  Oklahoma;  *Charles  Car- 
roll Stratton,  Edwin  D.  Ressler,  of  Oregon;  Thomas  W.  Bicknell,  Walter  Ballou  Jacobs, 
of  Rhode  Island;  David  B.  Johnson,  Robert  P.  Pell,  of  South  Carolina;  Moritz  Adelbert 
Lange,  of  South  Dakota;  *Eugene  F.  Turner,  of  Tennessee;  Lloyd  E.  Wolfe,  of  Texas; 
David  H.  Christensen,  of  Utah;  *Henry  O,  Wheeler,  Isaac  Thomas,  of  Vermont;  Joseph 
L.  Jarman,  of  Virginia;  Edward  T.  Mathes,  of  Washington;  T.  Marcellus  Marshall, 
Lucy  Robinson,  of  West  Virginia;  Lorenzo  D.  Harvey,  of  Wisconsin;  *Thomas  T.  Tynan, 
of  Wyoming;  Cassia  Patton,  of  Alaska;  Frank  H.  Ball,  of  Porto  Rico;  Arthur  F.  Griflfiths, 
of  Hawaii;  C.  H.  Maxson,  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  such  other  persons  as  now  are 
or  may  hereafter  be  associated  with  them  as  officers  or  members  of  said  Association,  are 
hereby  incorporated  and  declared  to  be  a  body  corporate  of  the  District  of  Columbia 
by  the  name  of  the  "National  Education  Association  of  the  United  States,"  and  by  that 
name  shall  be  known  and  have  perpetual  succession  with  the  powers,  limitations,  and 
restrictions  herein  contained. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  purpose  and  object  of  the  said  corporation  shall  be  to  elevate  the 
character  and  advance  the  interests  of  the  profession  of  teaching  and  to  promote  the  cause 
of  education  in  the  United  States.  This  corporation  shall  include  the  National  Council  of 
Education  and  the  following  departments,  and  such  others  as  may  hereafter  be  created  by 
organization  or  consolidation,  to  wit:  the  Departments,  first,  of  Superintendence;  second, 
of  Normal  Schools;  third,  of  Elementary  Education;  fourth,  of  Higher  Education;  fifth, 
of  Manual  Training;  sixth,  of  Art  Education;  seventh,  of  Kindergarten  Education;  eighth, 
of  Music  Education;  ninth,  of  Secondary  Education;  tenth,  of  Business  Education; 
eleventh,  of  Child  Study;  twelfth,  of  Physical  Education;  thirteenth,  of  Natural  Science 
Instruction;  fourteenth,  of  School  Administration;  fifteenth,  the  Library  Department; 
sixteenth,  of  Special  Education;  seventeenth,  of  Indian  Education;  the  powers  and  duties 
and  the  number  and  names  of  these  departments  and  of  the  National  Council  of  Educa- 
tion may  be  changed  or  abolished  at  the  pleasure  of  the  corporation,  as  provided  in  its 
by-laws. 

Sec.  3.  That  the  said  corporation  shall  further  have  power  to  have  and  to  use  a 
common  seal,  and  to  alter  and  change  the  same  at  its  pleasure;  to  sue  or  to  be  sued  in  any 
court  of  the  United  States,  or  other  court  of  competent  jurisdiction;  to  make  by-laws  not 
inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of  this  act  or  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States; 
to  take  or  receive,  whether  by  gift,  grant,  devise,  bequest,  or  purchase,  any  real  or  personal 
estate,  and  to  hold,  grant,  convey,  hire,  or  lease  the  same  for  the  purposes  of  its  incorpora- 
tion; and  to  accept  and  administer  any  trust  of  real  or  personal  estate  for  any  educational 
purpose  within  the  objects  of  the  corporation. 

♦Deceased. 


ACT  OF  INCORPORATION 


Sec.  4.  That  all  real  property  of  the  corporation  within  the  District  of  Columbia, 
which  shall  be  used  by  the  corporation  for  the  educational  or  other  purposes  of  the  corpora- 
tion as  aforesaid,  other  than  the  purposes  of  producing  income,  and  all  personal  property 
and  funds  of  the  corporation  held,  used,  or  invested  for  educational  purposes  aforesaid, 
or  to  produce  income  to  be  used  for  such  purposes,  shall  be  exempt  from  taxation; 
provided,  however,  That  this  exemption  shall  not  apply  to  any  property  of  the  corporation 
which  shall  not  be  used  for,  or  the  income  of  which  shall  not  be  applied  to,  the  educational 
purposes  of  the  corporation;  and,  provided  further,  That  the  corporation  shall  annually 
file,  with  the  Commissioner  of  Education  of  the  United  States,  a  report  in  writing,  stating 
in  detail  the  property,  real  and  personal,  held  by  the  corporation,  and  the  expenditure 
or  other  use  or  disposition  of  the  same,  or  the  income  thereof,  during  the  preceding  year. 

Sec.  s.  That  the  membership  of  the  said  corporation  shall  consist  of  three  classes  of 
members — viz.,  active,  associate,  and  corresponding — whose  qualifications,  terms  of 
membership,  rights,  and  obligations  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  by-laws  of  the  corporation. 

Sec.  6.  That  the  ofiicers  of  the  said  corporation  shall  be  a  President,  twelve  Vice- 
Presidents,  a  Secretary,  a  Treasurer,  a  Board  of  Directors,  an  Executive  Committee,  and 
a  Board  of  Trustees. 

The  Board  of  Directors  shall  consist  of  the  President,  the  First  Vice-President,  the  Sec- 
retary, the  Treasurer,  the  chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  and  one  additional  member 
from  each  state,  territory,  or  district,  to  be  elected  by  the  active  members  for  the  term  of 
one  year,  or  until  their  successors  are  chosen,  and  of  all  life  directors  of  the  National  Edu- 
cational Association.  The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  and  all  former 
Presidents  of  the  said  Association  now  living,  and  all  future  Presidents  of  the  Association 
hereby  incorporated,  at  the  close  of  their  respective  terms  of  ofl&ce,  shall  be  members  of 
the  Board  of  Directors  for  life.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  have  power  to  fill  all  vacancies 
in  their  own  body;  shall  have  in  charge  the  general  interests  of  the  corporation,  excepting 
those  herein  intrusted  to  the  Board  of  Trustees;  and  shall  possess  such  other  powers  as 
shall  be  conferred  upon  them  by  the  by-laws  of  the  corporation. 

The  Executive  Committee  shall  consist  of  five  members,  as  follows:  the  President  of 
the  Association,  the  First  Vice-President,  the  Treasurer,  the  Chairman  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees,  and  a  member  of  the  Association,  to  be  chosen  annually  by  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors, to  serve  one  year.  The  said  committee  shall  have  authority  to  represent,  and  to  act 
for  the  Board  of  Directors  in  the  intervals  between  the  meetings  of  that  body,  to  the  extent 
of  carrying  out  the  legislation  adopted  by  the  Board  of  Directors  under  general  directions 
as  may  be  given  by  said  board. 

The  Board  of  Trustees  shall  consist  of  four  members,  elected  by  the  Board  of  Directors 
for  the  term  of  four  years,  and  the  President  of  the  Association,  who  shall  be  a  member 
ex  officio  during  his  term  of  office.  At  the  first  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Directors,  held 
during  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association  at  which  they  were  elected,  they  shall  elect 
one  trustee  for  the  term  of  four  years.  All  vacancies  occurring  in  said  Board  of  Trustees, 
whether  by  resignation  or  otherwise,  shall  be  filled  by  the  Board  of  Directors  for  the  unex- 
pired term;  and  the  absence  of  a  trustee  from  two  successive  annual  meetings  of  the  board 
shall  forfeit  his  membership. 

Sec.  7.  That  the  invested  fund  now  known  as  the  "Permanent  Fund  of  the  National 
Educational  Association,"  when  transferred  to  the  corporation  hereby  created,  shall  be 
held  by  such  corporation  as  a  Permanent  Fund  and  shall  be  in  charge  of  the  Board  of  Trus- 
tees, who  shall  provide  for  the  safekeeping  and  investment  of  such  fund,  and  of  all  other 
funds  which  the  corporation  may  receive  by  donation,  bequest,  or  devise.  No  part  of  the 
principal  of  such  Permanent  Fund  or  its  accretions  shall  be  expended,  except  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  the  active  members  of  the  Association  present  at  any  annual  meeting,  upon 
the  recommendation  of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  after  such  recommendation  has  been 
approved  by  vote  of  the  Board  of  Directors,  and  after  printed  notice  of  the  proposed 
expenditure  has  been  mailed  to  all  active  members  of  the  Association.    The  income  of  the 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


Permanent  Fund  shall  be  used  only  to  meet  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  organization  of 
the  Association  and  of  publishing  its  annual  volume  of  Proceedings,  unless  the  terms  of  the 
donation,  bequest,  or  devise  shall  otherwise  specify,  or  the  Board  of  Directors  shall  other- 
wise order.  It  shall  also  be  the  duty  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  to  issue  orders  on  the  Treas- 
urer for  the  payment  of  all  bills  approved  by  the  Board  of  Directors,  or  by  the  President  and 
Secretary  of  the  Association  acting  under  the  authority  of  the  Board  of  Directors.  When 
practicable,  the  Board  of  Trustees  shall  invest,  as  part  of  the  Permanent  Fund,  all  surplus 
funds  exceeding  five  hundred  dollars  that  shall  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  Treasurer  after 
pajdng  the  expenses  of  the  Association  for  the  previous  year,  and  providing  for  the  fixed 
expenses  and  for  all  appropriations  made  by  the  Board  of  Directors  for  the  ensuing  year. 

The  Board  of  Trustees  shall  elect  the  Secretary  of  the  Association,  who  shall  also  be 
secretary  of  the  Executive  Committee,  and  shall  fix  the  compensation  and  the  term  of  his 
office  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  four  years. 

Sec.  8.  That  the  principal  ofiace  of  the  said  corporation  shall  be  in  the  city  of  Wash- 
ington, District  of  Columbia;  provided,  That  the  meetings  of  the  corporation,  its  officers, 
committees,  and  departments,  may  be  held,  and  that  its  business  may  be  transacted,  and 
an  ofl&ce  or  offices  may  be  maintained,  elsewhere,  within  the  United  States,  as  may  be 
determined,  by  the  Board  of  Directors,  or  otherwise  in  accordance  with  the  by-laws. 

Sec.  9.  That  the  charter,  constitution,  and  by-laws  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  shall  continue  in  full  force  and  effect  until  the  charter  granted  by  this  act  shall 
be  accepted  by  such  Association  at  the  next  annual  meeting  of  the  Association,  and  until 
new  by-laws  shall  be  adopted;  and  that  the  present  officers,  directors,  and  trustees  of  said 
Association  shall  continue  to  hold  offi<ie  and  perform  their  respective  duties  as  such  until 
the  expiration  of  terms  for  which  they  were  severally  elected  or  appointed,  and  until 
their  successors  are  elected.  That  at  such  annual  meeting  the  active  members  of  the 
National  Educational  Association,  then  present,  may  organize  and  proceed  to  accept  the 
charter  granted  by  this  act  and  adopt  by-laws,  to  elect  officers  to  succeed  those  whose 
terms  have  expired  or  are  about  to  expire,  and  generally  to  organize  the  "National  Educa- 
tion Association  of  the  United  States";  and  that  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  corporation 
hereby  incorporated  shall  thereupon,  if  the  charter  granted  by  this  act  be  accepted,  receive, 
tAe  over,  and  enter  into  possession,  custody,  and  management  of  all  property,  real  and 
personal,  of  the  corporation  heretofore  known  as  the  National  Educational  Association, 
incorporated  as  aforesaid,  under  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  District  of  Columbia  and 
all  its  rights,  contracts,  claims,  and  property  of  every  kind  and  nature  whatsoever,  and 
the  several  officers,  directors,  and  trustees  of  such  last-named  Association,  or  any  other 
person  having  charge  of  any  of  the  securities,  funds,  books,  or  property  thereof,  real  or 
personal,  shall  on  demand  deliver  the  same  to  the  proper  officers,  directors,  or  trustees 
of  the  corporation  hereby  created.  Provided,  That  a  verified  certificate  executed  by  the 
presiding  officer  and  secretary  of  such  annual  meeting,  showing  the  acceptance  of  the 
charter  granted  by  this  act  by  the  National  Educational  Association,  shall  be  legal  evidence 
of  the  fact,  when  filed  with  the  Recorder  of  Deeds  of  the  District  of  Columbia;  and,  pro- 
vided further,  That  in  the  event  of  the  failure  of  the  Association  to  accept  the  charter 
granted  by  this  act  at  said  annual  meeting  then  the  charter  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  and  its  corporate  existence  shall  be  and  are  hereby  extended  until  the  thirty- 
first  day  of  July,  nineteen  hundred  and  eight,  and  at  any  time  before  said  date  its  charter 
may  be  extended  in  the  manner  and  form  provided  by  the  general  corporation  law  of  the 
District  of  Columbia. 

Sec.  10.  That  the  rights  of  creditors  of  the  said  existing  corporation,  known  as  the 
National  Educational  Association,  shall  not  in  any  manner  be  impaired  by  the  passage 
of  this  act,  or  the  transfer  of  the  property  heretofore  mentioned,  nor  shall  any  liability  or 
obligation,  or  the  payment  of  any  sum  due  or  to  become  due,  or  any  claim  or  demand, 
in  any  manner,  or  for  any  cause  existing  against  the  said  existing  corporation,  be  released 
or  impaired;  and  the  corporation  hereby  incorporated  is  declared  to  succeed  to  the  obli- 


BY-LAWS 


gations  and  liabilities,  and  to  be  held  liable  to  pay  and  discharge  all  of  the  debts,  liabilities, 
and  contracts  of  the  said  corporation  so  existing,  to  the  same  effect  as  if  such  new  corpora- 
tion had  itself  incurred  the  obligation  or  liability  to  pay  such  debt  or  damages,  and  no 
action  or  proceeding  before  any  court  or  tribunal  shall  be  deemed  to  have  abated  or  been 
discontinued  by  reason  of  this  act. 

Sec.  II.  That  Congress  may  from  time  to  time  alter,  repeal,  or  modify  this  act  of 
incorporation,  but  no  contract  or  individual  right  made  or  acquired  shall  thereby  be 
divested  or  impaired. 

Approved  June  30,  1906. 

Accepted  and  adopted  as  the  constitution  of  the  National  Education  Association  of 
the  United  States  by  the  active  members  of  the  National  Educational  Association  in  annual 
session  at  Los  Angeles,  California,  July  10,  1907. 


BY-LAWS 

(Amended  at  meeting  of  active  members  held  in  New  York  City,  July  7,  1916) 

ARTICLE  I— MEMBERSHIP 

Section  i.  Teachers,  others  actively  engaged  in  educational  work,  and  educational 
institutions  as  defined  in  Section  2,  may  become  active  members  of  the  National  Education 
Association  of  the  United  States  upon  the  payment  of  an  enrolment  fee  of  two  dollars 
and  the  annual  dues  for  the  current  year. 

Sec.  2.  Educational  institutions  shall  include  schools,  school  boards,  library 
boards,  educational  publishers,  and  such  clubs  and  similar  organizations  as  are  distinctly 
educational  or  have  educational  departments  properly  organized  with  a  definite  member- 
ship. 

Sec.  3.  Educational  institutions  as  defined  in  Section  2  may  be  enroled  as  active 
members  and  represented  by  any  person  regularly  connected  with  or  a  member  of  the 
institution,  and  such  representative  may  exercise  all  the  rights  and  enjoy  all  the  privileges 
of  active  membership,  including  the  right  to  vote  at  business  meetings;  provided,  That 
such  representative  presents  a  certificate  showing  that  the  person  named  therein  has  been 
regularly  elected  as  such  representative  of  the  faculty  or  membership  of  such  institution; 
but  no  person  shall  under  any  circumstances  have  the  right  to  cast  more  than  one 
vote. 

Sec.  4.  The  annual  dues  of  active  members  are  two  dollars,  which  shall  be  paid 
at  the  time  of  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association,  or  shall  be  sent  to  the  Secretary 
before  November  i  of  each  year.  An  active  member  may  discontinue  his  member- 
ship by  giving  written  notice  to  the  Secretary  before  November  i.  An  active  member 
forfeits  his  membership  by  being  two  years  in  arrears.  Those  who  have  forfeited  or 
discontinued  their  membership  may  exercise  the  option  of  renewing  the  same  by  paying 
all  arrears  and  getting  the  publisht  Proceedings  of  the  intervening  years,  or  of  becoming 
members  on  the  same  terms  as  new  members.  Active  members  shall  be  entitled  to  the 
publisht  Proceedings  without  coupon  or  other  conditions. 

Sec.  5.  All  life-members  and  life-directors  shall  be  denominated  active  members, 
and  shall  have  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  such  members  without  the  payment  of  the 
annual  dues. 

Sec.  6.  The  right  to  vote  and  to  hold  office  in  the  Association  or  the  departments 
is  open  to  all  active  members  whose  dues  are  paid;  the  right  to  vote  and  hold  office  in 
the  Council  is  open  to  members  of  the  Council  whose  dues  are  paid. 

Sec.  7.  Any  person  may  become  an  associate  member  for  one  year  by  paying  a 
membership  fee  of  two  dollars. 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


Sec.  8.  Eminent  educators  not  residing  in  America  may  be  elected,  by  the  Board 
of  Directors,  corresponding  members.  The  number  of  corresponding  members  shall  at 
no  time  exceed  fifty.    They  shall  not  pay  any  dues. 

Sec.  9.  The  names  of  active  and  corresponding  members  shall  be  printed  in  the 
publisht  Proceedings,  or  the  Yearbook  of  the  Association,  with  their  respective  educa- 
tional titles,  offices,  and  addresses. 

ARTICLE  II— ELECTION  OF  OFFICERS 

Section  i.  The  President,  Vice-Presidents,  Treasurer,  and  Directors  of  the 
National  Education  Association  of  the  United  States  shall  be  chosen  by  the  active 
members  of  the  Association  by  ballot,  at  their  annual  business  meeting,  a  majority  of 
the  votes  cast  being  necessary  for  a  choice.  They  shall  continue  in  office  until  the  close 
of  the  annual  meeting  subsequent  to  their  election,  and  until  their  successors  are  chosen, 
except  as  herein  provided.  The  Secretary  and  the  Treasurer  shall  enter  upon  their 
duties  at  a  date  which  shall  be  determined  by  the  Board  of  Trustees  and  which  shall 
not  be  later  than  the  first  of  October  and  shall  continue  in  office  during  the  terms  for 
which  they  are  separately  chosen  and  until  their  successors  are  duly  elected. 

ARTICLE  III— DUTIES  OF  OFFICERS 

Section  i.  The  President  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  Association,  and 
shall  perform  the  duties  usually  devolving  upon  the  chief  executive  of  such  an  association. 
In  his  absence,  the  ranking  Vice-President  who  is  present  shall  preside;  and  in  the  absence 
of  all  Vice-Presidents  a  chairman  pro  tempore  shall  be  elected.  The  President  shall 
prepare  the  program  for  the  general  sessions  of  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association, 
and,  with  the  approval  of  the  Executive  Committee,  shall  determine  the  time  and  place 
of  the  general  meeting  of  the  Association  and  of  the  various  departments  not  definitely 
fixt  by  these  by-laws,  and  shall  have  the  power  to  require  such  changes  to  be  made  in 
the  programs  of  the  Council  and  the  departments  as  will  promote  the  interest  of  the 
annual  meeting.  The  President  shall  be  a  member  ex  officio  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  and 
chairman  of  the  Board  of  Directors  and  of  the  Executive  Committee.  He  shall  sign  all 
bills  approved  for  payment  by  the  Board  of  Directors,  and  all  bills  approved  or  authorized 
by  the  Executive  Committee  between  the  meetings  of  the  Board  of  Directors.  On  the 
expiration  of  his  term  of  office  as  President,  he  shall  become  first  Vice-President  for  the 
ensuing  year,  and  shall  be  chairman  ex  officio  of  the  Committee  on  Publication. 

Sec.  2.  The  Secretary  shall  keep  a  full  and  accurate  record  of  the  proceedings  of 
the  general  meetings  of  the  Association  and  all  meetings  of  the  Board  of  Directors  and 
of  the  Executive  Committee,  shall  conduct  the  business  of  the  Association  as  provided 
in  the  articles  of  incorporation  and  the  by-laws,  and,  in  all  matters  not  definitely  pre- 
scribed therein,  shall  be  under  the  direction  of  the  Executive  Committee,  and,  in  the 
absence  of  direction  by  the  Executive  Committee,  shall  be  under  the  direction  of  the 
President,  and  shall  receive  or  collect  all  moneys  due  the  Association  and  pay  the  same 
each  month  to  the  Treasurer,  shall  countersign  all  bills  approved  for  payment  by  the 
Board  of  Directors,  or  by  the  Executive  Committee  in  the  interval  between  the  meetings 
of  the  Board  of  Directors,  or  on  the  approval  of  the  President  acting  under  authority  of 
the  Board  of  Directors,  or  Executive  Committee.  The  Secretary  shall  have  his  records 
present  at  all  meetings  of  the  active  members  of  the  Association,  of  the  Board  of  Directors, 
and  of  the  Executive  Committee.  He  shall  keep  a  list  of  members  as  required  by  Section  9 
of  Article  I  of  these  by-laws  and  shall  revise  said  list  annually.  He  shall  be  secretary  of 
the  Board  of  Directors,  and  a  member  of  the  Committee  on  Publication.  He  shall  be  the 
custodian  of  all  the  property  of  the  Association  not  in  charge  of  the  Treasurer  and 
the  Board  of  Trustees.  He  shall  give  such  bond  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his 
duties  as  may  be  required  by  the  Board  of  Trustees.    He  shall  submit  his  annual  report 


BY-LAWS 


to  the  Executive  Committee  not  later  than  July  i  prior  to  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
Association,  which  report  shall  be  transmitted  to  the  Board  of  Directors  at  its  annual 
meeting.  At  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office,  he  shall  transfer  to  his  successor  all 
money,  books,  and  other  property  in  his  possession  belonging  to  the  Association.  The 
Secretary  shall  not  print,  publish,  nor  distribute  any  official  report  or  other  document 
without  the  approval  of  the  publication  committee. 

Sec.  3.  The  Treasurer  shall  receive  from  the  Secretary  and  under  the  direction  of 
the  Board  of  Trustees  shall  hold  in  safekeeping  all  moneys  paid  to  the  Association;  shall 
pay  the  same  only  upon  the  order  of  the  Board  of  Trustees;  shall  notify  the  President  of 
the  Association  and  the  Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  whenever  the  surplus  funds 
in  his  possession  exceed  five  hundred  dollars;  shall  keep  an  exact  account  of  his  receipts 
and  expenditures,  with  vouchers  for  the  latter;  and  said  accounts,  ending  on  the  thirty-first 
day  of  May  of  each  year,  he  shall  render  to  the  Executive  Committee  not  later  than 
July  I,  and  when  approved  by  said  committee  they  shall  be  transmitted  by  the  com- 
mittee to  the  Board  of  Directors  at  the  first  regular  meeting  of  the  board  held  during  the 
week  of  the  annual  meeting  and  to  the  active  members  at  their  annual  business  meeting. 
The  Treasurer  shall  give  such  bond  f9r  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties  as  may  be 
required  by  the  Board  of  Trustees.  At  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office,  he  shall 
transfer  to  his  successor  all  moneys,  books,  and  other  property  in  his  possession  belong- 
ing to  the  Association. 

Sec.  4.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  elect  corresponding  members  as  prescribed 
by  Section  8  of  Article  I  of  these  by-laws,  shall  elect  members  of  the  National  Council 
of  Education  as  provided  in  Section  3  of  Article  IV  of  these  by-laws,  shall  have  power 
to  fill  all  vacancies  in  its  own  body  and  in  the  Board  of  Trustees;  shall  recommend  to 
the  Executive  Committee  the  place  for  holding  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association, 
the  Council  of  Education,  and  the  departments.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  approve 
all  bills  incurred  under  authority  of  the  Board  of  Directors,  the  Executive  Committee, 
or  the  President  and  Secretary  acting  under  the  authority  of  the  Board  of  Directors  or 
Executive  Committee,  shall  appropriate  from  the  current  funds  of  the  year  the  amounts 
of  money  ordered  by  the  active  members  at  their  annual  business  meeting  for  the  work 
of  all  special  committees  of  research  and  investigation  authorized  and  provided  for  by  such 
active  members  at  their  annual  business  meeting,  shall  make  a  full  report  of  the  financial 
condition  of  the  Association  (including  the  reports  of  the  Secretary,  the  Treasurer,  and 
the  Board  of  Trustees)  to  the  active  members  at  their  annual  business  meeting,  and  shall 
do  all  in  its  power  to  make  the  Association  a  useful  and  honorable  institution. 

Sec.  5.  The  Executive  Committee  shall  assist  the  presiding  officer  in  arranging 
for  the  time  and  place  of  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association,  of  the  National  Council 
of  Education,  and  of  the  various  departments. 

The  Executive  Committee  shall  recommend  to  active  members  at  their  annual 
business  meeting  the  appointment  of  special  committees  for  investigation  or  research, 
the  subjects'for  which  may  have  been  suggested  by  the  National  Council  or  by  the  active 
membership  of  the  National  Education  Association  or  by  any  of  its  departments;  it 
shall  recommend  the  amount  of  money  to  be  appropriated  for  such  investigations.  When 
such  special  committees  are  provided  for  and  duly  authorized  by  the  active  members  at 
their  annual  business  meeting,  the  Executive  Committee  shall  have  general  supervision 
of  them,  shall  receive  and  consider  all  reports  made  by  them,  and  shall  print  such  reports, 
and  present  the  same,  together  with  the  reports  received  from  the  Secretary,  the  Treasurer, 
and  the  Board  of  Trustees  and  the  recommendations  of  the  Executive  Committee  thereon, 
to  the  active  members  at  their  annual  business  meeting.  All  such  special  committees 
shall  be  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  National  Education  Association. 

The  Executive  Committee  shall  ffil  all  vacancies  occurring  in  the  body  of  officers 
of  the  Association  except  vacancies  in  the  Board  of  Directors,  Board  of  Trustees,  and  the 
office  of  Secretary. 


8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

Sec.  6.  The  Board  of  Trustees  shall  require  of  the  Secretary  and  Treasurer  bonds 
of  such  amount  as  may  be  determined  by  said  board  for  the  faithful  performance  of  their 
duties,  shall  make  a  full  report  of  the  finances  of  the  Association  to  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee not  later  than  July  i  prior  to  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association,  which  report 
shall  be  transmitted  by  the  Executive  Committee  to  the  Board  of  Directors  at  the  first 
regular  meeting  of  the  board  held  during  the  week  of  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Associa- 
tion.   It  shall  choose  annually  its  own  chairman  and  secretary. 

ARTICLE  IV— THE  NATIONAL  COUNCIL  OF  EDUCATION       • 

Section  i.  The  National  Council  of  Education  shall  discuss  educational  questions 
of  public  and  professional  interest;  propose  to  the  Executive  Committee,  from  time  to 
time,  suitable  subjects  for  investigation  and  research;  have  a  report  made  at  its  annual 
meeting  on  "Educational  Progress  during  the  Past  Year";  and  in  other  ways  use  its 
best  efforts  to  further  the  objects  of  the  Association  and  to  promote  the  cause  of  education 
in  general. 

Sec.  2.  The  National  Council  of  Education  shall  consist  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  regular  members,  selected  from  the  active  membership  of  the  National  Education 
Association.  Any  active  member  of  the  Association  is  eligible  to  membership  in  the 
Council,  and  each  member  shall  be  elected  for  six  years  and  until  his  successor  is  elected. 

Sec.  3.  The  annual  election  of  members  of  the  Council  shall  be  held  at  the  time 
of  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association.  The  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Association 
shall  annually  elect  ten  members  and  the  Council  ten  members,  and  each  body  shall 
fill  all  vacancies  in  its  quota  of  members.  No  state,  territory,  nor  district  in  the  United 
States  shall  have  at  one  time  more  than  seven  regular  members  in  the  Council. 

Sec.  4.  The  annual  meeting  of  the  Council  shall  be  held  during  the  week  of  the 
annual  meeting  of  the  Association. 

Sec.  5.  The  absence  of  a  regular  member  from  two  successive  annual  meetings 
of  the  Council  shall  be  considered  equivalent  to  his  resignation  of  membership.  Persons 
whose  regular  membership  in  the  Council  has  expired  shall  be  denominated  honorary 
members  of  the  Council  during  the  time  of  their  active  membership  in  the  Association 
with  the  privilege  of  attending  the  regular  sessions  of  the  Council  and  participating  in  its 
discussions.  A  member  who  discontinues  or  forfeits  his  active  membership  in  the  Asso- 
ciation forfeits  his  membership  in  the  Council. 

Sec.  6.  The  ofl&cers  of  the  Council  shall  consist  of  a  president,  a  vice-president, 
a  secretary,  and  such  standing  committees  as  may  be  prescribed  by  its  by-laws,  all  of 
whom  shall  be  regular  members  of  the  Council.  The  Secretary  of  the  Council  shall,  in 
addition  to  performing  the  duties  pertaining  to  his  office,  furnish  the  Secretary  of  the 
Association  a  copy  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Council  for  publication. 

Sec.  7.  The  National  Council  of  Education  is  hereby  authorized  to  adopt  by-laws 
for  its  government  not  inconsistent  with  the  act  of  incorporation  or  the  by-laws  of  the 
Association;  provided,  That  such  by-laws  be  submitted  to,  and  approved  by,  the  Board 
of  Directors  of  the  Association  before  they  shall  become  operative. 

Sec.  8.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  Council  may  be  changed  or  the  Council 
abolisht  upon  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  Association  taken  at  the  annual  business  meeting 
of  the  Association;  provided.  That  notice  of  the  proposed  action  has  been  given  at  the 
preceding  annual  business  meeting  of  the  Association. 

ARTICLE  V— DEPARTMENTS 

Section  i.  The  following  departments  are  now  (1914)  in  existence,  to  wit:  The 
departments,  first,  of  Superintendence;  second,  of  Normal  Schools;  third,  of  Elementary 
Education;  fourth,  of  Higher  Education;  fifth,  of  Vocational  Education  and  Practical 
Arts;    sixth,  of  Kindergarten  Education;    seventh,  of    Music  Education;    eighth,  of 


BY-LAWS 


Secondary  Education;  ninth,  of  Business  Education;  tenth,  of  Child  Hygiene;  eleventh, 
of  Physical  Education;  twelfth,  of  Science  Instruction;  thirteenth,  of  School  Administra- 
tion; fourteenth,  the  Library  Department;  fifteenth,  of  Special  Education;  sixteenth, 
of  School  Patrons;  seventeenth,  of  Rural  and  Agricultural  Education;  eighteenth,  of 
Classroom  Teachers;  nineteenth,  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Wider  Use  of  Schoolhouses; 
twentieth,  of  Educational  Publications;  twenty-first,  Deans  of  Women. 

Sec.  2.  The  active  members  of  the  Association,  and  no  others,  are  members  of  each 
department  of  the  Association. 

Sec.  3.  Each  department  shall  hold  its  annual  meeting  at  tlie  time  and  place  of 
the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association,  except  the  Department  of  Superintendence,  which 
may  hold  its  annual  meeting  in  February  of  each  year,  or  at  such  other  time  as  may  be 
determined  by  said  department,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the 
Association. 

Sec.  4.  The  object  of  the  meetings  of  the  departments  shall  be  the  discussion  of 
questions  pertaining  to  their  respective  fields  of  educational  work.  The  programs 
of  these  meetings  shall  be  prepared  by  the  respective  presidents  in  conference  with,  and 
under  the  general  direction  of,  the  President  of  the  Association.  Each  department  shall 
be  limited  to  two  sessions,  with  formal  programs,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Association,  except  that  a  third  session  for  business  or  informal  round-table 
conference  may  be  held  at  the  discretion  of  the  department  oflScers. 

Sec.  5.  The  officers  of  each  department  shall  consist  of  a  president,  a  vice-president, 
and  a  secretary,  who  shall  be  elected  at  the  last  formal  session  of  the  department  to  serve 
one  year  and  until  their  successors  are  duly  elected,  and  who  shall,  at  the  time  of  their 
election,  be  active  members  of  the  Association.  In  case  there  is  a  vacancy  in  the  office 
of  president  of  any  of  the  departments,  it  shall  be  filled  by  an  appointment  made  by  the 
President  of  the  Association.  Any  other  departmental  vacancy  shall  be  filled  by  appoint- 
ment made  by  the  president  of  the  department. 

Sec.  6.  The  secretary  of  each  department  shall,  in  addition  to  performing  the 
duties  usually  pertaining  to  his  office,  furnish  the  Secretary  of  the  Association  a  copy  of 
the  proceedings  of  the  meetings  of  the  department  for  publication. 

Sec.  7.  All  departments  shall  have  equal  rights  and  privileges,  with  the  exception 
stated  in  Section  3  of  this  article.  They  shall  be  named  in  Section  i  of  this  article  in  the 
order  of  their  establishment  and  shall  be  dropt  from  the  list  when  discontinued.  Each 
department  may  be  governed  by  its  own  regulations  in  so  far  as  they  are  not  inconsistent 
with  the  act  of  incorporation  or  these  by-laws. 

Sec.  8.  A  new  department  may  be  establisht  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  Board  of 
Directors  taken  at  a  regular  meeting  of  the  board  or  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  active 
members  at  any  annual  business  meeting;  prouded,  That  a  written  application  for  said 
department,  with  title  and  purpose  of  the  same,  shall  have  been  made  at  the  regular 
meeting  of  the  board  next  preceding  the  one  at  which  action  is  taken,  or  at  the  preceding 
annual  business  meeting,  by  at  least  twenty-five  members  engaged  or  interested  in  the 
field  of  labor  in  the  interest  of  which  the  department  is  purposed  to  be  establisht.  A 
department  already  establisht  may  be  discontinued  by  the  Board  of  Directors  upon  a 
two-thirds  vote  taken  at  a  regular  meeting,  or  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  active  members 
at  any  business  meeting  of  the  active  members;  provided,  That  announcement  has  been 
made  of  the  proposed  action  at  a  regular  meeting  of  the  board  the  preceding  year,  or  at 
the  preceding  annual  business  meeting.  A  department  shall  be  discontinued  when  it 
fails  to  hold  a  regidar  meeting  for  two  successive  years. 

ARTICLE  VI— COMMITTEES 
Section  i.    On  the  first  day  of  each  annual  meeting  of  the  Association,  unless 
appointment  has  already  been  made,  the  President  shall  appoint  a  Committee  on 
Resolutions,  consisting  of  seven  active  members,  and  a  Committee  on   Necrology, 


lo  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

consisting  of  five  active  members,  and  on  the  third  day  of  such  meeting  he  shall 
appoint  a  Committee  on  Nominations,  consisting  of  one  active  member  from  each 
state,  territory,  and  district  represented  at  the  meeting.  Each  state,  territorial,  and 
district  representative  shall  be  appointed  on  the  nomination  of  the  active  members  in 
attendance  from  said  state,  territory,  or  district;  provided,  That  three  or  more  active 
members  participate  in  said  nomination  in  accordance  with  these  by-laws;  and 
provided  further,  That  in  case  of  the  failure  of  the  active  members  of  any  state,  territory, 
or  district  to  nominate  a  member  of  the  nominating  committee  in  accordance  with  these 
by-laws,  the  President  shall  appoint  an  active  member  from  said  state,  territory,  or  dis- 
trict, to  serve  on  said  committee.  At  the  regular  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Direcjors  on 
the  first  day  of  the  annual  meeting,  the  President  shall  appoint  an  Auditing  Committee 
consisting  of  three  active  members  of  the  Association,  no  one  of  whom  shall  be  either  a 
trustee  or  a  director;  to  this  committee  shall  be  referred  the  report  of  the  expert  account- 
ant, together  with  the  communication  of  the  President  transmitting  the  same,  as  provided 
in  Section  6  of  this  article;  and  the  committee  shall  report  its  findings  at  the  meeting  of 
active  members.  The  chairman  of  each  of  the  foregoing  committees  shall  be  designated 
by  the  President  of  the  Association  at  the  time  of  its  appointment. 

Sec.  2.  The  meetings  of  active  members  present  from  the  several  states,  territories, 
etc.,  to  nominate  members  of  the  nominating  committee  shall  be  held  on  the  first  day  of 
the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association,  at  such  time  and  places  as  shall  be  designated 
on  the  annual  program  by  the  President  of  the  Association. 

Sec.  3.  The  Committee  on  Nominations  shall  meet  on  the  fourth  day  of  the  annual 
meeting  at  9:00  a.m.,  at  a  place  designated  by  the  President  of  the  Association,  and  shall 
nominate  persons  for  the  following  offices  in  the  Association,  to  wit:  one  person  for  Presi- 
dent, eleven  persons  for  Vice-Presidents,  one  person  for  Treasurer,  and  one  person  from 
each  state,  territory,  and  district  in  the  United  States  as  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors.   It  shall  report  to  the  active  members  at  their  annual  business  meeting. 

Sec.  4.  The  Committee  on  Resolutions  shall  report  at  the  annual  business  meeting 
of  active  members,  and,  except  by  unanimous  consent,  all  resolutions  shall  be  referred  to 
said  committee,  without  discussion.  This  committee  shall  receive  and  consider  all 
resolutions  proposed  by  active  members,  or  referred  to  it  by  the  President;  some  time 
during  the  second  day  of  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association  the  committee  shall  hold 
a  meeting,  at  a  place  and  time  to  be  announst  in  the  printed  program,  for  the  purpose 
of  receiving  proposed  resolutions  and  hearing  those  who  may  wish  to  advocate  them. 

Sec.  5.  The  Committee  on  Necrology  shall  prepare  for  the  publisht  Proceedings  a 
list  of  the  active  and  corresponding  members  that  have  died  during  the  year,  accom- 
panied by  memorial  sketches  whenever  practicable. 

Sec.  6.  Within  thirty  days  prior  to  the  time  of  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Associa- 
tion, the  President  shall  appoint  a  competent  person,  firm,  or  corporation  licenst  to  do 
business  as  expert  accountants;  the  accountants  so  appointed  shall  examine  the  accounts, 
papers,  and  vouchers  of  the  Secretary,  the  Treasurer,  and  the  Board  of  Trustees,  and 
compare  the  same,  and  shall  also  examine  the  securities  of  the  Permanent  Fund  held  by 
the  Board  of  Trustees.  The  report  of  the  said  accountants  shall  be  filed  with  the  Presi- 
dent before  the  opening  day  of  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association,  and  shall  be  by 
him  submitted  with  such  comments  as  he  may  think  proper,  to  the  Board  of  Directors, 
at  their  meeting  held  on  the  first  day  of  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association. 

ARTICLE  VII— MEETINGS 

Section  i.  A  stated  meeting  of  the  Association,  of  the  Council  of  Education,  and 
of  each  department  shall  be  held  annually  at  such  time  and  place  as  shall  be  determined 
by  the  Board  of  Directors  or  the  Executive  Committee  acting  for  the  board  in  accordance 
with  these  by-laws.    An  annual  meeting  of  the  Association  and  its  subordinate  bodies 


BY-LAWS  II 


may  be  omitted  for  an  extraordinary  cause,  upon  the  written  consent  of  two-thirds  of 
the  directors  of  the  Association,  obtained  by  the  Executive  Committee. 

Sec.  2.  The  annual  meeting  of  the  Association  shall  be  held  in  July,  beginning  on 
a  day  determined  by  the  Executive  Committee.  Two  sessions  shall  be  held  daily,  unless 
otherwise  ordered  by  the  President  of  the  Association.  The  annual  business  meeting  of 
the  active  members  shall  be  held  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  annual  meeting  at  ii:oo  a.m. 
A  regular  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Directors  shall  be  held  on  the  first  day  of  the  annual 
meeting  at  10:30  a.m.  The  first  regular  meeting  of  the  new  Board  of  Directors  shall  be 
held  as  soon  as  practicable  and  within  twenty-four  hours  after  the  close  of  the  last  session 
of  the  annual  meeting,  the  place  and  tune  of  the  meeting  to  be  announst  in  the  printed 
program.  The  Board  of  Trustees  shall  hold  its  annual  meeting  at  some  convenient 
time  and  immediately  following  the  meeting  of  the  new  Board  of  Directors  referred  to 
above  in  this  section.  Special  meetings  of  the  trustees  may  be  called  by  the  chairman, 
and  shall  be  called  on  request  of  the  majority  of  the  Board  of  Trustees.  Due  notice  of 
all  meetings  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  shall  be  given  to  every  member  of  the  board  by 
the  secretary  thereof. 

ARTICLE  VIII— PROCEEDINGS 

•  Section  i.  The  proceedings  of  the  meeting  of  the  Association,  the  Council,  and 
the  departments  shall  be  publisht  under  the  direction  of  a  committee  consisting  of  the 
President,  the  First  Vice-President,  and  the  Secretary,  the  First  Vice-President  acting 
as  chairman  of  the  committee;  provided,  That  in  the  opinion  of  the  Executive  Committee 
the  funds  of  the  Association  warrant  the  publication.  Each  member  of  the  Association 
shall  be  entitled  to  a  copy  of  the  Proceedings.  Associate  members  must  make  written 
application  to  the  Secretary  on  or  before  November  i  for  a  copy  in  order  to  obtain  it. 
Corresponding  members,  and  active  members  whose  dues  are  paid,  will  receive  the 
publisht  Proceedings  without  written  application. 

Sec.  2.  No  paper,  lecture,  nor  address  shall  be  read  before  the  Association  or  any 
of  the  departments  in  the  absence  of  its  author,  without  the  approval  of  the  President 
of  the  Association  or  of  the  departments  interested,  nor  shall  any  such  paper,  lecture,  or 
address  be  publisht  in  the  Proceedings,  without  the  approval  of  the  Executive  Committee. 

ARTICLE  IX— ELECTIONS,  QUORUM 

Section  i.  The  certificate  of  membership,  in  connection  with  the  official  list  of 
active  members,  shall  be  accepted  as  evidence  that  members  are  entitled  to  vote. 

Sec.  2.  Representatives  from  twenty-five  states  and  territories  shall  constitute 
a  quorum  in  all  meetings  of  active  members  and  of  the  Board  of  Directors. 

ARTICLE  X— APPROPRIATIONS 

Section  i.  Unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  active  members  at  their  annual  busi- 
ness meeting,  not  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  gross  income  of  the  Association  each  year 
shall  be  set  aside  for  such  educational  investigations  and  studies  as  may  be  ordered  in 
accordance  with  Section  5  of  Article  III. 

ARTICLE  XI— AMENDMENTS 

Section  i.  These  by-laws  may  be  altered  or  amended  at  the  annual  business 
meeting  of  the  active  members  by  unanimous  consent,  or  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the 
active  members  present  if  the  alteration  or  amendment  shall  have  been  substantially 
proposed  in  writing  at  the  annual  business  meeting  next  preceding  the  one  at  which  action 
is  taken;  due  announcement  of  the  proposed  action  shall  be  made  in  the  annual  publisht 
Proceedings. 


12  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

NOW  KNOWN  AS  THE 
NATIONAL    EDUCATION    ASSOCIATION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


CERTIFICATE 


of  Acceptance  of  Charter  and  Adoption  of  By-Laws  under  Act  of  Congress  approved 
June  30,  1906. 

We,  the  undersigned,  Nathan  C.  Schaeffer,  the  presiding  officer,  and  Irwin  Shepard, 
the  Secretary  of  the  meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association  held  at  Los  Angeles, 
California,  on  the  loth  day  of  July,  1907,  said  meeting  being  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
Association  held  next  after  the  passage  of  an  act  of  Congress  entitled  "An  Act  to  Incor- 
porate the  National  Education  Association  of  the  United  States," 

Do  hereby  certify,  that  at  said  meeting  held  pursuant  to  due  notice,  a  quorum  being 
present,  the  said  Association  adopted  resolutions  of  which  true  copies  are  hereto  attached, 
and  accepted  the  charter  of  the  National  Education  Association  of  the  United  States, 
granted  by  said  act  of  Congress,  and  adopted  by-laws  as  provided  in  said  act  and  elected 
officers;  and  the  undersigned  pursuant  to  said  resolutions 

Do  hereby  certify  that  the  National  Education  Association  of  the  United  States  has 
duly  accepted  said  charter  granted  by  said  act  of  Congress,  and  adopted  by-laws,  and  is 
the  lawful  successor  to  the  National  Educational  Association. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  signed  our  names  this  20th  day  of  August,  1907. 

Nathan  C.  Schaeffer,  Presiding  Officer 
Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary 


VERIFICATION 
RESOLUTIONS   ADOPTED   BY  THE   ACTIVE  MEMBERS,   JULY   lO,    I907 

1.  Resolved,  That  the  National  Educational  Association  hereby  accepts  the  charter 
granted  by  an  act  of  Congress  entitled  "An  Act  to  Incorporate  the  National  Education 
Association  of  the  United  States,"  passed  June  30,  1906,  and  that  the  President  and 
Secretary  of  this  meeting  be  authorized  and  directed  to  execute  and  file  with  the  Recorder 
of  Deeds  of  the  District  of  Columbia  a  verified  certificate  showing  the  acceptance  by  the 
Association  of  the  charter  granted  by  said  act. 

2.  Resolved,  That  the  proposed  by-laws  of  which  notice  was  given  at  the  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  Association  held  on  July  6,  1905,  which  are  printed  in  full  in  the  Journal  of 
said  meeting,  be  and  the  same  are  hereby  adopted  to  take  effect  immediately. 

'^    3.  Resolved,  That  the  Association  adopt  as  its  corporate  seal  a  circle  containing  the 
title  "National  Education  Association  of  the  United  States,"  and  the  dates  "1857-1907." 
4.  Resolved,  That  the  Association  do  now  proceed  to  elect  officers,  and  to  organize 
under  the  charter  granted  by  the  act  of  Congress. 


Filed  in  the  office  of  the  Recorder  of  Deeds  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  September  4 , 
1907. 


CALENDAR  OF  MEETINGS 


NATIONAL  TEACHERS  ASSOCIATION, 

1857-1870 

1857— PHILADELPHIA,  PA.  (Organized) 

James  L.  Enos,  Chairman. 

W.  E.  Sheldon,  Secretary 
1858— CINCINNATI,  OHIO 

Z.  Richards,  President. 

J.  W.  BuLKLEY,  Secretary. 

A.  J.  RiCKOFF,  Treasurer. 
1859— WASHINGTON,  D.C. 

A.  J.  RiCKOFF,  President. 

J.  W.  BuLKLEY,  Secretary. 

C.  S.  Pennell,  Treasurer. 
i860— BUFFALO,  N.Y. 

J.  W.  BuLKLEY,  President. 

Z.  Richards,  Secretary. 

O.  C  Wight,  Treasurer. 
1861,  1862 — No  session. 
1863— CHICAGO,  ILL. 

John  D.  Philbrick,  President. 

Jaues  Crotkshank,  Secretary. 

O.  C.  Wight,  Treasurer. 
1864— OGDENSBURG,  N.Y. 

W.  H.  Wells,  President. 

David  N.  Camp,  Secretary. 

Z.  Richards,  Treasurer. 
i86s— HARRISBURG,  PA. 

S.  S.  Greene,  President. 

W.  E.  Sheldon,  Secretary. 

Z.  Richards,  Treasurer. 
1866— INDIANAPOLIS,  IND. 

J.  P.  Wickersham,  President. 

S.  H.  White,  Secretary. 

S.  P.  Bates,  Treasurer. 
1867 — No  session. 
1868— NASHVILLE,  TENN. 

J.  M.  Gregory,  President. 

L.  Van  Bokkelen,  Secretary. 

James  Cruikshank,  Treasurer. 
1869— TRENTON,  N.J. 

L.  Van  Bokkelen,  President. 

W.  E.  Crosby,  Secretary. 

A.  L.  Barber,  Treasurer. 
1870— CLEVELAND,  OHIO 

Daniel  B.  Hagar,  President. 

A.  P.  Marble,  Secretary. 

W.  E.  Crosby,  Treasurer. 

NATIONAL    EDUCATIONAL    ASSOCIATION, 

1871-1907 
1871— ST.  LOUIS,  MO. 

J.  L.  Pickard,  President. 

W.  E.  Crosby,  Secretary. 

John  Hancock,  Treasurer. 
1872— BOSTON,  MASS. 

E.  E.  White,  President. 

S.  H.  White,  Secretary. 

John  Hancock,  Treasurer. 


1873— ELMIRA,  N.Y. 

B.  G.  Northrop,  President. 
S.  H.  White,  Secretary. 
John  Hancock,  Treasurer. 

1874— DETROIT,  MICH. 

S.  H.  WmTB,  President. 
A.  P.  Marble,  Secretary. 
John  Hancock,  Treasurer. 

1875— MINNEAPOLIS,  MINN. 

W.  T.  Harris,  President. 
M.  R.  Abbott,  Secretary. 
A.  P.  Marble,  Treasurer. 

1876— BALTIMORE,  MD. 

W.  F.  Phelps,  President. 
W.  D.  Henkle,  Secretary. 
A.  P.  Marble,  Treasurer. 

1877— LOUISVILLE,  KY. 

M.  A.  Newell,  President. 
W.  D.  Henkle,  Secretary. 
J.  Ormond  Wilson,  Treasurer. 

1878 — No  session. 

1879— PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

John  Hancock,  President. 
W.  D.  Henkle,  Secretary. 
J.  Ormond  Wilson,  Treasurer. 


i88c 


i88i- 


-CHAUTAUQUA,  N.Y. 

J.  Ormond  Wilson,  President. 
W.  D.  Henkle,  Secretary. 
E.  T.  Tappan,  Treasurer. 


-ATLANTA,  GA. 

James  H.  Smart,  President. 

W.  D.  Henkle,  Secretary. 

E.  T.  Tappan,  Treasurer. 
1882— SARATOGA  SPRINGS.  N.Y. 

G.  J.  Orr,  President. 

W.  E.  Sheldon,  Secretary. 

H.  S.  Tarbell,  Treasurer. 
1883— SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  N.Y. 

E.  T.  Tappan,  President. 
W.  E.  Sheldon,  Secretary. 
N.  A.  Calkins,  Treasurer. 

1884— MADISON,  WIS. 

Thomas  W.  Bicknell,  President. 

H.  S.  Tarbell,  Secretary. 

N.  A.  Calkins,  Treasurer. 
i88s— SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  N.Y. 

F.  Louis  Soldan,  President. 
W.  E.  Sheldon,  Secretary. 
N.  A.  Calkins,  Treasurer. 

1886— TOPEKA,  KANS. 

N.  A.  Calkins,  President 
W.  E.  Sheldon,  Secretary. 
E.  C  Hewett,  Treasurer. 

1887— CHICAGO,  ILL. 

W.  E.  Sheldon,  President. 
J.  H.  Canfield,  Secretary. 
E.  C.  Hewett,  Treasurer. 


13 


14 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


NATIONAL    EDUCATIONAL    ASSOCIAtlON, 
1 87  i-igo7 — Continued 

i888— SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 

Aaron  Gove,  President. 

J.  H.  Canfield,  Secretary. 

E.  C.  Hewett,  Treasurer. 
1889— NASHVILLE,  TENN. 

Albert  P.  Marble,  President. 

J.  H.  Canfield,  Secretary. 

E.  C.  Hewett,  Treasurer. 
1890— ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 

J.  H.  Canfield,  President. 

W.  R.  Garrett.  Secretary. 

E.  C.  Hewett,  Treasurer. 
1891— TORONTO,  ONT. 

W.  R.  Garrett,  President. 

E.  H.  Cook,  Secretary. 

J.  M.  Greenwood,  Treasurer, 
1892— SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  N.Y. 

E.  H.  Cook,  President. 

R.  W.  Stevenson,  Secretary. 

J.  M.  Greenwood,  Treasurer. 
1893— CHICAGO,  ILL. 

(International  Congress  of  Education) 

Albert  G.  Lane,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

J.  M.  Greenwood,  Treasurer. 
1894— ASBURY  PARK,  N.J. 

Albert  G.  Lane,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

J.  M.  Greenwood,  Treasurer 
1895— DENVER,  COLO. 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

I.  C.  McNeill,  Treasurer. 
1896— BUFFALO,  N.Y. 

Newton  C.  Dougherty,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

I.  C.  McNeill,  Treasurer. 
1897— MILWAUKEE,  WIS. 

Charles  R.  Skinner,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

I.  C.  McNeill,  Treasurer. 
1898— WASHINGTON,  D.C. 

J.  M.  Greenwood,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

I.  C.  McNeill,  Treasurer. 
1899— LOS  ANGELES,  CAL. 

E.  Oram  Lyte,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

I.  C.  McNeill,  Treasurer. 
1900— CHARLESTON.  S.C. 

Oscar  T.  Corson,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

Carroll  C.  Pearse,  Treasurer. 
1901— DETROIT,  MICH. 

James  M.  Green,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

L.  C.  Greenlee,  Treasurer. 
1902— MINNEAPOLIS.  MINN. 

WiLLLAM  M.  Beardshear,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

Charles  H.  Keyes,  Treasurer. 


1903— BOSTON,  MASS. 

Charles  W.  Eliot,  President 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

W.  M.  Davidson,  Treasurer. 
1904— ST.  LOUIS,  MO. 

John  W.  Cook,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

McHenry  Rhoads,  Treasurer. 
190S— ASBURY  PARK  and  OCEAN  GROVE,  N.J. 

William  H.  Maxwell,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

James  W.  Crabtree,  Treasurer. 
1906 — ^No  session. 
1907— LOS  ANGELES,  CAL. 

Nathan  C.  Schaeffer,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

J.  N.  Wilkinson,  Treasurer. 

NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1908 — 

1908— CLEVELAND,  OHIO 

Edwin  G.  Cooley,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

Arthur  H.  Chamberlain,  Treasurer. 
1909— DENVER,  COLO. 

Lorenzo  D.  Harvey,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

Arthur  H.  Chamberlain,  Treasurer. 
1910— BOSTON,  MASS. 

James  Y.  Joyner,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

Arthur  H.  Chamberlain,  Treasurer. 
1911— SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 

Ella  Flagg  Young,  President. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 

Durand  W.  Springer,  Treasurer. 

igi 2— CHICAGO,  ILL. 

Carroll  G.  Pearse,  President. 
Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 
Katherine  D.  Blake,  Treasurer. 

1913— SALT  LAKE  CITY,  UTAH 

Edward  T.  Fairchild,  President. 
Durand  W.  Springer,  Secretary. 
Grace  M.  Shepherd,  Treasurer. 

1914— ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 

Joseph  Swain,  President. 

Durand  W.  Springer,  Secretary. 

Grace  M.  Shepherd,  Treasurer. 
191S— OAKLAND,  CAL. 

(International  Congress  of  Education) 

David  Starr  Jordan,  President. 

Durand  W.  Springer,  Secretary. 

Grace  M.  Shepherd,  Treasurer. 

1916— NEW  YORK,  N.Y. 

David  B.  Johnson,  President. 
Durand  W.  Springer,  Secretary. 
Grace  M.  Shepherd,  Treasurer. 

1917— PORTLAND,  ORE. 

Robert  J.  Aley,  President. 
Durand  W.  Springer,  Secretary. 
Thomas  E.  Finegan,  Treasurer. 

1918— PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

Mary  C.  C.  Bradford,  President. 
J.  W.  Crabtree,  Secretary. 
A.  J.  Matthews,  Treasurer. 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION    OF 
THE  UNITED  STATES 


OFFICERS  FOR  191 7-18 


GENERAL  ASSOCIATION 

Mary  C.  C.  Bradford President Denver,  Colo. 

J.  W.  Crabtree Secretary Washington,  D.C. 

A.  J.  Matthews Treasurer Tempe,  Ariz. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS 

Robert  J.  Aley,  President  State  University Orono,  Me. 

Josephine  Corliss  Preston,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction Oljonpia,  Wash. 

C.  O.  Williams,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools Memphis,  Tenn. 

William  A.  Poore,  Superintendent  oi  Schools Santa  Fe,  N.M. 

E.  C.  Elliott,  Chancellor,  University  of  Montana Helena,  Mont. 

L.  N.  HiNES,  Superintendent  of  Schools Crawfordsville,  Ind. 

Annie  Webb  Blanton,  President  State  Teachers'  Association Denton,  Tex. 

John  A.  Widtsoe,  President  State  University Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

W.  N.  Sheats,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction Tallahassee,  Fla. 

R.  H.  Wilson,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction Oklahoma  City,  Okla. 

Walter  W.  Haviland,  Principal,  Friends  Select  School Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Mary  Schenck  Woolman,  Manager,  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial 

Education Boston,  Mass. 

BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 

Carroll  G.  Pearse,  Chairman Milwaukee,  Wis Term  expires  in  igi8 

James  Y.  Joyner,  Secretary Raleigh,  N.C Term  expires  in  ig20 

Walter  R.  Siders Pocatello,  Idaho Term  expires  in  igig 

Agnes  E.  Doherty St.  Paul,  Minn Term  expires  in  igiy 

Mary  C.  C.  Bradford Denver,  Colo Ex  officio 

EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE 

Mary  C.  C.  Bradford President Denver,  Colo. 

Robert  J.  Aley Vice-President Orono,  Me. 

Carroll  G.  Pearse Chairman,  Board  of  Trustees Milwaukee,  Wis. 

A.  J.  Matthews Treasurer Tempe,  Ariz. 

George  B.  Cook Member  by  Election Little  Rock,  Ark. 


J.  W.  Crabtree Secretary Washington,  D.C. 

BOARD  OF  DIRECTORS 

Directors  ex  oflOLcio 

Mary  C.  C.  Bradford,  Denver,  Colo.  A.  J.  Matthews,  Tempe,  Ariz. 

Robert  J.  Aley,  Orono,  Me.  Carroll  G.  Pearse,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

J.  W.  Crabtree,  Washington,  D.C. 

IS 


i6 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


Life  Directors 


Aley,  Robert  J.,  Orono,  Me. 
BiCKNELL,  Thomas  W.,  Providence,  R.I. 
Board  of  Education,  Nashville,  Tenn. 
Brown,  Elmer  Ellsworth,  New  York,  N.Y. 
Butler,  Nicholas  Murray,  New  York,  N.Y. 
Claxton,  p.  p.,  Washington,  D.C. 
Cook,  John  W.,  DeKalb,  111. 
CooLEY,  Edwin  G.,  Chicago,  111. 
Corson,  Oscar  T.,  Columbus,  Ohio 
Eliot,  Charles  W.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
Gove,  Aaron,  Denver,  Colo. 
Graham,  H.  A.,  Mt.  Pleasant,  Mich. 
Green,  james  M.,  Trenton,  N.J. 
Harvey,  Lorenzo  D..  Menomonie,  Wis. 
Jewett,  a.  v.,  Abilene,  Kans. 


Johnson,  David  B.,  Rock  Hill,  S.C. 
Jordan,  David  Starr,  Stanford  University,  Cal. 
Joyner,  James  Y.,  Raleigh,  N.C. 
Marshall,  T.  Marcellus,  Stouts  Mills,  W.Va. 
Maxwell,  William  H.,  New  York,  N.Y. 
Pearse,  Carroll  G.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Schaeffer,  Nathan  C,  Harrisburg,  Pa. 
Skinner,  Charles  R.,  Albany,  N.Y. 
State  Teachers'  Association  of  Illinois 
Swain,  Joseph,  Swarthmore,  Pa. 
Taylor,  A.  R.,  Decatur,  111. 
Teachers'  Institute,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
White,  Charles  G.,  Menomonie,  Wis. 
Young,  Ella  Flagg,  Chicago,  111. 


Directors  by  Election 

Alabama Samuel  S.  Murphy,  Superintendent  of  Schools Mobile 

Arizona CO.  Case,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction .  .   Phoenix 

Arkansas George  B.  Cook,  former  State  Superintendent  of  Schools  Little  Rock 

California Susan  M.  Dorsey,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools. .  Los  Angeles 

Colorado H.  B.  Smith,  Secretary,  State  Teachers'  Association Denver 

Connecticut F.  A.  Verplanck,  Superintendent  of  Schools South  Manchester 

Delaware A.  H.  Berlin,  Principal  of  High  School Wilmington 

District  of  Columbia. . .  J.  L.  McBrien,  Bureau  of  Education Washington 

Florida Willlam  N.  Sheats,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction    Tallahassee 

Georgia : . . .  M.  L.  Brittain,  State  Superintendent  of  Education Atlanta 

Idaho Frank  W.  Simmonds,  Superintendent  of  Schools Lewiston 

Illinois R.  O.  Stoops,  Superintendent  of  Schools Joliet 

Indiana H.  Lester  Smith,  Dean  of  School  of  Education Bloomington 

Iowa L.  H.  MiNKEL,  Superintendent  of  Schools Fort  Dodge 

Kansas Thomas  W,  Butcher,  President,  State  Normal  School. .  Emporia 

Kentucky Mrs.    Cora    Wilson    Stewart,    President,    Illiteracy 

Commission Frankfort 

Louisiana D.  T.  Powers,  State  University Baton  Rouge 

Maine De  Forest  Henry  Perkins,  Superintendent  of  Schools. .  Portland 

Maryland A.  J.  Pietsch,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools Baltimore 

Massachusetts Robert  J.  Fuller,  Superintendent  of  Schools North  Attleboro 

Michigan Fred  L.  Keeler,  State  Superintendent  of  Schools Lansing 

Minnesota Bessie  A.  Tomlinson,  Grade  Teacher Minneapolis 

Mississippi E.  E.  Bass,  Superintendent  of  Schools Greenville 

Missouri Uel  W.  Lamkin,  State  Superintendent  of  Schools Jefferson  City 

Montana W.  K.  Dwyer,  Superintendent  of  Schools Anaconda 

Nebraska D.  W.  Hayes,  President,  State  Normal  School Peru 

Nevada B.  D.  Billinghurst,  Superintendent  of  Schools Reno 

New  Hampshire Theodora  Richardson,  Grade  Teacher Manchester 

New  Jersey Frank  H.  Lloyd,  Supervisor  of  Schools Perth  Amboy 

New  Mexico J.  H.  Wagner,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  Santa  Fe 

New  York Thomas  E.  Finegan,  Assistant  Commissioner  of  Education  Albany 

North  Carolina F.  M.  Harper,  Superintendent  of  Schools Raleigh 

North  Dakota N.  C.  Macdonald,  State  Superintendent  of  Schools Bismarck 

Ohio A.  J.  Gantvoort,  College  of  Music Cincinnati 

Oklahoma Edwin  S.  Monroe,  Superintendent  of  Schools Muskogee 

Oregon Viola  Ortschild,  Grade  Teacher Portland 

Pennsylvania R.  B.  Teitrick,  Deputy  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction     Harrisburg 

Rhode  Island Walter    E.    Ranger,    State    Commissioner   of    Public 

Schools Providence 

South  Carolina J.  E.  Walmsley,  Professor  of  History  and  Political  Science, 

Winthrop  Normal  and  Industrial  College Rock  Hill 

South  Dakota A.  A.  McDonald,  Superintendent  of  Schools Sioux  Falls 

Tennessee A.  A.  Kincannon,  Superintendent  of  Schools. Memphis 

Texas E.  R.  Bentley,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools Alpine 


DEPARTMENT  OFFICERS  17 

Utah C.  H.  Skidmore,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools Brigham  City 

Vermont Caroline  S.  Woodruff,  President,  State  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation    St.  Johnsbury 

Virginia S.   P.   Duke,   Head,   Department   of   Education,   State 

Normal  and  Industrial  School  for  Women Farmville 

Washington Elmer  L.  Cave,  Superintendent  of  Schools Bellingham 

West  Virginia M.  P.  Shawkey,  State  Superintendent  of  Free  Schools. . .  Charleston 

Wisconsin J.  F.  Sims,  President,  State  Normal  School Stevens  Point 

Wyoming Edith   K.  O.   Clark,  State  Superintendent  of  Public 

Instruction Cheyenne 

Alaska L.  D.  Henderson,  Commissioner  of  Education Juneau 

Hawaii Vaughan  MacCaughey,  College  of  Hawaii Honolulu 

Philippine  Islands Walter  W.  Marquardt,  Director  of  Education Manila 

Porto  Rico Ralph  S.  Garwood,  Dean,  College  of  Agriculture  and 

Mechanic  Arts,  University  of  Porto  Rico Mayaguez 

Saskatchewan,  Canada    A.  A.  Kennedy,  Inspector  of  Schools Weyburn 


DEPARTMENT  OFFICERS 

National  Council 

President William  B.  Owen,  President,  Chicago  Normal  School. . .  Chicago,  111. 

Vice-President A.  S.  Downing,  First  Assistant  Commissioner  of  Education  Albany,  N.Y. 

Secretary Adelaide  Steele  Baylor Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Kindergarten 

President Netta  Paris,  The  Kindergarten  Training  School. . .  t . . .  Cleveland,  Ohio 

Secretary Lillian  Poor,  Assistant  Director  of  Kindergartens Boston,  Mass. 

Elementary 

President Alice  L.  Harris,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools. . .  Worcester,  Mass. 

Vice-President Dora  M.  Moore,  Principal,  Corona  School Denver,  Colo. 

Secretary Alfee  O.  Freel,  Principal,  Linnton  School Portland,  Ore. 

Secondary 

President M,  R.  McDaniel,  Principal,  Township  High  School Oak  Park,  HI. 

Vice-President Lydia  M.  Schmidt,  University  of  Chicago  High  School .  Chicago,  111. 

Secretary R.  J.  Hargreaves,  Principal,  High  School Spokane,  Wash. 

Higher 

President William  T.  Foster,  President,  Reed  College Portland,  Ore. 

Vice-President F.  L.  McVey,  President,  State  University Grand  Forks,  N.  Dak. 

Secretary Edward  L.  Schaub,  Professor  of  Philosophy,  North- 
western University Evanston,  111. 


Normal 

President D.  W.  Hayes,  President,  State  Normal  School Peru,  Nebr. 

Vice-President G.  W.  Nash,  President,  State  Normal  School Bellingham,  Wash. 

Secretary H.  A.  Schofield,  President,  State  Normal  School Eau  Claire,  Wis. 


Superintendence 

President Thomas  E.  Finegan,  Deputy  Commissioner  of  Education  Albany,  N.Y. 

First  Vice-President A.  A.  McDonald,  Superintendent  of  Schools Sioux  Falls,  S.  Dak. 

Second  Vice-President. .   Carlos  M.  Cole,  Superintendent  of  Schools Denver,  Colo. 

Secretary Lida  Lee  Tall,  Supervisor  of  Grammar  Grades Baltimore,  Md. 


1 8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

Vocational  Education  and  Practical  Arts 

President Frank  H.  Shepherd,  Associate  Professor,  Oregon  State 

Agricultural  College Corvallis,  Ore. 

First  Vice-President.  . . .  Arthur  Wesley  Dow,  Professor  of  Fine  Arts,  Teachers 

College,  Columbia  University New  York,  N.  Y. 

Second  Vice-President. .  Adelahje  Steele  Baylor Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Secretary Lester  W.  Bartlett,  Vocational  Adviser,  City  Schools.  Pomona,  Cal. 

Music 

President Osbourne    McConathy,  Professor   of    Music,   North- 
western University Evanston,  111. 

Vice-President Teresa  Finn,  Supervisor  of  Music St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Secretary Phh-ip  C.  Hayden,  Editor  of  School  Music Keokuk,  Iowa 

Business 

President G.  P.  Eckels,  Westinghouse  High  School Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Vice-President James  C.  Reed,  State  Normal  School Whitewater,  Wis. 

Secretary L.  L,  Hartley,  Schenley  High  School Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Librarian David  H.  O'Keefe,  High  School  of  Commerce New  York,  N.Y. 

Child  Hygiene 

President Dr.  E.  A.  Peterson,  Head  of  Department  of  School 

Hygiene Cleveland,  Ohio 

Vice-President Dr.  Arthur  Holmes,  Dean  of  Faculties State  College,  Pa. 

Secretary Mary  E.  Lent,  Public  Health  Nursing  Association New  York,  N.Y. 

Physical 

President Baroness  Rose  Posse,  President,  Posse  Normal  School 

of  Gsminastics Boston,  Mass. 

Vice-President C.  Ward  Crampton,  Director  of  Physical  Training,  City 

Schools New  York,  N.Y. 

Secretary E.  H.  Arnold,  Director,  Normar  School  of  Gjmmastics. .  New  Haven,  Conn. 

»  Science 

President W.  H.  Timbie,  Head  of  Applied  Science  Department, 

Wentworth  Institute Boston,  Mass. 

Vice-President Chester  B.  Curtis,  Principal,  Central  High  School St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Secretary Fred  D.  Barber,  Professor  of  Physics,  State  Normal 

University Normal,  111. 

School  Administration 

President O.  M.  Plummer,  Member,  Board  of  Education Portland,  Ore. 

Vice-President Albert  Wunderlich,  School  Director St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Secretary Willlam  C.  Bruce,  Editor,  School  Board  Journal Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Library 

President C.  C.   Certain,  Head    of    English   Department,  Cass 

Technical  High  School Detroit,  Mich. 

Vice-President LuciLE  F.  Fargo,  Librarian,  North  Central  High  School  Spokane,  Wash. 

Secretary Lucy  E.  Fay,  Librarian,  University  of  Tennessee Knoxville,  Tenn. 

Special 

President Joseph  P.  Byers,  701-3  Empire  Building Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Vice-President Ida  M.  Manley,  Supervisor,  Department  for  Defective 

Children Portland,  Ore. 

Secretary Frances  Kohnky,  Burnet  and  Heame  avenue* Cincinnati,  Ohio 


DEPARTMENT  OFFICERS  19 

School  Patrons 

President.  • .  A Mrs.  Charles  F.  Harding,  4842  Kenwood  Avenue Chicago,  HI. 

Vice-President Mrs.  Gertrude  S.  Martin,  934  Stewart  Avenue Ithaca,  N.Y. 

Secretary Mrs.  Henry  Kuh,  4404  Ellis  Avenue Chicago,  111. 

Rural  and  Agricultural 

President C.  H.  Lane,  Chief  Spedalist  in  Agricultural  Education, 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture Washington,  D.C. 

Vice-President W.   F.  Lusk,  Professor    of    Rural  Education,   Cornell 

University Ithaca,  N.Y. 

Secretary Charl  O.  Williams,  Superintendent  of  Shelby  County 

Schools Memphis,  Tenn. 

Classroom  Teachers 

President Sara  H.  Fahey,  Teacher  of  English,  Seward  Park  School  New  York,  N.Y. 

Vice-President Viola  Ortschild,  Grade  Teacher,  Cauch  School Portland,  Ore. 

Secretary Mary  V.  Donoghue,  Grade  Teacher,  Stewart  School. . .  Chicago,  111. 

Educational  Publications 

President Arthur  H.  Chamberlain,  Editor,  Sierra  Educational 

News San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Secretary George  L.  Towne,  Editor,  Nebraska  Teacher Lincoln,  Nebr. 

Deans  of  "Women 

President Kathryn    Sisson-McLean,    Dean    of    Women,    Ohio 

Wesleyan  University Delaware,  Ohio 

Vice-President Margaret  Jean  Calvin New  York,  N.Y. 

Secretary-Treasurer Rhoda  M.  White,  State  College Pullman,  Wash. 


JOURNAL  OF  PROCEEDINGS 

OF  THE 

FIFTY-SIXTH  ANNUAL  MEETING 

OF  THE 

NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION   OF 
THE  UNITED  STATES 


PITTSBURGH,  PA.,  JUNE  29— JULY  6,  1918 


EDUCATIONAL  SUNDAY 

Sunday,  June  30,  was  observed  as  Educational  Sunday.  In  many. of  the  churches 
the  pastors  had  invited  prominent  educators  in  attendance  at  the  convention  to  speak 
from  the  pulpit  on  topics  of  educational  interest,  and  the  public  attended  the  services  in 
large  numbers. 

FIRST   DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 

OPENING  SESSION— Monday  Afternoon,  July  i,  2:00  o'clock 

The  Fifty-sixth  Annual  Convention  of  the  National  Education  Association  was  opened 
in  Syria  Mosque,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  at  2:00  p.m.  on  July  i. 

Vice-President  Robert  J.  Aley,  of  the  University  of  Maine,  Orono,  Me.,  presided  at 
the  opening  of  the  session. 

The  meeting  opened  with  community  and  patriotic  singing,  led  by  Will  Earhart, 
of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  after  which  Adele  Bradford  Hatton,  of  Denver,  Colo.,  read  from  the 
Scriptures  and  the  "Star-Spangled  Banner." 

Addresses  of  welcome  were  given  by  E.  V.  Babcock,  mayor,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.;  Samuel 
Hamilton,  superintendent  of  schools,  Allegheny  County,  Pa.;  W.  M.  Davidson,  super- 
intendent of  schools,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.;  and  responded  to  by  Josephine  Corliss  Preston, 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Olympia,  Wash. 

Vice-President  Aley  then  introduced  Mary  C.  C.  Bradford,  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  Denver,  Colo.,  president  of  the  National  Education  Association,  and 
transferred  to  her  the  conduct  of  the  convention. 

President  Bradford  then  delivered  the  presidential  address,  which  was  entitled,  "The 
Building  of  the  New  Civilization." 

Nathan  C.  Schaeffer,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Harrisburg,  Pa., 
delivered  the  closing  address. 

President  Bradford  announst  the  Committee  on  Resolutions,  and  other  committees. 

SECOND  SESSION— Monday  Evening,  July  i,  8:00  o'clock 

The  meeting  was  given  over  to  a  discussion  of  "War-Modified  Education  in  the 
countries  of  our  European  Allies."  The  following  speakers  presented  the  views  of  their 
respective  countries:  Amy  A.  Bernardy,  Rome,  Italy,  representing  the  government  and 
education  associations  of  Italy;  Frank  Roscoe,  secretary,  Teachers'  Registration  Council, 
London,  England,  representing  the  government  and  education  associations  of  Great 


22  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

Britain;  Suzanne  Silvercruys,  Belgian  Relief  Committee,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  representing 
the  government  and  the  people  of  Belgium;  Paul  Perigord,  French  High  Commission, 
Washington,  D.C.,  representing  the  government  and  education  associations  of  France. 

SECOND  DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 
THIRD  SESSION— Tuesday  Afternoon,  July  2,  2:00  o'clock 

Following  community  and  patriotic  singing,  addresses  were  delivered  by  the  following: 
Walter  A.  Jessup,  president,  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa;  Katherine  D.  Blake, 
principal.  Public  School  No.  6,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.;  William  L.  Ettinger,  superintendent  of 
schools.  New  York,  N.Y.;  Joseph  Swain,  president,  Swarthmore  College,  Swarthmore, 
Pa.;  Frank  A.  Vanderlip,  chairman.  National  War  Savings  Committee,  Washington,  D.C. 

FQURTH  SESSION— Tuesday  Evening,  July  2,  8:00  o'clock 

The  general  topic  for  discussion  was  "Education  for  Democracy,"  and  after  com- 
munity and  patriotic  singing  by  the  audience,  addresses  were  delivered  by:  James  A.  B. 
Scherer,  member.  Council  of  National  Defense,  Washington,  D,  C;  John  Collier,  presi- 
dent. National  Community  Center  Association,  New  York,  N.Y.;  P.  P.  Claxton,  National 
Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C;  ex-Governor  Eberhart,  of  Minnesota. 

THIRD  DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 
FIFTH  SESSION — Wednesday  Afternoon,  July  3,  2:00  o'clock 

The  topic  for  the  afternoon  was  "The  National  Emergency  in  Education,"  and  the 
vital  points  in  the  work  of  the  National  Education  Association  Commission  were  presented 
by  the  following  members  of  the  commission: 

W.  C.  Bagley,  professor  of  education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New 
York,  N.Y.;  Thomas  E.  Finegan,  deputy  commissioner  of  education,  Albany,  N.Y.; 
Lotus  D.  Coffman,  dean  of  the  College  of  Education,  University  of  Minnesota,  Minne- 
apolis, Minn.;  Carroll  G.  Pearse,  president.  State  Normal  School,  Milwaukee,  Wis.; 
J.  A.  C.  Chandler,  superintendent  of  schools,  Richmond,  Va.;  George  D.  Strayer,  pro- 
fessor of  educational  administration.  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York, 
N.Y. 

SIXTH  SESSION— Wednesday  Evening,  July  3,  8:00  o'clock 

The  meeting  opened  with  community  and  patriotic  singing,  led  by  A.  J.  Gantvoort, 
College  of  Music,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

After  the  singing,  the  following  delivered  addresses  on  various  phases  of  the  general 
topic  "Training  for  Foreign  Service";  Frederick  Peterson,  president.  Lunacy  Commission, 
New  York,  N.Y. ;  Glen  L.  Swiggett,  Bureau  of  Education,  chairman.  Committee  of  Fif- 
teen on  Educational  Preparation  for  Foreign  Service,  Washington,  D.C;  Mrs.  Louis  F. 
Post,  member.  Executive  Committee,  Women's  Auxiliary  Committee  of  the  United 
States,  Second  Pan-American  Scientific  Congress,  Washington,  D.C 

At  the  close  of  the  session  President  Bradford  announst  the  appointment  of  the 
Committee  on  Nominations. 

FOURTH  DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 
SEVENTH  SESSION— Thursday  Forenoon,  July  4,  9:00  o'clock 

After  community  and  patriotic  singing,  the  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  President 
Bradford,  and  addresses  were  given  by:  Elizabeth  A.  Woodward,  supervisor,  Brooklyn 
Free  Kindergarten  Society,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.;  Ernest  A.  Smith,  superintendent  of  schools. 


JOURNAL  OF  PROCEEDINGS  23 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah;  David  Snedden,  professor  of  education,  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia University,  New  York,  N.Y.;  Ella  Flagg  Young,  Washington,  D.C.;  Martin  G. 
Brumbaugh,  governor  of  Pennsylvania,  Harrisburg,  Pa. 

EIGHTH  SESSION — Thursday  Evening,  July  4,  8:00  o'clock 

President  Bradford  called  the  meeting  to  order,  after  the  usual  community  and 
patriotic  singing,  and  the  addresses  of  the  evening  were  given  by:  Andrew  F.  West,  dean, 
Graduate  School,  Princeton  University,  Princeton,  NJ.;  Maud  M.  Miles,  art  depart- 
ment. Manual  Training  High  School,  Kansas  City,  Mo.;  R.  M.  McElroy,  president, 
National  Security  League,  New  York,  N.Y.;  G.  Stanley  Hall,  president,  Clark  University, 
Worcester,  Mass. 

FIFTH  DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 
NINTH  SESSION — FRroAY  Forenoon,  July  5,  9:00  o'clock 

The  meeting  opened  with  community  and  patriotic  singing,  led  by  P.  W,  Dykema, 
University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis.,  after  which  the  meeting  was  called  to  order  by 
President  Bradford,  and  addresses  were  delivered  by  the  following:  J.  A.  Churchill,  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Salem,  Ore.;  D.  E.  Phillips,  head  of  department  of 
psychology  and  education.  University  of  Denver,  Denver,  Colo.;  Franklin  K.  Lane,  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior,  Washington,  D.C. 

Following  the  program,  the  annual  business  meeting  of  active  members  was  held. 

TENTH  SESSION— Friday  Afternoon,  July  5,  2:00  o'clock 

The  general  topic  for  discussion  was  "War-Modified  Education  and  the  Rise  of  the 
Common  Life  thru  It." 

After  the  opening  music,  the  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  President  Bradford,  and 
the  addresses  of  the  afternoon  were  given  by  the  following:  H.  W.  Wells,  Boys'  Working 
Reserve,  Department  of  Labor,  Washington,  D.C;  Walter  R.  Siders,  superintendent 
of  schools,  Pocatello,  Idaho;  Cora  Wilson  Stewart,  president,  Kentucky  Illiteracy  Com- 
mission, Frankfort,  Ky.;  Jane  Addams,  Hull-House,  Chicago,  111.;  Mrs.  George  Bass, 
secretary.  National  Liberty  Loan  Committee,  Washington,  D.C;  Milton  Fairchild, 
Isfational  Institute  for  Moral  Instruction,  Washington,  D.C;  A.  E.  Winship,  Journal 
of  Education,  Boston,  Mass. 

J.  W.  Crabtree,  Secretary 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  RESOLUTIONS 

The  members  of  the  Association  express  their  appreciation  to  the  Committee  on 
Arrangements  for  the  measures  taken  for  the  success  of  this  meeting,  to  the  press  of  the 
city  for  its  reports  of  our  meetings,  to  the  teachers,  to  the  Board  of  Education,  to  the 
city  officials,  to  the  chairmen  and  their  associates  of  the  special  Committees  on  Enter- 
tainment, and  to  the  citizens  of  Pittsburgh  for  the  royal  welcome  and  hospitality  accorded 
the  Association. 

DECLARATION  OF  PRINCIPLES 

The  National  Education  Association,  assembled  in  annual  convention  in  the  city  of 
Pittsburgh,  July  5,  1918,  recognizes  that  the  first  great  business  of  the  nation  is  the  winning 
of  the  war,  and  to  this  end  pledges  the  fullest  measure  of  service  and  sacrifice  for  the  sacred 
cause  of  our  country,  of  democracy,  and  of  humanity. 

At  this  fateful  hour  in  the  life  of  our  nation  the  Association  reaffirms  its  faith  in  the 
American  common-school  system  as  the  only  safe  and  sure  foundation  for  a  democracy 
either  in  peace  or  in  war.    It  asserts  its  belief  that  the  three-quarters  of  a  century  of  free 


24  NA  TIONAL  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION 

public  instruction  was  the  main  factor  in  preparing  our  people  for  that  quick  and  right 
understanding  of  the  real  meaning  of  this  world-conflict,  and  in  making  possible  that  hearty 
concord  of  thought  and  action  which  placed  the  material  and  human  resources  of  the 
Republic  on  the  side  of  righteousness,  humanity,  and  civilization.  With  peculiar  satis- 
faction the  Association  points  to  the  fact  that  750,000  teachers  and  twenty-two  million 
pupils  have  supported  loyally  every  plan  and  purpose  of  President  Wilson  and  Congress 
in  their  masterful  leadership  in  honorable  warfare  for  a  just  cause  and  a  decisive  victory. 

WAR  CRISIS   SHOWS  NEED   FOR  READJUSTMENT 

While  this  Association  believes  that  the  war  crisis  has  disclosed  to  the  nation,  as  no 
other  event  has,  the  strength  and  worth  of  the  American  school  system,  it  does  not  fail  to 
recognize  that  the  emergencies  and  demands  of  war  have  laid  bare  certain  weaknesses  and 
shortcomings  in  the  scope  and  character  of  public  education  that  now  call  for  readjust- 
ment and  reorganization. 

ASSOCIATION  COMMENDS  COMMISSION 

The  Association  commends  its  Commission  on  the  National  Emergency  in  Education 
for  the  broad  and  comprehensive  study  of  these  needed  readjustments. 

AMERICANIZING  THE   ADULT  POPULATION 

The  high  percentage  of  adult  illiteracy  and  the  lack  of  understanding  of  the  real 
meaning  of  our  nation  and  the  principles  of  its  government  constitute  a  menace  to  national 
unity  and  national  safety.  Therefore  this  Association  recommends  that  the  government 
shall  share  with  the  states  the  responsibility  of  providing  the  funds,  the  organization,  the 
administration,  and  the  supervision  necessary  for  Americanizing  and  making  literate  the 
adult  population  of  the  entire  country. 

A  NATIONAL  POLICY   OF  ENCOURAGEMENT 

The  most  alarming  shortcoming  in  our  system  disclosed  by  the  war  is  the  unequal 
educational  opportunities  offered  by  the  different  states  to  the  children  of  school  age  within 
those  states.  As  long  as  a  single  state  in  the  Union  fails  to  provide  its  youth  with  the 
means  of  attaining  certain  minimum,  nation-wide  standards  of  health,  intelligence, 
citizenship,  and  character,  our  national  life  and  unity  are  endangered.  This  Association 
therefore  urges  that  the  government  shall  immediately  adopt  the  policy  of  encouraging 
all  the  states  to  establish  uniform  minimum  standards  of  health  service,  training  for  citizen-, 
ship,  and  preparation  and  compensation  of  teachers,  thru  financial  aid  distributed  to  the 
states  enforcing  these  standards,  the  amount  to  which  any  state  is  entitled  to  be  deter- 
mined on  a  simple  basis.  ^  Nothing  in  this  national  policy  of  encouragement  to  the  several 
states  shall  be  permitted  in  any  way  to  weaken  the  local  responsibility  or  initiative  or  to 
subtract  from  the  power  of  the  state  to  organize,  administer,  and  supervise  the  schools  of 
that  state. 

ASSOCIATION   AUTHORIZES   FIELD   SECRETARY 

The  Association  commands  the  thorogoing  study  made  by  the  Committee  on  Salaries, 
Tenure,  and  Pensions,  and  recommends  its  report  for  the  careful  consideration  and  use 
of  teachers,  school  boards,  taxpayers,  and  lawmakers.  In  order  to  collect  full  information 
concerning  the  present  state  of  public  education,  to  enlighten  public  opinion,  and  to  aid  in 
securing  appropriate  local,  state,  and  national  school  support,  the  Association  authorizes 
the  Executive  Committee  to  secure  the  full  time,  for  a  term  of  not  less  than  three  years,  of 
an  educator  of  recognized  ability  and  experience,  and  to  provide  for  the  organization, 
correspondence,  travel,  publication,  and  other  expenses  of  his  office  a  total  sum,  including 
salaries,  of  at  least  ten  thousand  dollars  a  year. 

INSURE  TEACHERS   LIVING  AND   SAVING  WAGE 

To  the  end  that  schools  may  be  kept  open  and  that  the  children  of  the  Republic  may 
have  competent  teachers,  we  declare  it  to  be  the  patriotic  duty  of  taxpayers  and  lawmakers 
to  provide  sufficient  revenues  to  insure  a  living  and  a  saving  wage  to  the  teachers  of  the 
country. 


I 


JOURNAL  OF  PROCEEDINGS  25 

FEDERAL  CHILD  LABOR  LAW 

The  Association  urges  the  immediate  enactment  by  Congress  of  a  Federal  Child 
Labor  Law  which  will  not  only  meet  the  objection  found  by  the  Supreme  Court  in  the 
one  declared  unconstitutional,  but  will  extend  protection  to  a  greater  number  of  the 
children  of  the  United  States. 


SOCIALIZED   SCHOOLS   FOR  EFFICIENT  DEMOCRACY 

The  schools  of  a  modern,  efficient  democracy  must  necessarily  be  socialized  schools. 
They  must  train  for  the  whole  life  of  all  the  people.  To  achieve  this  result  the  Associa- 
tion recommends  that  larger  opportunities  be  provided  for  activity  which  will  develop  the 
initiative  and  resourcefulness  of  children,  thus  fitting  them  to  meet  the  demands  of  our 
democracy. 

COLLEGE  MILITARY  UNITS  APPROVED 

This  Association  approves  heartily  the  action  of  President  Wilson  and  the  Secretary 
of  War  in  offering  a  plan  whereby  young  men  above  eighteen  years  of  age  may  enlist  in 
the  Army  and  continue  their  college  courses  in  such  institutions  as  have  at  least  one  hun- 
dred students  ready  and  eligible  to  form  a  military  unit. 

WOMEN   TO  TRAIN   GIRLS   FOR  CIVIC   AND   SOCIAL  LIFE 

The  present  emergency  demands  the  careful  consideration  of  the  problem  of  training 
the  girls  of  America  for  efficient  and  intelligent  participation  in  the  civic  and  social  life 
of  our  local  communities,  of  the  state,  and  of  the  nation.  The  Association  urges,  there- 
fore, that  in  city,  county,  and  state  school  systems  women  with  skill  in  leadership  be 
placed  in  charge  of  that  part  of  our  school  work  which  has  the  direct  responsibility  of 
training  the  women  of  tomorrow  to  assume  the  new  obligations  of  civic  and  social  life. 

TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP  DEMANDED 

The  Association  demands  the  teaching  of  patriotism  by  every  teacher  from  the 
kindergarten  to  the  university,  and  the  employment  of  only  those  teachers  who  are  loyal 
to  our  national  ideals.  It  urges  that  all  teachers,  as  soldiers  of  the  common  good,  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance.  The  Association  further  demands  that  all  instruction  in  the  schools 
of  the  nation  be  conducted  in  the  English  language. 

COMMITTEE   ON   PUBLIC  INFORMATION 

The  Association  commends  the  action  of  President  Wilson  in  making  the  publicity  of 
the  best  work  of  our  public  schools  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  Committee  on  Public  Informa- 
tion, and  expresses  its  appreciation  of  the  President's  support  of  the  movement  to  mobilize 
the  boys  and  girls  of  America  for  food  production. 

COMMENDS  JUNIOR  RED  CROSS 

The  Association  particularly  commends  the  patriotic  service  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross 
with  the  understanding  that  it  conform  to  the  standards,  motives,  and  aims  of  the  Ameri- 
can Red  Cross. 

EDUCATION   OF  ENLISTED   MEN 

The  Association  favors  the  making  of  liberal  provisions  by  both  state  and  nation  for 
the  giving  of  special  assistance,  opportunity,  and  encouragement  to  the  men  in  the  service 
of  the  country  to  obtain  the  advantages  of  education  that  were  omitted  by  the  necessity 
of  the  great  crisis. 

STATES   URGED   TO   ADOPT   PROHIBITION   AMENDMENT 

The  Association  urges  the  adoption  by  the  states  of  the  amendment  for  the  prohibition 
of  the  sale  and  manufacture  of  intoxicating  beverages. 


26  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

SUFFRAGE   AMENDMENT  APPROVED 

The  Association  favors  the  granting  of  the  ballot  to  the  womanhood  of  America  and 
urges  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  to  pass  at  the  present  session  the  separate  suffrage 
amendment  to  our  federal  Constitution, 

FAVORS   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   A   NATIONAL  UNIVERSITY 

The  Association  favors  the  establishment  of  a  national  university,  the  creation  of  a 
national  department  of  education  under  the  direction  of  a  secretary  of  education,  and  the 
protection  of  teachers  in  all  departments  of  education  from  unwarranted  dismissal  by 
employing  bodies. 

FOOD   ADMINISTRATION   TO   PREPARE   CONSERVATION    PROGRAM 

The  Association  recommends  that  the  United  States  Food  Administration  prepare  in 
a  form  suitable  for  use  in  elementary  schools,  and  particularly  in  the  upper  grades,  lessons 
and  materials  supplementary  to  existing  courses,  which  will  promote  the  program  of 
food  conservation.  It  is  further  recommended  that  the  food  administration  call  to  its 
assistance  representative  school  authorities  familiar  with  the  capacities  of  children  of  the 
different  grades,  to  constitute  an  advisory  council  for  the  Food  Administration  in  the  prep- 
aration of  material  designed  for  school  use. 

HEALTH   AND   PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

Realizing  that  good  health  and  a  good  physique  constitute  the  foundation  for  all  life- 
work,  physical,  mental,  and  spiritual,  the  Association  urges  that  boards  of  education  make 
health  and  physical  training  a  major  subject,  with  equal  rating  with  all  other  school  sub- 
jects, and  that  adequate  facilities,  including  teachers,  play  field,  and  apparatus,  be  pro- 
vided; and  further,  that  care  be  exercised  to  secure  those  teachers  best  adapted  to  the 
training  of  boys  and  girls. 

The  Association  instructs  the  Commission  on  the  Emergency  in  Education  and  such 
other  committees  as  may  have  under  consideration  the  problems  of  health  and  physical 
education  to  inquire  concerning  the  work  that  is  now  being  done  and  the  methods  which 
may  have  proved  most  acceptable  in  the  field  of  sex  education. 

DUAL  SYSTEM  OF  SCHOOLS  CONDEMNED 

The  Association  favors  amending  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  to  prevent  the  possibility  of 
establishing  a  dual  system  of  schools  in  any  state. 

CONSCRIPTION   FOR   SELECTIVE   SERVICE 

In  the  emergency  that  now  exists,  the  Association  urges  that  all  the  manhood  and 
womanhood  of  the  United  States  be  conscripted  for  selective  service. 

NATIONAL  EDUCATION   ASSOCIATION   OFFICERS   COMMENDED 

The  members  of  the  Association  commend  the  present  administration  of  the  National 
Education  Association  for  the  excellent  program  presented  and  for  the  constructive 
character  of  the  work  which  the  Association  is  doing. 

PATRIOTIC   SPIRIT   OF   CONGRESS 

The  Association  wishes  to  express  its  appreciation  of  the  national  Congress  for 
the  patriotic  spirit  shown  in  the  hour  of  crisis  in  its  subordination  of  partisanship  to 
statesmanship  in  national  legislation. 

ENTIRE   CONFIDENCE   IN  PRESIDENT 

Realizing  the  tremendous  task  suddenly  imposed  upon  our  government  in  changing 
from  the  pursuits  of  peace  to  those  of  war,  and  appreciating  the  marvelous  achievements 
in  creating  an  army,  in  mobilizing  all  the  economic  forces  of  the  nation,  and  especially  in 
transporting  an  immense  army  across  an  ocean  beset  by  unusual  dangers,  while  supplying 
our  Allies  with  food  and  war  material,  the  Association  expresses  its  confidence  in  the 
national  administration,  and  especially  its  confidence  in  the  ability,  clearness  of  vision, 
and  leadership  of  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  our  Army  and  Navy,  President  Woodrow 
Wilson. 


JOURNAL  OF  PROCEEDINGS  27 


GENERAL  COMMITTEES 

COMMITTEE  ON  RESOLUTIONS 

John  F.  Keating,  superintendent  of  city  schools,  Pueblo,  Colo.,  chairman. 

Francis  G.  Blair,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Springfield,  111. 

David  B.  Johnson,  president,  Winthrop  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  Rock  Hill,  S.C. 

Marion  LeRoy  Burton,  president.  University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Charles  R.  Frazier,  superintendent  of  city  schools,  Everett,  Wash. 

H.  H.  Seerley,  president,  State  Normal  College,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa. 

Robert  E.  Vinson,  president.  University  of  Texas,  Austin,  Tex. 

Katherine  Sisson  McLean,  dean  of  women,  Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  Delaware,  Ohio. 

Ada  Van  Stone  Harris,  director  of  elementary-practice  teachers,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Alice  Florer,  assistant  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Lincoln,  Nebr. 

COMMITTEE  ON  THE  REORGANIZATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

Ella  Flagg  Young,  Washington,  D.C.,  chairman. 

Carroll  G.  Pearse,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Anna  Laura  Force,  Denver,  Colo. 

Abby  E.  Lane,  Chicago,  111. 

Margaret  S.  McNaught,  Sacramento,  Calif. 

Payson  Smith,  Boston,  Mass. 

J.  M.  GwiNN,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Frances  E.  Harding,  Chicago,  III. 

Elizabeth  C.  Woodward,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

Sarah  H.  Fahey,  New  York,  N.Y. 

Georgia  C.  Alexander,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Olive  M.  Jones,  New  York,  N.Y. 


committee  on  necrology 


C.  W.  Bardeen,  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  chairman. 
Samuel  J.  Slawson,  Bridgeport,  Conn. 
John  H.  Phillips,  Birmingham,  Ala. 
Thomas  B.  Stowell,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 
Margaret  W.  Sutherland,  Columbus,  Ohio 


auditing  committee 


A.  E.  WiNSHiP,  Boston,  Mass.,  chairman. 
W.  S.  Deffenbaugh,  Washington,  D.C. 
R.  M.  Sherrard,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


COMMITTEE   TO  NOMINATE  MEMBERS  FOR  THE  NATIONAL  COUNCIL  OF  EDUCATION 


J.  F.  Sims,  Stevens  Point,  Wis.,  chairman. 
Adelaide  Steele  Baylor,  New  York,  N.Y. 
J.  Y.  JoYNER,  Raleigh,  N.C. 


ILLITERACY  COMMISSION 

Cora  Wilson  Stewart,  Frankfort,  Ky.,  chairman. 
A.  H.  Chamberlain,  San  Francisco,  Calif. 
Nathan  C.  Schaeffer,  Harrisburg,  Pa. 
Josephine  C.  Preston,  Olympia,  Wash. 
Francis  G.  Blair,  Springfield,  111. 
Payson  Smith,  Boston,  Mass. 
T.  H.  Harris,  Baton  Rouge,  La. 
Ethel  Redfield,  Boise,  Idaho. 
Mary  C.  C.  Bradford,  Denver,  Colo. 


28  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


COMMISSION   ON  THE  EMERGENCY  IN  EDUCATION  AND  THE  PROGRAM  FOR  READJUSTMENT 
DURING  AND   AFTER  THE   WAR 

George  D.  Strayer,  New  York,  N.Y.,  chairman. 

Lotus  D.  Coffman,  University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  secretary, 

Robert  J.  Aley,  Orono,  Me. 

Sarah  Louise  Arnold,  Boston,  Mass. 

W.  C.  Bagley,  New  York,  N.Y. 

F.  D.  BoYNTON,  Ithaca,  N.Y. 

Mary  C.  C.  Bradford,  Denver,  Colo. 

J.  A.  C.  Chandler,  Richmond,  Va. 

L.  D.  Coffman,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

George  B.  Cook,  Little  Rock,  Ark. 

Elwood  p.  Cubberley,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  Calif. 

Agnes  E.  Doherty,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Susan  M.  Dorsey,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

David  Felmley,  Normal,  111. 

Thomas  E.  Finnegan,  Albany,  N.Y. 

J.  M.  GwiNN,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Ada  Van  Stone  Harris,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

E.  C.  Hartwell,  Buj0falo,  N.Y. 
Henry  W.  Holmes,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
W.  A.  Jessup,  Iowa  City,  Iowa. 
James  Y.  Joyner,  Raleigh,  N.C. 

A.  J.  Mathews,  Tempe,  Ariz. 
Wm.  B.  Owen,  Chicago,  111. 
Carroll  G.  Pearse,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Josephine  C.  Preston,  Olympia,  Wash. 
Walter  R.  Siders,  Pocatello,  Idaho. 
Payson  Smith,  Boston,  Mass. 
Frank  E.  Spaulding,  Paris,  France. 
George  D.  Strayer,  New  York,  N.Y. 
Nina  C.  Vandewalker,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
J.  W.  Withers,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

COMMITTEE   ON   NOMINATIONS 

Robert  J.  Aley,  of  Maine,  chairman 

Henry  J.  Willingham  .  Alabama  Samuel  O.  Welday.  .  .  .  Nevada 

R.  T.  Cook Arizona  T.  Frank  Tabor New  Jersey 

George  B.  Cook Arkansas  A.  Montoya New  Mexico 

Fred  M.  Hunter California  Katherine  Blake New  York 

Sallie  Hill Colorado  Robert  H.  Wright  ....  North  Carolina 

Edith  M.  Hine Connecticut  Mrs.  Neil  C.  MacDonald, 

L.  S.  IviNS Dist.  of  Columbia  North  Dakota 

W.  N.  Sheats Florida  A.  J.  Gantvoort Ohio 

Robert  D.  Maltby Georgia  Mrs.  W.  A.  Crites Oklahoma 

Theo.  B.  Shank Idaho  Charles  A.  Rice Oregon  -^ 

J.  O.  Engleman Illinois  George  J.  Becht Pennsylvania 

Georgia  Alexander.  . .  Indiana  J.  E.  Walmsley South  Carolina 

John  E.  Foster Iowa  C.  T.  King South  Dakota 

W.  A.  Brandenburg.  .  .  Kansas  Charl  O.  Williams.  . .  .Tennessee 

Cora  Wilson  STEWART.Kentucky  H.  F.  Estill Texas 

J.  M.  GwiNN Louisiana  James  L.  Gibson Utah 

Mary  G.  Logue Maryland  Caroline  S.  Woodruff. Vermont 

A.  E,  WiNSHiP Massachusetts  J.  A.  C.  Chandler Virginia 

F.  L.  Keeler Michigan  Mrs.  Josephine  Corliss  Preston, 

C.  G.  ScHULTZ Minnesota  Washington  _ 

E.  E.  Bass Mississippi  Joseph  Rosier West  Virginia 

W.  S.  Dearmont Missouri  John  Callahan Wiscorisin 

W.  E.  Dwyer Montana  Vaughan  McCaughey  .  Hawaii 

J.  H.  Newlon Nebraska  R.  S.  Garwood Porto  Rico 


GENERAL  SESSIONS  OF  THE  ASSOCIATION 


I 


ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME 

EDWARD  VOSE   BABCOCK,   MAYOR  OF  THE  CITY  OF  PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

As  the  Mayor  of  Pittsburgh  it  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  welcome  to 
our  city  the  members  of  the  National  Education  Association.  The  citizens 
of  Pittsburgh  deem  themselves  signally  honored  that  you  have  chosen  this 
city  as  your  meeting-place  in  this  fateful  year  in  the  history  of  our  country 
and  of  the  world. 

You,  Madame  President,  are  the  head  of  an  organization  which,  repre- 
senting the  school  system  of  America,  is  perhaps  by  this  fact  the  most 
distinctly  American  body  in  the  country.  It  stands  at  once  as  the  creation 
and  the  hope  of  our  democracy. 

From  the  day  of  its  experimental  beginnings,  thru  the  years  during 
which  it  was  gradually  extended  thruout  every  American  commonwealth, 
the  pubUc  school  has  grown  steadily  in  its  usefulness  and  in  its  capacity  to 
serve  the  needs  of  the  people  of  the  nation.  In  the  older  commonwealths 
it  necessarily  displaced  existing  schools,  among  them  the  church  schools  of 
different  denominations.  Naturally  there  was  opposition  at  first  which  had 
to  be  overcome.  The  school,  however,  so  perfectly  commended  itself  both 
to  the  good  sense  and  to  the  patriotism  of  the  citizen  that  in  the  progress 
of  time  he  became  quite  willing  to  meet  the  larger  expense  of  the  extension 
of  the  system  into  the  high  school  and  in  most  of  our  commonwealths  into 
and  thru  the  university  itself.  The  only  problem  now  is  more  perfectly 
to  adapt  our  system  of  public  education  to  the  needs  of  our  Republic,  so 
that  it  may  better  fit  our  young  people  for  their  duties  as  citizens,  better 
equip  them  for  the  practical  duties  of  life,  and  more  thoroly  train  them  to 
enter  fields  of  scientific  investigation  and  study.  It  is  to  discuss  and  gradu- 
ally to  solve  such  problems  as  these  that  you  are  gathering  together  in  this 
great  conference.  Most  heartily  do  I  commend  the  purpose  of  your  assembly 
and  most  sincerely  do  I  express  the  hope  that  you  may  reaHze  your  highest 
expectations  in  this  particular  conference  in  this  crisis  of  human  affairs. 

Never  has  the  public  school  made  such  marvelous  progress  as  in  the 
most  recent  years.  The  people  have  been  coming  to  a  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  our  pubhc  school  is  perhaps  the  greatest  socializing  institution  in 
America,  and  that  as  such  it  is  capable  of  rendering  a  service  of  untold  value 
to  society  and  to  the  state. 

The  teacher  in  the  pubhc  school  of  America  has  come  into  his  own 
and  has  demonstrated  that  he  is  capable,  not  only  of  working  out  and 

29 


30  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

administering  a  system  of  public  instruction,  but  of  making  that  institution 
a  most  potent  agent  in  its  transforming  power  for  the  socialization  and  the 
Americanization  of  all  classes  of  people,  which  is  so  essential  to  the  well- 
being  of  our  American  life. 

I  congratulate  you  also,  Madame  President,  upon  the  program  which 
you  and  your  associates  have  prepared  for  this  meeting.  It  indicates  that 
the  leaders  in  our  public  school  system  are  ahve  both  to  this  present  and  to 
this  future  obUgation.  No  one  can  take  up  the  program  of  this  great  confer- 
ence, with  its  fifty  pages  crowded  with  topics  of  national  interest  and 
national  obhgation,  without  being  mightily  imprest  with  both  the  brain 
power  and  the  patriotic  fervor  of  those  who  had  a  part  in  its  preparation. 

In  this  great  city  of  busy  industry  and  at  this  time  of  quickened  activity 
and  production,  this  Association  has  come  to  spend  a  week  with  us.  Around 
you  are  social  clubs,  hotels,  and  churches,  universities,  parks,  and  high 
schools,  a  memorial  hall,  an  armory,  the  temples  of  fraternities,  and  all  the 
rest.  Gathered  here  at  this  time  are  over  two  thousand  enUsted  men  receiv- 
ing their  training  for  war  service  in  the  University  of  Pittsburgh  and  in  the 
School  of  Technology.  In  these  splendid  edifices,  in  this  beautiful  civic 
center,  it  is  possible  for  your  great  Association  to  assemble  at  the  same  mo- 
ment twenty-five  audiences  in  commodious  auditoriums,  seating  four 
hundred  and  more  people,  and  to  do  this  with  as  little  effort  as  a  congrega- 
tion might  gather  in  its  accustomed  place  of  worship.  We  may  be  pardoned 
for  this  pride  we  have  in  our  city  and  its  institutions.  Of  none,  however, 
are  we  more  profoundly  grateful  than  for  our  schools,  our  colleges,  and  our 
universities.  We  are  delighted  that  you  have  chosen  Pittsburgh  as  your 
meeting-place  this  year,  and  we  trust  that  when  you  have  completed  your 
conference,  with  its  rich  and  varied  program,  you  may  go  away  with  as 
profound  a  feehng  of  gratitude  that  you  came  as  we  have  in  receiving  you  as 
our  guests  at  this  time. 


II.      SAMUEL  HAMILTON,   SUPERINTENDENT  OF   SCHOOLS, 
ALLEGHENY  COUNTY,  PA. 

You  have  just  been  welcomed  to  the  city  by  his  honor,  the  Mayor. 
In  a  few  minutes  you  will  receive  a  whole-souled  welcome  to  the  hearts, 
the  homes,  and  the  hospitality  of  the  people  of  Pittsburgh  by  its  dis- 
tinguisht  educational  leader  as  the  educational  representative  of  the  city. 
In  like  manner  I  deem  it  a  great  honor  and  a  rare  privilege  to  speak  a  word 
of  welcome  for  the  teachers  of  western  Pennsylvania,  and  especially  for  the 
school  people  of  Allegheny  County,  those  working  outside  the  confines  of 
the  city  of  Pittsburgh  and  yet  within  the  limits  of  what  Lincoln  even 
sixty  years  ago  called  the  ''State  of  Allegheny."  You  are  the  nation's 
leaders  in  educational  thought  and  action,  and  on  behalf  of  our  teachers  I 
extend  to  you  a  most  hearty  and  cordial  welcome. 


Sessionsl  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME  31 

In  this  part  of  the  State  of  Allegheny  there  is  a  graded-school  system 
including  some  2500  schools  with  a  school  population  of  85,000,  and  a  rural 
school  system  of  400  schools  with  16,000  pupils.  This  vast  school  popula- 
tion is  organized  in  two  cities,  70  other  municipalities  each  with  from  1,000 
to  25,000  inhabitants,  and  55  townships.  These  schools  are  under  the 
supervision  of  two  city  superintendents,  nine  town  superintendents,  and  a 
county  superintendent  with  five  assistants. 

All  of  our  schools  stand  loyally  and  enthusiastically  back  of  every 
movement  to  win  the  war.  We  have  almost  1000  war  gardens  this  year, 
worth  possibly  $500,000;  85,000  of  our  pupils  are  members  of  the  Junior 
Red  Cross.  In  point  of  time  the  first  food  bulletin  issued  in  the  nation 
came  from  the  domestic-art  teachers  of  Allegheny  County,  mobilized  in  the 
interests  of  food  conservation.  More  than  1500  of  our  high-school  boys 
are  now  on  farms  under  the  direction  of  the  United  States  Boys'  Working 
Reserve.  In  the  Liberty  Loan  campaigns  our  schools  sold  about  three 
million  of  the  bonds.  Thousands  of  our  boys  have  gone  to  fight  on  the 
Western  Front.  And  while  they  fight  and  die  to  help  hold  the  Hne,  our 
schools  are  doing  their  part  to  show  our  people  that  every  good  citizen  will 
either  "go  across  or  come  across" — ^go  across  to  fight  or  come  across  with 
the  money  or  the  effort  that  will  help  win  the  war. 

Ninety  per  cent  of  our  teachers  have  received  normal,  college,  or  uni- 
versity training,  and,  gathered  as  they  are  from  many  states  and  many 
counties,  representing  practically  all  the  higher  institutions  of  learning, 
they  are  probably  unsurpast  in  scholarship,  culture,  zeal,  efficiency,  and 
skill  by  any  body  of  teachers  in  the  land. 

It  is  an  honor  and  a  pleasure  to  represent  such  a  group  of  teachers,  and 
to  bring  to  you  their  cordial  greetings  and  warm-hearted  felicitations. 
Your  presence  here  is  a  pleasure  and  an  inspiration  to  us,  and  I  trust  that 
your  stay  in  the  city  will  be  as  pleasant  to  you  as  it  will  be  to  us.  As  the 
inspiration  of  a  great  occasion  lingers  long  after  the  event  has  become  a 
matter  of  history,  so  the  recollection  of  your  presence  and  the  inspiration, 
enthusiasm,  and  upUft  growing  out  of  it  will  remain  long  after  you  have 
taken  your  departure. 

Our  supreme  faith  is  not  in  material  things.  Our  people  believe  that 
inteUigence  is  better  than  industry,  that  wisdom  is  better  than  wealth,  that 
culture  is  better  than  cash,  that  manhood  is  better  than  money,  that  brains 
are  better  than  boilers,  and  that  minds  are  infinitely  better  than  mills. 
Acting  upon  this  faith,  the  State  of  Allegheny  has  invested  more  than 
fifteen  milHon  dollars  in  modern  school  plants,  that  the  children,  the  great- 
est of  all  our  assets,  may  have  the  best  educational  advantages  the  age 
affords. 

Our  people  reaHze  that  material  prosperity  depends  in  the  last  analysis 
upon  the  school.  Every  mill,  every  shop,  and  every  factory  began  with 
an  idea.     By  thought  and  investigation  that  idea  developt  into  a  plan,  and 


32  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

then  thru  mind-directed  effort,  due  to  intellectual  and  vocational  training, 
it  materialized  into  an  actuality  with  physical  form  and  physical  character- 
istics. In  point  of  time  then,  as  well  as  of  importance,  the  teacher  precedes 
the  engineer,  the  school  precedes  the  shop,  and  the  immaterial  thought 
takes  precedence  over  the  material  thing.  The  school,  therefore,  which 
develops  the  "clear-eyed  man  who  knows"  and  "the  thinker  who  drives 
things  thru"  stands  back  of  the  mill,  the  shop,  the  factory,  and  all  superior 
industrial  conditions. 

The  war-school  program  theme  for  this  meeting  is  most  fitting.  The 
clock  of  the  world's  fate  strikes  twelve.  Democracy  is  threatened.  Civil 
hberty  is  in  the  balance.  Civihzation  is  in  mourning.  In  such  a  crisis 
democracy  may  well  ask.  What  can  the  school  do  ?  If  public  education  is 
the  deHberate  effort  of  the  state  to  make  better  citizens,  it  must  act.  If 
the  free  school  in  a  republic  is  expected  to  function  in  patriotism  as  well 
as  in  general  inteUigence,  it  must  offer  some  plan  of  action. 

Again  I  greet  you  and  bid  you  welcome!  And  on  behalf  of  our  teachers 
I  express  the  hope  that  when  you  leave  it  will  be  with  an  intense  desire  to 
return. 


RESPONSE  TO  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME 

JOSEPHINE   CORLISS  PRESTON,   STATE   SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC 
INSTRUCTION,   OLYMPIA,   WASH. 

I  count  it  a  great  privilege  and  an  honor  to  respond  in  the  name  of  the 
National  Education  Association  to  these  friends  who  have  so  kindly 
extended  to  us  the  courtesies  and  hospitality  of  this  great  city. 

This  royal  welcome,  which  has  been  so  ably  voist  by  these  three  dis- 
tinguisht  men,  bespeaks  a  welcome  for  us,  not  only  from  this  city,  but  from 
this  county  and  from  the  great  "Keystone  State"  as  well.  The  National 
Education  Association  is  indebted  to  this  state  for  many  of  its  ablest  mem- 
bers, conspicuous  among  them  being  its  present  chief  executive.  The 
state  of  Pennsylvania  is  to  be  congratulated  on  being  able  to  secure  the 
services  of  this  distinguisht  educator  to  guide  the  Ship  of  State  through 
these  perilous  times. 

At  this  moment  when  our  eyes  are  fixt  upon  the  scene  "over  there," 
where  the  flower  of  our  American  manhood  is  paying  the  price  of  greater 
world-opportunity  and  world-freedom  with  precious  life-blood,  it  is  fitting 
that  this  great  body  of  educators  should  meet  for  earnest  deliberation  in  the 
city  of  Pittsburgh,  the  recognized  "Armory  of  the  Nation."  For  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years  it  has  been  regarded  as  a  key  in  the  transportation 
routes  between  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  the  great  West.  We  recognize 
in  Pittsburgh  a  great  industrial  center,  a  great  civic  center,  and  a  great 
educational  center. 


Sessions!  RESPONSE  TO  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME  33 

We  are  here  as  the  educators  of  a  united  nation  to  counsel  together. 
We  desire  to  be  steadfast  in  our  purpose  to  keep  our  schools  uniformly 
moving  forward  in  the  line  of  true  progress,  even  tho  a  great  world-conflict 
is  upon  us.  We  are  facing  a  great  emergency  in  education.  War  demands 
the  best.    War  is  taking  the  best. 

The  Commission  on  the  National  Emergency  in  Education,  the  crea- 
tion of  which  was  inspired  by  our  worthy  President,  has  been  at  work  on  the 
problem  of  the  readjustment  of  education  during  and  after  the  war.  The 
program  which  the  commission  has  in  mind  will  be  presented  at  this  meet- 
ing. Never  was  there  so  favorable  an  opportunity  for  removing  the  most 
significant  handicaps  under  which  pubHc-school  education  in  this  country 
has  labored. 

The  attention  of  this  great  body  will  be  focust  this  week  upon  the  prob- 
lems which  this  commission  conceives  to  be  the  outstanding  problems  in 
education,  in  the  solutiqn  of  which  the  school  men  and  women  should  take 
an  unquestioned  leadership.  Briefly,  the  outstanding  problems  are  these: 
(i)  the  preparation  and  supply  of  competent  teachers  for  all  types  of  pubhc 
schools;  (2)  rural  education;  (3)  health  education,  physical  education,  and 
wholesome  education;  (4)  the  reduction  and  early  elimination  of  adult 
illiteracy;  (5)  the  Americanization  of  the  immigrant;  (6)  education  for 
national  service. 

I  stand  before  you  as  spokesman  of  a  national  organization  which 
towers  above  others  in  the  scope  of  its  work  and  its  opportunity  for  service. 

The  National  Education  Association,  alert  to  the  situation,  has  this 
year  estabhsht  permanent  headquarters  at  Washington,  D.C.,  the  only 
place  from  which  this  national  body  can  function  properly.  This  new 
educational  home  of  ours  is  a  four-story  residence  located  in  close  proximity 
to  the  buildings  of  the  various  embassies.  The  location  of  the  home  of  the 
National  Education  Association  in  Washington  makes  it  possible  for  the 
teaching  profession  to  cooperate  directly  with  the  government  in  all  educa- 
tional matters. 

The  general  program  of  this  meeting  is  the  outgrowth  of  war  conditions 
as  they  have  reacted  upon  our  schools,  and  in  this  program  an  effort  will 
be  made  by  the  speakers  to  show  how  the  schools  must  of  necessity  react 
in  turn  upon  national  development  in  the  present  crisis.  We  are  indebted 
to  the  government  of  three  of  the  allied  nations,  England,  Italy,  and  France, 
and  to  their  respective  education  associations,  for  the  messages  which  their 
representatives  will  bring  to  this  meeting,  and  thru  which  we  shall  learn  of 
the  efforts  which  these  three  nations  are  making  to  solve  our  common  prob- 
lems in  education. 

This  program  expresses  a  conception  of  the  need  of  international  effort. 
This  meeting  occurring,  as  it  does,  in  one  of  the  most  crucial  years  of  the 
world's  history,  will  undoubtedly  prove  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  meetings 
of  this  august  body. 


34  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


PRESIDENT'S  ADDRESS 
THE  BUILDING  OF  THE  NEW  CIVILIZATION 

MARY   C.    C.    BRADFORD,    STATE    SUPERINTENDENT    OF   PUBLIC   INSTRUCTION, 

DENVER,  COLO. 

Today  this  Association  stands  upon  the  Mount  of  Vision,  led  to  the 
summit  by  the  red  hand  of  war.  Of  the  nation's  travail  is  born  our  oppor- 
tunity. The  world's  agony  is  our  baptism,  admitting  us  to  membership 
in  the  knightly  army  of  servants  and  soldiers  of  freedom.  As  crusaders 
of  the  new  humanity  I  greet  you  and  bid  you  listen  to  the  challenge  of  the 
God  of  Nations.  In  the  stillness  of  the  night  who  has  not  heard  his  voice 
saying  in  accents  of  stern  beauty :  "  Who  goes  there  ?  "  Have  we  answered, 
"Thy  servant,  Lord;  ready  to  do  Thy  will.  Take  me,  use  me,  all  of  me, 
body,  mind,  soul,  time,  effort,  money"?  Thank  God,  yes,  from  a  mighty 
host  of  school  people  has  this  consecrated  cry  gone  up! 

In  past  years  the  Association  has  sometimes  tarried  in  the  sunlit  valleys, 
participating  in  the  rich  and  varied  life  of  normal  times,  seeking,  thru  a 
discussion  of  many  phases  of  educational  activity,  to  arrive  at  a  definite 
and  decisive  program  of  educational  progress.  At  other  times,  leaving 
the  more  purely  scholastic  phases  of  endeavor,  this  great  body  of  teachers 
has  striven  to  realize  its  relation  to  the  surging  impulse  of  the  common  life 
and  to  adapt  educational  practice  to  modern  community  needs. 

But  the  past  year  has  been  one  of  steady  climbing,  of  eager,  yet  per- 
sistent, pushing  toward  the  summit,  where  alone  creative  decisions  can  be 
made.  The  present  situation  is  pregnant  with  vital  issues.  The  tragic, 
yet  augustly  beautiful,  national  and  international  crises — blood-stained, 
yet  diademed  with  the  stars  of  a  lofty  idealism,  are  conditioning  educational 
thinking  and  acting,  and  putting  educational  systems  to  the  acid  test  of 
social  and  spiritual  results. 

Well  may  we,  representatives  of  the  teaching  profession,  face  with  awe 
our  mighty  responsibilities.  Never  before  in  the  history  of  the  world  have 
the  schools  been  called  upon  to  play  so  potent  a  part  in  the  national  destiny. 
Not  until  now  has  the  school  organization  been  made  the  transmitting 
medium  of  a  nation's  hopes,  needs,  decisions,  and  commands.  Until  the 
present  moment  schoolroom  walls  have  been  opaque.  Now  they  are 
known  to  be  the  almost  transparent  windows  thru  which  the  light  of  national 
service  shines,  from  which  must  be  reflected  the  conscious  unity  of  the 
teacher,  the  child,  the  community,  and  the  world.  The  war  has  called  to 
the  colors,  summoned  into  active  service  of  the  most  strenuous  kind,  every 
home  in  the  land,  thru  the  agency  of  the  Young  Soldiers  of  the  School 
RepubUc,  officered  by  their  commissioned  leaders,  the  teachers.  And  this 
is  as  it  should  be. 


PRESIDENT'S  ADDRESS  35 

The  old  civilization  is  passing  away.  Within  its  collapsing  walls  the 
foundations  of  the  new  civilization  are  being  laid.  The  old  was  material- 
istic, aggressive,  egoistic,  and  consequently  cruel.  It  was  outwardly 
splendid,  even  sumptuous,  and  efficient  to  the  point  of  fetishism,  yet  it 
contained  the  seeds  of  death,  for  that  which  selfishly  seeks  its  own  must  of 
necessity  lose  all.  The  great  conception  of  human  unity  burned  but  dimly 
in  the  consciousness  of  the  chief  exponents  of  the  old  order.  Superficial 
thinking  and  living  had  weakened  both  brain  and  emotional  power,  and  the 
incessant  craving  for  sensation  led  to  waste  on  every  plane. 

It  has  been  said  that  nothing  can  be  wrought  out  in  the  daily  life  of  a 
repubhc  that  has  not  first  been  put  into  its  schools.  It  may  then  be  askt. 
Have  the  schools  of  the  United  States  so  utterly  failed  in  producing  a  high 
type  of  national  life  that  the  war  is  being  hailed  as  the  transformer  of  the 
schools  into  a  life  higher  and  nobler  than  they  have  yet  manifested  ?  My 
answer  is  that  the  schools  have  performed  the  great  task  assigned  them 
better  perhaps  than  any  other  social  agency,  but  that  a  great  national 
consciousness,  conscience,  and  unification  can  only  be  accomphsht  whenever 
a  community  activity  knows  itself  as  a  functioning  part  of  the  great  whole, 
dedicated  to  the  welfare  of  that  whole  thru  the  rich,  free,  and  equal  develop- 
ment of  all  its  individual  units. 

We  have  believed  that  we  could  live  in  a  world  made  up  of  numerous 
divisions,  separating  ourselves  for  the  most  part  from  those  not  directly 
in  touch  with  our  family  and  business  life.  The  civilization  that  has 
incarnated  this  sense  of  separation  is  necessarily  falling  to  pieces,  and  the 
new  civilization,  if  it  is  to  last,  must  be  informed  with  the  spirit  of  unity, 
warmed  with  the  currents  of  love,  and  glorified  by  the  knowledge  of  truth. 
We  must  come  to  understand  that  every  phase  of  life  partakes  of  the  edu- 
cative process.  We  must  saturate  ourselves  with  the  conviction  that 
unless  the  school  interprets  the  life  of  nature,  the  home,  the  church,  the 
press,  the  counting-house,  and  the  forum,  it  can  scarcely  be  considered  an 
educational  institution  at  all,  but  can  lay  claim  merely  to  imparting  instruc- 
tion in  certain  technical  subjects. 

The  new  civilization  will  emphasize  the  distinction  between  mere 
instruction  and  true  education  just  as  certainly  as  it  will  proclaim  service 
as  the  reason  for  business  existence. 

The  new  civilization  will  recognize  the  right  of  each  human  being  to  a 
trained  body  and  a  trained  mind,  and  it  will  also  stress  the  spiritual  reality 
in  each,  as  the  sovereign  to  which  the  trained  body  and  mind  must  render 
instant  and  efficient  service. 

The  civilization  that  is  to  be  will  be  capable  of  expressing  in  human 
institutions  the  highest  ideal  of  all  the  people,  and  it  is  apparent  that  the 
chief  agent  in  the  creation  of  this  new  structure  must  be  the  school. 

The  war  has  gone  far  toward  providing  the  schools  with  fresh  subject- 
matter,  and  it  has  quickened  them  to  a  sense  of  patriotic  obligation,    ^'  The 


36  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

linking  of  education  to  life,"  which  has  been  striven  for  thru  many  decades, 
has  come  almost  at  once  thru  the  stress  of  the  great  conflict  thru  which  the 
world  is  passing  to  a  fairer  day. 

War-modified  education  in  America  means  an  education  sensitive  to 
the  needs  of  national  development.  War-modified  education  helps  the 
child  to  train  himself  spiritually  as  the  patriot  and  lover  of  his  kind.  War- 
modified  education  results  in  a  surrender  of  personal  rights  in  favor  of  the 
greatest  of  all  rights — that  of  free  cooperation  in  the  service  of  the  spirit  of 
America. 

The  Junior  Red  Cross  activities  make  the  school  children  warriors  of 
mercy,  soldiers  of  healing,  volunteers  of  helpfulness.  The  war  savings 
societies  enlist  the  schools  as  financing  agents  of  the  war;  as  economic 
factors  in  the  solution  of  the  nation's  and  the  world's  problem  of  justice 
enthroned  upon  victory;  as  bodyguards  of  the  home,  safeguarding  its 
welfare;  as  builders  in  one  of  the  world's  greatest  constructive  efforts. 
These  are  examples  of  the  intensive  extension  of  the  functions  of  the  school 
into  the  public  service,  and  their  relation  to  the  course  of  study  modifies,  in 
large  measure,  the  subject-matter  to  be  taught. 

War-modified  geography  may  well  be  called  "  war- transformed  geog- 
raphy." History  becomes  a  search  for  causes  illustrated  by  the  tragic 
events  of  the  last  four  years.  It  traces  the  relation  between  the  psychology 
and  the  biology  of  the  various  warring  nations  and  includes  a  study  of  the 
rehgious,  philosophic,  and  artistic  development  of  the  races  which  stand 
for  the  clashing  national  faiths  of  the  hostile  peoples.  History,  philosophy, 
psychology,  and  sociology  are  seen  to  be  but  parts  of  a  many-faceted  human 
study,  and  all  are  fused  in  the  flame  of  an  intellectual  and  moral  devotion 
to  the  ideals  for  which  the  free  peoples  are  fighting. 

The  great  dream  of  human  brotherhood,  thrown  upon  the  screen  of 
history  by  the  God  of  Nations  when  the  American  Republic  was  born, 
can  come  true  in  full  splendor  of  universal  application  only  thru  the 
instrumentality  of  all  the  human  beings  living  under  the  American 
flag,  and  this  instrumentahty  can  be  thus  perfected  only  by  the 
development  of  the  schools  to  the  full  measure  of  their  opportunity 
for  service.  Straight  thinking,  •  clean  living,  hard  work,  joyful  play,  and 
mighty  loving  must  characterize  the  individual  citizen  and  the  collective 
action  of  all  the  citizenry  in  a  republic,  and  it  is  the  mission  of 
war-modified  education  to  produce  this  individual  type  and  collective 
development. 

The  nationalization  of  education  as  a  part  of  its  war  modification  is  a 
problem  pressing  for  solution.  It  must  be  evident  to  all  thinking  people 
that  pubHc  education  should  have  the  dignity,  power,  and  prestige  that 
come  from  national  recognition.  But  it  is  also  clearly  necessary  to  preserve 
a  proper  balance  between  national  and  local  authority  in  the  administratioi; 
of  educational  affairs. 


Sessionsl  PRESIDENT'S  ADDRESS  37 

The  National  Education  Association,  recognizing  the  changes  that 
must  be  brought  about  in  American  education  as  a  result  of  the  war,  has 
undertaken  the  mighty  task  of  preparing  a  national  program,  this  program 
having  been  necessitated  by  the  war  emergency.  The  Commission  of  the 
National  Education  Association  that  has  been  intrusted  with  this  duty 
will  make  a  report  during  this  meeting,  and  the  commission  lays  its  work 
before  you  as  a  proof  of  devotion  to  your  interests,  to  the  interests  of  the 
teaching  profession  at  large,  and  to  the  welfare  of  the  children  of  the  world. 

This  national  program  for  Education  deals  with: 

1.  The  nature  of  the  present  crisis  faced  by  the  pubhc  schools  of  the 
United  States. 

2.  The  preparation,  supply,  and  compensation  of  teachers. 

3.  The  importance  and  needs  of  rural  education. 

4.  A  complete  program  of  physical  and  health  education. 

5.  Problems  of  immigrant  education  and  adult  illiteracy. 

6.  Compulsory  continuation  schools. 

7.  The  necessity  for  a  national  department  of  education  and  national 
cooperation  with  the  states  in  strengthening  the  public  schools. 

This  program  has  been  prepared  at  the  cost  of  a  large  expenditure  of 
labor  and  time  on  the  part  of  the  commission.  It  is  its  contribution  to 
war-modified  education.  It  explains  a  part,  at  least,  of  the  way  in  which  the 
new  civilization  must  be  built.  It  summons  to  its  aid  the  thinking  people 
of  this  and  the  other  allied  countries.  It  cooperates  with  the  far-visioned, 
loyal-souled  men  and  women  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Italy,  and  offers 
assistance  to,  and  will  gratefully  receive  aid  from,  all  who  can  bring  to  it 
trained  thinking  and  loving  service  in  behalf  of  the  child. 

The  commission  glimpses  the  far-flung  influence  of  unified  international 
educational  ideals  and  practices.  It  foresees  that  the  creative  soul  within 
each  nation  can  work  best  thru  educational  methods.  It  knows  that 
character-building  is  the  acid  test  of  education  in  any  nation,  and  that 
world-salvation  can  come  only  thru  a  world-exaltation  of  the  meaning  and 
practice  of  the  august  reality  that  we  call  "education."  The  commission 
is  the  servant  of  the  common  good.  It  is  the  extension  of  your  vision,  your 
powers,  your  zeal  for  sacrifice,  your  ability  to  build. 

Your  President  submits  to  you  the  work  of  this  commission  as  the 
greatest  achievement  of  the  educational  year  of  191 7-1 8.  It  is  also  a 
prophecy  of  still  greater  advance,  for  the  fulfilment  of  which  you  will  be 
largely  responsible. 

But  in  additional  ways  the  Association  feels  honored.  It  has  been 
used  as  the  transmitting  medium  of  the  government's  wishes,  and  it  rejoices 
in  the  fact  that  no  appeal  for  national  service  has  gone  unheeded  by  this 
great  body. 

The  sense  of  unity  between  the  members  of  the  teaching  profession  of 
the  several  states  and  the  National  Education  Association  has  been  extended 


38  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

and  quickened  during  the  past  year.  Even  in  the  remote  places  of  our  land 
the  teachers  have  come  to  feel  that  there  is  a  body  thru  which  they  can 
speak,  in  which  they  can  function,  by  which  they  may  make  their  needs 
known,  and  to  which  they  can  offer  service  and  thereby  extend  their 
patriotic  effort  for  the  welfare  of  the  nation. 

Peace  must  be  won  from  under  the  shadow  of  victorious  swords.  It 
can  come  only  thru  the  triumph  of  the  armies  of  the  free  nations  on  the 
battlefield.  .  It  can  be  retained  only  by  a  war-modified  education  which 
will  be  able  to  contribute  to  the  majestic  structure  of  the  new  civiHzation. 
Thru  education  must  be  developt  the  qualities  that  make  for  the  immortality 
of  nations.  By  education  must  be  safeguarded  the  fruits  of  a  righteous 
war.  For  education  the  nation  must  give  and  sacrifice,  and  to  it  it  must 
pay  homage. 

As  supreme  builders  of  the  new  civilization  I  greet  you.  From  the 
Mount  of  Vision,  to  which  this  Association  has  climbed,  it  can  see  the 
Promist  Land  of  fruitful  service.  Enter  in  and  possess  it  in  the  name  of 
the  childhood  of  the  world,  that  the  new  civilizatipn  may  be  born  of  an 
impulse  and  developt  thru  a  process  that  will  guarantee  its  immortality. 

As  the  bloody  flower  of  war  becomes  transmuted  into  the  rose  of  the 
dawn  of  a  new  day,  let  us  fit  ourselves  to  live  worthily  under  the  sunlight 
of  the  transformed  era.  Let  the  heralds  of  the  dawn  be  the  teachers  of  the 
world.  Let  us  prepare  ourselves  for  the  triumph  of  a  nobler  citizenship. 
Let  us  know  that  the  creation  of  such  a  citizenship  is  our  task,  our  privilege, 
our  coronation. 


THE  NEW  PROGRAM  OF  THE  NATIONAL  EDUCATION 

ASSOCIATION— AN  OPPORTUNITY  AND  A 

RESPONSIBILITY 

NATHAN   C.    SCHAEFFER,    STATE    SUPERINTENDENT   OF   PUBLIC   INSTRUCTION, 

HARRISBURG,   PA. 

Those  who  have  made  a  careful  study  of  the  pupils  in  our  public  schools 
claim  to  have  discovered  that  the  two  most  common  characteristics  of  high- 
school  pupils  are  loyalty  and  patriotism.  What  I  have  to  say  on  the  new 
program  of  the  National  Education  Association  can  best  be  said  in  a  dis- 
cussion of  loyalty  and  patriotism  as  parts  of  the  said  program.  Ordinarily 
these  are  thought  of  as  emotions  or  affections,  but  when  the  will  enters  into 
them  and  makes  them  the  law  of  life,  they  become  virtues  of  the  greatest 
value  in  the  formation  of  character. 

There  was  a  time  when  our  instruction  in  history,  in  so  far  as  it  had 
any  bearing  upon  patriotism,  consisted  in  teaching  hatred  of  kings  and  of 
redcoats,  as  the  British  soldiers  were  nicknamed  in  our  wars  for  inde- 
pendence.   The  followers  of  George  Washington  were  called  patriots.    The 


Sessions)  NEW  PROGRAM  OF  THE  N.E.A.  39 

adherents  of  the  mother-country  called  themselves  loyalists.  This  dis- 
tinction no  longer  exists.  One  hundred  years  of  peace  along  our  Canadian 
border  have  done  much  to  obliterate  the  animosities  of  former  days,  and 
the  present  war  has  ended  the  antagonism  between  the  mother-country 
and  her  offspring,  as  well  as  between  France  and  England,  which  had  been 
enemies  for  centuries.  Today  the  French  and  the  English,  the  Canadians 
and  our  own  soldiers,  are  fighting  side  by  side  in  the  same  great  cause. 

And  yet  the  words  patriotism  and  loyalty  are  not  synonymous  terms. 
You  will  recall  that  the  lexicographer.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  defined  patri- 
otism as  the  last  refuge  of  a  scoundrel.  "But,  let  it  be  considered,"  adds 
his  biographer,  "  that  he  did  not  mean  a  real  and  genuine  love  of  our  coun- 
try but  that  pretended  patriotism  which  so  many  in  all  ages  and  countries 
have  made  a  cloak  for  self-interest."  The  counterfeit  always  presupposes 
the  genuine  coin.  It  is  the  duty  as  well  as  the  privilege  of  the  National 
Education  Association  to  expose  the  counterfeit  and  to  circulate  the  genuine 
coin.  True  patriotism  expels  selfishness.  It  is  a  law  of  the  human  heart 
that  the  nobler  affections  expel  the  baser  passions,  that  love  banishes  hate, 
that  love  of  home  and  kindred  and  friends  and  country  displaces  traits  like 
greed  and  selfishness  and  makes  treason  and  treachery  impossible. 

We  have  two  types  of  teachers'  meetings.  The  one  type  discusses 
tenure  of  office,  schemes  of  retirement,  higher  salaries,  and  the  effectiveness 
of  strikes  when  seemingly  just  demands  are  not  granted.  At  such  meetings 
one  hears  much  of  loyalty  to  the  profession,  but  seldom  a  word  about  better 
schools  and  the  educational  welfare  of  the  children.  The  other  type  of 
meetings  inaugurates  discussions  in  which  the  seK-interest  of  the  teachers  is 
forgotten  or  at  least  subordinated  to  higher  motives.  Genuine  patriotism 
banishes  the  idea  of  strikes  by  the  teachers  in  our  public  schools.  The 
French  speak  of  the  army  and  the  navy  as  the  first  line  of  defense  and  of 
the  children  in  the  schools  as  the  second  line  of  defense.  True  patriotism 
stresses  the  second  line  of  defense  as  of  equal  importance  with  the  army 
and  the  navy  in  promoting  the  future  reign  of  law  and  liberty. 

Can  the  National  Education  Association  not  cause  the  distinction 
between  the  two  types  of  teachers'  organizations  to  vanish  by  showing  how 
wise  a  system  of  pensions,  of  tenure  of  office,  of  just  taxation  and  compensa- 
tion, can  be  made  to  give  us  better  teachers,  better  schools,  happier  children, 
and  greater  efficiency  in  all  our  educational  activities?  Such  an  ideal  is 
worthy  of  the  best  efforts  of  its  officers  and  active  members. 

Unselfishness  lies  at  the  foundation  of  genuine  patriotism  and  whole- 
hearted loyalty.  Patriotism  is  devotion  to  one's  native  or  adopted  country. 
The  patriot  is  defined  as  one  who  loves  his  country  and  zealously  supports 
and  upholds  its  institutions  and  interests.  It  fills  me  with  a  thrill  of  joy 
to  think  that  history  and  civics  have  been  so  taught  in  recent  years  that  the 
boy  by  the  time  he  reaches  the  high  school  says  to  himself:  "I  will  live  for 
my  country,  I  will  fight  for  it  and,  if  need  be,  die  in  its  defense."    A  million 


40  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (General 

of  Uncle  Sam's  boys  are  now  making  the  supreme  exhibition  of  their  patriot- 
ism upon  the  high  seas  and  upon  the  soil  of  France. 

Loyalty  signifies  a  broader,  tho  not  a  more  intense,  devotion  than 
patriotism.  To  be  loyal  is  to  be  constant  and  faithful  in  any  relation 
implying  trust  or  confidence,  as  wife  to  husband,  friend  to  friend,  subject 
to  ruler,  etc.  The  loyalist  is  one  who  bears  or  claims  to  bear  true  allegiance 
to  constituted  authority.  In  time  of  rebellion  or  revolution  loyalty  means 
adherence  to  the  constituted  government.  We  speak  of  loyalty  to  truth, 
loyalty  to  the  flag,  loyalty  to  the  school,  even  of  loyalty  to  the  National 
Education  Association. 

When  loyalty  roots  itself  in  love  of  one's  native  land  it  intensifies  the 
virtue  of  patriotism,  a  virtue  that  never  was  more  genuine  than  at  this 
time,  and  never  put  to  severer  tests  than  when  the  call  came  to  cross  the 
ocean  and  fight  on  foreign  soil.  For  us  who  remain  on  this  side  of  the 
ocean  a  severe  test  of  patriotism  is  found  in  wiUingness  to  pay  a  just  share 
of  tax  for  the  support  of  the  government  and  the  education  of  the  people. 
The  schools  are  facing  a  shortage  of  teachers,  of  funds,  and  of  fuel.  Can 
the  National  Education  Association  contribute  toward  the  removal  of 
these  difficulties  ? 

It  is  proposed  that  thru  afiiliation  with  the  state  associations  we  increase 
membership  to  250,000  and  inaugurate  a  lobby  to  secure  a  secretary  of 
education  in  the  cabinet  and  a  federal  appropriation  of  one  hundred  million 
dollars  to  be  distributed  among  the  states  for  school  purposes.  It  would 
be  easy  to  plan  a  scheme  of  school  organization  that  would  give  our  Asso- 
ciation a  membership  of  half  a  milHon  or  more.  I  wish  to  raise  in  your 
minds  the  question  whether  such  a  scheme  of  centralization  would  be 
desirable  in  the  United  States. 

The  National  Education  Association  has  always  been  a  forum  for  the 
free  discussion  of  conflicting  views  and  theories  in  education,  and  I  need 
not  apologize  for  expressing  my  views  on  the  future  policy  of  the  Associa- 
tion. I  was  an  enthusiast  for  a  secretary  of  education  in  the  President's 
cabinet  until  my  friends  drew  my  attention  to  the  probability  of  plunging 
the  schools  into  the  maelstrom  of  politics  every  four  years,  or  at  least  with 
every  exciting  presidential  election.  It  was  further  pointed  out  that  a 
career  of  service  such  as  Harris  and  Claxton  have  given  would  be  impos- 
sible if  the  head  of  the  nation's  schools  changed  with  every  national  adminis- 
tration. Our  need  of  money  for  school  purposes  is  so  great  that  I  am  willing 
to  accept  federal  aid  with  or  without  a  secretary  of  education  in  the  Presi- 
dent's cabinet. 

A  professor  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  used  to  say  that  for  solid 
achievement  one  year  in  the  sixties  is  worth  three  in  the  thirties.  The 
man  of  sixty  no  longer  cherishes  the  visions  and  the  day  dreams  of  the  man 
of  thirty.  He  has  come  down  out  of  the  clouds  and  concentrates  his  ener- 
gies upon  things  that  he  sees  can  be  achieved.    To  a  school  man  high  in 


Sessions!  NEW  PROGRAM  OF  THE  N.E.A.  41 

the  sixties  the  problem  of  prime  importance  in  his  hne  is  how  to  keep  the 
schools  in  operation  during  the  coming  year  and  how  to  maintain  their 
efficiency  in  spite  of  the  shortage  of  teachers  and  public  funds.  He  is  not 
speculating  on  what  the  education  of  America  will  be  after  the  war.  That 
sort  of  prophecy  can  well  be  left  to  university  professors,  who  are  not 
expected  to  carry  out  the  theories  which  they  consign  to  print.  Every 
official  who  is  responsible  for  the  efficient  administration  of  a  system  of 
schools  is  today  asking,  Whence  shall  we  get  money  and  teachers  enough 
to  have  good  schools?  How  can  good  schools  be  made  better  when  the 
government  is  taking  into  its  military  and  civil  service  the  best  young  men 
and  women,  who  would  otherwise  give  their  lives  to  teaching  school? 
In  the  vicinity  of  munition  plants  and  ship-building  yards  there  are  more 
children  than  seats  at  school.  New  schoolhouses  are  needed,  and  the 
question  is  how  can  we  build  new  school  buildings  without  issuing  bonds, 
the  issue  of  bonds  being  forbidden  by  Secretary  McAdoo,  who  needs  all 
our  money  for  Thrift  stamps  and  Liberty  bonds.  In  my  opinion  the 
schools  under  state  jurisdiction  will  be  driven  to  accept  money  from  the 
federal  government,  with  or  without  a  secretary  of  education  in  the  cabinet, 
and  on  such  other  terms  as  the  authorities  at  Washington  choose  to  dictate. 
One  hundred  millions  distributed  among  the  states  will  be  a  help,  but  it  will 
not  suffice  to  make  the  needed  increase  of  salaries  and  school  accommoda- 
tions. 

I  have  been  discussing  with  my  friend  the  proposed  affiliation  of  the 
Pennsylvania  State  Education  Association  with  the  National  Education 
Association.  At  present  the  relation  of  the  states  to  the  federal  govern- 
ment, and  not  the  highly  centralized  government  of  France,  typifies  the 
relation  of  the  state  associations  to  this  Association,  and  we  have  been 
living  together  in  peace  and  harmony.  Tie  them  together  and  see  how  they 
will  fight.  I  prefer  the  present  organization  of  the  National  Education 
Association  because  it  gives  the  franchise  at  our  business  meetings  to  all 
active  members  and  does  not  offer  a  select  few  the  chance  to  play  politics 
the  entire  year. 

In  my  opinion  the  proposed  house  of  delegates  will  give  us  a  most  cum- 
bersome system  of  elections,  diminish  the  interest  in  our  midsummer 
meetings,  furnish  a  splendid  specimen  of  overorganization,  and  make  room 
for  endless  friction  over  state  rights  and  centralized  power.  At  a  time 
when  teachers  in  their  patriotic  zeal  have  subscribed  toward  War  Savings 
stamps  and  Liberty  bonds  until  some  can  hardly  pay  their  board  bills,  and 
when  new  drives  call  for  still  greater  sacrifices,  the  drive  for  increast  mem- 
bership can  be  justified  only  in  so  far  as  this  Association  helps  to  solve  the 
problems  engendered  by  the  war  and  banishes  the  demon  of  selfishness  by 
stressing  the  virtues  of  loyalty  and  patriotism. 

With  traditions  stretching  back  over  half  a  century,  with  a  treasury 
that  has  accumulated  several  hundred  thousand  dollars,  with  a  membership 


42  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

comprising  the  educational  leaders  of  every  state,  with  a  program  based 
upon  the  welfare  of  the  child  as  its  chief  cornerstone,  and  with  problems 
innumerable  calling  for  solution,  I  look  into  the  future  with  hope  and  with 
conviction  that  the  National  Education  Association  will  continue  to  be  the 
greatest  educational  organization  in  the  world,  and  that  it  will  continue  to 
be  a  clearing-house  for  the  best  thought  and  the  best  efforts  of  its  members 
both  during  the  war  and  after. 


THE  LIFE-CAREER  MOTIVE  IN  EDUCATION 

WILLIAM    L.    ETTINGER,    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,    NEW    YORK,    N.Y. 

Since  one  of  the  most  inspiring  addresses  deHvered  at  the  meeting  of 
your  Association  in  Boston  in  1910  was  a  discussion  of  "The  Life-Career 
Motive  in  Education"  by  the  revered  dean  of  American  education.  President 
Emeritus  Charles  W.  EHot,  of  Harvard  University,  I  have  undertaken  to 
indicate  somewhat  briefly  the  content  that  might  be  appropriate  to  that 
title  in  terms  of  present-day  school  administration. 

I  am  inclined  to  take  as  the  expansion  of  my  text  John  Milton's  splendid 
definition  of  a  complete  education  as  one  which  "fits  a  man  to  perform 
justly,  skillfully,  and  magnanimously  all  offices,  both  pubhc  and  private,  of 
both  peace  and  war."  Properly  interpreted,  Milton's  words  suggest  a 
thoro,  practical,  honest,  forward-looking  type  of  education,  in  which  the 
sordid  standards  of  the  slacker  and  the  profiteer  would  have  no  place, 
because  its  whole  spirit  would  be  that  of  energetic,  unselfish,  skilful  social 
service,  sufficient  not  only  to  insure  successful  endeavor  in  the  piping  times 
of  peace,  but  also  to  battle  vaHantly  in  the  present  moment  for  those  excel- 
ling ideals  of  democracy  which  a  brutal,  rapacious  militarism  has  placed  in 
fearful  jeopardy.  The  insistent  demand  of  our  people  for  an  educational 
scheme  coextensive  with  their  whole  Ufe,  generous  in  amount,  and  adequate 
in  kind,  is  in  harmony  with  the  demand  of  our  government  that  both 
in  public  and  in  private  life  its  citizens  ungrudgingly  sacrifice  their  inchna- 
tions,  their  property,  nay,  even  their  lives,  for  the  maintenance  of  American 
ideals. 

The  thriUing  events  of  the  last  few  years  have  tremendously  accelerated 
changes  in  our  political  and  social  life.  State  rights  have  given  way  to 
federalized,  socialized  control;  labor  has  asserted  and  maintained  its  equal 
footing  with  capital,  and  a  widespread  spirit  of  degrading  mammon  worship 
has  been  succeeded  by  a  rebirth  of  ideahstic  patriotism  such  as  the  world  has 
seldom,  if  ever  before,  witnest. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  most  efficient  instrumentality  of  democracy, 
the  public  school,  has  not  escaped  the  social  pressure,  but  we  are  so  immerst 
in  absorbing  tasks  that  we  often  fail  to  recognize  the  kaleidoscopic  changes 
going  on  about  us.    Only  a  few  years  ago,  because  of  our  naive  assumption 


Sessions!  THE  LIFE-CAREER  MOTIVE  IN  EDUCATION  43 

that  all  our  pupils  were  destined  to  be  bookkeepers,  teachers,  or  presidents 
of  the  United  States,  prevocational  education  along  industrial  lines  was 
unknown.  The  little  vocational  education  that  existed  was  on  the  defensive, 
our  secondary-school  work  was  separated  from  the  business  and  industrial 
world  by  a  yawning  chasm,  the  adult  worker  was  considered  beyond  the 
pale  of  our  educational  program,  and  the  iUiterate  foreigner  was  a  clannish 
pariah  whose  Americanization  was  left  to  chance. 

Time  will  permit  me  to  refer  briefly  to  only  a  few  of  the  educational 
changes  in  New  York  City  made  in  response  to  the  demand  that  the  indi- 
vidual, of  whatever  age  or  status,  may  be  free  to  fashion  his  career  to  meet 
both  his  own  ideals  and  the  demands  of  his  country. 

At  a  recent  convention  of  vocational  educators  in  New  York  City,  Dr. 
Philander  P.  Claxton,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  in  a  spirit 
of  prophetic  aspiration,  stated  that  a  time  would  come  in  the  history  of 
education,  when  elementary-school  pupils  would  be  brought  into  contact 
with  the  realities  that  form  the  bases  of  our  industrial  and  commercial  life; 
and  that  the  day  would  come  when  school  children  would  alternate  between 
school  and  industry,  so  that  theory  taught  in  school  would  be  put  into  prac- 
tice in  industry,  and  the  pupils  would  return  to  school  enricht  with  concrete 
examples  of  practice  by  which  theory  may  be  illumined.  Dr.  Claxton  also 
exprest  the  hope  that  the  time  would  come  when  boards  of  education  would 
not  only  open  the  school  buildings  to  wage-earners  after  school  hours,  but 
would  open  classes  in  stores  and  factories  for  those  whose  interest  might 
best  be  served  thereby. 

Three  years  ago  the  elimination  of  pupils  from  the  upper  grades  of  our 
elementary  schools  and  the  demands  of  industry  led  us  to  experiment  with 
industrial  education  in  the  grades,  as  a  contrast  experiment  to  numerous 
schools  organized  on  a  fraudulent  Gary  plan.  Our  controlling  idea  was 
that  adolescent  boys  and  girls,  standing  on  the  threshold  of  industrial  life, 
should  be  groupt.in  prevocational  schools  in  which  they  would  receive,  in 
addition  to  instruction  in  formal  subjects,  such  instruction  and  training  in 
constructive  activities  as  would  develop  aptitudes  and  abilities  of  distinct 
economic  value. 

There  are  ten  selected  high  schools  in  New  York  City  that  offer  co- 
operative courses,  in  which  650  students  of  both  sexes  alternate  weekly 
between  high  school  and  industry.  A  high-school  teacher,  called  co- 
ordinator, is  selected  by  the  high-school  principal  to  correlate  or  link  up  the 
work  of  the  school  and  the  industry.  Special  progressive  courses  based 
upon  the  charting  of  the  business  of  the  cooperating  firm  have  been  arranged 
for  each  type  of  industry.  These  650  students  are  in  employment  with  170 
firms  of  the  highest  standing  in  various  subdivisions  of  manufacturing, 
commerce,  and  transportation,  which  offer  our  high-school  students  an 
opportunity  to  secure  a  combination  of  practical  training  and  business  or 
industrial  experience. 


44  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

During  the  past  school  year  these  students  earned  over  $125,000.  In 
these  days  of  the  high  cost  of  Hving  explanation  is  unnecessary  to  show  how 
this  amount  has  been  of  great  help  in  retaining  high-school  students  in 
school.  The  cooperative  course  offers  the  solution  of  many  of  the  perplex- 
ing problems  in  education,  both  vocational  and  cultural,  and  solves  in  part 
the  problem  of  vocational  guidance  and  placement. 

A  most  interesting  zone  of  educational  expansion  is  that  intended  for 
children  in  employment  still  amenable  to  the  compulsory-education  law, 
and  that  for  adults  of  various  types,  whether  they  be  the  men  or  women  of 
foreign  birth  who  feel  the  need  of  a  knowledge  of  English  speech  and  of 
institutional  life  to  make  them  participating  Americans,  the  men  subject  to 
the  draft  who  wish  to  perfect  themselves  for  admission  to  a  technical  branch 
of  the  service,  or  the  men  and  women  in  industry,  commerce,  or  municipal 
employment  who  wish  to  better  themselves.  Literally  we  provide  for  the 
waitress,  the  office  boy,  the  salesgirl,  the  baker,  the  artisan,  the  shipbuilder, 
and  at  the  present  time  also  the  enlisted  man.  They  are  taken  care  of  in 
day  continuation  classes. 

These  day  continuation  classes  may  be  groupt  into  six  t5^es: 

Compulsory  continuation  classes  require  the  attendance  of  working 
children  who  are  non-graduates  and  less  than  sixteen  years  of  age.  During 
four  hours  per  week  these  children  receive  instruction  to  insure  general 
culture  and  either  prevocational  or  vocational  training,  depending  upon 
whether  or  not  the  pupils  have  found  their  vocation. 

Industrial  extension  classes  are  practically  classes  for  apprentices  in  the 
skilled  trades.  The  subjects  taught  are  shop  mathematics,  related  English, 
mechanical  drawing,  and  the  mechanics  of  the  industry.  Thus  500  civilian 
apprentices  are  instructed  in  the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard,  and  smaller  groups 
have  been  organized  in  the  shipyards  about  the  New  York  harbor  and  in 
the  yards  of  the  Long  Island  and  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroads. 

Commercial  extension  classes  have  been  organized  in  large  commercial 
establishments  and  department  stores  for  instruction  in  such  subjects  as 
stenography,  typewriting,  salesmanship,  and  merchandizing. 

General  improvement  classes  have  been  organized  in  department 
stores  for  junior  employees  less  advanst  than  those  in  the  preceding 
groups. 

Improvement  classes  give  instruction  of  secondary  grades  to  students, 
such  as  civil-service  employees,  whose  working  hours  enable  them  to  have 
free  time  in  the  late  afternoon  which  they  desire  to  use  for  self -improvement. 

Other  classes  aim  to  Americanize  the  large  number  of  foreigners  in  our 
city,  as  well  as  to  educate  in  institutional  life  the  newly  enfranchised  women 
voters. 

New  York  City  is  the  great  entry  port  for  immigrants  and  the  great 
melting-pot  of  the  country.  Because  of  its  resident  foreign  groups,  it  is  the 
largest  Jewish  city  in  the  world,  the  second  largest  Italian  city,  and  the 


Sessionsl  THE  LIFE-CAREER  MOTIVE  IN  EDUCATION  45 

third  largest  Russian  city.  Within  our  pupil  population  we  include  approxi- 
mately sixty  different  nationalities,  and  therefore  the  problem  of  benevolent 
assimilation  is  essentially  the  work  of  our  pubhc-school  system.  The  present 
war  conditions,  including  the  necessity  of  throttling  German  propaganda, 
have  meant  the  extension  and  socialization  of  this  work.  During  the  term 
just  closed  the  average  number  of  such  classes  in  the  evening  schools  was 
550.  In  addition  there  were  approximately  60  classes  organized  in  the 
day  continuation  schools. 

In  our  evening  schools  there  were  organized  about  60  classes  for  men 
subject  to  the  draft  call,  who  wisht  to  equip  themselves  for  admission 
to  technical  branches  of  the  service  in  such  lines  as  machine-shop  practice, 
electrical  work,  sheet,  metal,  and  foundry  work,  radio  and  buzzer  work, 
camouflage,  aeroplane  work,  and  automobile  mechanics.  At  the  present 
moment,  in  response  to  the  request  of  the  War  Department,  we  are  using 
one  of  our  best-equipt  vocational  schools  to  train  a  contingent  of  400  enUsted 
men  in  similar  hnes  of  work  for  service  "over  there." 

I  hold  no  brief  for  a  type  of  education  in  which  culture  and  utility  are 
mutually  exclusive.  An  educational  program  founded  upon  the  Life- 
Career  Motive  does  not  imply  a  scheme  of  gross  utilitarianism.  There  is 
no  divorce  between  labor  and  culture.  In  this  materialistic  age  we  must 
hold  fast  to  our  cultural  heritage,  but  above  all  we  must  not  fail  to  afford 
that  equality  of  educational  opportunity  which  is  the  fundamental  thesis 
of  democracy.  Our  ideal  must  be  service  rendered  loyally  and  generously. 
There  can  be  no  conflict  between  the  educational  needs  of  our  people  and 
the  demands  of  the  government.  To  the  extent  that  our  school  systems  are 
responsive  to  and  coextensive  with  the  fondest  hopes  and  the  highest  aspira- 
tions of  our  people,  they  constitute  a  bulwark  against  which  no  liberty- 
kilHng  miHtarism  will  ever  prevail. 


THE  NATION  AND  THE  CRISIS  IN  ITS  SCHOOLS 

JOSEPH    SWAIN,    CHAIRMAN   OF   THE    NATIONAL   EDUCATION    COMMITTEE    ON 

SALARIES,   TENURE,  AND  PENSIONS;    PRESIDENT   OF   SWARTHMORE 

COLLEGE,    SWARTHMORE,   PA. 

THREATENED   COLLAPSE   OF  PROFESSION 

Apart  from  the  prosecution  of  the  war  itself,  there  is  no  more  urgent 
problem  now  before  the  American  people  than  that  created  by  the  threatened 
collapse  of  the  teaching  profession.  Collapse  is  an  extreme  word,  but  so  is 
the  emergency  it  describes.  The  drafting  into  other  work  of  large  numbers 
of  the  most  capable  teachers,  the  continual  opening  of  new  doors  of  oppor- 
tunity to  thousands  of  others,  the  utterly  inadequate  financial  provision  for 
the  majority  of  the  remainder — these  are  no  longer  matters  for  debate. 
They  are  facts.    And  they  are  facts  ominous  with  disaster  for  the  nation. 


46  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 


If  the  American  people  cannot  be  made  to  see  the  situation  and  to  supply 
an  early  and  drastic  remedy,  we  shall  run  the  risk,  even  tho  we  win  the  war, 
of  losing  all  that  makes  the  war  worth  winning.  Our  schools  are  the  spring 
and  origin  of  our  democracy.  Of  what  avail  will  it  be  to  spend  our  blood 
in  defending  the  forms  of  democratic  society,  if  the  hfe  that  is  to  fill  and 
energize  them  is  lost?  And  if  our  schools  suifer,  it  will  be  lost.  It  is 
futile  to  declare  that  this  is  a  matter  for  the  future.  If  the  war  has  taught 
us  anything,  it  ought  to  have  taught  us  that  the  future  becomes  the  present 
with  fatal  rapidity,  and  that  failure  to  provide  for  that  future  in  advance 
is  criminal.  Foresight,  above  all  else,  is  what  is  wanted.  The  American 
people  now  have  a  supreme  opportunity  to  exercise  foresight  in  the  matter  of 
their  schools.  Will  they  exercise  it  ?  Or  will  they  kill  the  goose  that  lays 
the  golden  eggs  ? 

A  WAR  OF   SCHOOLMASTERS 

To  the  importance  of  technical  education  in  those  branches  immediately 
connected  with  the  prosecution  of  the  war  the  country  is  awake.  But  this 
is  not  merely  a  war  of  chemistry  and  engineering,  a  war  of  technical  knowl- 
edge pitted  against  technical  knowledge;  it  is  a  war  of  cultures  and  ideals, 
of  ideas  pitted  against  ideas.  In  this  sense  it  is  literally  a  war  of  school- 
masters; and  only  the  hope  of  victory  in  this  latter  struggle  makes  the 
sacrifices  of  the  other  conflict  seem  worth  while.  But  to  achieve  that  victory 
the  ideas  and  ideals  for  which  we  stand  must  be  kept  pure  and  free-flowing 
at  their  source.  For  that  deeper  war  behind  the  other  is  bound  to  go  on  long 
after  the  physical  strife  has  ceast.  Everywhere  men  make  the  capital  mis- 
take of  supposing  that  the  good  or  evil  of  this  war  is  a  thing  that  will  be 
definitely  settled  the  day  victory  is  attained  and  the  treaty  of  peace  signed. 
There  could  not  be  a  grosser  error. 

The  upshot  of  this  war  for  humanity,  the  final  good  or  bad  of  it,  is  going 
to  depend  on  what  the  nations  do  as  a  result  of  it,  on  whether  it  gets  the 
better  of  the  brain  of  humanity  by  stunning  it,  or  whether  the  brain  of 
humanity  gets  the  better  of  it  by  understanding  it.  But  this,  in  the  main, 
lies  with  the  will  and  the  intellect  of  the  next  generation,  and  the  will  and 
the  intellect  of  the  next  generation  lie,  in  no  small  measure,  in  the  keeping  of 
the  teachers  of  the  present. 

MARKEDLY   SUPERIOR  TEACHERS   DEMANDED 

It  has  become  a  truism  that  the  Germany  of  today  is  the  product  of  the 
German  schoolmasters  of  yesterday.  Just  as  certainly  the  America  of 
tomorrow,  perhaps  the  world  of  tomorrow,  will  be  the  product  of  the 
American  teachers  of  today.  What,  then,  if  the  American  teaching  force 
of  today  comes  to  consist  of  an  inferior  selection  from  our  present  teachers, 
supplemented  by  high-school  girls  of  no  experience,  of  no  special  training, 
of  temporary  tenure,  and  of  only  passing  interest  in  their  work! 


Sessions]  THE  NATION  AND  THE  CRISIS  IN  ITS  SCHOOLS  47 

America  must  not  delude  herself  into  believing  that  she  can  put  her 
children  into  the  hands  of  teachers  of  this  type  and  yet  expect  them  to 
turn  out  a  generation  of  statesmen  capable  of  grappling  with  the  problems 
of  what  promises  to  be  the  most  critical  period  in  the  social  and  poHtical 
history  of  mankind.  To  achieve  that  result  the  teachers  must  be,  on  the 
contrary,  not  only  not  inferior,  but  markedly  superior,  the  best  that  can  be 
had,  not  merely  in  training  and  intellectual  equipment,  but  in  character, 
imagination,  and  social  vision. 

Yet  at  the  present  haur  practically  all  forces  are  making  in  the  direc- 
tion, not  of  this  desired  superiority,  but  of  markt  inferiority.  So  strong 
is  this  tendency  that  it  is  possible  to  predict  with  accuracy  what  will  happen 
to  the  teaching  profession  in  America  if  some  radical  remedy  is  not  soon 
applied.  The  teachers  of  the  country  will  fall  roughly  into  three  classes, 
classes  which  were  already  being  defined  during  the  decade  and  a  half  of 
sharp  rise  in  prices  prior  to  19 14.  The  war  merely  accelerated  enormously 
their  formation. 

POVERTY  DETERIORATES  THE  PROFESSION 

First,  there  will  be  what  we  may  call  the  endowed  class.  This  will  be  a 
small  one  and  confined  in  the  main  to  the  higher  branches  of  education. 
It  will  consist  of  a  certain  number  of  financially  independent  persons  who 
will  continue  teaching  because  of  the  pleasure  of  the  work,  or  the  intellectual 
and  social  prestige  flowing  from  connection  with  a  college  or  university. 
However  highly  we  may  think  of  individuals  within  this  group,  the  idea  is 
repugnant  to  every  democratic  instinct  we  possess  of  having  any  part  of  our 
educational  system  pass  under  what  would  inevitably  become  a  kind  of 
upper-caste  control. 

Second,  there  will  be  what  we  may  call  the  part-time  class.  This  will 
consist  of  an  immense  number  who  will  give  only  a  share  of  their  time  and 
energy  to  teaching:  who  will  teach,  but  who  will  not  expect  their  teaching 
salary  to  support  them.  Few  outside  the  profession  have  any  idea  how 
largely  the  teachers  of  the  country  already  belong  to  this  class,  from  the 
many  who  earn  a  few  dollars  on  the  side,  to  the  few  who  frankly  make  their 
teaching  incidental  and  double  or  treble  their  salaries  by  outside  work. 
The  effect  of  this  state  of  affairs  on  the  profession  calls  for  no  comment. 

And  then  there  will  be  a  third  class.  For  it  there  is  no  satisfactory  name. 
Were  the  term  not  certain  to  be  misunderstood,  it  might  be  called  the 
sweated  class.  Perhaps  the  exploited  class  would  be  less  open  to  objection. 
It  will  consist  in  part  of  teachers  who,  thru  age,  or  poor  health,  or  family 
responsibilities,  or  what  not,  will  be  able  neither  to  leave  the  profession  nor 
to  add  materially  on  the  side  to  their  teaching  income,  with  the  result  that 
they  will  be  compelled  to  take  what  is  offered  them  and  lower  their  standard 
of  living  accordingly.  Such  teachers  will  deserve  nothing  but  sympathy. 
They  will  be  slaves  in  outward  condition  but  not  in  spirit.    And  much  the 


48  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

same  will  be  true  of  those  teachers  who,  thru  a  mistaken  sense  of  duty  com- 
bined with  an  ignorance  of  political  economy,  remain  at  their  desks  when 
they  could  leave  them.  But  it  will  not  be  true  of  those  teachers  who,  with 
both  power  to  do  otherwise  and  knowledge  of  the  consequences  of  their 
choice,  accept  a  standard  of  living  below  the  minimum  of  what  makes 
genuinely  human  Ufe,  as  distinguisht  from  mere  living,  possible.  Such 
teachers  will  be  slaves  in  spirit  as  well  as  in  outward  fact,  and  their  action 
will  degrade  not  only  their  own  profession  but  the  working  world  as  a  whole 
as  certainly  as  child  labor,  or  coohe  labor,  or  convict  labor,  degrades  it. 

These,  then,  are  the  three  classes.  Is  this  country  willing  to  have  its 
schools,  which  it  has  long  pointed  to  with  pride  as  the  source  of  its  democ- 
racy pass  into  the  hands  of  an  endowed  class,  or  of  a  part-time  class, 
or  of  a  slave  class  ?  If  so,  democracy  in  America  deserves  to  perish.  And 
it  will  perish. 

THE  REMEDY 

What,  then,  is  the  remedy  ? 

There  is  just  one  remedy — tho  there  may  seem  to  be  two,  owing  to  the 
two  quite  opposite  ways  thru  which  it  may  be  attained. 

But  before  coming  to  the  remedy  and  the  methods  of  attaining  it,  let 
us  notice  what,  emphatically,  is  not  the  remedy.  The  remedy  is  not  to 
raise  teachers'  salaries  sporadically,  here  a  little  and  there  a  little,  25  per 
cent  in  this  enlightened  city,  5  per  cent  in  that  benighted  one,  $500  a  year 
in  some  industrially  booming  section,  where  teachers  have  grown  scarce, 
$50  a  year  in  some  out-of-the-way  corner  of  the  land  where  supply  and 
demand  in  teachers  has  not  been  perceptibly  affected.  "Supply  and 
demand" — that  goes  to  the  heart  of  the  matter.  The  critical  situation  of 
our  schools  will  never  he  genuinely  remedied  so  long  as  teachers'  services  are 
regarded  as  a  commodity  to  be  purchast  at  the  cheapest  obtainable  rate  in  the 
open  market.  That  on  the  whole  is  the  present  attitude  toward  the  teacher. 
That  attitude  has  got  to  end,  or  our  democracy  will  end.  The  teacher 
must  come  to  be  taken  for  what  he  is:  a  public  servant  performing  a  task 
of  unsurpast  importance  to  the  nation,  and  on  that  account  just  as  fully 
entitled  to  adequate  compensation,  or  its  equivalent,  as  the  soldier,  the 
legislator,  or  the  judge. 

But  this  is  simply  a  more  roundabout  way  of  saying  that  education  is  a 
national  matter.  The  man  who  denies  that  at  this  hour  of  the  day  is  not 
worth  Hstening  to.  The  man  who  denies  that  education  is  a  national  matter 
is  capable  of  denying  that  our  Army  and  Navy  are  national  matters,  of 
thinking  that  our  states  and  towns  and  cities,  left  to  themselves,  could 
carry  on  the  war.  Which  is  not  to  imply  for  a  moment  that  education  is 
merely  a  national  matter.  May  the  time  never  come  when  the  people  in 
this  locality  or  that  lose  control  over  the  teaching  of  their  own  children. 
But  the  child  is  of  concern  to  a  wider  region  than  the  place  in  which  he  is 
born;  and  the  wealth  of  a  community  is  no  measure  of  the  promise  of  its 


Sessionsl  THE  NATION  AT  WAR  49 

human  material.  Can  we  permit  boys  and  girls,  perhaps  of  rare  gifts,  just 
because  they  happen  to  have  been  born  on  the  outskirts  of  the  country,  to 
have  only  the  outskirts  of  an  education?  Those  boys  and  girls  are  the 
nation's  highest  assets.  The  nation  must  do  its  share  toward  bearing  the 
burden  of  their  training. 

But  suppose  the  nation  cannot  be  made  to  see  its  duty.  Then  there  is 
only  one  other  way:  the  teachers,  by  concerted  action  and  the  application 
of  the  principle  of  collective  bargaining,  must  compel  the  nation  to  wake  up. 

But  surely  this  will  not  be  necessary.  The  war  is  training  the  national 
imagination  to  see  things  on  a  new  scale.  It  is  no  longer  a  day  when  we  say, 
"This  ought  to  be  done.  We  will  do  it,  provided  we  can  get  the  money" 
It  is  a  day  rather  when  we  say  of  whatever  is  vital  to  the  public  welfare, 
"Let  this  be  done."    And  then  we  get  the  money. 

It  is  a  day  of  big  things.  It  is  a  day  preeminently  when  those  who  are 
serving  the  state  must  be  granted  the  right  of  way.  The  teachers  of  the 
country  are  not  only  serving  the  state  now;  they  have  been  serving  it  all 
their  lives.  They  are  the  captains  of  the  army  of  understanding;  not  alone 
of  that  technical  understanding  upon  which  military  victory  depends,  but 
of  that  larger  human  understanding  upon  which  depends  the  whole  hope  and 
future  of  the  world.  If  we  spend  billions  to  save  the  world,  can  we  not 
spend  miUions  to  make  the  world  worth  saving?  If  we  pour  forth  our 
treasure  without  stint  to  those  who  shape  our  steel  and  iron,  can  we  not 
grant  at  least  a  living  wage  to  those  who  are  molding  our  Uf e  itself  ?  The 
nation  must  come  to  the  rescue  of  its  schools.  For  a  nation  without  educa- 
tion is  a  coast  without  a  lighthouse. 


THE  NATION  AT  WAR 

JAMES  A.   B.   SCHERER,  MEMBER,  COUNCIL  OF  NATIONAL  DEFENSE, 
WASHINGTON,  D.C. 

You  will,  of  course,  remember  that  as  soon  as  we  entered  the  Great  War 
the  President  called  for  the  organization  of  the  Council  of  National  Defense. 
This  was  not  possible  without  the  organization  of  the  state  councils;  but 
that  has  been  accompHsht  in  all  of  the  forty-eight  states,  either  by  legis- 
lative enactment  or  by  executive  order.  The  next  step  was  for  the  states 
to  organize  the  counties,  and  this  has  now  been  done  very  generally.  There 
remains  the  ultimate  unit  of  the  school  district;  and  the  object  of  this  great 
series  of  war  conferences  that  I  have  just  attended  in  a  dozen  western  states 
was  to  organize  there,  as  in  other  states,  community  coimcils  with  the 
schoolhouse  as  the  place  of  meeting  and  the  school  district  as  the  ultimate 
unit  of  organization.  These  community  councils  are  organized  essentially 
for  war  work  in  a  federated  system  heading  up  in  Washington.    The  Council 


50  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

of  National  Defense  is  now  focusing  its  attention  on  community  councils, 
properly  so  called;  and  they  are  in  successful  operation  thruout  many  parts 
of  the  country. 

Senator  Overman  said  the  other  day  that  there  are  four  hundred 
thousand  German  spies  in  the  United  States;  surely  enough  to  go  around. 
When  I  went  into  the  different  parts  of  the  country  to  see  what  the  states 
were  doing  in  rallying  their  vast  resources  for  the  winning  of  this  greatest  of 
all  crusades,  I  wisht  for  the  loan  of  a  spy  that  he  might  with  me  "spy  out 
the  land,"  hear  what  I  heard,  see  what  I  saw,  and  then  report  to  his  Kaiser 
truthfully  (if  he  could)  his  observations  in  the  form  of  a  letter. 

The  first  trip  they  sent  me  on  took  me  down  to  Dixie.  I  was  glad  to 
go  down  there  because  I  was  born  in  the  South,  and  I  wanted  to  see  for  my- 
self just  how  far  the  German  Emperor's  nefarious  program  had  succeeded 
in  stirring  up  the  black  man  against  the  white. 

Major  Moton,  the  distinguisht  negro  who  succeeded  Booker  Washington 
as  president  of  Tuskegee  Institute,  has  said  that  during  the  brief  period  of 
this  war  and  by  reason  of  this  present  war  more  has  been  accompUsht 
in  the  improvement  of  relations  between  the  blacks  and  whites  in  the  South 
than  during  his  entire  Hfetime  previously.  German  spies  please  note  care- 
fuUy! 

Beneath  all  superficial  disturbances  there  is  a  strong  bond  between  the 
southern  white  man  and  the  negro.  This  war  has  greatly  strengthened  that 
bond,  and  I  predict  that  in  consequence  of  such  state-council  movements 
as  that  of  the  "Sumter  County  plan"  in  South  Carolina,  the  race  problem 
is  going  to  be  far  less  acute  in  the  South  in  the  future  than  it  has  been  in 
the  immediate  past. 

In  North  Carolina  they  believe  that  even  doctors  have  their  uses,  so 
they  have  organized  the  physicians  of  the  state  into  a  patriotic  league,  and 
nowadays  when  a  doctor  goes  into  a  tar-heel  home  to  relieve  a  patient  who 
is  shaking  with  fever  and  ague,  he  not  only  gives  him  quinine,  but  while  he 
has  him  down  he  injects  into  him  the  spiritual  hypodermic  of  a  more  intelli- 
gent patriotism,  so  that  if  the  doctor  has  luck  the  man  not  only  gets  up  well 
but  gets  up  better — a  better  patriot  than  when  he  went  to  bed. 

They  have  also  organized  the  women  down  there;  they  have  what  might 
be  called  a  company  of  three-minute  women,  on  the  principle,  I  suppose, 
that  women  can  say  more  in  three  minutes  than  the  four-minute  men  can  in 
four  (and  say  it  much  more  to  the  purpose).  They  have  put  these  three- 
minute  women  at  the  telephones;  it  is  easy  enough  to  get  the  cooperation 
of  the  telephone  companies.  So  every  day  at  noon  when  Johnny  Hayseed 
glues  his  ear  to  the  telephone  (if  I  use  slang  it  is  because  I  am  a  college  man), 
he  has  discovered  that  he  not  only  gets  the  latest  market  quotations  on 
"butter'n'eggs,"  and  corn,  and  cotton,  and  hay,  but  that  "central"  drops 
into  his  ear  at  the  same  time  just  a  little  dose  of  the  patriotic  "dope"  that 
Uncle  Sam  thinks  he  needs  at  the  moment.     It  works  like  a  charm. 


I 


I 


Sessions]  THE  NATION  AT  WAR  51 

Speaking  of  "publicity,"  however,  I  rather  think  that  Connecticut, 
under  the  leadership  of  George  Brinton  Chandler,  is  leading  the  country  in 
its  efficient  methods  of  public  education.  They  have  bulletin  boards  all 
over  the  state,  costing  $3.00  apiece.  They  emblazen  these  boards,  for 
example,  with  our  poster  "The  Prussian  Blot."  Our  council  has  already 
distributed  340,000  copies  thruout  the  country  and  we  have  more  for 
proper  distribution.  It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  explain  by  word  of  mouth 
to  popular  audiences  just  what  the  "  Prussian  Blot "  means.  You  can  do  it, 
however,  with  a  poster,  and  Connecticut  has  lit  up  the  land  with  these 
posters,  which  any  man  or  woman  can  comprehend  in  five  minutes.  It  is  a 
plan  that  ought  to  be  widely  copied  thruout  the  nation. 

Missouri  has  begun  to  "show"  the  rest  of  the  nation  how  to  conduct  an 
efficient  state  council.  She  is  producing  10  per  cent  more  foodstuffs  than 
ever  before;  last  year  750,000  acres  were  put  into  corn  that  had  never  been 
put  into  any  crop  before. 

If  my  German  spy  had  crisscrost  the  country  with  me  he  would  have 
found  the  planters  of  Louisiana  concerned  about  their  sugar  crop,  not  for 
what  they  could  make  out  of  it,  but  for  what  they  could  do  with  it  in  feeding 
our  boys  and  our  Allies.  At  the  opposite  corner  of  the  country  he  would 
have  found  the  lumbermen  of  Washington  and  Oregon  concerned,  not 
about  what  they  could  get  out  of  their  lumber,  but  about  how  they  could 
get  the  spruce  out  of  the  forests  to  help  Uncle  Sam  build  his  airships.  All 
thru  the  country  he  would  have  found  the  people  determined  to  support 
Woodrow  Wilson  and  Charles  Evans  Hughes  in  their  endeavor  to  get  the 
men  who  have  hindered  our  aircraft-building  program.  Further,  in  Massa- 
chusetts and  Connecticut  he  would  have  found  the  great  men  of  those 
states  giving  practically  all  of  their  time  to  the  war  organization  of  the 
country;  building  up,  for  example,  a  great  war-emergency  employment 
service  that  will  enable  New  England  to  handle  its  labor  supply  effectively 
by  distributing  labor,  with  labor's  free  consent,  from  the  points  of  surplus 
supply  to  the  points  of  the  greatest  need.  Crossing  the  country  thru  the 
great  Northwest  and  dropping  down  with  me  into  the  expansive  grain  fields 
of  the  Central  West,  he  would  have  found  the  farmer  concerned  in  "speed- 
ing up"  production;  just  as  in  California,  if  he  would  go  home  with  me, 
he  would  find  captains  of  industry  along  the  Pacific  Coast  "speeding  up" 
ship  production  in  huge  plants  that  have  sprung  up,  as  it  were,  over 
night. 

We  are  beginning  to  put  ourselves  into  this  war,  and  God  knows  it  is 
high  time.  America  must  awake!  Away  with  the  false  and  treasonable 
self-praise — false  as  to  the  fact,  treasonable  to  our  Allies — which  boasts 
of  what  we  have  done !  We  have  not  done  nearly  what  we  should  have  done. 
Welcome  the  heart-searching  and  the  repentance  for  our  faithless  luke- 
warmness;  welcome  to  the  girding  up  of  the  loins  until  every  last  ounce  of 
our  energy  is  thrown  to  the  aid  of  those  tensely  strained  Allies  who  have 


52  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

born  the  brunt  and  the  shock  of  the  battle  for  us  for  almost  the  terrible 
length  of  our  own  Civil  War! 

The  most  contemptible  man  that  I  meet  in  my  journeys  is  the  copper- 
head parasite — the  man  who,  instead  of  asking,  as  every  true  patriot  must, 
how  much  we  can  put  into  this  war,  is  continually  whining  about  what  we 
are  going  to  get  out  of  it.  I  will  let  your  uncle  Lafe  Young,  of  Iowa, 
answer  him: 

Every  traitor  and  every  near  traitor  in  the  United  States  is  inquiring,  "What  are  we 
going  to  get  out  of  this  war  ?" 

Well,  among  other  things,  we  are  going  to  get  a  better  grade  of  patriotism  than  we 
have  been  having 

Out  of  this  war,  we  are  going  to  get  a  new  United  States.  We  are  going  to  hate 
nobody,  but  we  are  going  to  be  prepared  to  fight  whenever  necessary. 

We  are  going  to  have  the  freest  country  in  the  world,  but  we  are  not  going  to  allow 
any  traitorous  highbrows  to  set  their  own  standards  of  freedom  by  which  to  convert 
freedom  into  treason. 

There  are  a  good  many  other  things  "  we  are  going  to  get  out  of  this  war."  When  the 
soldier  boys  come  home,  we  are  going  to  have  two  millions  of  patriots  who,  having  fought 
for  the  flag,  will  make  good  citizens  and  thoro  patriots. 

Aheady  we  clasp  hands  across  the  sea  with  our  mother-land.  The 
virtual  alliance  in  which  we  find  ourselves  with  England  is  a  logical  con- 
clusion far  too  long  delayed.  It  is  only  the  shallowest  and  narrowest  view 
of  history  that  regards  our  Revolutionary  War  as  other  than  one  in  the  long 
sequence  of  the  revolts  of  English-speaking  people  against  tyrants. 

Of  course  we  should  not  limit  our  alliance  to  England;  it  should  include 
all  pf^the  genuine  democracies  of  the  world,  no  matter  what  their  form  of 
government. 

Most  of  all  we  should  conclude  forever  an  inseparable  alHance  with  our 
sister-Republic  la  belle  France!  It  is  a  "soul  of  goodness"  in  the  evil  of 
this  war  that  America,  long  blind,  is  at  last  awake  to  the  spiritual  beauty 
of  her  twin  sister  across  the  Atlantic.  "Frivolous,"  "frail,"  even  "deca- 
dent," we  have  called  her;  to  realize  now,  in  the  incandescent  light  of  this 
war,  that  what  we  called  frivolity  is  but  the  laughing,  rippling  surface  of  a 
nobility  as  deep  as  the  ocean;  that  what  we  called  frailty  was  but  her  gay 
"camouflage"  for  sinews  of  unbending  steel;  and  that  instead  of  decadence 
France  has  since  1870  enjoyed  a  renaissance,  has  risen  and  climbed  and  stood 
upon  glorious  resurrection  heights  from  which  now  she  beckons  and  bids 
us  to  chmb  up  and  stand  at  her  side.  To  commemorate  the  centenary  of 
our  independence  she  sent  her  great  bronze  gift  across  the  water  and  stood 
it  up  in  New  York  Harbor.  We  are  now  sending  our  boys  by  the  million 
to  aid  her  in  the  establishment  of  her  own  independence,  and  to  aid  her 
further  in  her  gigantic  task  of  setting  up  on  the  watchtowers  of  Europe  her 
own  radiant  and  heroic  monument  of  liberty  enUghtening  the  world. 


Sessions]  DEMOCRACY  EVERY  DAY  53 

DEMOCRACY  EVERY  DAY 

JOHN    COLLIER,    PRESIDENT,    NATIONAL    COMMUNITY    CENTER    ASSOCIATION, 

NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

American-wise  in  the  true,  often  forgotten  sense — American-wise  and 
not  Teuton-wise — we  will  bear  our  part  in  the  war  to  make  democracy  safe 
in  this  world. 

And  so  it  is  that  we  have  done.  President  Wilson  is  today  a  world- 
leader,  not  merely  in  the  poHtical  sense,  but  far  more  greatly  in  a  sense 
moral  and  human,  because  he  has  interpreted  to  us  our  own  genius,  because 
he  has  shown  us  the  way.  It  is  President  Wilson  who  in  the  solitude  of 
his  own  thought,  as  revealed  in  his  acts  even  more  than  in  his  words,  has 
determined  that  not  merely  should  America  do  her  own  warrior  part  in 
this  world-war,  that  not  merely  should  we  win  this  war — and  we  shall  win 
it — but  that  in  winning  the  war  we  should  pledge  ourselves  to  such  ends, 
commit  ourselves  to  such  methods,  as  would  restore  our  spiritual  birth- 
right, our  destiny,  to  us.  We  cannot  doubt  that  President  Wilson  is 
conscious  of  this  intent.  We  are  going  to  win  this  war  by  methods  of 
democracy.  Perhaps  no  other  nation  has  with  deliberation  reacht  such  a 
decision  and  cumulatively  put  it  into  effect. 

Assuming  that  President  Wilson  has  prophesied  for  the  nations,  what 
has  been  his  meaning  ?  His  meaning  is  not  just  rhetorical  or  poetic.  It 
is  not  winning  the  war  thru  democracy  if  we  merely  lead  all  the  people  to 
feel  favorable  toward  the  war,  to  feel  ecstatic  about  far  dreams  that  ever 
haunt  the  brains  of  peoples,  or  to  feel  friendly  toward  those  who  are  making 
the  decisions  and  doing  the  work  of  the  war.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
all  these  conditions  are  not  found  even  in  Germany  today.  No  transient 
emotional  state,  no  elation  or  narcosis  such  as  comes  to  heroes  and  martyrs, 
can  itself  constitute  winning  the  war  thru  democracy. 

If  the  American  people  are  to  win  this  war  thru  methods  of  democracy, 
it  must  be  thru  millions  of  conscious  mental  judgments  which  involve  the 
taking  of  responsibility  by  individual  citizens  for  things  vital  to  the  carrying 
on  of  the  war;  the  taking  of  that  responsibility  and  then  the  conscious, 
voluntary,  and  patient  bearing  of  that  burden  whose  significance  we  under- 
stand— the  burden  of  detailed  things  which  men  and  women  and  children 
can  do;  the  bearing  of  one  another's  burdens,  made  heavier  thru  the  war; 
the  burden  of  sustained  will,  but  even  more  the  burden  of  sustained  think- 
ing directed  toward  the  great  ends,  domestic  and  world-wide,  of  this  war. 

And  so  we  come  to  the  plan  of  community  councils  of  national  defense. 
This  plan  aims  to  win  the  war  thru  democracy.  It  involves  manifold 
adjustments — ^permanent  adjustments  if  we  will  make  them  such — in  the 
direction  of  constructive  citizenship.  It  goes  far  beyond  the  purpose  of 
merely  repressing  a  bad  state  and  insuring  a  good  state  of  mind.    The 


54  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

object  of  the  community  council  of  national  defense  is  to  create  modified 
social  arrangements  by  which  the  people,  the  ordinary  folks,  the  people 
knowing  each  other  as  neighbors,  may  gather  in  continuous  consultation, 
may  do  continuous  team  work  within  neighborly  areas,  and  may  gradually, 
knowing  the  full  momentousness  of  what  they  do,  assume  responsibility  for 
the  prosecution  of  the  war. 

This  we  have  certainly  learned  from  Germany:  A  nation  or  people 
may  be  complexly  organized,  prosperous,  with  the  birth-rate  high,  the 
mortality  low,  with  a  high  sense  of  well-being,  and  still  it  is  possible  for 
that  nation  to  be  slowly  transformed  into  a  nation  of  slaves.  We  know 
now  that  it  is  not  democracy  to  have  a  perfectly  lubricated  social  machine, 
that  there  is  no  democracy  in  the  long  run  unless  the  average  man,  thru 
his  collective  business,  gets  a  greater  fulness  of  hfe  thru  being  a  partner 
in  that  business. 

And  the  plan  of  community  councils  of  national  defense  is  a  recognition 
of  the  principle  that  the  joining  together  of  fulness  of  life  for  the  individual 
with  social  efficiency  can  be  had,  under  modern  conditions,  only  thru  a 
decentrahzation  both  of  government  and  of  business,  thru  a  restoration  of 
power  and  responsibility  to  the  local  community,  yet  in  such  a  way  as  to 
conserve  the  values  of  standardization,  of  overhead  service,  of  nation-wide 
team  work.  Thru  community  councils  we  are  nationalizing  the  neighbor- 
hood, we  are  decentralizing  the  nation,  we  are  seeking  a  martial  victory; 
but  far  beyond  it  we  are  seeking  for  our  people  the  restoration  of  the  hfe 
of  the  spirit,  for  our  children  the  restoration  of  great  opportunity.  We  are 
bringing  into  sunhght  and  power  and  use  the  underground  stream  of  our 
own  human  nature.  Thucydides  told  the  truth:  a  civilization  menast  by 
death  discovers  itself.  It  may  be  that  the  answer  to  the  question  of  whether 
war  is  forever  ended  waits  on  the  event  which  may  take  place  within  the 
German  spirit  when  Germany  is  utterly  beaten  and  knows  that  she  is  facing 
death.  Her  birthright  remains,  buried  deep,  where  she  forswore  it  nearly 
two  generations  ago. 

A  final  word.  Community  workers  are  few,  teachers  are  legion,  teachers 
are  everywhere.  The  teachers  are  in  immediate  potential  contact  with 
America  as  a  whole.  If  the  teachers  of  America  would  take  into  their 
brains  and  hearts  this  vision  and  reality  of  community  councils  of  defense, 
as  we  have  intimated  it  tonight,  as  the  Council  of  National  Defense  has 
elaborated  it;  if  they  would  brood  upon  this  idea  in  terms  of  the  school 
and  the  school  neighborhood,  then  there  would  arise  a  vast,  adequate  life- 
defense  army  here  at  home.  For  with  the  teachers  would  come  the  people. 
If  the  teachers  fully  meet  this  opportunity  for  the  restoration  of  democ- 
racy, there  will  be  no  longer  any  doubt  of  success.  We  must  each  decide — 
America  must  decide:  "I  shall  have  lost  this  war  unless  I  shall  have  saved 
my  own  soul  in  winning  this  war." 


Sessionsi  EDUCATION  AND  OUR  DEMOCRACY  55 

EDUCATION  AND  OUR  DEMOCRACY 

W.  .C.   BAGLEY,   PROFESSOR   OF   EDUCATION,   TEACHERS   COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA 
UNIVERSITY,  NEW  YORK,  N.Y. 

It  has  been  the  conviction,  shared  by  all  of  the  members  of  the  com- 
mission, that  the  present  crisis  has  brought  to  those  responsible  for  public 
education  both  unprecedented  responsibihties  and  unprecedented  oppor- 
tunities. Two  great  facts  have  stood  out  sharp  and  clear  in  all  of  our 
discussions:  The  first  is  the  marvelous  awakening  of  the  national  con- 
sciousness, the  sweeping  away  of  the  old  divisions  between  sections  of  the 
country  and  groups  of  the  population,  and  the  birth  of  a  new,  fresh,  and 
vigorous  sense  of  national  unity.  The  second  great  fact  is  the  rapid 
growth  and  development  of  a  new  and  persuasive  and  comprehensive 
meaning  for  the  word  democracy. 

The  first  of  these  great  movements — the  development  of  the  new 
nationalism — has  created  almost  overnight  an  educational  need  of  which 
we  have  hitherto  been  only  dimly  conscious.  It  is  the  imperative  need  of 
educational  efficiency  upon  a  national  scale,  and  the  parallel. requirement 
of  programs  and  policies  that  are  framed  with  the  needs  of  the  nation  pri- 
marily in  mind.  We  have  become  suddenly  aware  that  it  does  make  a 
difference  whether  all  of  the  people  of  the  country  can  think  together  and 
act  together.  We  have  become  suddenly  aware  that  educational  back- 
wardness and  intellectual  stagnation  in  any  part  of  the  country  may  handi- 
cap the  progress  and  imperil  the  safety  of  the  nation  as  a  whole.  With 
seven  hundred  thousand  illiterate  young  men  subject  to  the  draft,  the  wel- 
fare of  the  schools  in  every  locality  and  the  adequacy  of  the  education 
provided  for  every  type  of  child  have  become  matters  of  national  con- 
cern. When  we  of  the  educational  world  are  astounded  to  learn  that 
there  have  been  hundreds  of  communities  in  this  country  where  boys  and 
girls  have  grown  to  manhood  and  womanhood  in  utter  ignorance  of  Ameri- 
can ideals  and  institutions,  ignorant  of  the  very  language  of  our  country, 
and  even  nurtured  upon  alien  ideals  brought  to  them  thru  the  medium  of 
an  alien  tongue,  it  is  pretty  clear  that  we  have  been  thinking  of  education 
and  planning  for  education  too  exclusively  in  the  terms  of  our  circum- 
scribed local  units.  And  when  we  find  entire  contingents  of  our  United 
States  Army  unable  to  understand  commands  given  to  them  in  the  lan- 
guage of  their  country,  unable  in  some  cases  to  understand  any  language 
save  that  of  our  principal  enemy,  it  is  pretty  clear  that  the  doctrine  of  local 
autonomy  in  education  needs  some  very  radical  modification. 

But  it  is  not  alone  the  revelations  of  the  draft  and  the  discovery  of 
centers  of  active  enemy  propaganda  in  various  sections  of  the  country  that 
point  to  the  imperative  need  of  a  national  aim  in  education.  Again  almost 
overnight  the  position  of  our  country  with  reference  to  other  nations  has 
been   radically   transformed.    From   a  sequestered  and  in  many  ways 


56  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

self-sufficient  people  we  have  suddenly  assumed  a  position  of  prime  signifi- 
cance in  a  new  family  of  nations.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  insufficiencies 
of  our  educational  system  under  the  older  order,  they  concerned  ourselves 
alone.  Whether  we  will  or  no,  that  day  of  complacency  has  past,  never  to 
return.  It  will  make  a  difference  now,  not  only  to  ourselves,  but  to  the 
free  peoples  who  have  fought  for  us  and  with  us,  whether  30  or  50  or  100 
per  cent  of  our  schools  are  efficient.  Our  people  constitute  the  richest  and 
strongest  of  the  great  democracies.  In  the  coming  federation  of  free  nations 
they  must  bear  a  responsibiHty  for  the  preservation  and  strengthening  of 
the  democratic  ideal — a  responsibiHty  commensurate  with  their  strength 
and  their  wealth.  Upon  the  way  in  which  our  people  think  and  feel  and  act 
from  this  time  forth  will  depend  conditions  and  issues  that  reach  far  beyond 
our  own  borders  and  comprehend  vastly  more  than  our  own  happiness  and 
welfare  and  progress.  When  we  were  an  isolated  and  self-sufficient  people 
we  could  temporize  with  the  educational  problem.  We  could  lament  the 
shameful  neglect  of  our  rural  and  village  schools,  which  enrol  more  than 
one-half  of  the  nation's  children,  and  take  it  out  in  lamenting.  We  could 
regret  that  we  were  not  able  to  solve  this  great  problem  which  lies  closer 
to  the  root  and  source  of  our  national  life  than  any  other  problem  in  the 
realm  of  education.  The  time  for  regrets  and  lamentations  is  past;  the 
time  for  action  has  come. 

We  have  temporized  with  the  problem  of  preparing  teachers  until  we 
have  the  unenviable  reputation  of  giving  less  attention  to  the  problem  than 
any  other  great  nation,  and  no  problem  is  fraught  with  greater  significance 
to  the  welfare  of  our  schools  and  to  the  responsibilities  that  they  represent. 
We  have  temporized  with  the  health  problem  and  the  problem  of  adult 
ilHteracy.  We  have  temporized  with  the  problem  of  furnishing  educational " 
stimulus  and  direction  to  the  great  masses  of  our  boys  and  girls  who  leave 
school  and  enter  bread-winning  employment  before  their  habits  have  been 
formed  and  their  ideals  of  life  and  conduct  firmly  estabHsht. 

And  it  is  only  fair  to  say  that  we  have  temporized  because  we  have 
had  to  temporize.  Our  system  of  school  support  has  been  such  that  we 
have  had  to  depend  almost  entirely  upon  local  revenues;  our  system  of 
school  administration  has  been  such  that  we  have  had  to  depend  almost 
entirely  upon  local  initiative.  As  a  result  our  programs  and  policies  have 
been  framed  to  meet  the  local  needs  and  fit  the  local  purse.  If  a  community 
wisht  to  have  good  schools  and  could  pay  the  price,  it  usually  had  good 
schools.  If  a  community  was  indifferent  to  education,  it  had,  in  general, 
the  privilege  of  neglecting  its  schools.  If  a  community  was  poor  but  ambi- 
tious, it  did  the  best  that  it  could  with  its  slender  resources.  And  because 
in  general  our  thickly  settled  communities  are  rich  and  our  sparsely  settled 
communities  are  poor  the  most  glaring  inequities  of  education  have  prevailed. 

But  all  this  represents  in  reality  an  unnecessary  situation.  While  it 
is  true  that  there  are  markt  inequalities  among  various  sections  of  the 


Sessions]  EDUCATION  AND  OUR  DEMOCRACY  57 

country  in  respect  to  per  capita  wealth,  it  ife  also  true  that  the  country  as 
a  whole  is  very  far  from  poor.  We  can  have  something  akin  to  an  equality 
of  educational  opportunity  if  our  people  only  say  the  word.  We  can  have 
a  good  school  in  every  locality,  and  mature,  well-prepared  and  permanently 
employed  teachers  in  every  school.  If  our  people  say  the  word,  we  can 
within  a  decade  solve  the  rural-school  problem.  We  can  put  into  our  rural 
and  village  schools  two  hundred  thousand  teachers  who  can,  who  will,  do 
for  rural  America  and  for  the  nation  as  a  whole  what  the  village  dominies 
have  done  for  Scotland,  and  what  the  rural  schoolmasters  have  done  for 
Denmark  and  Norway;  two  hundred  thousand  teachers  who  will  make 
these  rural  schools  of  ours,  these  lonely  outposts  of  culture,  what  they 
should  be,  strategic  centers  of  national  life  and  national  idealism.  For  out- 
posts tho  they  may  be  in  one  sense,  in  another  and  a  deeper  sense  these 
little  schools,  of  all  of  our  educational  institutions,  are  closest  to  what  is 
formative  and  virile  and  abiding  in  our  national  life. 

And  if  the  people  only  say  the  word,  the  next  decade  may  easily  see  the 
great  problem  of  adolescent  education  well  on  the  road  toward  a  satisfactory 
solution.  If  England  in  this  most  critical  hour  of  her  history  can  deliber- 
ately decide  to  advance  the  limit  of  compulsory  continuation  schooHng  to 
the  age  of  eighteen,  if  France,  struggling  so  bravely  to  defend  not  only 
herself  but  the  entire  world  against  a  ruthless  aggression,  can  even  in  the 
midst  of  that  struggle  plan  to  keep  her  boys  under  educational  direction 
until  the  age  of  twenty,  shall  we,  living  in  comparative  security  and  abun- 
dance, confess  that  we  are  unequal  to  the  task  ?  I  repeat  that  if  our  people 
will  only  say  the  word  we  can  within  a  decade  attain  to  a  high  measure  of 
educational  efficiency  on  a  nation-wide  scale.  It  is  the  judgment  of  your 
commission  that  we  should  urge  our  people  to  say  that  word  and  say  it 
quickly.  After  all,  it  means  only  an  extension  of  a  principle  that  they  have 
long  since  firmly  establisht  as  a  basis  for  the  free  schools  of  a  democracy — 
the  principle,  namely,  that  it  is  just  and  equitable  to  tax  the  entire  wealth 
of  a  community  for  the  education  of  all  of  the  community's  children. 
Commerce  and  industry  have  long  since  been  nationalized.  Of  all  our  col- 
lective enterprises  education  alone  remains  hampered  and  constrained  by 
the  narrow  confines  of  an  obsolete  conception.  But  now  with  this  new 
national  awakening  we  find  that  state  boundaries  can  be  easily  and  quickly 
transcended.  The  golden  hour  of  American  education  has  struck.  The 
opportunity  is  here  and  the  need  is  compelling  to  employ  the  resources  of 
the  nation  for  the  education  of  the  nation's  children.  We  have  a  national 
problem  to  solve  that  transcends  all  state  and  local  problems.  We 
have  international  obligations  to  discharge  which  will  call  for  the  very 
highest  level  of  enlightened  intelligence  in  the  body  politic.  And  we 
have  in  the  nation  something  that  neither  the  states  nor  the  local  com- 
munities have  developt  in  like  measure,  namely,  a  system  and  policy  of 
taxation  which  distributes  the  burden  of   collective  enterprises  in  the 


58  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

most  equitable  fashion  that  the  mind  of  man  has  yet  been  able  to 
devise. 

It  is  but  natural  that  there  are  those  among  our  people  who  will  look 
askance  at  a  change  in  our  educational  system  which  makes  the  national 
treasury  an  important  source  of  school  revenues.  There  are  sincere  and 
well-informed  men  and  women  in  this  audience  who  have  grave  fears  that 
federal  cooperation  in  the  support  of  public  schools  will  mean  federal  con- 
trol and  the  domination  of  a  hidebound  bureaucracy.  I  have  even  heard 
exprest  a  fear  that  national  support  for  education  will  Prussianize  our  great 
democracy. 

The  members  of  this  commission  respect  these  doubts  and  fears.  But 
they  also  believe,  not  only  that  every  worthy  feature  of  local  school  control 
may  be  perpetuated,  but  that  local  initiative  may  be  healthfully  stimulated 
and  local  interest  in  and  responsibility  for  education  greatly  augmented  by 
the  kind  of  federal  cooperation  that  they  propose.  Personally  I  do  not  share 
the  fear  that  the  nationalization  of  our  schools  will  Prussianize  our  people. 
In  the  first  place,  I  do  not  think  that  anything  could  Prussianize  our  people. 
Prussianism  is  only  superficially  a  form  of  organization;  fundamentally  it 
is  a  disease,  a  moral  lesion  which  has  cut  away  ever}'-  sentiment  of  decency 
and  humanity,  which  has  eaten  from  the  social  mind  the  spiritual  and 
moral  values  of  life,  which  has  glorified  the  material  and  left  the  brute 
supreme.  Germany  has  not  needed  even  a  federal  system  of  education  to 
spread  this  disease  among  her  people.  Her  unit  of  school  control,  like  ours, 
is  the  state,  and  not  the  nation. 

France  has  the  most  highly  centralized  and  nationalized  educational 
system  in  the  world.  Has  the  nationalization  of  her  schools  Prussianized 
France  ?  England  is  nationalizing  her  schools  today.  Will  England's  new 
schools  Prussianize  the  English  people?  We  have  nationalized  our  rail- 
roads and  many  of  our  industries.  We  have  nationalized  our  Army.  Do 
we  find  in  our  national  life  today  anything  that  smacks  of  the  Hun  ? 

It  is  the  conviction  of  this  commission  that  the  nation  may  participate 
in  the  support  of  education  without  involving  the  dangers  of  bureaucracy 
and  autocratic  control.  It  is  further  the  conviction  of  the  commission  that 
these  dangers,  if  they  exist,  may  be  the  more  readily  avoided  if  the  initiative 
in  promoting  this  principle  of  national  support  is  taken  by  the  National 
Education  Association.  We  may  be  very  sure  that  this  movement  is  com- 
ing. Some  individual  or  organization  is  bound,  some  have  already  essayed, 
to  take  the  leadership.  This  responsibility  falls  naturally  to  our  Associa- 
tion. Shall  we  accept  the  plain  challenge,  or  shall  we  lie  back  and  let  some- 
one else  do  the  work?  It  is  the  belief  of  the  commission  that  you  will 
have  but  one  answer  to  that  question. 


Sessionsl  TRAINING  FOR  NATIONAL  SERVICE  59 

TRAINING  FOR  NATIONAL  SERVICE 

THOMAS  E.   FINEGAN,   DEPUTY  STATE  COMMISSIONER  OF  EDUCATION, 
ALBANY,  N.Y. 

When  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  of  America,  acting  upon  the 
recommendations  of  the  President,  on  April  6,  191 7,  was  compelled  to 
declare  war  against  the  imperial  German  government  because  of  its  ruthless 
acts,  the  American  people  faced  the  determination  of  an  issue  which  was 
the  most  vital  in  their  whole  history  and  was  fraught  with  greater  signifi- 
cance than  any  other  act  of  theirs  to  the  interests  of  the  free  peoples  of  the 
entire  world.  The  final  decision  by  the  duly  appointed  agents  of  the  people 
to  take  up  arms  against  the  enemy  of  civilization  was  reacht  deliberately, 
with  due  concern  about  our  attitude  and  our  obligations  to  other  hberty- 
loving  peoples,  and  with  clear  recognition  of  the  burden  that  we  were 
assuming  and  of  the  load  that  we  were  to  carry  thru  to  the  end. 

Every  patriotic  American,  and  there  is  no  other  American,  is  lifted  up 
in  these  days  when  he  reflects  that  no  future  historian  and  no  nation  will 
ever  be  able  to  charge  that  our  country  entered  this  conflict  thru  any  motive 
of  mere  self-interest.  The  history  of  nations  records  no  more  glorious  or 
unselfish  act  than  our  declaration  of  war. 

We  had  no  jeweled  crown  and  no  burnisht  scepter  to  preserve.  All  the 
nations  of  the  earth  know  well  enough — enemies,  neutrals,  and  allies  alike — 
the  reward  we  expect.  They  know  that  there  is  now  no  bargain  to  be  made 
with  us.  They  know  that  this  great  people  does  not  traffic  in  human 
liberty  and  Christian  civilization.  They  know  that  we  mean  by  our 
treasure,  by  our  blood,  by  every  supreme  sacrifice,  to  see  to  it  that  out  of 
this  struggle  comes  a  well-ordered  world.  They  know  that  we  believe  in  mo- 
rality and  the  righteousness  of  nations  and  that  we  mean  to  bring  offen- 
ders to  the  bar  of  international  justice  according  to  the  exalted  standards 
of  human  and  of  national  life  in  which  we  believe.  They  know  that  we 
mean,  before  we  are  thru,  to  hunt  down  the  beasts  among  nations  and  to 
compel  "by  force  and  yet  more  force,"  if  necessary,  the  acceptance  and 
observance  by  all  peoples  of  the  earth  with  whom  we  deal,  of  those  great 
fundamental  principles  of  liberty,  justice,  and  humanity  which  have  made 
us  and  which,  please  God,  shall  keep  us  a  free  nation  worthy  of  the  name. 

And  if  it  is  true  that  the  reward  we  seek  is  known  to  all  men,  the  part 
that  we  are  inevitably  to  play  is  equally  clear.  Whether  we  wish  it  or  not, 
the  balance  of  power  lies  in  our  hands  and  the  measure  of  responsibihty 
now  rests  equally  upon  our  shoulders.  The  victory  that  is  to  be  won  must 
be  won — the  whole  world  now  knows  it — by  the  strength,  the  wisdom,  and 
the  self-sacrifice  of  the  American  people.  We  can  make  that  statement 
without  undue  pride;  it  is  but  fact,  solemn,  weighted  fact. 

When  the  avowed  purposes  of  ourselves  and  our  AlHes  have  been 
accompHsht,  when  the  victory  has  been  won,  a  new  world  will  face  us — a 


6o  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

world  in  which  we  shall  take  our  rightful  place  at  the  counsel  table  of 
nations.  Our  position  as  a  political  power  and  our  relations  to  other  gov- 
ernments will  take  on  new  meaning.  Our  commanding  position  in  the 
world,  our  philosophy  of  life  and  government,  the  very  righteousness  of  the 
cause  for  which  we  fight,  will  bring  us  new  responsibilities.  How  are  we  to 
meet  them  ? 

In  the  first  and  last  analysis  the  responsibihty  of  the  nation  is  the 
responsibility  of  her  schools.  Our  system  of  education  must  lay  the  foun- 
dation for  the  future  policy  of  the  nation.  We  have  witnest  within  the 
last  four  years  the  fruition  of  the  long-vaunted  system  of  German  educa- 
tion. We  have  seen  how  completely  a  whole  people  has  been  deluded  by 
a  philosophy  of  life  and  a  theory  of  government  nourisht  in  its  schools  and 
universities.  No  better  proof  is  needed  that  the  schools  do  determine  the 
trend  of  a  nation.  I  have  time  for  but  a  brief  generalization  as  to  how 
we  may  best  articulate  our  work  as  teachers  with  the  new  world  that  lies 
before  us. 

We  must  stop  quarreling  about  the  relative  values  of  educational  sys- 
tems. For  the  past  twenty-five  years  at  least  we  have  been  wrangling  over 
the  virtues  of  the  classics  and  the  virtues  of  the  so-called  modern  school. 
Is  it  not  about  time  for  us  to  admit  on  all  hands  that  the  world  is  getting 
big  enough  for  a  multitude  of  educational  theories  and  systems  ?  There  is 
to  be  room  enough  in  our  future  educational  world  for  the  classicist  and 
the  modernist. 

We  never  stood  more  in  need  of  a  study  of  the  ancients  than  we  do 
today.  A  few  years  ago  we  and  other  liberty-loving  peoples  like  us  reasoned 
ourselves  into  the  fatuous  belief  that  world-peace  was  approaching  because 
we  willed  it  so.  The  most  momentous  and  the  most  disastrous  fact  in 
modern  history  was  the  failure  of  free  peoples  to  foretell  and  adequately 
to  prepare  for  this  conflict.  How  mankind  shall  be  governed  is  the  issue 
of  the  ages  and  the  one  great  outstanding  fact  of  world-history. 

The  new  world  that  we  are  to  shape  and  control  must  thru  its  schools 
saturate  the  minds  of  whole  peoples  and  especially  of  vast  numbers  of 
intellectual  leaders  with  the  clear  lessons  of  the  past.  Let  us  have  done 
with  condemning  the  classics.  Let  us  study  all  that  has  been  in  the  world. 
Let  us  remember  that  the  past  makes  the  future.  Let  us  remember  that 
the  inheritance  of  our  fathers  is  worthless  if  we  are  not  able  correctly  to 
interpret  it. 

And  while  we  look  to  the  past,  we  must  live  in  the  present  and  build 
for  the  future.  War,  with  all  its  horrors,  has  its  virtues.  It  clarifies  our 
thinking.  It  centers  our  thought  upon  vital  things.  Our  declaration  of 
war  a  little  over  a  year  ago  brought  with  it  the  confession  that  we  have  been 
a  careless  and  in  many  respects  an  idle  people,  and  that  we  have  in  many 
ways  been  far  behind  our  enemies  in  the  utilization  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth 
that  lay  in  our  hands. 


Sessions!  TRAINING  FOR  NATIONAL  SERVICE  6i 

The  educational  patriots  who  sometimes  tremble  about  the  future  of 
vocational  education  need  not  be  concerned  any  longer.  We  have  learned 
in  recent  weeks  that  a  democracy  can  hope  to  endure  only  by  proving  its 
superiority  to  autocracy  in  the  employment  of  the  material  as  well  as  the 
intellectual  forces  of  the  world.  We  need  trained  minds,  we  need  intellec- 
tual leaders,  and  we  need  trained  human  units.  We  need  miUions  of  edu- 
cated hands,  and  there  can  be  no  educated  hand  without  a  trained 
mind. 

I  do  not  mean  that  the  schools  of  the  future  should  rear  mere  automa- 
tons, but  I  do  mean  that  it  is  the  business  of  the  schools  to  realize  that 
every  human  being  has  a  place  in  the  general  economy  of  things,  and  that 
it  is  the  business  of  the  school  best  to  fit  the  individual  to  find  and  fill  his 
place.  I  know  that  this  is  a  platitude.  I  hope  that  the  day  is  soon  to 
come  when  it  shall  become  a  practice  instead  of  a  platittide.  It  is  a  platitude 
that  must  be  repeated  until  it  becomes  a  practice.  Educational  diagnosis 
and  therapeutics  have  been  much  talkt  of  and  little  practist  in  this  country. 
We  must  educate  hands  to  do  all  the  things  that  have  ever  been  done  any- 
where in  the  world,  and  better  than  they  have  ever  been  done  before,  and, 
more  than  that,  we  must  saturate  minds  with  ideas  which  will  lead  hands 
to  do  new  things  for  the  betterment  of  mankind. 

The  democracy  that  is  to  endure  will  not  only  train  the  minds  and  the 
hands  of  its  future  citizens  but  will  look  to  the  condition  of  their  bodies. 
It  is  as  vitally  important  to  teach  boys  and  girls  the  proper  care  of  their 
bodies,  the  essentials  of  a  well-regulated  diet,  the  value  of  recreation  and 
play,  of  sunshine  and  pure  air,  of  rest  and  sleep,  and  the  relation  of  these 
things  to  the  training  of  the  mind  and  the  hand,  to  the  development  of 
character,  and  to  the  preservation  of  life  itself,  as  it  is  to  teach  them  to 
read  and  write.  The  health  of  a  nation,  we  have  lately  discovered,  is  of 
vital  concern  in  its  striking  power.  It  is  the  duty  and  obligation  of  the 
leaders  of  public  education  in  this  country  to  predicate  the  health  work 
of  the  schools  upon  standards  which  will  develop  men  and  women  who  are 
as  fit  for  service  in  times  of  peace  as  the  government  demands  its  men 
shall  be  in  times  of  war. 

You  will  observe  that  I  have  been  forst  to  deal  in  general  terms  with  the 
topic  assigned  to  me.  The  best  training  for  national  service,  in  my  judg- 
ment, lies  in  the  best  training  of  the  individual  human  unit.  It  is  the  busi- 
ness of  the  school  to  begin  with  the  individual.  I  have  no  pet  theory  to 
present,  no  crystallized  program  to  outline,  but  I  apprehend  that  the  schools 
of  the  future,  as  their  contribution  to  the  continued  safety  of  democracy 
and  to  an  enduring  peace  upon  the  earth,  will  be  guided  by  these  fundamen- 
tal principles: 

I.  They  will  have  reverence  for  the  past  and  will  seek  in  all  possible 
ways  to  study  and  to  interpret  the  record  of  mankind  as  a  guide  to  living 
men. 


62  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

2.  They  will  leave  no  field  of  successful  human  endeavor  out  of  their 
program  and  will  study  what  the  hands  of  men  have  done  and  what  they 
may  do  to  preserve  the  liberties  and  the  civilization  which  we  enjoy. 

3.  They  will  consider  the  health  and  physical  well-being  of  every  school 
child  and  will  nourish  human  life  as  the  most  priceless  thing  next  to  human 
liberty. 

4.  They  will  employ  all  agencies  for  human  betterment  and  for  national 
safety  and  will  lay  the  foundation  for  a  national  system  of  disciplinary  and 
miUtary  training  for  all  able-bodied  men  of  proper  age,  so  that  every 
American  citizen  may  effectively  meet  his  responsibilities  to  the  nation. 

5.  Finally,  they  will  train  the  future  generation  of  citizens  to  believe, 
no  matter  what  the  immediate  issue  of  the  present  conflict,  that  there  can 
never  be  compromise  or  harmony  between  our  way  of  Ufe  and  that  of  the 
enemies  of  civilization  whom  we  now  oppose.  However  long  the  road,  the 
journey  must  bring  us  to  a  clear  realization  of  this  fact:  democracy,  with 
all  that  it  means,  must  be  supreme  upon  the  earth  if  the  future  happiness 
and  well-being  of  mankind  is  to  be  assured. 


COMPETENT  TEACHERS  FOR  AMERICAN  CHILDREN 

L.    D.    COFFMAN,    DEAN    OF    THE    COLLEGE    OF    EDUCATION,    UNIVERSITY    OF 
MINNESOTA,   MINNEAPOLIS,  MINN. 

The  American  people  have  made  a  new  resolve:  it  is  that  hereafter 
their  children  shall  be  taught  only  by  loyal,  patriotic  supporters  of  the 
American  government.  The  importance  of  such  a  resolve  can  scarcely  be 
overestimated.  It  means  that  education  is  recognized  by  the  nation  as  the 
bulwark  of  American  liberty  and  the  source  of  strength  and  safety  of 
American  institutions.  It  means  that  hereafter  our  faith  will  not  consist 
in  bUnd  trusting  that  things  will  come  out  right,  but  that  planning  will 
take  the  place  of  drifting,  and  purpose  the  place  of  chance. 

Not  until  recently  were  we  aware  that  there  are  many  un-American 
schools  and  many  un-American  teachers.  Our  ignorance  of  the  situation 
was  appalling  and  our  stupidity  colossal.  Not  until  we  entered  the  world- 
conflict  did  we  pause,  take  stock,  and  discover  the  sinister  influence  of 
German  Kultur  in  the  schools  of  the  country.  Now  we  find  that  there  has 
been  an  organized  program  for  the  Germanizing  of  America.  The  president 
of  the  German-American  AlHance,  Mr.  Charles  J.  Hexamer,  said  in  1911,^ 
"What  the  root  is  to  the  tree,  that  the  German  language  is  to  Germany. 
We  hope  to  introduce  the  teaching  of  German  in  all  elementary  schools. 
The  more  the  teaching  of  German  increases,  the  greater  will  be  the  number 
of  boys  and  girls  who  will  be  brought  to  us  and  who  will  receive  the  keys 
to  the  treasure  houses  of  our  Kultur.'^ 

» The  quotations  in  this  paper  were  taken  from  an  article  on  "Americans  for  Amer- 
ica," by  Mr.  David  Lawrence,  in  the  Saturday  Evening  Post,  June  15,  1918. 


Sessions!        COMPETENT  TEACHERS  FOR  AMERICAN  CHILDREN  63 

This  man,  a  native-born  American,  and  the  organization  he  represented 
were  largely  responsible  for  the  existence  of  491  evangelical  schools  in  this 
country,  some  of  which  were  supported  by  state  funds,  in  which  German 
is  the  only  language  taught. 

It  was  the  avowed  and  undisguised  purpose  of  the  Germans  to  make  the 
schools  and  education  their  chief  instrumentalities  of  action.  The  official 
quarterly  of  the  League  for  Geripanism  in  Foreign  Lands  (September,  1909) 
contains  the  following  statement:  "Work  done  in  the  interests  of  the 
German  school  abroad  is  a  noble  service  rendered  to  the  German  nation; 
for  the  most  effective  means  of  perpetuating  Germanism  in  foreign  countries 
is  the  school." 

Unmistakable  evidence  is  available  to  show  that  German  protagonists 
sought  to  influence  and  mold  courses  of  study  and  to  provide  for  the  pub- 
lication of  textbooks  glorifying  Prussianism  and  German  autocracy  and 
minimizing  English  influence  and  American  traditions.  The  ultimate  end 
of  all  this  planning  is  revealed  in  a  statement  in  the  Pan-American  Gazette: 
"The  Germanization  of  America  has  gone  ahead  too  far  to  be  interrupted. 
Whoever  talks  of  the  danger  of  Americanization  of  the  Germans  now  here 
[in  America]  is  not  well  informed  or  cherishes  a  false  conception  of  our 
relations.  In  a  hundred  years  the  American  people  will  be  conquered  by 
the  victorious  German  spirit,  so  that  it  will  present  an  enormous  German 
Empire." 

This  end  was  to  be  attained  thru  the  schools  by  having  German  teachers 
teach  German  ideals  thru  the  German  language.  These  teachers  did  their 
work  well  and,  utilizing  every  opportunity,  developt  an  affection  for  Ger- 
many which  the  war,  in  many  instances,  has  been  unable  to  disturb. 

What  these  teachers  did  and  were  doing  for  Germany  all  teachers 
in  the  future  must  do  for  America.  Their  patriotism  must  be  of  the  simon- 
pure  quality.  They  must  be  familiar  with  and  teach  the  facts  about  foreign 
lands,  but  the  ideals  they  seek  to  implant  must  be  American  ideals,  and  the 
language  of  the  graded  schools  in  which  these  ideals  are  imparted  must  be 
the  English  language. 

The  national  emergency  in  education  not  only  demands  that  teachers 
be  enthusiastic  and  loyal  supporters  of  the  institutions  that  protect  them, 
and  of  the  ideals  that  dominate  them,  but  also  demands  that  they  be  better 
qualified  both  academically  and  professionally  than  teachers  in  the  past 
have  been.  The  United  States  has  had  almost  no  national  teacher- training 
plan  or  system  of  education  at  all.  In  this  respect  she  has  been  a  drifter 
among  the  nations  of  the  world.  At  any  rate  the  inequities  in  her  schools 
constitute  their  most  striking  characteristic.  And  there  are  no  inequities 
more  pronounst  than  those  relating  to  the  training  of  teachers. 

These  irregularities,  inequalities,  and  inequities  must  be  ironed  out  and 
the  general  scholastic  level  of  teachers  raised.  There  are  approximately 
300,000  teachers  in  this  country  who  have  had  no  education  beyond  the 


64  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

high  school,  and  between  50,000  and  100,000  who  have  had  no  schooling 
beyond  the  eighth  grade. 

Cities  suffer  less  from  these  untrained,  uneducated,  immature,  raw 
recruits  than  the  villages  and  country  districts.  Is  not  one  of  the  funda- 
mental tenets  of  democracy  equality  of  educational  opportunity  ?  And  is 
not  the  intelligence  of  the  rural  folk  of  this  country  as  essential  to  the 
upbuilding,  to  the  efficiency,  and  to  the  safety  of  democracy  as  the  intelli- 
gence of  city  folk  ?  If  true  democracy  is  to  exist,  then  there  must  be  as 
competent  and  well-trained  teachers  in  the  country  as  in  the  cities. 

The  teachers  of  tomorrow  must  know  more  than  the  teachers  of  the 
past.  Patriotic  ideals  will  not  always  have  emotional  crises  to  arouse  them 
and  tragic  events  about  which  to  cluster.  The  day  will  come  when  they 
must  be  inculcated  in  the  quiet  recesses  of  the  schoolroom.  The  brains  of  all 
the  people  must  be  mobilized  to  meet  our  common  obligations,  to  provide 
mutual  understanding  and  intercourse,  and  to  solve  our  common  problems. 

These  statements  are  based  on  the  assumption  that  we  must  have  a 
national  policy  in  education  and  that  the  schools  will  reflect  the  principles, 
ideals,  and  ambitions  of  the  nation.  Nearly  half  of  the  present  teaching 
force  of  this  country  is  too  poorly  trained,  or  too  young,  or  remains  in 
teaching  too  short  a  time  to  be  of  great  service  in  achieving  such  important 
results.  The  average  American  teacher  gets  her  initial  experience  at  eigh- 
teen or  nineteen  years  of  age  and  remains  in  teaching  four  years.  This 
means  that  she  leaves  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  About  the  time  a  young 
doctor  is  entering  upon  his  interneship,  where  he  is  expected  to  spend  from 
one  to  two  years  acquiring  experience  before  he  is  allowed  to  practice  medi- 
cine, the  typical  American  school  teacher  is  finishing  her  professional  career. 
Dentistry,  law,  engineering,  nursing,  journalism,  every  profession  that  is  a 
profession  requires  many  more  years  of  training  than  are  required  for 
teaching. 

How  and  where  is  this  training  to  be  secured  ?  The  answer  is,  in  the 
teacher-training  institutions  of  this  country.  The  welfare  and  the  safety 
of  the  country  demand  federal  recognition  of  teacher  training.  We  have 
been  provincial  in  that  we  have  regarded  education  largely  as  a  local  matter. 
It  has  now  become  a  national  obligation.  The  Commission  on  National 
Emergency  proposes  to  ask  Congress  for  an  appropriation  to  be  distributed 
to  the  states  under  appropriate  conditions  and  to  be  matcht  by  them  for 
the  training  of  teachers.  We  have  long  been  committed  to  the  policy  of 
providing  federal  support  for  the  education  of  soldiers  and  sailors  to  promote 
the  arts  of  war  and  to  protect  us  in  time  of  war;  now  it  seems  that  the  nation 
must  and  ought  to  commit  itself  to  the  poHcy  of  providing  federal  support 
for  the  education  of  all  its  children  to  promote  the  arts  of  peace.  One  is 
as  important  as  the  other. 

The  lack  of  well-trained  teachers  has  become  worse  since  the  beginning 
of  the  war.    Thousands  of  men  teachers  have  enlisted  or  have  been  drafted, 


Sessions]         COMPETENT  TEACHERS  FOR  AMERICAN  CHILDREN  65 

and  tens  of  thousands  of  women  teachers  have  offered  their  services  for 
reHef  or  social  work.  Competent  teachers  are  not  available  to  take  their 
places.  The  Commissioner  of  Education  fears  a  shortage  of  100,000 
teachers  this  next  year.  This  is  a  national  calamity.  England  made  the 
same  tragic  mistake  when  she  entered  the  war.  Many  of  her  schools  were 
closed  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  children  were  put  to  work  in  the  shops, 
factories,  mills,  and  mines,  or  left  free  to  roam  the  streets.  As  a  result 
juvenile  crime  increast  34  per  cent  during  the  first  year  of  the  war.  France 
faced  a  similar  situation.  Now  both  these  nations  are  attempting,  thru 
increast  appropriations  and  by  the  stimulation  of  pubHc  sentiment,  to 
rehabilitate  their  schools. 

It  may  be  urged  that  the  schools  should  be  closed  to  save  coal.  If  it 
is  necessary  to  close  the  schools  to  win  the  war,  then  the  schools  should  be 
closed;  but  before  we  close  the  schools  we  should  close  the  saloons,  the  pool 
halls,  the  billiard  rooms,  every  place  of  questionable  character,  and  every 
unnecessary  industry.  The  schools  must  be  kept  open  if  possible.  But, 
it  may  be  askt,  where  are  we  to  find  the  teachers  ?  There  must  be  several 
hundred  thousand  well-educated  married  women  who  have  had  successful 
experience  as  teachers.  In  the  present  emergency  these  women  should  vol- 
unteer their  services  as  teachers,  or  the  government  should  conscript  them. 
The  nation  must  understand  that  teaching  is  a  form  of  high  patriotic  service, 
and  that  the  education  of  the  masses  is  as  necessary  for  social  solidarity  and 
security  as  for  social  progress. 

Such  a  remedy  as  I  have  proposed  would  be  temporary,  of  course. 
Teaching  will  continue  to  be  a  way  station  on  the  road  to  professional 
careers  for  many,  until  it  affords  better  rewards  and  worthier  sanctions. 
Salaries  are  hopelessly  inadequate.  Half  the  teachers  of  this  country  get 
five  hundred  dollars  a  year.  About  47  per  cent  get  eight  dollars  a  week 
or  less,  when  distributing  their  salaries  over  fifty-two  weeks  to  the  year. 
And  the  situation  has  not  improved  with  the  war.  In  fact,  it  has  grown 
steadily  worse.  The  cost  of  living  has  increast  30  or  40  per  cent  and  is 
still  rising,  but  the  salaries  of  teachers  as  a  class  remain  practically  un- 
changed. Small  wonder  that  many,  from  economic  necessity  alone,  have 
dropt  out  of  teaching  to  enter  other  lines  of  work.  The  government  has 
been  offering  salaries  for  clerical  and  stenographic  work  that  are  two  and 
three  times  larger  than  the  salary  of  the  average  teacher.  I  have  found 
dozens  of  high-school  graduates  in  Minnesota  accepting  employment  this 
spring  at  salaries  ranging  from  sixty-five  to  ninety-five  dollars  a  month  for 
twelve  months.  Plumbers,  carpenters,  cement  workers,  basket  workers, 
the  makers  of  soap  and  paste,  and  the  iceman  are  better  paid  than  teachers. 
Even  house  servants  are  better  paid  than  teachers. 

All  this  means  that  less  and  less  competent  persons  will  be  attracted  to 
teaching,  unless  unusual  remedies  are  available.  The  first  and  simplest  of 
these  is  that  teachers  be  better  paid.    If  we  are  to  retain  our  present 


66  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

standards,  salaries  must  be  increast  nearly  50  per  cent  at  once;  and  if  .we 
are  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  teaching  staff,  salaries  must  be  advanst 
100  per  cent  in  the  near  future.  In  the  midst  of  war  can  this  nation  be 
made  to  see  and  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  this?  This  problem  is 
not  local;  it  is  national.  Teachers  do  not  belong  to  any  state;  they  belong 
to  the  United  States. 

It  is  evident  to  every  thinking  person  that  this  movement  for  nation- 
wide standards  for  teachers  is  but  a  part  of  the  general  movement  to  secure 
national  recognition  for  all  those  agencies  that  affect  the  welfare,  health, 
and  education  of  all  the  people.  Gradually  but  certainly  the  isolation 
between  communities  is  breaking  down,  the  boundaries  of  community  life 
are  being  extended.  The  measure  of  a  citizen  today  is  the  size  of  the  unit 
in  which  he  thinks. 

The  National  Education  Emergency  Commission  is  trying  to  put  the 
emphasis  where  it  belongs.  It  beheves  that  this  Association  should  call 
the  attention  of  the  nation  to  the  present  emergency  in  education  and  that 
it  should  take  the  lead  in  demanding  competent  teachers  for  American 
children.  It  feels  that  it  would  be  a  travesty  to  win  a  glorious  victory  on 
the  battlefields  of  France  and  to  let  the  schools  of  the  country  diminish  in 
importance  and  decrease  in  efficiency.  It  feels  that  the  secondary  line  of 
defense,  the  line  that  holds  the  reserves,  the  line  that  is  to  weld  the  fruits 
of  this  victory  into  stable  government,  is  the  teachers  of  America  and  the 
children  they  are  educating.  It  beheves  that  while  civilization  hangs  in  the 
balance  in  Europe,  steps  must  be  taken  at  home  at  once  to  make  it  safe 
for  the  future.  The  commission  insists  that  this  is  the  most  strategic 
moment  in  the  history  of  public  education  in  this  country.  It  is  a  moment 
when  a  nation  may  transcend  its  provincialism  and  lay  the  foundation  for 
future  stabihty  and  future  greatness  by  providing  a  teaching  staff  and  an 
educational  system  commensurate  with  its  dignity  and  its  ideahstic  future. 


THE  ENLISTMENT  OF  THE  PROFESSION 

CARROLL   G.   PEARSE,   PRESIDENT,  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  MILWAUKEE,  WIS. 

Educational  unpreparedness  must  not  follow  military  unpreparedness. 
We  organized  rapidly  to  fight  the  enemy  abroad.  We  must  organize  as 
rapidly  to  meet  the  needs  of  education,  which  stabihzes  government  and 
gives  force  and  point  to  our  arms.  When  the  United  States  was  engulft 
in  the  German  War,  the  nation  was  not  ready.  We  had  no  army,  no 
equipment  for  an  army,  no  adequate  transportation  by  land  or  sea.  The 
little  war  machinery  we  had  was  at  once  put  into  action;  volunteers  were 
called,  as  the  first  stop-gap;  and  then  the  draft — every  man  within  the 
age  Hmits  set  wrote  down  his  name,  to  go  with  a  gun  on  his  shoulder  when 
summoned. 


Sessions!  THE  ENLISTMENT  OF  THE  PROFESSION  67 

But  the  draft  did  not  stop  there;  soldiers  were  not  all  the  need.  Ad- 
visers there  must  be — wise  men,  with  wide  vision  and  practical  sense,  to  say 
what  must  be  done.  Captains  of  industry,  masters  of  transportation, 
princes  of  finance,  wizards  of  science — all  were  prest  into  service  and  put  to 
work  to  win  the  war.  Then  the  nation's  resources  of  manufactured  articles 
and  raw  materials,  of  artisan  skill  and  of  money,  were  swept  into  the  ranks 
to  do  their  part.  One  of  the  most  splendid  spectacles  of  our  generation  has 
been  the  quick,  hearty  response  of  the  leaders  of  affairs — of  finance  and 
industry — and  the  owners  and  managers  of  the  nation's  resources  to  the 
rallying  call  for  service  in  the  nation's  emergency. 

The  war  brought  the  teaching  profession  face  to  face  with  an  emergency 
in  the  field  of  education  almost  equally  startling.  As  by  a  lightning  flash 
the  war  revealed  certain  respects  in  which  our  educational  plans  and 
practices  had  failed  to  prepare  for  the  demands  of  this  hour;  and  in  this 
same  white  light,  looking  toward  the  future — those  days  that  shall  come 
after  the  war — we  Have  seen  that  we  are  not  now  fitting  American  young 
people  to  meet  the  demands  that  those  days  will  make. 

Both  counsel  and  action  by  school  people  were  needed,  and  needed 
promptly.  The  new  Army  is  built  on  the  plans  of  trained  soldiers;  our 
Navy  grows  on  the  plans  of  trained  naval  officers;  financiers  make  the 
plans  to  finance  the  war.  School  people  must  be  lookt  to  for  plans  to  meet 
the  emergency  in  education,  both  now  and  for  the  years  after  the  war. 

Only  one  organization,  the  National  Education  Association,  enlists 
the  service  of,  and  speaks  for,  the  entire  teaching  profession;  kindergarten, 
elementary  school,  high  school,  college,  university,  professional  and  tech- 
nical school,  state  and  municipal  school  systems,  private  and  endowed 
schools,  all  have  a  part  in  its  membership  and  its  councils,  and  all  find  here 
the  forum  for  the  discussion  of  their  problems.  The  National  Education 
Association  also  considers  the  public's  interest  as  well  as  the  interest  of  its 
members.  It  was  therefore  for  the  National  Education  Association  to 
consider  at  once  the  emergency  that  had  sprung  upon  the  nation,  to  begin 
the  statement  of  the  present  problem,  and  to  move  for  its  solution. 

The  president  of  the  Association  appointed  a  commission,  the  members 
of  which  have  been  and  are  still  at  work  on  the  situation.  But  the  task 
which  confronts  the  Association  and  the  country  cannot  be  accomplisht  by 
a  few.  The  counsel,  the  interest,  and  the  support  of  the  entire  teaching 
profession  are  required,  for  two  reasons:  First,  their  financial  support  is 
needed.  The  necessity  for  consultation,  for  the  collection  of  information 
and  opinion,  and  for  editing,  publication,  and  distribution  has  tremendously 
increast.  The  Association  has  some  income  from  investments,  but  the 
sum  is  wholly  inadequate  for  these  new  demands.  It  has  no  other  resource 
but  the  fees  from  memberships.  Secondly,  the  cooperation  of  the  entire 
profession  in  every  branch  is  necessary  if  the  service  which  both  the 
country  and  the  members  of  the  profession  need  is  to  be  rendered.    The 


68  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

teachers  of  every  rank  and  department  must  become  familiar  with  the  situa- 
tion as  it  is  ascertained;  they  must  understand  the  plans  proposed  and  the 
importance  of  them;  they  must  be  the  interpreters  and  advocates  of  these 
plans  to  the  general  pubHc,  which  is  not  directly  connected  with,  and  has 
not  been  informed  about,  school  work,  but  is  interested,  vitally  interested, 
in  the  results  to  be  obtained  and  will  be  prepared  to  cooperate  fully  and 
cheerfully  if  it  is  informed  and  interested  by  the  teachers. 

There  are  750,000  teachers  in  America.  In  the  past,  only  about  i  per 
cent  of  the  entire  number  of  teachers  have  been  regular,  permanent  members 
of  the  Association.  France,  with  one-third  the  population  of  the  United 
States,  enrols  more  than  100,000  teachers  in  her  national  association.  To 
be  equally  professional,  the  National  Education  Association  must  have 
300,000  members. 

The  Association,  calls  for  the  enlistment  of  all  teachers  in  its  ranks. 
The  mark  has  been  set  at  50,000  by  July,  1918;  the  100,000  mark  should 
be  reacht  by  January,  1919.  If  the  teachers  rally  in  this  as  they  have  in 
various  other  "drives"  in  which  they  have  helpt  to  promote  activities 
important  as  war  emergencies,  they  will  go  "over  the  top"  in  this  move- 
ment, which  has  to  do  with  their  own  professional  honor  and  service  and 
which  will  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  their  professional  spirit  and  devotion. 


THE  RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  RACE 

FREDERICK  PETERSON,  M.D.,  PRESIDENT,   LUNACY  COMMISSION, 
NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

I  come  before  you  as  an  alienist.  I  am  grateful  to  your  distinguisht 
body  for  an  opportunity  to  present  some  views  on  education  from  that 
standpoint.  Pathology  has  after  all  taught  us  the  most  we  know  about  the 
normal  in  biology.  We  learned  physiology  from  our  studies  of  function 
perverted  by  disease.  We  learned  about  the  normal  brain  thru  investiga- 
tion of  diseased  brains.  The  admired  Montessori  method  of  teaching 
normal  children  had  its  origin  in  the  methods  of  Itard  and  Seguin  in  teaching 
idiots. 

So  now  in  a  world  half  mad,  with  all  sorts  of  disorders  in  the  body  politic, 
perhaps  an  aHenist  may  help,  be  it  never  so  little,  in  some  new  adjustment 
toward  the  normal. 

We  have  been  suddenly  awakened  by  the  war  from  our  complacent 
slumber.  Pain,  suffering,  danger,  stirring  elements  in  the  psychological 
mechanism,  rouse  alarm,  quicken  alertness,  Ught  up  all  the  old  memories 
and  powers  of  defense. 

The  horror  and  surprise  of  a  nation  of  madmen  broken  loose  upon  the 
world  has  brought  a  sudden  consciousness  among  the  peoples.  We  are 
appalled  that  our  selective  draft  of  young  men  who  are  to  fight  our  battles 
in  France  and  Flanders  reveals  defects  in  an  average  of  30  per  cent — these 


Sessionsl  THE  RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  RACE  69 

young  men  who  were  the  school  children  of  yesterday.  What  was  the 
matter  with  the  schools  of  yesterday  which  took  them  in  and  returned  to  us 
only  two-thirds  as  able-bodied  citizens  ?  The  answer  is  found  in  the  schools 
of  today. 

Authorities  show  us  that  there  are  physical  defects  in  75  per  cent  of  the 
20,000,000  school  children  of  today,  most  of  them  preventable  and  remedi- 
able, heart  and  lung  diseases,  disorders  of  hearing  and"  vision,  malnutrition, 
diseased  adenoids  and  tonsils,  flatfoot,  weak  spines,  imperfect  teeth — and 
among  them  i  per  cent  of  mental  defect.  The  children  in  country  schools 
are  worse  off  than  those  in  city  schools.  We  are  sending  the  best  we  have 
to  foreign  battlefields.  We  are  retaining  the  30  per  cent  of  imperfect 
citizens  to  leaven  the  race  of  tomorrow.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  the  pre- 
potence  of  inferiority.  It  is  often  said  that  we  get  what  we  deserve  in  the 
way  of  government,  laws,  and  institutions.  Since  it  is  possible  in  our  democ- 
racy for  a  moron  to  be  elected  mayor  of  a  city,  and  an  imbecile  to  be  made 
governor  of  a  vast  state,  it  may  easily  be  imagined  how  the  smaller  offices 
in  our  legislatures,  county  boards,  and  city  councils  overflow  with  the 
inferior  and  the  unfit. 

We  have  spent  millions  of  dollars  on  swine  plague,  foot  and  mouth  dis- 
ease of  cattle,  pine  blister,  chestnut  blight,  gypsy  moth,  chicken  cholera, 
and  we  have  the  annual  "pork  barrel"  of  millions  upon  millions  of  dollars 
devoted  to  all  sorts  of  trivial  and  foolish  exploitations  of  rural  creeks  and 
hamlets,  but  what  have  we  spent  upon'  our  greatest  national  asset,  health 
of  body  in  our  school  children  ?  Body  is  the  foundation  upon  which  mental 
structure  must  rise.  It  is  of  first  importance  that  the  physical  foundation 
be  made  and  kept  sound  and  strong.  The  mental  structure  is  secondary 
to  that.  We  are  spending  enormous  sums  upon  the  medical  care  of  our 
insane  and  other  defectives  in  institutions  all  over  the  country,  and  rightly 
so,  to  do  what  we  can  to  repair  our  broken  adults.  This  is  relief  work,  but 
what  we  spend  on  preventive  measures,  on  health  education,  for  our  growing 
children  is  small  by  comparison. 

The  children  are  the  state's  best  property,  out-ranking  lands,  produce, 
mines,  water  power,  live  stock,  forests,  and  railways.  Think  of  the  biUions 
of  dollars  spent  upon  these  secondary  interests!  Think  of  the  indifference 
and  opposition  to  the  care  of  children,  to  two-cent  lunches  to  be  paid  for 
by  the  children  themselves,  to  doing  away  with  child  labor  in  factory  and 
mine,  to  the  smallest  health  measures  demanded  for  their  welfare!  It 
needs  indeed  an  alienist  to  direct  attention  to  these  facts. 

Compulsory  education  we  have,  compulsory  feeding  and  training  of 
the  mind.  Compulsory  health  we  must  have,  compulsory  feeding  and 
training  of  the  body. 

In  the  war  against  ignorance  we  have  conscripted  the  school  children. 
They  are  the  vast  draft  army  of  our  second  line  of  defense.  But  in  what 
sort  of  cantonments  do  we  house  them  ?    What  physical  drill  do  we  give 


70  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

them,  what  medical  inspection  and  care,  what  sanitation,  what  remedial 
steps  do  we  take  to  restore  them  quickly  to  the  ranks  when  they  are  ill  ? 

But  enough  of  destructive  criticism.  Let  us  turn  to  the  idea  of  a  recon- 
struction of  the  race.  Let  us  read  the  old  books  with  new  comprehension. 
It  is  almost  a  hundred  generations  ago  that  a  teacher  (Mencius)  wrote: 
"The  root  of  the  Empire  is  in  the  State.  The  root  of  the  State  is  in  the 
family.  The  root  of  the  family  is  in  the  individual.  So  for  the  people — 
encourage  them;  lead  them  on;  rectify  them;  straighten  them;  help  them; 
give  them  wings!" 

We  must  set  a  standard.  It  might  be  that  of  Dr.  OHver  Wendell 
Holmes,  "to  begin  the  education  of  the  child  a  hundred  years  before  it  is 
born."  That  can  be  attained  in  a  few  generations.  To  accompHsh  it  we 
must  coordinate  all  the  organizations  now  at  work  for  the  conservation  of 
our  citizenry — the  maternity  classes,  the  baby-saving  societies,  the  mothers' 
committees,  the  kindergartens,  the  child-welfare  and  physical-training 
bodies,  the  seaside,  the  countryside,  and  sunshine  associations,  all  that  have 
to  do  with  preschool  welfare,  the  public  and  private  schools,  the  Child 
Labor  Committee,  the  Mental  Hygiene  Association,  the  boards  of  education, 
and  the  boards  of  health.  The  presidents  of  boards  of  health  and  boards  of 
education  should  be  ex  officio  members  of  these  coordinated  boards.  This 
is  a  great  undertaking,  but  we  can  begin  by  breaking  into  the  curriculum 
of  the  public  schools  and  establishing  education  in  health,  especially  in  food 
knowledge  and  food  habits  as  a  vital  and  essential  part  of  the  teaching. 
From  the  schools  the  health  instruction  will  be  carried  home  to  the  parents 
and  younger  children,  and  soon  the  whole  movement  of  reconstruction  will 
permeate  the  state. 

The  program  is  a  large  one  and  requires: 

1.  That  the  teachers  themselves  be  given  better  conditions  for  their 
own  health  and  fuller  instruction  in  all  that  has  to  do  with  the  laws  of  health. 

2.  That  every  city  and  country  school  should  be  made  sanitary  and 
kept  so,  and  the  school  and  its  grounds  should  be  as  beautiful  as  possible,  not 
only  for  the  benefit  of  the  teachers  and  the  pupils,  but  as  an  example  to  all 
other  citizens,  who  are  beginning  to  use  the  school  more  and  more  as  a 
community  center. 

3.  That  every  child  should  be  regularly  weighed,  measured,  and 
examined  and  a  health  record  should  be  kept,  which  should  accompany  him 
thruout  his  school  life.  It  should  be  the  duty  of  the  authorities  to  see  that 
the  defects  of  our  yOung  citizens  are  corrected,  and  disorders  of  growth 
and  nutrition  remedied.  As  malnutrition  is  one  of  the  most  serious  condi- 
tions, a  hot  luncheon  should  be  made  available  for  every  child  and  every 
teacher.  The  health  examination  should  include  dental  inspection  and 
treatment. 

4.  That  each  school  should  have  adequate  provision  for  physical 
training,  gymnasiums,  athletic  fields,  playgrounds,  gardens,  and  shops, 


Sessions!      TRAINING  THE  GOVERNMENT  FOR  FOREIGN  SERVICE  71 

together  with  especially  qualified  instructors  in  physical  training  and 
vocational  fields. 

5.  And  finally,  with  the  above  foundations,  that  a  thoro  system  of 
instruction  should  be  given  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  health,  with  special 
emphasis 'upon  health-prohlems  rather  than  upon  disease,  in  physical  and 
mental  habits,  in  personal  hygiene,  in  public  health  and  sanitation,  in 
methods  to  avoid  communicable  diseases,  in  the  responsibihties  of  parent- 
hood, and  in  all  that  relates  to  nutrition  and  growth,  including  foods  and 
food  values  and  food  habits. 

This  is  a  large  program,  too  large  for  the  inequalities  of  conscience  and 
consciousness  of  our  multitudinous  states.  It  might  be  carried  out  in  a 
few  states  soon  and  in  others  only  after  generations. 

This  is  a  scheme  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  whole  people.  It  is  a 
federal  program.  It  is  an  emergency  program.  It  should  have  the  imme- 
diate attention  of  our  foremost  teacher  in  the  presidential  chair.  We  need 
a  Hoover  for  the  children,  a  children's  health  administrator. 

With  all  this  in  view  and  after  months  of  careful  planning  the  National 
Child  Health  Organization  has  been  formed,  whose  literature  is  being  now 
distributed  to  you.  Do  the  first  practical  thing  for  a  beginning.  The 
teachers  can  place  scales  and  a  measuring  rod  at  once  in  every  school,  and 
with  the  height  and  weight  and  age  charts  that  will  be  sent  you  on  request 
you  can  immediately  start  the  campaign  against  one  of  the  chief  evils,  viz., 
malnutrition.  The  Child  Health  Organization  has  some  of  the  best 
teachers  and  educators  in  the  country  as  members,  and  counts  on  its 
Board  the  foremost  medical  specialists  on  children  and  public  health.  Its 
publications  will  be  supplied  on  request  to  all  who  desire  them. 


WHY  SHOULD  THE  GOVERNMENT  TRAIN  FOR  FOREIGN 

SERVICE? 

GLEN  LEVIN  SWIGGETT,  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION,  CHAIRMAN,  COMMITTEE  OF 

FIFTEEN   OJST   EDUCATIONAL  PREPARATION  FOR  FOREIGN   SERVICE, 

WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

Our  beloved  country  is  now  at  war.  As  the  inner  meaning  of  this 
conflict  becomes  clearer  with  the  passing  days,  the  responsibility  of  organ- 
ized education  in  any  program  for  the  successful  prosecution  of  the  war 
becomes  more  and  more  apparent.  Concurrent  with  the 'course  of  mili- 
tary events,  coordinating  measures,  corrective,  regulatory,  and  prohibitive 
in  turn,  are  planned  by  the  nation's  authorized  agents,  governmental  and 
otherwise,  and  are  swiftly  accepted  and  executed  with  the  praiseworthy 
and  unstinted  cooperation  of  the  people  of  this  nation. 

These  measures  are  of  two  kinds,  namely,  those  that  relate  directly 
to  winning  the  war  and  those  that  relate  directly  to  reaping  the  benefits 


72  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

of  victory.  Chief  among  the  latter  are  economic  measures  and  provisions 
to  insure  their  successful  issue.  And  of  primary  importance  in  this  catalog 
is  the  foreign  trade  of  the  nation. 

Training  for  foreign  service  meant  until  quite  recently  only  preparation 
for  the  diplomatic  and  consular  service.  And  the  training  for  this  specific 
career  varied  with,  and  was  determined  somewhat  by,  the  political  principles 
and  social  bases  of  each  government  and  nation.  But  that  time  has  past. 
Overstimulus  of  production  in  some  quarters  of  the  world  and  overpopula- 
tion in  others  and  the  respiritualization  of  society  due  to  the  internationaliz- 
ing of  all  national  social  and  religious  welfare  work,  have  led  to  the  creation 
of  a  new  scale  of  comparative  values  by  the  commercial  nations  of  the  world. 
No  longer,  as  in  the  past,  are  international  friendships  to  be  determined 
solely  by  the  strength  or  weakness  of  diplomatic  conferences,  conventions, 
treaties  carried  on,  or  drafted  thru,  the  political  channels  created  for  that 
purpose. 

Trade  law?  and  political  rights  of  nations  are  therefore  profitable  fields 
of  study  just  now.  And  these  laws  and  rights  are  quite  closely  related, 
even  at  times  imperceptibly  confused.  For  example,  shall  one  politically 
friendly  nation  be  allowed  practically  to  create  an  embargo  on  one  or  more 
of  the  products  of  another  nation  thru  a  trade  convention  with  a  third 
nation,  even  tho  there  may  be  no  real  basis  for  the  interpretation  of  an 
unfriendly  act  ?  Such  questions  require  quite  new  solutions,  and  I  believe 
permanent  ones,  with  the  enlarging  international  responsibility  that  all 
nations  have  assumed  with  their  entry  into  world-commerce,  and  which 
responsibility  is  deepened  and  sobered  by  the  righteous  ideals  of  this  war. 
The  answer  to  them,  as  to  many  similar  questions,  cannot  be  given  by  their 
Platonic  discussion  in  unrelated  college  courses  on  international  law  or 
foreign  trade.  For  their  solution  we  need  loyal  men,  trained  to  an  abiding 
conviction  in  the  permanency  of  the  principles  of  this  government,  to  that 
fine  degree  of  spiritual  vision  characteristic  of  the  international  mind,  and 
possessing  that  body  of  knowledge  and  skill  which  shall  be  required  hence- 
forth in  the  conduct  of  all  international  economic  and  social  relations. 

In  training  for  foreign  service  we  must  keep  constantly  in  mind  the  dis- 
tinctive character  of  service  to  be  rendered  and  the  consequent  difference  in 
the  character  of  training  demanded  for  that  service.  We  have  endangered 
somewhat  the  success  of  our  venture  into  foreign  fields  by  the  complacent 
belief  of  business  and  government  that  this  training  can  be  acquired  in  the 
actual  conduct  of  foreign  trade  and  foreign-relations  missions  and  by  the 
insistence  of  schools  and  colleges  that  general  education  is  the  best  prepara- 
tion for  the  successful  pursuit  of  these  careers. 

We  need,  first  of  all,  in  every  manufacturing  city  opportunity  in  the 
schools  for  thoro  instruction  in  commercial  branches.  We  need  to  have 
free  and  unrestricted  opportunity  given  to  every  boy  and  girl  to  receive  as 
much  skill  in  the  vocational-commercial  subjects  and  as  much  knowledge 


Sessions]      TRAINING  THE  GOVERNMENT  FOR  FOREIGN  SERVICE  73 

of  the  technique  of  distribution  as  their  circumstances  permit  and  the  char- 
acter and  the  diversity  of  the  manufacturing  production  of  their  city  war- 
rant. We  need  to  have  our  schools  function  more  naturally  in  the  industrial 
and  commercial  life  of  the  city,  affording,  without  stint  or  hindrance,  ample 
opportunities  for  continuation  and  part-time  instruction  for  those  actually 
engaged  in  commerce.  There  must  be  a  larger  sympathy  between  business 
and  the  schools  and  a  larger  and  more  intimate  understanding  of  their 
respective  problems.  Business  men  must  give  their  time  and  money  for 
the  support  of  these  schools,  for  they  need,  not  only  a  type  of  teacher 
that  is  able  to  command  a  higher  salary  thru  his  knowledge  of  business, 
but  the  cooperative  teaching  of  these  business  men  themselves. 

For  the  study  of  commerce,  domestic  or  foreign,  we  have  as  yet  neither 
a  definite  program  nor  a  definite  policy.  The  latter  is  still  quite  vague. 
Even  business  itself  in  certain  quarters  insists  upon  training  for  its  pursuit 
in  actual  employment,  an  attitude  that  may  be  paralleled  in  the  early  days 
of  shaping  programs  of  study  for  law,  medicine,  engineering,  etc.  The 
rapid  development  of  this  country  may  have  encouraged  preparation  outside 
of  the  schools,  and  our  marvelous  prosperity  may  have  blinded  us  to  the 
inefficiency  of  our  individual  training.  Nevertheless  there  has  been  much 
waste  of  effort  and  economic  loss  to  the  nation. 

If  now,  thru  lack  of  centralizing  authority,  after  the  manner  of  the 
French  and  Italian,  or  thru  failure  to  appreciate  the  need  of  our  country  for 
an  unfailing,  favorable  trade  balance,  a  definite  trade  policy,  and  a  definite, 
nay,  uniform,  course  of  training  for  foreign  trade,  as  Germany  has  done 
and  Great  Britain  is  now  doing,  our  schools  continue  to  function  in  response 
to  purely  local  needs  and  the  delicate  machinery  of  inner  relationships  that 
have  been  built  within  the  school  hierarchy  by  committees  on  prescribed 
studies,  entrance  and  graduate  requirements,  etc.,  it  shall  then  be  our 
national  task  to  make  training  for  foreign  service  the  nation's  business,  and 
ways  and  means  shall  be  found  to  perform  this  educational  service,  either 
in  federal  academies  establisht  for  that  purpose,  or  in  subsidized  institutions, 
strategically  situated  and  favorably  disposed  to  train  for  the  nation's  need. 

Let  us  see  first  if  we  can  build  for  our  purpose  on  our  present  educational 
system.  Ways  and  means  must  be  found,  however,  for  the  immediate 
introduction  of  new  subjects  and  the  modification  in  presentation  of  those 
already  offered  in  all  cities  that  possess  actual  or  potential  export  trade. 
Direct  response  must  be  given  by  the  schools  and  colleges  to  the  requests 
of  duly  accredited  federal  agencies  that  may  be  empowered  to  advise  and 
direct  instruction  for  foreign  service,  to  distribute  federal  money  appropri- 
ated for  the  support  of  this  instruction,  and  to  render  cooperative  teaching 
service  at  such  times  and  in  such  schools  as  the  subject  may  demand  and  the 
program  of  cooperation  permit.  Only  in  this  manner  can  our  schools  and 
colleges  meet  the  responsibility  vested  in  them  as  the  training  factor  of  the 
nation;  only  thus  can  they  be  induced  to  offer  and  adequately  teach  at  once 


74  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

and  in  a  satisfactory  manner  the  really  large  body  of  essential  knowledge; 
only  thus  can  they  train  efficiently  for  local  or  national  commercial  needs 
with  adequate  vocational  guidance;  and  only  thus  can  they  become  the 
nation's  nursery  where  there  can  be  planted  the  seed  of  proper  understanding 
of  a  nation's  international  obligations,  to  become,  under  proper  nurture 
henceforth,  the  nation's  priceless  possession  and  the  indispensable  and 
invaluable  knowledge  of  all  engaged  in  the  foreign  service  of  this  country. 
Commerce  on  the  high  seas  shall  again  become  the  heritage  of  this 
nation,  inalienable  thru  its  situation,  its  resources,  and  the  mission  it  should 
perform  by  virtue  of  its  political  principles  and  political  destiny.  Our 
nation  will  never  become  a  mere  nation  of  traders.  We  must  and  shall 
prepare  ourselves  to  give  to  our  carriers  of  commerce,  the  cooperating  diplo- 
mats of  the  future,  the  inspirational  training  which,  while  it  affords  the 
skill  demanded  of  every  transaction  in  the  practice  of  trade,  teaches  respect 
of  man  for  man,  the  rights  of  races,  and  the  territorial  integrity  of  nations. 


THE  ROLE  OF  WOMAN  IN  THE  NEW  INTERNATIONALISM 

MRS.  LOUIS  r.  POST,  MEMBER  OF  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE,  WOMAN'S  AUXILIARY 

COMMITTEE   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES,   SECOND  PAN-AMI:RICAN 

SCIENTLFIC  CONGRESS,   WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

The  training  of  boys  exclusively  by  men,  and  of  girls  by  women,  is  a 
thing  of  the  past.  We  all  know  now  that  the  influences  of  both  parents, 
and  of  teachers  of  both  sexes,  are  needed  by  every  child. 

The  early  association  of  human  beings  in  towns  and  little  states  was  more 
for  protective  than  for  cooperative  purposes.  Then  as  cooperation  gradu- 
ally developt  it  appeared  under  its  cruder  and  harsher  forms,  dominated  by 
fears  and  greeds,  and  so  continually  defeating  its  own  ends — stepping  on  its 
own  feet,  as  it  were.  These  rougher  husklike  forms  of  human  affiliation 
made  apparently  but  moderate  appeal  to  women,  and  their  part  in  public 
affairs  was  small. 

But  law  and  order  prest  forward  from  the  little  to  the  great  under  the 
divine  laws  of  progression,  and  cooperation  began  to  mean  not  only  profit- 
able exchange  but  devoted  human  service.  On  a  large  scale  this  hardly 
came  consciously  into  the  world  before  the  time  just  previous  to  our  own. 
And  then  all  at  once  our  Pallas  Athene — wise  womanhood — sprang  fully 
panoplied  into  the  arena.  Was  there  human  service  to  be  rendered? 
She  must  play  her  part  at  the  voting  booths,  at  the  council  tables,  on  school 
boards,  on  municipal  committees. 

Let  us  make  no  mistake.  The  largest  factor  in  the  urge  of  the  woman's 
soul  that  she  take  her  place  in  the  common  life  of  the  municipality,  of  the 
state,  and  of  the  nation  was,  not  a  demand  for  a  right,  but  an  unappeasable 
hunger  for  vital  human  service  in  the  wonderful  fields  of  the  new  social 
order  opening  upon  her  vision. 


Sessions!  WOMAN  IN  THE  NEW  INTERNATIONALISM  75 

Side  by  side  with  the  articulate  expression  of  that  urge,  whether  as  yet 
granted  fulfilment  or  not,  have  come  into  our  community  life  new  ideals  and 
new  services  rendered  by  men  and  women  together — services  which  neither 
men  nor  women  could  have  initiated  or  developt  alone.  You  know  them — 
juvenile  courts,  public  playgrounds,  improved  public  sanitation,  community 
forums — a  thousand  forms  of  human  service. 

Before  this  war  of  wars  tore  the  world  into  abysses  under  our  feet,  this 
vitalizing  of  our  municipal  life  was  creating  new  environment  for  us  and, 
more  important,  for  our  children.  With  the  unbelievable  events  of  19 14 
came  dizzy  indignation  and  throbs  of  world-wide  compassion  on  a  larger 
scale  than  had  ever  before  moved  the  world.  International  thinking  and 
feeling  began  to  be  a  part  of  daily  life  even  in  this  somewhat  isolated  and 
considerably  self -centered  Republic. 

Then  came  opportunities  for  international  service,  and  we  sprang 
forward,  not  as  eagerly  perhaps,  or  as  fully,  as  if  we  had  been  better  pre- 
pared to  understand  the  situation;  and  not  altogether  with  clean  hands, 
for  were  not  some  among  us  making  blood-stained  fortunes  ?  But  necessa- 
rily with  this  vitalization  of  internationalism  there  came  in  the  cooperation 
of  the  women.  Is  it  possible  to  conceive  that  internationalism  will  ever 
cease  to  be  their  common  business?  Is  not  the  whole  world  now  the 
potential  house  of  their  Father  ? 

Among  the  evidences  of  this  vitalized  internationalism  now  in  process 
of  development  is  the  leap  from  a  purely  commercial  food  exchange,  ham- 
pered by  tariffs,  to  national  and  international  collection  and  conservation 
of  food  on  the  absolute  basis  of  social  utility.  Have  American  women 
played  no  part  in  that  international  act  of  conservation  ?  Has  not  that 
function  lain  on  their  hearts  day  in  and  day  out  for  more  than  a  year  ? 

Internationalism  in  these  swift  days  must  be  based  on  our  experience 
of  life  rather  than  learned  from  books.  What  do  you  know  of  community 
service  that  is  translatable  into  international  terms? 

If  in  the  community  such  services  are  the  mutual  product  of  men  and 
women  we  must  believe  that  women's  intuition  and  the  urge  of  their  hearts 
will  impel  them  to  share  in  the  working  out  of  like  international  services 
and  in  giving  them  vitality. 

We  women  have  workt  on  these  problems  in  small  ways  in  our  own 
comfortable  communities.  We  are  now  working  side  by  side  with  our 
brethren  across  the  seas  over  these  same  problems  on  a  vaster  scale  than  we 
had  ever  dreamed  of.  Who  asks  whether  the  work  is  done  by  men  or  by 
women?  It  simply  has  to  be  done  by  both,  not  because  there  are  not 
enough  workers  of  either  sex  alone,  tho  that  is  also  true;  but  because  it  is 
the  old  human  problem  of  the  home. 

But  while  it  is  not  alien  to  us  to  consider  these  human  matters  on  a  huge 
scale  while  they  still  relate  to  individuals,  no  matter  how  many,'perhaps  we 
do  not  so  readily  perceive  the  need  for  insight  and  sympathetic  compre- 


76  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

hension  for  nations  as  nations,  and  for  whole  peoples,  sick,  crippled,  nerve- 
shattered;  aye,  and  for  nations  that  are  delinquent.  But  the  dreadful 
need  will  be  there.  Patience,  understanding,  kindness — they  will  all  be 
needed  to  the  full  for  the  healing  of  the  nations  at  the  time  of  the  coming 
great  reckoning.  Above  all,  the  ripest  wisdom  will  be  required  for  rightly 
handling  delinquent  nations  which  have  lackt  high  national  standards  and 
denied  international  obligation. 

Many  analogues  could  be  adduced  between  those  lesser  and  those 
greater  services  for  humanity  which  can  be  properly  and  fully  consummated 
only  by  the  natural  and  unselfish  cooperation  of  men  and  women.  In 
playing  her  part  in  fulfilling  them  woman  will  find  her  role  in  the  new 
internationalism,  a  role  that  calls  for  the  study  of  the  histories  of  peoples, 
not  the  histories  of  kings;  that  calls  for  an  acquaintance  with  maps;  that 
calls  for  inquiry  as  to  where  the  grain,  the  wool,  the  cotton,  the  iron,  and 
the  lumber  come  from,  and  why  it  is  so  hard  for  the  peoples  of  some  countries 
to  get  these  things,  and  so  easy  for  others.  It  calls  also  for  an  understanding 
of  why  the  great  mass  of  men  in  civilized  countries  toil  painfully  all  their 
days  for  scant  bread,  and  a  few,  often  with  no  toil,  live  in  luxury. 

These  are  some  of  the  problems  of  the  new  internationalism;  and  they 
are  upon  us,  for  it  is  well  known  that  economic  as  well  as  national  questions 
are  to  come  up  for  settlement  at  the  peace  table,  a  knowledge  that  is  dis- 
quieting to  profiteers  of  every  type  in  every  civilized  country.  May  those 
who  are  summoned  to  that  fateful  table  be  democratically  representative 
of  the  great  common  life  of  the  world;  and  to  be  so  representative  there 
ought  to  be  women  among  them. 

But  in  any  case  only  a  few  women,  as  only  a  few  men,  will  meet  at  the 
peace  table.  Only  a  comparatively  few  women  can  labor  directly  in  inter- 
national work.  Let  us  not  fail  to  realize,  however,  that  every  woman  of 
right  feeling  who  develops  the  "international  mind,"  no  matter  how  simple 
the  expression  she  is  able  to  give  to  it,  will  be  playing  a  part  in  the  creation 
of  the  new  world  that  is  to  come  out  of  this  welter  if  civilization  is  not  to 
perish.  We  women  can  ponder  these  things  in  our  hearts.  As  the  lawgiver 
of  old  admonisht,  we  can  teach  them  diligently  unto  our  children;  we  can 
speak  of  them  when  we  sit  in  the  house,  and  when  we  walk  by  the  way,  and 
when  we  lie  down,  and  when  we  rise  up.  For  what  we  love  we  speak  of, 
fitting  it  with  sympathetic  adaptation  into  the  life  we  are  living  with  those 
about  us.  And  this  must  happen,  this  is  happening.  The  only  thing  that 
concerns  each  of  us  personally  is  whether  she  will  live  her  life  henceforth  as 
a  part  of  the  new  time  or  will  go  her  own  lonely  way,  walking  half  visible, 
as  a  shadow  or  a  ghost  from  a  former  world. 

And  finally,  to  rise  to  these  high  duties  and  privileges,  woman  must 
not  only  understand  many  new  things  and  speak  to  others  of  them,  but  she 
must  see  the  world  whole,  as  if  it  were  a  man — as  if  it  were  a  child.  She 
must  feel  out  for  it  with  a  vast  motherhood,  sick,  but  not  to  death,  to  which 


Sessions]       PRACTICAL  EDUCATION  UNDER  FEDERAL  GUIDANCE  77 

she  is  to  bring  comfort  and  peace,  and  at  the  last  a  new  and  abounding 
joy.  She  will  carry  on  her  banners  the  word  of  that  great  teacher  who 
came  to  us  from  across  the  sea,  Goldwin  Smith:  "Above  all  nations  is 
humanity." 

PRACTICAL  EDUCATION  UNDER  FEDERAL  GUIDANCE 

ERNEST  A.  SMITH,  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  SALT  LAKE  CITY,  UTAH 

A  progressive  publicist  in  education  said  happily  a  few  years  ago, 
*^The  facts  of  life  and  their  good  friend,  common  sense,  have  been  demand- 
ing a  school  for  the  plain,  practical  man."  What  are  the  facts?  It  is 
commonly  admitted  that  the  American  type  of  education  has  not  been 
suited  to  the  youth  of  the  land  and  to  the  needs  of  the  nation.  Children 
have  not  been  gript  by  the  prevalent  courses  of  study.  Training  by 
apprenticeship  has  largely  past  away.  The  conditions  of  the  past  pros- 
perity of  the  United  States  no  longer  exist.  The  world  of  today  steadily 
grows  smaller  and  kindred  interests  are  widely  recognized.  America  has 
forst  upon  it  new  standards  of  comparison.  As  a  democracy  its  time  of 
accounting  is  at  hand.  Since  education  is  the  cornerstone  of  our  democracy, 
the  query  is  pertinent.  Have  the  schools  developt  the  young  life  intrusted 
to  them  to  the  largest  profit  of  society,  of  the  nation,  and  of  the  collective 
individuals?  The  monetary  value  of  the  youth  of  the  nation  has  been 
estimated  to  be  three  hundred  billions.  ^  Of  those  who  complete  an  ele- 
mentary education  94  per  cent  enter  manual  occupations.  The  verdict  of 
the  federal  expert  is  that  scarcely  one  in  one  hundred  is  trained  for  the 
work  he  is  doing. 

Common  sense,  that  faithful  friend  of  the  facts  of  life,  may  well  inquire. 
Why  not  give  the  young  people  a  partial  preparation  at  least  for  what  is  to 
occupy  them  in  real  life  ?  Can  there  not  be  a  share  of  practical  education 
along  with  the  cultural  ?  We  have  all  askt  the  same  question.  As  educa- 
tors we  have  theorized  about  it  for  a  generation.  Meanwhile  the  industrial 
world  has  expanded  by  leaps  and  bounds.  Industry  does  not  argue  or  sleep ; 
it  works  ceaselessly.  There  seems  a  reluctance  on  the  part  of  school  men 
to  come  to  grips  with  the  big  economic  problems.  Labor  unions  and 
manufacturers  have  not  been  equal  to  the  gigantic  task  of  training  the 
workers  of  America. 

Away  back  in  the  midst  of  the  Civil  War  the  federal  government  began 
the  poHcy  of  encouraging  agricultural  and  trade  education  thru  land  grants 
to  colleges.  Now  in  the  midst  of  this  world- war  Congress  has  summoned  the 
common  schools  of  the  nation  to  shoulder  the  responsibility  of  practical 
education.  The  federal  stimulus  from  the  national  treasury  is  not  a  new 
pohcy.  The  $600,000,000  given  in  aid  of  education  prior  to  191 7  is  but  an 
earnest  of  the  larger  gifts  to  come,  and  no  one  can  predict  the  extent  of  the 
appropriations  for  future  world-competitive  needs.     But  the  thoroness  and 


78  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

the  whole-heartedness  of  the  response  of  the  commonwealths  of  the  land  to 
this  federal  challenge  are  now  of  paramount  concern  to  the  cause  of  practical 
education. 

There  are  those  who  believe  that  such  training  should  be  entirely  in 
charge  of  the  states.  The  record  of  a  few  commonwealths  in  this  field 
is  well  known.  But  as  is  universally  true  under  our  form  of  government 
in  all  matters  of  social  welfare,  there  has  emerged  no  uniformity  of  policy  in 
vocational  education.  With  only  nine  states  up  to  191 6  having  adopted  any 
favorable  legislation,  the  prospects  of  a  speedy  nation-wide  program  were 
decidedly  vague.  However,  new  occasions  teach  new  duties.  Public, 
social,  and  economic  life  are  as  signally  transformed  in  America  as  in 
Europe.  The  national  consciousness  has  outstript  all  bounds.  The  present 
federal  activity  can  scarcely  stop  with  war  measures.  If  the  government 
now  sends  eighty  thousand  of  its  drafted  men  to  school  for  a  few  weeks  to 
attain  elementary  skill  for  army  needs,  will  it  not  provide  that  millions  of 
youths  receive  adequate  preparation  for  the  vast  industrial  duties  of  peace  ? 

Federal  guidance  will  benefit  all  the  states.  There  are  at  present 
grave  inequalities  of  educational  opportunity  between  state  and  state, 
between  section  and  section.  There  has  not  been  the  same  initiative,  nor 
the  same  ability  to  afford  the  sort  of  education  that  will  serve  the  general 
welfare  and  the  national  interest.  Federal  aid  has  placed  the  importance 
of  vocational  education  squarely  before  the  country  at  large.  Our  resources 
are  vastly  better  utilized.  Federal  taxation  has  been  permanently  enlarged, 
and  the  means  will  be  available  to  encourage  practical  training  for  all  the 
people  of  all  sections  under  our  flag. 

Under  federal  guidance  it  is  possible  to  create  standards  of  efficiency  in 
vocational  education.  The  cooperation  of  ^he  state  boards  allows  full 
recognition  and  provision  for  the  distinctive  industries  of  each  area.  Maxi- 
mum economic  fitness  is  of  nation-wide  concern  and  not  merely  a  sectional 
issue.  Cooperation  and  regulation  are  the  new  watchwords  of  American 
production.  The  Morrell  Act  did  not  reahze  the  results  expected  in  prac- 
tical education.  Under  the  stimulus  of  new  conditions  with  capable  federal 
leadership  the  day  of  larger  educational  achievement  is  at  hand. 

The  vocational  education  promoted  by  the  Smith-Hughes  Bill  is  not  a 
hard-and-fast  system.  It  cannot  be  completed  over  night  and  put  into 
operation.  Adequate  equipment  and  competent  teachers  require  time.  No 
feature  of  the  plan  is  so  important  as  the  continuation  or  part-time  school. 
It  may  well  at  an  early  date  be  charged  to  compulsory  instruction.  Cer- 
tainly in  no  locality  should  the  practical  training  of  youth  be  begun  before 
a  sufficiently  thoro  survey  has  been  made  of  the  industrial  needs  and  oppor- 
tunities of  the  region.  The  operation  of  the  recent  vocational  law  in  the 
state  of  New  York  is  ideal  in  its  provision  of  complete  data  for  an  educational 
program.  Already  in  many  states  this  year  the  interest  of  high-school 
pupils  in  vocational  courses  of  study  has  risen  to  a  high  pitch.  The  federal 
support  stamps  the  practical  training  as  most  worth  while.    Prevocational 


Sessionsl  EDUCATION  AND  MORAL  CHARACTER  79 

work  in  the  junior  high  and  intermediate  schools  should  prove  a  stimulating 
factor  to  large  vocational  enrolment. 

A  new  industrial  world  has  come  to  pass.  No  longer  will  capital  hold 
absolute  sway.  The  long-delayed  recognition  of  the  place  of  labor  is  being 
made.  The  day  of  the  trained,  educated  workman  has  dawned.  The 
necessity  of  his  practical  training  for  national  tasks  in  industry  has  deepest 
social  significance.  It  is  the  surest  guaranty  against  class  cleavage  and 
public  unrest.  Samuel  Gompers,  captain  of  the  hosts  of  industry,  has  voist 
the  sentiment  that  the  "American  workman  will  insist  that  the  pubHc  schools 
shall  generally  furnish  education  for  efficient,  intelligent,  skilled  labor,  and 
that  the  instruction  shall  be  made  democratic." 


EDUCATION  TOWARD  THE  FORMATION  OF  MORAL 
CHARACTER 

DAVID  SNEDDEN,  PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION,  TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA 
UNIVERSITY,   NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

Society,  as  it  becomes  more  complex  and  develops  higher  standards  of 
individual  and  social  well-being,  is  always  requiring  more  of  its  schools, 
those  specialized  educational  agencies  to  which  are  progressively  trans- 
ferred functions  of  training  and  instruction  heretofore  performed  inciden- 
tally or  informally  thru  life  itself,  apart  from  the  school.  During  the  last 
ten  years  all  progressive  educators  have  been  industriously  studying  and 
planning  the  development  of  vocational  schools  to  supplement,  in  response 
to  the  insistently  voist  demands  of  many  social  agencies,  the  historic  forms 
of  general  or  liberal  education  which  had  already  been  freely  developt  in 
public  schools.  Now  that  we  have  achieved  substantial  results  in  laying 
the  foundations  of  public  vocational  schools,  I  predict  that  the  next  great 
question  which  will,  for  many  years,  engage  the  efforts  of  the  pubhc  and 
of  educators  who  can  think  and  plan  will  be  that  of  the  moral  education 
which  can  produce  in  individuals  the  moral  character  required  to  meet  the 
needs  of  a  highly  developt  democracy  in  the  twentieth  century. 

In  facing  the  problems  of  what  will  in  this  paper,  for  the  sake  of  brevity, 
be  called  "character  education,"  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the 
National  Education  Association,  thru  its  members  or  thru  select  committees, 
give  especial  attention  to  the  following  questions:  {a)  What  are  the  present 
and  future  urgent  needs  for  better  character  education  than  we  now  get 
thru  the  home,  the  church,  and  other  social  agencies  than  the  schools? 
{b)  What  do  our  public  schools  now  accomplish  toward  character  educa- 
tion ?  (c)  What  are  some  of  the  possibilities  of  improved  character  educa- 
tion in  the  schools  in  the  near  future  ?  {d)  What  are  the  needs  of  further 
investigation  and  research  ? 

a)  The  acute  problems  of  character  education  for  our  age  and  condi- 
tions begin  when  the  youth,  at  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age,  begins  to  share 
actively  in  social  hfe  outside  the  home.    Here  he  finds  himseK  in  the 


8o  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

atmosphere  of  independence  and  free  judgment  produced  by  democracy 
and  the  scientific  spirit  of  our  time.  It  helps  us  not  at  all  to  say  that  he 
is  not  ready  for  this  new  freedom.  The  simple  social  fact  is  that  such 
freedom  exists  in  the  social  surroundings  of  at  least  95  per  cent  of  the 
young  people  of  America  today.  At  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age  the  girl 
almost  always,  and  the  boy  often,  are  still  plastic  and  responsive  to  the 
controls  of  the  only  social  pressures  that  greatly  affect  them — the  home, 
the  school,  and  sometimes  the  church.  Within  six  or  eight  years  at  most 
a  majority  of  the  girls  and  almost  all  the  boys  have,  during  their  active 
waking  hours,  come  to  live  in  a  social  environment  which  is  little  influenst 
by  standards  of  home,  church,  or  even  school  in  the  narrower  academic 
sense.  In  this  environment,  in  curiously  mixt  ways,  independence  of  judg- 
ment, disregard  of  authority  as  such,  and  liberty  of  action  prevail  and  are 
even  cherisht,  except  within  and  with  reference  to  the  limited  social  groups 
which,  under  the  influence  of  instinct  and  custom  and  sometimes  strong 
leadership,  constitute  the  central  facts  of  social  life  for  most  young  persons. 
For  them  these  six  or  eight  years  usually  constitute  their  period  of  initiation 
into  seK-supporting  employment,  power  to  live  almost  completely  away 
from  the  home,  readiness  to  take  part  in  political  movements,  and  the 
beginnings  of  courtship  acquaintance  with  the  opposite  sex.  Here  lie  the 
most  acute  needs  and  the  most  pressing  problems  of  character  education. 

b)  But  let  us  not  make  the  mistake  of  undervaluing  or  misinterpreting 
the  present  accomplishments  of  the  schools  in  character  education.  In  a 
very  real  sense  our  existing  schools  do  the  work  now  expressly  committed 
to  them  fairly  well  as  respects  both  character  education  and  other  forms  of 
education.  Upon  the  American  high  school,  as  an  educational  agency,  for 
example,  there  are  laid,  by  controlling  authorities,  just  two  types  of  work 
and  responsibility:  first,  to  teach,  in  accordance  with  well-understood 
standards,  certain  subjects  giving  knowledge  and  skill,  such  as  algebra, 
history,  chemistry,  typewriting,  English  language,  civil  government,  and 
the  like;  and  secondly,  while  doing  this,  to  insure,  by  means  of  the  per- 
sonalities and  examples  of  teachers,  machinery  of  discipline,  and  some 
influence  exerted  on  those  voluntary  activities  of  the  pupils  which  intimately 
affect  their  school  life  and  work,  that  the  school  as  a  little  social  world  shall 
itself  be  orderly,  harmonious,  cooperative,  refined,  elevating,  and  withal 
democratic.    Do  we  explicitly  ask  the  school  to  do  any  more  than  this  ? 

Is  it  not  a  fact  that  in  view  of  the  demands  thus  explicitly  made  and  the 
means  provided  the  American  high  school  is  doing  these  tasks  fairly  well  ? 

Let  the  American  teachers  as  well  as  the  American  people  take  no  small 
credit  to  themselves  for  the  relative  excellence  of  the  social  life  of  our 
schools.  Year  by  year  the  pubKc  demands  that  our  teachers  shall  be  yet 
more  inspiring  in  their  personality,  clean  in  their  morals,  refined  in  their 
manner,  democratic  in  their  attitude.  The  old  school  vices — bullying, 
obscenity,  destructive  mischief,  lying,  cheating,  brutality  of  teachers,  ser- 
vihty  of  pupils — have  been  waning  for  many  years.    The  typical  primary 


I 

I 


Sessions!  EDUCATION  AND  MORAL  CHARACTER  8i 

school  today  is  one  to  which  children  go  enthusiastically  and  unafraid,  and 
from  which  they  come  uncowed,  unbrutalized,  unroughened.  The  typical 
school  of  the  upper  grades  carries  a  sad  load  in  its  enforst  attendance  of 
unadjusted  pupils,  its  unvitalized  curriculum,  and  its  unspecialized  teaching 
force;  nevertheless,  even  here,  the  machinery  of  control  and  the  person- 
alities of  teachers  maintain  a  little  society  orderly  enough  for  the  work  that 
can  be  done.  The  typical  high  school  is  of  course  attended  only  by  the 
select  of  the  community;  nevertheless  we  can  well  wonder  at  the  orderly 
and  attractive  social  spirit  which  prevails. 

/  c)  Our  schools  then,  we  may  say,  are  now  reasonably  effective  agencies 
of  character  formation  so  far  as  that  character  is  essential  to  the  social 
requirements  of  the  school  group  life  itself.  But  is  this  any  adequate 
guaranty  that  the  men  and  women  finally  produced  will  be  properly  social- 
ized for  the  larger  responsibilities  of  life  ?  It  certainly  is  not.  Sometimes 
the  virtues  produced  in  the  social  environment  of  the  school  carry  over  into 
later  life  and  sometimes  they  do  not. 

Superficially  considered,  at  least,  we  should  expect  the  standards  of 
dress  and  personal  tidiness  required  in  high  school  to  carry  over  into  later 
life,  because  these  are  standards  largely  developt  during  adolescence  in  all 
cases.  Habitual  forms  of  behavior  establisht  between  boys  and  girls  dur- 
ing the  high-school  period  will  probably  continue  operative,  for  the  same 
reasons,  at  least  as  between  social  equals,  for  many  years.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  the  standards  of  ''fair  play"  main- 
tained on  the  playground  can  be  expected  to  carry  over  into  adult  business 
and  politics  where  conditions  and  incitements  are  necessarily  so  different. 
We  expect  that  the  boy  who  has  displayed  industriousness  and  initiative 
in  the  high  school  will  continue  to  display  these  qualities  in  adult  life;  but 
the  opposite  expectation,  that  the  boy  lacking  in  application  and  industry 
in  school  will  not  improve  or  change  when  he  comes  under  the  social  pres- 
sure of  working  for  rewards  that  he  greatly  desires,  is  so  often  negatived  by 
experience  that  we  can  as  yet  draw  no  reliable  conclusions. 

The  possibilities  of  improving  the  character  education  of  the  schools  are 
therefore  of  two  kinds:  we  may  in  specific  respects  improve  upon  the  pro- 
cedures already  reasonably  good,  by  which  we  now  make  the  school  an 
effective  little  social  community  toward  the  service  of  its  own  ends;  and 
we  can  seek  to  discover  ways  and  means  whereby  we  can  use  the  school 
life  of  the  pupil  to  produce  the  qualities  now  most  required  in  adult  social 
life  and  which  existing  agencies  fail  adequately  to  produce. 

We  are  continually  at  work,  of  course,  on  the  improvement  of  school 
society.  We  are  increasing  the  rewards  of  public-school  teaching  and  there- 
fore the  attractiveness  of  the  profession  (if  the  courtesy-title  can  yet  be 
allowed)  to  persons,  especially  unmarried  women,  of  fine  personality  and 
good  character.  Public  demand  is  steadily  enforcing  higher  standards  of 
social  order  in  the  schools.  Experiments  in  establishing  some  form  of  self- 
government  for  school  or  classroom,  in  providing  more  abundant  outlets 


82  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

for  surplus  physical  energy  in  play  and  sports,  in  surrounding  school  life 
with  the  social  sedatives  of  recreational  reading  and  play,  in  providing  thru 
the  practical  arts  studies  for  the  orderly  expression  of  workmanship  instincts, 
in  forming  parents  into  conferences  whereby  home  and  school  control  can 
be  made  mutually  to  reinforce  each  other — all  these,  and  scores  of  other 
old  processes  being  improved  or  new  ones  being  introduced  represent,  in 
their  composite  form,  movements  of  much  magnitude  looking  to  the  con- 
scious, progressive  evolution  of  the  school. 

What  can  the  public  school  do,  in  any  of  its  grades  or  types,  as  conscious 
character  education  toward  the  requirements  of  the  adult  society  which  as 
yet  lie  far  ahead?  For  the  purposes  of  a  character  education  that  shall 
function  specifically  in  good  adult  citizenship  our  more  promising  oppor- 
tunities are  in  schools  dealing  with  youth  from  twelve  years  of  age  upward. 
Here  some  promising  developments  have  already  been  begun.  Within 
moderate  limits  we  believe  now  that,  given  a  mastery  of  means  and  methods 
yet  to  be  workt  out,  we  can  enable  the  youth  to  obtain  some  intellectual 
apprehension  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  community  social  life 
in  which,  a  few  years  hence,  he  must  play  his  part.  By  means  of  social- 
science  studies  yet  to  be  developt  and  probably  by  studies  of  history  peda- 
gogically  organized  in  ways  as  yet  only  beginning  to  be  understood  we  can 
give  the  prospective  citizen  really  vital  appreciations  of  the  complexity  of 
the  social  machinery  of  which  he  is  a  part,  and  of  the  importance  of  his 
playing  a  worthy  r61e  therein.  In  this  transitional  adolescent  age  we  realize 
more  perhaps  than  did  our  forebears  the  importance  of  those  ideals  which, 
deeply  felt  and  concretely  perceived,  have  the  effect  often  of  becoming  the 
incitements  of  definite  and  persisting  motives.  We  do  not  yet  know  how 
to  produce  these  ideals  as  a  steady  crop;  but  having  in  mind  the  tremendous 
influence  of  rare  personalities,  of  certain  t)^es  of  vital  literature  and 
other  art,  and  of  new  social  groupings  like  the  Boy  Scouts  and  boys' 
clubs,  we  are  slowly  developing  the  conviction  that  there  are  yet  to 
be  discovered  pedagogic  ways  and  means  whereby,  over  long  eras  and 
on  a  large  scale,  we  can  realize  the  valuable  results  for  which  we  are  now 
indebted  to  volunteer  and,  almost  of  necessity,  more  or  less  sporadic 
effort. 

From  many  sources  we  educators  are  slowly  building  up  a  body  of  con- 
victions, resolves,  and  partial  insights  which  will  yet  serve  as  the  fertile 
soil  out  of  which  workable  and  effective  programs  shall  spring.  We  are 
beginning  to  see  our  present  high-school  curricula  in  their  true  light — as 
withered  and  almost  unserviceable  survivals  of  ancient  practices  and  mis- 
taken conceptions  of  educational  means.  We  have  ceast  to  have  faith  in 
the  traditional  organization  of  our  schools  for  children  from  twelve  to  four- 
teen years  of  age;  and  as  we  proceed  to  put  into  effect  reorganizations 
already  planned  here,  we  shall  undoubtedly  open  the  way  for  the  beginnings 
of  some  really  vital  character  education  toward  the  ends  of  adult  life.  A 
thousand  signs  in  the  field  of  adolescent  education  point  the  way  to  new 


Sessions]  EDUCATION  AND  MORAL  CHARACTER  83 

analyses  of  educational  goals,  to  new  developments  of  means  and  methods, 
and  to  new  achievements  of  results  on  a  plane  much  higher  than  that  on 
which  we  have  heretofore  workt. 

d)  Progress  in  education  in  the  past  has  come  as  the  result  of  a  slow 
trial-and-error  process,  varied  occasionally  by  the  minor  revolutions  wrought 
by  the  dynamic  powers  of  some  creative  thinker  or  exceptionally  forceful 
executive.  Of  progress  due  to  scientific  inquiry,  carefully  planned  experi- 
mentation, or  the  execution  of  deliberately  matured  programs,  education 
has  almost  none  to  show  as  yet.  Nevertheless  every  forward-looking  edu- 
cator eagerly  anticipates  the  day  when  educational  aims  and  processes  can 
be  systematically  improved  and  advanst  by  methods  that  can  properly  be 
called  scientific.  •  We  are  at  present  hardly  within  sight,  in  any  concrete 
and  comprehensive  sense,  of  such  a  vision,  but  we  have  come  to  the  stage 
of  promising  beginnings.  Where  some  of  the  adjuncts  of  education  are 
concerned — lighting  and  ventilation  of  classrooms,  cost  accounting,  etc. — 
recent  developments  have  been  in  a  measure  along  scientific  lines.  The 
effectiveness  of  different  methods  of  training  or  instruction  in  the  more 
formal  of  primary-school  studies,  as  well  as  objectives  in  at  least  two,  spell- 
ing and  arithmetic,  has  recently  been  subjected  to  tests  conceived  in  a  scien- 
tific spirit  and  so  executed  as  to  give  large  promise  of  valuable  results  in 
practice  in  the  near  future.  Contemporary  efforts  to  supplement  existing 
public  schools  of  general  education  by  others  designed  to  offer  to  the  rank 
and  file  of  workers  certain  specific  forms  of  vocational  education  have  been 
made  at  least  partially  effective  by  inquiries  of  a  reasonably  scientific 
character. 

Toward  furthering  the  extensions  and  readjustments  of  education  for 
the  formation  of  moral  character,  as  discust  in  this  paper,  are  there  prac- 
ticable, scientific  inquiries,  well-sustained  experiments,  systematic  applica- 
tions on  a  generous  scale  to  objectives  and  methods  of  already  demonstrated 
worth  ?  Must  the  further  development  of  programs  in  this  field  wait  the 
outcome  of  endless  exchanges  of  half-metaphysical  dialectics,  and  the  blind 
fumblings  of  innovators  driven  by  force  of  external  conditions  or  lured  by 
a  faint  inner  light  ?  Surely  in  these  days  when  social  consciousness  in  indi- 
viduals, and  even  in  many  groups,  is  so  wide-awake  we  can  hope  for  some- 
thing better.  The  National  Education  Association  has  not  ignored  its 
responsibilities  and  its  opportunities  in  this  field  heretofore;  but  assuredly 
its  duty  is  as  yet  far  from  being  done. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  National  Education  Association,  as  well  as 
of  other  educational  organizations,  can  be  formed  committees  created  espe- 
cially for  the  discovery,  analysis,  and  documentary  statement  of  the  specific 
problems  of  character  education  which  lie  ahead  of  us. 

The  members  of  all  teachers'  organizations  can  do  much  to  cooperate, 
by  moral  encouragement  and  by  discriminating  study  of  findings,  with  the 
endowed  and  other  voluntary  agencies  now  working  on  the  problem 
involved.    In  time,  if  not  now,  certain  of  the  results  of  the  work  of  these 


84  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

organizations  will  have  reacht  the  point  where  their  definite  application  in 
school  programs  will  be  safe  and  desirable. 

From  time  to  time,  owing  to  the  generosity  of  some  philanthropist  or 
enterprise  of  an  administrator,  experimental  work  on  a  large  scale  will  be 
possible.  Educators  appreciative  of  scientific  method  can  encourage  such 
experimentation  and  quietly^urge  that  it  be  planned  and  conducted  in 
accordance  with  scientific  method.  They  can  give  such  experiments  time 
to  produce  some  definite  results  instead  of  indulging  sometimes  in  hasty 
criticism  and  rejection  and  sometimes  in  equally  hasty  adulation  and 
acceptance.  

NEW  WORLD-STANDARDS  OF  EDUCATIONAL  B^FFICIENCY 

MARTIN  G.  BRUMBAUGH,  GOVERNOR  OF  PENNSYLVANIA,  HARRISBURG,  PA. 

We  meet  at  a  time  when  all  the  world  is  atremble  with  the  tread  of 
marching  men.  The  times  are  out  of  joint.  We  meet  on  the  anniversary 
of  the  natal  day  of  democracy.  This  Commonwealth  gave  birth  to  that 
principle  of  government  for  which  our  nation  and  our  Allies  now  contend 
in  the  most  cruel  and  most  stupendous  struggle  of  the  ages.  We  shall  win 
because  we  are  right.  God  never  wars  on  the  side  of  wrong.  We  shall  come 
from  this  baptism  of  blood  revivified  and  regnant  race,  leading  the  world 
in  all  that  makes  for  righteousness,  decency,  and  justice.  While  we  devote 
our  resources  to  the  winning  of  the  war,  it  is  wise  to  think  upon  our  oppor- 
tunities and  obligations  when  this  fateful  fight  will  be  over  and  won. 

War  is  always  and  everywhere  an  agency  of  destruction.  The  school 
is  always  and  everywhere  an  agency  of  construction.  The  one  tears  down, 
the  other  builds  up.  The  one  weakens,  the  other  strengthens.  The  one  is 
inimical,  the  other  propitious,  to  the  welfare  of  mankind.  The  one  is  a 
crime  against  society,  the  other  is  a  benediction  to  society. 

We  here  represent  this  beneficent  agency,  the  school,  to  which  in  one 
form  or  another  we  must  turn  now  fdr  the  rehabilitation  of  a  broken  and 
crippled  civilization.  In  the  soil  of  sorrow  and  blood  the  teacher  must  plant 
and  propagate  the  seeds  of  the  life,  individual  and  national,  that  is  to  be. 
Whatever  is  visioned  as  the  good  in  civilization  must  now  be  carved  into 
reality  in  the  lives  of  our  people  by  the  school-teacher.  To  him  in  the 
fateful  days  to  follow  is  committed  the  holy  task  of  making  men  and  nations 
what  under  God  they  must  be  if  they  are  to  endure. 

There  was  a  day,  not  long  agone,  when  the  teacher  did  not  enjoy  the 
complete  sympathy  and  support  of  our  people.  The  evidences  of  this  are 
not  far  to  seek.  With  inadequate  equipment,  limited  periods  of  time  for 
instruction,  unsanitary  buildings,  and  wholly  underpaid  teachers,  the 
school  was  tolerated  rather  than  welcomed.  The  war  has  changed  this 
entire  situation.  When,  in  order  to  make  good  soldiers  of  our  polyglot 
population,  it  became  necessary  to  establish  in  camp  and  cantonment 


NEW  WORLD-STANDARDS  OF  EDUCATIONAL  EFFICIENCY       85 

schools  to  educate  soldiers,  when  literacy  was  actually  accepted  as  a  requisite 
for  all  our  men  in  arms,  and  when  it  was  found  that  in  training  camps  insti- 
tuted to  equip  men  for  commissions  the  college  men  as  a  class  easily  led  all 
the  rest,  it  became  manifest  in  a  new  and  a  very  real  way  that  the  strength 
of  this  Republic  lies  in  the  right  education  of  our  citizenry,  and  from  national 
authorities  arose  the  cry,  "Keep  the  schools  open  and  maintained  at  a  high 
standard  of  efficiency."  The  teacher  has  at  last  risen  in  public  thought  to 
the  plane  of  professional  service  and  will  hereafter  be  the  most  potent 
factor  in  shaping  the  destiny  of  the  Republic  when  this  cruel  war  is  over. 

We  recognize  in  America  two  types  of  schools:  those  that  are  supported 
wholly  by  direct  tax  upon  our  people,  and  those  that  are  supported  wholly 
or  in  part  by  private  philanthropy.  The  former  are  the  pubHc  schools  and 
the  latter  the  private  schools.  The  former  are  for  the  most  part  elementary 
and  secondary  schools.  The  latter  are  for  the  most  part  higher  institutions 
of  learning.  The  public  schools  train  primarily  for  competition,  the 
higher  schools  for  cooperation.  The  public  schools  avowedly  are  agencies 
to  conserve  the  Republic  by  fitting  each  citizen  to  use  the  tools  of  democracy 
— reading,  writing,  and  reckoning.  These  practical  and  essential  subjects 
of  the  curriculum  we  shall  always  cherish,  and  we  shall,  if  wise,  demand  that 
they  be  taught  and  learned  in  the  English  language  and  in  no  other.  No 
one  can  be  a  completely  equipt  citizen  of  this  Repubhc  who  does  not  use 
fluently  the  English  language.  We  assuredly  do  not  need,  nor  should  we 
allow,  instruction  in  the  German  language. 

The  higher  schools,  supported  to  train  men  and  women  in  the  coopera- 
tive acts  that  advance  civilization,  owe  a  debt  also  to  the  nation  and  to  the 
whole  world,  the  obligation  of  giving  to  all  the  benefits  of  the  study,  the 
research,  and  the  investigation  of  the  specialist.  This  is  the  Republic's 
service  to  the  world  of  thought.  We  dare  not  bottle  up  the  free  air  or 
hoard  up  the  sun,  since  "  truth  to  us  and  to  others  is  equal  and  one." 

The  indictment  against  German  university  training  lies  almost  wholly 
in  the  fact  that  the  truth  was  not  made  free,  that  higher  learning  was  prosti- 
tuted. Its  world-service  was  kept  for  the  German  state  and  by  it  used,  not 
to  help,  but  to  harm,  the  world.  The  end  of  learning  is  not  to  serve  in  any 
selfish  way  any  person  or  government,  but  to  glorify  God  and  to  enjoy  him 
forever.  Truth  is  larger  than  governments,  and  scholarship  must  know  no 
limits  in  service. 

From  these  premises  I  deduce  standards  of  service  which  the  school 
must  observe  in  the  future : 

I.  The  school  must  be  not  only  passively  but  aggressively  moral.  Its 
moral  disciplines  must  have  the  full  sanction  of  rehgion.  No  other  sanction 
will  make  moral  training  eiffective.  We  want  men  and  nations  that  will 
regard  a  compact  or  agreement  or  treaty  as  a  sacred  thing,  to  be  kept  in- 
■  violate,  and  not  a  scrap  of  paper  to  be  tost  aside  when  selfishness  and  greed 
possess  a  people  or  a  government.    There  can  be  no  code  of  morals  for  an 


86  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

individual  that  is  not  equally  binding  upon  nations.  The  school  is  the 
supremely  important  agency  to  set  these  standards  in  the  souls  of  the 
people. 

2.  The  school  must  widen  its  sphere  of  service.  Plato  was  right  in 
asserting  that  education  is  as  much  the  concern  of  adult  life  as  of  childhood. 
We  sell  citizenship  in  this  Republic  at  a  ridiculously  low  price.  We  welcome 
immigrants  and  give  them  home  and  haven.  But  we  should  insist  that 
every  immigrant  must  within  five  years  either  master  the  English  language 
or  leave  the  country.  We  should  also  rigorously  enforce  everywhere,  by 
compulsion,  the  education  of  all  native-born  people.  We  shall  be  wise  if 
we  at  once  estabUsh  and  enforce  attendance  in  continuation  schools,  which 
must  have  more  intimate  articulation  with  industry.  What  right  has  any- 
one to  obtain  work  in  America  if  he  love  her  not  enough  to  master  her 
language  ? 

3.  In  addition  to  a  training  of  a  Uberal  sort,  it  is  manifest  now  that 
each  citizen  should  master  a  defined  trade.  He  may  never  resort  to  it  for  a 
livelihood,  but  he  is  the  better  citizen  for  this  special  training.  This  is 
true  of  women  as  well  as  of  men.  Moreover  the  day  may  come  (I  hope  it 
may  not)  when  the  nation  will  need  artisans  far  in  excess  of  the  demands  of 
industry.  It  has  a  perfect  right  to  have  in  reserve  and  on  call  when  needed 
a  vast  army  of  skilled  workers  who  can  on  occasion  turn  to  the  serious  and 
vital  task  of  serving  in  a  practical  way  the  nation's  needs.  It  is  manifest 
that  there  must  be  more  secure  tenure  and  more  adequate  compensation 
all  thru  our  school  system  if  the  teacher  is  to  meet  the  newer  expectations 
and  needs  of  the  nation. 

4.  We  have  had  enforst  upon  us,  to  our  shame,  the  fact  that  we  are 
wasteful  and  an  extravagant  people.  We  are  exhorted  now  to  save  in 
food,  in  money,  in  all  the  essentials  of  Uf e.  We  can  save  vastly  more  than 
we  now  do.    The  school  can  teach  thrift  and  train  our  people  to  save. 

5.  The  school  must  set  a  new  ideal  of  national  loyalty.  Something 
like  the  heroic  quality  of  national  fealty  that  led  men,  hungry  and  cold  and 
naked,  to  endure  at  Valley  Forge  must  reanimate  our  people  today.  We 
must  love  the  nation  more  than  we  love  our  own  comfort.  We  must  serve 
the  nation  more  willingly  than  we  ask  her  to  serve  us.  We  must  be  taught 
to  serve  her  and  not  be  served  by  her,  if  we  are  to  be  worthy  of  the  holy 
privileges  of  membership  in  this  great,  glorious  government.  The  national 
will  is  nearer  to  us  now  than  ever  before.  Let  us  teach  our  people  gladly 
to  support  it. 

6.  We  have  had  a  Prussianized  American  cult  in  our  higher  institutions 
of  learning.  It  must  be  banisht  forever.  It  is  not  suited  to  the  soil  of  free 
America.  Autocratic  ideals  have  no  place  in  a  democratic  society.  For 
more  than  a  generation  we  have  been  led  to  believe  that  our  most  talented 
youths  should  complete  their  training  in  a  German  university.  The  stream* 
of  German-bound  students  from  this  free  Republic  has  been  increasingly 


Sessions]      .  THE  IMMORTAL  CONFLICT  87 

large.  But  this  war  has  made  an  end  of  all  that.  What  of  the  future  ? 
No  American  parent  will  dare,  when  this  cruel  war  is  over,  to  send  his  son 
to  a  German  university.  Where  then  shall  the  best  minds  of  our  nation  and 
those  of  our  Allies  receive  the  higher  culture  ?  Those  at  all  conversant  with 
European  systems  of  education  will  agree  at  once  that  they  cannot  go 
to  England,  or  to  France,  or  to  any  other  friendly  country.  Their  systems 
of  culture  do  not  lend  themselves  to  this  service. 

It  may  well  be,  it  really  must  be,  that  in  this  the  oldest  democracy  in 
the  world,  which  God  in  his  wisdom  has  hidden  away  behind  the  sounding 
sea,  the  higher  learning  shall  be  in  the  future  given  to  the  students  of  the 
world.  Here,  with  reverent  faith  in  God  and  democratic  ideals  of  govern- 
ment, we  can  train  the  diplomats  of  the  world.  We  shall  have  an  open-door 
diplomacy  and  a  world-serving  search  for  truth.  In  our  great  seats  of 
learning,  better  than  in  any  other  place  known  to  men,  we  can  give  course 
and  current  to  the  thinking  world.  Here  we  can  welcome  and  educate  in 
true  piety  and  unselfish  service  the  leaders  of  all  nations.  It  is  America's 
opportunity.  It  is  her  duty.  Shall  she  allow  so  great  an  occasion  to  pass  ? 
I  pray  that  we  may  at  once  turn  our  attention  and  our  united  endeavor  to 
this  sublime  service  for  God,  for  country,  for  civilization,  that  it  may  be 
said  of  us,  as  it  was  said  of  a  long-forgotten  city  of  the  remote  past,  that  we 
have  wisely  provided  to  make  real  in  the  lives  of  men  the  ideal  carved  over 
her  ancient  gateway: 

In  the  midst  of  the  light  is  the  beautiful, 
In  the  midst  of  the  beautiful  is  the  good, 
In  the  midst  of  the  good  is  God — 
The  eternal  one. 

It  is  America's  destiny,  her  duty  to  the  world,  to  find  this  center,  that 
we  may  abide  as  a  nation  under  the  keeping  of  the  Almighty  forever. 


THE  IMMORTAL  CONFLICT 

ANDREW  F.  WEST,  DEAN  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF  PRINCETON 
UNIVERSITY,   PRINCETON,   N.J. 


A  boy  without  a  memory  cannot  be  educated.  A  man  without  a 
memory  needs  someone  to  look  after  him,  or  he  will  go  on  repeating  his  mis- 
takes because  he  is  always  forgetting  what  he  needs  to  remember,  and 
especially  the  one  thing  he  ought  always  to  remember,  namely,  that  it  is 
not  the  man  who  makes  a  mistake,  but  the  man  who  repeats  his  mistakes, 
who  is  known  for  a  fool.  And  a  nation  without  a  memory  is  in  the  same 
deplorable  plight.  To  remember  well  the  things  that  ought  to  be  remem- 
bered and  to  profit  by  them  is  the  rule  for  a  safe,  strong,  and  wise  life  for 
every  man  and  for  every  nation. 


88  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  •       [General 

The  past  is  not  something  dead  and  gone.  Whether  men  care  to  have 
anything  to  do  with  it  or  not,  it  remains  a  fact  that  the  past  has  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  us.  The  past  is  the  parent,  the  producing  cause,  of 
the  present.  Science  has  taught  us  by  a  thousand  proofs  that  the  universe 
is  what  it  is  because  of  what  it  was,  and  that  men  are  what  they  are  now 
because  of  what  men  were  before.  And  the  big  book  of  history,  which  is 
the  world's  memory,  points  the  one  "moral  of  all  human  tales"  in  revealing 
the  truth  that,  no  matter  what  else  has  changed,  the  human  heart  is  still 
swayed  by  the  same  passions  as  ever.  To  learn  well  this  lesson  and  never 
to  forget  it  in  the  conduct  of  life,  personal  or  national,  is  the  one  foundation 
for  a  sane  education. 

And  now,  when  the  world  seems  turned  upside  down,  men  need  to 
remember  these  elementary  and  elemental  unchanging  realities.  For  there 
are  voices  of  confusion  teUing  us  that  everything  is  changing,  saying  that 
little,  if  anything,  of  what  we  have  held  as  true  can  be  depended  on  for  the 
future,  and  bidding  us  clutch  at  this  or  that  panacea  as  the  only  thing  to 
cure  our  ills.  The  past,  they  say,  has  little  to  teach  us;  for  we  are  Ameri- 
cans of  the  twentieth  century  and  should  promptly  cut  loose  from  bygone 
times,  methods,  and  ideas  and  set  up  a  brand-new  national  culture  of  our  own. 

They  are  proposing  to  run  American  education,  not  on  a  record,  but 
on  a  prospectus.  They  are,  in  fact,  telling  us  to  lose  our  memories  and  to 
forget  what  we  shall  forget  at  our  peril,  namely,  that  the  past  has  our 
main  lesson  to  teach  us,  and  that  the  man  who  does  not  see  behind  the 
lurid,  blinding  light  of  this  world-war  its  deep-lying  causes  for  decades  and 
generations  past,  and  on  back  to  the  origins,  cannot  understand  why  this 
war  happened,  nor  how  to  prevent  its  happening  again,  nor  even  what  it 
is  that  is  now  happening.  For  he  who  does  not  remember  what  has  gone 
before  has  little  means  of  judging  what  is  happening  now,  or  of  forecasting 
what  will  come  after.  It  is  no  time  to  forget.  It  is  the  time  to  remember 
everything  and  to  forget  nothing. 

II 

Listen  to  a  voice  from  long  ago,  yet  so  clear  and  near  in  its  tones  that 
it  seems  to  be  speaking  now.  "There  is,  we  affirm,"  says  Plato,  "an 
immortal  conflict  now  going  on  and  calling  for  marvelous  vigilance.  In  it 
our  allies  are  the  gods  and  all  good  spirits."  He  is  speaking  of  the  age- 
long conflict  of  truth  with  error.  It  is  a  clarion  call  of  ancient  freedom 
across  the  centuries  to  us,  not  only  to  the  battle  line  in  France,  but  to  the 
armies  of  education  in  America.  Let  us  listen  again  in  the  quiet  of  our 
schools  and  we  shall  hear  the  echoing  thunders  of  the  long-fought  war,  not 
ended  yet,  between  the  freedom  of  knowledge  and  the  debasing  slavery  of 
ignorance.  And  that  warfare  is  the  one  business  of  education,  the  one 
reason  why  we  need  schools  at  all.  What  is  the  past  for  us  ?  It  is  experi- 
ence teaching — and  teaching  now. 


THE  IMMORTAL  CONFLICT  89 

Our  struggle  in  the  schools,  as  it  should  be  in  our  homes,  is  against 
ignorance,  the  old,  ancient,  inveterate  ignorance  with  which  every  genera- 
tion is  bom  into  this  world,  the  ignorance  which  must  be  first  overcome 
and  then  enlightened  by  effort.  It  is  not  an  easy  task,  for  we  are  wrestling, 
not  against  flesh  and  blood,  but  against  the  unseen  powers  of  darkness, 
darkness  intellectual  and  darkness  moral.  It  is  then  our  part  in  the 
"immortal  conflict,"  ceaseless  and  strenuous,  "now  going  on  and  calling 
for  marvelous  vigilance"  more  loudly  than  ever. 

Ill 

What  is  the  way  to  win?  This  is  the  question  that  must  be  answered 
rightly  if  we  are  to  keep  faith  with  our  country.  There  is  just  one  way. 
It  is  to  make  the  proved  truths  of  experience  the  one  basis  for  our  efforts 
and  the  one  test  of  all  theories  offered  for  our  acceptance.  It  is  the  test  of 
common  sense.  It  is  also  the  one  scientific  test,  for  science,  as  Huxley  put 
it,  is  nothing  else  than  "highly  trained  common  sense"  applied  to  scientific 
questions.  Let  us  try  by  this  test  some  of  the  plausible  assertions  which 
are  being  made. 

1.  One  is  that  there  should  be  no  "formal  discipHne"  in  studies.  If 
this  means  that  there  should  be  no  strict  and  regular  training  of  the  human 
mind,  as  the  words  naturally  imply,  the  test  is  easily  made.  If  it  means 
something  else,  we  have  no  need  to  consider  it.  All  we  need  to  do  is  to 
remember  the  record  of  facts.  This  record  tells  us  that  in  the  world's  con- 
tests the  undisciplined  mind  has  generally  been  beaten.  It  has  been  one 
of  the  outstanding  lessons  of  the  war,  notably  so  in  the  defense  of  Verdun. 

2.  Another  assertion  is  that  no  student  should  be  required  to  take  any 
study  which  is  not  "interesting"  to  him,  because  if  he  does  not  like  it  he 
will  get  little  good  from  it.  It  is  hard  to  take  this  seriously.  What  in  the 
world  is  to  be  done,  on  this  basis,  with  those  who  find  all  studies  and  espe- 
cially all  study  uninteresting?  This  beguiling  half-truth  breaks  on  the 
hard  rock  of  facts.  Duty  is  not  always  "interesting,"  but  it  is  always  duty. 
Life  is  not  a  series  of  pleasant  elective  choices,  but  it  has  in  it  the  element 
of  stern  compulsion,  and  most  of  all — 

When  Duty  whispers  low,  "Thou  must." 

And  it  is  another  fact,  not  fancy,  that  obedience  to  duty,  however  hard 
and  distasteful  at  first,  yields  a  most  "interesting"  joy  of  human  fife,  the 
joy  of  the  hard-won  fight,  and  leads  to  the  highest  freedom,  the  freedom 
of  assured  self-conquest.     Is  there  anything  our  country  needs  more  ? 

3.  Some  are  telling  us  that  vocational  and  technical  education  is  the 
one  thing  needful,  because  everyone  should  be  taught  to  earn  his  living. 
So  he  should.  And  nine-tenths  of  our  youths  must  begin  to  earn  their 
Uving  early.  We  grant  it.  But  this  utilitarian  proposal  errs  in  forgetting 
some  hard  facts.    This  view  overlooks  the  fact  that  they  are  more^than 


go  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

animate  tools.  They  are  human  beings,  with  minds  and  hearts  as  well  as 
hands.  If  in  our  just  desire  to  prepare  them  for  making  their  living  we 
also  unjustly  fail  to  prepare  them  by  good  general  schooHng  to  make  their 
lives  better  worth  living,  we  shall  create  a  huge  proletariat  of  discontent  to 
curse  us,  a  grave  menace  to  themselves  and  to  the  safety  of  our  democracy. 
4.  One  more  theory  needs  notice.  It  is  that  we  are  an  independent 
nation  hving  in  the  twentieth  century  and  should  therefore  have  a  purely 
American  national  education  without  reference  to  the  past.  I  know  no 
loyal  American  who  wants  anything  else  than  that  our  national  history 
shall  be  well  studied  by  every  boy  and  girl  in  the  land,  and  that  English 
shall  be  the  only  language  used  in  our  elementary  schools.  Is  this  all  there 
is  in  the  proposal?  Then  we  can  all  accept  it  with  enthusiasm.  But  it 
needs  definition.  For  we  have  the  right  to  ask  whether  it  is  meant  that 
all  elementary  studies  are  to  be  exclusively  national.  Is  geography  to  be 
confined  to  the  geography  of  our  land  ?  How  about  arithmetic  ?  Is  there 
an  American  multiplication  table?  And  what  of  "nature-study"?  Are 
only  American  animals  to  be  notist?  Here  is  where  the  theory  begins 
to  crack.  Our  own  language  and  history  for  the  sake  of  our  national  unity  ? 
Yes,  in  plenty,  and  then  also  the  elements  of  universal  knowledge — as 
much  as  we  can  get.  We  must  not  forget  that  an  exclusively  American 
culture  must  tend  either  to  absorb  other  systems  by  incorporation  or 
domination,  or,  failing  in  that,  to  impair  the  vital  unity  of  our  international 
civiUzed  freedom. 

IV 

It  is  great  to  be  a  true  American;  it  is  greater  to  be  a  true  man  or  woman 
here  or  anywhere.  "That  all  men  everywhere  may  be  free"  was  Lincoln's 
prayer.  Can  we  not  lay  aside  all  prejudice  and  then  read  our  lesson  in  the 
fiery  light  around  us  ?  That  lesson  is  that  no  freedom  is  won  or  held  with- 
out struggle  and  without  self-denial.  That  lesson  is  that  mental  and  moral 
freedom  is  not  won  or  held  by  any  human  being  in  any  land  without  whole- 
minded  training  in  the  fundamentals  of  knowledge,  be  they  pleasant  or 
unpleasant  at  first,  whole-souled  obedience  to  duty,  "interesting"  or 
uninteresting,  and  whole-hearted  devotion  to  the  truth  won  and  held  by 
hard  effort,  not  for  money,  place,  or  power,  but  for  the  sake  of  living 
decently  in  a  decent  world,  made  fit  to  be  free. 

In  our  education,  as  in  the  war,  the  "immortal  conflict"  is  now  on. 
In  both  the  same  cause  is  working.  And  in  both  may  God  defend  the 
right! 


AN  INTERPRETATION  OF  LIFE  AND  COLOR  91 

AN  INTERPRETATION  OF  LIFE  IN  TERMS  OF  BEAUTY  AND 
OF  COLOR  IN  TERMS  OF  MUSIC 

MAUD  M.  MILES,  ART  DEPARTMENT,  MANUAL  TRAINING  HIGH  SCHOOL, 
KANSAS  CITY,  MO. 

Perhaps  in  the  present  war  civilization  is  bursting  her  chrysalis  and  the 
world  is  but  suffering  the  birth  pangs  of  the  coming  of  a  newer  and  higher 
interpretation  of  life,  as  a  journey  toward  an  ideal,  physical,  mental,  and 
moral. 

It  is  my  behef  that  every  man  attains  his  real  ambition.  I  do  not  mean 
that  he  always  reaches  the  goal  toward  which  he  professes  to  aspire,  but 
in  his  innermost  soul  he  has  hopes  and  ideals  that  form  his  character  and 
mold  his  destiny.  If  teachers  could  but  recognize  the  fact  that  every  child 
is  building  for  himself  an  ideal  that  will  actually  shape  his  destiny,  they 
would  strive,  first  of  all,  to  develop  in  the  mind  of  that  child  a  worthy  plan 
for  his  life. 

The  child  should  also  be  trained  so  that  he  will  be  able  to  give  concrete 
expression  to  his  thoughts  and  emotions.  Self-expression  can  be  accom- 
plisht  only  thru  the  control  of  material.  The  study  of  art  is  a  most  valuable 
means  to  such  an  end.  I  believe  that  there  are  many  people  who  would 
have  been  better  men  or  women  if  they  had  learned  the  language,  art,  or 
trade  that  was  the  most  natural  means  of  expression  for  them. 

All  forms  of  idealization,  physical,  moral,  and  mental,  are  developt  by 
the  education  received  thru  the  senses.  To  develop  highly  the  senses  of 
seeing  and  hearing  is  to  advance  all  the  education  that  is  subsequently 
received.  Therefore,  before  any  theory  of  art  or  music  is  taught,  the  sense 
perception  should  be  developt.  And  no  teaching  of  theory  should  ever  be 
nearly  equal  to  the  development  of  the  art  and  musical  senses. 

Music  is  so  generally  understood  that  I  need  not  dwell  upon  the  value 
of  teaching  it.  Art  is  not  so  well  understood  nor  so  well  taught,  because 
it  has  not  been  put  upon  a  dependable  scientific  basis.  I  do  not  mean  that 
beauty  can  be  proved  by  science,  but  I  do  mean  that  the  study  of  art  is 
furthered  by  a  general  knowledge  of  the  scientific  beginnings.  All  arts  are 
one.  All  science  is  a  unit.  Both  science  and  art  are  but  parts  of  the  totality 
of  human  understanding.  The  pursuit  of  this  understanding  we  call  edu- 
cation. 

The  music  student  should  know  a  little  about  the  nature  of  sound.  The 
art  student  should  know  somethmg  of  the  nature  of  light  and  color,  of 
perspective,  and  the  theory  of  design.  A  small  amount  of  dependable 
theory  makes  the  study  of  art  strengthen  the  mind  and  inspire  the  soul. 
Rightly  taught,  art  is  the  study  that  does  the  most  to  develop  the  powers 
of  the  child  into  a  living  force.  The  art  teacher  should  approach  the  child 
with  the  feeling  that  he  already  may  have  a  sense  of  beauty  and  a  richness 
of  imagination,  fresher  and  in  some  cases  finer  than  her  own. 


92  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

Art  is  not  taught  sufficiently  in  relation  to  everyday  life.  A  woman's 
club  which  I  recently  addrest  in  a  clubroom  with  dirty  and  poorly  arranged 
walls  was  studying  mural  decoration  in  Italy.  The  walls  of  the  room  in 
which  they  met  should  have  been  of  more  importance  to  them  than  Euro- 
pean walls,  which  few  of  them  had  ever  seen  or  would  ever  see.  The  design 
classes  in  the  public  schools  spend  weary  hours  on  the  study  of  intricate 
geometrical  contortion,  when  the  time  would  be  better  spent  in  making 
them  see  the  practical  value  of  good  spacing  and  the  need  of  restraint  in  the 
decoration  of  the  things  that  surround  them.  Our  homes  and  our  cities 
are  often  hideous  in  form  and  color.  This  can  only  be  remedied  by  art 
education. 

Our  greatest  need  of  reform  lies  in  the  teaching  of  color.  Color  work, 
in  school,  was  sometimes  good,  as  long  as  teachers  depended  for  guidance 
on  the  natural  sense  of  color.  This  sense  was  more  or  less  Hmited,  so  the 
educational  world  was  forst  to  seek  a  standard  method  of  teaching  color. 
Attempts  were  made  to  make  color  scientific,  and  the  practical  results  were 
color  that  was  the  worst  the  world  has  ever  known.  The  movement  was, 
however,  in  the  right  direction. 

Light  vibrations  are  too  rapid  to  be  measured  with  sufficient  accuracy 
to  invent  a  theory  of  scientific  color  independent  of  some  system  of  vibra- 
tion that  is  easier  to  compute.  The  most  scientific  and  educationally  valu- 
able of  these  theories  were  those  that  sought  to  standardize  color  according 
to  its  relation  to  music.  There  is  actually  a  physical  relationship  between 
light  and  sound,  and  it  is  upon  this  that  the  many  so-called  parallels  between 
color  and  music  are  based.  Practically  all  such  parallels  place  red  on 
middle  C  and  divide  the  one  octave  of  light  into  six  fundamental  colors. 

For  three  years  I  have  been  teaching  color  in  relation  to  music  and 
have  developt  a  music-color  parallel  of  my  own  that  seems  to  have  solved 
the  problem.  I  believe  that  I  am  the  first  music-colorist  in  America  who 
does  not  attempt  to  fit  the  six  equal  divisions  of  light,  which  we  call  color, 
to  the  seven  unequal  divisions  of  the  diatonic  musical  scales.  I  divide  the 
usual  six  colors  into  twelve  semitones  of  color.  These  twelve  equal  divisions 
of  the  color  octave  exactly  fit  the  twelve  semitones  of  the  chromatic  musical 
scale.  This  makes  the  diatonic  scales  derived  from  my  parallel  show  a 
half-tone  between  E  and  F  and  between  B  and  C.  It  is  probably  the  first 
music-color  parallel  in  America  that  exactly  fits  the  one  octave  of  light  to 
one  octave  of  music  and  so  is  the  first  so-called  parallel  that  is  really  parallel, 
as  far  as  such  a  thing  is  possible.  My  theory  leads  past  the  violent  spectral 
colors  to  the  everyday  color  that  we  see  in  all  nature  about  us.  For  color, 
as  we  use  it,  is  not  direct  Hght.  Even  in  the  spectrum  no  other  color  is  as 
light  as  yellow  and  no  other  as  dark  as  violet.  In  all  there  are  seven  degrees 
of  dark  and  light  in  the  one  octave  of  light  when  it  is  divided  into  twelve 
semitones  of  color.  As  an  experiment,  I  thought  I  would  try  to  see  how 
each  color  would  look  if  represented  in  each  of  the  seven  tone  values.    I 


Sessionsl  AN  INTERPRETATION  OF  LIFE  AND  COLOR  93 

found  that  I  had  a  range  of  color  equivalent  to  the  piano  keyboard.  With 
color  parallel  to  the  notes  of  the  piano,  one  has  only  to  apply  the  laws  of 
musical  harmony  to  the  color  equivalent  of  musical  notes  to  produce  color 
harmony. 

Comparing  twenty  or  more  paintings  of  the  Madonna  by  old  masters,  I 
found  the  color  schemes  of  most  to  be  red,  yellow,  and  blue-green — the  do, 
mi,  and  sol  of  the  key  of  C.  The  early  Assyrians,  ignorant  of  the  laws  of 
vibration,  had  a  pipe  that  played  C,  E,  and  G.  The  works  of  the  old  music 
masters  prove  very  significant  in  color,  when  translated  into  color  according 
to  my  parallel. 

A  standard  color  theory  would  be  useful  commercially,  as  well  as  educa- 
tionally. The  country  needs  color  names  that  have  a  definite  meaning. 
Colors  come  in  keys  as  do  music  notes.  The  housewife  could  enter  a  store 
and  purchase  furnishings  that  would  exactly  suit  some  room  if  she  knew 
in  what  color  key  that  room  was  decorated. 

I  find  color  taught  in  relation  to  music  the  easiest  color  theory  to  teach. 
The  pupil  enjoys  it  because  he  finds  this  theory  directly  related  to  another 
theory  of  which  he  already  knows  something.  He  likes  it  also  because  he 
finds  it  dependable,  in  that  it  brings  good  color  results.  It  relates  the  study 
of  art  to  music,  and  it  relates  both  of  these  arts  to  science.  One  of  the 
greatest  needs  of  modern  education  is  the  ehmination  of  unnecessary  and 
unrelated  theories  and  facts. 

Public-school  art  has  suffered  from  the  fact  that  full  credit  is  not  given 
for  it.  This  lowers  it  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil.  We  have  discouraged  the 
pupils  who  wisht  to  specialize  in  art.  We  have  told  them  to  be  more  practical. 
We  must  concede  that  we  have  a  real  and  practical  need  of  more  art 
understanding  in  America.  The  training  of  a  child's  mind  to  a  contempla- 
tion of  the  beauty  that  surrounds  or  might  be  made  to  surround  him  is  a 
good  way  to  prevent  him  from  forming  an  ambition  that  is  selfish  or  sordid. 

It  seems  cruel  to  talk  of  art  when  the  world  is  bleeding  and  in  tears. 
But  the  only  artist  who  ever  succeeded  to  any  exalted  measure  was  the  one 
who  had  suffered.  It  is  a  world  that  has  known  a  recent  and  terrible  agony 
that  will  find  its  balance  by  turning  again  to  a  higher  ideal  for  the  inter- 
pretation of  life. 

Our  threadbare  theories,  our  inane  conventionalities,  our  mediaeval 
smugness,  are  all  rudely  cast  aside,  and  we  stand  naked  in  soul  before  the 
God  who  made  us.  Shall  we  try  to  develop  the  finer  senses,  the  choicest 
gifts  he  has  given  us  ?  For  ourselves  it  may  be  impossible  to  redeem  our 
lost  heritage.  But  we  should  permit  the  children  to  develop  and  should 
help  them  as  best  we  can  in  our  weak  way.  They  should  enjoy  art  and 
music  to  the  fullest  extent.  If  we  could  only  learn  to  see  as  a  child  sees, 
to  keep  the  fresh  vision  of  youth;  if  we  could  feel  his  frankness  of  purpose 
and  keep  his  freshness  of  mind,  we  should  regain  much  of  the  power  we 
have  lost  to  interpret  life  in  terms  of  beauty. 


94  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

PATRIOTISM— PAST,  PRESENT,  AND  FUTURE 

ROBERT  M.   MCELROY,  PRESIDENT,   NATIONAL  SECURITY  LEAGUE, 
NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

The  experiences  of  the  past  four  years  have  convinst  most  of  us  that  the 
most  important  function  of  education  is  to  fit  the  common  men  for  the 
common  duties  of  citizenship.  We  have  in  this  Republic  of  ours  a  strange 
gap  in  the  machinery  of  education.  On  the  one  hand  institutions  of  higher 
learning,  so  called,  think  habitually  in  terms  of  science  and  concern  them- 
selves little,  if  at  all,  with  the  problems  of  the  free  school,  which  is  America's 
real  educational  crown  of  glory.  At  the  other  end  of  the  line  stands,  not 
free  school  system,  but  a  myriad  of  free  school  systems,  each  under  the 
control  of  a  board  which  thinks  its  educational  thoughts  and  spends  its 
educational  funds  with  reference  to  one  particular  locality.  Its  horizon 
is  bounded  by  the  limits  of  the  particular  unit,  whether  it  be  the  unit  of 
township,  of  county,  or  of  state.  Between  these  two  there  is  the  vast 
educational  area  of  no  man's  land,  the  area  for  educational  thought  upon 
those  problems  which  concern  the  nation  as  a  whole,  or  that  larger  problem 
of  the  relation  of  nation  to  nation. 

The  patriotic  duty  of  educators  in  this  country  is  to  see  that  every  child 
in  the  next  generation  is  possest'  of  certain  simple,  fundamental  principles 
of  justice  and  honesty,  the  rights  of  man  and  the  rights  of  nations,  which 
shall  constitute  a  new  background  for  this  polyglot  nation.  The  only 
patriotism  which  can  command  the  unanimous  and  loyal  enthusiasm  of  all 
races  and  kindreds  and  tongues  which  make  up  our  nation  is  the  call  which 
teaches  principles  so  broad  as  to  thrill  the  heart  of  every  race.  America  is 
the  one  nation  which  seems  to  have  been  designed  by  Providence  to  con- 
struct a  platform  of  patriotism  world-wide  in  its  scope. 

We  do  not  need  a  more  complicated  background  for  our  education;  what 
we  need  is  a  simpler  one.  We  do  not  need  to  multiply  the  subjects  in  our 
courses  of  study,  but  we  need  to  put  back  of  all  those  subjects,  clear  and 
distinct,  the  simple  ideals  which  can  furnish  the  basis  for  a  new  patriotism, 
a  patriotism  that  thinks  in  terms  of  justice,  not  of  gain,  that  looks  to  the 
rights  and  liberties  of  all  mankind,  not  merely  to  the  interests  of  that  little 
favored  group  which  dwells  upon  the  continent  which  we  call  our  own. 

I  recently  gave  an  interesting  dinner  in  a  Yiddish  restaurant  on  the 
East  Side  in  New  York.  The  guests  were  twenty  Jewish  leaders  of  thought, 
men  born  in  Russia,  but  who  had  been  changed  by  the  subtle  influences  of 
our  ideals  from  Russians  into  real  Americans.  I  askt  them  this  question, 
which  they  tried  to  answer,  with  but  half -success:  "What  are  the  mental 
processes  thru  which  you  pass  when  ceasing  to  be  Russians  and  becoming 
real  Americans?  If  we  can  find  exactly  the  ideas  which  have  wrought 
this  transformation  in  you,  they  will  give  us  a  basis  for  an  education  which 
can  be  given  to  other  foreigners  with  the  same  results."    The  answers 


Sessions]  PATRIOTISM— PAST,  PRESENT,  AND. FUTURE  95 

which  they  gave  compose  this  creed,  partial  yet  suggestive,  seeking  to 
explain  the  things  which  are  the  essence  of  America: 

I  believe  in  America  because  of  her  ideals,  workt  out  in  institutions  that  are  just. 

She  gives  to  everyone  the  right  to  rise; 
To  take  a  part  in  making  equal  laws; 
To  hold  his  neighbor  equal  to  himself; 
To  speak  the  truth  and  to  resent  a  lie; 
To  serve  no  man  as  master,  but  by  toil 
To  earn  the  right  to  call  himself  a  man. 

I  believe  in  the  world-mission  of  American  ideals.  By  them,  exprest  in  terms  of 
nations,  I  believe: 

Right  can  be  made  to  vanquish  force  and  fraud; 
Justice  to  reign,  sustained  by  potent  law; 
The  weaker  states  to  live  as  live  the  strong. 

I  believe  in  America  because  she  thinks  in  terms  of  justice,  not  of  gain,  and  holds  her 
noble  heritage  the  right  of  all. 

A  man  of  foreign  blood  or  foreign  birth  who  can  repeat  this  creed  and 
understand  its  inner  meaning  is  well  on  the  way  to  being  what  we  call  an 
American. 

We  are  told  that  we  have  today  two  and  one-half  million  men  in  arms. 
Of  these  a  million  are  equipt  and  trained,  simply  because  the  leaders  really 
led.  They  taught  the  people  just  what  must  be  done,  and  they  in  turn 
secured  the  doing.  It  was  constructive  patriotism  to  insist  that  things  were 
wrong  and  to  demand  insistently  that  they  be  righted.  The  men  to  whom 
the  glory  there  in  France  is  due  are  first  the  men  who  fight;  but  next  to  them 
it  is  due  to  the  men  who  roused  this  nation  to  its  danger  and  made  us 
prepare. 

The  first  line  is  already  in  action,  kiUing  Huns,  because  the  leaders, 
who  saw  the  needs  as  you  and  I  see  the  needs  in  education,  cried  and  cried 
again  and  would  not,  for  the  love  of  country,  hold  their  peace. 

But  what  of  the  second  line?  There  is  not  a  worthy  teacher  in  this 
house  today  who  does  not  know  that  the  task  of  making  the  world  safe  for 
democracy  requires  two  steps,  not  one.  The  first  is  the  defeat  of  Germany, 
a  military  defeat,  absolute,  final,  and  conclusive;  and  for  that  the  patriotic 
zeal  of  those  who  lead  and  those  who  follow  has  markt  out  the  way. 

But  what  of  the  second  step  ?  It  must  be  to  show  that  democracy  can 
mobilize  also  her  spiritual  forces;  that  she  can  so  train  her  people  as  to 
enable  them  to  do,  with  equal  efficiency  and  devotion,  everything  which 
autocracy  has  been  able  to  do.  But  this  means  tremendous  preparation. 
Where  is  the  prophet  of  education,  who  will  cry  aloud,  in  words  that  must 
be  heard,  that  we,  the  fighters,  are  not  yet  equipt,  many  not  even  trained, 
for  battle  ?  Do  the  people  know  that  educationally  we  are  still  in  the  age  of 
nullification?  That  any  state  or  any  smaller  unit  may  elect  to  leave  its 
children  ignorant,  untrained,  and  thus  unfit  to  take  a  part  in  making  a 


96  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

success  of  this  experiment  ?  Do  they  know,  as  we  know,  that  a  great  army 
of  our  teachers  is  underpaid,  ill  trained,  and  unprovided  with  the  things  that 
they  should  have  to  make  their  work  effective  ?  Do  they  realize,  as  we  all 
realize,  that  the  experiment  of  free  government  cannot  be  really  tried  until 
we  place  behind  it  a  system  of  education  which  will  not  only  offer  but  compel 
the  use  of  well-equipt,  sound,  educational  faciUties  ?  This  nation  will  stand 
or  fall  according  to  the  enlightenment  or  the  ignorance  of  its  people.  The 
most  wasteful  thing  in  life  is  to  neglect  to  give  each  child  the  chance  to 
develop  his  powers. 

Nothing  must  be  allowed  to  deprive  the  child  of  any  family  or  of  any 
district  of  his  right  to  be  made  to  take  an  education  which  will  make  of  him 
the  best  possible  American.  If  he  Hves  in  a  section  too  poor  to  give  him 
this,  we  must  look  to  the  state  or  the  nation  to  see  that  he  gets  what  he 
needs,  whether  he  will  or  no,  whether  his  region  will  or  no. 

The  leaders  in  preparedness  for  armed  defense  have  shown  us  how 
success  is  gained,  by  an  insistent  clamor  for  the  things  on  which  success 
depends.  They  raised  a  cry  which  would  not  be  denied,  and  miracles 
were  wrought.  Where  are  the  signs  of  an  awakened  mind  regarding 
education?    We  can  see  no  signs — the  leaders  have  not  clamored. 

We  are  the  leaders.  If  we  fail  to  lead,  to  clamor  with  insistent  voice 
for  what  we  know  to  be  essential  to  the  cause  we  serve,  the  failure  of  the 
things  for  which  our  armies  fight  will  be  our  failure.  What  can  we  do? 
What  would  our  leaders  in  khaki  do  in  such  a  state  as  ours  ?  If  they  did 
not  rear  resentment  with  unceasing  zeal,  demanding  instant  action,  we 
should  say,  ''We  lean  on  broken  reeds.    Our  leaders  fail  to  lead." 

But  we  are  failing,  and  our  cause  is  just  as  vital  to  the  state  as  theirs. 

Therefore,  I  say  that  this  great  convention  must  not  dare  adjourn 
until  our  requisition  for  supphes  goes  to  the  nation  in  specific  terms.  This 
is  our  day,  our  first  great  chance — we  dare  not  fail.  All  the  world  is  advan- 
cing; shall  we  stand  and  wait  ? 


SOME  EDUCATIONAL  VALUES  OF  WAR 

G.   STANLEY  HALL,  PRESIDENT,"  CLARK  UNIVERSITY,   WORCESTER,  MASS. 

This  war  is  the  most  tremendously  important  event  in  all  the  history  of 
man,  and  we  are  just  now  very  near  the  greatest  crisis  the  world  has  ever 
seen.  The  war  and  its  needs  are  the  chief  occupation  of  nearly  a  score  of 
the  leading  nations  of  the  world.  Freedom  versus  domination  of  some 
kind  has  been  the  stake  of  every  war  since  the  first  tick  of  time,  but  in  this 
colossal  contest  the  issues  of  all  previous  wars  are  pooled.  What  happened 
in  the  world  before  19 14  already  begins  to  seem  a  bit  far  off,  unreal,  and 
insignificant  by  comparison  with  the  mighty  fates  that  crowd  the  here 
and  the  now.    We  are  making  history,  as  it  were,  a  century  a  month,  and 


Sessions]  SOME  EDUCATIONAL  VALUES  OF  WAR  97 

changes  of  sentiment  and  activity  that  once  took  a  generation  may  now 
occur  in  a  week.  As  Lincoln  said,  the  country  could  not  remain  half  free 
and  half  slave,  and  so  we  have  decreed  that  the  world  cannot  be  half 
autocratic  and  half  democratic,  but  must  be  all  one  or  all  the  other.  In  the 
old  era  that  closed  four  years  ago,  how  easy,  selfish,  thoughtless,  careless, 
sometimes  mean  and  sordid,  we  were,  but  now  men  do  every  day  deeds  that 
equal  or  surpass  the  most  splendid  achievements  of  the  heroes  of  old  which 
our  textbooks  praise.  The  divinest  figure  of  the  past  suffered  and  gave 
His  life  freely  for  others  (''  Greater  love  hath  no  man  than  this  that  he  lay 
down  his  life  for  his  friends"),  but  hundreds  of  thousands  are  dying  for  just 
that  end  in  their  way  today. 

We  have  praised  unity  and  fraternity,  but  our  people  are  still  a  con- 
geries of  a  score  of  nationalities  which  had  known  little  of  the  melting-pot. 
But  now  the  masses  and  classes,  capital  and  labor,  regardless  of  color,  are 
being  bound  together  in  camp  and  trench  by  the  strongest  of  all  human  ties, 
that  of  brotherhood  in  arms,  so  that  the  nation  is  now  achieving  a  new  and 
higher  unity.  What  is  more  and  even  better  yet  is  the  comradeship  of  our 
soldiers  with  those  of  our  Allies,  so  that  we  are  now  one  with  the  men  of 
England,  France,  and  Italy  by  ties  that  no  treaty  or  league  of  nations  could 
ever  effect,  for  it  is  the  bond  of  a  common  cause,  a  common  life,  a  common 
enemy,  and  perhaps  a  common  grave.  Neither  we  nor  they  dreamed  that 
these  men  in  the  third  and  golden  decade  of  life,  from  the  farm,  the  factory, 
the  shop,  the  college,  could  become  in  a  year  so  stalwart  of  body  and  of 
such  heroic  mode  of  soul,  and  as  we  realize  what  they  have  become  and 
are  doing  and  that  their  sentiments  and  ideals  will  dominate  this  country 
for  the  next  generation,  we  feel  satisfied  and  proud  as  well  as  safe. 

Oh,  the  splendor  and  glory  of  "  the  day"  that  has  come  to  us  Americans! 
We  have  our  "place  in  the  sun,"  for  it  is  ours  to  save  Europe  and  the  world 
for  democracy.  From  England  we  hear  how  men  have  forgotten  whether 
their  ancestors  came  over  with  William  the  Conqueror,  or  whether  their 
mates  are  rich  or  poor,  educated  or  ignorant;  and  so  here  we  ask  no  longer 
whether  men  descended  from  the  "Mayflower"  Puritans,  the  Cavaliers, 
or  are  Sons  of  the  Revolution,  but  only  whether  they  have  the  one  quality 
that  alone  makes  man  complete — courage,  and  the  temper  that  can  risk  life 
for  something  dearer  than  the  individual  life.  Thus  a  new  order  of  nobility 
and  a  better  natural  grading  of  man  is  at  the  door.  A  French  peasant 
marcht  from  the  south  to  the  north  of  France  and  was  so  imprest  by  the 
beauty  of  the  country  and  the  glory  of  the  cities  of  his  native  land  that  he 
wrote  that  it  would  be  a  high  privilege  if  he  were  counted  worthy  to  die  for 
so  glorious  a  fatherland.  Another  vowed  that  he  would  keep  himself  pure 
and  make  himseK  as  perfect  as  possible  in  body  and  in  soul,  in  order  that  if 
he  were  called  to  make  the  supreme  sacrifice  his  offering  might  be  worthy. 
Of  "soldiers  three"  who  went  over  the  top,  one,  a  Protestant,  was  fatally 
wounded  at  the  barbed  wire  before  the  enemy's  trench  and  called  to  one 


98  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

of  his  colleagues,  a  young  Catholic  priest,  to  creep  out  if  he  could  and 
administer  the  last  sacrament  before  he  died.  The  priest  went  over  the 
hell  strip  and  had  just  extended  the  crucifix  over  his  friend  when  he  too 
was  shot.  The  third  friend,  a  Jewish  Rabbi,  seeing  the  situation,  crept  to 
the  dying  man,  seized  the  crucifix,  and  gave  the  dying  man  absolution,  the 
Jew  absolving  a  Protestant  Christian  by  a  Cathohc  rite,  illustrating  thus  the 
sympathy  of  religions  or  the  unity  of  brotherhood  that  underHes  them  all  in 
the  great  cause.  The  French  have  collected  thousands  of  these  authentic 
incidents,  these  new  acta  sanctorum,  and  on  these  base  their  exhortation 
to  fight  now  and  regenerate  France  later  gloriously,  in  such  a  way  that 
none  of  these  sacrifices  shall  be  in  vain,  for  never  was  there  a  cause  so  well 
worth  suffering  and  dying  for. 

Now  our  every  energy  must  focus  on  winning  the  war,  putting  out  the 
fire  in  this  world-conflagration^  but  as  Chicago,  Baltimore,  San  Francisco, 
and  once  London,  reduced  to  ashes,  had  to  be  rebuilt  afterward,  so  when 
peace  comes  we  shall  have  to  enter  upon  the  long  and  stupendous  task  of 
reconstructing  our  industrial,  economic,  social,  political,  hygienic,  moral, 
and  even  religious  life  and  institutions.  Things  we  have  never  dared  to 
doubt  are  now  open  questions.  It  is  a  new  cosmos  that  is  about  to  be,  and 
it  is  our  tremendous  task  to  use  these  opportunities  and  incentives  in  a 
way  to  make  the  world  enough  better  than  it  was  to  pay  for  all  this  horrible 
sacrifice  and  to  usher  the  rising  generation  into  a  new  kingdom  of  man, 
just  as  at  the  present  moment  we  must  get  all  the  virtues  and  abate  all  the 
evils  of  militarism  and  find  out  not  one  but  many  moral  equivalents  of  war. 
In  this  situation,  which  is  most  of  it  beyond  all  precedent,  what  is  the  chief 
duty  of  every  teacher  in  the  land  ? 

It  is,  in  a  word,  to  utilize  to  its  very  uttermost  and  at  every  possible 
point  the  tremendous  energy  of  interest  and  incidents  to  inundate  our 
educational  system  at  every  grade  and  in  every  topic  with  the  very  purest 
spirit  of  loyalty,  sacrifice,  courage,  and  hardihood,  and  of  national  and  racial 
solidarity  which  has  its  culmination  in  the  metal  of  our  heroes  at  the  front. 
It  is  the  boys  and  girls  now  in  the  schools  that  will  win  or  lose  the  Great  War 
after  the  war.  The  spirit  of  our  boys  over  there  is  itself  a  splendid  epistle, 
known  and  read  of  all  men,  of  what  the  school,  among  other  agencies,  has 
done  for  them.  The  new  method  of  grading  the  merits  of  schools  and  school 
systems  now  is  by  what  they  are  doing  in  all  the  complex  processes  of  food 
production  and  conservation,  and  in  all  other  war  modifications  of  school 
activities,  in  which  our  census  shows  enormous  diversity  of  service  in 
different  states  and  cities.  Some  schools  "and  individual  teachers  have 
shown  something  near  to  pedagogic  genius  in  using  war  interests  in  the 
teaching  of  geography.  Some  teachers  of  history  have  achieved  remarkable 
results  in  turning  on  the  war  zest,  realizing  that  present  happenings  are 
more  significant  for  their  pupils  than  all  the  events  of  the  remote  past. 
Other  schools  start  war  museums,  encourage  war  diaries,  correspondence, 


Sessionsl  SOME  EDUCATIONAL  VALUES  OF  WAR  99 

compositions,  debates,  war  scrapbooks,  and  even  poems.  Germany  an- 
nounces that  her  schoolboys  and  girls  have  written  between  two  and  three 
millions  of  war  poems,  the  best  of  which  are  rewarded  by  prizes  and  printing, 
for  she  recognizes  that  poetry  is  the  vernacular  of  the  heart,  that  the  heart 
makes  disposition  and  is  three-fourths  of  the  soul.  Several  of  our  states  and 
more  cities  have  organized  junior  military  training  in  high  schools,  while 
more  hold  that  all-around  physical  training  is  the  best  foreschool  for  mili- 
tary training.  Others  hold  that  modified  Boy  Scout  activities  are  best  to 
develop  military  qualities  in  the  teens.  The  more  work  the  schools  can 
accompHsh  in  selling  Liberty  bonds.  War  Savings  stamps,  doing  Red  Cross 
work,  singing  and  hearing  the  best  camp  songs,  gathering  posters  and 
slogans,  reading  up  about  the  Kaiser  and  his  six  sons,  who,  if  Germany  wins, 
will  sit  on  six  thrones,  the  more  countless  activities  born  of  the  present 
emergency  the  better.  Concessions  as  to  high  requirements  for  graduation 
and  promotions  in  school  and  college  are  amply  justified  in  the  minds  of  all 
who  realize  the  larger  education  that  comes  when  the  life  of  the  community, 
the  country,  and  the  world  flows  over  into  and  irrigates  the  school  so  that 
it  can  teach  life  as  never  before.  We  must  make  no  concessions  to  the 
narrow  jingoism  that  would  abandon  now  the  study  of  the  German  lan- 
guage and  history.  German  pedagogues,  unique  in  their  hatred  of  every- 
thing English,  agree  that  this  language  and  literature  must  now  be  studied 
as  never  before,  and  the  same  is  true  here,  for  whatever  the  issues  of  the 
war  German  will  be  heeded  as  never  before  for  practical  if  not  for  cultural 
purposes. 

The  war  is  even  more  transforming  colleges  and  universities.  Chem- 
istry gives  special  courses  and  promotes  research  on  explosives  and  gas 
warfare.  Physics  tends  to  focus  on  electricity,  projectiles,  and  the  prin- 
ciples that  underlie  the  mechanism  of  aeroplanes  and  submarines.  Biology 
emphasizes  eugenics  and  hygiene.  Geologists  help  lay  out  trenches. 
History  is  more  military  and  diplomatic  and  has  a  new  interest  in  inter- 
national law.  Sociology  and  economics  are  absorbed  in  the  impending 
reconstructions  of  all  our  industrial  and  social  institutions.  Theology,  law, 
and  most  of  all  medicine  are  more  practical,  for  everywhere  pure  science  is 
yielding  the  saddle  to  applied  science,  while  some  academic  departments 
are  being  neglected,  as  if  the  students  felt  that  they  might  be  condemned 
as  unessential  industries.  We  cannot  check  nor  very  much  direct  these 
trends,  and  they  will  increase  every  month  the  war  lasts.  It  is  simply 
common  sense  to  accept  and  make  the  very  most  and  best  of  thein. 

Finally,  the  future  is  our  Muse.  She  is  now  invested  with  a  promise  and 
potency  unsurpast  in  any  prophetic  age.  "Our  hearts,  our  hopes,  our 
prayers,  our  faith  triumphant  o'er  fears"  are  always  heard.  The  best 
things  have  not  happened  yet,  and  so  all  history  so  far  is  only  the  prelude 
to  the  all  hail  and  hereafter.  In  these  times  it  is  indeed  bliss  to  be  alive, 
to  be  young  heaven.    Old  men  are  seeing  visions  and  young  men  dreaming 


lOO  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

dreams,  because  if  all  this  awful  sacrifice  and  slaughter  are  not  to  be  in 
vain  there  must  emerge  a  new  world  wherein  liberty  and  justice  for  every 
man,  woman,  and  child  will  prevail,  wherein  right  and  not  might  rules,  where 
Kaiserism  in  every  form,  even  that  of  trusts,  monopolies,  profiteering,  and 
the  political  boss,  a  superstate  and  the  superman,  dogma,  autocracy,  and 
militarism  shall  be  done  away  with,  and  the  true  kingdom  of  man's  soul  shall 
be  made  safe  by  defeating  German  militarism  and  kept  safe  on  one  or  another 
of  the  great  plans,  British,  French,  or  perhaps  better  American,  for  a  league 
of  nations. 


THE  WAR  AND  UNIVERSITY  REFORM 

D.  E.  PHILLIPS,  HEAD  OP  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION, 
UNIVERSITY  OF  DENVER,   DENVER,   COLO. 

Outside  of  the  Army  the  most  necessary,  the  most  efficient,  and  the 
most  powerful  organization  in  the  world  is  organized  education.  It  has 
required  this  war  to  arouse  the  nation  to  a  consciousness  of  this  fact.  But 
the  war  has  also  compelled  the  educational  forces  of  the  nation  to  a  realiza- 
tion of  the  pressing  need  of  more  efficient  and  complete  organization  and  of 
cooperation  for  national  efiiciency.  The  war  is  demanding  of  education 
definite,  tangible,  and  practical  results.  The  schools  have  responded  with 
a  fiery  and  passionate  enthusiasm  unexpected  by  the  general  pubhc.  We 
now  have  and  always  will  have  the  second,  if  not  the  first,  place  in  the 
heart  of  the  nation.  However,  the  brightness  of  our  present  success  must 
not  blind  us  to  the  splendid  anticipations  of  the  future. 

This  monstrous  war  has  had,  and  will  have,  many  good  effects  upon  the 
universities  of  our  land.  I  wish  to  call  your  attention  to  some  changes 
that  have  been  produced  by  the  war,  to  some  that  will  become  definite 
reforms,  and  then  to  prophesy  others  that  must  follow  if  the  redemption 
of  our  universities  is  to  be  in  any  wise  comparable  to  the  profound  and 
permanent  changes  in  our  social  and  political  order.  Few  governments 
have  ever  experienst  such  a  fundamental  and  far-reaching  transformation 
in  the  short  space  of  twelve  months  as  the  government  of  the  United 
States  has  now  undergone.  Set  your  face  toward  the  future.  We  shall 
not  return;  we  cannot  return.  Shall  not  the  universities  of  this  land  realize 
that  they  are  called  upon  to  make  corresponding  adjustments?  It  is 
obviously  certain  that  every  institution  that  does  not  adjust  will  be  in 
imminent  danger  of  decay  and  death. 

A  few  months  ago  I  sent  out  letters  to  150  universities.  I  askt  the 
authorities  to  specify  the  changes  and  reforms  that  the  war  has  demanded, 
to  designate  such  as  are  likely  to  be  permanent,  and  to  suggest  any  antici- 
pated reforms.  During  a  transition  period  like  this  it  is  difficult  to  tell 
what  are  and  should  be  only  temporary  changes  and  what  will  strike  deep 
enough  to  be  called  reforms.    But  the  most  moderate  and  cautious  con- 


Sessionsl  THE  WAR  AND  UNIVERSITY  REFORM  lOi 

servatism  cannot  survive  this  superhuman  vigor  and  activity  without 
some  rare  and  striking  modifications.  Is  it  not  the  business  of  higher 
education  to  anticipate  the  future  ? 

Five  universities  have  instituted  special  scientific  research  work.  Two 
coast  institutions  have  naval  training.  Baker  University  and  Lehigh 
University  have  developt  civil  engineering  departments,  and  the  latter  has 
added  shipbuilding.  Bowdoin  and  Tufts  colleges  and  Johns  Hopkins 
University  have  organized  courses  in  navigation.  Eighteen  universities 
have  establisht  military  engineering.  Ten  of  these  are  state  institutions  and 
eight  are  private. 

When  we  remember  that  for  years  a  controversy  has  been  waged  over 
allowing  college  credit  for  bookkeeping,  stenography,  and  t3^ewriting,  it 
is  interesting  to  learn  that  a  dozen  universities,  out  of  those  reporting,  have 
establisht  such  courses,  and  many  others  have  put  increast  emphasis  upoh 
such  work. 

Wireless  telegraphy  has  become  a  vital  part  of  the  work  in  47  of  the  140 
institutions  reporting,  and  signal  service  has  been  establisht  in  40  colleges 
and  universities.  I  must  emphasize  the  fact  that  these  figures  only  repre- 
sent the  changes  and  courses  adopted  since  and  because  of  the  war,  and 
that  only  140  institutions  are  included.  The  results  indicate  only  general 
tendencies. 

Fifty-six  report  that  courses  in  military  conversational  French  have  been 
establisht  and  enthusiastically  supported.  Thirty-five  institutions  have 
establisht  departments  of  home  economics,  and  two-thirds  of  those  reporting 
are  giving  courses  on  food  conservation  for  war  purposes.  Some  thirty 
have  organized  courses  for  the  medical  side  of  Red  Cross  work.  Sixty-four 
report  the  inauguration  of  courses  in  military  science  and  reserve  officers' 
training  corps.     I  quote  from  President  G.  Stanley  Hall: 

Never  was  the  need  of  the  best  university  work  so  great  as  now,  because  at  present 
the  cry  is,  "Put  out  the  fire,"  but  later  we  shall  have  to  rebuild  vast  areas  on  a  new  and 
better  plan;  industry,  society,  religion,  family,  will  all  have  to  be  reconstructed,  like 
Chicago  after  her  great  fire,  and  this  will  test  every  ability.  Of  course  you  have  noted  the 
academic  trend  all  along  the  line  over  to  the  technique  and  away  from  the  pure  cultures, 
from  humanity  to  the  real  stage.  We  are  having  one  of  our  best  thesis  men  working  on 
these  changes.  Every  department  here  is  modified  in  its  spirit  and  in  its  field,  and  it 
would  take  a  long  time  to  tell  you  the  changes  that  the  war  has  wrought  even  in  my  own 
work. 

As  incomplete  and  indefinite  as  this  material  must  of  necessity  be  con- 
cerning changes  and  what  may  become  reforms,  it  is  undisputably  suggestive 
and  stimulating  to  the  would-be  educational  prophet.  The  deepest  and 
most  sacred  thing  behind  all  of  it  is  a  spirit  of  educational  devotion  to  the 
needs  of  our  nation  never  known  among  us  before.  Nearly  every  page 
manifests  wider  and  more  national  views  of  higher  education. 

I  beg  of  you  to  tolerate  the  boldness  of  a  few  suggestions  concerning 
probable  reforms  in  institutions  of  higher  learning.    If  they  never  com^  to 


102  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (General 

pass  you  will  lose  nothing  save  the  few  minutes  I  am  to  speak  concerning 
these  epoch-making  achievements. 

1.  It  is  obviously  certain  and  desirable  that  higher  education  shall 
become  more  nationalized.  This  supreme  crisis  has  demonstrated  the  need 
of  nationalizing  education  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  forms.  This 
nationalization  must  come  from  national  financial  support,  from  national- 
ized aims,  and  from  greater  unified  action.  In  our  higher  institutions, 
departments  and  courses  of  study  have  been  originated  and  developt  in 
the  past  mainly  to  meet  individual  and  local  needs.  It  was  assumed  that 
the  nation  would  establish  such  schools  as  are  needed  to  serve  her  ends.  Do 
we  not  now  realize  that  higher  education  has  been  largely  pursuing  a  kind 
of  detacht  ideal  ? 

2.  The  foregoing  consideration  suggests  certain  definite  lines  of  uni- 
versity reform  for  the  future.  We  must  not,  we  cannot,  escape  becoming 
a  world-wide  commercial  nation.  To  meet  this  demand  in  any  adequate 
way  there  must  be  definite,  practical  courses  in  everything  that  pertains  to 
navigation.  In  order  that  we  may  respond  to  our  country's  needs,  such 
departments  must  be  establisht  in  many  universities.  In  less  than  five 
years  the  oceans  will  be  dotted  with  ships  flying  [the  Stars  and  Stripes. 
May  the  pictures  of  an  inspired  imagination  move  the  educational  world  to 
action  now. 

3.  This  increast  commerce  of  the  world,  especially  with  South  America, 
calls  for  a  decided  emphasis  on,  and  preference  for,  all  the  modern  languages. 
Let  us  bury  the  dead  of  all  kinds  and  move  on. 

4.  Aviation,  wireless,  and  all  kindred  sciences  must  have  a  specific 
place  in  our  universities.  Such  courses  must  not  stop  with  a  slight  familiar- 
ity with  these  sciences.  They  must  aim  definitely  at  national  service  and 
at  practical  air  and  water  navigation. 

5.  As  a  means  of  settling  the  great  problems  of  the  war  and  of  any  suc- 
cessful prevention  of  such  a  world-calamity  in  the  future,  sociology  must 
become  even  more  fundamental  than  it  now  is.  Universal  biological  soci- 
ology founded  on  anthropology,  ethnology,  and  psychology  must  become 
the  common  knowledge  of  the  people.  Only  by  the  development  of  such  a 
sociological  consciousness  will  we  arrive  at  any  reasonable  toleration  of 
different  governments,  religions,  and  customs. 

6.  These  additions  and  extensions,  with  others  that  will  doubtless  come, 
call  for  greater  freedom  and  adaptability  to  individual  needs  in  our  university 
courses.  I  foresee  the  complete  collapse  of  our  time-honored  college 
course. 

7.  There  exists  a  certain  kind  of  criterion  and  university  standardization 
that  must  be  banisht  from  among  us.  It  is  not  necessary  that  every  uni- 
versity should  have  everything  that  every  other  similar  institution  has 
or  be  discredited.    If  national  service  is  to  be  the  chief  aim  of  higher  educa- 


Sessions]  TEE  WAR  AND  UNIVERSITY  REFORM  103 

tion,  then  uniformity  in  university  courses  is  a  ridiculous  misconception. 
Sympathetic  helpfulness  and  cooperation  must  take  the  place  of  narrow- 
minded  criticism. 

8.  We  must  assume  a  different  kind  of  relation  to  foreign  universities, 
especially  in  those  countries  with  which  we  are  otherwise  so  closely  bound. 
The  core  of  any  serious  pro-Germanism  in  this  country  was  mainly  due  to  the 
relation  of  German  science  and  German  universities  to  American  universi- 
ties during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  or  more.  Let  us  now  establish  a 
cooperative  relation  with  the  universities  of  our  Allies.  Let  us  begin  now 
to  forge  thoro  chains  that  shall  bind  us  after  the  common  interests  of  war 
have  disappeared.  This  Association  should  not  adjourn  without  appointing 
a  committee  with  means  and  power  to  formulate  plans  for  future  action. 

9.  If  the  national  government  does  not  establish  a  dozen  or  more  uni- 
versities backt  by  the  most  liberal  appropriations  from  Congress,  then  the 
national  government  should  establish  a  large  number  of  free  liberal  scholar- 
ships in  the  various  institutions  of  higher  learning.  By  such  scholarships 
the  government  might  encourage  and  partly  control  the  organization  and 
distribution  of  departments  aimed  to  serve  more  directly  and  specifically 
national  needs. 

10.  American  universities  must  become  the  centers  of  unlimited  in- 
ventive genius.  To  stimulate  invention  and  scholarship  of  the  highest  type, 
I  am  praying  for  what  seems  to  me  one  of  the  fundamental  needs  of  our 
civilization.  What  this  country  needs  more  than  anything  else  is  an 
endowed  higher  institution  of  learning  where  anyone  can  study  practically 
anything  for  which  there  is  a  reasonable  demand,  without  a  penny's  cost  and 
by  means  of  financial  aid  to  deserving  students  wherever  necessary.  There 
should  be  no  entrance  requirements.  The  only  question  should  be  the 
personal  one — am  I  prepared  to  do  the  work  to  which  I  aspire  ?  Personal 
liberty  would  soon  lead  to  proper  adjustment.  There  should  be  no  course 
of  study  to  complete  and  no  time  limit  or  graduation.  From  this  institu- 
tion no  one  would  ever  graduate.  Students  should  be  permitted  to  work 
as  fast  and  as  long  as  they  desire.  The  student  should  be  told  that  he  can 
go  one  year,  twenty,  or  a  lifetime,  just  as  he  deems  it  most  profitable,  that 
he  has  an  opportunity  to  make  discoveries  of  any  kind,  and  that  such  are 
his  forever.  He  should  understand  that  his  future  life  will  depend,  not 
upon  what  diplomas  and  institutions  are  back  of  him,  but  upon  what  he 
carries  within,  upon  what  he  is  able  to  do. 

It  must  be  a  clear-cut  divergence  from  the  old  system.  Such  a  system 
will  automatically  eliminate  all  persons  without  a  deep  and  abiding  desire 
for  education  and  will  develop  the  most  earnest  set  of  intellectual  workers 
ever  assembled  on  earth.  Pronounce  it  a  dream  if  you  like.  Dreams  more 
fantastic  than  this  have  been  realized.  I  shall  work  for  it  until  I  dream 
my  last  dream. 


I04  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

THE  NEW  AMERICANISM 

FRANKLIN   K.    LANE,    SECRETARY   OF   THE   INTERIOR,   WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

I  have  come  5,000  miles  straightaway  across  the  sea  and  the  continent 
to  be  able  to  talk  to  you  for  a  few  minutes  this  morning. 

The  last  time  I  heard  "America"  sung  was  on  a  Japanese  ship,  coming 
from  the  Hawaiian  Islands  to  San  Francisco,  filled  with  Japanese,  Chinese, 
Koreans,  Filipinos,  Australians,  Indians,  Scotchmen,  Irishmen,  and  a 
sprinkling  of  Americans;  and  all  united  in  singing  it  with  the  same  gusto 
that  you  have  shown.  There  is  only  one  other  song  that  has  today  the 
same  international  significance,  and  that  is  the  "Marseillaise."  "America, 
the  beautiful!"  I  heard  it  sung  last  on  a  bit  of  a  plateau  looking  up  into  a 
wonderful  canyon  on  the  island  of  Oahu  and  down  on  to  the  ocean — that 
ocean  of  so  many  colors  that  Mark  Twain  when  he  visited  the  islands 
described  it  properly  as  a  shipwreckt  rainbow.  And  in  front  of  me  those 
who  sang  it  were  the  representatives  of  all  the  nations  that  line  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  beginning  at  New  Zealand,  Australia,  India,  Siam,  and  the  islands, 
Malay  Peninsula,  China,  the  Philippines,  and  all  around  the  Pacific  until 
we  come  to  the  United  States. 

You  have  not  sung  the  "  Star- Spangled  Banner,"  but  I  must  tell  you  of 
that.  I  traveled  up  to  see  the  volcano  on  the  island  of  Hawaii,  that  place 
of  profoundest  mystery,  a  place  where  within  one  year  there  has  arisen  out 
of  the  bed  of  the  crater  itself  a  mountain,  or  two  mountains,  forst  right  up 
from  the  bottom.  And  traveling  beyond  that,  across  great  lava  flows,  I 
came  out  into  a  coffee  plantation;  and  there  I  was  met  by  a  school  teacher. 
I  must  give  you  her  name  because  I  would  like  to  do  honor  to  her  and  to  all 
who  are  like  her.  Her  first  name  I  do  not  know;  but  everybody  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  calls  her  Ben — Ben  Taylor.  She  had  135  children 
gathered  there  around  the  flag — Japanese,  Koreans,  half-Chinese,  half- 
Hawaiians,  Portuguese,  and  Americans — and  they  all  stood  in  reverence 
before  that  flag  at  salute  and  sang  the  "Star-Spangled  Banner."  Each 
child  then  raised  his  hand  and  swore  an  oath  of  fealty  and  loyalty  to  one 
flag  and  one  country.  Over  the  desk  was  a  blackboard,  and  on  that  black- 
board was  registered  the  fact  that  every  child  in  that  school  owned  a  Thrift 
Stamp.  On  that  blackboard  was  also  registered  this  more  pregnant  fact, 
that  the  school  had  a  school  garden  and  that  85  per  cent  of  the  children 
workt  in  that  school  garden. 

We  who  live  on  the  Atlantic  and  we  who  live  on  the  Pacific  side  of  this 
continent  do  not  have  what  I  would  call  a  Pacific  Ocean  sense.  You  have 
got  to  sail  out  thru  the  Golden  Gate  and  beyond  the  islands  and  far  into  the 
middle  of  that  great  ocean  before  you  realize  that  there  is  a  future  civilization 
there,  a  world  that  is  just  budding,  just  opening  to  the  light.  We  sent 
missionaries  there  100  years  ago — men  and  women  from  New  England  who 
went  to  spread  the  gospel.    They  spread  our  institutions,  our  love  for  the 


Sessions)  ftiS.  NEW  AMERlCANtSM  10$ 

right  things;  and  that  group  of  islands  today  is  one  great  missionary  to  the 
whole  Orient,  for  out  of  those  islands  there  is  being  cast,  as  radium  casts 
its  light,  a  sense  and  a  consciousness  of  what  civilization  means,  and  those 
little  tots  of  three,  five,  ten,  and  fifteen  years  of  age,  of  all  these  nationalities 
that  are  foreign  to  us — those  little  tots  are  being  brought  up,  not  merely 
with  a  deep  adoration  for  our  flag,  but  with  a  real  sense  of  what  that  flag 
means. 

Five  thousand  miles  and  more  beyond  that  there  is  a  land  that  is 
under  the  Stars  and  Stripes,  the  Philippines,  where  10,000  teachers 
are  today  teaching  800,000  Philippine  children  the  English  language 
— and  all  a  united  country.  They  tell  you  wherever  you  may  go 
that  there  are  places — spots — that  are  weak;  spots  where  we  are 
not  united.  I  have  been  thruout  this  country.  There  is  no  such 
spot. 

On  one  of  the  islands  my  car  was  stopt  by  a  group  of  Chinese  and  Hawai- 
ians  and  Japanese  who  were  giving  what  they  call  a  luau  to  the  men  who  were 
going  to  the  front  from  that  island — a  banquet  given  by  those  men,  of  foreign 
blood,  most  of  them,  to  the  soldiers  that  were  going  to  France.  And  I 
went  into  the  banquet,  and  in  that  restaurant,  which  was  a  Japanese 
restaurant,  there  were  the  Food  Administration's  rules,  the  wheatless  day 
and  the  meatless  day.  You  cannot  beat  that  spirit!  It  makes  no  differ- 
ence what  drives  they  make  in  France;  it  makes  no  difference  how  they  may 
march  men  in  solid  phalanx  one  after  another  to  their  death;  it  makes  no 
difference  how  many  great  guns  they  may  have  that  will  shoot  75  miles; 
it  makes  no  difference  how  many  rapid-fire  guns  they  may  have  that  will 
mow  men  down;  it  makes  no  difference  what  gases  they  may  have  to  throw 
out  upon  our  boys  and  suffocate  them;  it  makes  no  difference  what  ships 
may  sail  beneath  the  seas  and  sneak  up  on  hospital  ships  as  they  carry 
nurses  across  the  waters,  you  cannot  beat  the  spirit  of  the  American  people. 
Wars  have  never  been  determined  by  single  battles;  wars  have  never  been 
determined  by  the  thrust  of  the  bayonet  alone;  wars  have  always  been 
determined  by  the  spirit  of  the  people  and  the  sense  of  their  own  righteous 
cause. 

We  have  determined  upon  great  things  in  this  nation;  we  have  deter- 
mined upon  some  things  with  regret.  Some  things  have  been  forst  upon  us. 
We  have  determined,  first  of  all,  that  we  shall  meet  force  with  force,  because 
there  is  but  one  language  that  Germany  understands,  and  that  comes  out 
of  the  mouth  of  the  big  gun;  and  that  language  we  will  speak  until  we  see  a 
Germany  that  is  repentant. 

We  have  determined,  too,  that  no  matter  how  great  the  need,  there  shall 
be  no  limit  set  to  the  number  of  men  that  we  will  send,  of  the  number  of 
aeroplanes  or  the  number  of  guns.  We  will  put  every  boy  and  every 
factory  and  every  dollar  and  every  hand  at  the  service  of  Christian 
civilization. 


io6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

We  know  why  we  are  in  this  war.  It  is  not  for  glory;  it  is  not  that  we 
may  write  a  great  page  in  the  martial  history  of  this  world;  it  is  not  for 
any  addition  to  our  territory;  it  is  not  out  of  pride  because  Germany  so 
long  and  so  indecently  flouted  us  and  jeered  at  us.  Ultimately,  when  you 
come  down  to  ask  the  real  reason,  you  know  that  this  is  the  reason:  That 
there  is  such  a  thing  as  Christian  civilization,  and  that  means  that  while 
force  is  in  the  world  and  while  there  must  be  an  appeal  to  force,  civilization 
means  that  physical  force  shall  be  limited  by  moral  force.  The  rule  of  the 
Stone  Age  and  the  principles  of  the  Stone  Age  do  not  govern  us.  Man's 
mind  has  developt;  man  has  learned  how  to  organize;  man  has  mastered 
the  forces  of  nature.  Within  our  lifetime  man  has  at  last  learned  how  to 
conquer  the  air  itself.  We  are  learning  how  to  master  this  world,  but  we 
have  evolved  something  more  than  physical  or  mental  greatness;  we  have 
evolved  a  moral  and  spiritual  nature,  and  those  natures  have  arisen  in  this 
world  to  master  and  put  a  limit  upon  and  make  impossible  the  ascendancy 
of  the  Stone  Age  instinct. 

And  now  let  me  ask  you  to  make  some  new  determinations,  not  merely 
that  we  shall  prosecute  this  war  to  a  finish  and  to  a  glorious  end,  but  that 
you  shall  make  this  war  of  use  to  America.  It  will  be  loss  enough,  but  it  is 
a  great  challenge — a  supreme  challenge.  Let  me  ask  you  to  make  these 
determinations  if  you  will:  That  we  shall  teach  the  American  what  Ameri- 
canism is,  and  that  we  shall  teach  the  American  what  Americanism  is  not. 
And  the  burden  of  doing  that  must  fall  largely  upon  the  teachers  whom  you 
represent.  What  god  do  you  serve?  Under  what  flag  do  you  march? 
What  is  this  Americanism?  It  is  not  internationahsm;  it  is  the  most 
intense  nationalism,  because  thru  this  nation  mankind  is  to  be  served.  It 
is  a  consciousness  thru  our  whole  being  that  things  can  be  achieved  by 
work  and  by  will  and  that  is  the  lesson  that  you  are  to  carry — that 
you  are  carrying,  that  you  are  preaching  every  day  to  the  children  of 
America. 

And  how  can  you  do  it  ?  You  can  do  it  by  teaching  American  history  in 
the  American  tongue,  by  giving  American  standards,  by  letting  American 
boys  and  girls  know  that  the  history  of  the  United  States  is  not  a  mere  series 
of  fugitive  incidents,  remote,  separated,  unrelated,  but  is  a  philosophy 
going  thru  the  history  of  one  hundred  and  forty  years;  by  teaching  them 
that  those  men  in  America  are  noble  who  contribute  to  the  elevation  of 
American  ideals,  and  that  those  men  are  ignoble  who  do  not  add  to  the 
march  of  this  philosophy  of  mankind. 

Americanism  must  be  to  us  a  political  religion.  Religion  is  a  conscious- 
ness that  there  is  something  better  than  yourself  toward  which  you  are 
striving.  That  man  is  religious  who  beheves  or  who  knows  that  he  stands 
in  the  compelling  presence  of  an  ideal,  and  an  ideal  is  always  something  that 
you  are  not,  but  that  you  hope  to  be.  Christ  is  the  representative  of  our 
religion.    We  see  him  on  the  cross,  and  to  us  he  represents  sympathy — 


Sessions]  THE  NEW  AMERICANISM  107 

sympathy  for  man's  suffering,  sympathy  for  the  torture  thru  which  men 
move  in  order  to  work  their  way  up  the  Jacob's  ladder  to  heaven. 


I* 

■  hi 


For  what  are  we  but  creatures  of  the  night  led  forth  by  day. 
Who  needs  must  falter  and  with  stammering  steps 
Spell  out  our  paths  in  syllables  of  pain  ? 


Christ  is  representative  of  suffering  and  of  sympathy,  and  we  look  to 
himj  no  matter  what  our  creed  may  be,  no  matter  what  dogmatic  faith  we 
may  have;  and  if  we  get  into  ourselves  the  love  of  those  things  he  repre- 
sents, we  are  Christians.  So  too  let  us  get  within  ourselves  the  conscious- 
ness that  there  is  an  American  ideal,  that  there  is  something  that  is 
represented  by  us  primarily  and  beyond  all  other  people;  for  here  in  this 
land  there  was  given  first  expression  to  liberty  and  justice,  and  justice  thru 
liberty,  by  which  men  rise;  not  disorder,  laziness,  and  wilfulness,  because 
thru  these  men  fall.  Let  us  exalt  the  virtues  that  we  know  Americans 
have  in  their  hearts,  and  then  we  shall  be  true  Americans,  no  matter  upon 
what  soil  we  are  born,  nor  how  we  may  have  been  brought  up. 

We  have  come  upon  a  new  day  in  the  United  States — a  great  day.  War 
may  not  be  necessary;  certain  things  that  develop  out  of  war  are  necessary; 
and  if  we  could  not  get  them  in  any  other  way,  war  would  be  worth  while; 
but  I  know  that  we  can  get  them  in  other  ways.  We  need  moral,  physical 
courage,  coordination,  discipline,  a  sense  of  something  bigger  than  ourselves 
toward  which  we  look.  There  is  a  big  man  and  a  little  man  in  every  one 
of  us;  and  this  day  is  great  because  the  big  man  has  come  out.  I  want  that 
to  stick. 

We  have  come  upon  a  new  day,  a  day  in  which  we  appreciate  the  man 
who  fights  for  us,  a  day  in  which  we  appreciate  the  mind  that  leads  us,  a 
day  in  which  we  .have  sympathy  for  mankind  and  an  understanding  of  its 
needs.  We  have  walkt  out  of  the  plain  and  come  up  upon  a  high  point, 
and  now  we  are  surveying  the  world  with  great  curiosity  and  are  wondering 
to  ourselves  what  is  this  thing  that  causes  Canada,  with  a  population  of 
only  7,000,000  people,  to  put  500,000  of  her  boys  across  the  water.  There 
must  be  something  great  in  that,  something  splendid  and  noble,  that  will 
cause  such  a  sacrifice.  What  is  it  that  has  made  Russia  revolt — Russia, 
the  greatest  disappointment  of  all  the  war  to  us,  so  hopeless  and  chaotic  ? 
And  yet  it  is  not  in  our  hearts  to  feel  that  the  seed  sown  there  will  die. 
She  will  come  back,  and  good  sense  will  master.  Do  you  know  the  trouble 
with  Russia  ?  Russia  started  right,  but  Russia  had  no  George  Washington, 
no  Jefferson,  no  Franklin,  no  Alexander  Hamilton,  and  she  had  no  people 
who  had  been  trained  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  or  more  years  in  local  self- 
government;  and  she  had  been  submarined,  torpedoed,  for  years  and  years 
by  propaganda,  by  people  who  were  dreamers,  who  were  visionaries,  who 
thought  that  the  world  could  be  turned  upside  down  in  a  day  and  that  men 
could  be  made  anew. 


lo8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

But  Russia  has  180,000,000  people,  80  per  cent  of  whom  cannot  read 
nor  write;  and  as  soon  as  they  have  a  pubHc-school  system,  as  soon  as  they 
have  teachers  who  teach  them  what  order  is  and  how  slowly  men  must 
grow,  Russia  will  become  a  great  power  in  the  world  again.  Russia  is  made 
of  people  who  are  young,  and  the  young  have  to  grow,  and  with  them  we 
must  be  tender,  and  for  them  we  must  be  sympathetic.  I  beHeve  in  Russia 
because  I  believe  that  it  is  impossible  that  a  people  so  young  should  die  so 
quickly,  because  I  believe  that  you  cannot — and  the  Kaiser  cannot — step 
upon  Russia  as  he  would  step  upon  a  spider  and  put  it  out,  because  the 
human  soul  is  not  to  be  extinguisht  that  way. 

Now  we  have  come  up  to  a  new  day,  a  day  in  which  we  want  to  know 
what  Russia  is  to  be,  a  day  in  which  we  want  to  know  what  is  the  matter 
with  China — China,  that  adopted  repubhcan  institutions.  FactionaHsm  is 
her  trouble.  She  does  not  realize  that  the  foundation  of  liberty  is  order,  and 
that  personal  ambition  must  be  subordinated  to  the  welfare  of  the  nation. 
She  has  not  yet  grown  to  have  a  national  sense. 

And  so  as  we  from  this  mountain  top  overlook  the  world  we  see  that  the 
world  is  being  made  anew,  and  we  have  m  our  hands  the  power  to  make  our 
part  of  it  what  we  will.  We  have  in  our  hands  the  power  to  see  that  social 
conditions  shall  not  be  as  they  have  been.  We  have  it  in  our  power  to  see 
that  economic  conditions  shall  not  be  as  they  have  been.  We  have  the 
power  to  see  that  this  world  shall  take  a  great  impetus  from  the  shedding 
of  blood,  just  as  it  took  a  great  impetus  from  the  shedding  of  blood  two 
thousand  years  ago.    And  I  say  now,  as  I  know  the  country  says: 

As  Christ  died  to  make  men  holy, 
Let  us  die  to  keep  men  free, 
God's  truth  is  marching  on! 


TEE  WORLD'S  FOOD  SUPPLY  AND   WOMAN'S  OBLIGATION 

JANE  ADDAMS,   HULL-HOUSE,   CHICAGO,   ILL. 

During  the  last  three  years  every  sympathetic  man  and  woman  in  the 
United  States  has  been  at  times  horribly  opprest  with  the  consciousness 
that  widespread  famine  has  once  more  returned  to  the  world.  At  moments 
there  seemed  to  be  no  spot  upon  which  to  rest  one's  mind  with  a  sense  of 
well-being. 

One  recalled  Servia,  where  three-fourths  of  a  million  people,  out  of  the 
total  population  of  three  million,  had  perisht  miserably  of  typhus  and  other 
diseases  superinduced  by  long-continued  privations;  Armenia,  where,  in 
spite  of  her  heart-breaking  history,  famine  and  pestilence  have  never  stalkt 
so  uncheckt;  Palestine,  where  the  old  horrors  of  the  Siege  of  Jerusalem,  as 
described  by  Josephus,  have  been  revived;  and  perhaps  the  crowning  hor- 
ror of  all,  the  ''Way  of  the  Cross" — so  called  by  the  Russians  because  it 


Sessions]  THE  WORLD'S  FOOD  SUPPLY  AND  WOMAN  109 

is  easily  traced  by  the  continuous  crosses  raised  over  the  hastily  dug  graves — 
beginning  with  the  Galician  thorofares  and  stretching  south  and  east  for 
fourteen  hundred  miles,  upon  which  a  distracted  peasantry  ran  breathlessly 
until  stopt  by  the  Caspian  Sea,  or  crost  the  Ural  Mountains  into  Asia  only  to 
come  back  again  because  there  was  no  food  there. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  many  Americans  experienst  a  great  sense  of 
relief,  therefore,  when  Congress  finally  estabUsht  a  Department  of  Food 
Administration  for  the  United  States,  and  when  Mr.  Hoover,  who  had  spent 
two  and  a  half  years  in  Europe  in  intimate  contact  with  the  backwash  of 
war,  made  his  first  appeal  to  his  fellow-countrymen  in  the  name  of  the  food 
shortage  of  the  entire  world,  insisting  that  "the  situation  is  more  than  war, 
it  is  a  problem  of  humanity."  We  were  reheved  to  know  that  there  was 
something  we  could  actually  do  about  it,  and  we  received  the  instructions 
for  our  inteUigent  action  and  guidance  with  genuine  gratitude.  I  firmly 
beheve  that  thousands  of  people  are  striving  every  day  to  carry  out  those 
instructions  in  a  spirit  of  humiHty,  and  cherish  the  hope  that  their  efforts 
may  prove  to  be  of  genuine  human  service. 

Mr.  Hoover  tells  us  that  the  food  of  the  helpless  Belgians  has  now 
become  entirely  dependent  upon  the  exertions  of  the  American  farmer,  and 
thru  the  destruction  of  men  and  ships  one  hundred  million  more  men, 
women,  and  children  have  come  to  depend  largely  for  their  daily  bread 
upon  what  can  be  sent  from  America — upon  what  the  farmer  may  produce 
and  what  the  women  may  save. 

The  last  harvest  in  France  was  less  than  40  per  cent  of  her  pre-war 
harvests  and  is  less  than  one-fourth  of  what  she  needs  to  feed  her  own 
people.  France  has  had  the  heaviest  burden  of  wounded,  sick,  and  crippled 
men  and  in  addition  one-thirtieth  of  her  population  are  refugees  from  the 
war  zone,  their  homes  having  been  destroyed  and  their  fields  devastated. . 

Some  parts  of  Italy  are  never  able  to  produce  enough  food  for  all  the 
population,  even  in  normal  times,  which  largely  accounts  for  the  enormous 
emigration  every  year  to  South  America  and  to  the  United  States.  There 
has  been  Httle  emigration  since  the  war  began,  and  the  shortage  of  food  in 
the  southern  provinces  is  heartbreaking.  In  addition  they  are  caring  for 
the  half-miUion  refugees  driven  southward  by  the  Austrian  drive  in  October, 
191 7,  thirty  million  of  whom  are  found  as  far  south  as  Sicily,  again  super- 
imposed upon  the  normal  population. 

In  Roumania  there  has  been  an  increase  of  50  per  cent  of  population 
on  the  one-third  of  the  land  that  is  left  to  them,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
crops  there  have  decreast  50  per  cent.  The  suffering  has  been  incredible. 
Wounded  soldiers  in  the  very  hospitals  have  died  of  starvation  and  have 
had  their  feet,  frozen  in  the  hospital  beds. 

Altho  Russia  is  the  land  of  modem  famines,  she  has  never  experienst 
such  loss  of  life  as  this  great  war  has  brought  her.  Eight  millions  of  her 
people  have  actually  perisht,  and  the  myriad  soldiers  in  the  Russian  army, 


no  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  iGenerat 

never  adequately  equipt  with  munitions,  food,  and  clothing,  have  been 
reduced  to  the  last  extremity.  In  addition  Russia  is  suffering  from  a  com- 
plete disorganization  of  her  transportation  facilities,  so  that  whatever  grain 
there  may  be  in  the  south  cannot  possibly  be  shipt  to  Petrograd  or  Finland. 
There  is  something  very  touching  in  the  belief  revealed  from  time  to  time 
that  if  the  situation  could  but  be  clearly  stated  in  America  food  would 
at  once  be  sent. 

We  all  know  that  practically  every  nation  in  Europe  is  living  on  rations 
and  is  destined  to  suffer  privation  for  a  long  time.  Our  best  efforts  will 
no  more  than  reheve  them.  The  question  is.  Can  we,  the  United  States, 
produce  enough  for  ourselves  and  enough  more  to  make  up  the  most  bitter 
deficiencies  ? 

If  we  ask  what  has  been  done  before  when  there  seemed  to  be  too  little 
food  in  the  world  we  shall  find  that  the  deficiency  has  always  been  corrected 
by  the  apphcation  of  human  intelligence  and  human  labor  to  the  soil.  The 
one  thousand  acres  nearest  to  Paris  are  so  carefully  cultivated  that  if  the 
population  of  France  should  be  doubled  it  could  still  be  fed  entirely  from 
its  own  soil  if  it  were  all  thus  skilfully  tilled. 

In  response  to  the  demands  made  in  the  United  States  last  spring  two 
million  back-yard  and  vacant-lot  gardens  were  establisht  in  1917;  and  the 
first  war  crop  of  potatoes  was  452  million  bushels — an  increase  of  one 
hundred  million  bushels  over  the  previous  year.  Since  the  war  began 
England  has  given  over  a  million  and  a  half  acres  of  hitherto  idle  land  to 
the  production  of  wheat  and  potatoes,  and  three  hundred  thousand  women 
of  the  leisure  class  have  gone  into  agricultural  work. 

Of  the  eight  million  women  engaged  in  gainful  occupations  in  the  United 
States  less  than  two  million  are  in  agriculture.  It  is  estimated  that  at  least 
three  hundred  thousand  more  must  take  the  places  of  the  two  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  men  already  drafted  from  the  farms,  just  as  a  million  women 
are  quickly  taking  the  places  of  the  miUion  men  drafted  from  various 
industrial  occupations. 

Food,  above.every  other  production  in  the  world,  responds  to  individual 
attention.  It  is  greatly  benefited  by  b«ing  treated  in  small  quantities,  and 
quickly  indicates  the  skill  of  the  caretaker.  It  is  quite  possible  that  a  more 
intensive  method  of  American  farming  would  actually  produce  more  food; 
that  we  need  ''integration  of  function,"  as  the  economists  say. 

Equally  important  with  increast  production  is  the  necessity  of  saving 
food  if  we  would  "increase  our  exports  to  our  Allies  to  a  point  which  will 
enable  them  to  feed  their  own  people."  The  women  responsible  for  twenty- 
two  millions  of  kitchens  of  the  nation  are  askt  to  give  up  certain  old  habits, 
to  modify  accustomed  ways,  to  make  a  technical  study  of  resources  at  hand 
and  oi  what  a  family  may  conscientiously  use.  They  are  also  urged  to 
evoke  the  interest  of  their  households  and  a  sense  of  participation  in  a 
patriotic  undertaking.    The  effort  centers  about  three  general  propositions. 


Sessions)  THE  WORLD'S  FOOD  SUPPLY  AND  WOMAN  in 

First,  eKmination  of  waste,  which  we  have  all  learned  from  our  mothers 
and  grandmothers,  altho  we  too  often  forget  to  apply  it.  Second,  an  actual 
reduction  of  consumption.  Perhaps  this  can  best  be  illustrated  from  sugar. 
Third,  the  substitution  of  foods  which  cannot  be  readily  shipt  for  those 
which  ship  to  the  greatest  advantage — corn  for  wheat,  poultry  and  fish  for 
drest  meats,  and  the  others  with  which  you  are  all  so  familiar. 

There  are  other  things  which  women  are  doing  in  addition  to  careful 
administration  of  their  kitchens.  Food  conservation  may  mean  many 
things,  as  has  recently  been  pointed  out  in  a  circular  issued  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Educational  Propaganda  of  the  Woman's  Committee  of  the  Council 
of  National  Defense.  It  may  mean  direct  purchasing  thru  the  parcel  post, 
municipal  markets,  cooperative  delivery,  just  as  the  new  agricultural  move- 
ment in  North  Dakota  and  elsewhere  includes  road-making,  storage,  trans- 
portation, cooperative  distribution,  and  many  other  things. 

From  the  time  we  were  little  children  we  have  all  of  us,  at  moments 
at  least,  cherisht  overwhelming  desires  to  be  of  use  in  the  great  world,  to 
play  a  conscious  part  in  its  progress.  The  difficulty  has  always  been  in 
attaching  our  vague  purposes  to  the  routine  of  our  daily  living,  in  making 
a  synthesis  between  our  ambitions  to  cure  the  ills  of  the  world  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  need  to  conform  to  household  requirements  on  the  other.  It 
is  a  very  significant  part  of  the  situation,  therefore,  that  at  this  world's  crisis 
the  two  have  become  absolutely  essential  to  each  other.  It  is  no  slight 
undertaking  to  make  this  synthesis,  which  is  probably  the  most  compelling 
challenge  which  has  been  made  upon  women's  constructive  powers  for  cen- 
turies. They  must  exert  all  their  human  affection  and  all  their  clarity  of 
mind  in  order  to  make  the  great  moral  adjustment  which  the  situation 
demands. 

The  various  studies  which  thousands  of  club  women  thruout  the  coun- 
try have  been  carrying  on  for  so  many  years  in  their  effort  better  to  com- 
prehend the  world  in  which  we  live,  will  bring  to  their  aid  at  this  time  of 
crisis  an  understanding  of  woman's  traditional  relation  to  food,  of  her  old 
obligation  to  nurture  the  world.  We  may  be  able  thus  to  lift  the  challenge 
of  the  present  moment  into  its  historic  setting. 

Back  of  history  itself  are  innumerable  myths  dealing  with  the  Spirits 
of  the  Corn,  who  are  always  feminine  and  are  usually  represented  by  a 
Corn  Mother  and  her  daughter,  vaguely  corresponding  to  the  Greek 
Demeter,  the  always-fostering  Earth  and  her  child  Persephone,  the  chan- 
ging seasons.  It  is  said  that  relics  of  the  Corn  Mother  and  the  Corn  Maiden 
are  found  in  nearly  all  the  harvest  fields  of  the  world,  with  very  curious  old 
customs. 

Perhaps  those  club  women  who  have  cared  most  for  history  and  the 
study  of  early  social  customs  will  be  the  first  to  realize  that  these  myths 
centering  about  the  Corn  Mother  but  dimly  foreshadowed  what  careful 
scientific  researches  have  later  verified  and  developt.     Students  of  primitive 


112  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

society  believe  that  women  were  the  first  agriculturists  and  were  for  a  long 
time  the  only  inventors  and  developers  of  its  processes.  The  men  of  the 
tribe  did  little  for  cultivating  the  soil  beyond  clearing  the  space  and  some- 
times surrounding  it  by  a  rough  protection. 

Those  club  women  who  have  persistently  kept  up  a  study  class  in  such 
stiff  subjects  as  comparative  religions  and  philosophy  know  how  often  a 
widespread  myth  has  its  counterpart  in  the  world  of  morals.  This  was  cer- 
tainly true  of  the  belief  in  the  "fostering  mother."  Students  in  the  origin 
of  social  customs  contend  that  the  gradual  change  from  the  wasteful  manner 
of  nomadic  life  to  a  settled  and  much  more  economic  mode  of  existence 
may  be  fairly  attributed  to  these  primitive  agricultural  women.  The  desire 
to  grow  food  for  her  children  led  to  a  fixt  abode  and  a  real  home  from  which 
our  domestic  morality  and  customs  are  supposed  to  have  originated. 

In  these  dark  years,  so  destructive  of  the  old  codes,  the  nations,  forst 
back  to  their  tribal  function  of  producing  and  conserving  food,  are  develop- 
ing a  new  concern  for  the  feeding  of  their  peoples.  All  food  supplies  have 
long  been  collected  and  distributed  thru  the  utilization  of  the  commercial 
motive.  At  the  present  moment,  however,  just  as  the  British  government 
has  undertaken  the  responsibility  of  providing  the  British  Isles  with 
imported  food,  so  other  belligerent  and  neutral  nations  have  been  obliged 
to  pursue  the  same  course  in  order  to  avert  starvation.  Commercial  com- 
petition has  been  supprest,  not  in  response  to  any  theory,  but  because  it 
cannot  be  trusted  to  feed  the  feeble  and  helpless.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
even  after  peace  is  declared  the  results  of  starvation,  arising  from  the 
world's  shortage  of  food,  will  compel  these  governments  to  continue  and  even 
extend  their  purchasing  in  other  lands.  But  such  a  state  of  affairs  will 
itself  indicate  a  new  order — the  substitution  of  the  social-utility  motive  for 
that  of  commercial  gain.  In  international  affairs  the  nations  have  still 
dealt  almost  exclusively  with  political  and  commercial  affairs  considered  as 
matters  of  "rights";  consequently  they  have  never  been  humanized  in  their 
relations  to  each  other  as  they  have  been  in  their  internal  affairs. 

It  is  quite  understandable  that  there  was  no  place  for  woman  and  her 
possible  contribution  in  these  international  relationships;  they  were  indeed 
not  "  woman's  sphere."  But  is  it  not  quite  possible  that,  as  women  entered 
into  city  politics  when  clean  milk  and  sanitary  housing  became  matters  for 
municipal  legislation,  as  they  consulted  state  ofl&cials  when  the  premature 
labor  of  children  and  the  tuberculosis  death-rate  became  factors  in  a  polit- 
ical campaign,  so  they  may  normally  be  concerned  with  international  affairs 
when  these  are  dealing  with  such  human  and  poignant  matters  as  food  for 
the  starving  and  the  rescue  of  women  and  children  from  annihilation  ? 

The  instinct  to  feed  those  with  whom  we  have  made  alliances  certainly 
bears  an  analogy  to  those  first  interchanges  between  tribe  and  tribe  when  a 
shortage  of  food  became  the  humble  beginning  of  exchange.  At  the  present 
moment  the  allied  nations  are  collecting  and  conserving  a  common  food 


Sessions!  UNITED  STATES  BOYS'  WORKING  RESERVE  113 

supply,  and  each  nation  is  facing  the  necessity  of  making  certain  concessions 
to  the  common  good  that  the  threat  of  famine  for  all  may  be  averted.  A 
new  internationalism  is  being  establisht  day  by  day;  the  making  of  a  more 
reasonable  world-order,  so  cogently  urged  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  is  to  some  extent  already  under  way,  the  war  itself  forming  its  matrix. 
An  Enghsh  economist  has  recently  pointed  out  that  in  Europe  generally  the 
war  has  thus  far  thrown  the  customs  tariffs  fiat.  Are  they  perhaps  dis- 
appearing under  this  onslaught  of  energized  pity  for  world-wide  needs? 
And  is  a  motive  power,  new  in  the  relations  between  nations,  being  evolved 
in  response  to  hunger  and  love,  as  the  earlier  domestic  ethics  had  been  ? 

It  is  possible  that  the  more  sophisticated  questions  of  national  grouping 
and  territorial  control  will  gradually  adjust  themselves  if  the  paramount 
human  question  of  food  for  the  hungry  be  fearlessly  and  drastically  treated 
upon  an  international  basis.  The  League  of  Nations,  destined  to  end  wars, 
upon  which  the  whole  world,  led  by  President  Wilson,  is  fastening  its  hopes, 
may  be  founded,  not  upon  broken  bits  of  international  law,  but  upon  minis- 
trations to  primitive  human  needs.  The  League  would  then  be  organized 
de  facto  as  all  the  really  stable  political  institutions  in  the  world  have  been. 

In  this  great  undertaking  women  may  bear  a  vaHant  part  if  they  but 
stretch  their  minds  to  comprehend  what  it  means  in  this  world-crisis  to 
produce  food  more  abundantly  and  to  conserve  it  with  wisdom. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  BOYS'  WORKING  RESERVE 

W.  WELLS,  ASSOCIATE  I^ATIONAL  DIRECTOR,  UNITED  STATES  BOYS'  WORK- 
ING  RESERVE    OE    THE    UNITED    STATES    EMPLOYMENT    SERVICE    OF 
THE  DEPARTMENT  OF   LABOR,   WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

Will  everyone  in  this  audience  be  good  enough  to  take  pencil  and  paper 
and  to  write  down  these  words:  United  States  Boys'  Working  Reserve, 
Employment  Service,  Department  of  Labor,  Washington,  D.C.  When 
you  reach  your  homes  please  be  good  enough  to  transfer  these  words  to  a 
stampt  envelope,  inclose  your  name  and  address  within  the  envelope,  and 
mail  it.  The  national  office  of  the  Reserve  will  immediately  respond  by 
sending  you  information  concerning  the  United  States  Boys'  Working 
Reserve  and  will  tell  you  of  what  vital  importance  both  to  itself  and  to  you 
your  hearty  cooperation  with  the  Reserve  must  necessarily  prove  to  be. 

The  United  States  Boys'  Working  Reserve  is  the  one  organization 
establisht  by  the  federal  government  for  the  mobilization  of  boys  sixteen 
years  of  age  and  over,  and  under  twenty-one  years  of  age,  for  work,  chiefly 
in  food  production,  but  also  in  the  shops  that  are  manufacturing  war- 
essential  material.  It  is  organized  in  three  units:  the  Agricultural  Unit, 
by  far  the  most  important  of  the  three;  the  Industrial  Unit;  and  the  Voca- 
tional Unit. 


114  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  IGeneral 

Its  program  is  very  simple  and  involves  the  schools  and  their  coopera- 
tion at  every  step  of  the  way.  It  goes  directly  and  first  of  all  to  the  high 
schools  of  the  country.  As  you  well  know,  there  are  in  the  high  schools  of 
the  United  States  approximately  500,000  boys  who  are  sixteen  years  of  age 
and  over.  In  every  school  it  appoints  an  enrolling  officer,  whose  business 
it  is  to  bring  to  the  attention  of  every  boy  of  Reserve  age  in  that  particular 
school  the  claims  of  the  Reserve  upon  his  services,  and  the  actual  enrolment 
of  boys  into  the  Reserve. 

The  second  item  in  its  program  is  to  train  the  boys  enrolled.  Various 
state  divisions  of  the  Reserve  have  issued  special  pamphlets  upon  the  ele- 
ments of  farm  practice  and  have,  thru  cooperation  with  school  authority, 
introduced  them  into  the  school  curriculum.  These  courses  in  school  have 
been  supplemented  by  demonstration  work  upon  farms  in  the  neighborhood 
of  high  schools  and  have  been  undertaken  chiefly  upon  Saturdays,  morning 
or  afternoon,  or  both. 

The  third  item  in  its  program  is  the  inspection  of  working-places — of 
shops  and  of  farms — in  order  that  the  living  and  working  conditions  of 
boys  employed  shall  conform  to  a  sufficient  and  decent  standard  set  up  by 
the  Reserve. 

The  fourth  item  in  its  program  is  the  supervision  of  boys  enrolled  and 
at  work. 

Manifestly  the  schools  are  a  vital  factor  in  the  success  of  the  Reserve, 
first  to  enrol,  next  to  train,  and  last  to  supervise  the  boys  employed. 

Hitherto  in  our  work  the  schools  have  been  of  vital  necessity  to  our 
progress.  The  happy  time  has  come  when  the  United  States  Boys'  Working 
Reserve  is  now  a  vital  necessity  to  the  efficiency  of  the  schools.  Official 
figures  that  report  school  mortality  incident  to  the  war  are  sporadic  and 
not  wholly  satisfactory.  Massachusetts  reports  for  the  two-year  period 
just  past  an  actual  decrease  in  her  school  enrolment  of  4  per  cent.  As  her 
expected  increase  in  enrolment  is  7  per  cent,  there  has  been,  it  would  seem, 
a  decrease  of  18  per  cent  in  the  enrolment  that  she  had  a  right  to  expect  for 
the  two-year  period.  New  Jersey  reports  a  like  decrease,  upon  the  same 
basis  of  reckoning,  of  iij  per  cent.  Statistics  gathered  from  some  of  the 
great  schools  of  populous  centers  like  Newark,  N.J.,  and  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
show  a  decrease  of  approximately  30  per  cent  from  the  normal  expected 
enrolment.  For  those  boys  who  have  already  left  school  and  have  gone  to 
work  there  must  be  provided  some  kind  of  training  that  will  continue  their 
preparation  for  manhood  and  citizenship.  The  Department  of  Labor, 
through  the  United  States  Boys'  Working  Reserve,  proposes  to  place  into 
every  one  of  its  employment  offices  of  the  Employment  Service,  a  representa- 
tive of  the  United  States  Boys'  Working  Reserve  to  whom  all  applicants  of 
Reserve  age  shall  be  referred  for  disposition.  Thru  the  Reserve  representa- 
tives in  the  various  employment  offices  reference  of  boys  who  apply  at  the 
office  can  be  made  to  those  school  men  and  school  forces  who  will  undertake 


Sessions!  WAR-MODIFIED  EDUCATION,  TEACHERS,  SCHOOLS  115 

their  continued  instruction.  As  regards  other  thousands  of  boys  who  have 
been  attending  school  up  to  the  current  month  and  are  now  about  to  enter 
industry,  the  employment  offices,  thru  Reserve  representatives,  will  be 
enabled  to  control  in  a  measure  the  drift  from  school  to  shop  and  mill  and 
will  be  instrumental  in  turning  large  numbers  of  boys  back  to  their  schools 
where  they  should  rightly  be. 


WAR-MODIFIED  EDUCATION,  THE  TEACHERS,  AND  THE 

SCHOOLS 

WALTER  R.   SIDERS,   SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  POCATELLO,  IDAHO 

The  school  is  an  institution  establisht  by  the  state  for  the  purpose  of 
training  its  people  to  the  standards  of  its  citizenship.  If  the  state  were 
static  the  school  could  become  a  perfected  institution  with  its  procedure 
exactly  determined  and  its  purposes  perfectly  defined.  Because  the  social 
elements  of  a  state  are  ever  substituting  new  ideals  for  old,  because  of  the 
pressure  of  events,  natural  and  man-made,  within  and  without  the  state,  a 
nation  is  a  progression,  and  like  the  kaleidoscope  ever  presents  a  new  com- 
bination of  its  elements.  Since  the  school  is  but  a  phase  of  this  social 
movement,  it  must  recognize  its  obligations  to  keep  abreast  with  national 
changes;  it  must  so  change  and  adapt  itself  as  to  meet  the  new  ends 
demanded. 

Our  duty  is  to  study  conditions  as  they  exist  in  the  state.  Unquestion- 
ably our  schools  face  a  crisis.  We  are  confronted  with  the  solution  of  many 
new  problems,  among  which  may  be  enumerated: 

1.  The  threatened  shortage  of  teachers — how  to  increase  the  supply 
and  how  to  retain  those  in  service. 

2.  The  equalization  of  educational  opportunity  to  all  the  children 
of  the  nation,  rural  as  well  as  urban,  poor  as  well  as  rich.  For  the  future 
depends  upon  what  these  citizens  shall  be. 

3.  The  preservation  of  health  and  the  conservation  of  national  vitality. 
As  a  corollary,  the  study  of  recreation  to  the  end  that  it  may  become  a  wise 
use  of  leisure  time. 

4.  The  Americanization  of  our  foreign  element.  We  have  recruited 
regiments  demanding  interpreters  dealing  with  six  different  languages. 

5.  The  education  of  the  ilHterate,  of  whom  we  have  five  and  one-half 
millions,  or  a  ratio  of  one  in  every  twenty. 

6.  The  continuation  of  educational  opportunity  to  adults  who  have  not 
had  the  opportunity  or  the  desire  for  education  in  their  youth,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  new  types  of  education  not  afforded  in  their  past. 

7.  The  provision  for  vocational  training,  to  the  end  that  all  may  be 
economically  independent,  not  alone  for  their  own  well-being,  but  that  they 
may  not  become  a  burden  to  the  rest  of  the  people. 

8.  Training  for  patriotism  and  citizenship. 


ii6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

The  new  era  causes  us  to  look  ahead.  We  are  preparing  for  tomorrow 
as  well  as  for  today.    We  find: 

1.  That  new  vocations  are  opening  up,  demanding  new  training. 

2.  That  our  international  commerce  and  citizenship  will  create  a 
demand  for  the  teaching  of  several  modern  languages. 

3.  Ourselves  thrown  upon  our  own  resources  and  compelled  to  develop 
our  chemistry  and  applied  science  to  the  degree  which  will  answer  our  crisis. 

4.  Ourselves  citizens  of  the  world.  The  new  social  order  and  the  conse- 
quent new  civic  problems  will  open  new  fields  for  study. 

5.  In  short,  that  we  are  confronted  with  an  amazing  perplexity  of 
unsolved  problems  whose  solutions  will  tax  our  best  efforts  and  demand 
untiring  energy. 

I  trust  that  it  is  not  expected  that  this  discussion  will  offer  an  answer 
to  these  problems,  but  that  it  shall  have  discharged  its  duty  if  it  points 
out  a  method  of  solution. 

It  will  be  readily  granted  that  the  first  schools  were  organized  to  meet 
definite  demands  existing  in  the  society  of  their  inception.  From  age  to 
age  new  demands  have  been  recognized  and  incorporated,  but  much  that  was 
obsolete  has  been  retained. 

The  method  proposed  is  this:  Draw. a  parallel  between  the  school  as 
it  is  and  the  school  as  it  would  be  were  the  state  to  create  it  anew  at  the 
present  time.  Let  us  put  out  of  our  minds  for  the  moment  the  school  as 
it  is.  Let  us  forget  that  such  an  institution  exists  or  ever  has  existed. 
Now  if  we  draw  up  an  institution  for  the  purposes  of  citizenship,  what  will 
be  its  ends  and  aims  ?  What  curricula  will  answer  to  these  ends  and  aims  ? 
What  educational  procedure  will  accompUsh  these  desired  results  ? 

With  this  plan  formulated,  let  us  set  it  in  parallel  with  our  present  sys- 
tem, and  proceed  to  analysis,  comparison,  and  substitution,  "proving  all 
things  and  holding  fast  to  that  which  is  good."  No  pretension  is  made 
that  this  method  is  new,  that  it  is  infallible,  or  that  other  methods  will 
not  prove  better.  But  it  is  a  working  scheme  which  any  educator  who  is  a 
student  of  life  can  use. 

Teachers  must  throw  themselves  into  the  current  of  national  and  local 
life.  We  live  too  much  unto  ourselves.  A  larger  understanding  is  needed. 
Appreciation  will  come  from  an  enlarged  outlook,  which  outlook  will  enable 
us  to  serve  our  schools  more  effectually  and  to  bring  the  people  to  a  realiza- 
tion that  the  teacher  is  worthy  of  a  reward  as  adequate,  and  of  a  social 
recognition  as  desirable,  as  that  of  any  other  profession.  Teachers  who 
are  unwilling  to  read  the  signs  of  the  times  may  expect  to  read  the  hand- 
writing on  the  wall. 

Let  us  leave  our  academic  aloofness.  Let  us  be  not  only  in  the  world, 
but  of  it.  Thus  will  we  come  to  understand  the  new  order  and  become 
the  apostles  of  the  new  era,  fulfilling  the  purposes  which  the  nation  expects 
of  us.    Thus  may  we  play  our  part  in  the  discovery  of  the  new  America. 


Sessions)  WAR-MODIFIED  EDUCATION  AND  ILLITERACY  117 

There  are  those  who  pretend  to  despise  the  statement  that  coming  events 
cast  their  shadows  before.  Thoughtful  men  have  long  seen  this  present 
world-struggle.  As  long  as  there  was  room  in  this  world  for  men  to  flee 
from  a  distasteful  social  system — from  poUtical,  rehgious,  and  economic 
conditions  not  suitable  to  working  out  the  destinies  desired  and  to  develop- 
ing the  peculiar  genius  of  those  protesting  against  things  as  they  were — that 
long  could  conflict  be  avoided.  Our  prophetic  ones  saw  the  time  when  the 
world  would  be  settled  up,  when  the  world  must  settle  down,  when  men  of 
diametric  ideas  must  face  instead  of  fleeing  from  each  other,  when  the 
struggle  would  come  to  determine  which  system  of  social  order  would 
endure.  We  may  take  this  as  an  example  of  how  we  must  study  our  social 
forces  to  adapt  our  education  to  meet  succeeding  events. 

Many  organizations  are  at  this  time  using  the  schools  as  agencies 
— for  governmental  war  work  and  as  agencies  for  social  and  civic 
reform.  Eighty-seven  organizations  desiring  to  use  the  schools  have  been 
reported.  We  have  given  and  will  continue  to  give  to  all  governmental 
requests  the  right  of  way.  Other  requests  we  shall  use  if  they  serve  school 
ends  and  aims.  These  numerous  demands  are  signs  of  the  times.  It  is 
well  to  determine  if  they  represent  a  deep-seated  need  of  the  people  or  the 
momentary  sentiment  of  a  small  group. 

The  government  has  made  so  many  appeals  to  the  people  and  they  have 
responded  so  loyally  that  we  wonder  if  an  appeal  for  teachers  as  a  patriotic 
duty  would  not  be  heard.  There  are  many  persons  of  education  and  refine- 
ment who  have  the  means  and  the  leisure  to  give  themselves  to  the  work  of  a 
teacher.  Cannot  such  be  brought  into  service  ?  The  teachers  of  America 
never  had  such  an  opportunity  for  service  as  now.  Let  us  take  the  aims  and 
objects  of  our  epoch-making  Commission  on  National  Emergency  to  the 
public,  let  us  seriously  campaign  for  the  accompHshment  of  these  objects. 
Let  us  make  the  splendid  report  of  the  Committee  on  Resolutions  our  plat- 
form and  strive  to  carry  every  one  of  its  planks  over  the  top.  Let  us  enlist 
the  teachers  of  America  in  our  National  Education  Association,  that  we  may 
present  a  united  front  in  our  educational  requests. 

May  our  lives  throb  with  the  pulse  of  the  nation,  may  we  catch  the  spirit 
of  the  new  movement,  may  our  hearts  be  on  fire  with  zeal  for  our  country 
and  the  wehare  of  our  people,  may  we  discover  the  new  America,  and  may 
God  grant  us  a  tongue  of  flame  from  his  altar  that  we  may  teach  with  the 
fervor  and  the  enthusiasm  which  the  times  demand. 


WAR-MODIFIED  EDUCATION  AND  ILLITERACY 

CORA    WILSON    STEWART,    PRESIDENT,    KENTUCKY    ILLITERACY    COMMISSION, 

FRANKFORT,   KY. 

When  I  think  of  the  five  and  a  haK  miUion  iUiterates  in  this  country, 
when  I  think  of  the  skepticism  of  some  school  people  as  to  the  ability  of 
these  illiterates  to  learn,  and  when  I  think  of  our  hesitancy  and  our  long 


ii8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

delay  in  coming  to  their  relief,  I  feel  as  Thomas  Jefferson  must  have  felt 
when  he,  himself  a  slaveholder,  contemplated  the  institution  of  slavery  and 
said,  "I  tremble  when  I  remember  that  God  is  just!" 

Among  our  five  and  a  half  million  illiterates,  1,600,000  are  foreign  born. 
The  remainder,  nearly  4,000,000  in  number,  are  native  born.  For  the 
foreign  born  to  be  ignorant  of  our  government,  our  laws,  and  our  traditions 
is  deplorable  indeed,  but  for  the  native  born  to  be  ignorant  of  them  is  not 
only  a  menace  but  a  disgrace.  We  are  attempting  to  Americanize  for- 
eigners, an  excellent  thing  to  do,  but  let  us  not  forget  to  Americanize  the 
people  of  the  Abraham  Lincoln  and  Booker  T.  Washington  type. 

It  is  no  longer  a  question  of  the  right  or  the  need  of  the  illiterates  in 
this  country  to  enlightenment.  It  is  not  now  a  question  of  their  joy  in 
book  and  pen,  but  it  is  a  question  of  national  welfare,  of  bringing  five  and 
a  half  million  more  people  speedily  into  intelligent  sympathy  with  our  war 
aims  and  enhsting  their  support. 

This  is  a  war  in  which  international  law,  justice,  human  rights,  and  even 
common  decency  have  been  cast  to  the  four  winds  by  the  enemy.  To  none 
of  these  have  we  any  appeal.  There  is  but  one  thing  that  will  win  this 
war — and  that  thing  may  be  exprest  in  just  one  word.  That  word  is  power. 
Would  it  not  then  be  the  part  of  wisdom  for  the  leaders  of  this  country  first 
to  determine  the  source  of  power  and  then  speedily  to  increase  it?  Had 
it  not  been  said  and  demonstrated  countless  times  thru  the  ages  that 
"knowledge  is  power,"  it  is  being  demonstrated  at  this  time,  in  this  very 
hour,  when  we  behold  the  nation  which  has  the  lowest  percentage  of  ilUt- 
eracy  holding  the  world  at  bay,  and  the  one  of  our  AlHes  which  has  the 
highest  percentage  broken  down,  disrupted,  unable  to  enjoy  her  long- 
coveted  and  hardly  won  liberty  and  unable,  we  fear,  to  sustain  a  democracy 
now  that  she  has  one.  The  nations  to  which  I  refer  are  Germany,  with 
only  five  out  of  every  thousand  of  her  population  illiterate,  and  Russia,  with 
six  hundred  and  ninety  out  of  every  thousand  unable  to  read  and  write. 

What  is  the  relation  of  the  five  and  a  half  million  illiterates  in  this 
country  to  the  war,  or  rather  what  ought  their  relation  to  be  ?  The  govern- 
ment expects  of  them  intelligent  cooperation.  Ignorance  cannot  cooperate. 
The  entire  propaganda  to  arouse  the  people  to  intelHgent,  sympathetic 
cooperation  is  a  printed  propaganda,  and  the  very  first  step  toward  intelli- 
gent response  is  a  written  subscription  or  pledge. 

The  iUiterates  are  the  people  who  do  not,  as  a  rule,  attend  pubHc  meet- 
ings. Our  speakers,  whether  four-minute  men  or  forty-minute  men,  have 
mist  them.  Only  two  methods  of  enlightening  them,  then,  may  be  con- 
sidered. One  would  be  to  send  conversationalists  among  them  to  tell  them 
just  what  the  war  means  and  what  the  government  expects  them  to  do. 
Russia  tried  this.  Returned  soldiers  went  from  village  to  village,  talking, 
talking,  talking,  to  the  people.  It  was  too  slow.  It  has  not  succeeded. 
There  is  just  one  other  plan,  and  that  is  to  teach  the  people  to  read  and 


I 


Sessions!  WAR-MODIFIED  EDUCATION  AND  ILLITERACY  119 

write,  ther  so  to  simplify  the  printed  propaganda  that  they  may  read  it, 
or  better,  to  let  them  read  and  write  the  propaganda  while  learning.  If 
the  constructive  forces  of  this  country  do  not  enlighten  them  some  organi- 
zation like  the  I.W.W.  may  get  them  in  its  pernicious  grasp.  In  this 
ilHterate  mass — 

There  is  a  poor  blind  Samson  in  this  land, 
Shorn  of  his  strength  and  bound  with  bands  of  steel, 
"Who  may  in  some  grim  revel  raise  his  hands 
And  shake  the  pillars  of  the  commonweal. 

When  five  millions  of  men  in  this  country  have  gone  to  defend  our 
liberties  on  foreign  soil,  with  a  corresponding  number  of  nurses,  doctors, 
engineers,  and  mechanics,  the  conditions  of  life  will  become  so  altered,  the 
need  of  sustaining  our  industries  and  supporting  those  at  the  front,  our 
brave  defenders,  but  non-producers,  will  be  so  great  as  to  demand  the 
efficient  service  of  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  this  country.  Every 
ilUterate,  whether  twenty  or  thirty  years  of  age,  or  fifty  or  sixty,  must  be 
educated  and  made  available  to  take  the  places  vacated  by  those  who  have 
gone  to  the  front. 

We  owe  something  to  the  illiterate  mothers  of  this  country,  whose  sons 
have  been  drafted  by  the  government  and  sent  three  thousand  miles  away 
from  home  to  defend  the  flag.  We  owe  it  to  them  to  teach  them  enough 
to  enable  them  to  read  letters  from  those  absent  sons  and  to  write  letters 
to  them,  if  nothing  more. 

We  owe  something — yes,  everything — to  the  boys  who  have  gone  to  give 
their  lives  for  our  native  land.  War  has  turned  on  the  searchlight,  like 
lightning's  lurid  glare,  and  has  revealed  conditions  in  education,  as  well  as 
in  other  lines,  that  call  for  immediate  remedy.  Too  clearly  do  we  see  the 
need  of  a  relief  for  the  illiterates  when  the  registration  cards  of  this  country 
show  700,000  young  men  registered  by  mark. 

When  around  the  council  table  after  the  war  they  examine  the  workings 
of  a  democracy  and  an  autocracy  and  seek  to  know  what  each  has  wrought 
among  the  people,  one  of  the  first  things  that  the  representatives  gathered 
there  will  doubtless  ask  will  be  this  question:  "What  are  the  educational 
benefits  and  status  of  each  ?  "  I  beHeve  that  around  that  table  the  good  of 
the  peoples  of  the  earth  will  be  the  one  thing  considered.  Autocracy  and 
democracy  will  clash  there  with  argument  as  they  are  clashing  now  with 
sword.  Democracy  will  charge  autocracy  with  militarism,  with  despotism, 
cruelty,  injustice,  and  intrigue.  Autocracy  will  charge  us  with  many  things. 
May  she  not  have  the  satisfaction,  in  that  hour,  of  saying  that  we  have  kept 
five  and  a  half  million  people  in  ignorance! 

When  after  the  war  the  world  looks  to  America  for  leadership,  when 
Russia  comes  to  study  our  educational  conditions,  shall  she  find  hope  for 
her  miUions  of  illiterate  peasants  or  shall  she  find  school  doors  closed  to  men 
and  women  and  ilUterates  condemned  to  everlasting  ignorance?    When 


120  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

Italy  comes  to  study  our  institutions,  shall  she  find  a  remedy  for  the  illiter- 
acy of  her  southern  peninsula?  Mexico  will  look  to  us  for  an  example. 
Shall  she  catch  the  fire  from  Texas  and  New  Mexico  to  educate  her  illiterate 
peons  ?  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  the  islands  of  the  sea  will  look  to  this  nation 
for  their  ideal  of  democracy.  Shall  they  find  a  democracy  founded  on  the 
sinking  sand  of  the  intelligence  of  part  of  the  people,  or  founded  on  the 
solid  rock  of  the  enhghtenment  of  all  ? 


CHARACTER  EDUCATION 

MILTON    FAIRCHILD,    NATIONAL    INSTITUTE    FOR    MORAL    INSTRUCTION, 
WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

These  distressing  times  call  for  constructive  thinking  rather  than 
for  fault-finding.  No  matter  what  the  neglects  of  the  past  have  been, 
the  school  must  now  plan  to  furnish  the  education  which  the  children  of  the 
United  States,  living  in  these  modern  times,  really  need.  The  basis  of  the 
life-career  for  each  child  is  character,  interpreted  in  a  broad  sense,  and  this 
basis  must  be  furnisht  by  education.  I  like  the  term  "  character  education  " 
much  better  than  "moral  education,"  because  it  is  not  subject  to  misunder- 
standings and  is  a  broader  term.  The  term  "  character  education  "  suggests 
and  implies  the  unfolding  of  the  child's  better  self  by  the  processes  of  growth 
and  under  the  stimulation  and  guidance  of  the  teacher.  The  purpose  of 
character  education  should  be  the  growth  of  the  child  out  of  its  weaknesses 
and  crudities  and  superficialities  of  character  into  strength,  depth,  breadth, 
and  harmony  of  character. 

The  scope  of  character  education  is  indicated  by  the  following  list  of 
fields  of  thought  as  subdivisions  of  the  general,  inclusive  term:  (i)  instruc- 
tion (formal  and  informal)  in  the  wisdom  of  human  moral  experience; 

(2)  formation  of  opinions  as  to  morality  on  the  part  of  children  themselves; 

(3)  the  development  of  motives  for  right  conduct;  (4)  conduct-resolves  by 
children;  (5)  training  (teacher  and  self- training)  in  habits  of  right  conduct. 
This  is  undiscovered  territory.  Not  a  human  being  living  knows  much 
about  character  education.  We  have  various  theories  as  to  how  results 
in  character  development  can  be  secured;  there  have  been  "working 
hypotheses"  announst  as  supported  by  modern  thought  in  the  human  sci- 
ences, but  no  one  has  gone  thru  the  scientific  process  by  which  these  theories 
and  hypotheses  are  verified  and  proved  to  produce  results. 

And  yet  the  present  emergency  in  the  life  of  the  nation  necessitates  an 
improvement  in  this  phase  of  education,  and  the  demand  will  surely  be  made 
that  ways  and  means  be  provided  in  the  public  schools  for  producing  the 
strength,  refinement,  and  righteousness  of  character  which  are  needed 
among  the  masses  of  the  people,  both  rich  and  poor,  of  a  republic.  The 
United  States  of  America  has  become  a  world-power  and  a  leader  in 


Sessions!  CHARACTER  EDUCATION  I2I 

international  politics.  This  fact  brings  to  us  greatly  increast  responsibilities 
as  a  nation.  In  a  republic-democracy  the  purposes  and  ambitions  of  the 
masses  of  the  people  are  the  purposes  and  ambitions  of  the  government. 
We  are  arriving  at  a  time  when  the  mass-judgments  of  our  people  will  be 
influentially  exprest.  The  leadership  and  control  of  the  "intellectuals" 
will  be  challenged,  in  matters  of  government,  industry,  finance,  social  dis- 
tinctions, and  education,  by  the  masses  on  the  basis  of  the  purposes  in  Hfe 
and  the  ambitions  which  have  control  over  the  masses.  We  shall  not  be 
able  to  get  the  nation,  as  an  organization  of  miUions  of  people,  to  bear  these 
new  responsibilities  successfully  unless  we  succeed  in  developing,  as  an 
expression  of  the  interest  and  the  right  which  the  nation  has  in  the  character 
development  of  its  children,  much  more  influential  methods  of  character 
education  in  the  pubhc  schools. 

You  will  recall  that  at  the  Detroit  meeting  of  the  Department  of 
Superintendence  an  award  of  $5000  was  offered  for  the  best  children's  code 
of  morals.  A  certain  business  man,  who  does  not  wish  to  be  under  the 
suspicion  of  seeking  personal  glory  and  therefore  insists  on  withholding  his 
name,  offered  that  $5000.  He  believes  that  the  character  education  of  all 
the  children  of  the  Republic  is  a  necessity  as  a  guaranty  of  permanent  and 
progressive  life  on  the  part  of  the  nation.  Each  state  in  the  Union  appointed 
thru  its  state  superintendent  at  least  one  "code  writer"  in  that  "National 
$5000  MoraHty  Codes  Competition,"  and  more  populous  states  appointed 
several.  There  were  seventy  code  writers,  and  they  workt  for  one  year, 
with  consultation  as  the  chief  principle  of  their  work.  Probably  ten 
thousand  people  took  part  in  deciding  for  these  code  writers  what  moral 
ideas  ought  to  be  inculcated  in  the  minds  of  our  nation's  children.  Fifty- 
two  succeeded  in  completing  morality  codes  in  this  competition,  and  others 
will  write  later.  The  award  was  made  by  three  judges — Professor  George 
Trumbull  Ladd,  of  Yale  University,  chairman;  Justice  Mahlon  Pitney, 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States;  and  Mrs.  Phillip  North  Moore, 
president  of  the  National  Council  of  Women — to  a  code  written  by  Professor 
Wm.  J.  Hutchins,  of  Ohio.  There  are  other  codes  almost  if  not  quite  as 
good  as  the  Hutchins  code.  The  process  of  revision  before  publication 
has  been  started,  and  each  author  will  submit  his  code  to  public  criticism 
during  this  period  of  revision.  The  final  result  will  be  a  body  of  codes  on 
which  we  educators  can  rely  as  a  guide  to  the  content  of  moral  instruction 
and  to  the  conduct  which  it  is  right  for  the  children  of  our  nation  to  be 
brought  up  to  fulfil. 

In  the  process  of  developing  this  morality-codes  competition  the 
business-man  "donor"  discovered  that  the  educators  were  in  doubt  as  to 
methods  of  character  education,  and  therefore  he  offered,  again  thru  the 
National  Institution  for  Moral  Instruction,  an  award  of  $20,000  for 
the  best  method  of  character  education  in  public  schools.  This  is  by  far  the 
largest  award  ever  offered  in  education  and  signifies  the  earnestness  of  the 


122  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (General 

appeal  from  the  general  public  that  the  schools  develop  their  procedure  in 
character  education  into  effectiveness  for  the  sake  of  the  nation  of  the  future. 
There  will  be  an  interstate  competition  between  teams  of  nine  research 
collaborators,  one  team  in  each  state,  and  the  award  will  be  divided,  $4000 
to  the  chairman  and  $2000  to  each  of  the  collaborators  of  the  winning  team. 

As  a  result  of  this  group  thinking  we  shall  have  forty-eight  great  plans 
for  character  education.  All  these  plans  will  be  made  available  to  the 
state,  city,  county,  and  town  superintendents  thruout  the  nation,  and  to  all 
who  as  students  of  education  wish  to  make  a  special  investigation  of  this 
field. 

After  the  specifications  for  the  year's  research  for  the  best  methods  of 
character  education  in  pubhc  schools  had  been  completed,  the  generosity 
and  determination  of  the  donor  of  these  enormous  awards  was  further 
exprest  in  an  offer  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  preparation  of  a  special  library 
of  extracts  from  the  best  writers  on  education,  which  should  facilitate  the 
work  of  these  groups  of  collaborators  by  giving  them  a  good  start.  The 
'^ Donor's  Library  on  Character  Education"  is  nearing  completion  under 
the  editorship  of  Professor  Harris  L.  Latham  and  President  Charles  Mc- 
Kenney.  It  will  be  composed  of  about  three  volumes  of  extracts  on 
character  education.  One  set  will  be  given  to  the  group  of  collaborators  in 
each  state  for  use  during  the  research  year.  Then  in  each  state  the  library 
will  go  to  the  office  of  the  state  superintendent,  to  be  lent  to  superintendent 
and  teachers  as  they  may  have  need.  The  chief  and  immediate  purpose 
of  the  library  is  to  help  the  research  collaborators  discover  the  best  possible 
ways  and  means  for  character  education  in  the  public  schools. 

After  these  forty-eight  great  plans  for  character  education  in  public 
schools  have  been  submitted  they  will  be  studied,  and  certain  verifying 
experiments  will  be  made  by  qualified  specialists.  These  will  be  made 
under  normal  public-school  conditions  and  will  be  conducted  for  the  sake 
of  putting  to  the  test  the  plans  which  seem  likely  to  produce  the  best  results. 
The  recommendations  which  will  come  finally  to  the  superintendents  and 
to  students  of  education  will  be  worthy  of  serious  consideration  because 
they  will  have  been  arrived  at  by  true  scientific  processes.  The  National 
Institution  for  Moral  Instruction  stands  for  cooperation  in  research  among 
advanst  students  in  the  field  of  character  education,  in  order  that  the 
practical,  verified  wisdom  of  educators  may  be  accumulated  as  the  basis 
for  improvements  in  the  service  which  schools  render  the  children  of  the 
nation  in  their  character  development.  Your  cooperation  is  most  heartily 
desired  in  these  undertakings. 


I 


Sessions!        WAR-MODIFIED  EDUCATION  AND  THE  COMMON  PEOPLE     123 

WAR-MODIFIED  EDUCATION  AND  THE  RISE  OF  THE  COMMON 
PEOPLE  THRU  IT 

A.   E.    WINSHIP,   "journal  OF  EDUCATION,"   BOSTON,   MASS. 

This  world-war  is  modifying  everything  and  everyone  in  America. 
Nothing  will  ever  be  as  it  has  been,  and  no  one  will  ever  again  be  as  he 
has  been. 

The  war  is  modifying  us  financially,  industrially,  commercially,  morally, 
patriotically,  poHtically,  religiously,  and  educationally.  And  all  the  modi- 
fication is  for  the  uplift  of  the  common  people,  for  the  toning  up  of  the 
common  people. 

I  was  privileged  to  be  present  recently  at  the  conference  of  122  coal 
operators  of  West  Virginia  and  Mr.  Lawson,  who  represented  Dr.  Garfield 
and  President  Wilson. 

Kendall  White  made  the  great  address  of  the  occasion.  He  is  the 
lawyer  for  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  which  is  supposed  to  mean  that  he 
is  one  of  the  big  lawyers  of  West  Virginia.  He  devoted  himself  to  an 
attempt  to  impress  upon  those  coal  operators  that  this  is  a  war  of  the 
common  people,  by  the  common  people,  and  for  the  common  people.  He 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  Lloyd  George  represents  the  common 
people  of  England,  and  that  more  and  more  President  Wilson  is  represent- 
ing the  common  people  of  the  United  States.  He  said:  "It  is  not  a  theory^ 
but  a  condition,  and  you  must  face  it  squarely.  You  should  adjust  all  the 
conditions  of  your  mines — working  and  Hving  conditions — ^never  forgetting 
that  you  will  soon  have  to  give  a  report  on  your  stewardship." 

I  have  never  heard  a  speech  like  that  from  such  a  man  as  Kendall  White. 
I  have  read  something  closely  akin  to  that  from  Charles  M.  Schwab. 

Democracy  is  of  and  by  and  for  the  common  people  just  as  autocracy 
is  for  aristocracy.  When  we  make  the  world  safe  for  democracy  we  make 
it  a  common-people's  world. 

The  modification  of  this  war  is  greater  than  we  can  even  imagine. 
Take  the  rehgious  modification,  for  instance.  We  have  not  realized  how 
many  of  us  had  our  highest  test  of  religious  love  by  devihsh  hate  of  other 
religions.  Who  can  conceive  of  the  American  Y.M.C.A.  offering  its  hut 
to  the  Knights  of  Columbus  for  the  celebration  of  mass  and  administering 
of  the  communion  ?  And  when  the  Knights  of  Columbus  have  their  hut 
ready,  they  in  turn  invite  their  Israehtist  "brethren"  to  administer  to  their 
Jewish  worshipers  in  a  Roman  Catholic  "temple."  And  on  that  ever- 
memorable  day  in  April,  191 7,  when  the  United  States  Senate  voted  us 
into  the  world- war,  and  a  Democrat  from  the  Gulf  pledged  a  consecrated 
South  to  this  war,  and  a  rock-ribbed  Republican  from  Massachusetts 
solemnly  dedicated  his  party  and  his  state  to  the  arming  of  this  war,  and 
a  senator  from  New  York  spoke  for  the  devotion  of  his  state  and  of  his 
people,  a  reverend  hush  fell  upon  the  reverend  senators  as  the  hour  closed 


124  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

and  one  of  their  number  rose  and  in  a  wonderful  prayer  represented  Bap- 
tists and  Methodists,  Unitarians  and  EpiscopaHans,  Cathohcs  and  Jews, 
before  the  throne  of  God.  Probably  the  most  remarkable  fact  that  can 
be  recorded  of  American  Christians  is  the  fact  that  that  prayer  was  ofifered 
by  Senator  Reed  Smoot,  of  Utah. 

In  theory  public  education  is  democratic  in  the  forming,  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  it  has  always  been  more  aristocratic  than  democratic.  All  this  is 
changing.  At  a  summer  normal  school  in  San  Diego,  Calif.,  the  president 
and  every  teacher  devoted  their  evenings  for  five  weeks  to  teaching  one 
hundred  draftees  from  Chicago  in  Camp  Kearney  to  read  and  write  and 
to  learn  an  inconceivable  number  of  other  things  valuable  to  them  as  men 
*'over  there."  That  normal-school  faculty  forgot  the  traditional  super- 
stition of  the  normal  school,  and  without  a  course  of  study,  without  a  com- 
mon method,  without  notebooks  or  diagrams,  did  four  years'  work  in  five 
weeks  with  many  of  those  men. 

Finally  we  are  war  modified  politically.  I  wish  to  offer  myself  as  a 
living  example  of  a  war-modified  politician.  I  am  a  Republican  of  Repub- 
licans. I  was  born  that  way  and  have  never  sold  my  birthright.  I  have 
never  been  a  candidate  for  a  salaried  office,  appointive  or  elective.  I  have 
done  my  bit  by  voice  and  purse  in  every  campaign  since  I  was  twenty-one 
years  of  age.  I  have  been  in  five  of  the  last  six  Republican  Conventions.  I 
did  what  I  could  in  the  presidential  campaigns  of  191 2  and  191 6  and  I 
was  not  on  the  winning  side.  In  this  hour  of  our  nation's  and  the  world's 
crisis  I  am  thankful  that  American  voters  were  wiser  than  I,  that  the  man 
whom  the  Lord  seems  to  have  raised  up  for  this  hour  is  the  commander  in 
chief  of  the  Armies  and  Navies  of  the  United  States  and  the  world's  leader 
in  thought  and  action  in  making  the  world  safe  for  democracy. 


THE  REBUILDING  OF  CIVILIZATION  THRU  THE  SCHOOLS 

KATHERINE  DEVEREUX  BLAKE,  NEW  YORK,  N.Y. 

Teachers  of  America — you  are  the  most  wonderful  audience  in  the  world, 
for  you  hold  the  shining  future  in  your  hands,  and  as  you  mold  it,  so  shall 
it  be,  ignoble  or  great.  Therefore  I  feel  very  humble  as  I  stand  before  you. 
How  shall  I  be  able  to  give  you  the  inspiration  that  you  need  to  carry  you 
thru  the  year  you  face  ?  You  have  just  finisht  the  hardest  school  year  you 
have  ever  gone  thru,  a  year  in  which  you  have  served  with  splendid  self- 
sacrifice,  doing  war  work  of  all  kinds  after  your  school  duties  were  done. 
The  year  to  come  will  be  even  more  difficult.  Your  war  work  will  be  more 
strenuous  and  your  school  work  more  arduous,  because  more  children  will 
be  undernourisht,  and  it  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  teach  a  hungry  child. 
Let  me  beg  you,  as  your  first  duty  to  the  state,  to  try  to  secure  adequate 


Sessions]  REBUILDING  OF  CIVILIZATION  THRU  SCHOOLS  125 

food  for  our  helpless  little  ones,  so  that  the  boys  and  girls  of  today  may  be 
vigorous  in  spite  of  the  pinch  of  war. 

You  face  the  revision  of  your  course  of  study  in  the  light  of  the  fires 
that  burn  over  there.  How  shall  you  be  guided  in  these  changes? 
Dr.  Robert  Morris  has  wisely  said,  "Tradition  is  the  greatest  of  guides 
for  mean  minds,  but  the  meanest  of  guides  for  great  minds."  So  let  us 
sweep  tradition  aside  and  face  the  facts  of  life.  The  German  ideals  in 
education,  the  subordination  of  the  individual  and  mass  teaching  must  go. 
The  lurid  fires  of  over  there  have  burned  into  our  consciousness  the  terrific 
necessity  for  scientific  knowledge.  In  this  young  century  we  are  preparing 
for  strange  new  conditions  after  the  war,  and  science  must  be  our  guide. 
We  are  building  for  the  new  world  that  will  rise  phoenix-like  from  the  ashes 
of  the  old. 

At  a  certain  stage  in  the  old-fashioned  melodrama  the  wicked  woman 
of  the  play  stole  from  behind  a  curtain  and  in  a  staccato  whisper  exclaimed 
to  the  villain,  "Hist:  We  are  discovered!  All  is  lost."  On  the  world-stage 
of  today,  instead  of  this  play,  the  heroine  comes  exultantly  down  center, 
waving  the  flag,  shouting  to  the  hero,  "Hurrah!  We  are  discovered!  All 
is  won!"  And  behold,  they  are  teachers,  and  America  has  discovered  the 
schools.     Now  as  never  before  is  there  hope  of  real  democracy. 

Let  us  take  as  our  war  cr>',  "Rally  round  the  schools!"  for  there  the 
greatest  battle  of  all  is  being  fought,  the  battle  against  ignorance,  prejudice, 
poverty,  and  vice.  We  teachers  have  taken  the  place  of  the  grandmother 
who  told  old  folk  stories  to  the  children,  of  the  mother  who  taught  them  to 
read,  of  the  romp  leader  who  led  the  old  battles  between  town  and  gown, 
of  the  master  who  made  a  mystery  of  his  trade  and  permitted  only  his 
apprentices  to  practice  it.  Each  year  has  seen  the  circle  of  our  activities 
widen,  until  now  we  are  expected  to  prepare  our  pupils  for  life! 

Then  it  is  for  us  to  keep  our  eyes  fixt  on  the  future.  When  the 
elementary-school  child  of  today  is  grown  he  will  face  peace  conditions, 
and  those  conditions  must  be  made  as  glorious  to  him  as  the  heroism  of 
today,  or  we  shall  be  training  for  another  and  more  terrible  war.  So  let 
us  shout  together,  "Rally  round  the  school!"  and  stop  worrying  about  spHt 
infinitives,  cease  talking  pedaguese,  lift  our  eyes  from  grammar  and  method 
books,  and  go  out  into  the  world  beyond  our  classroom  door,  take  part  in 
the  scrimmage,  taste  the  dust  of  it,  and  help  mold  it  so  that  it  may  in  the 
future  be  fit  for  our  pupils,  even  as  we  are  fitting  them  for  it. 

Do  not  let  us  make  the  mistakes  of  other  countries.  Let  us  study  their 
plans  only  in  order  to  improve  on  them  and  cure  our  own  defects.  Let 
us  bow  no  longer  to  the  dominance  of  the  classical  college,  nodding  in  its 
mediaeval  cloisters.  Let  us  demand  living  conditions  for  our  children  and 
a  Hving  wage  for  ourselves. 

And  can  we  do  this?  Yes!  For  America  has  discovered  the  schools, 
and   the   schoolmaster   and   schoolmistress   are   com;ng  into   their   own. 


126  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  iGeheral 


Women  vote  in  many  states  and  before  long  will  vote  all  over  this  country. 
Teaching  is  no  longer  a  disfranchised  profession.  We  have  a  teacher  in  the 
White  House,  and  he  is  teaching  the  whole  world  to  listen  to  principles  of 
democracy  and  justice.  A  teacher  is  governor  of  Pennsylvania.  Teachers 
are  officering  our  Army  and  in  many  places  are  leading  in  our  legislative 
assemblies.     We  can  do  anything  we  wish  if  we  work  together. 

To  give  you  the  inspiration  needed  for  the  difficult  work  before  you  I 
bring  you  messages  from  three  great  men.  The  first  is  Charles  P.  Stein- 
metz,  the  world-famous  scientist  who  is  at  the  head  of  the  immense  General 
Electrical  Works  in  Schenectady,  N.Y.  He  said  in  a  recent  interview, 
"Eight  hours  a  day  is-  too  long,  far  too  long,  for  a  human  being  to  tend  a 

machine The  day's  work  should  be  reduced  to  four  hours.     Men 

could  stand  that  much  drudgery  and  have  initiative  enough  left  to  enable 
them  to  take  up  interesting  occupations.  Society,  instead  of  being  im- 
poverisht  by  the  shorter  work  day,  would  be  enricht  by  all  the  greater 
accompHshments  these  men  would  undertake." 

This  is  not  an  I.W.W.  leader  speaking,  but  the  high-salaried  head  of  the 
largest  electrical  establishment  in  the  world,  a  man  whose  brains  all  the 
world  respects,  and  he  adds,  "The  most  distasteful  work  of  all  should 
receive  the  greatest  rewards  and  the  highest  honors.  Why  should  I  be 
honored  more  or  paid  more  than  the  ditch  digger?  Society  could  worry 
along  for  some  time  without  its  engineers,  but  it  couldn't  get  along  without 
its  laborers." 

The  next  message  is  one  that  all  teachers  should  constantly  repeat  to 
school  boards.  It  comes  from  Edward  Filene,  the  head  of  the  remarkable 
department  store  in  Boston.  He  said  in  his  testimony  before  the  Committee 
on  the  District  of  Columbia  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  when  they  were 
considering  the  minimum- wage  bill  for  women  and  children,  "There  is 
nothing  so  costly  as  cheap  help."  "Cheap  wages  make  cheap  standards, 
and  the  danger  is  that  with  all  the  details  of  the  supervision  necessary  with 
cheap  wages  we  will  be  satisfied  with  cheap  standards."  He  said  further 
that  an  underpaid  employe  will  not  have  strength  or  desire  to  study  very 
much  in  order  to  put  more  intelligence  into  the  work.  This  is  just  as  true 
of  teachers  as  of  department-store  employes. 

Drive  these  facts  home!  The  last  message  is  from  Charles  M.  Schwab,  the 
man  who  is  making  ships  faster  than  they  ever  were  made  before.  He  says, 
"In  the  very  near  future  we  must  look  to  the  worker  for  a  solution  of  the 
great  economic  questions  now  being  considered.  I  am  not  one  to  carelessly 
turn  over  my  belongings  for  the  uplift  of  the  nation,  but  I  am  one  who  has 
come  to  a  behef  that  the  worker  will  rule,  and  the  sooner  we  realize  this  the 
better  it  will  be  for  our  country  and  the  world  at  large." 

Epitomized  these  messages  run.  Ere  long  Labor  will  rule,  and  with  that 
rule  will  come  the  four-hour  day  and  fair  wages.     We  must  train  our  children 


Sessions!  THRIFT  AND  NATIONAL  SERVICE  127 

of  today  to  be  ready  for  the  fairer  day  of  tomorrow.  The  world  is  in  our 
hands  to  make  or  mar,  and  the  power  is  ours  if  we  will  use  it. 

I  have  a  dream  that  some  day  will  be  realized.  Already  the  rich  have 
pointed  the  way,  for  their  children  go  to  city  schools  in  winter  and  to  farm 
or  camp  in  summer.  Why  should  the  little  children  of  the  men  and  women 
who  are  doing  honest  work  in  the  lonely  places  of  this  great  country,  the 
lighthouse  keepers,  the  lumbermen  in  far-away  mountains,  the  ranchmen 
in  the  desert  struggling  with  dry  farming,  why  should  they  be  robbed  of 
education,  tho  they  have  the  clear  air  and  the  sky  and.  nature  all  around 
them  ?  Why  should  the  children  of  our  slums  be  robbed  of  all  that  nature 
can  teach  them  ? 

Did  you  ever  stop  to  wonder  what  sort  of  a  generation  is  growing  up 
in  our  city  slums,  knowing  only  bricks  and  stones,  the  straight  lines  and 
right  angles  of  the  sordid  streets,  and  the  fierce  competition  of  city  trade  ? 
"All  men  are  born  free  and  equal."  It  is  for  you  and  me  to  make  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  true. 

Some  day  when  the  autumn  winds  sweep  down  from  the  hills  all  the 
children  from  all  the  lonely  places  will  come  with  them  to  the  great  cities, 
there  to  live  in  barracks  and  study  in  city  schools,  and  see  museums,  and 
factories,  and  shops,  and  crowded  streets;  and  then  when  the  soft  spring 
winds  wake  the  snowdrop  and  the  crocus,  and  it  is  time  to  sow  for  the  sum- 
mer harvest,  then  all  the  children  of  the  city  shall  go  forth  to  farm  and 
mountain,  there  to  camp  and  study  nature  thru  all  the  long  summer  days. 

Think  what  it  would  mean  to  America  to  have  citizens  trained  like 
that — who  should  know  city  and  country,  and  North  and  South,  aye,  and 
East  and  West,  and  best  of  all  should  know  themselves,  and  what  work 
they  are  best  fitted  for.  Some  day  my  dream  will  come  true.  The  power 
to  make  it  quickly  true  lies  in  your  hands.  /  leave  my  dream  with  you  to 
fulfil. 

THRIFT  AND  NATIONAL  SERVICE 

FRANK    A.    VANDERLIP,    CHAIRMAN,    NATIONAL    WAR    SAVINGS    COMMITTEE, 

WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

I  have  come  to  ask  you  to  wake  up  to  your  responsibilities.  You  are 
teachers  and  it  is  your  duty  to  draw  out  the  best  that  is  in  the  pupils  under 
your  care.  I  wonder  sometimes  if  the  quality  of  imagination  has  been 
sufficiently  drawn  out.  We  are  a  rather  unimaginative  people,  I  take  it. 
Had  we  imagination  in  degree  great  enough  to  visualize  for  ourselves  what 
the  military  situation  is,  how  much  there  is  to  be  done,  how  enormously 
pressing  is  the  need  that  we  do  this,  there  would  be  no  need  for  Liberty 
Loan  campaigns  and  Thrift  Stamp  drives  to  help  us  fight  it  thru. 

Fighting  it  thru  is  going  to  be  a  great  job.  It  is  going  to  be  a  greater 
job  than  many  of  us  imagine.     You  say  that  America  has  always  been 


128  .  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

victorious,  and  that  you  are  confident  that  right  will  triumph  over  might, 
and  then  you  settle  into  the  self-satisfied  attitude  that  the  war  is  as  good  as 
won.  But  you  teachers,  I  know,  have  read  your  histories  too  closely  to 
think  that  right  always  triumphs  over  might. 

There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  a  march  toward  triumph,  and  we  have  not 
made  the  march.  Do  people  fully  appreciate  what  Germany  has  done, 
how  fearfully  near  it  has  been  to  victory,  how  alarmingly  near  this  war  has 
been  to  a  conclusion  ?  In  the  last  few  months  we  have  seen  the  consolida- 
tion of  Middle  Europe  from  north  to  south  almost  to  the  extent  Berlin  had 
hoped  for.  We  have  seen  the  monstrous  good  fortune  of  Germany  in  having 
Russia  lie  down  before  her,  releasing  men,  releasing  soldiers,  releasing  sup- 
pHes,  and  giving  food.  Within  fewer  months  we  have  seen  the  Western 
Front  stiffened,  we  have  seen  it  struck,  we  have  seen  it  sent  back  mile  after 
mile  until  one  more  great  push  would  send  it  within  bombarding  range  of 
Paris.  We  have  seen,  we  are  seeing  today,  the  evacuation  of  Paris.  One 
miUion  four  hundred  thousand  people  have  left  Paris.  Paris  today  is  in 
danger. 

We  can  say  that  Germany  has  been  able  to  do  much  of  this  with  the 
recognition  of  one  Httle  fact  of  psychology.  She  has  seen  that  the  constant 
crouching  in  trenches,  the  normal  defensive  form  of  warfare,  is  not  calcu- 
lated to  fit  men  for  offensive  action,  and  she  has  used  this  knowledge  by 
creating  her  shock  troops — men  who  never  go  into  the  trenches,  but  who 
are  trained  with  enormous  care  far  behind  the  lines. 

And  in  American  too  we  can  find  some  truths  that  this  whole  situation 
makes  plain  to  even  the  most  unthinking.  We  appropriated  $19,000,000,- 
000  last  year.  We  did  not  spend  it.  We  spent  only  about  two-thirds  of  it. 
Why  ?  Well,  really,  because  you  got  in  the  way.  You  askt  for  too  many 
things.  Our  whole  people  got  in  the  way  with  their  demands  for  this  thing 
and  that  thing,  tho  it  must  have  been  plain  to  them  that  the  government 
wanted  these  things. 

We  have  in  uniform  in  the  Army  and  Navy,  or  will  have  before  the 
end  of  summer,  4,500,000  men.  This  means  that  behind  this  Army  and 
Navy  we  must  have  18,000,000  workers  devoting  themselves  entirely  to  the 
war. 

Can  we  go  on  buying  as  we  were  buying,  spending  money  as  we  were 
spending  it,  knowing  that  means  demands  on  man  power  ?  Can  we  do  this 
and  still  supply  half  of  our  total  workers  to  war  work  ?  Let  us  take  the 
bandage  off  our  eyes  and  see  things  nationally. 

The  government's  problem  is  not  to  raise  money.  It  is  to  spend  it. 
There  will  be  no  shortage  of  money;  there  is  a  shortage  of  mechanical 
equipment.  Extravagance  is  a  home  made  bomb,  and  it  explodes  every 
time  in  the  trenches. 

You  say  that  to  eHminate  luxuries  shall  upset  business.  Have  no  fear. 
No  matter  how  much  we  may  raise  our  voices,  there  still  will  be  a  tremendous 


Sessions]  THE  NATIONAL  EMERGENCY  IN  EDUCATION  129 

indulgence  in  luxuries.  Anyone,  consider  this:  Germany  is  determined  to 
bring  this  war  to  a  conclusion  this  summer.  Germany  won't  wait,  and 
therefore  we  can't.  It  has  ceast  to  be  a  matter  of  what  will  be  best  for 
business;  it  is  now  a  matter  of  what  will  be  best  for  the  war.  Luxuries  are 
not. 

War  is  a  current  effort  and  must  be  paid  for  in  current  savings.  The 
essence  of  the  whole  thing  is  in  getting  gunfire  in  France,  and  current  effort 
is  doing  that.  With  unified  effort  we  shall  win  the  war,  but  we  must  have 
unified  savings  with  which  to  do  it.  And  it  must  be  the  savings  of  rich 
and  poor  alike;  of  rich  more  than  of  poor. 


THE  NATIONAL  EMERGENCY  IN  EDUCATION 

GEORGE    D.    STRAYER,    CHAIRMAN,    NATIONAL   EDUCATION   ASSOCIATION   COM- 
MISSION  ON   THE   EMERGENCY  IN  EDUCATION,   NEW   YORK,   N.Y. 

Universal  conscription  in  education  is  the  only  sensible  method  of  per- 
petuating democracy,  just  as  universal  military  conscription  is  the  only 
democratic  method  of  raising  an  army.  We  were  patriotic  enough  to 
accept  mihtary  conscription.  We  must  be  inteUigent  enough  to  accept 
universal  conscription  in  education.  The  foundations  of  democracy  are 
based  upon  universal  intelligence.  Therefore  democracy  must  see  to  it 
that  not  only  its  children  but  its  adults  are  literate,  efficient,  intelligent,  and 
patriotic. 

We  read  more  newspapers,  magazines,  and  books  per  capita  than  does 
any  other  nation.  We  have  a  larger  percentage  of  our  population  between 
fourteen  and  eighteen  years  of  age  in  school  than  has  any  other  country  in 
the  world.  We  have  invested  large  sums  of  money  in  our  schools,  and  have 
increast  steadily  the  number  of  days  of  schooling  per  unit  of  our  population. 
In  spite  of  these  and  other  conspicuous  successes,  the  war  emergency  has 
brought  to  us  a  realization  of  our  failure  to  provide  a  system  of  education 
which  guarantees  an  enduring  democracy. 

Our  bountiful  natural  resources  have  tempted  us  to  be  wasteful.  We 
have  not  taught  nor  practist  thrift.  We  have  failed  to  provide  for  the 
complete  Americanization  of  foreign  immigrants.  We  have  tolerated  the 
formation  and  continuation  of  racial  and  language  groups  with  ideals  and 
practices  inimical  to  our  free  institutions.  We  have  not  provided  ade- 
quately trained  nor  adequately  paid  teachers  in  sufficient  numbers  to  train 
our  children.  More  than  five  million  children  receive  their  training  from 
unprepared  child  teachers  in  their  teens. 

We  have  failed  to  recognize  the  need  of  preparing  for  the  present  world- 
emergency.  We  have  been  unwilling  to  accept  the  kinds  of  discipline  and 
control  necessary  for  a  people  which  is  to  defend  its  own  freedom  and  to 
fight  for  the  estabHshment  of  world-democracy. 


130  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

The  present  emergency  demands  that  we  provide  for  the  development 
of  a  more  adequate  system  of  pubhc  education.  The  world-struggle 
between  autocracy  and  democracy  has  only  begun.  The  final  verdict  may 
rest  with  our  children  or  our  children's  children. 

We  must  immediately  recognize  the  necessity  for  a  common  language 
and  a  common  inheritance  of  democratic  ideas  and  ideals.  All  boys  and 
girls  living  in  America,  whatever  their  ancestry,  must  be  taught  in  the 
Enghsh  tongue.  Men  and  women  who  would  achieve  citizenship  must  be 
required  not  only  to  speak  and  to  read  English  but  also  to  show  that  they 
understand  and  subscribe  unreservedly  to  the  principles  and  ideals  of 
democratic  government. 

For  all  children  and  for  adult  immigrants  training  must  be  provided 
which  stresses  the  highest  ideals  and  best  practices  of  our  community  and 
of  our  national  Hfe.  Every  schoolhouse  must  be  a  community  center  of 
true  democracy. 

We  may  no  longer  delude  ourselves  with  respect  to  the  adequacy  of  an 
education  which  ends  at  fourteen.  Compulsory  education  amounting  to 
half-time  work  must  be  required  of  all  between  fourteen  and  sixteen,  and  a 
minimum  of  eight  hours  a  week  during  working  hours  must  be  required 
from  sixteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age. 

Technical  training  and  efficiency  must  be  accompanied  by  a  still  higher 
degree  of  physical  efficiency,  by  a  better  understanding  of  our  institutions 
and  ideals,  by  more  adequate  preparation  for  the  use  of  leisure,  and  by 
participation  in  activities  which  develop  good  citizenship. 

We  must  recognize  the  necessity  for  more  adequate  training  for  teachers 
and  the  corresponding  obligation  for  greatly  increast  salaries  for  teachers 
in  order  that  the  choicest  of  our  youth  may  see  in  teaching  not  only  an  oppor- 
tunity for  service  but  also  the  possibility  for  a  career  comparable  to  that  enjoyed 
by  those  who  enter  the  more  favored  professions. 

We  will  no  longer  be  satisfied  with  medical  inspection  which  discovers 
and  records  defects.  We  must  rather  seek  the  highest  possible  type  of 
physical  efficiency,  thru  the  removal  of  remedial  defects,  by  providing  the 
conditions  necessary  for  normal  physical  development  and  by  inculcating 
an  ideal  of  physical  cleanliness,  vigor,  and  efficiency. 

We  must  accept  the  necessity,  in  a  world  as  at  present  constituted,  for 
universal  training  for  service  in  defense  of  our  nation  and  of  the  ideals  for 
which  the  nation  stands.  This  education  between  the  ages  of  nineteen 
and  twenty-one  promises  much  for  the  realization  by  all  of  the  obligations 
of  citizenship  and  for  social  solidarity.  During  this  period  we  may  hope 
as  well  to  provide  further  training  in  preparation  for  useful  and  productive 
work  and  for  the  development  of  habits  of  thought  and  of  action  which 
make  for  individual  and  for  national  efficiency.  The  training  of  a  powerful 
citizen  soldiery  has  been  accompHsht  in  Switzerland  without  the  develop- 
ment of  a  mihtary  caste  or  of  a  militaristic  government.     We  may  surely 


Sessions]  CHILDREN'S  YEAR  AND  THE  KINDERGARTEN  131 

ihope  to  provide  adequately  for  the  defense  of  our  democracy,  while  still 
preserving  our  democratic  ideals  and  practices. 

Never  before  in  our  history  have  we  been  so  critical  as  we  are  now  of 
our  system  of  pubhc  education.  Never  before  have  we  been  so  willing  to 
sacrifice  for  the  sake  of  maintaining  the  principles  of  democracy  in  the  world. 
May  we  realize  now  that  democracy's  greatest  safeguard  is  the  pubHc  school. 
May  we  recognize  the  necessity  for  the  development  of  a  more  efficient 
public-school  system  costing  vastly  greater  sums  of  money.  The  hope  of 
humanity  rests  upon  the  education  of  the  children  of  our  democratic  society. 


THE  CHILDREN'S   YEAR  AND   THE  OPPORTUNITY  OF   THE 

KINDERGARTEN  FOR  CONSERVATION  WORK 

IN  CONGESTED  CITIES 

ELIZABETH   A.    WOODWARD,    SUPERVISOR    OF   THE    BROOKLYN   FREE   KINDER- 
GARTEN  SOCIETY,   BROOKLYN,   N.Y. 

July  4,  1 91 8,  is  a  significant  national  birthday  because  a  year  ago  we 
took  upon  ourselves  a  larger  responsibility  for  freedom.  Every  man  in 
our  allied  Army  loves  liberty  and  justice  more  than  hfe.  This  adds  new 
meaning  to  our  holiday.  This  adds  new  emphasis  for  our  education. 
After  one  year  of  war  we  pause  at  a  great  convention  to  plan  for  a  future 
which  holds  the  promise  of  a  greater  justice  and  unity  of  purpose  for  all 
races  now  living  under  our  flag. 

Concern  for  children  is  a  fundamental  and  common  interest;  therefore 
it  is  fitting  that  we  should  discuss  at  home  their  primal  needs  while  we  are 
engaged  abroad  in  a  war  for  their  protection.  Our  problem  is,  not  only 
how  can  we  save  more  Httle  children  for  the  nation,  but  how  can  we  help 
them  to  be  more  worthy  of  the  new  democracy' which  they  are  to  inherit  at 
the  end  of  this  great  struggle  ?  How  can  we  best  fit  them  to  shoulder  the 
new  and  perhaps  greater  responsibility  of  peace  ? 

the  reasons  for  proclaiming  and  plans  for  conducting  a 
children's  year 

The  Children's  Year  was  declared  by  the  Children's  Bureau  of  Wash- 
ington to  extend  from  April  6,  191 8,  to  April  6,  1919.  It  has  the  hearty 
support  of  President  Wilson  and  two  departments  of  the  Council  of  National 
Defense,  the  Child  Welfare  Department  and  the  General  Medical  Board. 

Three  years  of  war  reveal  to  us  the  fact  that  children  are  the  chief 
sufferers.  During  England's  first  war  years  twelve  babies  died  at  home 
for  every  nine  men  who  died  at  the  front.  One  of  the  posters  published  for 
their  first  baby-saving  campaign  in  London,  September,  191 7,  read:  "It 
is  more  dangerous  to  be  a  baby  in  England  than  to  be  a  soldier  in 
the  trenches." 


132  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

The  children  under  six  are  to  be  given  particular  attention  in  our 
national  crusade.  The  "forgotten  army"  includes  four  million  children 
from  three  to  six  years  of  age  in  our  country.  The  same  tidal  wave  of 
interest  in  physical  education  for  the  higher  grades  has  at  last  swept  over 
the  land  for  the  children  of  kindergarten  age. 

The  special  aim  of  the  Children's  Year  is  to  save  one  hundred  thousand 
more  babies  than  usual.  Each  city  is  to  have  its  quota.  Headquarters 
for  registration  and  medical  examinations  will  be  establisht  in  every  com- 
munity. All  agencies  for  child  welfare  that  now  exist  will  be  fully  com- 
mandeered for  service.  The  services  of  trained  workers,  especially  of 
kindergartners  who  have  had  valuable  experience  in  home  visiting  and 
holding  of  mothers'  meetings,  will  be  enHsted  by  the  Children's  Year 
committees.  The  year's  publicity  plans  include  drives  by  months  thru 
newspapers,  pamphlets,  posters,  and  meetings. 

AMERICANIZATION  WORK  CONDUCTED  BY  KINDERGARTNERS   IN 
CONGESTED   CITIES 

According  to  statistics  of  1910,  72  per  cent  of  the  foreign  population  of 
the  United  States  reside  in  our  cities.  This  is  why  Americanization  prob- 
lems are  largely  urban.  There  are  in  the  United  States  4,500,000  children 
from  four  to  six  years  of  age  mainly  of  foreign  parentage.  Only  one- 
twelfth  of  these  are  in  kindergartens. 

How  can  we  guide  in  a  wholesome,  constructive  way  this  teeming  life 
of  childhood  in  our  city  streets  ?  In  the  first  place,  our  streets  are  not  safe. 
Our  cities  are  built  for  adults,  but  they  must  be  made  fit  for  child  life.  We 
deplore  the  fact  that  many  of  our  grade  children  are  on  part  time,  but  is  it 
not  worse  that  there  is  no  time  for  over  100,000  children  from  four  to  six 
years  of  age  in  one  of  our  cities.  New  York?  Most  of  those  left  on  the 
streets  are  foreign  children  who  might  at  least  acquire  the  English  language 
in  the  kindergarten  during  these  two  plastic  years. 

THE   PART   THE   KINDERGARTEN   IS   TO   PLAY   IN   THIS 
CHILD-CONSERVATION  PROGRAM 

The  kindergarten  as  part  of  the  United  States  pubHc-school  system  has 
come  into  its  majority.  Last  week  the  International  Kindergarten  Union 
celebrated  in  Chicago  its  silver  anniversary.  The  modern,  expanding 
kindergarten  is  pecuharly  an  American  growth.  Its  spirit  is  democratic, 
its  basic  ideal  is  social  cooperation  under  the  Golden  Rule.  Its  method  is 
play,  the  only  natural  instinctive  one  for  early  education. 

In  one  hundred  and  twenty  cities  of  the  United  States  kindergartens 
were  opened  in  1916,  and  over  two  thousand  new  ones  were  estabhsht. 
Why  has  interest  in  kindergarten  education  grown  even  more  intense  during 
this  first  year  of  the  war?  There  are  several  answers  to  this  question. 
In  the  first  place  child  life  has  become  more  precious  in  the  eyes  of  the 
nation,  and  in  the  second  place  the  schools  have  changed  their  emphasis. 


Sessions]  CHILDREN'S  YEAR  AND  THE  KINDERGARTEN  133 

All  educational  systems  are  separating  the  essential  from  the  nonessential. 
The  things  that  are  hardest  to  measure  have  won  out.  Health,  social 
service,  civic  cooperation,  loyalty,  individual  initiative,  creative  power, 
and  moral  values  take  precedence  in  all  war-modified  programs  over  the 
formal  three  R's. 

The  foundation  for  civic  education  must  be  laid  in  the  most  impres- 
sionable period,  the  habit-forming  and  habit-setting  period,  even  before 
the  first  grade.  "If  we  are  to  build  a  democracy  we  must  begin  at  the 
beginning.  The  kindergarten  is  a  true  American  society  in  miniature." 
Its  democratic  ideals,  its  social  philosophy,  its  emphasis  upon  individual 
development  and  freedom  were  feared  by  the  autocracy  in  Prussia.  The 
kindergarten  was  refused  admittance  into  the  school  system  of  that  German 
state.  This  act  of  persecution  of  a  true  educational  reform  caused  such 
deep  disappointment  that  it  hastened  the  death  of  the  founder  of  the 
kindergarten.  Nowhere  in  Germany  or  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  has  a 
kindergarten  system  been  successfully  conducted.  In  America  alone  has 
it  found  its  true  home.  Every  child  in  the  United  States,  native  or  foreign, 
should  have  the  right  to  be  admitted  into  the  pubHc  schools  at  the  age  of 
four.  We  have  planned  to  save  the  lives  of  one  hundred  thousand  chil- 
dren. What  are  we  saving  them  for  ?  The  70  per  cent  who  never  advance 
beyond  the  elementary  school  must  have  a  fighting  chance  in  the  face  of  the 
stern  demands  of  modern  civilization. 

Removing  difficulties  confronting  children  at  the  start  is  a  fundamental 
civic  duty  of  which  our  enlightened  educators  are  becoming  aware.  We 
must  plan  to  do  this  without  waste  of  time.  What  the  psychologists  call 
the  highly  emotional  period  under  the  age  of  six  cannot  be  neglected.  It 
is  most  economical  to  give  our  city  children  ample  space  for  play.  All 
four-year-old  children  should  be  under  the  expert  guidance  of  a  kinder- 
gartner  at  least  three  hours  of  every  day.  There  is  no  necessity  for  formal- 
ism. When  each  child's  development  is  carefully  guided  the  kindergartner 
becomes  a  playmate  rather  than  a  teacher.  The  social  responsibihties, 
the  vocabulary  of  experience  begun  in  the  kindergarten  should  be  con- 
tinuously carried  on  in  the  grades,  and  creative  power  and  initiative  should 
be  nurtured. 

FURTHER   SUGGESTIONS   FOR  A   WAR   MODIFIED  PROGRAM 

'*  Faith  without  works  "  will  never  bring  about  the  necessary  elementary- 
school  reforms  which  are  being  suggested  for  present  emphasis.  In  con- 
servative cities  planned  only  for  adults  httle  children  will  some  day  "come 
into  their  own!" 

1.  More  gardens  and  outdoor  playgrounds  must  be  establisht  in  connec- 
tion with  every  kindergarten. 

2.  More  kindergartens  and  regular  lower-grade  work  must  be  done 
outdoors. 


134  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [General 

3.  More  excursions,  autobus  rides,  and  daily  trips  must  be  taken  by 
city  classes  in  order  that  abstract  and  artificial  impression  may  be  counter- 
acted. 

4.  More  teachers  must  be  trained  both  for  primary  and  for  kinder- 
garten service.  These  teachers  should  be  capable  of  carrying  on  the  work 
with  the  children  into  the  first  and  second  grades. 

5.  More  normal  schools  will  have  to  organize  kindergarten  departments 
to  meet  the  demands  for  teachers  for  the  youngest  children. 

6.  The  supervision  of  both  kindergarten  and  primary  years  should  be 
vested  in  one  person,  understanding  and  trained  for  both  and  preferably 
with  teaching  experience  in  both.  In  no  better  way  can  the  unity  between 
the  kindergarten  and  the  school  be  establisht. 

7.  Scientists  and  medical  experts  are  now  telling  us  that  no  inexperienst 
teacher  should  be  placed  in  charge  of  the  delicate  task  of  educating  and 
guiding  young  children  in  these  formative  years. 

8.  As  Dr.  Dewey  tells  us,  moral  principles  should  pervade  every  act  and 
attitude  of  school  work. 

In  our  first  year  of  war  juvenile  crime  increast  20  per  cent  in  New  York 
City,  notwithstanding  the  experiences  of  Europe.  Since  young  children 
can  reap  only  the  savage  end  of  war,  it  is  imperative  that  we  plan  very 
definitely  in  these  impressionable  years  for  the  construction  of  the  moral 
fiber  of  the  nation.  Upon  this  depends  America's  future  unity  and  per- 
manent peace. 

In  addition  to  the  moral  and  intellectual  work  with  the  children,  the 
gradual  transformation  of  the  ignorant  foreign  home  made  possible  thru 
the  services  of  the  kindergartner  by  her  constant  neighborhood  visiting  and 
holding  of  mothers'  meetings  will,  in  the  coming  year  as  in  the  past,  be  her 
chief  contribution  to  Americanization  work. 

In  conclusion,  what  is  our  personal  part,  our  own  definite,  constructive 
program,  for  the  Children's  Year  ?  What  are  we  individually  going  to  do 
in  1918-19  about  the  nation's  "forgotten  army"?  Not  only  how  many 
children's  lives  are  we  to  save,  but  how  many  children  are  to  be  placed  in 
kindergartens?  How  many  in  playgrounds?  How  many  foreign  homes 
are  we  to  influence?  How  many  foreign  mothers  are  we  to  reach  with 
friendly  counsel  for  their  own,  as  well  as  for  their  children's,  sake  ? 

We  have  long  protected  our  forests;  we  have  planted  and  cultivated 
our  war  gardens,  and  now,  during  the  Children's  Year,  while  we  encourage 
the  growth  of  our  country's  corn,  we  will  not  forget  to  guard  the  growth  of 
our  future  citizens. 


THE  NATIONAL  COUNCIL  OF  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 

PITTSBURGH  MEETING 


OFFICERS 


President — William  B.  Owen,  Principal,  Chicago  Normal  College Chicago,  111. 

Vice-President — Augustus  S.  Downing,  first  assistant  commissioner  of  education .  Albany,  N.Y. 
Secretary — Adelaide  Steele  Baylor, j Indianapolis,  Ind. 


FIRST  SESSION— Saturday  Afternoon,  June  29,  19 18 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  the  president,  at  2 :  00  p.m.,  in  the  Italian  Room  of 
the  William  Penn  Hotel. 

Dr.  Owen  spoke  on  the  present  organization  of  the  Council  by  way  of  introduction 
to  the  discussion  of  changes  in  such  organization  to  accord  with  proposed  changes  in  the 
organization  of  the  National  Education  Association,  to  make  it  more  democratic  and 
representative,  and  to  determine  how,  under  present  conditions,  the  Council  could 
best  perform  its  function  as  a  real  educational  body  of  the  National  Education 
Association. 

Interesting  resumes  of  the  history  of  the  Council  and  its  work  were  given  by  some  of 
the  older  members,  and  while  it  was  agreed  that  the  work  of  the  Council  could  be  greatly 
strengthened  by  some  changes  in  the  organization  there  was  no  unanimity  of  opinion  as  to 
how  this  might  best  be  brought  about. 

On  motion  of  L.  N.  Hines,  Crawfordsville,  Ind.,  a  committee  of  five  was  appointed  by 
the  president  to  consider  a  plan  of  reorganization  in  harmony  with  the  recommendations 
of  the  committee  for  reorganization  of  the  National  Education  Association,  and  to  report  at 
the  Tuesday  meeting.  The  following  were  named  as  members  of  that  committee:  W.  A. 
Brandenburg,  Pittsburg,  Kans.;  Katharine  D.  Blake,  New  York,  N.Y.;  Uel  W.  Lamkin, 
Jefferson  City,  Mo.;  L.  N.  Hines,  Crawfordsville,  Ind.;  Josephine  Collins  Preston, 
Olympia,  Wash. 

SECOND  SESSION — Saturday  Evening,  June  29,  19 18 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  the  president  at  8:00  p.m.,  in  the  Italian  Room  of 
the  William  Penn  Hotel. 

Arthur  H.  Chamberlain,  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Thrift  Education,  was 
invited  to  take  charge  of  the  program,  which  consisted  mainly  of  addresses  from  the 
various  members  of  his  committee. 

The  topics  for  the  evening — "Financing  the  War  thru  Thrift"  and  "Reconstruction 
thru  Conservation"  were  discust  in  the  following  papers: 

"Club  Work  and  Salvage" — Henry  R.  Daniel,  secretary,  American  Society  for  Thrift, 
Chicago,  III. 

"The  Patriotism  of  War  Savings" — S.  W.  Straus,  president,  American  Society  for 
Thrift,  New  York,  N.Y. 

135 


136  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [National 

R.  H.  Wilson,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Oklahoma  City,  Okla., 
could  not  be  present,  and  his  paper  on  "The  War-Garden  Movement"  was  read  by  Mr. 
Daniel, 

"Husbanding  Human  Resources" — Katharine  D.  Blake,  principal,  Public  School 
No.  6,  New  York,  N.Y. 

"Thrift  and  Commercial  Supremacy" — J.  A.  Bexell,  dean,  School  of  Commerce, 
State  Agricultural  College,  Corvallis,  Ore. 

Mr.  Chamberlain  gave  a  summary  and  conclusions  touching  on  the  purpose  and  plan 
of  the  committee  and  the  vital  importance  of  its  work,  and  the  discussion  was  closed  by 
Dr.  G.  D.  Strayer,  of  Columbia  University,  director  of  the  War  School  Savings  Committee, 
who  spoke  at  the  request  of  Mr.  Chamberlain  on  the  concrete  relation  of  these  problems  to 
the  schools,  as  shown  by  the  work  of  his  committee. 

THIRD  SESSION— Tuesday,  July  2,  1918 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  9:00  a.m.,  by  the  president. 

It  was  moved  and  seconded  that  when  the  business  meeting  of  the  Council  adjourned 
a  recess  be  taken  until  the  next  regular  meeting  of  the  Council. 

There  was  informal  discussion  as  to  the  time  to  be  fixt  for  such  meeting  and  the 
subjects  to  be  discust.  It  was  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the  members  present  that  the 
Council  should  meet  during  the  week  of  the  National  Education  Association  meeting, 
preferably  Monday  or  Tuesday  of  that  week. 

The  recommendations  of  the  Committee  on  Nomination  of  OflScers  and  Members 
where  vacancies  occurred  were  as  follows: 

Dr.  H.  H.  Seerly,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa,  vice-president. 

Mrs.  Ella  Flagg  Young,  Washington,  D.C.,  member  of  Executive  Committee  to  suc- 
ceed Ellen  C.  Sabin. 

Nathan  C.  Schaeffer,  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  to  succeed  Augustus  S.  Downing  as  a  member 
of  the  Committee  on  Membership. 

Carroll  G.  Pearse,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  to  succeed  himself  as  a  member  of  the  Committee 
on  Membership. 

The  following  were  appointed  members  of  the  Council  to  succeed  themselves,  with 
terms  expiring  in  1924:  Mrs.  Ella  Flagg  Young,  Washington,  D.C.;  Edwin  S.  Monroe, 
Muskogee,  Okla.;  W.  H.  Elson,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  John  W.  Carr,  Philadelphia,  Pa.; 
Grace  C.  Forsythe,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.;  Carleton  B.  Gibson,  Rochester,  N.Y.;  C.  G.  Schulz, 
St.  Paul,  Minn.;  Oscar  T.  Corson,  Columbus,  Ohio;  Adelaide  Steele  Baylor,  Indian- 
apolis, Ind. 

To  supply  vacancies  caused  by  death  or  by  the  lapsing  of  memberships  the  following 
were  named: 

Wm.  K.  Dwyer,  superintendent  of  schools,  Anaconda,  Mont.,  with  term  expiring 
in  1924,  to  succeed  Edward  C.  Elliott  (membership  lapst). 

Mrs.  Una  B.  Herri ck,  dean  of  women.  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanical  Arts, 
University  of  Montana,  Bozeman,  Mont.,  with  term  expiring  in  1919,  to  succeed  Bettie 
A.  Dutton  (deceast). 

Cora  Wilson  Stuart,  president,  Kentucky  Illiteracy  Commission,  Frankfort,  Ky., 
with  term  expiring  in  1920,  to  succeed  O.  S.  Wescott  (membership  lapst). 

W.  A.  Lewis,  president.  Fort  Hays  State  Normal  School,  Hays,  Kans.,  with  term 
expiring  in  192 1,  to  succeed  L.  E.  Wolfe  (membership  lapst). 

This  report  of  the  Committee  on  Nomination  of  Officers  and  Members  was  unani- 
mously approved  by  the  Council. 


CouncU]  THE  PATRIOTISM  OF  WAR  SAVINGS  137 

PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


I 
I 


THE  PATRIOTISM  OF  WAR  SAVINGS 

S.  W.  STRAUS,  PRESIDENT,  AMERICAN  SOCIETY  FOR  THRIFT,  NEW  YORK,  N.Y. 

America  today  stands  in  the  position  in  which  all  her  economic  problems 
must  be  solved  thru  thrift.  Whether  we  consider  plans  for  the  defeat  of  the 
sinister  forces  that  are  pounding  at  the  very  foundations  of  civilization  or 
whether  we  have  in  mind  the  smallest  details  of  home  and  business  routine, 
the  answer  remains  the  same.  America,  because  of  her  boundless  resources, 
has  been  the  last  of  the  nations  to  turn  to  thrift.  Today,  happily,  she  is 
learning  the  value  of  this  virtue  and  the  folly  of  improvidence.  The 
thrift  of  patriotism,  the  thrift  of  sacrifice,  this  is  the  spirit  of  war  savings. 
It  is  the  same  spirit  that  makes  glorious  the  heroism  of  the  boys  in  the 
trenches  of  France.  For  patriotism  is  the  same,  whether  it  be  over  there 
or  back  here. 

We  have  come  into  a  new  order  of  things.  The  days  of  right  by  might 
are  ending.  Military  autocracy  belongs  to  an  age  that  is  gone.  This  war 
marks  the  darkness  that  precedes  the  dawn  of  universal  democracy — a 
democracy  lifted  to  the  lofty  level  of  brotherhood. 

Into  the  statesmanship,  the  poHtics,  the  business  of  the  day  that  is 
breaking  just  ahead,  there  will  come  a  new  spirit — a  spirit  of  honesty, 
generosity,  and  gentleness.  The  statesmanship  of  the  world  will  be  suc- 
cessful only  in  so  far  as  it  is  honorable  and  just.  The  politician  who  achieves 
success  will  attain  his  ends  by  worthy  acts  alone.  The  business  man  must 
stand  on  the  broad  ground  of  real  brotherhood.  The  attitude  between 
employer  and  employe  will  be  that  of  man  to  man,  not  of  master  to  slave. 
Every  man  must  practice  thrift,  and  every  man  must  have  the  chance  to 
practice  it.  It  will  be  the  duty  of  every  employer  to  see  that  his  employes 
do  practice  thrift,  that  the  conditions  of  employment  are  such  that  they  can 
practice  it.  The  autocracy  of  poHtics  and  the  autocracy  of  business  have 
reacht  the  day  of  reckoning.  The  dollar  sign  is  passing  as  the  insignia  of 
ruthless  power,  and  the  day  is  dawning  when  it  shall  stand  as  the  symbol 
of  protection  to  the  weak  and  help  for  the  worthy. 

Are  we  fighting  this  war  merely  to  crush  a  coterie  of  madmen  whose 
hearts  are  beating  in  unison  with  the  cruelty  and  treachery  of  mediaevaUsm 
and  whose  standards  of  hfe  are  those  of  Frederick  the  Great  ?  Is  it  the  only 
object  of  this  war  to  demonstrate  that  the  feudal  spirit  of  the  eighteenth 
century  was  wrong?  No,  we  are  fighting  this  war  for  a  democracy  that 
shall  reach  down  and  take  root  in  the  heart  of  every  citizen  in  every  country. 
There  is  no  such  a  thing  as  a  democracy  that  is  not  universal,  any  more  than 
there  is  an  autocracy  that  is  tolerant. 

These  things  are  to  be  among  the  fruits  of  this  war.  And  into  this 
order  of  life  the  universal  practice  of  thrift  must  come,  for  thrift  is  the  very 


138  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [National 

essence  of  democracy  itself.  Thrift  is  upbuilding  and  constructive — essen- 
tials without  which  no  true  republicanism  can  permanently  endure.  These 
are  some  of  the  lessons  which  we  must  learn  from  the  great  textbook  of  pass- 
ing history.  There  never  will  come  a  time  in  our  national  life  when  thrift 
will  not  be  a  necessity.  It  is  as  vital  to  our  success  in  winning  the  war  as 
are  powder  and  steel.  And  in  the  period  of  readjustment  following  the 
war  thrift  will  be  just  as  essential.  Millions  of  men  will  come  hom.e  from  the 
war  to  take  up  again  the  occupations  of  peace.  The  present  acute  scarcity 
of  labor  will  be  ended.  The  pressing  demand  for  war  supplies  will  be 
over.  The  inflation  that  now  exists  will  subside  rapidly.  In  this  readjust- 
ment there  will  be  needlor  thrift  and  economy  to  preserve  the  equilibrium. 
And  as  the  years  go  on,  the  prodigious  losses  of  the  war  must  be  made  up 
thru  thrift.  Humanity  must  save  then  what  it  is  destroying  today.  The 
time  when  thrift  will  not  be  needed — needed  as  vitally  as  food  itself — will 
never  come. 

And  so  out  of  the  spirit  of  our  patriotism  in  war  savings  let  us  coin  a 
new  phrase — the  patriotism  of  peace  savings. 

Thrift  will  win  the  war,  and  after  the  days  of  bloodshed  are  over  the 
nations  will  bind  up  their  wounds  thru  thrift.  Thru  thrift  alone  can  the 
rebuilding  come — the  rebuilding  of  America,  the  rebuilding  of  the  world. 
In  peace  or  war  thrift  is  the  strong  right  arm  of  civilization.  Thru  it  we 
havp  made  splendid  progress  in  the  year  of  our  belhgerency.  Thru  thrift 
victory  will  come  to  us — victory  and  peace — which,  let  us  hope,  will  mark 
the  end  of  all  war  for  all  time. 


THRIFT  AND  COMMERCIAL  SUPREMACY 

J.  A.  BEXELL,  DEAN,  SCHOOL  OF  COMMERCE,  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 

CORVALLIS,    ORE. 

The  increase  of  surplus  is  accomplisht  in  any  ordinary  business  by  at 
least  four  fundamental  methods:    (i)  by  an  increast  volume  of  business; 

(2)  by  a  decreast  ratio  of  operating  expenses  to  the  volume  of  business; 

(3)  by  utilizing  more  effectively  the  capital  employed  and  every  faciUty 
.used  in  carrying  on  the  business,  including  labor,  material,  and  equipment; 
and  (4)  by  the  employment  of  new  methods  and  by  education. 

The  old  economic  doctrine  that  growth  of  wealth  depends  on  the  ability 
and  disposition  of  people  to  save  is  the  foundation  upon  which  every  suc- 
cessful business  rests;  but  this  involves  a  very  much  larger  conception  and 
interpretation  of  the  idea  of  saving  than  is  commonly  understood  by  this 
term.  It  involves  all  the  four  fundamental  methods  which  were  just  named 
as  the  requisites  to  the  growth  of  every  successful  business. 

What  has  been  said  regarding  the  success  of  an  individual  business  is 
also  true  of  larger  units,  and  it  is  true  regarding  the  growth  of  the  wealth  of 
nations.     If  we  examine  the  balance  sheet  of  the  United  States  we  find  that 


Council!  THRIFT  AND  COMMERCIAL  SUPREMACY  139 

^ 

the  per  capita  wealth  has  increast  from  $308  in  1850  to  $1965  in  191 2,  which 
is  vastly  in  excess  of  the  increast  cost  of  living.  In  1900  the  national  wealth 
was  something  over  eighty-eight  and  a  half  billions  of  dollars;  in  191 2  it 
had  risen  to  about  one  hundred  eighty-seven  and  three-fourths  billions, 
and  today  it  is  estimated  at  something  over  two  hundred  billions.  Thus 
in  twelve  years  there  has  been  a  growth  in  capital  of  approximately  eight 
billion  dollars  annually.  This  represents  the  gross  annual  national  surplus. 
Now,  just  as  in  the  individual  business  the  growth  of  the  surplus  depends 
upon  increast  volume,  decreast  ratio  of  expenditures,  increast  efficiency, 
and  improved  business  methods  and  education,  so  it  is  in  the  nation. 

We  find  that,  making  the  most  liberal  allowance  for  war  conditions  and 
for  the  increasing  cost  of  living  and  the  decreasing  purchasing  power  of 
money,  we  have  done  very  well  nationally,  gjid  that  there  has  been  an 
uninterrupted  growth  of  the  national  wealth;  and  on  this  premise  we  may 
safely  predict  a  still  more  rapid  expansion  in  the  near  future  than  in  the  past. 

But  if  we  examine  the  national  income  and  expense  account  in  detail 
we  find  that  we  have  come  far  short  of  having  managed  the  nation's  busi- 
ness as  efficiently  and  economically  as  could  have  been  done.  Thus  we 
find  on  the  expense  side  the  stupendous  total  of  over  two  billion  gallons 
of  alcoholic  beverages  consumed  in  19 16,  the  retail  cost  of  which  to  the 
consumer  is  claimed  to  exceed  thirteen  billions  of  dollars.  Last  year  we 
invested  in  pleasure  vehicles  something  over  a  billion  dollars.  The  national 
waste  in  tobacco  is  almost  beyond  computation.  In  19 16  one  and  a  half 
million  acres  were  used  in  growing  tobacco,  the  tax  on  cigarettes  alone  was 
twenty-six  million  dollars,  and  there  was  an  increase  of  four  billion  cigarettes 
consumed  in  1916  over  the  preceding  year.  For  cheap  shows  the  American 
people  expended  not  less  than  two  billion  dollars  last  year,  and  no  one  pre- 
tends to  estimate  the  time  wasted  in  this  useless  form  of  amusement.  The 
expense  items  do  not  include  the  incalculable  sum  which  represents  the 
total  waste  in  our  domestic,  commercial,  and  poHtical  economy.  The  waste 
in  fuel,  food,  and  labor  is  so  stupendous  that  figures  fail  adequately  to 
express  it. 

The  greatest  single  item  of  waste  is  undoubtedly  the  waste  of  labor. 
This  takes  the  form  of  absolute  idleness,  of  occupations  which  are  worse 
than  idleness,  of  misdirected  labor,  and  of  soldiering  on  the  job.  Nearly 
a  hundred  years  ago  John  Stewart  Mill  wrote,  ''We  look  in  vain  among  the 
working  classes  in  general  for  the  just  pride  which  will  choose  to  give  good 
work  for  good  wages."  This  reads  as  if  it  might  have  been  a  commentary 
on  the  soldiering  in  our  own  shipyards  and  on  our  own  farms. 

Since  the  foregoing  was  written  the  hopeful  order  of  Provost  General 
Crowder  has  been  issued,  compeUing  every  person  of  draft  age  to  "do  war 
work  or  fight."     Showing  the  necessity  for  the  step,  the  General  said: 

One  of  the  unanswerable  criticisms  of  the  draft  has  been  that  it  takes  men  from  the 
farms  and  useful  occupations  and  marches  them  past  crowds  of  loafers  and  idlers.     The 


140  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [National 

remedy  is  simple — to  couple  the  industrial  basis  with  other  grounds  for  exemption  and 
to  require  that  any  man  pleading  exemption  shall  also  show  that  he  is  contributing  effec- 
tively to  the  industrial  welfare  of  the  nation. 

This  is  the  greatest  single  step  toward  national  efficiency  ever  taken  by 
this  nation.  More  than  anything  else,  if  properly  enforst,  it  will  stimulate 
national  thrift  and  will  not  only  insure  victory  over  the  foe  of  freedom,  but 
insure  for  us  commercial  supremacy. 

One  of  the  greatest  lessons  that  will  be  driven  home  by  the  world- war 
is  that  a  nation's  strength  is  proportional  not  only  to  its  resources  but  to  its 
resourcefulness,  to  its  wilUngness  to  sacrifice,  and  to  its  abihty  and  disposi- 
tion to  save,  and  this  in  turn  will  determine  the  commercial  supremacy  of 
the  nation.  It  is  claimed  by  economists  that  the  potential  power  for  sav- 
ing of  the  American  people  is  upward  of  fifteen  billion  dollars  annually. 
This  means  that  we  could  maintain  our  present  standard  of  living  and 
national  wealth  and  pay  off  the  entire  debt  of  the  present  war  in  three  or  four 
years,  even  if  it  should  last  so  long  a  time. 

One  of  the  most  important  considerations  before  the  nation  is  to  study 
post-bellum  problems;  and  one  of  the  most  pertinent  of  these  problems  is  to 
organize  a  general  campaign  for  saving,  so  that  the  awakened  national 
consciousness  for  thrift  and  sane  living  may  not  again  slumber  but  be 
quickened  by  a  national  organization  for  the  service  of  all  mankind. 


THRIFT  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

ARTHUR    H.     CHAMBERLAIN,    EDITOR,    "  SIERRA    EDUCATIONAL    NEWS,"     SAN 

FRANCISCO,   CALIF. 

The  Americans  are  the  most  prodigal  people  in  the  world.  Criminal 
neglect  has  been  shown  in  our  handUng  of  the  resources  of  nature.  There 
is  great  personal  loss  and  wastage  in  time,  money,  and  energy.  Our  forests 
are  wantonly  destroyed;  our  best  soils  are  washt  to  the  sea;  our  coal, 
gas,  and  oil  are  extravagantly  used.  Water  power  is  running  to  waste. 
The  coming  of  the  war  and  the  lessons  taught  in  a  concrete  and  severe  way 
by  the  great  conflict  serve  as  object  lessons  in  bringing  to  life  many  weak- 
nesses in  our  social  fabric  and  in  our  schools.  The  suggested  changes  in 
our  mode  of  Uving  and  in  our  courses  of  study,  which  for  three  decades  have 
had  ample  exponents  in  theory,  are  now  for  the  first  time  finding  practical 
appHcation. 

Every  child  should  know  the  value  of  money,  should  work  and  earn, 
should  save  and  invest,  and  should  be  taught  how  to  spend  properly. 
Thrift  is  hot  hoarding;  it  is  use  without  waste.  There  must  be  thrift  in 
dress.  The  war  has  clearly  shown  the  necessity  for  conservation  in  food. 
There  has  been  waste  in  foodstuffs  beyond  abihty  to  estimate.  Not 
merely  in  hotels  and  restaurants  or  in  the  homes  of  the  wealthy  has  this 


Council]         DEMOCRATIC  FACTORS  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION  141 

waste  been  taking  place.  It  is  in  the  rural  communities  where  frequently 
the  greatest  waste  is  noticeable.  The  garbage  pail  and  a  false  economic 
system  have  been  persistently  and  surely  robbing  the  future  of  its  food 
heritage.  Neither  state  nor  nation  has  performed  its  full  duty  until  every 
boy  and  every  girl  has  been  taught  in  the  pubHc  schools  how  to  prepare  and 
serve  a  palatable  meal.  The  schools  today  are  helping  to  prosecute  the 
war  thru  the  collection  of  waste  materials.  Old  papers,  magazines,  iron, 
lead,  copper,  tin  foil,  bottles,  containers  of  all  sorts,  stamps,  and  various 
other  materials  are  collected  by  school  children.  Unused  garden  plots 
have  been  brought  under  cultivation,  discarded  clothing  has  been  renovated 
and  repaired,  problems  in  arithmetic  have  been  given  a  thrift  setting  thru 
application  to  food  supply,  preparation,  and  use.  The  work  of  the  Junior 
Red  Cross  and  of  War  Savings  has  shown  that  the  schools'  part  in  financing 
the  war  is  beyond  our  most  far-reaching  surmise  of  a  few  months  ago.  All 
this  is  but  a  suggestion  of  the  possibilities  for  thrift  instruction  in  the 
pubKc  schools. 

Equally  important  with  the  value  of  the  materials  thus  saved  and  used 
is  that  of  the  establishment  of  the  habit  of  thrift  on  the  part  of  the  boys  and 
girls.  This  personal  thrift  should  be  developt  into  community  thrift  and 
this  again  into  national  thrift. 


DEMOCRATIC  FACTORS  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

A.    DUNCAN  YOCUM,  PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH  AND  PRACTICE 
UNIVERSITY   OF  PENNSYLVANIA,   PHILADELPHIA,   PA. 

Educational  thinkers  and  workers  have  been  so  usefully  concerned  with 
the  contributions  that  education  can  make  to  the  war  that  the  larger  and 
more  enduring  effects  of  the  war  on  education  have  been,  for  the  time  being, 
overlookt.  As  we  emphasize  the  aspects  of  education  necessary  to  the 
winning  of  the  war  we  must  become  equally  conscious  of  those  phases  of 
education  thru  which  our  democracy  must  be  made  more  complete  and  of 
the  adjustment  of  educational  aims  and  values  to  the  great  changes  which 
the  war  has  already  brought  about  and  the  gigantic  social  and  poUtical 
problems  that  promise  to  compel  their  own  solution  at  its  close.  If 
America's  democracy  fails  to  purify  and  complete  itself  in  the  struggle 
for  its  continued  existence  it  may,  even  tho  victorious,  be  transformed  into 
some  form  of  class  control,  undemocratic  in  its  ideals  and  its  substance, 
no  matter  under  what  name  it  masquerades.  It  is  only  the  form  of  democ- 
racy that  is  preserved  and  transmitted  thru  war.  If  the  spirit  and  sub- 
stance of  democracy  are  to  be  preserved  and  made  more  universal  and 
controlling,  it  must  be  thru  education  as  well  as  war. 

The  most  immediate  and  conspicuous  eft'ect  of  the  war  on  education 
is  an  emphasis  on  the  scientific  and   technical  fields.     The  movement 


142  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [National 

already  begun  by  Dr.  Eliot  and  Dr.  Flexner  to  broaden  the  scope  of  scien- 
tific instruction  in  the  elementary  school  has  received  new  impetus  from 
the  opportunity  for  service  and  promotion  given  to  scientifically  and 
technically  trained  men  in  various  war  activities  and  the  consequent  inrush 
of  students  into  scientific  and  technical  courses  in  colleges  and  universities 
at  a  time  when  attendance  has  seriously  fallen  off  in  almost  every  other 
department. 

The  selection  and  adaptation  to  common  use  of  subject-matter  essential 
to  intelligent  citizenship  and  until  now  reserved  for  the  specialist  and  not 
even  required  of  most  college  students  constitute  a  great  national  service. 
There  is  no  little  danger,  however,  that  these  efforts  may  unite  with  the 
pressure  of  immediate  war  needs  to  give  national  sanction  to  an  overempha- 
sis on  science  in  the  course  of  study  and  a  too  exclusively  vocational  common 
school. 

The  educational  program  for  a  completer  democracy. — (i)  American 
education  must  become  more  democratic  in  its  administration  and  methods 
of  instruction.  (2)  In  courses  of  study  democratic  rights  and  duties  must 
be  more  definitely,  inclusively,  and  adequately  specified.  (3)  Specific  social 
training  must  not  only  be  prevented  from  excluding  general  education  but 
must  become  a  means  to  a  general  education  as  definitely  and  efficiently 
democratic  as  specific  training  itself.  (4)  Not  only  school  officials,  but  the 
American  people  as  a  whole,  must  be  made  more  concretely  and  certainly 
conscious  of  the  democracy  and  therefore  the  immediate  and  preeminent 
importance  of  every  phase  and  detail  of  school  work  that  is  essential  to  a 
completer  democracy.  (5)  The  education  of  Americans  to  a  completer 
democracy  is  a  national  function  which  must  not  be  left  to  the  varying 
consciousness  and  efficiency  of  community  or  state  but,  like  school  attend- 
ance itself,  must  be  compelled. 

The  obvious  need  of  more  definite  training  in  specifically  democratic  rights 
and  duties. — The  necessity  for  more  definite,  inclusive,  and  adequate  democ- 
racy in  specifically  social  phases  of  instruction  is  even  more  obvious.  The 
school  must  teach,  not  only  obedience  to  law,  but  equahty  of  legal  rights; 
not  only  the  necessity  for  taxation,  but  equality  in  levy  and  assessment. 
Every  aspect  of  equal  service  must  be  definitely  included  and  adequately 
and  economically  taught,  not  merely  as  information,  but  as  ideals,  view- 
points, and  habits  strong  enough  to  control  action  and  constitute  character. 

The  undemocracy  of  the  leisure  that  results  from  equally  trained  skill. — 
The  form  of  democracy  with  which  Americans,  both  native  and  foreign- 
born,  are  most  familiar  is  the  democracy  of  equal  opportunity,  which  in 
some  of  its  ultimate  outcomes  is  not  democratic  at  all.  InequaHties  in 
mental  abihty  are  made  more  unequal  thru  education.  Moreover,  differ- 
ences in  abihty  become  vastly  greater  as  they  are  transformed  by  equal 
education  into  inequalities  in  skill.  The  wish  to  perform  public  service 
in  accordance  with  one's  abihty,  intensified  as  it  now  is  thru  the  work  of 


Councill         DEMOCRATIC  FACTORS  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION  143 

the  school  as  a  cooperative  community,  is  splendidly  democratic.  But 
skill  itself  is  undemocratic  because  it  is  unequal  in  its  immediate  financial 
compensation  and  in  the  ultimate  social  compensations  which  represent 
the  individual  side  of  community  service. 

Democratic  social  intercourse  essential  to  a  stable  democracy. — If  it  is  to 
remain  democratic,  equal  education  to  unequal  skill  must  have  as  its  insep- 
arable concomitant  the  equal  enjoyment  of  leisure.  The  essential  factors 
in  equal  social  intercourse  are:  correctness  of  speech,  a  natural  observance 
of  fundamental  social  conventions,  combined  with  the  common  feehngs  and 
ideals  of  which  they  are  but  the  outward  expression;  ordinary  skill  in  games 
and  amusements;  common  tastes  and  appreciations;  a  breadth  of  experi- 
ence and  interest  which  thru  its  many-sidedness  is  more  likely  to  include 
much  common  to  all  individuals;  the  possession  of  general  ideas  with  com- 
mon and  definite  associations  which  suggest  common  interests  in  the  most 
varying  individual  knowledge  and  experience;  and  common  feelings,  ideals, 
and  attitudes  of  mind  as  the  educational  product  of  a  Hterature  that  emo- 
tionalizes the  older  morahties  and  what  is  most  fundamental  in  democracy. 

The  democracy  of  general  education. — To  all  this  must  be  added  a  general 
intellectual  training  in  the  sense  of  both  knowledge  and  intellectual  inter- 
ests, many-sided  enough  for  most  individuals  to  have  them  in  common,  and 
of  general  ideas  with  a  common  enough  suggestiveness  to  interrelate  widely 
different  individual  experiences.  Social  intercourse  is  not  equal  and 
democratic  when  men  look  down  upon  each  other  or  up  to  each  other  from 
isolated  intellectual  levels  and  unrelated  phases  of  human  experience. 

The  necessity  for  a  democratic  literature. — Finally  no  people  can  be  truly 
democratic  if  its  popular  literature  develops  feehngs,  ideals,  and  motives 
that  are  unmoral,  individuahstic,  or  aristocratic.  Nietzschianism  and 
supermanism  interpreted  and  made  appeaHng  thru  popular  German  htera- 
ture, with  its  contempt  for  the  "older  moralities,"  its  freedom  of  develop- 
ment for  strong  individuals,  and  its  justification  of  the  neglect,  the  misuse, 
or  the  elimination  of  the  weak,  is  the  emotional  justification  for  the  Prus- 
sianism  of  today.  What  is  most  democratic,  both  in  American  life  and  in 
the  history  of  the  race,  emotionalized  both  by  the  dramatic  content  of 
history  and  by  the  emotional  form  of  literature,  must  with  equal  complete- 
ness and  efficiency  be  transformed  into  the  ideals  and  motives  that  will 
compel  democratic  feehng  and  democratic  life. 

A  growing  consciousness  of  these  democratic  elements  already  existing  in 
American  education,  and  their  consequent  emphasis,  conspicuousness,  and 
efl&ciency  are  the  only  means  by  which  democracy  will  be  made  safe  for  the 
world  thru  education  while  the  world  is  being  made  safe  for  democracy 
thru  war. 


144  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [National 

A  NATIONAL  PROGRAM  OF  HEALTH  EDUCATION 

THOMAS  D.  WOOD,  PROFESSOR  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION,  COLUMBIA  UNIVER- 
SITY,  NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

War  throws  a  spotlight  of  convincing  clearness  upon  national  defects. 
We  are  beginning  to  suspect,  if  not  fully  to  realize,  that  even  more 
essential  and  fundamental  to  the  integrity  and  permanence  of  a  nation 
than  scientific  progress,  political  achievement,  industrial  development,  and 
economic  accomplishment  are  biological  soundness  and  fitness,  the  health 
of  the  people.  This  national  asset,  health,  while  the  most  essential,  is  at 
the  present  time  the  most  endangered,  of  all  our  natural  resources.  We  are 
appalled  at  the  number  of  our  young  men,  in  both  voluntary  and  draft 
enlistment,  who  are  incapable  of  defending  their  country,  who  are  rejected 
from  military  service  because  of  physical  and  mental  defects. 

While  types  of  disease  and  weakness  are  markedly  different  in  their 
prevalence  in  and  effects  upon  the  sexes,  still  the  welfare  of  the  nation  is,  on 
the  whole,  as  seriously  threatened  by  the  physical  limitations  of  girls  and 
women  as  by  those  of  boys  and  men. 

Some  there  are  who,  in  view  of  recent  revelations,  apprehend  this  menace 
to  the  welfare  of  the  nation.  And  yet  it  has  been  known  for  years  before 
this  great  war  engulf  t  us  that  75  per  cent  of  the  more  than  twenty  million 
school  children  of  this  country  were  handicapt  by  physical  defects. 

In  the  mobilization  of  our  nation's  resources  for  the  stupendous  task 
of  this  war,  recor4s  even  of  men  in  our  great  training  camps,  who  have  been 
accepted  as  fit  for  military  service,  show  that  in  multitudes  of  cases  and 
within  six  months  after  the  beginning  of  training  the  improvement  in  health, 
in  vitahty,  and  in  physical  and  general  efficiency  has  been  almost  incredible. 
Shall  we  not  provide  as  thoro  and  effective  health  care  and  physical  educa- 
tion for  the  children  of  our  country  as  we  furnish  for  the  young  men  in  the 
army  and  navy?  Our  schools  are  wasting  enormous  sums  in  educating, 
or  trying  to  educate,  the  children  who  are  handicapt  by  ill  health,  when  the 
expenditure  of  much  smaller  amounts  in  a  judicious  health  program  would 
produce  an  extraordinary  saving  in  economy  and  efficiency. 

Of  the  school  children  of  the  United  States  75  per  cent — 16,000,000 — 
have  physical  defects  which  are  potentially  or  actually  detrimental  to  health. 
Most  of  these  defects  are  remediable.  One  of  the  appalling  revelations  of 
recent  years  is  the  conclusion,  based  on  unrefuted  evidence,  that  the  rural 
school  children  in  this  country  are  handicapt  by  more  physical  defects  than 
the  pupils  in  the  city  schools.  While  several  significant  causes  seem  to  be 
responsible  for  this  astounding  condition,  the  present  physical  inferiority  of 
country  children  depends  in  part  upon  the  fact  that  city  children  now  receive 
more  health  care  than  do  those  in  rural  regions.  The  school  in  the  United 
States  is  the  universal,  the  officially  credited,  and  the  strategic  agency  to 
lead  in  the  educational  program  of  health,  to  standardize  the  principles 


Council]  A  NATIONAL  PROGRAM  OF  HEALTH  EDUCATION  145 

involved,  and  to  organize  and  supervise  the  social  program  for  the  care  of 
the  children's  health.  A  national  program  of  health  education,  adequate 
in  any  way  to  the  essential  needs  of  the  situation,  must  include  the  following 
items: 

1.  Health  examination  and  supervision  of  the  pupils'  health  with 
provision  for  the  following  phases:  (a)  daily  inspection  and  regulation  of 
attendance  at  school  for  the  prevention  and  control  of  acute  and  contagious 
diseases;  (b)  provision  for  the  general  health  of  the  pupils  should  include 
the  following:  (i)  health  examination  and  dental  inspection  at  least  once  a 
year,  followed  by  notification  and  advice  to  the  homes;  (2)  follow-up  health 
service  by  school  and  district  nurses,  with  cooperation  of  home  and  all 
available  organizations;  (3)  provision  for  correction  of  all  harmful,  remedi- 
able defects  by  medical  and  surgical  care  and  by  dental  and  health  cUnics ; 
(4)  warm  school  lunches  for  all  pupils  who  do  not  eat  warm  lunches  at  home. 

2.  A  healthful  school  environment.  The  schoolhouse  should  be  as 
sanitary  and  healthful  in  all  essential  particulars  as  is  the  best  home  in  the 
community.  Further,  it  should  be  pleasing  and  attractive  in  appearance, 
in  furnishings,  and  in  surroundings,  so  that  the  community  as  a  whole  may 
be  proud  of  it. 

3.  A  hygienic  school  management  which  insures  conditions  in  the  highest 
degree  favorable  and  healthful  in  methods  and  materials  of  instruction,  in 
arrangements  of  program,  in  length  of  school  day,  in  forms  of  examinations 
and  tests,  in  methods  of  grading  and  promotion,  in  arrangement  and  super- 
vision of  recesses,  in  requirements  of  home  study,  and  in  personaHty  and 
influence  of  teachers. 

4.  Effective  health  training  and  teaching  of  pupils  which  is  dependent 
upon:  (a)  inculcation  of  health  habits  affecting  the  pupil  individually  and  in 
relation  to  the  home,  school,  community,  and  the  state;  (b)  instruction  in 
facts,  principles,  and  motives  which  will  provide  the  best  basis  for  intelligent 
and  effective  action;  (c)  greater  emphasis  upon  health  than  upon  disease 
in  the  program  of  health- teaching;  (d)  greater  emphasis  upon  social  than 
upon  personal  or  individual  aspects  of  hygiene;  (e)  education  of  children 
for  responsible  parenthood. 

5.  Provision  of  an  adequate  and  rational  physical  education  with: 
(a)  well-equipt  playgrounds,  athletic  fields,  gymnasiums,  and  utilization  of 
all  available  outdoor  facihties;  (b)  employment  of  teachers  and  supervisors 
qualified  to  give  sensible  and  satisfactory  guidance  to  the  physical-training 
activities;  (c)  the  acceptance  of  useful  and  healthful  social  service  and 
vocational  activities  in  the  physical-training  program. 

6.  Better  preparation  of  teachers  for  health  education:  {a)  the  teachers 
should  be  more  carefully  selected,  and  they  should  be  more  adequately 
trained;  (b)  society  should  provide  more  favorable  conditions  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  teacher's  health  and  for  the  improved  efficiency  of  the 
teacher's  work. 


^^K      teachei 


146  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [National 

To  provide  the  essentials  of  administration  for  a  "National  Program  of 
Health  Education,"  I  submit  the  following  propositions: 

1.  That  a  comprehensive,  thorogoing  program  of  health  education  and 
physical  education  is  absolutely  needed  for  all  boys  and  girls  of  elementary- 
and  secondary-school  age,  both  rural  and  urban,  in  every  state  in  the 
Union. 

2.  That  legislation,  similar  in  purpose  and  scope  to  the  provisions  and 
requirements  in  the  laws  recently  enacted  in  California,  New  York  state, 
and  New  Jersey,  is  desirable  in  every  state,  to  provide  authorization  and 
support  for  state- wide  programs  in  the  health  and  physical-education  field. 

3.  That  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  should  be  empowered  by 
law  and  provided  with  sufficient  appropriations  to  exert  adequate  influence 
and  supervision  in  relation  to  a  nation-wide  program  of  instruction  in  health 
and  physical  education. 

4.  That  it  seems  most  desirable  that  Congress  should  give  recognition 
to  this  vital  and  neglected  phase  of  education,  with  a  bill  and  appropriation 
similar  in  purpose  and  scope  to  the  Smith-Hughes  Law,  to  give  saiiction, 
leadership,  and  support  to  a  national  program  of  health  and  physical  educa- 
tion; and  to  encourage,  standardize,  and  in  part  finance  the  practical  pro- 
gram of  constructive  work  that  should  be  undertaken  in  every  state. 

5.  That  federal  recognition,  supervision,  and  support  are  urgently 
needed,  as  the  effective  means  under  the  Constitution,  to  secure  that  uni- 
versal training  of  boys  and  girls  in  health  and  physical  fitness  which  are 
equally  essential  to  the  efficiency  of  all  citizens  both  in  peace  and  in  war. 

A  French  war  correspondent  said  recently,  "  I  wish  you  knew  our  French 
lieutenant.  He  is  one  of  the  finest  men  I  ever  hope  to  know.  He  makes 
you  feel  that  even  more  than  the  great  cathedrals  he  should  be  guarded  and 
protected — for  France."  And  so  I  say  to  you — I  wish  you  appreciated  the 
children  and  youth  of  this  RepubHc.  They  make  up,  in  possibiUties,  the 
finest  gwieration  of  human  beings  that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  They 
make  you  feel  that,  even  more  than  the  great  museums  and  monuments, 
more  than  great  industrial  plants  and  ships,  more  than  great  skyscrapers 
and  cathedrals,  they  should  be  guarded  and  protected,  cultivated  and 
developt,  for  America — for  the  world. 


CLUB  WORK  AND  SALVAGE 

HENRY   R.    DANIEL,    SECRETARY,   AMERICAN   SOCIETY   FOR   THRIFT, 
CHICAGO,    ILL. 

The  various  phases  of  thrift  work  being  accomplisht  by  organizations 
are  so  manifold  that  complete  enumeration  of  these  activities  is  impossible 
in  this  brief  space,  and  one  can  give  only  the  general  trend  of  these  accom- 
plishments. 


Councill  CLUB  WORK  AND  SALVAGE  147 

In  the  matter  of  increast  food  production  our  war  gardens  last  season 
produced  crops  valued  at  $350,000,000.  Much  of  this  work  was  organized 
by  the  various  state  councils  of  defense,  with  valuable  aid  from  the  Food 
Administration,  school  organizations,  and  farm  and  garden  clubs.  The 
vast  amount  of  new  food  products  produced  by  war  gardens  serves  as  an 
illustration  of  the  hmitless  food-producing  possibiUties  of  the  United  States, 
working  under  conditions  of  thoro  organization. 

In  the  matter  of  salvage — the  elimination  of  waste — the  same  condi- 
tion is  presented.  Notable  results  have  been  accomplisht  here  and  there, 
and  a  citation  of  some  of  the  most  interesting  follows:  At  a  recent  meeting 
of  the  waste-paper  dealers  the  announcement  was  made  that  since  the  war 
the  junk  business  in  America  has  grown  from  one  hundred  million  dollars 
annually  to  a  billion;  in  other  words,  there  is  an  increast  salvage  of  nine 
hundred  million  dollars  a  year.  Club  activity  has  been  responsible  for 
much  of  this,  particularly  for  the  saving  and  selling  waste  paper.  At 
Des  Moines,  Iowa,  for  example,  the  school  children  gathered  and  sold 
$2,000  worth  of  waste  paper  in  a  week.  Similar  results  were  obtained  in 
many  other  American  cities  where  various  organizations  assisted  the  schools 
in  gathering  junk  of  all  kinds  and  placing  it  on  the  market. 

The  Council  of  Defense  in  Milwaukee  has  successfully  inaugurated  a 
plan  of  getting  fish  in  large  quantities  from  the  lake  and  selling  them  to  the 
poor  people  of  the  city  at  prices  ranging  from  five  to  seven  cents  a  pound. 
We  believe  that  this  plan  could  be  operated  in  many  other  places  under 
club  management,  thus  permitting  many  poor  people  to  save  money  who 
cannot  now  do  so  because  of  the  high  cost  of  living. 

Early  in  the  war  fish  dealers  of  northern  CaHfornia  formed  an  exchange 
and  appropriated  5  per  cent  of  their  gross  sales  as  an  advertising  fund. 
The  public  was  given  instructions  in  the  food  values  of  varieties  of  fish 
that  hitherto  had  little  or  no  market  demand.  As  a  result  the  average 
price  of  the  fish  to  the  consumers  in  northern  California  was  lowered  10  per 
cent.  This  result  was  secured  at  an  average  cost  of  about  2  per  cent  on 
wholesale  sales  in  a  single  month.  Hundreds  of  tons  of  good  fish  are  now 
being  used  as  food,  which  formerly  were  dumpt  back  into  the  sea,  or  were 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  glue  and  fertilizer,  being  sold  for  these  commer- 
cial purposes  at  five  to  ten  cents  a  pound,  while  the  public  was  paying  a 
high  price  for  halibut,  salmon,  striped  bass,  smelt,  and  tenderloin  of  sole 
fifteen  days  after  the  fish  had  been  caught  in  northern  waters. 

In  Omaha,  Neb.,  the  garbage  from  a  chain  of  restaurants  is  fed  to  four 
hundred  hogs,  of  which  one  hundred  are  ready  for  slaughter  every  three 
months. 

The  Cotton  Seed  Crushers'  Association  of  New  Orleans  is  developing 
the  possibilities  of  cotton  seed  for  food,  and  at  a  recent  banquet  served 
cakes,  cookies,  and  pastry  of  various  kinds  made  of  a  combination  of  cotton- 
seed flour  and  white  flour. 


148  NATIONAL   EDUCATION   ASSOCIATION  [National 

A  process  of  producing  wood  alcohol  from  sawdust  has  been  workt 
out  by  the  Forestry  Products  Laboratory,  of  Madison,  Wis.,  by  which 
one  ton  of  dry  sawdust,  worth  fifty  cents,  will  produce  fifteen  to  twenty- 
five  gallons  of  190-proof  spirit.  A  plant  large  enough  to  distil  from  2500 
to  3000  gallons  of  alcohol  daily  can  manufacture  wood  alcohol  at  a  cost  of 
from  fourteen  to  twenty  cents  a  gallon. 

In  Mobile,  Ala.,  a  brewery  has  been  turned  into  a  factory  to  manu- 
facture vinegar  from  watermelons.  The  juice  is  used  for  this  purpose,  and 
the  rinds  are  fed  to  stock. 

At  a  number  of  places  on  the  Pacific  Coast  whale  meat  is  now  being 
packt  and  shipt,  while  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  shark  meat  is  coming  into 
general  use.  We  are  told  that  at  a  recent  banquet  given  by  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce  at  Raleigh,  N.C.,  a  mysterious  dish  planned  and  served  by 
the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  proved  to  be  creamed  shark. 

The  Jefferson  market,  which  has  been  operated  there  since  1832,  has 
for  many  years  meant  a  loss  to  the  taxpayers  of  more  than  $18,000  a  year, 
but  now  bids  fair  to  be  turned  to  a  profitable  venture.  How  far  the  coopera- 
tive idea  can  with  success  be  carried  in  America  is  a  problem.  In  England 
we  have  the  spectacle  of  cooperators  buying  sugar  in  their  own  stores  at 
one-third  or  one-fifth  the  price  their  neighbors  pay  the  corner  grocery. 

We  are  told  by  statisticians  that  French  cooperative  societies,  most 
important  of  which  is  the  French  Wholesale  Society,  represent  a  total 
cooperative  trade  of  more  than  five  million  francs  a  year,  and  the  saving 
of  about  10  per  cent  to  the  consumer,  not  all  of  which  comes  out  of  the 
retailers'  pockets,  but  which  is  largely  accounted  for  in  the  elimination  of 
waste  thru  unscientific  and  improvident  methods  of  distribution. 

We  believe  that  the  government,  both  during  the  period  of  the  war,  and 
afterward,  should  foster  and  encourage  all  public  organizations  which  have 
for  their  object  the  increase  in  salvage  of  food  and  other  materials.  It  will 
take  generations  to  develop  a  system  of  organizations  which  will  bring  about 
a  condition  in  the  eUmination  of  waste  such  as  existed  in  France  before  the 
war,  but  we  are  now  on  the  right  road.  Time,  patience,  and  persistency 
will  bring  about  the  desired  results. 


THE  WAR  GARDEN  MOVEMENT 

R.  H.  WILSON,  STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  OKLAHOMA 

CITY,   OKLA. 

The  problem  of  financing  the  war  will  not  be  solved  by  a  treaty  of  peace. 
Years  after  the  guns  have  ceast  to  thunder  our  people  will  still  be  financing 
this  war.  How  many  years  will  be  required  will  depend  largely  upon  the 
thriftiness  of  our  people  after  the  war  as  well  as  during  the  war.  France 
in  1870  gave  us  the  example  we  need  of  the  healing  powers  of  thrift.  Let 
us  as  school  men  and  women  prepare  to  keep  aHve  those  organizations 


Council)  THE  WAR  GARDEN  MOVEMENT  149 

devoted  to  thrift  teaching  and  thrift  practices,  to  the  end  that  our  nation 
may  furnish  the  brilliant  example  of  the  healing  powers  of  thrift  during 
the  twentieth  century. 

As  a  means  of  financing  the  war  thru  thrift,  the  war  garden  offers  excep- 
tional opportunities.  The  money  spent  for  canned  vegetables  by  people 
who  can  just  as  well  produce  these  products  at  home  may  be  and  is  being 
releast  for  war  service  in  communities  where  war  gardens  flourish.  The 
labor,  cargo  space,  and  expense  of  transporting  these  canned  products  from 
the  canning  factories  to  the  consumers  is  saved  by  home  production  and 
releast  for  war  service. 

In  Oklahoma  the  military  plan  of  organization  has  been  adapted  as 
largely  as. possible  to  the  local  organizations.  This  proves  very  effective, 
especially  among  the  children.  Many  devices  have  been  employed  to 
stimulate  interest  and  impress  upon  the  people  as  a  whole  the  importance 
of  producing  as  much  food  as  possible  at  home,  whether  that  home  be  a 
small  city  lot  or  a  large  ranch.  The  movement  is  not  confined  to  the  chil- 
dren. The  adults  are  being  reacht  thru  the  agency  of  the  county  councils 
and  war  committees.  Rubber  stamps  bearing  such  suggestions  as  "Food 
Will  Win  the  War;  Help  Produce  It,"  "Grow  a  Garden,"  etc.,  have  been 
used  freely  on  outgoing  mail.  Posters  with  specific  directions  for  planting, 
cultivating,  and  conserving  garden  vegetables  have  been  distributed.  The 
public  press  has  generously  devoted  pages  of  space  to  the  movement,  the 
articles  printed  being  prepared  by  the  specialists  in. charge  of  the  Garden 
Bureau. 

The  results  of  this  campaign  and  organization  have  been  very  gratifying 
indeed.  The  back  yards  in  cities  have  become  productive  vegetable 
gardens,  the  farms  where  heretofore  no  vegetables  were  produced  are  now 
suppHed  with  home  gardens,  some  of  them  planted  in  the  middle  of  fields, 
where  they  will  be  undisturbed  by  chickens,  this  being  the  first  year  such 
farms  have  seen  fit  to  grow  their  own  vegetables.  Reports  received  up 
to  June  I,  1918,  showed  that  there  were  338,500  war  gardens  in  Oklahoma, 
having  an  estimated  value  of  $16,000,000. 

This  home-garden  movement  in  Oklahoma  is  typical  of  the  movement 
thruout  the  nation.  It  is  so  important  as  a  means  of  teaching  thrift  that 
we  as  school  men  and  women  should  begin  now  to  plan  to  inherit  the  orga- 
nization that  has  been  built  up  and  administer  it,  if  necessary,  in  the  future 
that  will  follow  the  war,  as  a  means  of  keeping  alive  those  impulses  of  thrift 
that  have  been  born  admits  the  storm  of  war. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  KINDERGARTEN  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — Netta  Farris,  principal,  Kindergarten  Training  School Cleveland,  Ohio 

Secretary — Lillian  Poor,  assistant  director  of  kindergartens Boston,  Mass. 


h 


FIRST  SESSION— Tuesday  Afternoon,  July  2,  1918 

The  meeting  convened  in  Carnegie  Music  Hall  at  2:00  p.m.,  with  Miss  Netta  Farris 
presiding.  In  the  absence  of  the  secretary,  Miss  Poor,  Miss  Farris  appointed  Miss  Ella 
Ruth  Boyce  as  acting  secretary. 

The  topic  for  the  afternoon  was  "Conservation  of  Child  Life,"  and  the  following 
program  was  presented: 

"Conservation  of  Child  Life": 

"In  America" — Elizabeth  Harrison,  president.  National  Kindergarten  and  Ele- 
mentary College,  Chicago,  111. 

"In  Europe" — Fannibelle  Curtis,  supervisor  of  kindergartens.  New  York,  N.Y. 

Miss  Ella  Merritt,  of  the  Children's  Bureau  of  the  Department  of  Labor,  gave  an 
account  of  the  work  of  the  Bureau. 

Music  for  the  program  consisted  of  two  groups  of  songs  sung  by  Pittsburgh  kinder- 
gartners,  Mr.  Will  Earhart  conducting,  and  Miss  Grace  Everson,  composer,  at  the  piano. 

A  nominating  committee  was  appointed  to  report  at  a  business  meeting  after  the 
joint  meeting  of  Kindergarten,  Elementary,  and  School  Garden  Association,  July  4,  as 
follows: 

Anna  Harvey,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  chairman. 

Myra  Winchester,  Washington,  D.C. 

Meredith  Smith,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

SECOND  SESSION— Thursday  Afternoon,  July  4,  1918 

Joint  Session  of  Kindergarten,  Elementary,  and  School  Garden  Association,  Carnegie 
Music  Hall,  at  2 :  00  p.m. 

General  Topic — A  mericanization 

Miss  Farris,  presiding  for  the  Kindergarten  Section,  presented  Dr.  Caroline  Hedger, 
of  Chicago,  who  spoke  on  "The  Kindergarten  as  a  Factor  in  Americanization." 

Business  Meeting 

The  meeting  was  held  in  Carnegie  Music  Hall  at  4:30  p.m..  Miss  Farris  presiding. 
The  report  of  the  nominating  committee  was  called  for.     In  Miss  Harvey's  absence 
Miss  Winchester  reported  for  the  committee  as  follows: 

President— Ella.  Ruth  Boyce,  director  of  kindergartens,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Vice-President— Edna.  Baker,  National  Kindergarten  College,  Chicago,  III. 
Secretary — Barbara  Greenwood,  State  Normal  School,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 
These  officers  were  elected  unanimously  and  the  meeting  adjourned. 


151 


152  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


WHAT  THE  GOVERNMENT  IS  DOING  TO  CONSERVE 
CHILD  LIFE 

ELLA  ARVILLA  MERRITT,   CHILDREN'S   BUREAU,   DEPARTMENT   OF  LABOR, 
WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

Merely  to  enumerate  all  the  activities  of  our  national  government — to 
say  nothing  of  those  of  state  and  city  governments — which  help  in  the 
conservation  of  child  life  in  its  broadest  sense  would  require  more  time 
than  we  have  to  devote  to  this  subject.  It  seems  wisest  to  confine  this 
discussion  to  those  phases  of  government  work  with  which  I  am  most 
famihar — the  varied  activities  of  the  Children's  Bureau. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  Children's  Bureau,  according  to  the  act  which 
created  it,  "to  investigate  and  report  upon  all  matters  pertaining  to  the 
welfare  of  children."  With  the  single  exception  of  the  enforcement  of  the 
United  States  Child  Labor  Act,  which  is  now  declared  unconstitutional,  and 
which  will  be  discust  later,  the  scope  of  the  Bureau's  work  is  limited  to  those 
two  duties — to  investigate  and  to  report.  If  we  investigate  fully  enough 
and  report  loud  enough  somebody  else  may  do  something.  And  it  is  this 
obtaining  of  cooperation  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  most 
interesting  phases  of  our  work. 

Prevention  of  infant  mortality  is  perhaps  the  most  obvious  method  of 
conserving  child  life,  and  the  first  field  investigation  undertaken  by  the 
Bureau  was  an  inquiry  into  why  babies  die  and  what  the  conditions  are 
under  which  they  have  the  best  chance  of  life.  This  inquiry,  beginning  in 
19 13,  was  planned  to  extend  over  several  years  and  to  cover  various  typical 
communities  thruout  the  country.  Studies  have  been  made  in  nine  cities — 
Johnstown,  Pa.;  Montclair,  N.J.;  Manchester,  N.H.;  Brockton,  Mass.; 
Saginaw,  Mich.;  New  Bedford,  Mass.;  Waterbury,  Conn.;  Akron,  Ohio; 
and  Baltimore,  Md. 

In  making  these  studies  the  mothers  of  all  babies  born  in  a  certain 
selected  year  are  visited  by  the  women  agents  of  the  Bureau.  Since 
"infant  mortaUty,"  technically,  means  the  percentage  of  babies  born  who 
die  before  they  reach  one  year  of  age,  we  select  a  year  just  far  enough  in  the 
past  so  that  the  babies  will  have  had  a  chance  to  survive  that  dangerous 
first  year.  In  their  interviews  with  the  mother  our  agents  discover  and 
record  the  most  essential  facts  affecting  the  baby's  life  and  health. 

The  results  of  these  studies  are  twofold:  the  effect  upon  the  particular 
community  and  a  contribution  to  the  body  of  knowledge  of  the  social 
causes  of  unnecessary  infant  mortality.  The  whole  city  becomes  interested. 
The  help  of  the  mothers  has  been  generous.  Publicity  is  given  to  the  work 
by  the  press,  by  clergymen,  by  city  authorities,  and  by  local  organizations. 
The  problem  of  how  best  to  safeguard  the  lives  and  health  of  its  children 


Department!  THE  GOVERNMENT  CONSERVES  CHILD  LIFE  153 

(for  the  same  conditions  that  make  babies  die  weaken  the  children  who  sur- 
vive) is  brought  vividly  to  the  attention  of  the  city  as  a  whole,  and 
efforts  to  remedy  specific  local  conditions  are  stimulated. 

Leaving  these  more  elaborate,  intensive  studies,  we  may  consider  other 
methods  by  which  the  Children's  Bureau  is  bringing  before  the  people  of 
the  country  information  as  to  the  needs  of  mothers  and  young  children. 
Since  the  estabHshment  of  the  Bureau  cooperation  has  been  maintained 
with  women's  clubs  in  the  different  states.  Birth-registration  tests,  some 
of  them  under  the  direction  of  the  Bureau,  have  been  made  by  different  com- 
munities, and  the  need  for  better  birth-registration  laws  have  been  empha- 
sized. Reports  on  the  different  kinds  of  infant-welfare  work  done  in  a 
large  number  of  communities  in  the  United  States  have  been  summarized. 
A  series  of  popular  bulletins  on  the  care  of  mothers  and  children  have  been 
planned — bulletins  no  less  scientific  because  written  in  simple  language. 
Two  of  these,  Prenatal  Care  and  Infant  Care,  were  publisht  during  the  first 
two  years  of  the  Bureau's  existence  and  another  {Child  Care)  is  in  press. 

But  some  definite  method  of  arousing  nation-wide  publicity  and  interest 
seemed  essential,  and  to  meet  this  need  Baby  Week  was  suggested.  The 
first  nation-wide  Baby  Week  was  held  in  19 16,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Children's  Bureau  and  the  General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  and 
another  was  held  last  year.  Baby  Week  is  a  distinctly  community  cele- 
bration, its  aim  being  to  arouse  public  interest  in  the  local  needs  of  maternity 
and  infancy  and  to  emphasize  the  community  responsibility.  It  is  carried 
out  thru  the  cooperation  of  public  and  private  organizations,  state  and  local 
health  officials,  extension  divisions  of  universities,  and  all  types  of  local 
and  national  child-welfare  institutions.  One  of  the  definite  results  has  been 
an  increasing  realization  of  the  importance  of  public-health  nursing  and  of 
the  spread  of  knowledge  of  proper  methods  of  maternity  and  infant  care. 
FoUpw-up  work  carried  on  by  the  different  communities  has  resulted  in  many 
cases  in  definite  improvement  in  local  conditions — the  employment  of  more 
public-health  nurses,  organization  of  infant-welfare  stations  or  free  clinics, 
or  provision  for  medical  and  dental  exammations  in  the  public  schools. 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  certain  groups  of  children — dependents, 
defectives,  and  delinquents — are  in  need  of  special  care  and  attention  on  the 
part  of  the  state.  Three  studies  of  mentally  defective  children  have  been 
made  by  the  Children's  Bureau.  Two  of  them,  A  Social  Study  of  Mental 
Defectives  in  Newcastle  County,  Delaware,  already  issued,  and  a  Study  of 
Mental  Defectives  in  Sussex  County,  Delaware,  practically  completed,  have 
been  carried  on  in  cooperation  with  the  United  States  Public  Health  Service. 
A  study  of  state  agencies  caring  for  dependent  children  is  planned.  The 
problem  of  juvenile  delinquency  has  been  taken  up  from  two  points  of  view. 
Studies  of  juvenile  delinquency  in  rural  New  York  and  of  children  before  the 
courts  in  Connecticut  are  in  the  press,  and  a  general  survey  of  methods 
followed  by  juvenile  courts  is  being  made  by  means  of  questionnaires  sent 


154  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

to  judges  and  probation  officers  thruout  the  country.  A  brief  report  on 
Juvenile  Delinquency  in  the  European  Countries  at  War  has  also  been  pre- 
pared. 

One  of  the  especially  important  aspects  of  child  conservation  has  to  do 
with  the  problem  of  child  labor.  In  the  legal  significance  of  the  word  a  child 
is  an  infant  until  he  is  twenty-one  years  old,  and  until  our  children  have 
reacht  manhood  and  womanhood,  during  all  the  years  of  physical  and 
mental  change  and  development,  they  are  entitled  to  the  special  protection 
of  the  state.  With  the  idea  of  fixing  a  certain  minimum  standard  of  child 
protection  for  the  entire  country,  below  which  no  state  should  be  allowed 
to  fall,  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  in  1916  passed  the  United  States 
Child  Labor  Act,  effective  September  i,  1917.  In  April,  1917,  an  appropria- 
tion was  made  for  the  necessary  preliminary  work  and  for  the  enforcement 
of  the  act,  and  a  new  division,  the  Child  Labor  Division,  with  the  duty  of 
enforcing  it,  was  added  to  the  Children's  Bureau. 

A  good  child-labor  law  should  fix  for  all  children  permitted  to  work  three 
minimum  standards — a  standard  of  age,  a  standard  of  health,  and  a  stand- 
ard of  education — and  it  should  determine  hours  and  conditions  of  work. 
The  United  States  Child  Labor  Law  did  two  of  these  things  for  a  certain 
group  of  children.  It  prohibited  the  shipment  in  interstate  or  foreign 
commerce  of  the  products  of  factories,  mills,  workshops,  manufacturing 
establishments,  canneries,  mines,  and  quarries,  if  within  thirty  days  prior 
to  their  removal  the  age  and  hour  standards  fixed  by  the  law  had  been 
violated.  These  standards  were  not  so  high  as  those  of  a  number  of  states. 
Moreover,  many  large  child-employing  occupations,  such  as  store,  mes- 
senger, and  office  work,  usually  regulated  by  state  laws,  were  entirely 
unaffected  by  the  act.  On  the  other  hand,  they  were  higher  in  certain 
respects  than  the  standards  of  the  laws  in  many  states. 

In  the  summer  of  19 17  a  test  case  was  brought  in  the  Western  Judicial 
District  of  North  Carolina,  and  the  United  States  judge  of  that  district 
enjoined  the  district  attorney  from  enforcing  the  law  on  the  ground  that  it 
was  unconstitutional.  This  decision  applied  only  to  the  Western  Judicial 
District  of  North  Carolina.  An  appeal  was  carried  to  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court,  and  during  the  nine  months  while  a  decision  was  pending 
the  act  was  enforst  in  the  other  parts  of  the  country.  The  experience  of 
these  nine  months  showed  that  the  act  was  enforceable,  that  it  protected 
many  children  unprotected  by  state  laws,  that  it  was  possible  to  obtain  the 
cooperation  of  state  and  local  officials,  and  that  the  federal  act  was  a  lever 
by  which  state  standards  could  be  raised.  On  June  3,  1918,  the  act  was 
declared  unconstitutional  by  the  Supreme  Court  by  a  vote  of  five  to 
four. 

Various  methods  of  meeting  the  emergency  caused  by  this  decision 
of  the  Supreme  Court  have  been  suggested,  and  a  new  measure  will  no  doubt 
be  framed  in  the  near  future. 


Department!  THE  GOVERNMENT  CONSERVES  CHILD  LIFE  155 

The  United  States  Child  Labor  Law,  however,  toucht  only  one  of  the 
many  legislative  aspects  of  the  problem  of  child  conservation,  all  of  which, 
with  this  exception — and  this  for  the  present — are  in  the  hands  of  the  indi- 
vidual states.  Each  state  has  so  large  and  complicated  a  body  of  laws 
affecting  children  that  it  is  difficult  for  even  a  person  very  much  interested 
in  the  subject  to  know  exactly  what  are  the  laws  which  are  helping  to  con- 
serve— or  to  destroy — child  life  in  his  own  state.  In  order  to  make  this 
knowledge  available  the  Children's  Bureau  is  preparing  a  complete  reference 
index  of  all  the  laws  in  each  state  relating  to  child  welfare.  For  about  half 
the  states  this  index  has  been  completed.  A  copy  of  the  index  for  any 
state  will  be  sent,  upon  application,  to  anyone  to  whom  it  will  be  of  use.  It 
is  especially  valuable  to  persons  working  for  the  revision  and  codification 
of  their  state  laws  relating  to  children.  This  index  covers  laws  relating  to 
parent  and  child,  offenses  against  the  child,  health  and  sanitation,  recrea- 
tion, child  labor  and  school  attendance,  and  laws  relating  to  defective,  dehn- 
quent,  and  dependent  children. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — Alice  L.  Harris,  assistant  superintendent  of  schools Worcester,  Mass. 

Vice-President — Dora  M.  Moore,  principal,  Corona  School Denver,  Colo. 

Secretary — Alfie  O.  Freel,  principal,  Linnton  School Portland,  Ore. 


FIRST  SESSION— Tuesday  Forenoon,  July  2,  1918 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  President  Alice  L.  Harris  at  nine  o'clock  in 
Music  Hall,  Carnegie  Institute. 

After  patriotic  singing  led  by  Frederick  L.  Davies,  Westinghouse  High  School,  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  the  following  papers  under  the  topic  "A  New  Curriculum  for  a  New  Democ- 
racy" were  given: 

"The  Body  a  Fit  and  Perfect  Tool "— Katherine  D.  Blake,  principal.  Public  School 
No.  6,  New  York,  N.Y. 

"Manual  Arts  for  Social  Needs  and  Daily  Living" — John  G.  Thompson,  principal, 
Fitchburg  Normal  School,  Fitchburg,  Mass. 

"The  Demands  for  a  More  Vital  Academic  Contest" — Lotus  D.  Hoffman,  dean, 
College  of  Education,  University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Discussion — William  M.  Davidson,  superintendent  of  schools,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.; 
W.  T.  Bawden,  specialist  in  industrial  education.  Bureau  of  Education;  Otis  W.  Caldwell, 
director,  Lincoln  School,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.Y. 

SECOND  SESSION— Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3,  191 8 

The  following  program  was  presented: 

"Training  for  Social  Adjustment — the  Citizens  of  the  Future" — John  W.  Withers, 
superintendent  of  schools,  St,  Louis,  Mo.;  Mary  D.  Bradford,  superintendent  of  schools, 
Kenosha,  Wis.,  took  the  place  of  John  W.  Withers  on  the  program. 

"A  Better  Appreciation  of  Cultural  Values" — Nathan  C.  Schaeffer,  state  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction,  Harrisburg,  Pa. 

Discussion:  "A  Better  Appreciation  of  Ethical  Values" — A.  R.  Brubacher,  president. 
State  College  for  Teachers,  Albany,  N.Y.;  Mary  D.  Bradford,  superintendent  of 
schools,  Kenosha,  Wis.;  N.  H.  Chaney,  superintendent  of  schools,  Youngstown,  Ohio; 
Iva  Lowther  Peters,  fellow  in  sociology,  Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass. 

THIRD  SESSION— Thursday  Afternoon,  July  4,  1918 

Joint  session  with  the  Kindergarten  Department  and  the  School  Garden  Association. 

The  following  papers  were  given  under  the  topic,  "Americanization": 

"The  Kindergarten  as  a  Factor  in  Americanization" — Caroline  Hedger,  National 
Kindergarten  Association,  New  York,  N.Y. 

"Spoken  English  as  a  Factor  in  Americanization" — Earl  Barnes,  lecturer,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

"Americanization  thru  School  Gardens" — ^Van  Everie  Kilpatrick,  president.  School 
Garden  Association,  New  York,  N.Y. 

Discussion — David  B.  Johnson,  president,  Winthrop  College,  Rock  Hill,  S.C. 

Discussion  of  Entire  Program — G.  Stanley  Hall,  president,  Clark  University,  Wor- 
cester, Mass. 

157 


158  A^^  TIONA  L  EDUCA  flON  A SSOCtA  TtON  [Elementary 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


MANUAL  ARTS  FOR  SOCIAL  NEEDS  AND  FOR  DAILY  LIVING 

JOHN    G.    THOMPSON,  PRINCIPAL,    FITCHBURG    NORMAL    SCHOOL,    FITCHBURG, 

MASS. 

The  war  has  taught  us  already  that  no  future  program  in  any  line  of 
work  can  be  arranged  without  considering  the  changes  which  the  war  has 
caused  and  is  likely  to  cause.  The  titanic  struggle  has  already  created  a 
new  order  in  government,  a  new  order  in  business,  and  a  new  order  in  the 
home  and  in  the  life  of  the  individual.  It  must  bring  about  in  the  coming 
years  a  new  order  in  the  school.  The  new  program  of  school  work  will  recog- 
nize the  following  facts  that  have  been  made  clear  as  never  before  by  con- 
ditions due  to  this  great  world-crisis : 

1.  The  primary  importance  of  constructive  ability,  and  the  secondary 
importance  of  books  and  book  knowledge. 

2.  Freedom  in  a  democracy  means  freedom  to  serve,  and  each  individual 
must  serve  and  conserve  for  the  benefit  of  all.  We  learn  to  serve  only  by 
serving,  and  not  by  talking  or  reading  about  it. 

3.  Every  human  being  demands  instinctively  and  persistently  an 
opportunity  for  self-expression.  The  schools  must  guide  the  pupil  to  the 
field  where  he  can  find  himself.  This  must  often  be  learned  by  trial  and 
error,  a  plan  that  has  been  too  much  derided.  The  most  efficient  military 
people  the  world  has  ever  known  are  learning  through  trial  and  error  that 
they  cannot  rule  the  world. 

4.  A  terrible  world-catastrophe  has  been  possible  chiefly  because  peoples 
do  not  know  one  another  and  one  another's  aims  and  work.  S5anpathy 
and  brotherly  love  based  upon  understanding  are  necessary  for  the  peace  and 
safety  of  the  world.  Let  the  pupil  work  in  many  fields  of  world-work,  and 
he  will,  in  finding  himself,  find  sympathy  with  all  workers. 

More  of  constructive  work  must  be  introduced  into  the  elementary  pub- 
lic schools  to  make  the  schools  miniature  reproductions  of  the  world-life. 
School  work  should  be  proportioned  as  work  is  proportioned  in  real  Ufe, 
until  such  a  time  as  the  pupil  can  intelUgently  determine  what  special  line  of 
activity  he  intends  to  follow. 

If  a  child  is  to  serve  when  older,  he  should  begin  to  serve  as  young  as 
possible,  helping  of  course  only  in  such  lines  of  work  as  will  be  pleasant 
and  profitable  to  him.  This  is  no  argument  or  suggestion  of  argument  for 
child  labor,  as  the  term  child  labor  is  usually  employed;  but  the  child 
must  be  allowed  to  try  many  fines  of  constructive  work  in  order  that  he 
may  express  himself  thru  doing,  making,  creating  something  in  the  creation 
of  which  he  takes  pride  and  pleasure. 


Department!  THE  BODY  A  FIT  AND  PERFECT  TOOL  159 

Professor  Irving  Fisher  has  recently  called  attention  to  the  fact  that 
much  of  the  unhappiness  among  the  working  classes  and  much  of  the  social 
unrest  are  due  to  the  fact  that  workers  have  no  opportunity  for  self- 
expression.  They  are  simply  cogwheels  in  the  vast  system  of  machinery. 
The  constructive  work  in  the  school  should  give  the  child  a  knowledge  of 
some  form  of  useful  employment  thru  which  he  may  express  himself — in  a 
vocation,  or  in  an  avocation  if  his  vocation  does  not  provide  for  such  expres- 
sion. 

Every  child  should  do  not  only  many  forms  of  the  world's  work,  but 
even  some  of  the  drudgery  of  the  world,  in  order  that  he  may  have  sympathy 
and  understanding  with  unskilled  labor,  just  as  in  the  army  camps  today 
wealthy  privates  who  are  college  graduates  spend  hours  in  peeling  potatoes, 
washing  dishes,  doing  janitor  work,  police  work,  and  many  forms  of 
drudgery,  and  thru  this  experience  become  better  citizens  in  a  democracy. 

The  entire  argument  is  based  upon  the  idea  that  the  true  school  is 
a  school  where  all  activities  are  real  and  prepare  for  democratic  citizenship, 
and  that  the  manual  arts  should  be  equally  real,  meeting  needs  of  the 
school,  the  home,  and  the  individual. 


THE  BODY  A  FIT  AND  PERFECT  TOOL 

KA.THERINE  DEVEREUX  BLAKE,   NEW   YORK,   N.Y. 

Three  hundred  thousand  children  die  each  year  in  our  prosperous 
land  before  they  are  five  years  old.  We  all  know  this,  but  the  figures  are 
so  huge  that  we  shut  our  eyes  and  think  of  this  mortahty  as  necessary  and 
not  our  affair.  It  is  trite  to  say  that  a  soldier  in  the  trenches  has  a  better 
chance  of  life  than  a  baby;  but  would  we  feel  so  satisfied  to  look  the  other 
way  and  forget,  if  one  were  to  say  that  a  soldier  in  the  trenches  has  a  better 
chance  of  coming  thru  the  war  uninjured  and  unmaimed  than  a  child  enter- 
ing school  has  of  going  thru  the  elementary-school  course  without  injury  ? 
Yet  when  you  count  injured  eyes  and  twisted  backs,  flat  feet  and  decayed 
teeth,  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  this  statement  is  undoubtedly  true. 

The  most  conservative  estimates  say  that  the  eyesight  of  one-third  of  the 
pupils  is  injured  by  the  time  the  eighth  year  of  school  is  reacht.  Statistics 
of  curved  backs,  of  indigestion  because  of  hasty  meals,  of  retarded  brains 
because  tasks  were  not  fitted  to  the  child's  mentahty,  of  flat  foot  and  dis- 
eased lungs  because  of  insufficient  physical  training,  of  the  results  of  neg- 
lected adenoids,  tonsils,  teeth,  and  nutrition,  are  not  yet  obtainable.  Some 
day  these  facts  will  be  studied  out,  and  then  we  may  awake  to  our  responsi- 
bilities. 

At  present  we  accept  without  study  the  archaic  school  furniture,  and  so 
sacrifice  our  children  on  the  altar  of  the  janitor  and  the  incompetent  teacher. 
Fixt  furniture  was  specially  designed  for  the  latter.     Chairs  screwed  to 


l6o  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

the  floor  cannot  be  thrown  at  the  instructor  who  fails  to  interest.  Every 
factory  pays  more  attention  to  protecting  the  eyesight  of  its  employes  than 
we  do  to  the  care  of  the  precious  eyes  of  children.  Daily,  teachers  complain 
of  work  ill  done,  without  reahzing  that  work  cannot  be  well  done  by  eyes 
that  cannot  see. 

Each  year  thousands  of  children  under  sixteen  drop  out  of  school  and 
into  the  labor  market  before  they  have  completed  the  elementary-school 
course;  into  a  labor  market  that  is  perpetually  hungry  for  the  ignorant 
and  unskilled,  to  whom  it  can  offer  wages  that  to  a  child  seem  large  but  lead 
nowhere.  Did  I  say  lead  nowhere?  All  too  frequently  the  blind-alley 
trade  leads  straight  to  unemployment,  to  the  street,  to  jail. 

The  last  item  on  any  poHtical  budget  to  receive  increast  appropriation 
is  the  request  for  school  funds.  We  cannot  afford  school  lunches.  But  we 
cheerfully  pay  the  cost  of  our  jails,  feeling  thankful  that  the  "wretches" 
whom  we  should  have  saved  are  shut  up  and  society  is  safe.  This  altho 
it  is  estimated  that  it  costs  $15,000,000  more  each  year  to  arrest,  convict, 
and  care  for  the  American  youth  under  twenty-five  in  prison  than  it  does 
to  educate  all  the  children  in  the  United  States ! 

A  little  less  money  for  prisons  and  a  little  more  for  hygienic  work  in  our 
schools  might  in  a  few  years  find  us  all  healthier  and  happier. 

Perhaps  when  teachers  realize  that  they  cannot  teach  a  hungry  child  they 
may  rebel  at  being  expected  to  perform  this  impossible  feat. 

When  teachers  are  politically  awake  and  realize  their  responsibility 
in  caring  for  the  children  we  shall  have  well-nourisht  children  who  will 
be  trained  physically  to  counteract  the  dangers  of  education;  hygienically 
designed  furniture  will  obviate  some  of  the  difficulty,  unglazed  paper  and 
proper  print  will  reduce  eyestrain,  magazine  textbooks  up  to  the  minute  in 
information  will  remove  much  of  the  danger  of  communicable  disease, 
and  camp  schools  in  the  summer  time  will  give  a  new  viewpoint  to  the 
children  of  the  city  slum.  Pupils  so  trained  will  develop  into  vigorous 
youth,  brain  and  body  alike  ready  for  any  service  that  may  come  to  them. 

Let  us  all  work  for  class  consciousness  and  class  power  among  teachers, 
so  that  this  happy  day  may  come  soon  to  the  children  of  our  fair  land. 


TRAINING  FOR  SOCIAL  ADJUSTMENT— THE  CITIZENS  OF 
THE  FUTURE 

MARY    D.    BRADFORD,    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,   KENOSHA,   WIS. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  Americanization  is  one  of  the  big 
problems  of  the  war,  and  that  it  will  loom  up  still  larger  during  the  recon- 
struction period  awaiting  us,  we  sincerely  hope,  at  no  distant  day. 

Whether  the  matter  we  are  discussing  today,  social  adjustment,  is  a 
part  of  the  Americanization  movement  or  includes  it,  or  whether  these  two 


Department)  TRAINING  FOR  SOCIAL  ADJUSTMENT  l6l 

terms  are  synonymous,  I  have  not  had  time  to  find  out,  but  I  am  going  to 
assume  that  they  are  related. 

I  am  working  in  an  industrial  city  where  Americanization  is  now  the 
great  problem.  When  I  emphasize,  by  giving  it  first  mention,  the  impor- 
tance of  attention  to  the  children  of  the  foreign-born,  and  of  those  from  the 
lower  strata  of  our  social  whole,  it  is  because  I  believe  in  the  principle  that 
my  community  or  any  community,  or  that  combination  of  communities 
which  is  the  state,  or  that  combination  of  states  which  is  the  nation,  can 
claim  no  higher  social  level  than  is  found  when  we  strike  an  average  of  all 
its  constituents;  or  to  use  the  words  of  Judd  and  Bagley  in  an  article  in 
the  School  Review  for  May,  "Effective  democracy  implies  the  highest  pos- 
sible level  of  trained  and  informed  intelligence  in  all  the  members  of  the 
democratic  group." 

This  training  and  informing  is  a  process  that  takes  time;  these  masses 
of  unassimilated  foreign-born  people  ^re  not  to  be  brought  to  an  apprecia- 
tion of  democratic  ideals  in  a  few  months.  But  now  that  we  are  really  in 
earnest  about  this  thing  it  will  go  forward  more  rapidly  than  it  has  in  the 
past,  and  this  awakening  may  be  reckoned  as  another  important  by-product 
of  the  war.  In  fact,  our  indifference  to  the  most  important  part  of  the 
Americanization  process,  that  of  using  and  understanding  the  English 
language,  has  been  so  pronounst  that  we  sometimes  find  even  the  third 
generation  from  the  foreign  land  still  foreign. 

In  many  localities  the  important  question  is  not  whether  German  shall 
be  taught,  but  whether  Enghsh  shall  be  spoken. 

One  of  the  most  important  planks  in  the  Americanization  program  must 
be  the  Americanization  of  the  homes.  We  cannot  expect  to  Americanize 
the  child  very  rapidly  when  he  spends  the  greater  part  of  his  time  in  a  foreign 
home  environment.  The  foreign-born  father,  for  industrial  or  business 
purposes,  endeavors  early  to  learn  English;  the  mother  feels  no  such  incen- 
tive. To  help  this  condition  social  workers  of  abihty  and  sympathetic 
understanding  can  find  no  better  field  for  their  endeavors  than  to  establish 
direct  relations  with  these  mothers  in  the  homes  and  teach  them  the  Enghsh 
language  and  American  ideals  of  right  living. 

After  the  appreciation  and  use  of  Enghsh,  the  first  thing  to  be  considered 
is  the  formation  of  right  health  habits,  and  the  finding  of  an  effective  method 
of  getting  the  health  lessons  given  in  the  schools  across  to  the  homes. 

The  Hutchin's  ''Code  of  Morals,"  designed  for  use  in  character  training 
of  children  by  teachers  and  parents,  supports  this  position.  Its  simple 
preamble  runs  thus:  " Boys  and  girls  who  are  good  Americans  try  to  become 
strong  and  useful,  that  our  country  may  become  ever  greater  and  better. 
Therefore,  they  obey  the  laws  of  right  living  which  the  best  Americans  have 
always  obeyed." 

These  laws  are  then  enumerated  and  the  first  one  mentioned  is  the  law 
of  health.    Thus  this  famous,  prize-winning  code  supports  the  contention 


l62  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

that  running  thru  the  school  program  from  start  to  finish  there  should  be 
health  lessons.  I  believe  that  the  effectiveness  of  these  lessons  should  be 
measured  by  the  improvement  in  the  hygienic  habits  of  the  children.  The 
right  motivation  of  this  work  is  a  most  worthy  object  of  endeavor  for  any 
teacher  or  supervisor. 

It  has  been  found  helpful  to  give  children  a  standing  on  their  monthly 
report  cards  expressing  the  judgment  of  the  teacher  on  the  success  of  the 
child  in  actually  living  up  to  the  part  he  knows  in  the  care  of  himself — 
cleanliness  of  person  and  of  clothing,  orderliness  and  cleanliness  as  per- 
taining to  his  school  belongings.  I  have  been  guiding  a  movement  of  this 
sort  for  eight  years  and  have  found  that  while  it  is  artificial  to  a  certain 
extent,  as  all  expedients  are  that  use  incentives  instead  of  real  motives,  much 
good  has  resulted  from  it.  For  want  of  a  better  term,  "personal  appear- 
ance" was  adopted  to  designate  this  factor  of  the  educational  program,  and 
my  effort  with  teachers  has  been  directed  toward  bringing  them  to  feel  that 
their  success  in  developing  in  their  pupils  a  regard  for  health  and  decency 
is  of  more  importance  than  arithmetic  and  must  be  just  as  regularly  attended 
to.  I  have  emphasized  cleanliness  as  measured  by  the  soap-and-water 
standard.     Cleanliness  in  a  wider  sense  must  be  included  in  this  teaching. 

It  is  only  when  we  compare  this  sort  of  practical,  vital  work  with  what 
used  to  be  considered  the  proper  teaching  of  hygiene  that  we  realize  the 
progress  that  has  been  made  with  this  phase  of  education. 

Next  to  health  lessons  comes  the  course  in  citizenship,  because  to 
make  our  country  ever  greater  and  better  we  must  have  not  only  strength 
but  usefulness,  as  our  morals  code  says. 

Our  ideas  of  school  disciphne  have  undergone  as  great  change  as  has 
our  teaching  of  hygiene  and  civics.  A  well-conducted  school  city  has,  it 
seems  to  me,  great  possibilities.  In  such  an  organization  citizenship  in 
many  of  its  aspects  can  be  demonstrated  and  practist;  and  there  habits  of 
responsibility,  self-control,  kindness,  loyalty,  and  others  possest  by  really 
good  citizens  in  all  times  and  especially  needed  by  the  citizens  of  the  near 
future  may  find  opportunity  for  development. 

Our  ideas  of  freedom  are  undergoing  a  change,  and  this  change  the  Boy 
Scout  and  the  Girl  Scout  organizations  are  promoting.  We  used  to  think 
that  a  man  was  a  good  citizen  if  he  did  nothing  that  was  harmful,  but  now 
such  a  person  is  not  necessarily  a  good  citizen;  he  can  prove  his  right  to 
that  honorable  title  only  by  showing  what  he  has  done  or  is  doing  to  help 
others. 

Every  time  children  and  young  people  come  together  to  cooperate 
mutually  for  some  end,  they  are  being  trained  for  freedom  in  the 
right  way. 

I  shall  close  this  paper  with  a  quotation  which  seems  to  me  to  embody 
the  spirit  of  social  adjustment.  It  is  taken  from  the  Children's  Code  of 
Morals,  already  twice  referred  to,  a  code  which,  we  trust,  is  destined  to  be 


Department]    A  BETTER  APPRECIATION  OF  CULTURAL  VALUES  163 

a  patriotic  guide  for  American  children  generally,  and  to  furnish  teachers 
with  organized  material  for  their  work. 

.  If  I  try  simply  to  be  loyal  to  my  family,  I  may  be  disloyal  to  my  school.  If  I  try 
simply  to  be  loyal  to  my  school,  I  may  be  disloyal  to  my  town,  my  state,  and  my  country. 
If  I  try  simply  to  be  loyal  to  my  town,  state,  and  country,  I  may  be  disloyal  to  human- 
ity. I  will  try  above  all  things  else  to  be  loyal  to  humanity;  then  I  shall  surely  be  loyal 
to  my  country,  my  state,  and  my  town,  to  my  school,  and  to  my  family. 


A  BETTER  APPRECIATION  OF  CULTURAL  VALUES 

NATHAN   C.    SCHAEFFER,   STATE   SUPERINTENDENT   OF  PUBLIC   INSTRUCTION, 

HARRISBURG,   PA. 

In  times  of  war  the  term  which  is  upon  the  lips  of  everybody  is  the 
word  "efficiency."  If  efficiency  is  strest  exclusively  in  our  school  systems, 
we  land  in  what  the  Germans  call  KtiUur,  which  is  an  educational  product 
very  different  from  culture.  KuUur  aims  to  fit  the  individual  for  some  ty^e. 
of  useful  service  to  the  state.  It  does  not  inquire  whether  the  service  will 
enable  the  individual  to  make  the  most  of  his  God-given  powers  and  possi- 
bilities. It  degrades  the  individual  into  a  mere  means  to  an  end,  the  end 
being  outside  of  his  immortal  nature.  Culture,  on  the  other  hand,  seeks 
to  make  the  most  of  the  individual  and  places  the  aim  of  his  education  in  the 
harmonious  development  of  all  his  faculties  and  possibilities.  One  claim 
which  a  human  being  has  upon  immortality  is  found  in  the  fact  that  no  life 
on  this  earth  suffices  to  develop  all  the  capabiHties  of  which  every  person- 
ality feels  itself  possest.  Culture  emphasizes  the  things  of  the  mind  and 
the  higher  life.  It  seeks  to  beget  the  abiHty  to  enjoy  the  true,  the  beauti- 
ful, and  the  good,  wherever  these  may  be  found.  It  consists  in  the  ability 
to  think  the  best  thoughts  of  the  best  men,  as  these  are  enshrined  in  litera- 
ture. Culture  does  not  neglect  nor  overlook  the  personal  relations.  That 
which  makes  life  worth  living  is  not  found  in  science  and  literature,  impor- 
tant as  these  are  in  the  progress  of  humanity.  That  which  makes  life  worth 
living  is  found  in  the  personal  relations  which  a  human  being  sustains  to 
his  fellows  and  to  his  God,  in  love  of  kindred  and  friends,  in  love  of  home 
and  country,  in  love  of  truth  and  of  God.  It  is  these  things  that  are  likely 
to  be  ignored  in  time  of  war.  "When  Mars  rages,  the  humanities  do  not 
flourish."  Heroic  virtues  are  developt  during  periods  of  national  struggle. 
Optimistic  views  of  life  characterize  the  literature  evolved  during  periods 
of  stress  and  war,  but  if  the  things  of  the  mind  and  the  higher  life  are  not 
cherisht  by  the  soldier  and  the  sailor,  the  vices  of  human  nature  gradually 
choke  the  virtues  and  leave  the  individual  poorer  than  before. 

Some  time  ago  a  naval  officer  gave  me  a  new  point  of  view.  He  said: 
"After  you  have  trained  a  soldier  down  to  the  point  where  he  will  run  a 
bayonet  into  a  human  being,  you  must  expect  him  to  do  some  other  things 
which  you  do  not  like,"    The  culture  of  the  benevolent  affections  i§ 


1 64  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

difficult  in  time  of  war.  Never  having  been  a  soldier,  I  cannot  speak  from 
experience  concerning  the  emotions  which  are  stirred  by  battle.  The 
ruthless  cruelty  of  the  foe  must  beget  hatred  and  loathing.  The  Red  Cross 
begets  different  emotions 'while  ministering  to  suffering  allies  and  enemies, 
regardless  of  race,  creed,  color,  or  nationality.  The  activities  of  the  Red 
Cross  remind  one  of  the  difference  in  the  law  of  love  under  the  old  and  the 
new  dispensation.  In  the  Old  Testament  the  measure  of  brotherly  love 
was,  "Love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself."  But  the  author  of  the  new  dispensa- 
tion sets  a  higher  standard.  ''Greater  love  hath  no  man  than  this,  that  a 
man  lay  down  his  Kfe  for  his  friends." 

Is  this  not  exemplified  over  and  over  again  in  the  sacrifices  upon  the 
field  of  battle  ?  He  was  wilhng  to  die  that  others  might  attain  everlasting 
life.  That  is  the  spirit  of  the  Red  Cross  and  of  the  Christian  soldier.  In 
the  trenches  and^upon' the  high  seas  our  boys  have  offered  up  their  lives 
for  others.  The  contemplation  of  such  service  and  struggle  and  sacrifice 
should  assist  not  merely  in  the  culture  of  the  heroic  emotions  but  also  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  noblest  virtues  and  affections  which  can  find  lodgment  in 
the  heart  of  man.  

DISCUSSION:  A  BETTER  APPRECIATION  OF  ETHICAL  VALUES 

A.  R.  Brubacher,  president,  State  College  for  Teachers,  Albany,  N.Y, — Education 
is  to  my  mind  best  described  as  a  process  of  adjustment  to  the  environment.  Since  our 
environment  is,  among  other  things,  a  democracy,  our  education  is  concerned  with  adjust- 
ment to  that  social  environment  which  is  peculiar  to  a  democracy.  The  ethical  values  of 
which  I  am  askt  to  speak  grow  out  of  the  distinctive  obligations  imposed  on  its  citizens 
by  a  democracy,  right  conduct  in  the  citizen  implying  that  he  functions  properly  to  his 
environment.  We  want  to  know,  therefore,  whether  our  educational  scheme  prepares  our 
children  to  function  adequately  to  their  democratic  environment. 

Our  list  of  duties  as  citizens  constitutes  the  ritual  of  democracy.  Out  of  this  ritual 
grow  our  ethical  obligations.  I  find  here  the  bone  and  marrow  of  our  democratic  clan  life. 
Our  social  sins  have  been  largely  sins  of  ignorance.  Now  it  is  the  business  of  education 
to  adjust  the  youth  to  this  clan  life,  with  its  complicated  privileges  and  responsibilities. 
Human  conduct  is  ethical  or  unethical  according  as  it  functions  or  fails  to  function  with 
society.  For  us  the  duties  of  citizenship  are  distinctive;  the  responsibilities  are  likewise 
distinctive,  both  duties  and  responsibilities  contrasting  strongly  with  those  under  other 
forms  of  society.  Our  ethical  code  is  therefore  equally  distinctive.  Its  keynote  is  loyalty ; 
its  foundation  is  intelligence;  its  guaranties  are  social  responsiveness,  self-restraint,  and 
sound  judgment.    These  are  the  fundamentals  of  right  conduct  in  a  democracy. 

Purpose  is,  of  course,  the  chief  determinant  of  conduct,  and  purpose  is  determined  by 
knowledge.  "To  know  the  good  is  to  do  it,"  Socrates  puts  it  thus:  "No  man  volun- 
tarily pursues  evil,  or  that  which  he  thinks  to  be  evil." 

It  is  the  business  of  the  elementary  school  to  give  that  mmimum  of  information  by 
which  purpose  mg,y  have  the  necessary  basis  of  knowledge.  This  may  certainly  include  the 
f^cts  pertaining  to  personal  hygiene,  physical  fitness,  vocational  efficiency,  the  common 
pourtesies  of  lifp,  duty  to  others,  loyalty  to  the  state;  that  is,  the  school  can  give  that 
Ismowledge  which  tends  to  eliminate  malevolence  and  positively  increases  the  benevolent 
purposes  ol  the  citizen.  11^4??  pyr  4erftQcracy  a  benevolent  purpose  is  essential  to  right 
pqn4uct- 


Department)       A  BETTER  APPRECIATION  OF  ETHICAL  VALUES  165 

The  second  determinant  element  of  conduct  grows  out  of  the  first.  It  is  the  will  to 
obedience.  Right  conduct  can  come  only  when  the  purpose  is  benevolent  and  the  will  is 
disciplined  sufficiently  to  act  accordingly.  A  disciplined  will  means  resolution,  that  is,  the 
will  of  the  individual  must  be  socialized  before  it  will  yield  habitually  conduct  that  is  ethical. 

Conduct  is  a  resultant  of  judgment  exercised  between  conflicting  motives.  This  is 
the  third  element.  Even  where  the  purpose  is  benevolent,  where  the  will  is  resolute  and 
the  knowledge  adequate,  there  may  be  a  sharp  clash  between  motives.  Fine  distinctions 
are  often  necessary;  effects  may  be  far  removed;  abstract  principles  may  be  involved  in 
the  decision — all  of  which  places  a  burden  on  the  judgment.  That  it  piay  be  sound,  un- 
erring, and  immediate,  it  must  be  exercised  and  guided  in  the  early  years  thru  right 
choices,  until  it  becomes  habitually  right,  instinctively  accurate. 

The  social  mind,  the  fourth  element,  is  not  usually  a  native  endowment.  Selfishness 
is  a  natural  quality  and  in  its  natural  state  is  not  immoral.  It  is  a  necessary  incident  of 
the  self-preservation  instinct.  But  the  instinct  must  be  socialized  in  order  to  reach  its 
best  development.  Self-interest,  merged  in  community  interest,  becomes  a  socialized 
selfishness  and  shades  almost  imperceptibly  into  altruism.  Education  is  the  medium. 
When  the  needs  of  humanity  grip  and  urge  to  service,  we  have  the  social  mind,  which  is 
an  antecedent  to  moral  conduct. 

The  spirit  of  humaneness  is  the  fifth  element  of  conduct.  Its  opposite,  cruelty,  is  a 
characteristic  of  the  animal  which  is  instinct  in  us.  Children  are  proverbially  cruel. 
Witness  the  torture  of  insects  and  animals;  and  witness  the  inhumanity  of  child  to  child. 
Every  teacher  is  familiar  with  this  native  inhumanity.  "  Humaneness  is  easily  cultivated; 
it  is  one  of  the  first  flowers  of  culture  and  refinement.  In  the  school  it  is  that  determinant 
of  ethical  conduct  which  may  be  cultivated  from  the  kindergarten  on. 

The  method  of  moral  or  ethical  instruction  in  the  elementary  school  is  self-evident. 
Here  as  elsewhere  the  child  will  learn  by  doing.  Thruout  his  school  life  the  child  frequently 
confronts  conflicting  motives;  he  must  make  daily  choices;  he  exercises  judgments;  his 
rights  conflict  with  the  rights  of  playmates;  the  needs  of  helpless  animals  come  to  his 
attention;  duty  to  parents  presses  on  his  time;  duty  to  the  community  thru  channels  of 
public  health  and  public  safety  attracts  his  attention.  These  and  other  motives  daily 
exercise  his  will,  and  it  is  the  chief  business  of  his  teacher  to  guide  the  budding  person- 
ality of  the  child  along  right  lines  of  conduct,  bringing  to  bear  on  him  all  the  social 
restraints,  and  making  valid  the  social  sanctions  of  moral  conduct  by  full  justification 
of  each  to  the  child  mind.  Out  of  such  teaching  will  come  that  discrimination  which  is 
the  basis  of  ethical  conduct. 

The  personal  contact  between  pupil  and  teacher  is  of  course  first  in  importance. 
Whenever  the  will  of  a  cultured,  moral  teacher,  comes  into  gripping  contact  with  the  will 
of  the  pupil,  an  ethical  product  is  the  inevitable  result.  The  discipline  of  the  schoolroom, 
playground,  schoolyard,  and  street  is  the  ethical  laboratory  where  conduct  is  a  continual 
experiment  and  habit  a  perpetual  and  final  result.  The  teacher  is  naturally  the  hero 
(or  heroine)  of  the  pupil.  His  conduct  becomes  the  standard  for  the  child.  His  judg- 
ments, his  ideals,  his  aspirations,  will  magnetize  the  child  mind.  In  the  personality  of 
the  teacher,  therefore,  we  have  an  ethical  force  of  great  moment.  We  have  long  glibly 
recognized  this  fact,  but  we  have  gone  forward,  placing  over  our  schools  young  men  and 
women  whose  personal  qualities  were  frequently  colorless  and  weak,  sometimes  negative, 
occasionally  immoral.  The  schools  of  America  must  safeguard  this  ethical  factor  for  the 
sake  of  our  democracy. 

I  want  to  give  all  possible  emphasis  to  the  superior  importance  of  conduct  over  ethical 
formulas,  of  concrete  problems  of  behavior  over  general  precepts.  I  believe  that  the 
American  public  school  is  particularly  strong  in  this  respect.  The  important  matter  is 
that  the  pupil  does  not  merely  receive  moral  edicts  by  authority  but  shares  in  the  ethical 
life,  in  its  conflicting  motives  and  its  judgments,  apd  writes  its  results  daily  in  indelible 
lines  on  his  character. 


l66  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Elementary 

N.  H.  Chaney,  superintendent  of  schools,  Youngstown,  Ohio. — This  splendid  appeal 
for  a  better  appreciation  of  ethical  values  in  education,  that  it  may  the  better  determine 
and  control  all  forms  and  phases  of  human  life  and  labor,  confirms  anew  our  thought  and 
faith  that  the  most  important,  practical,  valuable,  and  even  precious  thing  about  men,  as 
individuals  and  nations,  is  just  their  moral  quality;  their  view  and  treatment  of  the 
moral  element  in  their  own  and  other's  lives. 

Certain  it  is  that  no  man  is  of  prime,  paramount,  and  permanent  importance  who 
does  not  import  from  God,  in  his  entire  life,  a  strong  and  steadfast  moral  quality,  no  matter 
how  wise  and  rich  he  may  be.  No  man  is  practical  as  a  man  who  does  not  practice  the 
moral  virtues,  no  matter  how  skilfully  he  may  practice  a  trade  or  a  profession.  No  man 
can  be  truly  valuable  to  society,  business,  or  government,  who  does  not  always  move  in  a 
fixt  moral  purpose,  however  cultured  and  refined  his  manners  may  be.  No  man  can  be 
truly  precious  to  himself  or  to  anybody  else,  nor  be  loved  and  welcomed  even  by  his 
own  kith  and  kin,  who  is  known  to  violate  the  moral  virtues.  And  this  is  true  not  only  of 
individuals  but  of  nations  also. 

Hence  it  is  that  moral  quality  tests  and  determines  real  human  worth,  both  in  being 
and  in  doing.  Moral  personality  is  life's  first  value  and  security,  and  therefore  it  should 
be  the  first  aim  and  end  of  all  formal  education.  First  a  moral  man,  then  a  scholar,  and 
then  a  craftsman.  The  moral  rank  is  the  first  and  the  highest  rank  with  God,  and  it 
must  be  such  with  men  and  nations  in  all  their  stretch  and  training  for  eflficiency,  if  ever 
this  dark,  sad  world  is  to  be  filled  with  light,  peace,  joy,  and  permanent  prosperity. 

Let  knowledge  grow  from  more  to  more, 
But  more  of  reverence  in  us  dwell. 
That  mind  and  soul  according  well, 
May  make  one  music  as  before, 
But  vaster. 

And  the  swell  of  this  vaster  music,  this  larger  harmony  in  humanity,  must  be  more 
on  the  side  of  reverence  than  of  knowledge.  Surely  the  schools  are  not  to  decrease  their 
light  of  knowledge  but  to  increase  their  reverence  for  God  and  humanity,  until  hate  and 
strife  shall  yield  their  thrones  to  love  and  saving  service. 

Germany  is  a  bright  and  shining  example,  tho  now  justly  repulsive  and  rejected,  of 
how  schools  and  schoolmasters  can  determine  the  mental  and  moral  life  and  activities  of  a 
nation  by  dealing  with  its  children.  They  can  put  love  or  hat»  into  heads,  hearts,  and 
hands.  They  can  make  hate  use  strong  heads  and  hands  to  hurt  and  harm  for  selfish 
ends.  They  can  also  teach  love  to  use  skilled  minds  and  hands  to  heal  and  help  and  save 
for  all  men's  sake.  They  can  make  children  predatory  demons,  or  princes  of  peace,  pros- 
perity, and  world-wide  human  welfare.  Thus  teachers  are  the  chief  and  choice  determi- 
nants of  human  qualities  and  ambitions.  Let  the  people  look  well  to  the  kind  of  teachers 
their  children  have! 

Now  to  conserve  the  highest  welfare  of  the  people  in  the  present  changing  order  in 
education,  teachers  must  deal  more  with  life  and  less  with  textbooks;  they  must  possess 
and  radiate  life,  moral  life,  more  abundantly.  By  a  more  democratic  and  less  autocratic 
rule,  by  more  love  and  less  police  force,  they  must  lead  their  pupils  into  a  better  apprecia- 
tion of  the  ethical  values  in  all  life  and  learning;  into  such  a  commitment  of  their  wills  to 
moral  qualities  that  they  shall  be  prouder  to  be  right,  just,  and  bravely  good  than  to  hold 
any  rank  or  emolument  that  might  be  otherwise  gained.  When  I  long  for  a  model  of  the 
moral  teacher,  with  a  winning  democratic  soul  of  service,  I  can  but  think  of  Dante's 
description  of  the  saintly  women  whom  he  saw  in  his  vision  of  paradise.    After  meeting 

several  of  them  he  sings, 

Another  of  those  splendors 
Approacht  me,  and  its  will  to  pleasure  me 
It  signified  by  brightening  outwardly, 
As  one  delighted  to  do  good: 
4  Became  a  thing  transplendent  in  my  sight 

As  a  prize  ruby  smitten  by  the  sun, 


Department!    KINDERGARTEN  A  FACTOR  IN  AMERICANIZATION  167 

And  of  Beatrice  he  says,  "  She  smiled  so  joyously  that  Grod  seemed  in  her  countenance 
to  rejoice." 

Such  radiant  souls,  shining  with  the  moral  light  of  God  and  transforming  all  they 
touch  by  their  own  resistless  goodness  and  delight  in  doing  good,  belong  not  only  to  a 
paradise  of  vision  but  also  to  that  paradise  of  human  childhood,  the  public  school,  where  a 
world's  destiny  is  being  shaped  and  assured  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  happy  children. 
Teachers  can  make  ethical  values  spread  and  prevail,  if  they  will!  An  appreciation  of 
ethical  values  and  their  application  to  human  need  is  possible  to  all  peoples  everjrwhere, 
thru  their  schools  and  teachers,  if  these  vital  forces  will  only  follow  and  enforce  the  light 
and  love  of  the  unselfish  soul — God's  light  set  in  humanity  to  reveal  the  way  to  highest 
human  worth  and  world-wide  brotherhood. 

Then  let  reverence  as  a  moral  splendor  lead  wisdom  as  a  giant  servant  over  all  the 
stormy  face  of  the  earth,  and  the  golden  harvest  of  this  fruitful  twain  will  cover  the  lands 
with  peace  and  plenty.  And  joy  and  gladness,  good-will,  and  trustful  fellowship  shall 
reign. 


I 


THE  KINDERGARTEN  AS  A  FACTOR  IN  AMERICANIZATION 

CAROLINE     HEDGER,     REPRESENTING     THE     NATIONAL     KINDERGARTEN 
ASSOCIATION,   NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

Last  year  in  Boston  at  the  International  Kindergarten  Union  I  took 
somewhat  the  attitude  of  *'wake  up,"  but  that  is  not  the  attitude  I  want  to 
take  today.  This  Americanization  movement  looks  to  me  like  a  boy  sliding 
down  hill.  At  the  top  he  needs  a  push,  and  after  he  gets  over  the  edge  he 
needs  careful  steering.  That  is  the  point  we  have  reacht  in  this  movement. 
The  American  people  have  suddenly  become  wide  awake  to  the  fact  that  we 
have  foreign  neighbors,  and  that  they  are  living  with  us.  We  did  not  know 
it  until  the  war  came,  but  we  know  it  now,  and  large  numbers  of  people  who 
feel  patriotic  go  out  and  organize  an  Americanization  committee,  hoping 
that  they  can  be  of  real  service  to  their  country. 

All  this  effort  and  this  sudden  awakening  are  very  hopeful,  but  there  are 
one  or  two  points  of  danger  that  I  want  to  emphasize  before  I  begin  on  the 
hopeful  side.  One  of  those  points,  and  I  think  the  most  dangerous  point, 
is  the  force  element. 

We  have  a  man  in  my  town  who  takes  himself  down  to  Washington, 
with  what  authority  I  know  not,  and  says,  "These  people  have  got  to  speak 
EngHsh.  They  have  got  to  be  forst  to  speak  EngHsh."  If  any  of  you  have 
any  question  as  to  the  danger  of  this  point  of  view,  I  wish  you  could  get  hold 
of  some  intelligent  Danish  people;  meet  them  face  to  face  and  heart  to 
heart.  Their  Schleswig-Holstein  was  grabbed  in  i860,  grabbed  as  was 
Belgium  in  1914,  and  to  this  day  Danes  are  deported  from  Schleswig- 
Holstein  because  they  dare  to  speak  their  native  language.  That  is  the 
Prussian  oppression  method.  I  want  you  to  talk  with  those  Danes  about 
the  results  of  prohibiting  the  speaking  of  their  native  language.  I  want  to 
get  the  United  States  away  from  that  method  of  stopping  the  use  of  foreign 
languages.    It  js  not  sound;   it  is  not  necessary. 


1 68  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

I  hold  that  there  is  only  one  place  where  there  can  be  an  excuse  for  the 
use  of  force  in  compelling  the  speaking  of  English.  Ford  has  reduced  the 
accidents  in  his  automobile  plant  54  per  cent  since  he  started  his  English 
school. 

I  hold  that  industry  has  some  right  to  demand  English  as  a  factor  in 
preserving  the  life  and  Hmb  of  the  worker,  but  as  a  society  we  have  no  right 
to  demand  and  to  force  the  speaking  of  English.  Why?  Because  it  is 
our  attitude  in  years  past  that  keeps  the  foreigners  from  speaking  English 
today.  If  fifteen  years  ago  we  had  waked  up  to  the  fact  that  they  were 
here,  if  we  had  given  them  night  schools  (I  am  speaking  of  communities 
outside  the  large  cities,  of  course),  if  we  had  given  them  any  American 
contact,  today  they  would  be  speaking  English  without  compulsion;  there- 
fore it  is  altogether  wrong  to  apply  force  to  our  foreign  neighbors;  the  force 
should  be  applied  to  ourselves,  that  our  hearts  may  become  right,  that  we 
may  have  the  right  attitude,  and  that  we  may  see  the  possibility  of  friend- 
ship and  the  right  way  to  spread  the  ideals  of  democracy  that  have  been 
given  us  so  richly. 

There  has  been  considered  in  this  great  convention  a  plan  which  I  hope 
will  work  out  well,  a  plan  for  a  great  drive  for  Americanization.  It  has  been 
quite  thoroughly  discust,  I  believe. 

This  drive  should  be  in  areas  where  some  agency  is  giving  the  foreign 
neighbor  an  understanding  of  our  language  and  ideals;  otherwise  the  drive 
should  be  into  the  pockets  of  the  Americans  to  produce  more  kindergartens, 
more  night  schools,  more  agencies  that  can  reach  the  foreign  neighbor  in 
some  sane  way. 

At  the  moment  the  great  need  is  for  trained  teachers,  and  I  am  here 
this  afternoon  to  try  to  enrol  you  in  this  kind  of  teaching.  Before  we  can 
get  the  kind  of  teachers  that  we  need  for  the  guidance  of  this  movement 
we  must  rid  the  minds  of  the  American  people  of  two  serious  misconceptions. 
The  first  one  of  these  is  that  anybody  can  teach  Enghsh  to  foreign  adults. 
The  other  day  I  met  a  woman,  a  superior  type,  a  teacher  of  English,  who 
wisht  to  get  into  the  work  in  Chicago  in  the  factories.  We  need  teachers 
in  Chicago,  and  I  referred  her  to  the  supervisor.  She  called  the  supervisor 
over  the  telephone,  and  the  supervisor  asked  her  several  questions  as  to  her 
training,  etc.;  but  when  the  supervisor  asked,  ''Have  you  ever  had  experi- 
ence with  the  foreign  neighbor?"  her  tone  stiffened:  ''I  am  a  teacher  of 
English,  and  when  you  have  the  method  it  can  be  applied  anywhere." 

The  technique  of  teaching  English  to  high-school  pupils,  or  to  normal- 
school  pupils,  or  to  college  students  is  not  the  technique  that  is  necessary 
for  the  foreign  neighbor,  and  English  cannot  be  applied  anywhere  without 
special  training. 

The  second  misconception  that  is  so  widely  spread  that  I  must  speak  of 
it  is  that  the  foreign  neighbor  must  have  for  a  teacher  someone  who  speaks 
his  own  language.    He  may  need  someone  who  speaks  his  language  to  give 


Department!    KINDERGARTEN  A  FACTOR  IN  AMERICANIZATION  169 

him  some  cultural  ideas  and  to  get  some  message  to  him  quickly,  like  the 
Liberty  Loan,  but  the  foreign  neighbor  should  learn  idiomatic  English. 

When  we  send  our  children  to  high-priced  colleges,  the  colleges  advertise 
in  the  process  of  getting  our  money  that  they  have  foreign-born  teachers  of 
foreign  languages.  If  it  is  so  important  to  have  our  children  taught  foreign 
languages  by  foreign-born  teachers,  why  should  we  reverse  the  procedure 
with  our  foreign  people  ?  With  those  teachers  they  do  not  get  idiomatic 
English.  They  get  a  translation  method.  They  are  not,  except  with  the 
rare  teacher,  taught  to  think  in  EngUsh. 

My  kindergarten  friends,  it  is  because  you  have  such  an  unusual  equip- 
ment that  I  am  appealing  to  you.  You  are  fitted  for  this  work  because  you 
are  free  from  that  disease  so  common  in  America — the  worship  of  the  book. 
As  far  as  I  have  observed  kindergartners,  they  are  never  tied  to  the  book, 
and  if  we  can  get  away  from  the  book  we  shall  get  along  faster  with  the 
foreigner.  I  would  not  cut  him  off  from  the  daily  paper  or  from  any  reading 
he  enjoys,  but  book  knowledge  is  not  the  fundamental  thing  at  the  moment. 
The  real  need  is  to  give  him  enough  English  to  enable  him  to  speak  about  his 
job,  to  get  around  his  town,  and  to  absorb  the  ideals  of  democracy.  They 
have  to  be  taught  first  by  word  of  mouth,  so  to  speak. 

You  have  always  recognized  in  your  relationship  to  the  children  the 
importance  of  games  and  amusements.  That  we  have  absolutely  overlookt 
with  the  foreigners.  I  think  that  the  only  way  to  give  the  primary  lessons 
to  the  foreign  neighbor  is  by  object  teaching.  The  first  effective  night 
school  that  I  saw  was  run  by  a  kindergartner  in  Palmerton,  Pa.  She  used 
only  object  teaching.  Her  first  lesson  was  water,  pan,  and  a  piece  of  soap. 
She  taught  not  only  the  words  pan,  soap,  and  water,  but  she  taught  the 
ethics  of  washing  the  hands.  And  it  is  along  these  lines  that  we  must  have 
a  special  technique  for  this  style  of  teaching. 

You  have  always  freed  the  little  child  from  fear,  and  that  is  one  of  the 
most  important  factors  with  the  foreign  adults.  A  foreigner  comes  to  this 
country  with  hopes  of  better  living  and  higher  wages,  but  he  sometimes 
becomes  very  much  afraid.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  woman.  She  is 
timid;  you  cannot  send  her  a  written  letter  to  meet  you  at  the  schoolhouse 
and  have  her  meet  you  there.  She  fears  your  motive.  When  you  get 
her  there  you  must  free  her  from  the  effect  of  fear.  You  kindergartners 
are  particularly  able  to  do  that,  but  it  takes  technique  and  time  and 
patience. 

You  have  always  put  the  Httle  child  into  group  action,  and  that  is  what 
the  foreign  neighbors  need;  not  that  they  are  without  groups,  but  because 
they  have  been  in  groups  by  themselves.  They  are  not  a  part  of  American 
groups.  That  is  what  is  worrying  us  now.  But  you  could  not  expect  them 
to  sit  alone  in  their  little  kitchens  or  at  foreign  lodges  and  imbibe  American 
ideals,  could  you?  No,  that  must  come  from  cooperation  by  and  with 
Americans. 


170  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Elementary 

You  have  always  recognized  the  gifts  of  your  children.  You  are  always 
sending  them  home  with  little  gifts.  That  is  exactly  what  we  need  with  the 
foreign  neighbor. 

I  went  back  to  Europe  once  third  class.  There  were  no  other  American- 
born  people  in  that  section  of  the  ship,  and  I  met  a  man  who  was  such  a 
striking  illustration  of  our  waste  of  the  gifts  of  the  neighbors  that  I  am 
always  reminded  of  him  when  I  speak  on  this  topic.  There  was  going  back 
on  that  trip  a  Yiddish  poet,  who  offered  to  give  me  his  book,  but  as  I  did  not 
read  Yiddish  I  was  compelled  like  most  Americans  to  decline  his  gift.  He 
spoke  very  little  English,  but  he  told  me  that  he  had  been  in  this  country 
several  years.  What  was  he  doing  ?  Trying  to  make  himself  into  a  book- 
keeper. He  had  failed,  and  that  poet  was  going  back  a  broken-hearted, 
disappointed  man  because  we  were  not  ready  to  take  his  gift.  And  it  is 
so  all  over  this  country ;  we  have  these  people  with  their  wonderful  training 
from  all  over  the  world,  and  we  recognize  it  not  at  all.  We  turn  their 
gifts  aside,  and  do  you  wonder  they  become  alienated,  separated  from  us  ? 

We  want  for  this  work  the  kindergartner  who  is  in  dead  earnest,  who  is 
honest.  We  want  the  kindergartner  who  understands  the  material  that  we 
have  to  work  with.  You  have  the  machinery  right  in  your  hands.  You 
are  the  most  exceptional  group  in  that  way.  You  have  in  your  mothers' 
meeting  the  thing  at  your  hand.  The  mothers'  meeting  has  Hmitless 
possibilities  for  national  service.  Your  acquaintance  with  that  foreign 
mother,  I  beUeve,  must  be  sHghtly  different  from  that  of  the  past.  You 
have  tried  to  give  all  to  that  foreign  mother  instead  of  taking  some  of  her 
gifts.  I  think  I  have  observed  in  kindergarten  work  one  point  in  this 
mother  plan,  and  that  is  that  you  have  focust  on  that  mother  as  the  mother 
of  the  individual  child.  You  must,  however,  look  at  her  as  a  factor  in  our 
democracy,  a  part  of  the  community,  especially  in  states  where  women  have 
the  vote.  You  cannot  afford  to  consider  her  only  as  an  individual  to  work 
with  for  the  good  of  a  single  child.  She  is  a  much  greater  factor.  You 
must  realize  that  she  has  a  responsibility  outside  of  being  the  mother  of  her 
child.  My  own  responsibility  of  voting  is  as  much  as  I  can  master. 
We  Americans  need  help;  how  much  more  must  you  help  these  foreign 
women.  I  think  a  democracy  is  not  the  easiest  type  of  government  in  the 
world.  That  individual  responsibility  for  right  or  for  wrong  doing  that  is 
exprest  in  the  ballot  I  hold  to  be  one  of  the  great  factors  in  the  onward 
movement,  and  our  foreign  neighbors  must  be  helpt  to  see  that. 

We  are  teaching  the  foreign  women  all  sorts  of  interesting  things  in 
Chicago.  Of  course  it  is  not  easy  to  teach  all  of  them  to  read.  Many  of 
the  women  are  illiterates,  and  adult  iUiterates  are  extremely  difficult  to 
reach.  We  go  into  the  factory  and  teach  them  to  make  apple  sauce,  and  they 
eat  the  apple  sauce  with  their  sandwiches.  It  helps  to  make  the  sandwich 
more  palatable,  and  we  teach  English  to  the  women  while  they  eat.  Then 
we  make  jelly  out  of  the  apple  peelings.    That  is  food  conservation.     Then 


Department]     SPOKEN  ENGLISH  A  FACTOR  IN  AMERICANIZATION  171 

we  help  them  with  the  marketing,  and  I  know  a  group  of  sixty  who  are  so 
keen  that  they  tell  the  teacher  if  a  vegetable  has  declined  in  price  between 
two  lessons. 

The  foreign  women  are  anxious  to  help.  They  are  interested  in  the 
baby.  The  foreign  baby  is  an  ever  present  problem  in  this  country,  and 
the  mothers  are  delighted  to  have  the  lessons  on  the  simple  care  of  the  baby. 
At  our  house  of  correction,  our  city  jail,  we  have  four  classes  in  EngUsh  a 
week  for  foreign  women.  Classes  are  held  in  the  room  where  mass  is  held 
on  Sunday,  and  there  is  a  broad  rail  that  separates  the  place  for  the  altar 
from  the  large  room.  One  day  out  there  one  class  was  playing  store. 
There  was  no  dif&culty  about  English  being  spoken  -in  that  store.  The 
teacher  had  on  this  broad  rail  things  cut  out  of  the  advertising  pages  of 
magazines  and  other  sample  things  spread  out.  Those  were  the  things 
that  were  for  sale,  and  she  had  paper  money.  When  she  sold  thread  she 
did  not  sell  a  spool  of  thread.  She  ran  a  piece  of  black  thread  through  a 
sheet  of  paper  markt,  ''This  is  black  thread,  it  costs  five  cents."  The 
woman  took  the  sheet  away  and  brought  it  back  with  her  copy  the  next  time. 
I  do  not  admit  that  the  foreign  woman  does  not  want  to  speak  English.  If 
she  does  not  want  to,  it  is  our  fault. 

In  closing,  won't  you  come  in,  won't  you  get  this  technique  of  teaching 
foreign  adults?  Won't  you  use  your  wonderful  kindergarten  principles 
and  apply  them  with  dignity  to  the  grown  man  and  woman  ? 


SPOKEN  ENGLISH  AS  A  FACTOR  IN  AMERICANIZATION 

EARL   BARNES,   PHILADELPHIA,   PA. 

As  one  of  the  by-products  of  the  present  war  there  is  now  a  great  outcry 
against  the  use  of  the  German  language  in  the  United  States.  Many  of  our 
elementary  and  high  schools  have  cut  it  out  of  the  curriculum.  In  some 
of  our  colleges  and  universities  it  will  not  be  taught  during  the  coming 
year.  The  Governor  of  Pennsylvania,  in  an  address  before  the  National 
Education  Association,  recently  declared  that  in  his  judgment  no  foreigner 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  United  States  more  than  five  years  if 
during  that  time  he  had  not  learned  the  Enghsh  language.  On  the  same 
day  a  well-known  educator,  speaking  at  a  university  banquet,  said  that  the 
time  had  come  for  suppressing  all  publications  in  this  country  not  printed  in 
the  Enghsh  language,  and  for  insisting  that  all  religious  exercises  should  be 
conducted  in  English. 

Much  of  this  feehng  rests  in  the  behef  that  the  words  of  two  languages 
are  equivalent  to  each  other,  and  that  shifting  one's  daily  language 
involves  simply  the  trouble  of  learning  the  new  one.  Of  course  a  person 
can  learn  new  languages  well  enough  so  that  he  can  use  them  for  reading 
or   conversation,   as  he   might  learn    any  other    new    matter.     But    to 


172  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

substitute  a  new  language  for  an  old  one  in  the  affairs  of  daily  life  is 
quite  another  matter. 

Much  of  the  difficulty  in  understanding  this  matter  is  due  to  our  failure 
to  realize  how  language  has  been  formed,  and  what  the  language  which  the 
person  learns  in  childhood  does  to  him.  Before  animals  and  men  develop 
language,  impressions  from  the  outside  world  pour  into  the  neurons  of  the 
central  nervous  system,  where  they  form  memory  images,  or  neuron  pat- 
terns, in  endless  variety.  These  become  associated  in  myriads  of  combina- 
tions, until  the  mind  becomes  clogged  with  its  possessions.  Animals  early 
give  up  the  quest  for  universal  knowledge  and  confine  themselves  to  the 
limited  field  of  their. necessities  and  warmest  desires. 

Man. however,  invents  a  word  for  flying,  feathered  creatures  which  enables 
him  to  group  all  his  experience  with  them  under  the  one  term  ''birds"; 
his  experiences  of  heat  he  groups  under  ''hot,"  and  so,  by  classifying  his 
almost  infinite  experiences,  he  brings  them  into  order  and  is  able  to  think 
about  them;  but  not  until  these  larger  neuron  patterns  can  be  connected 
by  words  expressing  general  forms  of  action  or  being  and  limited  by  general 
forms  of  quality  is  any  extended  thinking  possible. 

Meantime,  different  races  of  men  living  under  varied  environment  have 
developt  widely  different  languages  to  meet  their  needs.  Since  language 
follows  the  development  of  a  people,  it  is  inevitable  that  the  words  of  no 
two  languages  ever  carry  quite  the  same  meaning.  Thus  the  man  who 
changes  his  native  language  has  to  change  not  only  his  mind  but  also  his 
feehng  and  even  the  very  organization  of  his  brain,  for  the  neuron  patterns 
must  always  be  modified  and  sometimes  entirely  remade. 

And  yet  the  need  for  a  uniform  national  language  is  so  great  and  its 
advantage  to  the  individual  so  obvious  that  we  seem  justified  even  in  forcing 
all  those  who  desire  to  identify  themselves  with  us  and  become  citizens  of 
the  United  States  to  learn  to  speak  the  Enghsh  language.  It  will  be  well 
for  us,  however,  to  remember  the  vast  difficulty  involved  in  the  change,  and 
if  our  fellow-citizens  of  foreign  origin  wish  to  think  and  feel  in  their  domestic 
relations,  in  their  religion,  and  in  all  the  intimacies  of  fife,  with  the  neuron 
patterns  which  have  grown  out  of  their  national  qualities  and  to  which  they 
have  been  habituated  all  their  lives,  they  must  be  free  to  do  so.  There 
would  be  a  great  loss  in  human  thinking  and  feeling  if  all  the  world  thought 
with  the  same  patterns,  a  loss  not  to  be  offset  by  any  material  advantages. 
Let  us  insist  then  that  our  fellow-citizens  shall  learn  to  speak  English,  but 
let  us  allow  them  to  retain  their  native  speech  in  their  personal  affairs  and 
even  to  write  it  and  perpetuate  it  in  their  families,  if  they  can. 

Regarding  our  own  present  determination  not  to  learn  German  there 
may  well  be  a  difference  of  opinion.  Something  of  the  spirit  of  a  people 
inheres  in  its  language,  and  we  do  not  want  our  youth  to  be  in  any  degree 
affected  by  the  spirit  of  modern  Germany.  At  the  same  time  German  is  the 
key  to  a  vast  literature  and  a  great  body  of  science  which  we  shall  need 


Department]    SPOKEN  ENGLISH  A- FACTOR  IN  AMERICANIZATION  173 

increasingly  in  the  future.  Besides  this,  the  new  internationalism  which 
must  follow  this  war  will  inevitably  drive  us  to  live  and  trade  with  the 
German  people.  To  neglect  a  great  key  to  civilization  because  people  of 
whom  we  disapprove  use  it  may  be  foolish. 

The  advantages  of  being  able  to  speak  the  language  of  the  people  among 
whom  one  lives  are  so  obvious  that  it  seems  hardly  necessary  to  enumerate 
them.  In  our  modern,  complex  collective  life  a  common  spoken  language  is 
indispensable.  To  work,  a  man  must  be  able  to  follow  directions  and  to 
direct  others.  Buying  and  selling,  getting  positions  and  keeping  them, 
filling  positions  where  one  must  direct  his  fellows,  banking  and  travel,  all 
depend  on  understanding  the  spoken  word. 

Spoken  English  gives  common  ideas,  and  these  give  social  feeling, 
political  efficiency,  and  many  of  the  supreme  joys  of  life.  If  one  can  think 
of  the  chief  executive  of  the  nation  only  as  "Kaiser"  he  cannot  understand 
the  relation  which  President  Wilson  bears  to  the  American  people.  One 
who  must  translate  can  never  touch  the  deeper  soul  of  the  people. 

Politically  it  is  necessary  that  where  the  people  rule  themselves  they 
should  understand  not  only  themselves  but  also  their  neighbors  with  whom 
they  have  to  live  and  act  in  common.  Foreigners  in  America  need  good 
government  even  more  than  do  the  native-born,  for  corrupt  government 
weighs  more  heavily  on  them  than  on  us.  Most  of  our  foreigners  have 
intelligence,  and  they  probably  desire  good  government  as  much  as  we  do. 
And  yet  the  foreign  vote  is  always  a  danger  in  our  midst  and  always  must 
be  so  as  long  as  it  depends  on  interpreters  for  political  information. 

And  meantime  the  state  needs  good  citizens  as  much  as  the  individual 
needs  good  government.  It  is  true  that  modern  nations  must  be  unified  if 
they  are  to  be  strong.  But  political  unity  may  exist  with  wide  differences  in 
race,  religion,  or  even  in  language,  as  is  shown  by  Switzerland,  where  three 
races,  speaking  three  languages  and  professing  two  religions,  have  long 
maintained  a  highly  democratic  form  of  government.  There  is  one  thing, 
and  only  one,  which  a  nation  must  have  if  it  is  to  be  unified,  and  that  is 
common  ideas  and  ideals.  A  common  language  is  extremely  helpful  in 
creating  these,  but  it  is  not  indispensable. 

Our  foreigners  are  unlike  those  conquered  by  the  European  states. 
They  have  come  to  us  in  recent  times.  They  have  come  of  their  own  free 
will,  they  need  not  remain  unless  they  desire,  and  they  need  not  become 
citizens  of  the  United  States  unless  they  wish  to  do  so.  If  they  decide  to 
identify  themselves  with  us  they  will  almost  inevitably  be  driven  to  live 
disperst  among  us,  and  for  economic,  social,  and  political  reasons  they 
should  know  how  to  speak  the  English  language.  We  must  give  them  time, 
we  must  be  patient,  and  we  must  be  generous  toward  their  native  tongues. 
But  before  they  receive  the  benefits  of  citizenship  and  assume  its  responsi- 
bihties  they  must  prepare  themselves  to  understand  and  to  let  us- under- 
stand them. 


1 74  NA  TIONA  L  EDUCA  TION.  A SSOCIA  TION  [Elementary 

AMERICANIZATION  THRU  SCHOOL  GARDENS 

VAN    EYERIE    KILPATRICK,    PRESIDENT,    SCHOOL    GARDEN    ASSOCIATION, 
NEW  YORK,    N.Y. 

The  first  fight  of  the  early  American  was  food-getting.  In  that  food- 
getting  he  became  agricultural.  The  early  American  was  not  evolved 
suddenly.  He  developt  thru  this  pastoral  experience  in  grappling  with  the 
vast  resources  of  a  new  continent.  His  struggles  with  the  forest,  his 
glimpses  of  the  ever-widening  sunset,  and  his  mastery  of  nature  in  her 
rudiments  were  those  things  which  gave  us  that  striking  type  in  human 
development,  the  American. 

It  is  worth  while  rioting  that  Americanization  is  not  what  many  foreign 
observers  tell  us  it  is.  It  is  not  the  ability  to  use  the  English  language. 
That  accomplishment  is  as  much  British  as  American.  Emphasis  upon  the 
vernacular  is  an  essential  of  all  nationalism.  Yet  the  ability  to  use  the 
English  language  is  essential  to  Americanization.  This  point  is  mentioned 
here  because  the  recent  propaganda  for  Americanization  seems  to  have  gone 
little  farther  than  insisting  on  the  vernacular.  I  take  it  that  when  we  speak 
of  Americanization  we  speak  of  that  which  characterizes  an  American,  or 
the  American  people,  as  distinguisht  from  every  other  person  or  people. 

I  believe  that  it  would  surprise  anyone  to  read  a  complete  category  of 
all  the  distinctively  American  qualities.  I  do  not  think  that  any  such  list 
has  ever  been  written,  but  within  the  limits  of  this  paper  I  should  like  to 
call  your  attention  to  a  few  Americanisms  which  appeal  to  me  as  the  most 
priceless  heritages  that  have  ever  come  to  any  free  people. 

Conscientious  integrity, — Possibly  some  would  call  this  ''simple  honesty." 
It  is  honesty  for  honesty's  sake.  It  is  directly  opposed  to  the  Spartan 
honesty,  the  honesty  of  expediency. 

Generations  of  fathers  who  could  repeat  to  their  sons  and  their  grand- 
sons the  traditions  of  Washington  and  the  cherry  tree,  and  of  Lincoln 
returning  the  widow's  dime,  bespeak  an  honesty  so  natural  as  to  challenge 
the  contemplation  of  all  mankind.  It  matters  little  as  to  the  historical 
acceptance  of  these  incidents.  The  fact  is  that  these  simple  dramas  express 
the  idealization  of  every  true  American  household. 

Free  speech. — We  can  never  have  honesty  in  private  life  or  in  government 
until  we  have  free  speech.  It  was  the  one  transcendent  thought  of  our 
Revolutionary  times.  It  was  the  dominant  note  in  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  and  the  Bill  of  Rights. 

Permit  me  to  add  that  I  have  failed  to  find  and  I  may  challenge  anyone 
to  show  where  these  cardinal  principles  have  not  operated  up  to  the  present 
time.  I  am  quite  disposed  to  disagree  with  that  body  of  people  who  set  up 
the  notion  that  there  are  times  when  these  privileges  should  be  abrogated. 
A  free  people  never  remained  free  by  throwing  off  the  exercise  of  freedom 
for  any  given  time. 


Departmentl  AMERICANIZATION  THRU  SCHOOL  GARDENS  175 

Continental  isolation. — It  is  not  easy  to  express  this  Americanism  in  two 
words.  It  was  exprest  by  President  James  Monroe  nearly  one  hundred 
years  ago  thus:  "In  principle,  the  American  continents,  by  the  free  and 
independent  position  which  they  have  assumed  and  maintained,  are  hence- 
forth not  to  be  considered  as  subjects  for  future  colonization  by  any  Euro- 
pean power.  And  that  any  attempt  on  the  part  of  any  of  the  European 
powers  to  extend  their  system  to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere  would  be 
regarded  by  the  United  States  as  dangerous  to  our  peace  and  safety,  and 
would  be  opposed  accordingly." 

I  question  whether  many  of  our  people  realize  the  momentous  signif- 
icance that  these  words  have  had  in  American  history.  By  common 
acceptance  they  have  become  a  part  of  our  unwritten  constitution.  In 
enforcing  this  principle  the  United  States  practically  assumed  the  pro- 
tectorate over  all  the  peoples  living  on  the  American  continent.  Our 
country  has  for  nearly  one  hundred  years,  therefore,  been  the  one  sovereign 
country  in  America. 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  paper  to  discuss  our  long  Hst  of  worth- 
while Americanisms:  rotation  in  office,  no  third  term  for  the  president, 
free  education,  local-unit  public  schools,  private  business  cooperations,  a 
small  standing  army,  social  equalization,  union  of  states,  and  free  voca- 
tional choice. 

What  has  the  school  garden  to  do  with  Americanization?  If  it  be 
true  that  the  many  years  of  agricultural  development  which  mark  the 
growth  and  progress  of  our  country  were  necessary  for  our  social  emanci- 
pation, then  it  seems  to  me  undoubtedly  worth  while  that  this  early  industry 
be  made  a  fundamental  in  our  educational  system. 

The  child  who  learns  to  cultivate  a  plant  from  seed  to  maturity  is  not 
only  trained  mentally  and  physically,  but  is  trained  in  getting  food.  Better 
plants  mean  better  methods,  and  better  methods  mean  broader  discussions, 
and  discussion  is  freedom  in  thought  and  expression. 

The  one  burning  conviction  that  should  come  to  us  all  in  this  hour  of 
need  for  true  Americans  is  that  when  we  lose  our  agricultural  heritage  we 
lose  our  distinctive  American  training.  The  barefoot  boy  must  return  to 
his  farm. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President— M.  R.  McDaniel,  principal,  Township  High  School Oak  Park,  111. 

Vice-President — Lydia  M.  Schmidt,  University  High  School Chicago,  111. 

Secretary — R.  J.  Hargreaves,  principal,  high  school Spokane,  Wash. 


FIRST  SESSION— Tuesday  Forenoon,  July  2,  1918 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  9:45  a.m.  by  President  M.  R.  McDaniel.  Secre- 
tary R.  J.  Hargreaves  not  being  present,  J.  L.  Thalman,  principal.  Proviso  Township 
High  School,  Maywood,  111.,  was  appointed  Secretary. 

Mr.  Oscar  W.  Demmler,  Fifth  Avenue  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  led  the  meeting 
in  singing  "America"  and  the  "Star-Spangled  Banner."  ^ 

The  following  program  was  then  rendered: 

"Mothers  of  Democracy" — Mrs.  Taylor  AUderdice,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

"Physical  Education  in  the  High  School  in  the  Present  Emergency" — W.  S.  Small, 
specialist,  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 

"Citizenship  thru  Athletics — a  Concrete  Example" — Glen  F.  Thistlethwaite, 
director  of  physical  training,  high  school.  Oak  Park,  111. 

The  Committee  on  the  Study  of  Sociology  in  High  Schools  was  to  have  reported  on 
the  "Actual  Conditions  in  Various  States"  and  to  have  made  "Definite  Proposals  for 
Further  Progress."  The  chairman  of  the  Committee,  E.  O.  Sisson,  president  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Montana,  was  unable  to  be  present,  so  the  Department  voted  that  the  Com- 
mittee continue  its  investigation  and  report  at  the  next  annual  meeting,  the  personnel 
of  the  Committee  to  be  changed  or  added  to  at  the  discretion  of  the  incoming  president  of 
the  Department. 

The  President  appointed  the  following  Committee  on  Nominations: 

Edward  Rynearson,  principal.  Fifth  Avenue  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

R.  Thane  Cook,  principal.  Union  Higli  School,  Phoenix,  Ariz. 

John  G.  Graham,  principal,  high  school,  Huntington,  W.Va, 

SECOND  SESSION — Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3,  1918 
Joint  program  with  Library  Department. 

THIRD  SESSION— Wednesday  Afternoon,  July  3,  1918 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  the  president,  who  appointed  Miss  Lydia  Schmidt, 
Chicago,  as  Secretary. 

The  following  program  was  presented: 

General  Topic:   Education  for  the  Day  after  the  War 

"The  Present  Emergency  in  Secondary  Education" — G.  D.  Stray er,  chairman, 
Commission  on  the  National  Emergency  in  Education. 

"Education  of  the  Adolescent  in  England,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  English 
Education  Bill" — Frank  Roscoe,  secretary  of  the  Teachers'  Registration  Council,  London, 
representing  the  government  and  the  educational  associations  of  Great  Britain. 

177 


1 78  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

"  Sex  Education  in  Secondary  Schools  in  Relation  to  National  Efficiency  " — Norman  F. 
Coleman,  Reed  College,  Portland  Ore.,  representing  Council  of  National  Defense. 

Discussion. 

The  Committee  on  Nominations  recommended  the  following  officers,  and  they  were 
unanimously  elected: 

President — Franklin  W.  Johnson,  principal,  University  High  School,  Chicago,  111. 

Vice-President — Edmund  D.  Lyon,  principal,  Hughes  High  School,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Secretary — Anna  Willson,  principal,  high  school,  Crawfordsville,  Ind. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


MOTHERS  OF  DEMOCRACY 

MRS.   TAYLOR  ALLDERDICE,  PITTSBURGH,   PA. 

(From  notes  taken  by  Anna  Pierpont  Siviter) 

We  hear  much  these  days  of  the  world  being  upside  down,  and  yet,  thru 
the  darkness  and  horror  of  the  overturning  process,  is  it  not  true  that  many 
things  we  once  feared  were  hopelessly  down  are  now  rapidly  coming  up  ? 
If  five  years  ago  a  social  worker  had  ventured  to  predict  that  the  time  was 
close  at  hand  when  the  school  buildings  of  Pittsburgh  would  have  semi- 
monthly meetings  of  the  mothers  of  the  ward,  where  they  sang  and  sewed  for 
a  common  cause,  where  the  children  were  as  welcome  as  the  ''grown-ups," 
and  where  speeches  and  talks  from  the  women  themselves  were  a  common 
occurrence,  I  for  one  would  have  said  that  the  millennium  was  much  nearer 
at  hand  than  was  usually  supposed;  and  yet  this  is  now  taking  place  in  more 
than  forty  places  of  meeting  in  and  about  Pittsburgh. 

And  how  has  it  come  to  pass  ?  What  is  the  bond  that  has  power  to 
draw  these  women  together,  without  regard  to  creed,  or  color,  or  class? 
It  is  the  bond  of  motherhood,  of  a  common  cause:  my  son  is  fighting  for 
you,  your  son  is  fighting  that  I  and  mine  may  live.  A  year  ago  I  chose  as 
my  work  the  care  of  the  soldier's  family.  I  had  always  been  interested 
in  that  sort  of  thing,  and  the  mother  and  the  child  at  home  appeal  to  me 
very  strongly.  My  husband  is  on  the  Appellate  Board,  and  I  think  that  is 
one  of  the  worst  jobs  that  Uncle  Sam  has  to  hand  out.  He  must  look 
over  every  day  about  one  hundred  or  more  names  of  men  who  don't  want  to 
go.  The  cards  that  came  in  last  September,  the  registration  cards,  showed 
very  plainly  that  many  of  the  men  had  dependents.  Notwithstanding  the 
ruling  that  those  with  dependents  were  not  to  go,  one  card  in  particular 
read:  "Have  you  dependents?"  The  answer  was:  "A  wife  and  four  chil- 
dren, a  mother-in-law,  aged  aunt  and  father."  And  where  it  says,  "Do 
you  wish  exemption?"  he  had  written,  "My  God,  No!"    Another  card 


Department]  MOTHERS  OF  DEMOCRACY  179 

that  made  an  impression  on  me  was  that  of  a  boy  who  had  several  depend- 
ents, and  when  asked  if  he  claimed  exemption,  he  replied,  "Yes,  I  deserve 
exemption,  but  I  am  not  going  to  ask  for  it."  More  and  more  every  day  I 
realized  that  soldiers'  famiHes  were  calling  to  some  of  us  who  were  left  at 
home. 

It  so  happened  that  at  Camp  Lee  some  big-souled  officer  decided  that 
it  would  put  heart  into  the  mothers  at  home  if  they  could  know  the  men  who 
were  to  guide  and  care  for  their  boys  overseas,  and  the  plan  was  made  to 
send  to  Pittsburgh  and  ask  the  mothers  of  the  soldiers  to  hold  a  remembrance 
night;  the  boys  would  meet  the  second  Friday  of  each  month,  and  the 
mothers  were  to  do  the  same. 

On  account  of  my  work  with  the  Civilian  Relief  of  the  Red  Cross  I  was 
called  to  meet  Captain  Barratt  O'Hara  of  the  319th  Regiment,  of  Camp  Lee, 
and  we  arranged  for  a  big  "parents'  meeting"  on  February  10  in  Soldiers' 
Memorial  Hall  of  Pittsburgh.  The  officers  came  and  the  fathers  and 
mothers,  five  thousand  of  them,  and  there  was  a  band,  too,  and  flags,  and 
distinguisht  speakers.  It  was  a  most  impressive  meeting,  but  when  it  was 
over  the  real  meeting  came,  for  it  was  announst  that  the  officers  wisht  to 
shake  hands  with  all  in  the  Hall,  and  what  a  greeting!  "You  know  my 
boy  ?  "  a  man  would  question.  "  Know  him !  Why  he's  the  finest  boy  in  my 
company!"    And  so  the  greetings  ran. 

This  meeting  showed  us  the  need  for  the  organization  that  was  in  our 
minds,  and  we  set  about  it  by  means  of  an  advertisement.  We  asked  all 
mothers  to  come  to  a  meeting  to  register  and  get  in  a  moving  picture  that  was 
to  be  shown  in  the  camps.  The  picture  was  to  be  taken  at  one  o'clock,  but 
the  mothers  began  coming  at  half-past  eleven.  They  were  not  all  very  well 
drest  for  the  picture;  many  had  their  heads  tied  up  in  handkerchiefs, 
but  everyone  had  a  service  flag,  and  many  came  a  long  distance — from 
Beaver,  Ligonier,  ZeHenople,  and  Elizabeth. 

I  said  to  Mr.  Dawson  (the  Pathe  man)  that  we  would  never  be  able 
to  photograph  them.  He  said,  "Now  we  are  going  to  take  the  picture." 
His  plan  was  to  ask  the  women  to  get  up  and  go  outside  and  then  walk 
toward  the  Hall.  I  said  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  ask  them  to  do  this. 
He  said,  "  I  know  women  and  how  they  like  to  have  their  pictures  taken." 
I  said,  "But  they  have  come  early  to  get  front  seats."  "All  right,"  he 
said,  "you  try."  So  I  said,  "Ladies,  I  am  very  sorry  that  we  didn't  get 
you  as  you  were  coming  in.     Those  who  care  to  get  into  the  picture,  if  you 

will  please  step  outside "    Before  I  was  half  finisht,  every  woman  was 

up  and  on  her  way  out,  with  her  knitting  bag,  bundle,  baby,  and  all.  Then 
they  marcht  slowly,  while  Mr.  Dawson  was  winding  the  film,  every  woman 
\  waving  her  flag  and  trying  to  get  as  near  to  the  camera  as  she  could. 

I  spoke  to  one  woman  as  she  was  going  out  and  said,  "It  is  too  bad, 
after  you  have  come  to  get  a  front  seat."     She  replied,  "Not  at  all,  that  is 


t8o  national  education  association  [Secondary 

what  I  came  for,  to  get  in  the  picture."  That  day  we  had  registration 
cards  asking  for  the  signee's  name  and  address,  with  the  name  of  her  son 
and  his  camp.  They  could  be  signed  by  either  mother  or  sister,  and  I 
took  home  over  eight-hundred  signed  cards.  Of  these  there  were  fifteen 
mothers  who  had  three  sons  in  the  service;  one  mother  had  four  sons  in 
the  service;  fifty-five  had  two  sons;  five  had  two  sons  and  a  daughter  in 
France.  One  card  in  particular  read  three  sons,  name  of  camps  unknown. 
We  sorted  those  cards  into  districts  and  selected  the  ones  with  the  most 
promising  handwriting  and  wrote  to  the  signee  and  asked  her  if  she  would 
com.e  to  an  organization  meeting  and  bring  as  many  mothers  as  she  could 
gather.  And  so  there  was  born  the  organization  known  as  the  Mothers  of 
Democracy,  whose  plan  it  is  that  all  soldiers  and  women  shall  have  a 
mother's  remembrance  night  on  the  second  Friday  of  the  month,  and  there 
can't  fail  to  be  a  strong  spiritual-mental  bond  productive  of  good  cheer. 

To  our  surprise,  in  every  district  (and  we  now  have  forty)  women  came 
forward  who  seemed  especially  fitted  for  the  work  of  organization.  They 
were  born  leaders,  to  whom  an  opportunity  had  never  before  come,  and  we 
found  them  eager  to  take  the  responsibility  of  the  first  meetings  we  arranged 
for,  and  to  them  has  been  given  the  responsibility  of  all  the  after-meetings. 

The  programs  they  prepare  are  very  varied;  one  devotes  its  time  to  a 
literary  entertainment,  where  the  women  knit  as  they  listen  to  music  and 
speeches,  largely  by  themselves.  Other  meetings  are  for  regular  Red  Cross 
work,  where  letters  from  the  boys  overseas  are  exchanged,  and  ideas  for 
Christmas  and  birthday  boxes  are  promulgated. 

At  all  gatherings  good  cheer  and  fellowship  reign.  Careful  speakers 
from  other  spheres  of  activities  are  often  introduced  to  try  to  interest  the 
Italian  mother  and  the  young  Polish  wife  who  lives  round  the  corner,  and 
whose  little  baby  keeps  her  from  attending  other  meetings.  Or  perhaps 
there  is  a  speaker  from  overseas,  who  tells  of  what  his  comrades  are  doing, 
full  of  pride  and  patriotism  and  achievement,  planting  the  seeds  of  the  same 
feeling  in  the  hearts  of  the  mothers  before  him. 

Germans  and  Poles,  Enghsh  and  Scotch,  Italians,  Swedes,  and  Jews 
laugh  and  cry  together  at  the  stories  that  are  told  and  the  songs  that  are 
sung  in  this  commingling  of  interest  from  which  are  being  born  patriotic 
American  mothers. 

And  so  the  schoolhouse  is  becoming  a  community  center,  where  the 
heart  as  w^ell  as  the  head  is  educated.  And  when  the  Mothers  of  Democ- 
racy stand  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  their  sons  in  service,  to  America  a 
dream  of  many  who  love  our  country's  good  will  have  come  true;  for  from 
the  Mothers  of  Democracy  shall  be  born  the  Sons  of  Liberty,  free  from  race 
prejudice,  free  from  the  bonds  of  ignorance,  and  pledged  to  the  service  of 
God  and  Home  and  Native  Land. 


Department!        PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  l8i 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  IN  THE 
PRESENT  EMERGENCY 

W.   S.   SMALL,  SPECIALIST  IN  SCHOOL  HYGIENE,  UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF 
EDUCATION,   WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

In  the  year  191 7,  2,500,000  men  between  the  ages  of  twenty-one  and 
thirty-one  years  were  examined  for  the  National  Army.  Of  these,  34  per 
cent  were  found  physically  unfit  for  mihtary  service  and  were  rejected. 
Many  of  these  were  rejected  on  account  of  remediable  defects;  just  how 
many  we  do  not  know,  but  probably  somewhere  between  30  and  40  per 
cent.  If  we  accept  the  lower  figure,  then  about  one  out  of  every  ten  men  of 
draft  age  is  unfit  for  mihtary  service  because  of  remediable  physical  defects. 

That  is  not  the  whole  story,  however.  Of  those  who  were  accepted  as 
being  without  physical  defects,  a  large  proportion  were  lacking  in  the 
strength,  endurance,  and  general  organic  power  necessary  for  intensive 
mihtary  training.  This  defect  had  to  be  made  good  by  months  of  purely 
physical  training  in  the  training  camps. 

Here  then  are  two  facts:  a  large  amount  of  rejection  for  physical  defect, 
much  of  which  could  have  been  easily  remedied  in  school  years;  and  a  large 
amount  of  undevelopt  physical  capacity,  all  of  which  could  have  been 
developt  during  school  years.  If  physical  education  means  anything 
worthy  of  respect,  it  means  that  these  undevelopt  resources  of  human 
capacity  and  human  happiness  should  be  conserved  and  developt.  Whether 
we  think  of  these  wasted  resources  in  the  terms  of  soldiers  of  the  future, 
or  of  workers  of  the  future,  or  merely  as  citizens  of  the  future,  we  must 
realize  that  this  is  a  real  problem,  and  that  it  demands  for  its  solution  high 
inteUigence  and  genuine  sacrifice. 

There  are  in  the  United  States  approximately  5,000,000  boys  of  high- 
school  age.  Of  these,  there  were  enrolled  in  secondary  schools  in  191 6, 
750,000 — approximately  15  per  cent.  These  are  the  selected  youth  of  the 
nation,  selected  either  by  intellectual  capacity  or  by  economic  opportunity. 
It  is  a  service  and  a  duty  of  the  highest  patriotic  import  that  confronts  our 
high  schools — to  develop  to  its  full  capacity  this  potential  man  power. 

Under  the  Revised  Selective  Service  Regulations  for  Physical  Examina- 
tion of  the  Provost  Marshal  General  there  are  four  classes:  those  who  are 
free  from  defects  and  are  therefore  fit  for  immediate  training  for  general 
service;  those  with  remediable  defects  who  may  be  made  fit  by  corrective 
measures;  those  with  non-remediable  defects  who,  however,  are  capable  of 
limited  service;   those  who  are  totally  unfit. 

This  classification  naturally  suggests  a  method  of  procedure  in  the  high 
schools  in  the  present  emergency: 

I.  A  thoro  medico-physical  examination  of  all  high-school  boys  and 
classification  approximating  the  draft  classification.  This  must  be  done 
with  intelligence,  discretion,  and  sympathy — in  such  a  way  as  to  encourage. 


l82  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Secondary 

not  to  discourage,  those  who  are  found  to  have  defects.  The  greatest  kind- 
ness and  the  greatest  service  that  could  be  rendered  a  boy  handicapt  by  a 
defect  would  be  to  reveal  to  him  the  nature  of  the  defect,  the  Hmitations 
it  imposes  upon  him,  and  the  method  of  overcoming  or  obviating  it.  This 
would  preserve  self-respect  and  stimulate  ambition. 

In  schools  with  a  well-developt  system  of  physical  education  this  will 
involve  little  that  is  new.  In  schools  which  heretofore  have  neglected  this 
first  principle  of  physical  education  it  will  be  wise  to  begin  with  the  Senior 
class.  The  Seniors  have  but  one  year  in  which  to  recover  lost  ground. 
Personally  I  would  then  take  the  entering  pupils,  the  second-year  pupils, 
and  the  third-year  pupils  in  that  order. 

2.  There  should  be  no  high-school  graduates  in  the  second  class  Cor- 
rective and  remedial  measures  should  be  carefully  prescribed.  "Whatever 
treatment  is  required  should  be  insisted  upon,  and  the  eHmination  of  the 
defect  or  progress  toward  the  eUmination  of  the  defect  should  be  an  absolute 
condition  to  graduation.  Some  will  require  surgical  treatment,  some 
medical  treatment;  a  great  many  more  will  require  corrective  exercises  and 
practice  of  hygienic  habits. 

3.  For  students  of  the  first  class,  those  free  from  defect,  there  is  required 
an  intensive  and  varied  program  of  physical  training  under  discipline  to 
develop  strength,  endurance,  muscular  skill,  alertness,  cooperation  under 
leadership,  and  the  other  physical  and  social  qualities  essential  alike  in 
miUtary  or  civil  pursuits.  No  boy  of  this  class  should  receive  a  diploma 
who  has  not  received  and  profited  by  such  training  to  the  end  that  the 
waste  of  time  now  incident  to  conditioning  soldiers  may  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  and  to  the  end  that  high-school  graduates  who  go  into  civil 
pursuits  may  be  capable  of  rendering  maximum  service. 

This  will  require  time.  Two  hours  a  day  is  the  minimum — one  hour  for 
discipUnary  exercises  under  strict  plan  and  direction;  one  for  recreational 
exercise,  giving  free  play  to  individual  preference. 

In  addition,  physical  labor  outside  of  school  may  be  included  as  a  substi- 
tute for  part  of  the  exercise.  This  will  require  analysis  of  the  character  of 
the  muscular  processes  involved  in  the  work  and  its  proper  evaluation  in 
terms  of  physical  development. 

Above  all,  athletics  must  be  utilized  and  extended,  must  be  made  a  part 
of  the  training  of  every  boy.  The  testimony  of  the  commanding  officers  of 
the  training  camps  is  uniform  as  to  the  value  of  the  mass  or  sociaHzed 
athletics  as  preparatory  mihtary  training.  "I  have  observed"  says  one, 
''that  athletes  assimilate  discipline  quicker  than  any  other  class  of  men. 
Their  experience  in  athletics  has  taught  them  the  necessity  for  disciphne 
and  team  work." 

One  of  the  tragedies  of  American  education  is  the  failure,  in  any  large 
and  general  way,  to  understand  and  capitaHze  this  rich  resource  of  physical 
and  moral  education. 


Department]  CITIZENSHIP  AND  ATHLETICS  183 

What  of  the  girls  ?  Are  they  not  to  be  thought  of  in  this  emergency  ? 
My  answer  is  that  everything  I  have  askt  for  the  boys  I  ask  for  the  girls. 
Racially  the  educated  vigor  of  woman  is  more  important  than  that  of  man. 

Is  such  a  program  an  irridescent  dream  ?  That  depends  largely  upon 
the  high-school  teachers.  If  we  are  able  to  free  ourselves  from  the  sub- 
conscious legacy  of  the  ascetic  and  scholastic  habit  of  thought  and  look  with 
level  eyes  upon  this  great  opportunity  we  can  accomplish  much.  The 
pubHc  mind  is  awake  and  sensitive.  It  needs  but  directing  vision  to  make 
it  act. 

CITIZENSHIP  AND  ATHLETICS— A  CONCRETE  EXAMPLE 

GLEN  F.  THISTLETHWAITE,  DIRECTOR  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING,  HIGH  SCHOOL, 

OAK  PARK,   ILL. 

The  purpose  of  all  education  is  to  train  for  citizenship.  Physical  educa- 
tion has  to  do  with  the  health,  the  growth,  and  the  development  of  our 
physical  being.  Athletics  are  usually  considered  a  phase  of  physical 
training  or  physical  education,  but  to  be  so  classified  they  must  be  educa- 
tional, and  where  they  are  educational  they  must  certainly  train  for  citizen- 
ship. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  show  how  athletics  may  improve  our 
citizenship  when  directed  in  the  proper  way,  and  to  do  that  a  concrete  illus- 
tration will  be  used.  But  first  it  must  be  remembered  that  when  we  speak 
of  the  athletics  of  our  high-school  pupils  we  mean  more  than  interscholastic 
contests  and  games,  and  for  that  reason  we  shall  think  of  interschool  or 
interscholastic  athletics  and  intraschool  or  intramural  athletics. 

For  our  concrete  example  the  Oak  Park  and  River  Forest  Township 
High  School  at  Oak  Park,  111.,  ia  used,  not  because  it  has  solved  the  problem 
any  better  than  many  other  schools,  but  because  being  located  in  a  suburb  of 
a  large  city,  under  large-city  conditions,  and  of  about  average  size — 1400 
pupils — it  offers  a  fair  illustration. 

The  after-school  hours,  from  the  time  school  closes  until  the  dinner 
hour,  form  the  most  valuable  period  of  the  day  for  practical  physical  train- 
ing. Theory  and  suggestive  exercise  can  be  taught  during  the  regular  class 
hours,  and  some  corrective  work  can  be  done  then,  but  the  greatest  good 
derived  from  physical  training  during  school  hours  as  practist  in  the  average 
school  is  its  recreational  value  from  the  regular  school  work  and  the  habits 
formed  in  personal  hygiene  and  discipline.  For  healthful  exercise  the  time 
after  school  must  be  utilized.  Very  few  pupils  do  any  studying  from  the 
time  school  is  out  until  dinner  time.  At  the  close  of  the  school  day  the 
pupils  are  more  or  less  fatigued  in  nervous  energy,  and  recreation  and 
exercise  of  some  enjoyable  nature  should  follow  immediately. 

We  have  always  provided  that  exercise  and  supervision  for  a  small 
percentage  of  our  boys  in  the  form  of  interscholastic  athletics.    Our  inter- 


l84  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

scholastic  athletics  have  most  certainly  been  training  for  citizenship  as  well 
as  for  emergencies.  The  fundamental  idea  of  teaming  or  team  work  is 
necessary  to  every  business,  professional,  or  institutional  enterprise,  and  in 
our  athletics  that  idea  becomes  grounded  in  a  boy's  character.  Loyalty 
is  necessary  to  citizenship  and  should  be  an  object  of  education.  To  get 
out  and  pull  for  the  team,  to  win  and  to  suffer  with  it  in  defeat,  develops  a 
school  spirit  and  a  school  pride. 

The  criticism  directed  toward  athletics  deals  with  the  abuse  of  the 
prevailing  system.  A  great  deal  can  be  said  about  foul  tactics  and  ques- 
tionable methods,  and  during  the  past  there  has  been  much  ground  for 
such  criticism.  Imbued  with  the  desire  to  win,  there  has  been  a  tendency 
to  adopt  the  German  poHcy  that  might  makes  right  and  anything  is  per- 
missible to  win.  But  gradually  we  have  been  correcting  this  error  by  hav- 
ing our  boys  coacht  and  supervised  by  men  who  have  been  more  interested 
in  character-building  than  in  winning. 

The  most  important  criticism  directed  toward  our  interscholastic  or 
intercollegiate  athletics  is  that  we  overdevelop  a  few  and  neglect  the 
masses,  and  it  is  this  mistake  that  demands  immediate  remedy.  When  our 
athletes  are  meeting  the  nation's  demands  in  such  an  encouraging  way  the 
deplorable  feature  is  that  we  have  produced  such  a  small  number  of  them. 
The  remedy  for  this  error  is  intraschool  or  intramural  athletics.  They 
should  be  made  as  much  a  part  of  the  school  as  the  interscholastic  athletics, 
so  far  as  the  boys  are  concerned.  What  is  good  for  the  few  is  good  for  all. 
All  have  an  equal  right  to  the  use  of  the  school  property,  the  gymnasium,  and 
the  athletic  field.  All  have  an  equal  right  to  the  instruction  of  the  athletic 
teachers  and  directors. 

To  abolish  interscholastic  athletics  in  order  to  promote  the  mass  idea 
would  be  a  serious  mistake.  A  few  colleges  have  tried  the  plan,  but  with 
very  questionable  success.  Love  of  contest  is  not  enough  to  get  our  high- 
school  boys  to  do  their  best,  and  unless  they  do  their  best  the  interest  soon 
lags  and  little  good  is  accomplisht.  Good  playing,  as  well  as  a  knowledge  of 
the  rules,  is  gained  by  associating  with  and  observing  the  players  on  the 
regular  school  team.  There  must  be  a  goal  for  a  boy's  work.  Practically 
every  boy  in  a  school  would  give  anything  to  be  on  the  varsity  team,  yet 
only  the  best  will  go  out  and  try  for  it.  A  boy  wants  to  know  before  going 
out  that  there  is  a  chance  for  him  to  make  the  team.  But  the  mediocre 
boy  and  even  the  poorly  developt  boy,  if  given  an  opportunity  to  compete 
against  boys  of  his  own  age,  size,  and  experience,  jumps  at  the  opportunity. 
He  gets  on  his  class,  session-room,  or  some  other  team.  Unconsciously 
he  develops  himself  to  a  place  where  he  has  more  confidence  in  his  own 
abiUty. 

We  need  more  school  teams  so  that  our  athletics  may  be  representative 
of  the  different  stages  in  the  development  of  our  boys.  With  the  number  of 
school  teams  multiplied  by  three  the  number  of  boys  participating  is 


Department!  CITIZENSHIP  AND  ATHLETICS  185 

naturally  increast  in  like  ratio.  This  alone  will  account  for  the  greater  num- 
ber of  boys  physically  able  to  engage  in  competitive  games  in  a  small  school 
with  less  than  one  hundred  boys.  In  larger  schools,  with  the  school  sports 
designated  as  heavyweight,  lightweight,  and  midget  weight,  it  becomes  an 
easy  matter  to  organize  intramural  leagues  in  each  division. 

Wrestling,  gymnastics,  tennis,  cross-country  running,  and  many  other 
tournaments  can  be  conducted  in  the  same  way,  even  tho  there  are  no  school 
teams  in  those  sports. 

In  a  school  where  there  is  but  one  small  gymnasium  and  an  athletic 
field  to  correspond  it  is  difficult  to  put  thru  a  full  intramural  program  and  at 
the  same  time  keep  up  the  present  pace  in  interscholastic  athletics.  The 
best  solution  of  the  problem  is  to  decrease  the  number  of  interschool  games 
played  and  make  the  respective  seasons  much  shorter.  Run  off  the  intra- 
school  leagues  first  and  pick  in  each  division  all-star  teams,  which  then 
become  the  school  teams.  This  gives  the  very  best  players  for  the  final 
school  team  and  is  an  inducement  for  the  boys  to  do  their  best  in  the  pre- 
liminary games.  A  condenst  schedule  can  then  be  played  with  other 
schools,  and  if  some  championship  is  at  stake  a  final  tournament  or,  what 
is  better,  a  series  of  elimination  games  can  be  played.  Let  the  principals 
of  the  schools  in  each  league  get  together,  place  a  limit  on  interschool  com- 
petition, and  agree  on  definite  dates  for  the  opening  of  the  interschool 
seasons,  all  with  the  idea  of  getting  more  boys  in  the  game. 

The  Oak  Park  High  School  board  has  been  during  the  last  five  years 
gradually  putting  into  effect  this  idea  of  mass  athletics.  The  details  of  the 
system  have  been  left  with  the  physical  directors,  but  the  board  has  stood 
sponsor  and  has  furnisht  the  protection  and  inducements  for  furthering  the 
plan.  The  path  has  not  been  a  rosy  one.  The  transition  of  a  school  that 
was  saturated  with  the  one-team  idea  into  one  for  every  boy  in  the  game 
has  been  most  difficult.  The  community  had  learned  to  think  in  terms  of 
national  championships.  It  took  courage  for  a  school  board  to  change  the. 
athletic  policy  and  have  the  time  and  energy  of  the  coaches  devoted  to  the 
interests  of  all  the  boys  to  the  neglect  of  the  school  heroes.  But  gradually 
the  pubHc  settled  down  to  a  new  level  and  began  to  take  a  different  view  of 
things.  By  degrees  people  awoke  to  the  fact  that  an  unusual  number  of 
boys  were  participating  in  the  athletics. 

Once  the  old  handicap  was  removed  the  teams  improved.  The  idea  of 
national  championships  has  been  entirely  forgotten,  and  the  school  takes 
just  as  much  pride  in  fighting  for  and  winning  the  prized  banner  in  the  local 
high-school  league  of  ten  schools.  During  the  school  year  just  finisht,  out 
of  a  possible  eight  championships  in  the  league  the  school  won  five.  All 
the  school  teams  get  less  coaching  than  ever  before,  but  the  competition 
for  places  is  much  keener,  and  boys  are  brought  to  the  front  who  would 
never  have  been  discovered  under  the  old  method. 


l86  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

In  working  out  the  system  of  intramural  competition  the  session-room 
is  taken  as  a  unit.  This  basis  of  division  in  a  large  school  has  a  tremendous 
advantage  over  any  other,  as  the  boys  in  the  session-rooms  are  thrown 
together  for  fifteen  minutes  each  morning,  and  for  four  days  of  the  week 
are  in  the  room  together  during  a  forty-five  minute  study  period.  The 
boys  become  acquainted  immediately,  and  a  little  community  starts.  An- 
nouncements, elections,  and  many  affairs  that  concern  only  the  individual 
session-room  are  held. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  athletic  season  each  room  elects  managers  for 
the  various  forms  of  competition — soccer,  basket-ball,  wresthng,  track,  and 
baseball — and  as  most  of  these  sports  are  divided  into  classes  according  to 
age  and  weight  there  is  an  opportunity  for  almost  every  boy  to  get  on  a 
team.  The  managers  are  called  together  and  are  organized  into  a  board  of 
control.  Schedules  are  drawn  up,  and  each  manager  is  responsible  for  all 
announcements  being  made  in  his  room,  and  for  scores  of  games  being  given 
the  proper  publicity. 

Quite  recently  the  president  of  the  school  board  told  the  writer  that  one 
day  last  November  he  visited  the  various  fields  when  no  one  suspected  his 
presence  and  counted  over  two  hundred  boys  engaged  in  competition.  This 
figure  included  about  eighty-five  boys  who  were  practicing  for  the  school 
teams  at  that  time. 

The  gymnasium  is  large  enough  for  two  basket-ball  courts,  so  that  eight 
games  can  be  played  each  afternoon.  In  addition  the  running-track  affords 
room  for  track  competition,  and  by  utilizing  the  space  under  the  running- 
track  wrestling  and  gymnastics  are  conducted  at  the  same  time.  Last 
winter  there  were  forty-five  basket-ball  teams  in  the  three  leagues,  each 
team  playing  twice  each  week.  All-star  squads  were  chosen  to  represent 
the  school  in  an  independent  schedule  .with  the  teams  from  other  high 
schools,  so  that  for  the  last  month  of  the  season  the  school  was  represented 
by  four  teams. 

No  figures  have  been  kept  to  show  the  exact  number  of  boys  taking 
part,  but  the  number  on  the  various  teams  in  competition  during  last  year 
runs  over  one  thousand.  Probably  50  per  cent  of  these  are  duplicates,  so 
that  it  would  seem  that  about  five  hundred  of  the  six  hundred  boys  in  the 
school  get  into  some  form  of  organized  team  play. 

With  what  results  in  regard  to  citizenship?  A  general  deduction  is 
hard  to  make,  but  a  few  points  stand  out  very  prominently.  Everybody 
in  the  game  makes  athletics  democratic,  and  every  boy  feels  that  he  is  a 
cog  in  the  machine.  He  feels  that  he  helpt  to  make  the  team,  and  if  it  is 
not  successful  he  is  partially  to  blame.  Gradually  the  rooting  at  games  has 
taken  on  a  different  aspect.  There  has  been  a  very  noticeable  improve- 
ment in  individual  honesty  and  sportsmanship.  In  the  intramural  games 
students  act  as  referees  but  perform  Httle  more  than  the  mechanical  part  of 
that  official's  duties.    This  democratic  control  makes  any  boy  who  would 


Department!        THE  EMERGENCY  IN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  187 

use  foul  tactics  very  unpopular;  no  boy  will  long  stand  against  the  ill  will 
of  his  fellows,  and  as  a  result  a  spirit  of  good  sportsmanship  and  clean  play 
dominates  the  whole  athletic  situation. 

It  is  said  that  in  the  European  countries  at  war  juvenile  crime  is  greatly 
on  the  increase.  In  Vienna  the  increase  for  1916  is  quoted  as  being  340 
per  cent  greater  than  the  year  before.  Whether  there  will  be  a  similar 
increase  in  America  after  two  or  three  years  of  war  depends  largely  on  the 
efforts  in  our  secondary  schools,  and  one  of  the  greatest  opportunities  lies 
in  the  after-school  program.  In  this  hour  of  crisis  we  must  forget  our  old 
ideas  of  athletics  and  bend  all  our  energies  to  the  benefit  of  the  greatest 
number. 

THE  EMERGENCY  IN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

GEORGE     D.     STRAYER,     CHAIRMAN,     NATIONAL    EDUCATION    ASSOCIATION 

COMMISSION  ON   THE  NATIONAL  EMERGENCY  IN  EDUCATION, 

NEW   YORK,   N.Y. 

It  has  been  said  that  this  war  is  a  war  of  engineers.  It  might  as  well  be 
said  that  it  is  a  war  in  which  superior  intelligence  will,  in  the  long  run,  bring 
victory.  We  need  to  keep  every  capable  boy  and  girl  in  school  thru  the 
secondary-school  period  and  on  thru  the  university  and  professional  school 
if  we  are  to  win  out  after  the  world-struggle  which  will  persist  even  beyond 
the  day  of  the  declaration  of  peace. 

The  present  emergency  has  made  us  conscious  of  certain  alarming  defi- 
ciencies in  our  scheme  of  secondary  education.  We  know  now  that  we  have 
postponed  too  long  the  period  of  beginning  the  secondary-school  studies. 
We,  in  common  with  the  more  highly  civiHzed  people  of  the  world,  should 
undertake  the  serious  work  of  the  secondary  school  at  twelve  rather  than  at 
fourteen  years  of  age.  At  present,  American  boys  and  girls  of  eighteen  years 
of  age  are  approximately  two  years  behind  their  European  contemporaries 
in  intellectual  training.  We  prided  ourselves,  and  rightly,  on  the  physical 
and  mental  alertness  of  our  youth.  But  we  may  not  be  satisfied  with  our 
scheme  of  education  until  we  have  accomplisht  vastly  more  than  we  now  do 
in  intellectual  training  during  the  secondary-school  period. 

Differentiated  courses  of  study  in  the  intermediate  schools  should  pro- 
vide, not  only  for  those  who  are  to  go  on  thru  the  high  school  and  college, 
but  also  for  boys  and  girls  who  are  to  go  into  commerce  or  industry,  or  who 
are  to  contribute  thru  the  development  of  special  skill  in  trades. 

A  very  much  larger  provision  should  be  made  in  the  household  arts, 
including  cooking,  sewing,  millinery,  dressmaking,  designing,  household 
decoration  and  management,  and  the  like  for  girls  who  will  make  their 
greatest  contribution  along  these  lines.  In  these  schools  there  should  be  a 
definite  attempt  to  discover  special  aptitudes  and  abilities,  in  order  that 
educational  guidance  may  result  in  placing  boys  and  girls  in  such  courses 
as  will  permit  them  to  develop  their  greatest  possible  efficiency. 


l88  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

But  the  problem  of  secondary  education  will  not  be  solved  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  three-year  intermediate  school  followed  by  the  three-year 
high-school  course.  We  must  provide  for  the  reorganization  of  our  courses 
of  study  even  in  the  fields  which  seem  best  establisht.  Without  sacrificing 
the  intellectual  training  which  we  hope  to  provide,  there  should  be  a  revision 
of  many  of  our  subjects  in  such  a  manner  as  to  provide  in  them  some  definite 
relationship  to  the  everyday  experience  and  work.  Already  a  beginning 
has  been  made  in  mathematics,  science,  and  certain  other  subjects.  Nothing 
is  lost  in  teaching  the  kind  of  mathematics  which  can  be  used  in  the  shop,  in 
the  home,  or  in  the  explanation  of  everyday  phenomena.  The  science 
which  is  related  to  our  everyday  life  is  quite  as  important  as  the  science 
which  in  the  Uves  of  boys  and  girls  is  related  only  to  laboratory  experiments. 
The  teaching  of  modern  languages  will  be  vastly  more  significant  in  intel- 
lectual training  if  we  recognize  the  necessity  for  a  kind  of  teaching  in  this 
field  which  would  hold  before  boys  and  girls  a  standard  of  achievement 
which  can  be  satisfied  only  when  they  are  able  to  speak  and  to  write  in  the 
foreign  tongue. 

If  the  work  of  the  secondary  school  is  to  be  developt  in  relation  to  our 
modern  needs  we  shall  have  to  provide  more  adequate  training  for  teachers. 
If  the  American  people  are  wise  they  will  make  it  possible  for  a  man  or  a 
woman  to  find  a  career  in  teaching  in  our  secondary  schools  comparable  to 
that  to  be  found  in  medicine,  in  law,  or  in  engineering.  Surely  it  is  of  as 
great  importance  to  the  future  of  our  country  that  men  of  broad  training, 
of  keen  intelligence,  and  of  highest  ideals  be  associated  with  our  children 
during  this  most  important  period  of  their  development  as  it  is  that  we 
provide  adequate  service  in  the  other  professions.  We  can  never  hope  to 
secure  this  kind  of  a  teaching  corps  unless  we  are  willing  to  invest  vastly 
greater  sums  in  teachers'  salaries.  Our  choicest  men  and  young  women 
may  not  be  expected  to  engage  in  this  highest  type  of  national  service 
without  sufiicient  salaries  to  enable  them  even  to  have  ordinary  comforts  or 
to  lead  the  kind  of  life  which  makes  for  intellectual  growth  and  development. 
The  future  of  our  American  citizenship,  the  ideals  of  our  leaders,  are  in 
very  large  degree  dependent  upon  the  action  which  the  American  people 
take  in  support  of  teachers  in  their  schools. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ADOLESCENT  IN  ENGLAND 

FRANK    ROSCOE,    SECRETARY    OF    THE    TEACHERS'    REGISTRATION    COUNCIL, 

LONDON,  ENGLAND 

(From  notes  taken  by  Miss  Schmidt) 

Mr.  Frank  Roscoe,  secretary  of  the  Teachers'  Registration  Council, 
London,  England,  who  represents  the  government  and  education  associa- 
tions of  Great  Britain,  spoke  on  the  education  of  the  adolescent  at  a  meeting 


Department)       EDUCATION  OF  THE  ADOLESCENT  IN  ENGLAND  189 

of  the  Department  of  Secondary  Education.  He  gave  a  short  sketch  of 
the  history  of  the  EngHsh  pubhc  school,  which  goes  back  to  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII  and  Edward  VI. 

The  Fisher  Bill,  which  provides  for  the  reorganization  of  the  English 
school  system,  was  then  discus t  by  the  speaker.  An  interesting  point 
brought  out  in  the  discussion  was  the  fact  that  75  per  cent  of  the  pupils 
in  secondary  schools  pay  fees,  tho  a  number  of  scholarships  are  also  pro- 
vided. The  speaker  said  that  the  free  education  of  all  pupils  in  the  second- 
ary schools  would  be  considered  impossible  in  a  country  so  bound  by 
traditions  as  is  England. 

The  changed  attitude  of  Parliament  regarding  school  matters  which  has 
been  brought  about  by  the  war  was  also  alluded  to.  There  is  no  objection 
to  increast  taxation.  In  one  evening  several  millions  for  teachers'  salaries 
were  secured  without  protest.  The  explanation  that  this  amount  repre- 
sented only  one-half  day's  fighting  in  the  war  sufficed  to  overcome  all 
objections.     Five  years  ago  this  would  have  been  impossible. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — William  T.  Foster,  president,  Reed  College Portland,  Ore. 

Vice-President — F.  L.  McVey,  president.  State  University Lexington,  Ky. 

Secretary — E.  L.  Schaub,  professor  of  philosophy,  Northwestern  University Evanston,  111. 


The  Department  of  Higher  Education  of  the  National  Education  Association  met  in 
Pittsburgh,  July  2  and  3,  at  the  Mellon  Institute,  President  F.  L.  McVey,  vice-president 
of  the  department,  presiding. 

The  following  program  was  presented: 

FIRST  SESSION— Tuesday  Forenoon,  July  2,  1918 
The  program  for  this  meeting  was  arranged  by  the  Emergency  Council  on  Education. 
General  Topic:  Organization  for  War  Purposes 

"The  Bill  for  a  National  Departmentof  Education" — JohnH.MacCracken,  president, 
Lafayette  College,  Easton,  Pa. 

"Psychological  Seryice  in  Connection  with  the  Military  Organization  of  the  United 
States" — R.  F.  Yerkes,  major,  Sanitary  Corps,  United  States  Army,  chairman.  Psychology 
Committee,  National  Research  Council,  Washington,  D.C. 

Discussion. 

SECOND  SESSION— Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3,  1918 
General  Topic:  National  Preparedness 

"Universal  Government  Service" — Miss  Sarah  L.  Arnold,  dean  of  Simmons  College, 
Boston,  Mass. 

"Sex  Education  and  the  War" — Norman  F.  Coleman,  professor  of  English,  Reed 
College,  Portland,  Ore. 

"Education  after  the  War" — James  P.  Munroe,  member,  Advisory  Board,  War 
Department  Committee  on  Education  and  Special  Training,  Washington,  D.C. 

"The  Problems  of  Historical  Scholarship  and  Teaching  as  Affected  by  the  War" — 
E.  B.  Greene,  chairman.  National  Board  for  Historical  Research,  Washington,  D.C. 

Discussion. 

At  the  business  session  held  Wednesday  forenoon,  July  3,  the  following  ofl&cer  was 
elected  for  the  ensuing  year: 

President — Frank  L.  McVey,  president  of  the  University  of  Kentucky,  Lexington,  Ky. 


^^^T^l 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


THE  BILL  FOR  A  NATIONAL  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

JOHN  H.   MACCRACKEN,  PRESIDENT,   LAFAYETTE   COLLEGE,   EASTON,  PA. 

At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  National  Association  of  School  Superin- 
tendents, held  in  Washington,  February  7,  1866,  E.  E.  White,  then  com- 
missioner of  common  schools  of  Ohio,  rfead  a  paper  on  "A  National  Bureau 

191 


192  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Higher 

of  Education."  He  favored  a  system  of  conditional  appropriations  and  a 
general  system  of  inspection  and  encouragement  thru  the  agency  of  a 
national  Bureau  of  Education  to  induce  each  state  to  maintain  an  efficient 
school  system.  ''Such  a  bureau,"  he  said,  "would  be  the  strength  and 
shield  of  free  institutions."  This  memorial  summed  up  the  results  of  the 
agitation  of  twenty  years  and  laid  down  the  principles  which  gave  us  our 
present  Bureau  of  Education. 

The  memorial  bore  the  date  of  February  lo,  1866.    On  February  14, 

1866,  Congressman  James  A.  Garfield,  to  whom  Dr.  White  had  presented 
the  memorial,  introduced  a  bill  for  the  establishment  of  a  national  bureau. 
On  April  3  the  bill  was  reported  out  of  committee,  with  an  amendment 
changing  the  name  from  "Bureau"  to  "Department,"  and  in  July,  1866, 
the  bill  was  past  by  the  House  providing  for  a  Department  of  Educa1:ion. 

At  the  next  meeting  of  the  National  Association  of  School  Superin- 
tendents a  committee  of  five,  with  E.  E.  White  again  as  chairman,  was 
appointed  to  urge  the  passage  of  the  bill  in  the  Senate,  and  on  March  6, 

1867,  the  bill  past  the  Senate  and  the  next  day  was  signed  by  President 
Johnson. 

The  life  of  the  department  as  a  department  was  a  short  one.  In  the 
appropriation  bill  of  July  20,  1868,  a  rider  reduced  the  department  to  a 
bureau  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  and  it  reduced  the  salary  of  the 
Commissioner  from  $5000  to  $3cx)o,  the  change  to  take  effect  June  30, 1869. 
Thus  there  was  a  department  in  existence  for  two  years  and  four  months. 

The  history  of  the  establishment  of  the  bureau  is  illuminating  and 
encouraging  to  us  of  this  generation  who  are  interested  in  seeing  a  depart- 
ment replace  the  bureau.  It  is  encouraging  to  note  that  twenty  years  of 
agitation  were  required  to  accomphsh  anything.  It  is  also  cheering  to  note 
that  when  educational  opinion  had  crystallized  it  required  only  four  days 
to  get  a  bill  before  Congress,  and  only  one  year  to  have  it  made  a  law.  It 
is  also  significant  that  it  was  in  that  case  also  war  which  focust  the  opinion 
of  the  country  on  the  importance  of  education. 

What  now  are  the  principles  which  we  believe  to  be  fundamental  ? 

1.  That  education  is  inferior  to  no  other  interest  of  government,  and 
that  this  fact  must  receive  recognition  by  the  appointment  of  a  national 
representative  of  education  in  the  President's  cabinet. 

2.  That  the  people  of  the  United  States  have  a  common  national 
interest  in  education  as  well  as  an  interest  in  education  within  their  own 
state,  and  that  this  national  interest  of  the  people  should  find  expression 
thru  a  national  office. 

3.  That  the  national  office  should  not  control  education  in  the  states, 
but  should  represent  state  education  and  should  be  the  agent  of  the  states 
in  educational  matters  of  interstate  interest. 

4.  That  when  any  state  is  obviously  failing  to  do  its  share  in  the  develop- 
ment of  good  schools  and  the  training  of  American  citizens  and  thus  creat- 


Education!    BILL  FOR  NATIONAL  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION  193 

ing  a  weak  spot  in  the  American  lines,  it  is  the  function  of  a  national 
Department  of  Education,  expressing  the  public  opinion  of  the  United 
States,  by  publicity,  by  persuasion,  and  by  subsidy  to  stimulate  and  pro- 
mote better  educational  conditions  in  that  state. 

5.  That  inasmuch  as  the  conditions  of  labor  in  general  have  been  taken 
under  the  wardenship  of  the  national  government,  and  the  national  govern- 
ment has  not  hesitated  to  define  a  normal  working  day  and  to  pronounce 
on  the  adequacy  of  compensation  in  various  industries,  or  the  conditions 
under  which  women  and  children  will  be  employed,  a  national  Department 
of  Education  might  properly  concern  itself  with  the  improvement  of  the 
teachers'  financial  status  and  might  properly  aid  in  raising  the  standards  of 
training  for  the  profession. 

6.  The  entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the  world-war  has  so  radically 
altered  our  relationships  to  foreign  countries,  wiping  out  the  sharp  separa- 
tion between  American,  European,  and  Asiatic  affairs,  that  international 
educational  relations  have  assumed  an  importance  hitherto  unknown. 
Already  there  is  establisht  a  Division  of  Foreign  Education  in  the  Com- 
mittee on  Public  Information.  Already  the  National  Research  Council  has 
secured  the  appointment  of  scientific  attaches  at  certain  foreign  embassies. 
It  is  clear  that  education  can  no  longer  be  regarded  as  exclusively  or  appro- 
priately a  function  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior.  On  the  contrary, 
foreign  relations  in  education  will  constitute  one  of  the  greatest,  if  not  the 
greatest,  of  the  functions  of  the  new  Department  of  Education. 

If  we  are  to  have  a  better  understanding  of  things  after  the  war  and  if 
we  are  to  avoid  war  in  the  future,  we  must  be  willing  to  spend  not  only 
millions  at  home  but  millions  abroad  interpreting  American  thought  and 
ideals  to  the  other  great  nations  of  the  world. 

Moreover,  if  we  should  have  some  form  of  universal  national  service 
in  this  country  after  the  war,  we  shall  either  have  to  make  our  War  Depart- 
ment a  Department  of  Education  and  turn  our  Navy,  as  has  been  suggested, 
into  a  university,  or  we  must  create  a  national  Department  of  Education 
which  will  take  over  the  educational  tasks  involved  in  universal  national 
service. 

For  this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  we  want  at  Washington  a  depart- 
ment which  will  represent  the  aspirations  of  the  American  people,  not  for 
dominion,  nor  commerce,  nor  food,  nor  dollars,  but  for  the  fulness  of  life 
as  intelHgent  free  men  which  our  forefathers  knew  and  which  we,  their 
sons,  have  not  forgotten  even  in  the  strain  of  present  circumstances. 

Two  bills  have  been  drafted  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  chairman 
of  the  Senate  Committee  on  Education  to  carry  out  these  purposes:  one,  a 
bill  drafted  by  a  committee  of  the  National  Education  Association  with 
Superintendent  Chandler,  of  Richmond,  as  chairman;  the  other,  a  bill 
drafted  by  a  committee  of  the  Emergency  Council  on  Education,  of  which 
the  writer  is  chairman. 


194  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

The  bill  of  the  Emergency  Council  contents  itself  with  the  establishment 
of  a  Department  of  Education,  defining  its  functions  and  appropriating 
money  for  the  operation  of  the  department. 

The  bill  of  the  committee  of  the  National  Education  Association  adds 
large  appropriations  to  be  used  as  subsidies  in  the  states  to  promote  Ameri- 
canization of  immigrants,  improvement  of  rural  schools,  and  better  training 
of  teachers. 

Both  bills  leave  to  the  discretion  of  the  President  the  determination  of 
what  existing  educational  agencies  of  government  shall  be  transferred  to  the 
new  department. 

The  functions  of  the  Department  of  Education  are  thus  defined  in  the 
bill  of  the  Emergency  Council  on  Education  in  Section  9: 

I.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Department  of  Education  to  cooperate  with  the 
states  in  the  development  of  public  educational  facilities,  including  public  health  educa- 
tion, and  to  act  as  the  agent  of  the  states  and  upon  their  request  in  matters  of  education 
of  interstate  interest. 

2.  That  the  department  shall  represent  the  people  of  the  United  States  in  international 
educational  affairs,  shall  keep  the  people  of  the  United  States  informed  of  progress  in 
education  abroad,  and  shall  disseminate  abroad  knowledge  of  American  education  and  of 
the  national  life  and  ideals  of  the  American  people,  and  to  this  end  shall  maintain  as 
attaches  at  foreign  embassies  properly  qualified  American  students  of  education. 

3.  The  Department  shall  care  for  educational  wards  of  the  nation  not  intrusted 
to  the  care  of  the  respective  states,  and  shall  execute  such  laws  as  Congress  may  make 
looking  toward  the  Americanization  of  immigrants,  the  equalization  of  educational  oppor- 
tunities, and  the  guaranteeing  to  every  child  such  knowledge  of  the  American  language 
as  shall  enable  the  child  to  discharge  his  (Obligations  as  an  American  citizen. 

4.  The  Department  shall  encourage  learning  in  all  branches,  scientific  research,  and 
the  advancement  of  teaching  as  a  profession.  It  shall  promote  the  organization  of  learned 
societies  and  seek  thru  such  societies  and  by  publications  to  disseminate  for  the  benefit 
of  all  the  people  the  fruits  of  learning  and  scientific  study  wherever  found. 

5.  The  Department  shall  organize  a  National  Council  of  Education,  to  be  composed 
of  representatives,  nominated  annually,  one  each,  by  the  great,  learned  societies  repre- 
senting an  important  field  of  knowledge,  under  regulations  prescribed  by  the  Secretary. 
The  functions  of  this  Council  shall  be  to  place  at  the  disposal  of  the  government,  both 
in  war  and  in  peace,  all  national  resources  of  learning  and  scientific  study. 

The  bill  appropriates  $500,000  additional  per  annum  for  the  admin- 
istration of  these  new  functions. 

In  addition  to  these  bills  drawn  but  not  yet  introduced,  there  is  a  bill 
now  before  the  Senate  Committee  on  Education  introduced  by  Senator 
Owen,  which,  however,  merely  magnifies  the  present  bureau  into  a  depart- 
ment without  outlining  new  functions. 

One  other  alternative  has  suggested  itself  to  those  interested  in  the 
creation  of  a  Department  of  Education,  that  should  be  mentioned  in  this 
connection.  This  is  the  proposal  to  transfer  from  the  Department  of  the 
Interior,  the  Land  .Office,  the  Pension  Office,  and  the  Patent  Office,  change 
the  name  of  the  department  to  Education  and  Public  Health,  or  Arts, 
Science,  and  Public  Health,  transfer  to  it  the  educational  functions  of  other 


Education)  SEX  EDUCATION  AND  THE  WAR  195 

departments,  and  thus  create  a  true  Department  of  Education.  This  is  a 
plan  which  we  hope  to  discuss  with  the  President  in  the  near  future. 

There  is  a  growing  sentiment  in  favor  of  a  national  Department  of 
Education.  This  sentiment  is  attaining  such  proportions  that  we  believe 
that  if  no  action  is  taken  by  the  present  administration  the  creation  of  a 
department  can  be  made  a  campaign  issue  in  the  next  presidential  campaign 
and  be  written  into  the  platform  of  one,  if  not  both,  of  the  great  political 
parties.  There  is  general  agreement  among  the  teaching  professions  in 
favor  of  such  a  department,  tho  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  just 
what  the  functions  of  such  a  department  should  be.  We  propose  to  ask  the 
National  Education  Association  at  this  meeting  to  appoint  a  committee 
of  three  in  each  state  to  urge  the  creation  of  such  a  department,  as  was  done 
in  1865.    We  trust  that  the  resolution  will  have  your  support. 

In  conclusion  let  me  urge  each  one  of  you  to  do  what  you  can  to  create 
interest  in  this  matter  in  your  own  neighborhood.  The  project  is  too  big 
and  too  fundamental  to  be  hurried.  We  want  to  build  for  the  new  depart- 
ment broad  foundations  of  public  interest.  Only  thus  can  we  be  sure  that 
when  Congress  acts  the  bill  will  not  be  shorn  of  its  significant  features,  or 
the  new  department,  like  the  department  of  1866,  wither  and  die  because 
prematurely  born  and  inadequately  nourisht. 


SEX  EDUCATION  AND  THE  WAR 

NORMAN  F.   COLEMAN,  PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH,   REED  COLLEGE, 
PORTLAND,   ORE. 

The  needs  of  the  nation  in  war  time  have  emphasized  the  importance 
of  conserving  the  health  and  strength  of  our  people,  especially  of  our  young 
men.  The  effective  strength  of  the  Army  is  menast  by  venereal  diseases 
probably  more  than  by  all  other  diseases  put  together.  This  creates  an 
emergency  which  can  be  met  only  by  the  earnest  cooperation  of  all  possible 
agencies.  The  essential  problem  is  recognized  by  the  Surgeon  General's 
Department  to  be  one  of  education.  The  share  of  the  institutions  of  higher 
learning  in  this  education  is  an  important  one  and  has  a  twofold  character. 

I.  For  the  instruction  of  the  rising  generation  in  the  essential  facts  of 
sex  and  for  the  cultivation  of  those  personal  and  social  motives  which  are 
powerful  for  the  ends  of  health  we  must  depend  upon  teachers  now  in  train- 
ing in  normal  schools  and  colleges  and  in  the  education  departments  of  our 
universities.  It  is  clear  that  some  process  of  selection  and  training  should 
be  set  to  work  so  that  students  of  biology,  physical  education,  and  related 
subjects,  who  are  specially  qualified  by  scientific  knowledge  and  natural 
tact  and  sympathy,  may  be  specifically  trained  for  the  work  of  sex  educa- 
tion. Not  that  they  should  give  their  whole  time  or  any  considerable  part 
of  their  time  to  this  subject,  but  that  they  should  be  wise  enough  to 


196  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

incorporate  in  regular  courses  of  instruction  an  understanding  of  the 
essential  facts  and  relations  of  sex. 

2.  The  young  men  who  attend  college  and  university  in  war  times 
become,  almost  all  of  them,  an  integral  part  of  the  national  forces.  If  the 
war  continues,  the  men  who  are  at  college  this  fall  will  in  a  year  or  so, 
perhaps  even  in  a  few  months,  be  commissioned  and  noncommissioned 
officers  in  the  Army  or  Navy.  There  they  will  set  standards  for  companies 
and  regiments.  They  need  to  know  accurately  the  dangers  that  follow 
sexual  vice,  and  they  need  to  know  clearly  the  means  of  sex  health. 

It  has  been  abundantly  proved  that  the  preoccupation  of  men's  minds 
and  physical  energies  by  constructive  activity  and  wholesome  amusement 
is  of  first  importance.  Everything  that  keeps  the  soldier  in  vital  connection 
with  his  home  and  friends  and  keeps  alive  and  growing  his  ambition  for 
future  success,  not  only  as  a  soldier  in  time  of  war,  but  as  a  citizen  in  time 
of  peace,  ministers  directly  to  his  health  of  mind  and  body. 

It  is  the  privilege  and  task  of  the  young  officers  of  the  new  Army  to 
plan  and  provide  activities  for  their  men  which  shall  in  this  way  sustain 
their  morale  and  promote  their  present  and  future  usefulness.  For  these 
reasons  it  must  be  clear  that  only  by  including  in  our  present  and  future 
plans  for  higher  education  a  recognition  of  the  need  for  sex  education  and 
a  wise  provision  for  meeting  that  need  can  we  help  to  meet  the  present 
emergency  and  conserve  the  strength  of  our  young  men  and  women  for  the 
great  tasks  of  reconstruction  that  will  follow  the  war. 


EDUCATION  AFTER  THE  WAR 

JAMES  P.  MUNROE,  MEMBER,  ADVISORY  BOARD,  WAR  DEPARTMENT  COMMITTEE 
ON  EDUCATION  AND   SPECIAL  TRAINING,   WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

We  are  inclined  to  think  that  everything  is  in  the  melting-pot,  and  that 
after  the  war  all  the  bad  things  will  be  gone  and  we  shall  be  ready  for  a  new 
world.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  human  nature  will  reassert  itself,  and 
that  while  some  things  will  be  better,  others  will  be  worse. 

One  activity  that  will  be  profoundly  affected  is  education,  and  this  for 
two  reasons :  first,  because,  more  than  any  other  human  activity,  education 
has  been  severely  put  to  the  test  by  the  war;  and  secondly,  because  before 
19 14  we  were  on  the  brink  of  a  great  change  in  education  as  a  whole.  The 
effect  of  the  war  upon  education  will  be,  it  seems  to  me,  to  make  it  at  once 
more  idealistic  and  more  practical.  It  will  be  made  more  idealistic  because 
for  the  first  time  in  generations  the  whole  civilized  world  has  been  shaken 
to  its  depths,  and  before  America  shall  have  played  her  full  part  there  is 
scarcely  a  family  and  scarcely  a  youth  who  will  not  have  been  brought 
face  to  face  with  great  ethical  questions.  Furthermore  by  this  war  democ- 
racy has  been  lifted  from  a  mere  name  to  which  we  did  lip  service  to  a 
visualized  idea  for  which  we  are  giving  everything  most  precious. 


Education]  EDUCATION  AFTER  THE  WAR  197 

On  the  other  hand  education  will  become  more  practical  because  the 
war  has  shown  that  our  national  unpreparedness  was  due  in  great  measure 
to  the  fact  that  American  education  had  almost  no  relation  to  the  needs  of 
modern  life. 

After  the  war  we  shall  be  striving  in  education  to  do  these  things  on  the 
idealistic  side,  first,  to  give  youth  a  real  vision  of  genuine  democracy; 
secondly,  to  assimilate  the  peoples  of  other  nations  and  to  give  them  a 
similar  vision;  thirdly,  to  give  every  boy  and  girl  the  largest  opportunity 
that  can  possibly  be  provided.  On  the  practical  side  we  shall  be  striving 
to  make  the  most  of  our  resources,  both  material  and  human,  to  prevent 
waste  and  to  teach  genuine  economics. 

To  enable  education  to  perform  this  far  broader  service,  to  these  ideal 
and  practical  ends,  there  are  certain  essentials:  first,  more  money,  in  order 
that  teachers  may  be  paid  more  and  that  their  classes  may  be  smaller; 
secondly,  thoro  reform  in  the  administrative  control  of  public  education; 
thirdly,  real  cooperation  among  all  the  agencies  which  make  for  the  education 
of  children  and  youth;  fourthly,  different  and  higher  standards  in  the  train- 
ing of  teachers;  fifthly,  a  much  larger  proportion  of  men  teachers,  especially 
in  the  secondary  schools;  sixthly,  entire  emancipation  from  textbooks  and 
from  textbook  domination;  seventhly,  all-day  sessions  of  the  schools. 

With  education  thus  put  on  an  efficient  basis  we  should  inaugurate 
universal  service  for  both  men  and  women  between  the  sixteenth  and  twenty- 
fifth  years,  this  service  to  include  some  military  training  and  a  larger  amount 
of  training  in  hygiene  and  gymnastics,  and  a  major  part  of  the  time  to  be 
given  to  specific  training  along  vocational  lines,  fitting  for  the  real  service 
to  society  (see  outline  of  principles  appended). 

With  these  weapons  of  money,  men,  and  better  administration  the  next 
generation  in  education  should  be  able  to  get  at  and  educate  practically 
every  child  as  an  individual;  should  be  able  to  give  him  genuine  vocational 
guidance  and  effective  vocational  training,  whether  he  is  to  be  a  carpenter, 
a  lawyer,  or  a  college  president;  should  put  a  stop,  in  large  measure,  to 
the  waste  in  human  and  material  resources  which  disgraced  us  before  the 
war;  should  be  able  to  infuse  youth,  not  only  with  an  understanding,  but 
with  true  devotion  to  democracy;  and  finally  should  stimulate  and  perpetu- 
ate that  understanding  and  that  true  knowledge  which  teaches  that  the 
only  genuine  living  is  a  life  of  service. 

PRINCffLES  UNDERLYING  UNIVERSAL  MILITARY  SERVICE 

It  should  be  really  universal,  including  every  young  person  of  both  sexes. 
It  should  be  exacted  between  the  ages  of  sixteen,  or  possibly  eighteen,  and 
twenty-five.  It  should  be  a  combination  of  military  and  vocational  (or 
avocational)  service,  with  the  emphasis  strongly  upon  the  vocational  side. 
As  far  as  possible  it  should  be  given  as  a  part  of  school,  college,  shop,  store, 
or  office  training,  but  should  always  be  under  federal  supervision. 


igS  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

Service  should  be  for  the  whole  of  at  least  one  continuous  year  (or  half 
of  two  continuous  years)  and  for  a  certain  part  of  a  number  of  years  there- 
after. The  person  who  has  rendered  the  year  of  service  should  give  at 
least  one  or  two  weeks  each  year,  for  perhaps  ten  years  thereafter,  to  some 
sort  of  continued  course,  both  military  and  vocational. 

The  year's  service  should  include  for  men  daily  military  exercises,  and 
for  women  organized  calisthenics,  gymnastics,  or  a  modified  military  drill. 
This  should  occupy  not  less  than  one  nor  more  than  two  hours  per  day. 
The  rest  of  the  "National  Service  Year"  should  be  given  to  the  organized, 
serious,  and  intensive  following  of  some  trade,  occupation,  vocation,  or 
avocation  which  is  of  distinct  service  to  the  country:  (i)  in  war;  (2)  in 
the  support  of  war;  (3)  in  the  furthering  of  agriculture,  industry,  or  com- 
merce; or  (4)  in  the  promotion  of  the  general  welfare. 

There  should  be  a  recognized  and  permanent  organization  within  the 
locality  and  thruout  the  country  of  those  performing  this  national  service, 
so  as  to  promote  a  feeling  of  national  solidarity. 

For  those  pursuing  education  beyond  the  sixteenth  or  eighteenth 
year  the  service  should  be  dovetailed  in  with  the  high-school,  college,  or 
professional-school  training.  For  those  leaving  school  before  the  sixteenth 
or  eighteenth  year,  the  year  of  service  should  either  be  subsidized  by  the 
federal  government,  or  there  should  be  devised  some  plan  of  cooperative 
part-time  work  under  which,  possibly,  the  service  might  be  spread  over  two 
years,  the  youth  giving  half  his  time  during  those  two  years  to  earning  and 
the  other  half  to  service. 

Without  making  a  calculation  of  the  cost  it  would  seem  best  for  this 
year  of  service  to  be  subsidized  jointly  by  the  federal  government,  the  state 
(or  local)  government,  and  the  parent  or  guardian — the  last  providing 
sustenance,  and  the  first  two  sharing  between  them  the  cost  of  training. 

"The  National  Service  Year"  should  include  a  thoro  physical  overhaul- 
ing and  "bracing  up,"  and  there  should  be  included  as  much  outdoor  life  as 
possible.  The  service  to  be  rendered  during  this  year  by  girls  and  women 
should  include  all  the  duties  of  the  household,  nursing,  etc.,  as  well  as  voca- 
tional work  feasible  for  women.  As  an  essential  part  of  every  course  there 
should  be  a  substantial  amount  of  teaching  of  ethics,  civics,  and  the  duties 
of  a  citizen  in  a  democracy.  Where  necessary  there  should  be  provision 
for  teaching  the  public-school  elements  and  also  English  to  foreigners. 

Where  there  are  dependents  making  it  impossible  for  the  youth  to  give 
even  half-time  to  this  service,  there  should  be  some  form  of  family  allowance 
by  the  government  on  the  same  general  plan  as  that  of  the  War  Risk  Insur- 
ance Bureau.  Such  support,  however,  should  be  in  the  nature  of  an  obliga- 
tion to  be  repaid  by  the  "National  Service  Soldier"  in  subsequent  years. 

Industries  should  be  formally  brought  in  by  requiring  their  cooperation 
in  providing  opportunities  for  training,  in  making  cooperative  part-time 
schemes  possible,  etc. 


Education]  HISTORICAL  SCHOLARSHIP  AND  THE  WAR  199 

In  the  event  of  war  the  entire  population  which  has  been  thru  this  train- 
ing should  be  mobilized  for  (i)  war  service;  (2)  munitions  service;  (3)  main- 
tenance of  industries,  including  agriculture;  (4)  remedial  service,  such  as 
nursing,  etc.;  or  (5)  miscellaneous  services  called  for  by  the  dislocation  of 
war.  In  the  case  of  a  national  calamity  other  than  war,  such  as  a  great 
flood  or  crop  failure,  this  same  army  should  be  mobilized  for  such  short  or 
temporary  service  as  the  occasion  might  require.  For  a  local  catastrophe 
the  army  of  that  particular  region  should  be  mobilized  for  similar  service. 

After  having  taken  the  year's  service  the  "National  Service  Soldier" 
should  make  at  least  an  annual  written  report  to  the  federal  government,  of 
such  a  character  as  to  indicate  that  he  or  she  is  still  competent  for  this  special 
service,  and  showing  also  the  additional  service  which,  with  the  progress  of 
time,  the  individual  has  fitted  himself  to  render.  He  should  be  ready  at  all 
times  for  such  national,  state,  or  local  service  as  his  official  training  fits  him 
to  do.  Usually,  such  service  should  be  voluntary,  but  the  state  or  the 
federal  government  should  have  authority  to  commandeer  it. 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  HISTORICAL  SCHOLARSHIP  AND  TEACH- 
ING AS  AFFECTED  BY  THE  WAR 

E.    B.    GREENE,    CHAIRMAN,    NATIONAL    BOARD    FOR    HISTORICAL    RESEARCH, 

WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

History,  Hke  other  sciences,  has  recognized  the  call  to  service,  but  in 
doing  so  has  been  confronted  with  some  difficult  problems.  Historians 
generally  have  always  believed  that  past  experience  should  be  useful  to 
society  as  well  as  to  individuals,  but  they  have  also  reahzed  how  hard  it  is 
first  to  determine  just  what  actually  happened  in  the  past  and  then  to  inter- 
pret its  meaning  for  the  present.  The  historian  also  knows  that  the  use  of 
history  in  the  service  of  a  particular  cause  is  subject  to  serious  abuse,  since 
there  is  constant  temptation  not  to  present  the  facts  as  they  really  were, 
but  rather  to  make  them  fit  into  some  preconceived  theory.  A  striking 
example  of  the  harm  which  may  be  done  in  this  way  is  to  be  found  in  the 
writings  of  German  historians  like  Treitschke  and  in  the  teaching  of  history 
in  the  Prussian  schools,  which  has  evidently  been  seriously  distorted  in 
order  to  justify  the  monarchical  system  and  to  promote  an  extreme  type 
of  national  egoism. 

Recognizing  these  pitfalls  and  believing  that  history  to  be  useful  must  be 
true,  American  historians  generally  have  set  themselves  the  task  of  making 
their  subject  useful  in  the  present  crisis  thru  new  lines  of  research,  thru 
publications  for  the  general  reader,  and  thru  a  better  presentation  in  the 
schools.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  the  national  Board  for  Historical 
Service  was  estabhsht  at  Washington  as  a  clearing-house  for  cooperating 


200  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  IHigher 

scholars  thruout  the  country.  It  has  furnisht  historical  material  to  govern- 
ment departments  and  stimulated  interest  in  the  keeping  of  war  records. 
It  is  especially  interested  in  helping  teachers  to  present  to  their  pupils  the 
historical  background  of  the  war  and  some  appreciation  of  the  historical 
ideals  and  poHcies  of  the  United  States. 

The  war  has  emphasized  the  need  of  more  serious  attention  to  the  history 
of  modern  Europe.  Neglect  of  modern  history  in  our  schools  and  our  general 
lack  of  individual  preparedness  in  this  field  needlessly  increast  the  difficulty 
of  bringing  home  to  the  American  people  the  great  issues  involved  in  the 
European  war.  Now  that  the  United  States  has  assumed  so  large  a  responsi- 
biUty  for  a  just  international  settlement  in  the  great  "problem  areas"  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  the  need  of  more  historical  specialists  in  these 
fields  has  been  keenly  felt.  Fortunately  the  modern  historians  have  been 
reinforst  by  a  group  of  able  scholars  whose  studies  in  ancient  and  mediaeval 
history  have  made  them  experts  in  historical  method  and  thus  enabled 
them  to  deal  successfully  with  modern  problems.  Some  results  of  these 
studies  have  been  made  available  to  the  public  thru  the  Committee  on 
Pubhc  Information;  others  have  been  placed  directly  at  the  disposal  of  the 
government. 

Since,  however,  America  has  also  pecuUar  problems  and  special  tradi- 
tions of  her  own,  the  history  of  the  United  States  needs  to  be  studied  with 
more  care  than  ever  and  with  a  new  perspective.  Our  historic  ideals  are 
deeply  involved  in  the  present  conflict.  Upon  them  must  be  built,  tho 
not  in  any  slavish  spirit,  the  new  poHcies  of  the  future;  and  this  knowledge 
must  become  the  common  possession  of  our  whole  people,  of  whatever  race  or 
previous  allegiance.  Recognizing  the  importance  of  national  history  in  any 
plan  of  patriotic  education,  let  us  not  be  afraid  to  see  the  record  as  it  really 
was,  with  its  errors  and  shortcomings  as  well  as  its  heroic  sacrifices  and 
achievements.  Let  us  resolutely  resist  the  temptation  of  yielding  to  Prus- 
sian methods  in  history  teaching  as  well  as  in  other  respects,  acknowledging 
our  just  debts  to  other  peoples  and  especially  trying  to  understand  the 
common  heritage  of  the  great  free  nations  with  whom  we  have  now  joined 
in  a  common  cause. 


THE  EMERGENCY  COUNCIL  ON  EDUCATION 

DONALD    J.    COWLING,    PRESIDENT,    CARLTON    COLLEGE,    NORTHFIELD,    MINN. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Association  of  American  Colleges  last  January,  the 
following  resolutions  were  past: 

Resolved,  That  the  Executive  Committee  be  authorized  to  join  with  the  Association 
of  American  Universities,  the  National  Association  of  State  Universities,  and  other 
national  educational  associations  in  organizing  a  council  for  the  consideration  of  such 
educational  questions  and  other  questions  affecting  the  colleges  as  may  arise  in  the  present 
war  and  be  it  further 


Education]  THE  EMERGENCY  COUNCIL  ON  EDUCATION  201 

Resolved,  That  the  Executive  Committee  be  instructed  to  formulate  plans  and  con- 
struct machinery  for  utilizing  to  the  best  advantage  the  resources  of  the  colleges  in  the 
service  of  the  nation  in  the  present  war,  and  for  making  effective  in  the  counsels  of  the 
nation  the  collective  public  opinion  of  American  higher  education. 

The  Association  also  past  resolutions  favoring  the  increase  of  exchange 
professorships  with  our  Allies;  the  multiplication  of  American  fellowships 
and  scholarships  for  students,  both  men  and  women,  from  our  AUies;  the 
establishment  of  such  arrangements  with  the  educational  institutions  of 
our  Allies  as  will  best  provide  opportunities  for  college  students  in  the 
United  States  Army  to  continue  their  studies  abroad  when  conditions 
permit;  the  creation  of  a  commission  of  American  educators  to  be  appointed 
by  this  and  the  other  national  associations  for  conference  abroad  with 
similar  educational  representatives  from  our  Allies,  with  the  hope  of  bring- 
ing about  a  better  mutual  understanding  and  of  estabHshing  cooperative 
relationships;  and  the  establishment  of  a  federal  Department  of  Education 
with  a  secretary  in  the  President's  cabinet. 

The  meeting  called  by  President  Bryan  was  held  at  the  University 
Club,  Chicago,  January  12-14.  The  program  outlined  by  the  Association 
of  American  Colleges  formed  the  basis  of  the  discussion.  It  seemed  to  the 
members  of  the  conference  that  the  establishment  of  an  educational  adminis- 
tration at  Washington  would  be  the  most  feasible  way  of  accomplishing  the 
desired  results. 

Four  sessions  were  held  on  January  23-24,  presided  over  by  Com- 
missioner Claxton.  Representatives  of  the  following  organizations  were 
present:  the  Association  of  American  Universities,  the  National  Association 
of  State  Universities,  the  Association  of  American  Colleges,  the  Association  of 
Urban  Universities,  the  CathoHc  Educational  Association,  the  Association 
of  American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations,  and  the 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Engineering  Education. 

President  Campbell  reported  that  the  memorandum  outlined  at 
Chicago  had  been  presented  to  President  Wilson  thru  Mr,  Tumulty,  and 
that  the  President  had  requested  that  the  matter  be  taken  up  first  with  the 
Council  of  National  Defense;  that  an  interview  had  been  secured  with 
Secretary  Lane,  a  member  of  the  Council  of  National  Defense,  who  had 
promist  to  give  consideration  to  any  plans  which  might  be  submitted  by 
the  educational  associations  or  their  executive  committees.  Most  of  the 
representatives  present  were  not  in  a  position  to  speak  officially  for  their 
associations.  It  was  therefore  decided,  after  extended  discussion,  to  invite 
the  executive  committees  of  the  various  educational  associations  to  meet 
in  Washington  the  following  week  to  consider  the  formulation  of  the  plans 
to  be  submitted  to  these  associations  and  subsequently  to  the  Council  of 
National  Defense. 

It  was  voted  that  the  educational  associations  of  national  scope  repre- 
sented in  this  meeting  proceed  to  organize  a  council  of  national  educational 


202  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Higher 

associations.  Dr.  S.  P.  Capen  was  elected  temporary  chairman,  and 
President  P.  L.  Campbell  temporary  secretary.  At  a  later  session  of  this 
meeting  a  more  formal  organization  was  establisht  under  the  title  "The 
Emergency  Council  on  Education." 

The  objects  of  the  Council  were  stated  to  be: 

To  place  the  educational  resources  of  the  country  more  completely  at  the  service  of 
the  national  government  and  its  departments,  to  the  end  that  thru  an  understanding 
cooperation  the  patriotic  services  of  the  public  schools,  professional  schools,  the  colleges, 
and  universities  may  be  augmented;  a  continuous  supply  of  educated  men  may  be 
maintained,  and  greater  effectiveness  in  meeting  the  educational  problems  arising  during 
and  following  the  war  may  be  secured. 

It  was  understood  that  the  Council  should  "have  power  to  act  for  the 
associations  in  matters  of  legislative  and  governmental  business,  on  the 
basis  of  such  authority  as  may  be  given  in  by  the  various  associations." 

The  attention  of  the  meeting  was  called  to  the  Owen  Bill,  proposing 
the  estabhshment  by  Congress  of  a  federal  Department  of  Education,  with 
a  secretary  in  the  President's  cabinet.  After  extended  discussion  the  mem- 
bers present  voted  to  form  themselves  into  a  Committee  of  the  Whole,  and 
to  call  upon  Senator  Hoke  Smith,  chairman  of  the  Senate  Committee  on 
Education  and  Labor,  to  which  committee  the  bill  had  been  referred,  to 
ascertain  more  fully  the  nature  of  the  bill  and  the  likeUhood  of  its  passage. 
The  members  of  the  Council  were  cordially  received  by  Senator  Smith,  who 
exprest  very  great  interest  in  the  proposed  establishment  of  a  federal 
Department  of  Education  and  indicated  his  willingness  to  favor  this  move- 
ment if  a  satisfactory  bill  could  be  put  in  shape. 

At  a  later  session  of  the  meeting  Colonel  Rees  and  Major  Grenville 
Clark  were  introduced,  and  they  announst  that  the  War  Department  had 
just  approved  of  the  organization  of  a  Committee  on  Education  to  be  com- 
posed of  three  army  officers  and  five  civilians,  which  would  have  charge 
of  all  matters  relating  to  the  training  of  enHsted  men.  Colonel  Rees 
requested  the  Council  to  suggest  types  of  educational  institutions  which 
should  be  represented  by  the  civihan  members  of  the  Army  Committee  on 
Education.  In  response  to  this  request  the  Council  recommended  that  the 
following  be  given  representation: 

1.  The  federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education 

2.  Bureau  of  Education 

3.  Universities  and  colleges 

4.  Engineering  and  technical  schools 

5.  Corporation  schools 

The  Secretary  of  the  Council  was  instructed  to  correspond  with  the 
secretaries  of  the  various  national  educational  associations  with  the  request 
that  each  association  determine,  either  by  a  meeting  of  the  association  or 
by  means  of  a  vote  taken  by  mail,  the  following  points: 


Education!  THE  EMERGENCY  COUNCIL  ON  EDUCATION  203 

1.  The  willingness  of  the  Association  to  take  membership  in  the  Emer- 
gency Council  on  Education. 

2.  The  attitude  of  the  Association  toward  the  estabhshment  of  a 
Department  of  Education  in  the  national  government. 

The  meeting  closed  with  the  election  of  a  temporary  chairman  and 
secretary-treasurer  and  the  appointment  of  three  additional  members  to 
serve  with  the  officers  as  an  ad  interim  committee,  as  follows:  President 
Donald  J.  Cowhng,  chairman;  President  P.  L.  Campbell,  secretary- 
treasurer;   Dean  H.  V.  Ames;   Bishop  T.  J.  Shahan;   Dr.  T.  E.  Finegan. 

The  Hst  of  associations  accepted  as  members,  with  their  official  repre- 
sentatives, were  as  follows: 

Association  of  American  Universities,  Dean  Herman  V,  Ames,  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Philadelphia,  Pa. 

National  Association  of  State  Universities  in  the  United  States  of  America,  President 
P.  L.  Campbell,  University  of  Oregon,  Eugene,  Ore. 

Association  of  American  Colleges,  President  Donald  J.  Cowling,  Carlton  College, 
Northfield,  Minn. 

Association  of  Urban  Universities,  President  William  T.  Foster,  Reed  College,  Port- 
land, Ore. 

Catholic  Educational  Association,  Right  Rev.  Thomas  J.  Shahan,  Rector,  Catholic 
University  of  America,  Washington,  D.C. 

American  Association  of  University  Professors,  Professor  H.  W.  Tyler,  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

National  Education  Association,  Dean  Lotus  D.  Coflfman,  University  of  Minnesota, 
Minneapolis,  Minn. 

National  Education  Association,  Department  of  Superintendence,  Dr.  Thomas  E. 
Finegan,  Deputy  Commissioner  of  Education,  Albany,  N.Y. 

National  Education  Association,  National  Council  of  Education,  Superintendent 
James  Y.  Joyner,  Raleigh,  N.C. 

National  Council  of  Normal  School  Presidents  and  Principals,  President  Homer  H. 
Seerley,  Iowa  State  Teachers'  College,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa. 

Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Engineering  Education,  Dean  F.  L.  Bishop,  University 
of  Pittsburgh,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Association  of  American  Medical  Colleges,  Dr.  Burton  D.  Myers,  Indiana  Uni- 
versity School  of  Medicine,  Bloomington,  Ind. 

It  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said  that  the  Council  represents  the 
efforts  at  cooperation  of  the  various  national  associations  having  to  do 
with  educational  institutions,  and  that  the  circumstances  which  brought 
about  the  formal  organization  were  due  to  the  war. 

As  far  as  the  work  of  the  Council  for  the  immediate  future  is  concerned, 
the  most  urgent  problem  is  to  keep  a  sufficient  number  of  young  men  in 
high  schools,  colleges,  universities,  and  technical  schools  to  supply  the 
increasing  need  of  the  government  for  educated  and  specially  trained  men 
for  war  service.  At  a  meeting  of  the  Council  in  Philadelphia  on  May  17 
considerable  time  was  given  to  a  discussion  of  this  problem.  Attention 
was  called  to  the  fact  that  some  institutions  had  already  lost  as  many  as 
two-thirds  of  their  students.     Commissioner  Claxton  was  present  at  this 


204  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

meeting  and  was  heartily  in  favor  of  a  nation-wide  campaign  for  the  purpose 
of  presenting  to  the  young  men  of  the  country  the  urgent  need  of  their 
continuing  their  studies  until  called  into  active  service  by  the  government. 
Dr.  Capen,  who  is  a  member  of  the  War  Department's  Committee  on  Edu- 
cation, was  also  present.  I  stated  that  while  at  the  beginning  there  was 
no  appreciation  of  the  desirability  o^  keeping  students  of  appHed  sciences 
or  teachers  of  applied  sciences  in  the  colleges,  it  has  already  become  apparent 
that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  do  so.  President  Wilson,  Secretary  Baker, 
Secretary  Lane,  and  several  others  in  authority  have  publicly  exprest  their 
judgment  that  the  schools  and  colleges  of  the  country  should  be  maintained 
at  full  strength,  and  that  young  men  under  twenty-one  should  be  encouraged 
to  continue  their  education. 

The  Council  has  authorized  its  Executive  Committee  to  organize  a 
nation-wide  campaign  during  the  summer  for  the  purpose  of  urging  young 
men  under  draft  age  to  go  on  with  their  education.  State  campaign 
directors  are  being  appointed  in  every  state  in  the  Union,  and  it  is  planned 
to  secure  the  cooperation  not  only  of  colleges  and  universities  but  also  of 
the  public  schools,  commercial  clubs,  women's  organizations,  churches,  and 
the  press. 

What  the  outcome  of  this  campaign  will  be  it  is  difficult  to  predict,  but 
it  is  hoped  that  at  least  100,000  men  will  be  enroled  in  institutions  of  higher 
learning  next  September. 

Another  matter  in  which  the  Council  has  become  very  much  interested 
is  the  estabUshment  of  more  intimate  relations  in  education  between 
America  and  our  Allies.  The  one  definite  undertaking  which  has  already 
been  launcht  is  being  carried  on  in  cooperation  with  the  Association  of 
American  Colleges.  Last  February  that  Association,  with  the  approval 
of  the  Council  and  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  undertook  to 
find  scholarships  covering  the  cost  of  board,  room,  tuition,  and  fees  for  at 
least  one  hundred  French  women  to  be  brought  to  American  colleges  and 
universities.  These  scholarships  are  to  be  for  the  period  of  each  student's 
undergraduate  study.  The  institutions  are  responding  most  enthusi- 
astically, and  a  committee  of  two  American  women  has  recently  been  sent 
to  France  to  assist  the  authorities  of  the  French  government  in  selecting 
the  young  women  and  in  assigning  them  to  particular  institutions  in  this 
country. 

This  movement  should  be  extended  in  the  near  future  and  should  be 
made  to  include  Great  Britain  and  our  other  Allies,  and  also  South  America 
and  Mexico.  The  Council  hopes  to  render  important  service  in  this  field 
of  international  relations  in  education. 

I  have  already  referred  to  the  Council's  interest  in  the  proposed  estab- 
lishment of  education.  One  of  the  first  committees  appointed  was  the 
Committee  on  a  National  Department  of  Education,  headed  by  President 
Judson  of  the  University  of  Chicago.    The  members  of  the  Council  are 


Educationl  THE  PRESENT  EMERGENCY  IN  EDUCATION  205 

unanimously  in  favor  of  this  movement,  altho  most  of  them  have  not  as 
yet  been  officially  instructed  by  the  associations  which  they  represent. 
There  is  every  reason  to  beheve,  however,  that  the  movement  will  in  due 
time  receive  the  support  of  the  great  majority  of  institutions  represented 
in  the  various  associations  which  constitute  the  Emergency  Council  on 
Education. 


THE  COMMITTEE  ON  EDUCATION  AND  SPECIAL  TRAINING 

S.   p.    CAPEN,    SPECIALIST   IN  HIGHER   EDUCATION,      NATIONAL      BUREAU 

OF   EDUCATION 

One-fourth  of  the  active  force  of  a  modern  army  is  made  up  of  technical 
specialists.  These  men  must  have  had  previous  training  or  experience  in 
mechanical  lines.  Altogether  some  two  hundred  and  fifty  trades  and 
specialized  occupations  are  carried  on  by  the  Army. 

It  has  proved  impossible  to  get  by  selective  draft  all  the  technical 
speciaHsts  needed  without  disrupting  industrial  conditions.  Men  must 
be  specially  trained  to  make  good  the  discrepancy  between  the  numbers 
furnish t  by  the  draft  and  the  numbers  needed  by  the  Army.  Early  in 
February,  1918,  the  Secretary  of  War  created  the  Committee  on  Education 
and  Special  Training,  to  have  charge  of  this  training  program.  The  Com- 
mittee has  organized  training  centers  in  136  institutions,  mostly  engineering 
schools.  These  centers  offer  instruction  two  months  in  length  in  courses 
in  some  twenty  different  fundamental  trades.  The  largest  demand  of  the 
Army  is  for  automobile  mechanics,  and  70  per  cent  of  the  training  under 
the  direction  of  the  Committee  is  in  this  line. 

Men  are  specially  inducted  into  the  service  by  the  Provost  Marshal 
General  to  take  the  courses  organized  by  the  Committee.  They  are  under 
military  discipline,  uniformed,  and  paid.  At  present  there  are  34,278 
enroled  in  the  training  centers. 

The  Committee  has  also  studied  the  question  of  utilizing  collegiate 
nstitutions  for  more  advanst  technical  and  general  training.  The  Sec- 
retary of  War  issued  an  order  on  May  8,  191 8,  providing  for  the  estabhsh- 
ment  of  miUtary  training  units  at  colleges  and  universities  and  offering 
an  enhstment  in  the  regular  Army  to  students  over  eighteen  volunteering 
for  training  in  these  institutions. 


I 


THE  PRESENT  EMERGENCY  IN  EDUCATION 

GEORGE   D.    STRAYER,   CHAIRMAN,    NATIONAL   EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION   COM- 
MISSION  ON   THE   EMERGENCY  IN  EDUCATION,   NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

The  achievements  of  college  graduates  in  the  armies  of  those  -who  fight 
for  the  establishment  of  Democracy  in  the  world  is  the  greatest  glory  of 
higher  institutions  of  learning. 


2o6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

All  of  our  schools  have  been  greatly  influenst  and  in  considerable 
measure  controlled  by  our  higher  educational  institutions.  Our  elementary 
schools  and  high  schools  have  for  the  most  part  provided  such  courses,  of 
study  as  would  enable  the  pupil  at  the  end  of  the  twelve-year  period  to 
satisfy  the  college-entrance  requirements.  With  the  very  great  increase 
in  attendance  in  our  secondary  schools  there  has  been  some  tendency  in 
recent  years  to  provide  courses  which  look  in  the  direction  of  efficient 
participation  in  modern  social  and  industrial  Hfe.  There  is  still  the  need, 
especially  in  our  smaller  high  schools,  for  a  reform  in  the  course  of  study 
which  can  be  brought  about  only  as  our  higher  educational  institutions  are 
willing  to  accept  maturity  and  intellectual  training  along  such  lines  as  can 
best  be  provided,  rather  than  the  traditional  college-entrance  subjects. 

The  National  Education  Association  Commission  on  the  Emergency 
in  Education  is  concerned  with  a  reorganization  of  education  which  will 
take  into  account  the  varying  capacities  and  abihties  of  boys  and  girls,  and 
the  limits  of  the  work  which  can  be  done  to  best  advantage  even  by  the 
smaller  secondary  schools. 

We  have  a  situation  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  which  is 
truly  alarming.  Approximately  one-fourth  of  all  of  the  boys  and  girls  in 
our  elementary  schools  are  being  taught  by  teachers  with  little  or  no  pro- 
fessional training  and  with  little  general  education.  We  need  to  undertake 
a  crusade  in  which  higher  educational  institutions  should  participate,  for 
the  estabhshment  of  the  ideal  of  properly  trained  and  adequately  paid 
teachers  for  every  American  boy  and  girl. 

Our  normal  schools,  which  are  higher  educational  institutions  charged 
with  the  preparation  of  elementary-school  teachers  and  to  some  extent 
teachers  for  the  secondary  schools,  must  be  more  liberally  supported. 
When  we  come  to  have  a  national  conception  of  education  we  shall  reahze 
the  anomaly  which  at  present  exists  in  retaining  the  normal  school  as  a  state 
institution.  National  support  should  be  provided,  because  teachers  are 
trained  for  national  service. 

If  our  ideal  of  a  properly  equipt  teacher  for  every  American  boy  and 
girl  is  to  be  realized  we  shall  not  only  have  to  provide  more  adequate  sup- 
port for  teacher-training  institutions,  but  must  as  well  provide  vastly 
increast  sums  of  money  for  teachers'  salaries.  We  cannot  hope  to  have 
young  men  and  young  women  spend  four  years  in  high  school  and  from 
two  to  four  years  in  a  teacher-training  institution  with  the  expectation 
that  they  may  receive  the  miserable  salaries  which  are  now  paid  in  most  of 
our  school  systems.  One  who  has  taken  these  six  years  of  training,  if  he 
is  fortunate,  may  receive  as  much  as  six  to  eight  hundred  dollars  a  year 
and  has  the  prospect  of  a  maximum  of  from  one  thousand  to  twelve  hun- 
dred dollars  a  year  after  a  long  period  of  service. 

In  other  fields  a  very  much  shorter  period  of  training  results  in  much 
larger  rewards.     It  is  not  because  we  would  argue  in  favor  of  increasing 


Education]  A  NEW  EDUCATIONAL  AGENCY  207 

our  own  salaries  that  we  argue  in  favor  of  increasing  salaries  for  teachers. 
It  is  only  because  we  hope  to  place  in  every  schoolroom  a  better  teacher. 
It  is  only  because  we  believe  that  the  nation  cannot  afford  to  have  any  but 
the  best-trained  men  and  women  in  the  schoolrooms.  It  is  only  because 
the  future  of  America  depends  upon  this  investment  that  we  would  argue 
for  more  money  for  the  support  of  our  teachers. 

The  Commission  is  concerned  as  well  with  other  problems  in  which  our 
higher  educational  institutions  must  participate.  The  education  of  our 
immigrant  population  to  the  end  that  all  may  understand  American  institu- 
tions and  subscribe  unreservedly  to  the  principles  of  our  democracy  before 
attaining  citizenship  needs  the  support  of  leaders  in  education  everywhere. 

The  organization  of  physical  education  which  will  provide  for  the 
development  of  a  more  efficient  people  is  the  concernment  of  every  true 
American.  Training  for  national  service  by  means  of  which  all  may  come 
to  recognize  their  obligation  to  the  nation  and  subject  themselves  to  the 
discipline  and  training  which  is  necessary  for  those  who  would  defend  our 
free  institutions  must  be  undertaken  in  our  higher  educational  institutions, 
for  from  them  will  come  many  of  those  upon  whose  shoulders  must  fall  the 
burden  of  leadership. 

It  is  fortunate  indeed  that  even  in  time  of  war  the  contribution  which 
the  higher  educational  institution  of  the  country  can  make  to  the  national 
defense  is  recognized  in  the  plan  which  continues  the  work  of  students  in 
these  institutions  up  to  the  point  of  completing  their  courses.  There  is  a 
recognition  in  this  action  of  the  War  Department  of  the  demand  for  trained 
men,  and  of  the  need  for  higher  education  and  trained  intelligence  in  our 
Army  and  Navy. 


A  NEW  EDUCATIONAL  AGENCY 

GUY   STANTON  FORD,   EDUCATIONAL  DIVISION,    COMMITTEE   ON  PUBLIC 
INFORMATION,   WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

One  week  after  the  war  began  President  Wilson  estabHsht  a  war  emer- 
gency national  university  with  the  Secretaries  of  State,  War,  and  Navy  as 
its  board  of  regents.     It  was  called  the  Committee  on  Public  Information. 

For  several  months  after  its  creation  the  public  discussion  in  the  press 
and  in  Congress  pictured  it  as  a  prospective  committee  on  censorship,  an 
organ  of  repression.  Gradually  its  constructive  character  as  a  national 
war  Chautauqua,  as  an  agent  of  expression  and  information  became  more 
and  more  apparent  and  important.  For  more  than  one  year  it  has  been  at 
work  with  a  registration  that  is  only  limited  by  the  population  of  the 
United  States. 

In  a  war  that  is  only  in  part  the  task  of  armies  and  navies,  this  Com- 
mittee has  striven  to  give  the  greatest  publicity  on  the  basis  of  accurate 
information  concerning  what  America  was  doing  in  the  war.     If  we  were 


2o8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

to  ask  of  our  people  sacrifices  to  the  uttermost  limit,  such  full  publicity  was 
the  least  that  was  due  them. 

The  Committee  has  gone  farther,  and  by  every  possible  means  it  has 
sought  to  bring  home  to  our  people  what  we  were  fighting  for,  what  were 
America's  aims  and  purposes,  how  this  war  is  nothing  short  of  a  life-and- 
death  struggle  for  us.  To  do  this  it  was  equally  important  to  reveal  the 
spirit,  institutions,  and  methods  of  the  German  mihtary  autocracy,  with 
its  faith  in  brute  force  and  its  worship  of  a  state  above  morals  and  the  dic- 
tates of  common  humanity. 

To  do  this  the  Committee  has  enhsted  every  modern  agency  of  pub- 
licity and  education.  Pictures,  posters,  films,  the  press,  pamphlets,  the 
schools,  and  the  public  platform  have  served  it  in  a  work  that  has  now 
become  world  wide.  For  it  has  cast  aside  the  old  American  indifference 
to  foreign  opinion  and  is  now  making  the  fight  for  public  opinion  in  every 
neutral  land. 

Over  25,000,000  of\its  pamphlets  have  been  read  by  our  own  people  and 
made  texts  in  schools  and  in  teachers'  reading  circles. 

During  the  coming  year  it  will  put  itself  even  more  at  the  service  of 
the  schools,  for  the  schools  and  the  teachers  have  as  never  before  become 
parts  of  our  national  fife.  The  teacher  is  enlisted  in  this  war,  and  more 
and  more  the  morale  of  the  nation  and  the  thinking  in  its  homes  will  be 
determined  by  what  she  knows  and  teaches  in  this  supreme  crisis. 

The  Committee  on  Public  Information  and  the  schools  have  a  great 
common  war  task  to  make  an  Americanized,  nationalized  American  nation. 
If  we,  working  with  all  other  agencies,  fail,  then  America  will  fail. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  NORMAL  SCHOOLS 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 

PITTSBURGH  MEETING 


President — D.  W.  Hayes,  president.  State  Normal  School Peru,  Nebr. 

Vice-President — G.  W.  Nash,  president,  State  Normal  School Bellingham,  Wash. 

Secretary — H.  A.  Schofield,  president,  State  Normal  School Eau  Claire,  Wis. 


FIRST  SESSION— Tuesday  Forenoon,  July  2,  1918 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  9:00  a.m.,  and  the  following  program  was  pre- 
sented: 

Music  (9 :  00-9 :  15) :  Community  and  Patriotic  Singing — ^Leader,  Vincent  B.  Wheeler, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

"Training  for  National  Service  in  Normal  Schools" — L.  D.  CoflFman,  dean,  College 
of  Education,  University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis,  Minn.;  Secretary,  National  Educa- 
tion Association  Commission  on  National  Emergency  in  Education. 

"Coordination  of  Theory  and  Practice  in  Normal  Schools" — H.  A.  Sprague,  super 
visor  of  practice,  State  Normal  School,  Newark,  N.J. 

Music — Helen  M.  Acheson,  soprano.  South  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

"Report  of  the  Committee  on  Federal  Aid  and  the  Training  of  Teachers " — John  A.  H. 
Keith,  president.  State  Normal  School,  Indiana,  Pa. 

SECOND  SESSION— Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3,  19 18 
The  meeting  opened  at  9:00  a.m.,  the  following  program  being  given: 

Music  (9: 00-9: 15) :  Community  and  Patriotic  Singing — ^Leader,  Vincent  B.  Wheeler, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

"Relation  of  Extension  Service  to  the  National  Emergency  in  Education" — ^W.  A. 
Brandenburg,  president,  State  Normal  School,  Pittsburg,  Kan. 

"The  State  Normal  School  and  the  Problem  of  Child  Health"— W.  S.  Small,  special- 
ist in  school  hygiene,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 

Music — Elizabeth  Martin,  contralto,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

"Report  of  the  Committee  on  Resolutions  and  Restatement  of  the  Declaration  of 
Principles" — J.  G.  Crabbe,  president,  State  Teachers'  College,  Greeley,  Colo.,  Chairman, 

The  following  oflScers  were  elected: 

President — D.  B.  Waldo,  president,  State  Normal  School,  Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

Secretary — Anna  M.  Tibbetts,  Fargo  College,  Fargo,  N.Dak. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


TRAINING  FOR  NATIONAL  SERVICE  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS 

L.  D.  COFFMAN,  DEAN,  COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA, 
MINNEAPOLIS,   MINN.;    SECRETARY,  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIA- 
TION  COMMISSION  ON  NATIONAL  EMERGENCY  IN  EDUCATION 

Sweeping  tho  the  changes  seem  to  be  which  are  being  brought  about  by 
this  war,  urgent  tho  the  demands  are,  the  wise  leader  will  not  too  strenu- 
ously seek  reform  nor  too  tenaciously  cling  to  tradition.    To  him  the 

209 


2IO  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Normal 

disintegration  of  existing  institutions  will  not  be  complete.  The  new  will 
grow  out  of  the  old  and  will  be  built  upon  it.  This  will  be  particularly  true 
of  all  phases  of  public  education.  Schools  will  not  go  out  of  existence. 
On  the  contrary,  they  will  be  needed  more  than  ever.  The  need  for  trained 
teachers  will  be  more  acute  than  ever.  The  main  excuse  and  primary  pur- 
pose for  the  continuance  and  maintenance  of  normal  schools  will  remain 
unchanged — their  greatest  possible  service  to  the  nation  will  be  that  of 
training  teachers  for  the  public  schools. 

This  duty,  however,  will  not  be  as  simple  in  the  future  as  it  has  been  in 
the  past.  It  will  not  be  enough  for  the  normal  schools  to  send  out  teachers 
scholastically  equipt;  they  must  be  familiar  with  and  sensitive  to  the  prob- 
lems of  instruction.  Formalism  in  instruction  is  doomed.  A  new  curricu- 
lum, rich  with  new  materials  and  in  vital  contact  with  the  shifting  currents 
of  social  life,  will  not  permit  the  disassociation  of  method  from  content. 
Ability  to  make  mental  diagnoses  and  to  prescribe  treatment  will  be  a 
part  of  the  professional  equipment  of  the  well- qualified  teacher.  The  study 
of  problems  relating  to  the  technique  of  teaching  will  be  regarded  as  the 
daily  duty  of  the  successful  teacher. 

But  the  work  of  the  normal  schools  will  not  end  there.  They  will  have 
an  extended  curriculum;  this  expansion  will  be  required  because  of  new 
obligations  devolving  upon  them.  It  must  be  clear  at  least  that  the  schools 
of  tomorrow  will  be  open  to  men  and  women  as  well  as  to  boys  and  girls; 
it  must  also  be  clear  that  they  will  be  open  day  and  night  and  more  months 
of  the  year  in  many  places.  The  need  of  providing  Americanization  courses 
for  immigrants,  the  removal  of  adult  illiteracy,  and  the  increasing  demands 
for  vocational  training  will  force  these  changes  upon  the  schools. 

America,  with  wide-open  doors  and  extended  hands,  has  welcomed  the 
foreigner  to  her  shores,  sublime  in  the  blind  faith  that  she  was  the  melting- 
pot  of  the  nations.  The  present  crisis  has  brought  us  to  a  halt  and  caused 
us  to  take  stock.  We  find  that  there  are  nearly  thirty-two  and  a  half 
million  persons  in  the  United  States  who  are  foreign-born,  or  one  or  both 
of  whose  parents  were  foreign-born.  This  is  35.2  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion. Literally  hundreds  of  thousands  of  these,  altho  enjoying  all  the 
freedom,  liberties,  and  rights,  with  the  exception  of  suffrage,  of  native- 
born  Americans,  have  nevertheless  declined  to  become  American  citizens. 
But  America  has  reacht  the  place  where  she  should  not  be  regarded  as  an 
asylum  for  the  unfortunate  unless  they  wish  to  become  her  defenders. 
America  has  been  a  polyglot  nation;  now  she  must  become  a  unified  nation. 
This  is  not  a  local  problem;  it  is  a  national  and  an  educational  problem. 
The  normal  schools,  if  they  have  caught  the  spirit  of  the  times  and  the 
drift  of  events,  should  have  something  to  contribute  to  this  movement. 
They  should  assume  some  leadership  in  it. 

Another  factor  tending  to  focus  the  attention  of  the  nation  upon  educa- 
tion is  adult  illiteracy.    It  is  widespread  and  is  confined  to  no  particular 


I 


Departmentl  NATIONAL  SERVICE  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  2ii 

region.  About  seventy-seven  out  of  every  one  thousand  persons  in  the 
United  States  are  illiterate.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  among  the  negroes 
and  native  whites  has  been  steadily  decreasing  wherever  drastic  action  has 
been  taken,  but  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  among  the  immigrants  has  been 
steadily  increasing. 

No  democracy  can  be  safe  or  efficient  when  more  than  five  million  of  its 
people  are  illiterate.  Mass  education  on  high  levels  is  essential  to  collec- 
tive thinking,  and  collective  thinking  about  common  problems  of  national 
importance  is  the  ultimate  safeguard  of  democracy. 

The  schools  are  the  only  adequate  agency  for  the  elimination  of  illiteracy. 
The  instruction  must  be  carried  on  by  regularly  trained  teachers.  The 
wasteful  efforts  of  the  past,  due  to  a  lack  of  unified  action  of  all  the  agencies 
coping  with  this  problem,  must  be  avoided  in  the  future. 

A  third  factor  calling  for  an  extension  of  the  public  schools  and  imposing 
additional  burdens  and  obligations  upon  the  teacher-training  agencies  of 
the  countries  is  the  need  for  trained  persons  in  commercial  and  industrial 
employments.  It  is  clear  that  the  war  may  be  won  by  that  army  which  has 
the  most  and  the  best-trained  mechanicians.  Every  cantonment  has  been 
turned  into  a  great  industrial  school.  Literally  hundreds  of  unit  courses 
have  been  organized  for  the  training  of  mechanicians.  These  courses  will 
be  taught  largely  in  evening  and  continuation  schools.  Here  and  there  they 
will  be  taught  in  day  schools.  They  will  not  all  be  dropt  after  the  war. 
Many  of  them  will  be  and  should  be  continued.  Teachers  must  be  trained 
to  direct  these  courses.  Those  normal  schools  that  are  so  located  and  so 
equipt  as  to  provide  these  teachers  should  begin  at  once  to  prepare  for 
this  work. 

But  there  is  another  form  of  service  that  is  far  more  important  than 
these;  in  fact,  it  will  determine  their  character.  I  refer  to  the  new  point  of 
view  that  is  developing  in  education  as  a  direct  outgrowth  of  the  forces  that 
have  been  set  loose  by  the  war.  Hitherto  American  impulses  have  been 
individualistic  and  personal.  Social  consciousness,  social  justice,  and 
social  imagination  have  been  regarded  as  theories  and  conceptions  of  idle 
dreamers  or  impractical  professors.  The  lack  of  these  qualities  has  jeopar- 
dized our  social  structure  and  constantly  undermined  the  foundation  of 
American  government.  The  universal  support  the  government  is  receiving 
in  promoting  war  activities  indicates  that  the  old  ideas  of  individual  oppor- 
tunity and  personal  initiative  will  hereafter  be  thought  of  in  terms  of  social 
obligation  and  social  responsibihty. 

In  England  and  France  there  are  already  organizations  engaged  in  the 
study  of  these  problems  of  reconstruction.  The  work  of  the  British  Minis- 
try of  Reconstruction  and  the  program  of  the  English  Labor  party  are  par- 
ticularly illuminating  and  instructive.  The  English  program  reaches  far 
beyond  the  problems  attending  the  actual  demobilization  of  the  soldiers. 
It  involves  taking  stock  of  British  resources  and  collecting  data  on  problems 


212  NA  TIONA  L  EDUCA  TION  A SSOCIA  TION  (Norma  1 

relating  to  transportation,  electric  power,  housing  and  town  planning, 
afforestation,  public  health,  labor  exchange,  organization  of  industry, 
standards  of  living,  insurance  against  unemployment,  and  a  reorganization 
of  education  and  recreation.  It  is  time  that  we  were  at  work  upon  similar 
problems.  It  is  time  that  we  caught  something  of  the  new  social  point  of 
view.  It  is  time  that  educational  institutions  were  preparing  themselves 
for  leadership  in  this  new  work. 

The  new  point  of  view  will  be  social,  not  individual;  concerned  primarily 
with  the  common  good,  not  primarily  with  personal  welfare;  altruistic, 
not  selfish;  it  will  emphasize  felt  responsibilities,  not  "felt  needs";  duty 
and  obligation,  not  personal  liberty  and  individual  freedom.  The  interpre- 
tation of  this  point  of  view  and  its  dissemination  is  clearly  a  function  of  the 
normal  schools.  

COORDINATION  OF  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  IN  NORMAL 

SCHOOLS 

H.   A.   SPRAGUE,   SUPERVISOR  OF  PRACTICE,   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 
NEWARK,  N.J. 

In  our  democracy  the  necessity  of  having  our  normal  schools  produce 
well-trained  educators  is  second  only  to  that  of  having  our  army  and  navy 
produce  efficient  defenders  of  our  ideals.  Conservation  of  time,  energy, 
and  materials  must  be  the  aim  in  both  of  these  fields. 

The  fundamental  requirements  in  avoiding  waste  are,  first,  a  disposition 
to  cooperate  and,  secondly,  an  organization  that  will  procure  the  most 
effective  result  from  all  who  participate.  A  war  department  or  a  normal 
school  which  is  productive  of  jealousies,  dissensions,  and  the  spirit  which 
says,  "You  go  your  way,  I'll  go  mine,"  is  lacking  in  a  disposition  to  cooper- 
ate and  therefore  is  wasteful  and  undemocratic;  just  as  great  ineffectiveness 
results  from  lack  of  unity  thru  organization.  From  the  standpoint  of 
organization  conservatism  must  not  be  considered  synonymous  with  con- 
servation. 

Teachers  have  said  that  theory  and  practice  are  two  different  considera- 
tions. If  theory  is  to  be  purposeful  and  practice  rational,  this  cannot  be 
true.  Personal  interviews  were  conducted  with  thirty-seven  state-normal- 
school  principals,  instructors,  or  supervisors  in  twenty-two  different  states. 
It  has  been  noted  that  these  representatives  have  said  practically  that  there 
is  little  or  no  direct  relationship  provided  between  their  departments  of 
theory  and  of  practice.  In  other  words,  students  in  the  theory  department 
study  professional  subjects  for  over  a  year  and  a  half  and  then  go  out  into 
the  profession  for  observation  and  practice  under  different  directors.  Con- 
sequently the  students'  partly  digested  theories  are  often  neglected  and 
forgotten.  If  this  is  true,  then  normal-school  officials  have  a  war-time  duty 
toward  conservation  in  education  which  is  quite  commensurate  with  that  of 
the  officials  in  our  war  department. 


I 


Departmentj        THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  213 

The  principal  activities  thru  which  theory  and  practice  in  normal 
schools  might  cooperate  are  as  follows:  demonstration  lessons,  organized 
observation,  and  practice  teaching.  The  principal  parties  to  maintain  co- 
operative relationships  and  uniformity  of  principles  are  theory  teachers, 
student  teachers,  demonstration  teachers,  observation-school  teachers, 
practice  or  critic  teachers,  supervisors,  and  principals. 

The  three  pages  of  data  which  have  been  distributed  show  some  of  the 
vital  phases  of  these  relationships.  All  data  were  collected  by  means  of 
personal  interviews. 

In  considering  demonstration  lessons  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  40 
per  cent  of  the  normal  schools  do  not  make  use  of  this  means  of  helping 
theory  to  function.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  theory  teachers  never 
teach  lessons  to  test  or  demonstrate  their  own  theories,  and  in  32  per  cent 
of  the  cases  they  do  not  attend  the  demonstration  exercises  that  are  given. 

As  to  organized  observation  as  a  means  of  illustrating  and  clarifying  the 
instruction  in  theory,  it  will  be  noted  that  ten  out  of  thirty-seven  schools 
do  not  maintain  this  type  of  work,  and  in  the  twenty-seven  schools  where 
observation  courses  are  conducted  they  vary  in  length  from  ten  to  two 
hundred  hours.  In  most  cases  thp  courses  are  directed  by  the  supervisors 
or  principals  of  the  practice  departments.  In  five  cases  there  is  a  very 
direct  relationship  between  the  theory  instruction  and  the  observation. 
However,  in  55  per  cent  of  the  cases  those  who  teach  lessons  for  observation 
do  not  use  intentionally  the  methods  and  principles  advocated  by  the 
theory  department. 

The  next  point  to  be  noted  is  the  actual  working  relation  between  theory 
instruction  and  practice  teaching.  In  65  per  cent  of  the  schools  studied 
theory  instructors  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  students'  plans  for  teaching, 
in  57  per  cent  theory  teachers  do  not  observe  or  consult  student  teachers, 
and  in  59  per  cent  students  are  not  sent  to  theory  teachers  for  assistance. 
It  may  be  noted  that  in  about  56  per  cent  of  the  cases  theory  teachers  and 
critic  teachers  do  not  have  meetings  or  appointed  consultations. 

Supervisors  of  practice  teaching  are  in  a  position  to  unify  the  work  of 
the  departments  of  theory  and  of  practice.  It  may  be  noted  under  IV 
in  the  outline  in  your  hands,  that  in  about  50  per  cent  of  the  cases 
supervisors  of  practice  do  not  visit  the  theory  department  nor  necessarily 
become  familiar  with  the  methods  which  they  advocate.  In  five  cases 
out  of  thirty-seven  no  one  is  engaged  to  occupy  the  position  as  super- 
visor of  practice  teaching.  This  may  be  lookt  upon  as  a  point  of 
strength,  as,  for  instance,  in  three  schools  where  the  only  supervisors 
of  practice  are  the  theory  teachers.  In  twenty  of  the  thirty-three 
remaining  normal  schools  the  supervisors  of  practice  do  not  have 
meetings  with  the  instructors  in  the  theory  department,  and  in  nineteen 
cases  they  make  no  effort  to  bring  critic  teachers  and  theory  teachers 
together  for  conferences.    In  twenty  cases  they  are  supposed  to  represent 


214  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Normal 

the  theory  Jdepartment;  however,  as  has  been  noted,  they  are  not  suffi- 
ciently familiar  with  the  work  of  the  theory  department  to  carry  out  its 
directions. 

It  seems  impossible  that  there  should  be  such  a  large  percentage  of 
waste  in  time,  energy,  and  money  as  these  data  signify.  Nevertheless  it 
may  be  true  that  there  are  comparatively  few  intensively  organized  sys- 
tems which  aim  to  conserve  the  efforts  of  all  concerned.  Individualism  is 
the  policy  in  many  struggling  institutions.  Very  often  teachers  speak 
with  considerable  pride  about  the  distinctive  features  of  their  theories 
or  methods.  In  the  same  schools  students  must  often  discuss  their  pro- 
found confusion.  Certainly  organization  and  cooperation  should  provide 
for  all  that  is  distinctively  strong  and  at  the  same  time  avoid  confusion  and 
waste.  So  long  as  only  the  students  have  to  suffer  from  the  losses  reorgani- 
zation may  be  long  delayed.  The  passive  conservative  attitude  of  school 
authorities  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  twenty-one  of  the  thirty-seven 
schools  studied  there  is  no  special  concern  shown  regarding  the  very  appar- 
ent lack  of  coordination  between  thinking  or  memorizing  and  doing. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  FEDERAL  AID  AND  THE 
TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 

JOHN  A.   H.   KEITH,  PRESIDENT,   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,   INDIANA,   PA. 

Your  Committee  begs  to  report  as  follows: 

I.  We  tried  to  get  at- the  attitude  of  normal-school  presidents  and  prin- 
cipals toward  national  aid  to  institutions  engaged  in  the  preparation  of 
teachers.  A  letter  was  sent  to  each.  The  replies  received  indicate  that 
practically  every  one  of  them  favors  national  aid  for  this  purpose.  A  few 
are  doubtful,  fearing  too  great  interference  from  the  national  government. 
Some  questions  were  raised  as  to  the  particular  way  in  which  the  aid  was  to 
be  administered.  It  is  safe  to  say,  however,  that  over  90  per  cent  of  the 
normal-school  presidents  and  principals  of  the  country  are  in  favor  of  a  rea- 
sonable plan  of  national  aid  to  institutions  engaged  in  the  preparation  of 
teachers. 

II.  Your  Committee  has  cooperated  in  every  possible  way  with  the 
National  Education  Association  Coinmission  on  Necessary  Readjustments 
during  and  after  the  War.  This  Commission  has  been  more  than  courteous 
to  us;  it  has  been  genuinely  and  generously  interested  in  our  cause.  It  has 
invited  us  to  share  in  its  deliberations  and  has  listened  to  our  statement  of 
the  case.  On  invitation  of  the  chairman  of  its  subcommittee  on  the  Prepara- 
tion of  Teachers,  Dr.  W.  C.  Bagley,  we  have  prepared  a  brief,  an  expanded 
statement  of  the  brief,  and  have  compiled  statistical  data  relative  to  the 
work  of  state  normal  schools  and  to  the  distribution  of  national  aid  to  the 


Department)         FEDERAL  AID  AND  THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  215 

several  states,  on  the  basis  of  certain  assumptions  that  had  been  approved 
by  the  National  Education  Association  Commission. 

III.  We  are  able  to  report  that  the  bill  prepared  by  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association  Commission  and  ready  for  submission  to  Congress 
contains  provisions  regarding  national  aid  to  institutions  engaged  in  the 
preparation  of  teachers  which  we  believe  will  be  acceptable  to  the  normal 
schools  of  the  country.  These  provisions,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  teacher 
preparation,  are  substantially  as  follows: 

1.  A  maximum  of  $15,000,000  annually  is  appropriated — 

to  cooperate  with  the  states  in  preparing  teachers  for  the  schools,  particularly  rural  schools 
....  to  encourage  a  more  nearly  universal  preparation  of  prospective  teachers,  to  extend 
the  facilities  for  the  improvement  of  teachers  already  in  service,  to  encourage,  thru  the 
establishment  of  scholarships  and  otherwise,  a  greater  number  of  talented  young  people  to 
make  adequate  preparation  for  public-school  service,  and  otherwise  to  provide  an  increast 
number  of  trained  and  competent  teachers. 

2.  This  sum  is  to  be  apportioned  to  the  several  states  in  the  proportion 
which  the  numbers  of  teachers  in  the  public  schools  of  the  respective  states 
bear  to  the  total  number  of  public-school  teachers  in  the  United  States,  not 
including  outlying  possessions,  said  apportionment  to  be  based  on  figures 
collected  by  the  Department  of  Education,  which  is  created  as  an  execu- 
tive department  of  the  government  with  a  secretary,  who  is  a  member  of  the 
President's  cabinet,  assistant  secretaries,  etc. 

3.  But  this  amount  of  money  is  not  an  un trammeled  annuity.  The 
amount  spent  by  state  and  local  authorities  for  teacher  preparation  in  191 9 
is  taken  as  a  standard  base.  If  a  state  spends  more  in  1920  or  in  any  subse- 
quent year  than  it  did  in  19 19,  the  national  government  will  match  this 
additional  expenditure  dollar  for  dollar  up  to  the  limit  of  the  allotment 
previously  indicated.  The  fundamental  purpose  of  the  proposal  is  to 
encourage  the  states  to  do  more  in  the  matter  of  preparing  teachers,  and  the 
encouragement  consists  in  the  offer  to  pay  one-half  of  the  additional  cost  up 
to  the  limit  of  a  state's  share  in  the  $15,000,000  provided  in  the  bill.  But 
even  this  offered  encouragement  is  further  limited  by  excluding  expenditures 
for  the  purchase,  erection,  preservation,  or  repair  of  any  building,  or  for  the 
purchase  or  rental  of  land,  or  for  the  support  of  any  religiously  or  privately 
owned,  endowed,  or  conducted  school  or  college.  And  still  further  it  is 
provided  that  funds  apportioned  under  the  act  shall  be  expended  "only 
for  public  institutions  and  agencies  owned  and  controlled  by  the  state,  or 
county,  or  local  authority,  as  may  be  provided  under  the  laws  controlling 
and  regulating  the  public  educational  institutions  and  agencies  of  said 
state." 

4.  The  Secretary  of  Education  is  authorized  to  frame  uniform  rules 
and  regulations  for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the  act,  to  prescribe  a 
plan  of  keeping  accounts  of  educational  expenditures,  and  to  appoint  an 
auditor. 


2i6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Normal 

5.  Since  it  is  wholly  futile  to  try  to  get  young  people  to  prepare  for 
teaching  unless  the  economic  rewards  of  teaching  are  reasonable,  the  bill 
provides  $50,000,000  "  to  cooperate  with  the  states  in  the  efforts  to  equalize 
educational  opportunities."  The  expenditure  of  this  money  is  limited  as 
already  indicated.  It  will  therefore  be  expended  on  operating  expenses, 
of  which  teachers'  salaries  is  the  large  item.  This  amount  is  about  one- 
seventh  of  the  total  paid  to  teachers  in  191 5-16.  If  it  is  met  by  an  equal 
amount  by  the  several  states,  salaries  could  be  increast  between  20  and  30 
per  cent.  Such  an  increase  would  give  teaching  an  economic  status  which 
it  has  never  had  in  this  country. 

IV.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  for  your  Committee  to  know  how  these 
provisions  will  appeal  to  Congress  and  to  the  country  at  large.  It  is 
evident,  however,  that  our  people  are  thinking  nationally  now  instead  of 
locally.  It  would  be  a  great  misfortune  to  create  a  bureaucracy  that  would 
destroy  the  autonomy  of  the  states  and  reduce  all  public  education  to  a  fixt 
routine.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  equally  unfortunate  to  allow  the 
self-interest  of  states  and  communities  to  prevent  the  development  of  indi- 
viduals to  the  level  at  which  participation  in  national  life  is  possible.  It  is 
the  old  difl&culty  of  "  the  devil  and  the  deep  sea."  Your  Committee  believes 
that  the  proposals  now  embodied  in  the  bill  will  secure  the  advantages  of 
national  aid  and  avoid  the  disadvantages. 

V.  We  who  are  particularly  concerned  with  the  preparation  of  teachers 
in  state  normal  schools  must  view  this  matter  in  its  large  aspects.  Our 
schools  are  organically  parts  of  the  public-school  systems  of  the  several 
states,  even  tho  they  are  not  so  designated  in  the  statutes.  And  they  are  also 
integral  parts  of  our  national  system  of  education,  even  tho  we  do  not  have  a 
national  system  establisht  by  law.  The  national  government  has  aided 
and  is  aiding  public  education  in  the  several  states.  What  is  proposed, 
therefore,  is  only  an  extension  of  what  we  are  now  doing.  Every  normal- 
school  man  is  interested  in  the  removal  of  illiteracy,  the  Americanization 
of  immigrants,  the  equalization  of  educational  opportunities  in  the  several 
states,  the  development  of  physical  and  health  education,  and  the  better 
preparation  of  more  teachers.  These  things  are  not  merely  local  and 
state  matters;  they  are  national  concerns.  Are  we  real  Americans  or  just 
camouflaged  aliens?  Are  our  loyalty,  our  interest,  our  effort,  and  our 
insight  bounded  by  state  lines?  If  they  are  not  so  limited  we  should 
all  be  able  to  get  behind  a  proposal  that  promises  so  much  of  national 
betterment. 

The  normal  school  stands  for  a  professional  preparation  for  teaching. 
Unfortunately,  in  nearly  every  state,  the  right  to  teach  is  controlled  by 
statutes  that  set  up  an  academic  qualification.  Law  and  medicine  have 
been  able  to  get  the  legal  phraseology  to  include  professional  qualifications. 
That  is  what  we  need  for  teachers  also.  Your  Committee  beheves  that 
national  aid  for  teacher  preparation  will  establish  professional  qualifications 


Department]      NORMAL  SCHOOLS  AND  PROBLEMS  OF  CHILD  HEALTH      217 

for  those  who  enter  upon  teaching  in  every  state  of  the  Union.  We  regard 
this  as  absolutely  necessary  to  the  realization  of  the  democracy  for  whose 
preservation  in  the  world  we  are  pouring  out  so  much  of  blood  and  treasure. 

John  A.  H.  Keith 
D.  B.  Waldo 
John  R.  Kirk 

Committee 


THE  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  AND  THE  PROBLEMS  OF 
CHILD  HEALTH 

W.  S.  SMALL,  SPECIALIST  IN  SCHOOL  HYGIENE,  UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF 
EDUCATION,   WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

"It  is  the  business  of  the  board  of  health  to  look  after  disease.  It  is 
the  business  of  the  board  of  education  to  look  after  education.  It  is  nohodfs 
business  to  look  after  the  children." 

I  quote  this  statement  from  a  recent  letter  written  by  a  zealous  and 
successful  organizer  of  "school  health  work."  A  shocking  statement,  is  it 
not,  and  a  trifle  disconcerting  ?  Have  we  not  comforted  ourselves  with  the 
idea  that  the  chief  concern  of  education  is  "looking  after  the  children"? 
Particularly  have  the  normal  schools  comforted  themselves  with  this  flatter- 
ing assurance.  Naturally  we  are  shockt  when  we  are  told  by  one  who 
observes  and  speaks  dispassionately  that  we  are  fooling  ourselves. 

Such  a  statement,  you  say,  expresses  a  sadly  perverted  view  of  the  mean- 
ing of  education.  True,  but  does  it  not  express  a  sadly  true  picture  of 
education  as  it  is  frequently  practist  ?  In  a  mediaeval  Latin  book  we  read 
Johannem  Latinam  docet  magisier,  "The  master  teaches  John  Latin."  It 
makes  all  the  difference  in  the  world  whether  the  master  teaches  Latin  to 
John  (emphasis  on  Latin)  or  whether  the  master  teaches  John  by  means  of 
Latin  (emphasis  on  John).  Is  not  our  school  practice  very  commonly 
teaching  Latin  to  John  rather  than  teaching  John  by  means  of  Latin? 
Academic  results  rather  than  human  growth?  Even  in  the  matter  of 
health-teaching  and  physical  education  formalism  is  not  unknown.  Is  not 
my  correspondent  at  least  half  justified  in  his  conclusion  that  looking  after 
the  chfldren  is  nobody's  business  ? 

Confession  is  good  for  the  soul.  It  will  be  good  for  the  normal-school 
soul  to  confess  that  the  normal  school  has  paid  little  attention  to  the  funda- 
mental problem  of  conserving  and  promoting  health.  There  is  a  great  deal 
of  lip  service — mens  sana  in  sano  cor  pore — repeated  at  frequent  intervals; 
but  the  records  show  that  when  it  comes  to  actual  recognition  of  physical 
education  and  its  functions  in  the  normal  development  of  human  beings  the 
normal  schools  are  deficient. 

Partial  returns  have  been  received  from  an  inquiry  on  physical  educa- 
tion in  normal  schools  recently  sent  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  to  all  state, 


2i8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Normal 

county,  and  city  normal  schools — 145  out  of  about  250.  Incomplete 
analysis  of  the  returns  from  these  145  schools  gives  the  following  certain 
data: 

1.  Number  requiring  health  certificate  at  entrance 44 

2.  Number  requiring  medical  examination 68 

3.  Number  requiring  health  certificate  for  graduation 24 

4.  Number  requiring  physical  exercise  of  all  students 124 

Gymnastics 100 

Dancing 55 

Athletics 47 

Games 102 

5.  Number  requiring  practice  teaching: 

a)  In  calisthenics 74 

h)  In  gymnastics 68 

c)  In  dancing 63 

d)  In  athletics 40 

e)  In  games 91 

6.  Number  having  special  teachers  of  physical  training: 

a)  Male 53 

h)  Female in 

7.  Number  having  gymnasiums no 

8.  Number  having  swimming-pools 23 

Complete  fulfilment  of  all  the  following  conditions  is  necessary  if 
teachers  are  to  be  prepared  to  promote  the  health  and  physical  vigor  of 
their  pupils:  physico-medical  examination  at  entrance  and  annually,  at 
least,  during  the  course;  health  certificate  for  graduation;  daily  physical 
exercise,  at  least  one  hour,  of  an  enlivening  and  joy-producing  kind;  prac- 
tice teaching  of  such  exercise  for  children;  playgrounds  and  gymnasiums 
necessary  for  such  exercise;  practical  study  of  hygiene  as  exemplified  in 
school  life  and  environment;  instruction  in  normal  physical  diagnosis. 

From  the  data  given  above  and  from  other  inquiries  and  observations 
I  am  persuaded  that  complete  fulfilment  of  these  conditions  in  normal 
schools  is  rare.  A  few  schools  meet  all  of  the  conditions  with  a  considerable 
d^egree  of  thoroness,  more  meet  some  of  the  conditions  well  and  are  short  on 
the  rest  or  meet  them  inadequately,  and  others  meet  all  these  conditions 
inadequately  or  not  at  all. 

There  is  light  on  the  horizon.  Since  1914  eight  states  have  enacted 
compulsory,  state-wide  physical-education  laws.  Most  of  them  contem- 
plate physical  education  in  the  broad  sense  indicated  above.  Some  of  these, 
tho  compulsory  in  form,  are  hardly  more  than  permissive  in  substance; 
but  they  all  point  to  a  new  emphasis  on  physical  education  in  the  normal 
schools.  Several  of  them  specifically  include  the  normal  schools  in  the 
application  of  the  law.  In  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  California,  at  least, 
the  vivifying  eflect  of  these  laws  is  becoming  evident.  In  some  instances 
readjustment  of  programs  and  ideals  will  be  necessary.  Three  things  will 
be  required:  (i)  time,  (2)  careful  planning  of  the  course  of  study  in  physical 
education,  and  (3)  broadly  prepared  teachers. 


Department)  SECRETARY'S  MINUTES  219 

I  have  already  suggested  a  minimum  of  one  hour  a  day  of  enlivening 
and  joy-producing  exercise.  This  serves  a  double  purpose:  (i)  to  conserve 
and  develop  the  health  of  the  students  and  (2)  to  produce  the  raw  material 
of  personal  experience  without  which  it  is  hopeless  to  undertake  to  train 
teachers  to  teach. 

Complementary  to  this  at  least  one  hour  (period)  per  day  should  be 
given  to  instruction  in  the  principles  and  practice  of  physical  education. 
Not  to  enter  deeply  into  details,  under  "principles"  must  be  included  the 
basic  sciences  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene — ^general,  individual,  and 
group;  and  the  values  of  physical  education — educational,  social,  civic, 
and  economic. 

Under  "practice,"  certainly  practice  in  hygienic  inspection  of  school 
plant,  in  cooperation  with  medical  inspectors  and  nurses,  in  conduct-of- 
posture  examinations  and  tests,  in  direction  of  drills,  gymnastics,  and  games, 
and  in  community  recreation  projects. 

What  we  must  learn  is  that  this  part  of  the  preparation  of  teachers  is 
of  first  importance,  not  an  accessory  to  the  formularies  of  mental  develop- 
ment and  discipline.  War  is  a  sifter  of  all  things.  Don't  waste  your  time 
apologizing  for  the  fact  that  from  20  to  30  per  cent  of  the  children  pass  from 
the  schools  carrying  with  them  the  handicap  of  remediable  defect  and 
undevelopt  mental  and  muscular  power.  Put  an  end  to  it.  Lift  from  the 
schools  the  reproach  that  it  is  "nobody's  business  to  look  after  the  children." 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 

ATLANTIC  CITY  MEETING 


OFFICERS 


President — D.  W.  Hayes,  president.  State  Normal  School Peru,  Nebr.        ^ 

Vice-President — G.  W.  Nash,  president,  State  Normal  School Bellingham,  Wash. 

Secretary — H.  A.  Schofield,  president.  State  Normal  School .Eau  Claire,  Wis. 


FIRST  SESSION— Tuesday  Afternoon,  February  26,  1918 
The  following  program  was  given  at  this  meeting: 

"The  Function  of  the  Normal  School  in  the  Rebuilding  of  Civilization" — Mary  C.  C. 
Bradford,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Denver,  Colo. 

"Bringing  the  College  to  the  Normal  School"— George  M.  Philips,  principal,  State 
Normal  School,  West  Chester,  Pa. 

"Prepare  Rather  than  Train  for  Teaching" — A.  E.  Winship,  editor,  Journal  of 
Education,  Boston,  Mass, 

Dr.  E.  G.  Cooley  presented  the  work  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross. 
A  motion  was  made  and  carried  that  a  committee  of  three  be  appointed  to  investigate 
the  problem  of  federal  aid  for  elementary  schools  and  to  report  at  the  Pittsburgh  meeting. 
President  Keith,  of  Indiana,  Pa.,  presented  the  following  resolution: 

Resolved,  That  the  Normal  School  Section  favors  the  principle  of  federal  aid  to  state- 
controlled  teacher-training  institutions,  and  to  the  end  that  the  interests  of  the  normal 
schools  be  properly  considered  in  any  legislation  looking  to  the  formulation  of  any_such 


220  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Normal 

plan  the  chairman  is  hereby  directed  to  appoint  a  committee  of  three  to  represent  the 
normal  schools  in  this  and  any  other  related  matters. 

The  resolution  was  past. 

President  Sho waiter  presented  a  resolution  as  follows: 

Resolved,  That  we  favor  federal  aid  for  common-school  education. 

The  resolution  was  past  and  the  conference  adjourned. 

O.  M.  Elliott 

Secretary  pro  tern 

SECOND  SESSION— Thursday  Apternoon,  February  28,  1918 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  David  Fehnley,  Illinois  Normal  School,  acting 
president.    The  following  committees  were  announst: 

COMMITTEE  ON  NORMAL  SCHOOL  FEDERAL  AID 

John  A.  H.  Keith,  president,  State  Normal  School,  Indiana,  Pa. 

D,  B.  Waldo,  president,  Western  State  Normal  School,  Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

John  R.  Kirk,  president,  State  Normal  School,  Kirksville,  Mo. 

COMMITTEE  ON  RESOLUTIONS 

J.  G.  Crabbe,  president,  Colorado  State  Teachers  College,  Greeley,  Colo. 
Charles  McKenney,  president,  Michigan  State  Normal  College,  Ypsilanti,  Mich. 
George  S.  Dick,  president.  State  Normal  School,  Kearney,  Nebr. 

This  committee  was  to  report  at  the  Pittsburgh  meeting. 
The  following  program  was  presented: 

"Distinction  between  Academic  and  Professional  Subjects" — William  C.  Bagley, 
professor  of  education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.Y. 

"Maintaining  an  Adequate  Supply  of  Teachers  without  Lowering  Standards" — 
J.  Asbury  Pitman,  principal,  State  Normal  School,  Salem,  Mass. ;  Thomas  W.  Butcher, 
president,  Kansas  State  Normal  School,  Emporia,  Kans. 

"A  Standard  Normal  Course  with  a  Standard  Diploma" — N.  D.  Showalter,  president, 
State  Normal  School,  Cheney,  Wash.;  A.  J.  Matthews,  president,  Tempe  Normal  School 
of  Arizona,  Tempe,  Ariz. 

The  general  discussion  was  participated  in  by:   John  Keith,  Indiana,  Pa.;   M.  M. 
Parks,  Milledgeville,  Ga.;  A.  G.  Crane,  Minot,  N.D. 
The  conference  adjourned. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


BRINGING  THE  COLLEGE  TO  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

GEORGE  M.   PHILIPS,  PRINCIPAL,   STATE   NORMAL  SCHOOL, 
WEST  CHESTER,   PA. 

Four  years  ago,  during  a  lecture  on  the  history  of  education  at  the 
West  Chester  State  Normal  School,  by  Dr.  Frank  P.  Graves,  then  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  educational  department  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  and 
now  dean  of  its  school  of  education,  the  thought  came  to  me,  "Why  not 
have  regular  college  courses  here  by  such  men  as-  Professor  Graves  every 
year?" 

I  spoke  of  the  matter  to  Dr.  Graves,  and  he  thought  that  the  plan  was 
a  good  one  and  could  be  carried  out.  I  took  the  matter  up  with  the  dean 
of  extension  work  and  made  arrangements  to  begin  the  following  year. 


Department)         BRINGING  THE  COLLEGE  TO  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  221 

During  19 14-15  we  carried  on  two  such  half-year  courses  during  the 
first  semester  of  the  college  year  and  two  others  during  the  second  semester. 
During  19 15-16  we  had  six  such  courses,  during  19 16-17  we  had  eight,  and 
during  the  present  year  we  are  giving  six,  as  we  have  found  by  experience 
that  that  is  about  the  right  number. 

The  professors  come  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  to  the  normal 
school  and  give  two-hour  lectures  one  evening  each  week,  presenting  the 
same  lectures  which  they  give  to  their  classes  at  the  university  itself,  and 
giving  them  the  same  amount  of  time.  At  the  close  of  the  course  they  give 
a  regular  college  examination  in  the  subject,  and  those  who  pass  this 
examination  get  one  unit  of  college  credit  for  each  semester's  work  in  any 
subject. 

We  exercise  great  care  in  the  selection  of  the  subjects  of  these  courses 
and  still  greater  care  in  the  selection  of  the  professors  who  give  them. 
Unless  the  professors  who  give  these  courses  are  first-class  teachers  the 
interest  will  soon  die  out,  and  the  plan  will  fail.  We  choose  courses  which 
are  interesting  as  well  as  important  to  teachers.  We  find  that  courses  in 
English,  which  usually  include  the  various  courses  in  contemporary  or  at 
least  modern  English  and  American  literature;  courses  in  history,  especially 
modern  or  contemporary  history;  courses  in  sociology,  especially  practical 
social  problems  and  community  civics;  and  courses  in  geography  are  most 
in  demand,  altho  for  the  past  three  years  we  have  maintained  a  course  in 
college  mathematics,  including  analytical  geometry  and  higher  algebra, 
quite  successfully. 

These  subjects,  as  far  as  possible,  are  substituted  for  the  same  subjects 
in  the  normal-school  course,  and  that  is  a  factor  in  the  success  of  any  course, 
but  others  are  outside  of  and  additional  to  the  normal-school  course.  The 
latter  are  not  put  officially  in  their  diplomas  but  are  noted  on  them  by  the 
authorities  of  the  school.  The  names  of  such  of  these  students  as  pass 
the  college  examinations,  and  with  few  exceptions  they  all  pass  them,  are 
printed  in  the  catalog  of  the  university,  practically  as  special  students, 
which  is  a  decided  encouragement  to  the  scheme. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  Pennsylvania  state  normal  schools  offer 
no  college  courses  and  give  no  college  degrees,  and  there  is  no  present 
tendency  toward  introducing  them  into  these  schools.  Pennsylvania  has 
so  many  good,  well-establisht  colleges  that  there  is  felt  to  be  no  great  need 
of  adding  to  them.  The  normal  schools  have  a  four-year  course,  planned 
by  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  the  principals  of  the  normal 
schools.  This  is  a  combined  academic  and  pedagogical  course.  Graduates 
of  four-year  high  schools  enter  the  third  year  of  the  course  and  generally 
graduate  in  two  years,  and  a  few  of  the  best  graduates  of  three-year  high 
schools  are  also  able  to  graduate  in  two  years.  No  student  can  graduate 
without  an  attendance  of  at  least  two  years,  except  such  as  have  completed 
one  or  more  years  of  college  work  in  a  college  of  good  standing.    These  may 


22  2  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Normal 


graduate  after  one  year's  attendance.  Students  who  are  not  high-school 
graduates  may  be  admitted  to  the  normal  schools  but  must  expect  to  spend 
from  four  to  five  years  there  in  order  to  graduate. 

Students  who  wish  to  take  these  college  courses — and  it  is  practically 
confined  to  students  in  the  third  and  fourth  years  of  the  course — are  per- 
mitted to  do  so  only  when  it  is  believed  that  they  have  time  to  do  this  extra 
or  substitute  work.  These  students  pay  directly  to  the  university  the  regu- 
lar fees  for  this  work,  which  is  $io  for  each  half-year  course.  This  year  the 
university  required  an  enrolment  fee  of  $2 .  50  from  each  student,  but  this 
is  paid  but  once  by  any  student.  I  understand  that  the  professors  receive 
all  these  fees  except  the  enrolment  fee  as  extra  compensation  for  such  extra 
work,  and  when  the  classes  are  large,  as  they  frequently  are,  it  is  a  consider- 
able addition  to  their  income. 

The  plan  is  working  very  satisfactorily.  It  gives  the  more  capable 
and  better-prepared  students  an  opportunity  to  use  their  extra  time  to  the 
best  advantage.  It  adds  valuable  subjects  to  their  curriculum,  gives  them 
experience  in  college  work,  prepares  them  for  college  work  in  the  future,  and 
gives  them  credit  toward  the  completion  of  a  college  course,  which  of  course 
can  be  transferred  to  any  other  college.  This  is  a  great  incentive  toward 
going  to  college. 

Graduates  who  have  taken  these  college  courses  here  and  are  now  teach- 
ing or  in  college  are  enthusiastic  about  them.  Several  have  secured  better 
teaching  positions  than  they  could  otherwise  have  obtained,  sometimes 
positions  which  only  college  graduates  have  heretofore  been  getting,  or 
places  which  normal-school  graduates  without  teaching  experience  have 
never  secured  before.  Others  have  been  led  to  go  to  college  who  otherwise 
would  not  have  gone,  and  several  who  have  thus  entered  college  have  found 
that  these  courses  taken  here  have  enabled  them  to  save  a  year  in  the  com- 
pletion of  a  college  course.  All  say  that  these  courses  broadened  their 
knowledge  and  outlook  on  life  and  education,  added  interest  and  zest  to 
their  teaching,  and  made  them  better  and  more  successful  teachers. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  increase  in  numbers  of  those  taking  these 
courses,  they  are  growing  in  popularity  and  value  every  year.  Our  faculty, 
as  well  as  students,  especially  graduates,  who  have  taken  these  courses  here, 
feels  that  the  plan  is  a  great  success,  and  I  believe  that  it  will  grow  in  use- 
fulness and  efficiency.  

PREPARE  RATHER  THAN  TRAIN  FOR  TEACHING 

A.   E.   WINSHIP,   EDITOR,   "JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION,"   BOSTON,   MASS. 

In  order  that  I  may  be  entirely  frank  and  fearless  in  my  address  and 
that  you  may  listen  as  frankly  and  fearlessly,  let  me  say  that  I  challenge 
anyone  to  put  in  a  claim  for  greater  loyalty  to  normal  schools,  or  greater 
devotion  thereto,  or  more  persistent  activity  in  their  behalf.  I  speak  as  a 
lover  of  normal  schools  to  lovers  of  normal  schools. 


Department)      PREPARE  RATHER  THAN  TRAIN  FOR  TEACHING  223 

Training  is  in  no  wise  applicable  to  what  a  normal  school  should  do  for 
young  people  who  are  preparing  to  teach.  Training  is  making  anything  go 
in  the  direction  in  which  you  want  it  to  go  until  it  will  always  go  as  you  train 
it  to  go.  You  train  a  young  tree,  an  elephant,  a  lion,  a  dog,  a  rat — if  you 
can  find  a  rat  that  will  be  trained. 

If  the  normal  school  is  not  to  train  its  students,  what  is  it  to  do  ?  Why, 
simply  prepare  them  to  teach.  This  means  scientifically  that  the  normal 
school  should  have  an  educational  budget  system.  The  budget  system  in 
finance  is  righting  more  wrongs  than  any  other  scheme  ever  invented. 
Before  the  day  of  the  budget  system  a  city  council  was  askt  to  vote  money 
for  the  things  it  was  willing  to  vote  money  for  and  then  used  it  as  it  pleased. 
The  streets  are  in  horrible  shape.  The  pubUc  will  stand  an  extra  $50,000 
for  street  repairs,  but,  once  appropriated  for  streets,  $10,000  of  it  at  least 
will  be  used  for  some  junket  or  other.  No  city  ever  let  the  public  know 
what  became  of  the  money.  All  the  public  knew  was  that  $50,000  was 
appropriated  for  street  repairs;  it  did  not  know  that  $10,000  was  transferred 
to  "miscellaneous  expenses."  The  budget  system  demands  that  a  careful 
survey  be  made  of  all  needs  and  of  all  revenues,  and  not  a  dollar  is  appro- 
priated that  is  not  in  sight  in  the  revenue  and  not  a  dollar  can  be  trans- 
ferred to  any  other  account.  An  educational  budget  system  studies  the 
actual  needs  of  teachers  who  begin  teaching  in  a  given  class  of  school 
in  which  the  young  women  are  to  teach.  Then  a  careful  study  is  made 
of  the  time  in  which  she  must  be  prepared  for  the  work,  and  so  much 
time  and  only  so  much  time  as  is  adjudged  necessary  is  given  to  that 
preparation. 

The  first  great  gain  in  all  this  will  be  the  realization  of  the  fact  that  no 
normal  school  can  in  two  years  prepare  anyone  to  teach  in  both  a  rural  and 
a  city  school.  It  will  put  a  stop  to  the  vicious  practice  of  allowing  a  girl  to 
get  her  two  years'  experience  for  a  city  school  in  a  country  school.  An 
educational  budget  for  a  rural  school  is  no  more  a  preparation  for  a  city 
school  than  a  course  in  a  law  school  is  a  good  preparation  for  the  practice 
of  medicine. 

What  does  a  rural  teacher  need  in  order  to  succeed  in  a  rural  school  ? 
What  preparation  does  she  need  ?  In  the  rough,  one-third  of  her  need  is 
ability  to  deal  with  the  community,  young  and  old,  in  solving  problems  of 
nature  and  human  nature;  and  the  other  two- thirds  of  her  need  is  prepara- 
tion, one-third  of  which  should  be  devoted  to  the  art  of  teaching  and  one- 
third  to  psychology,  history  of  education,  scholarship,  and  the  development 
of  her  personality. 

With  a  faculty  of  twelve,  four  would  give  their  time  to  helping  students 
equip  themselves  to  grapple  with  the  problems  of  nature  and  of  human 
nature;  four  to  principles,  methods,  devices,  administration,  and  pedagogy; 
and  four  to  psychology,  history  of  education,  improvement  in  scholarship 
and  health,  and  the  development  of  personality. 


224  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Normal 

From  the  standpoint  of  an  educational  budget  there  will  be  no  depart- 
ment of  mathematics,  of  geography,  of  English,  of  biology,  of  chemistry, 
of  physics,  of  literature,  of  drawing,  of  music,  of  penmanship,  of  physical 
culture,  of  any  subjects  in  a  two  years'  course  for  rural  teachers. 

There  are  few  things  as  absurd  as  for  a  normal  school  to  have  a  faculty 
of  twelve  varieties  of  specialists,  all  graduates  of  colleges  where  they  majored 
in  the  subject  which  they  teach  in  the  normal  school.  They  have  taught 
their  specialty  from  five  to  forty-five  years.  They  study  all  the  time  along 
their  line  of  specializing,  and  no  one  of  these  would  for  a  minute  admit  that 
she  could  teach  any  subject  but  her  specialty.  And  yet  a  high-school  girl 
must  take  twelve  courses  under  specialists  who  cannot  or  will  not  teach 
more  than  one  subject,  and  said  high-school  girl,  after  two  years  with  these 
specialists,  is  expected  to  go  out  and  teach  the  whole  twelve  subjects  from 
the  ideal  standards  of  the  twelve  specialists.  Is  this  not  the  height  of  the 
ridiculously  absurd  ? 

The  educational  budget  will  require  that  at  least  a  third  of  the  students' 
time  be  devoted  to  agriculture,  horticulture,  agronomy,  animal  industry, 
forestry,  gardening,  butter-making,  and  cheese-making.  The  students 
must  learn  all  about  soil  and  climate,  fertilizing  and  plowing,  planting  and 
cultivating,  pruning  and  spraying,  seeding  and  weeding,  harvesting  grains 
and  grasses,  fruits  and  vegetables,  drying  and  canning,  packing  and  shipping. 
They  must  know  what  crops  to  raise  on  high  land  and  low  land,  on  wet  land 
and  dry  land,  on  sand  land  and  clay  land;  when  to  plow  four  inches  deep 
and  when  fourteen  inches;  in  what  month  and  on  what  week  and  day  to 
plant  each  crop  for  that  section.  They  must  know  all  varieties  of  grains 
and  grasses,  fruits  and  berries,  roots  and  radishes,  and  the  significance  of 
each  as  to  soil,  fertilizer,  and  market. 

They  must  know  all  breeds,  thorobreds,  and  grades  of  horses,  mules, 
cows,  sheep,  pigs,  and  poultry.  They  must  know  all  about  the  local, 
national,  and  world  markets,  and  all  about  transportation  by  land  and 
water,  by  express,  parcel  post,  and  freight;  all  about  financing  the  farm, 
banking,  accounting,  discounts,  and  commissions.  There  is  also  much 
to  be  known  about  buildings,  fencing,  draining,  ditching,  and  automobile 
repairing.  Then  there  is  a  great  deal  of  science  and  art  in  buying,  using,  and 
repairing  machinery.  All  these  and  innumerable  other  problems  of  the 
farm  the  teacher  will  know  when  the  normal  schools  are  run  on  an  educa- 
tional budget  system  for  rural-school  teachers. 

The  teacher  in  a  rural  community  must  prepare  children  thru  education 
to  enjoy  country  life  and  profit  by  it.  All  this  is  child's  play  in  comparison 
with  preparing  teachers  to  deal  with  human  nature  as  it  exists  in  a  rural 
community.  It  requires  the  wisdom  of  a  statesman  to  handle  a  school 
district  of  from  twenty  to  forty  famihes.  Forty  families  have  eighty 
different  specimens  of  human  nature,  each  specimen  with  fifty-seven 
varieties  of  temper,  impulse,  envy,  jealousy,  frivolity,  conscience,  and 


Department)       PREPARE  RATHER  THAN  TRAIN  FOR  TEACHING  225 

temperament.  Many  of  these  forty  homes  represent  rows  internal  and 
more  rows  external.  Every  school  district  has  a  thousand  possible  combina- 
tions of  trouble,  political,  religious,  domestic,  educational,  industrial,  com- 
mercial, financial,  social,  conventional,  individual,  and  personal. 

There  are  people  who  are  poor,  others  who  are  rich,  and  still  others  who 
are  neither  rich  nor  poor;  there  are  people  who  worship  cheapness  and  those 
who  worship  spending;  there  are  those  who  are  superstitious  and  those  who 
ridicule  superstition;  there  is  an  infinite  variety  of  prejudices  which  are 
nowhere  as  senseless  and  intense  as  in  the  country.  Then  there  are  likely 
to  be  Baptists  and  Presbyterians,  CongregationaHsts  and  Methodists, 
Quakers  and  Shakers,  Universalists  and  Unitarians,  Episcopalians  and 
Christian  Scientists,  evangelists  and  atheists,  Campbellites  and  possibly 
Christians.  It  is  vastly  more  important  for  a  teacher's  success  that  she 
know  how  to  be  neutral  or  neutrally  religious  than  that  she  know  the  order 
of  the  planets  and  the  gyrations  of  the  moon. 

The  teachers  who  have  that  third  of  the  student-teacher's  time  to  be 
devoted  to  all  methods  of  teaching  twelve  subjects  have  a  loafing  time  in 
comparison  with  those  who  have  the  problems  of  nature  and  human  nature 
of  a  rural  district.  And  the  teachers  of  student-teachers  who  have  a  third 
of  their  time  for  the  teaching  of  administration,  psychology,  theoretic 
pedagogy,  history  of  education,  scholarship  subjects,  personal  health, 
manners,  morals,  and  personality  have  an  easier  time.  When  normal 
schools  cease  trying  to  train  artificially,  and  devote  themselves  to  the 
preparation  of  teachers  to  meet  the  needs  of  children  for  the  community 
and  of  the  community  for  the  children,  the  educational  millennium  will 
have  begun. 

There  is  neither  time  nor  need  to  speak  of  the  educational  budget  for 
the  preparation  of  city  teachers.  In  a  way  the  normal  school  will  be  more 
dejected  after  it  faces  this  budget  ordeal,  because  normal  schools  have 
been  largely  focust  on  the  preparation  of  elementary  teachers.  There  will 
be  little  left  of  traditional  devotion  when  the  educational  budget  for  the 
city  school  is  workt  out. 

I  am  advocating  nothing,  I  am  not  intentionally  starting  a  crusade, 
but  I  am  saying  just  to  you,  and  not  to  the  pubHc,  that  you  should  ehminate 
that  word  training  from  your  vocabulary.  Not  only  the  word,  but  all  that 
it  stands  for,  should  go.  Instead  of  training  a  teacher  to  do  artificial  things, 
the  normal  school  must  study  fully,  fearlessly,  and  frankly  the  needs  of  the 
community  as  a  class  to  which  the  teachers  are  to  go  and  must  prepare  the 
teachers  to  serve  those  communities. 

Until  seventy-five  years  ago  the  only  requirement  ever  made  of  a  teacher 
by  way  of  qualification  for  teaching  was  that  he  know  the  subject  he  was  to 
teach.  Of  course  that  frightful  condition  even  now  inheres  in  some  colleges 
and  universities,  but  the  doom  of  that  absurdity  was  signaled  about  seventy- 
five  years  ago,  when  the  dawn  lightly  purpled  the  sky  in  Massachusetts 


226  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Normal 

under  the  brilliant  leadership  of  Horace  Mann.  Tardily  at  first  the  dawn 
hung  on  the  eastern  horizon,  but  it  persisted  in  enriching  the  eastern  sky 
until  after  about  a  third  of  a  century  one  university — Michigan — braved 
the  ire  of  all  scholastic  institutions  by  introducing  courses  in  education. 
Then  the  victory  for  teacher  preparation  was  achieved. 

At  once  a  new  demand  was  made  upon  teachers.  The  art  of  teaching 
was  now  an  old  story,  and  teachers  were  to  make  schools.  Until  forty  years 
ago  there  was  nothing  done  for  the  school;  everything  was  for  the  class  and 
the  child.  There  was  not  a  schoolroom  hghted  on  a  child's  left  side  unless 
by  accident.  There  was  no  requirement  of  adequate  light,  or  heat,  or  air 
space.  There  was  no  attention  paid  to  sanitation  unless  some  city  happened 
to  have  a  crank  upon  the  board  of  education,  and  he  was  voted  a  nuisance. 
There  was  not  a  jacketed  stove  in  a  country  school.  There  were  no  bubble 
fountains,  no  individual  drinking-cups,  no  individual  towels,  no  paper 
towels,  no  hot  luncheons,  no  schoolyard  improvement,  no  school  garden, 
no  supervised  play,  no  five-acre  schoolyard.  In  short,  nothing  was  done 
for  the  school  as  such.  About  eight  years  ago  this  emphasis  upon  the  school 
reacht  its  height.  Numerous  cities  have  state  laws  requiring  many  of  these 
school  virtues. 

When  legislatures  took  charge  of  school  equipment  for  school  perfection 
a  fourth  great  era  dawned  in  American  education,  and  it  has  come  like  a 
whirlwind.  Now  the  school  and  the  teacher  are  for  the  community.  The 
community  trail  is  as  far  above  the  triumph  of  the  school  as  the  idea  of  the 
school  was  above  the  work  with  a  class,  or  as  the  triumph  of  teacher  prepara- 
tion was  above  a  mere  knowledge  of  a  subject. 

With  this  glorious  new  day  came  entirely  new  opportunities  and 
responsibihties  for  the  normal  schools.  They  must  hasten  to  prepare 
leaders  for  community  improvement,  for  community  singing,  for  community 
school  gardens,  and  for  innumerable  other  community  activities. 


MAINTAINING  AN  ADEQUATE  SUPPLY  OF  TEACHERS 
WITHOUT  LOWERING  STANDARDS 

I.      J.  ASBURY  PITMAN,  PRINCIPAL,  STATE    NORMAL    SCHOOL,    SALEM,    MASS. 

The  educational  system  of  America  is  facing  a  crisis  whose  importance 
will  be  more  fully  appreciated  during  the  long  period  of  reconstruction  and 
readjustment  which  must  immediately  follow  the  war  than  it  is  in  these 
days  at  the  beginning  of  our  participation  in  it.  Some  of  us  who  are  actually 
engaged  in  educational  work  are  aware  of  the  gravity  of  the  situation,  but  it 
is  probable  that  even  we  greatly  underestimate  its  seriousness.  The  great 
majority  of  the  American  people  do  not  yet  fully  realize  that  we  are  at  war. 
In  consequence  of  abnormal  economic  conditions  salaries  and  wages  in 


Department]     MAINTAINING  ADEQUATE  SUPPLY  OF  TEACHERS  227 

practically  all  other  occupations  have  increast  far  beyond  the  compensa- 
tion of  the  teacher.  The  government  or  the  private  employer  needs  the 
thousand-dollar  teacher  who  is  receiving  but  five  hundred  dollars  and  takes 
her  at  the  current  market  value  of  her  services.  Neither  party  to  the 
contract  can  be  blamed;  probably  both  are  acting  for  the  country's  best 
interests. 

The  schools  are  daily  losing  the  services  of  women  for  this  reason. 
Daily,  men  are  leaving  the  teaching  profession  for  voluntary  enlistment  in 
some  branch  of  military  service  or  are  quite  as  cheerfully  responding  to 
the  call  of  the  government  thru  the  selective  draft.  We  who  have  to  do 
with  the  training  of  teachers  must  give  our  attention  to  the  recruiting  of 
young  men  and  women  to  fill  these  vacancies,  and  what  we  do  must  be 
done  quickly. 

The  membership  in  the  secondary  schools  and  colleges  is  being  rapidly 
depleted,  and  the  normal  schools  are  already  suffering  to  an  extent  that  is 
becoming  alarming.  Before  the  war  the  normal-school  enrolment  thruout 
the  country  had  been  steadily  increasing,  and  in  many  states  the  rate  of 
growth  in  membership  had  been  rapid.  At  the  opening  of  the  present 
school  year  the  registration  had  fallen  from  18  to  20  per  cent  below  that  of 
the  previous  year,  and  the  number  of  withdrawals  since  that  time  has 
probably  been  greater  than  ever  before.  The  ever-increasing  cost  of  living 
and  the  temptation  to  earn  abnormally  high  wages  combine  to  reduce  the 
membership  of  all  classes  of  teacher-training  schools  to  a  minimum. 

The  most  serious  problem  that  the  normal  school  is  facing  is  the  main- 
tenance of  the  necessary  supply  of  teachers  without  lowering  the  present 
standard  of  efficiency. 

Under  any  but  the  most  exceptional  conditions  present  standards  of 
preparation  and  of  academic  and  professional  attainment  should  be  main- 
tained, regardless  of  diminisht  membership.  The  normal  school  cannot  be 
made  more  attractive  by  lowering  its  standards.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  the  adoption  of  the  plan  of  admitting  by  certificate  from  approved 
high  schools  instead  of  by  general,  prescribed  examinations  would  slightly 
increase  the  size  of  entering  classes  without  lowering  the  quality  of  the 
student's  preparation.  Similarly  the  substitution  of  comprehensive  exami- 
nations for  the  old  plan  of  admission  by  points,  for  such  as  must  take 
examinations,  would  be  a  means  of  attracting  more  students  who  would 
be  quite  as  well  prepared  as  those  who  have  heretofore  been  examined  in  a 
larger  number  of  subjects. 

We  must  make  a  greater  effort  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the  super- 
intendents of  schools  and  of  the  principals  and  faculties  of  the  high  schools 
in  interesting  their  pupils  in  the  possibilities  of  the  teaching  profession. 
They  must  be  convinst  of  the  urgent  need  of  more  trained  teachers  and 
of  better  material  than  the  normal  school,  under  present  conditions  of 
competition  with  the  industries,  can  attract  without  their  active  support. 


228  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Normal 

Superintendents  and  principals  must  be  encouraged  to  apply  the  principles 
of  vocational  guidance  as  they  have  never  done  before  and  to  help  us  to  enrol 
larger  numbers  of  promising  young  men  and  women  whose  services  will 
be  sorely  needed  during  and  after  the  close  of  the  war. 

There  must  be  a  real  enrichment  of  the  normal-school  curriculum  thru 
the  establishment  of  special  departments  and  the  introduction  of  elective 
courses.  New  departments  are  required  to  meet  the  steadily  increasing 
needs  of  a  more  highly  specialized  system  of  public  education;  electives 
are  necessary  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  secondary  school  if  we  are  to 
abandon  the  old  policy  of  admitting  only  from  prescribed  preparatory 
courses. 

Confidence  in  and  respect  for  the  normal  school  must  be  increast  thru 
the  employment  and  retention  of  the  most  efficient  instructors  who  may  be 
available  in  elementary  school,  secondary  school,  or  college.  This  implies 
the  payment  of  higher  salaries.  The  public  cannot  afford  to  adopt  any  other 
policy.  It  is  a  part  of  our  business  to  convince  them  that  in  a  time  of  great 
national  peril  the  schools  should  be  the  last  agency  to  be  neglected. 

The  normal  school  must  be  properly  advertised  thru  the  catalog  and 
possibly  thru  the  public  press.  The  catalog  should  be  made  as  attractive 
as  possible,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  its  dignity  is  one  of  its  chief 
attractions.  It  should  be  circulated  freely  thru  the  high  schools  and  other- 
wise. Proper  advertising  in  newspapers  and  magazines  is  likely  to  bring 
some  return.  The  judicious  publication  of  school  news  is  of  greater  value. 
The  name  of  the  school  must  be  kept  before  the  public. 

The  cost  of  the  student's  education  should  be  kept  at  the  lowest  limit 
that  will  insure  healthful  conditions  of  living.  Provision  should  be  made 
for  securing  employment  for  students  who  must  work  their  way  thru  school. 
The  establishment  of  an  employment  bureau  may  save  many  students. 
Scholarships  and  loan  funds  may  be  secured  thru  the  generosity  of  graduates 
and  other  friends  of  the  normal  school.  In  some  schools  memorial  funds 
have  been  establisht  for  these  purposes. 

Finally  we  should  carry  on  a  country-wide  campaign  to  secure  for 
teachers  salaries  which  are  sufficient  to  attract  to  the  teaching  profession 
increasing  numbers  of  strong  men  and  women  and  to  retain  them  in  it. 

The  need  of  maintaining  the  necessary  supply  of  thoroly  prepared 
teachers  is  urgent,  and  the  responsibility  rests  chiefly  upon  us.  The  normal 
schools  must  see  to  it  that  in  our  struggle  for  a  better  world  no  less  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  education  of  the  children  of  the  people  than  to  training 
for  the  art  of  war  or  for  the  industries  which  are  essential  to  its  prosecution. 
It  is  a  familiar  axiom  that  in  times  of  peace  we  should  prepare  for  war.  It 
is  of  far  greater  importance  that,  in  no  period  of  war,  be  it  long  or  short, 
should  a  nation  fail  to  prepare  for  the  return  of  peace.  There  can  be  no 
larger  contribution  to  the  future  prosperity  of  a  country  than  the  con- 
tinued maintenance  of  an  unimpaired  system  of  public  education. 


Department)  ACADEMIC  AND  PROFESSIONAL  SUBJECTS  229 

II.      THOMAS  W.  BUTCHER,  PRESIDENT,  KANSAS  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 
EMPORIA.,   KANS. 

It  is  impossible  to  state  in  a  sufficiently  forceful  way  the  fact  that  there 
is  certain  to  be  a  shortage  of  teachers  in  the  United  States  next  year. 
Indeed  reports  from  all  parts  of  the  country  indicate  that  a  shortage  has 
existed  thruout  the  present  school  year.  Men  are  leaving  the  teaching  pro- 
fession not  only  to  go  into  the  military  service,  but  to  go  into  commercial 
and  agricultural  lines  as  well.  As  these  men  leave  the  profession,  women 
are  taking  their  places.  This  movement  in  and  of  itself  would  have  pro- 
duced a  shortage,  but  an  additional  draft  is  now  being  made  upon  the  teach- 
ing force  of  the  country  by  the  government  at  Washington.  Recently  a 
superintendent  of  schools  in  one  of  the  larger  cities  of  Kansas  told  me  that 
over  50  per  cent  of  his  women  teachers  are  preparing  for  government  posi- 
tions. These  women  will  receive  at  the  outset  not  only  more  money 
annually  than  they  are  receiving  as  teachers,  but  more  money  per  month. 
There  is  no  indication  that  the  public  is  willing  to  meet  the  advance  in 
salaries  which  must  be  made  to  hold  strong  women,  to  say  nothing  of  men, 
in  the  profession.  Unless  a  very  markt  increase  in  salaries  is  made,  and 
made  within  the  next  three  months,  the  schools  of  the  nation  will  be  robbed 
of  much  of  the  best  blood  in  their  teaching  force.  The  undesirable  element 
will  be  left  to  train  the  youth  of  the  nation. 

The  ravages  of  the  battlefield  are  more  bloody  and  in  a  sense  more 
horrible  than  a  calamity  in  the  schools  such  as  I  have  just  described,  but 
certainly  not  more  dangerous  for  the  future  of  the  nation.  Already  pres- 
sure is  coming  from  boards  of  education  and  the  public  generally  for  a  lower- 
ing of  standards  as  a  means  of  keeping  up  the  supply  of  teachers.  It  would 
be  an  easy  thing  indeed  to  lower  standards.  A  motion  once  past  by  a  state 
board  of  education,  and  for  that  state  the  deed  is  done.  Into  the  wreck 
caused  by  such  a  motion  would  go  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  of 
struggle  from  which  we  have  just  emerged  and  which  has  made  teaching 
and  teachers  respectable.  Some  day  we  are  going  to  understand  that  men 
and  nations  are  what  they  are  chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  because  of  what  they 
are  taught.  When  that  day  dawns,  teaching  and  teachers  will  get  a  new 
rating.  The  present  fight  for  democracy  is  to  be  waged  not  only  on  the 
battlefields  of  Europe,  but  at  home  as  well. 


THE  DISTINCTION  BETWEEN  ACADEMIC  AND 
PROFESSIONAL  SUBJECTS 

W.  C.  BAGLEY,  TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 
NEW  YORK,  N.Y. 

In  many,  if  not  most,  of  our  institutions  for  the  preparation  of  teachers 
a  sharp  distinction  is  made  between  the  academic  and  the  professional 
courses.    This  distinction  is  inevitable  in  all  cases  where  professional 


230  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Normal 

preparation  consists  chiefly  in  providing  a  few  courses  in  psychology, 
educational  theory,  and  the  history  of  education  as  a  supplement  to  the 
typical  subject-matter  courses  of  the  secondary  or  collegiate  programs.  The 
inadequacy  of  this  type  of  so-called  "professional"  training  is  now  pretty 
generally  recognized,  and  yet  this  inadequate  type  of  program  is  still 
characteristic  of  many  normal  schools,  as  well  as  of  practically  all  the 
liberal-arts  colleges  that  make  an  explicit  effort  to  prepare  teachers  for 
elementary-  or  high-school  service. 

I  am  myself  thoroly  convinst  that  the  sooner  we  abandon  the  unfor- 
tunate distinction  between  the  academic  and  the  professional  the  better 
it  will  be  for  the  welfare  and  ultimate  success  of  our  cause.  That  a  house 
divided  against  itself  cannot  stand  is  as  true  of  professional  education  as  it 
is  of  government.  Until  we  can  concentrate  all  the  work  of  our  normal 
schools  upon  the  purpose  for  which  the  normal  school  exists  our  efforts  are 
bound  to  be  abortive,  and  we  cannot  expect  those  who  have  been  skeptical 
of  the  serious  value  of  our  work  to  undergo  a  change  of  mind  and  of  heart, 
and  to  join  with  us  in  our  efforts  to  place  the  professional  training  of  teachers 
upon  a  basis  that  is  consistent  with  the  fundamental  significance  of  the 
pubHc  service  that  the  graduates  of  our  schools  are  called  upon  to  render. 

When  I  say,  however,  that  the  work  of  the  normal  schools  and  teachers' 
colleges  should  be  professionalized  thruout,  I  do  not  mean  this  in  a  narrow 
sense.  I  should  not  eliminate  the  distinction  between  the  academic  and 
the  professional  by  eliminating  entirely,  as  some  normal  schools  have 
attempted  to  do,  the  subject-matter  courses,  and  limiting  the  training  of 
teachers  to  a  thin  pabulum  of  psychology,  history  of  education,  general 
method,  special  methods,  and  practice  teaching.  Nor  should  I  assume, 
as  other  normal  schools  have  assumed,  that  the  so-called  academic  training 
can  be  adequately  lookt  after  by  preliminary  courses  taken  in  the  high 
school  or  even  in  the  junior  college.  The  normal  school  of  the  future  will 
lay  much  greater  emphasis  upon  subject-matter  courses  than  it  has  done  in 
the  past  and  relatively  less  emphasis  upon  detacht  and  formal  courses  in 
psychology  and  educational  theory. 

What  I  have  in  mind  then  is  rather  a  fundamental  reorganization  of  all 
our  work  with  the  professional  end  constantly  in  view.  Everything  that 
goes  into  the  teacher- training  curriculum  should  be  admitted  solely  upon 
the  basis  of  its  relation  to  the  equipment  of  the  successful  teacher.  It  must 
include  scholarship  of  a  very  high  order,  but  a  unique  quality  of  scholarship. 
Not  only  must  the  teacher  know  his  subject,  but,  as  we  have  said  so  often 
in  defending  the  normal  school  from  its  critics,  he  must  know  how  to  adapt 
his  subject  to  the  capacities  and  needs  of  those  whom  he  is  to  teach.  I 
have  in  mind,  for  example,  the  organization  of  the  work  in  Latin  in  one  of  the 
middle  western  normal  schools  which  is  doing  good  work  in  preparing  high- 
school  teachers.  The  students  who  are  preparing  to  teach  Latin  take 
advanst  courses  in  this  subject  in  the  normal  school.     While  these  courses 


Department]  ACADEMIC  AND  PROFESSIONAL  SUBJECTS  231 

are  of  the  same  grade  as  courses  that  the  students  might  have  taken  in  a 
Hberal-arts  college,  they  are  selected  and  taught  with  reference  to  the  light 
that  will  throw  upon  the  high-school  teacher's  problem.  These  courses 
furnish  the  students  with  a  new,  fresh,  vigorous,  and  virile  view  of  the 
subject-matter  illuminated  from  every  source  of  light  that  they  can  profit 
by  thru  their  maturity  and  advanst  training. 

I  know  of  another  normal-school  instructor  in  mathematics  whose  course 
in  arithmetic,  requiring  as  prerequisites  strong  courses  in  collegiate  mathe- 
matics, is  itself  a  course  of  real  university  grade,  demanding  I  am  sure,  the 
same  quality  of  mental  effort  that  a  course  in  calculus  would  demand.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  distinctly  a  professional  course,  laying  very  large  empha- 
sis upon  the  very  materials  that  a  teacher  in  the  primary  grades  will  need; 
but  it  is  very  far  from  a  primary  course. 

I  think  that  the  point  of  view  that  one  needs  to  have  in  the  construc- 
tion of  these  advanst  courses  in  elementary  subjects  has  sometimes  been 
handicapt  by  our  inadequate  conception  of  the  elementary  materials.  We 
look  upon  them  as  simple  and  rudimentary,  and  as  given  to  little  children 
they  must  be  simple  and  rudimentary.  The  very  fact  indeed  that  they  are 
basic  and  fundamental  means  that  their  roots  strike  deeper  and  ramify 
more  widely  than  anything  else  that  we  teach.  There  is,  however,  in  this 
case  at  least,  a  vast  difference  between  what  is  common  and  what  is  common- 
place. The  fact  that  the  earth  is  round  is  a  fact  of  common  knowledge, 
but  it  is  very  far  from  a  commonplace  fact;  its  establishment  was  very 
far  from  a  commonplace  achievement.  The  method  of  long  division  which 
we  teach  in  our  lower  grades  seems  to  be  a  simple  and  rudimentary  device, 
and  yet  keen  mathematicians  struggled  for  generations  with  cumbrous 
cancellation  methods  before  the  present  simple  and  relatively  facile  method 
was  devised. 

When  I  say  then  that  the  subject-matter  courses  should  be  profession- 
alized I  do  not  mean  that  they  should  be  deprived  of  meat  and  substance, 
nor  that  they  should  be  limited  to  the  rudimentary  content  that  the  prospec- 
tive teacher  is  to  pass  on  to  his  future  pupils.  Nor  do  I  mean  that  advanst 
courses  bearing  other  names  but  which  will  throw  light  upon  the  elementary 
and  secondary  materials  are  to  be  abandoned.  I  simply  mean  that  these 
latter  courses  are  to  be  selected  primarily  because  of  this  hght,  and  I  do 
mean  emphatically  that  the  question  as  to  whether  they  will  or  will  not  be 
"recognized"  by  institutions  that  have  other  purposes  ought  not  to  enter 
at  all  into  the  discussion. 

Subject-matter  courses  organized  upon  the  principle  that  has  been 
suggested  will  do  much  to  break  down  the  unfortunate  dualism  between  the 
academic  and  the  professional.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  inconceivable  that 
an  instructor  who  is  unfamiliar  with  the  problem  of  teaching  his  subject  on 
the  lower  levels  will  be  competent  to  organize  such  courses.  Instead  of 
holding  a  proud  aloofness  from  the  elementary-  and  high-school  classes,  the 


232  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Normal 

subject-matter  instructor  will  be  compelled  by  the  very  nature  of  his  work 
to  keep  in  the  closest  possible  contact  with  the  training  school.  He  will 
have  to  know  what  his  students  are  doing  in  the  training  school,  what 
problems  they  are  trying  to  solve,  and  how  his  course  can  help  them  in  the 
solution  of  these  problems.  He  will,  I  hope,  be  lookt  upon  as  a  member 
of  the  training  department,  with  a  seat  in  its  cabinet  and  a  voice  and  a 
vote  in  determining  its  policies. 

In  the  second  place  the  application  of  this  principle  of  organization  will 
do  away  very  largely  with  the  need  of  separate  and  often  quite  detacht 
courses  in  "special  methods."  Subject-matter  and  method  will  develop 
together  instead  of  in  separate  and  water-tight  compartments. 

In  the  third  place,  these  professionalized  subject-matter  courses, 
together  with  the  constant  contact  of  instructors  and  students  with  the 
work  of  the  training  school,  will  make  it  possible  to  reorganize  in  a  funda- 
mental and  thoro-going  way  what  we  now  call  the  professional  work. 
The  traditional  organization  of  this  work,  starting  with  abstract  theory  and 
culminating  in  concrete  practice,  is  the  most  tragic  example  that  I  know 
of  an  educational  institution  refusing  to  take  its  own  medicine,  absolutely 
declining  the  challenge  to  practice  what  it  preaches.  It  is  an  actual  fact 
that  professional  schools  of  medicine  and  especially  of  law  are  today  infin- 
itely better  exemplars  of  the  very  educational  theory  which  we  consider 
sound  than  are  our  own  training  institutions. 

I  have  said  that  we  should  reorganize  our  professional  work  so  that  its 
general  procedure  will  be  from  practice  to  theory,  from  cases  to  principles, 
from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  rather  than  the  reverse.  We  shall  have, 
I  think,  an  introductory  ''orienting"  course  in  very  simple,  very  concrete 
theory — a  brief  course  to  serve  as  a  propaedeutic  to  these  substantial 
subject-matter  courses  which  will  be  closely  interwoven  with  laboratory 
work  in  the  training  school.  Along  with  these  we  shall  have  brief  but 
succinct  and  practical  courses  in  the  technique  of  teaching  and  manage- 
ment, in  school  hygiene,  and  in  other  subjects  which  can  be  made  to  bear 
directly  upon  the  work  that  the  student  is  doing.  As  the  student's  partici- 
pation in  the  actual  work  of  teaching  comes  to  deal  with  the  more  difficult 
types  of  teaching  and  to  involve  larger  and  larger  responsibilities  for  the 
progress  of  the  pupils.  His  work  in  educational  theory  will  increase  in  scope 
and  intensity.  There  will  be  a  place  here  for  summarizing  courses  where 
he  will  consider  as  a  whole  the  problems  of  some  particular  field,  such  as 
primary  teaching,  intermediate-grade  teaching,  upper-grade  or  junior 
high  school  teaching,  or  high-school  teaching.  These  will  be  essentially 
curriculum  courses,  aiming  to  furnish  a  unified  point  of  view  regarding  a 
particular  field  of  teaching  service.  Finally,  at  the  culmination  of  his 
normal-school  residence,  he  will  study  general  educational  theory  and  the 
organization  of  school  systems,  and  in  three-year  and  four-year  curricula 
perhaps  he  will  have  a  substantial  course  in  the  history  of  education  designed 


Department]  ACADEMIC  AND  PROFESSIONAL  SUBJECTS  233 

to  bring  together  and  systematize  a  great  many  things  that  he  has  learned 
in  his  earher  courses. 

The  plan  of  organization  that  I  have  so  roughly  sketcht  would  do  much, 
I  am  convinst,  to  insure  an  adequate  equipment  for  the  teacher.  I  may 
be  permitted  by  way  of  summary  to  set  forth  very  briefly  what  I  consider 
to  be  the  essential  elements  in  a  teacher's  equipment,  and  how  I  believe  that 
the  suggested  organization  will  furnish  these  elements.  In  the  first  place, 
the  teacher  must  have  scholarship  of  a  high  grade  but  of  a  unique  quahty. 
This  the  professionalized  subject-matter  courses  should  furnish.  In  the 
second  place,  a  teacher  must  have  a  knowledge  of  the  needs  and  capacities 
of  the  pupils  whom  he  is  to  instruct.  Here  our  primary  dependence  must  be 
placed  upon  his  actual  contact  with  these  pupils  in  the  training  school,  with 
a  definite  responsibility  from  the  earUest  possible  moment  for  a  part  of  their 
care  and  culture.  In  the  light  of  this  intimate  acquaintance  he  will  be 
ready  for  whatever  instruction  in  psychology  may  still  further  extend  and 
rationalize  his  knowledge. 

A  third  important  item  in  the  teacher's  equipment  may  be  included 
under  the  head  of  technical  skills.  This  is  the  strictly  habit  side  of  the 
teacher's  art,  and  its  mastery  involves  primarily  the  study  of  good  models, 
with  careful  supervision  from  the  very  moment  that  the  student  begins  his 
actual  teaching,  helpt  out  by  a  study  of  the  rules  and  precepts  of  teaching. 
For  these  models  we  must  depend  primarily  upon  the  normal-school  instruc- 
tors themselves,  and  it  is  evident  that  their  technique  of  teaching  should 
illustrate  in  a  positive  way  all  the  recognized  proprieties  of  the  art. 

A  fourth  item  in  the  teacher's  equipment,  for  want  of  a  better  term,  I 
shall  refer  to  as  teaching  insight  and  resourcefulness.  This  finds  expression 
in  such  capacities  and  abilities  as  the  following: 

1.  Aptness  in  and  fertility  of  illustration. 

2.  Clearness  and  lucidity  in  explanation  and  illustration. 

3.  Keen  sensitiveness  to  evidences  of  misunderstanding  and  misinter- 
pretation upon  the  part  of  pupils  and  students. 

4.  Dexterity  and  alertness  in  devising  problems  and  framing  questions 
that  will  focus  the  attention  upon  just  the  right  points. 

5.  A  sense  of  humor  that  will  relieve  tense  or  wearisome  situations. 

6.  Ability  to  suspend  judgment  and  yet  avoid  chronic  neutrality. 

7.  The  intellectual  humility  that  means  a  bias  toward  a  reasoned  support 
of  each  point  presented. 

8.  Ability  to  create  an  attitude  in  the  claSs  which  is  favorable  to  industry 
and  application,  and  which  takes  good  work  and  adequate  results  as  matters 
of  course. 

9.  Sensitiveness  to  evidences  of  inattention  and  lack  of  aggressive 
effort  upon  the  part  of  pupils. 

10.  Ability  to  develop  interests  in  pupils  that  will  be  more  than  merely 
transitory  and  will  carry  over  to  other  subjects  and  other  phases  of  life. 


234  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Normal 

11.  A  sense  of  proportion  that  insures  the  emphasis  of  saHent  topics  and 
distinguishes  clearly  between  the  fundamental  and  the  accessory;  partly 
dependent  upon — 

12.  A  clear  perception  of  ends. 

It  is  the  possession  of  these  abilities  that  makes  the  teacher  an  artist  in 
his  work,  and  it  is  with  respect  to  the  development  of  these  abihties  that 
our  teacher- training  work  now  is  notably  defective.  The  study  of  theory 
will  not  help  much  here.  Practice  under  sympathetic  supervision  will  be 
the  factor  upon  which  the  greatest  rehance  must  be  placed,  and  this  again 
must  be  helpt  by  the  study  of  models.  There  is  perhaps  no  better  way  to 
induct  the  student-teacher  into  a  mastery  of  these  elements  than  for  the 
supervisor  to  say  to  him,  when  the  student  has  failed  at  some  point  in  his 
own  practice:  "Watch  the  way  in  which  Mr.  So  and  So  handles  this  type 
of  teaching." 

A  final  item  in  the  teacher's  equipment  is  a  real  and  dynamic  pro- 
fessional attitude — an  attitude,  not  only  surcharged  with  enthusiasm  for 
the  service  that  he  is  to  enter,  but  also  intelligent  as  to  its  needs  and  prob- 
lems, and  competent  to  evaluate  proposals  for  its  improvement.  It  is  here 
especially  that  the  integrating  and  summarizing  courses  that  will  come 
toward  the  conclusion  of  the  curriculum  must  find  their  principal  justi- 
fication. However,  dependence  must  not  be  placed  upon  these  alone. 
Each  of  the  courses  that  the  students  takes,  each  of  the  instructors  with 
whom  he  comes  in  contact,  each  element,  indeed,  in  the  life  of  the  school, 
must  contribute  as  much  as  it  can  be  to  contribute  to  this  important  end. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  BUSINESS   EDUCATION 


OFFICERS 


President — C.  G.  Nichols,  assistant  director,  commercial  education,  State  Department 

of  Education Albany,  N.Y. 

Vice-President — James   C.   Reed,   head    of    commercial    department.    State  Normal 

School Whitewater,  Wis. 

Secretary — J.  M.  Watters,  dean.  School  of  Commerce,  School  of  Technology Atlanta,  Ga. 

Librarian — David  H.  O'Keefe New  York,  N.Y. 


RESOLUTIONS 

Whereas,  The  desire  for  commercial  education  is  constantly  growing;  and 

Whereas,  The  new  type  of  commercial  education  must  be  adapted  to  meet  not  only 
the  emergency  demands  of  war  time  but  the  demands  of  the  reconstruction  period  after 
the  war;  and 

Whereas,  There  is  a  notable  lack  of  coordination  between  educational  and  business 
interests  in  forming  courses  of  study  and  in  the  organization  of  commercial  education, 
therefore  be  it 

Resolved: 

1.  That  we  commend  the  tentative  report  of  the  subcommittee  on  Commercial  Edu- 
cation as  being  a  long  step  forward  toward  the  standardization  of  commercial  courses  of 
study. 

2.  That  a  committee  of  five  be  appointed  to  cooperate  with  the  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education  and  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  for  the  purpose  of 
encouraging  immediate  adoption  of  the  course  of  study  in  all  schools. 

3.  That  we  commend  the  recent  action  taken  by  the  Credit  Men's  Association  relative 
to  commercial  education  to  commercial  teachers  for  careful  study,  and  also  the  educa- 
tional work  of  the  American  Institute  of  Accountants  and  National  Association  of  Cor- 
poration Schools  with  a  view  of  coordinating  the  commercial  courses  with  these  great 
agencies. 

4.  That  the  Business  Section  of  the  National  Education  Association  express  its 
thanks  to  the  people  of  Pittsburgh  for  their  many  favors,  to  the  oflScers  of  this  section  for 
their  untiring  efforts  to  make  this  session  a  success,  but  especially  to  the  speakers  who 
carefully  prepared  papers  and  to  all  others  who  took  part  in  the  discussions. 

J.  A.  Bexell,  Chairman 
J.  H.  Saul 
J.  M.  Waiters 


-»3S 


236  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Business 

PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  AFTER  THE  WAR 

J.   T.   HOLDSWORTH,   DEAN  OF   THE   SCHOOL  OF  ECONOMICS,   UNIVERSITY  OF 
PITTSBURGH,  PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

America  will  undoubtedly  emerge  from  the  war  strongest  among  all  the 
nations  in  economic  resources,  in  credit,  and  in  productive  capacity,  but 
these  advantages  are  but  relative.  In  themselves  they  do  not  give  assur- 
ance of  successful  competition  in  the  post-war  struggle  for  markets  and 
trade  by  means  of  which  all  nations  will  seek  to  recoup  their  losses  when 
once  again  their  economic  activities  are  turned  to  peaceful  pursuits.  He 
is  shortsighted,  nay  blind,  who  cannot  see  that  this  nation,  having  been 
drawn  into  the  vortex  of  the  world-struggle  will  inevitably  continue  in  the 
broad  sea  of  world-affairs,  political  and  commercial.  We  must  learn  to  use 
the  telescope  as  well  as  the  microscope.  For  good  or  ill  we  have  parted 
with  our  national  isolation.  We  have  joined  the  family  of  nations,  and 
henceforth  we  must  think  and  act  internationally,  not  in  terms  of  the 
country  crossroads.  It  is  thru  trade  and  commerce  that  these  new  contacts 
and  relations  will  most  largely  be  maintained  and  strengthened.  To  play 
our  part,  and  a  leading  part  it  must  be,  in  this  broadened  drama  of  world- 
relationships  requires  a  highly  trained  personnel.  Here  is  the  chief  task 
which,  with  improved  methods  and  enlarged  vision,  commercial  education 
must  assume. 

With  the  new  world-outlook,  however,  and  the  new  commercial  con- 
tacts and  opportunities  growing  out  of  the  war,  increast  interest  in  foreign 
trade  on  the  part  of  an  enlarging  number  of  business  concerns  and  of  ambi- 
tious young  men  who  foresee  in  the  foreign  field  an  attractive  and  lucrative 
career  will  doubtless  develop.  In  this  development  commercial  education 
must  not  merely  keep  apace;  it  must  lead. 

It  remains  true,  of  course,  that  commercial  education  after  the  war  must 
still  be  predicated  primarily  upon  the  demands  of  our  domestic  trade.  It 
must  be  more  closely  articulated  with  the  actual  needs  and  practices  of 
modern  business  and  commerce,  which  in  turn  must  take  a  more  lively  and 
intelligent  interest  in  commercial  education.  There  must  be  closer  coordi- 
nation of,  and  cooperation  between,  business  and  school.  Commercial 
organizations  and  business  men  must  have  a  larger  participation  in  the 
shaping  of  school  and  university  courses  of  study  and  in  the  actual  work  of 
instruction  along  commercial  Hnes.  In  turn  the  faculties  of  our  commercial 
schools  must  get  a  larger  familiarity  with  the  processes  of  business  and  a 
larger  comprehension  of  its  underlying  principles.  Bureaus  of  business 
research,  after  the  model  of  the  Harvard  Graduate  School  of  Business,  or 
better  after  that  of  the  Mellon  Institute  of  the  University  of  Pittsburgh, 
in  the  field  of  industry  must  be  multipHed  and  their  facilities  made  available 


Department)  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  AFTER  THE  WAR  237 

to  every  important  business  community  and  commercial  group.  Such 
bureaus,  in  which  must  be  coordinated  the  resources  and  business  labora- 
tories of  chambers  of  commerce  and  other  trade  organizations  and  the  skill 
of  the  trained  business  expert,  will  investigate  such  problems  as  markets, 
domestic  and  foreign,  international  banking  and  exchange,  exporting  and 
importing,  employment  management  and  labor  problems,  procurement  of 
capital  and  capitaHzation,  cost  accounting  and  scientific  business  methods, 
business  waste,  economical  location  of  industries  and  plants  with  reference 
to  raw  materials,  markets  and  transportation  faciUties,  and  a  score  of  like 
problems  vital  to  efficient  merchandising  and  trade.  The  business-research 
man  should  do  some  teaching,  and  the  teacher  should  have  constant  contact 
with  business  problems  and  processes.  As  far  as  possible  every  student 
looking  forward  to  a  business  career  should  be  given  actual  business  experi- 
ence while  in  school,  thus  coordinating  business  theory  and  business  prac- 
tice, and  making  of  himself  a  more  efficient  aid  in  the  business  world. 

Tho  much  seems  to  have  been  accomplisht  by  way  of  providing  post- 
high-school  training  for  business,  the  fact  is  that  to  thousands  of  ambitious 
and  aspiring  young  men  and  women  who  Hve  in  smaller  cities,  and  even  in 
some  of  our  largest  cities,  the  gates  of  progress  thru  education  are  closed 
because  no  adequate  post-high-school  courses  in  higher  commercial  training 
are  available.  In  scores  of  our  large  cities  this  anomalous  situation  obtains, 
and  usually  without  adequate  excuse  or  justification.  In  such  cities  the 
local  trade  organizations,  cooperating  with  the  state  university  or  nearby 
college,  or,  in  the  absence  of  these,  acting  independently,  should  be  able 
and  willing  to  establish  and  support  an  evening  school  of  commerce,  under- 
writing its  finances  at  least  for  a  few  years  until  it  should  become  self- 
supporting. 

What  can  be  done  in  the  field  of  higher  commercial  education  in  every 
large  city  in  this  country  may  be  illustrated  by  brief  reference  to  the  pros- 
pective educational  work  of  the  National  Association  of  Credit  Men  thru 
its  Institute  of  Credit.  This  association,  one  of  the  most  powerful  and 
influential  business  organizations  in  the  country,  has  for  some  time  recog- 
nized the  need  for  standardizing  and  strengthening  its  educational  work. 
After  a  year's  study  and  investigation  the  Committee  on  Credit  Education 
and  Management,  acting  upon  the  recommendations  of  a  committee  of 
three  experienst  university  business  educators,  brought  in  a  report  to  the 
National  Association  of  Credit  Men  at  the  annual  convention  held  in 
Chicago,  June  19,  191 8,  presenting  the  outline  of  a  plan  for  the  establish- 
ment of  an  educational  department  of  the  National  Association  to  be  called 
the  National  Institute  of  Credit.  This  report  was  approved  by  the  con- 
vention. The  plan  of  the  Institute  provides  for  a  uniform  course  of  studies 
in  such  subjects  as  principles  of  business,  merchandising,  accounting,  eco- 
nomics, banking,  business  barometrics,  business  law,  corporation  finance 
and  investments,  business  EngHsh  and  correspondence,  bankruptcy  law, 


238  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Business 

foreign  trade,  credits  and  collections,  credit  research,  etc.  The  course  is 
planned  to  cover  three  or  four  years  and  may  be  pursued  in  schools  of  com- 
merce of  universities  and  colleges  of  recognized  standing.  It  is  planned 
also  to  reach  thru  correspondence  courses  of  a  grade  consistent  with  the 
standards  of  the  Institute,  those  to  whom  such  schools  are  not  accessible. 
Upon  the  satisfactory  completion  of  the  prescribed  courses  of  study,  the 
student  member  of  the  Institute  will  be  awarded  a  certificate  from  the 
National  Institute  of  Credit.  The  position  of  Director  of  Credit  Educa- 
tion has  been  created,  the  director  being  charged  with  the  duty  of  develop- 
ing the  details  of  the  Institute  plan,  both  as  to  organization  and  as  to  the 
educational  program.  In  the  launching  of  this  plan  the  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Credit  Men,  which  embraces  in  its  membership  some  twenty- 
five  thousand  of  the  most  alert  and  successful  business  men  from  every 
state  in  the  Union  and  from  Canada,  has  recognized  the  supreme  importance 
of  commercial  education  adapted  specifically  to  the  needs  of  those  having 
to  do  with  the  nation's  credit  structure,  upon  the  soundness  and  virility 
of  which,  of  course,  all  business  depends. 

This  new  development  is  not  only  significant  in  its  promise  of  enlarged 
service  to  the  business  community,  but  is  a  clear  indication  of  the  recog- 
nition by  representative  business  men  of  new  responsibilities  and  new 
opportunities  in  commercial  education. 


COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  IN  PREPARATION  FOR 
FOREIGN  SERVICE 

GLEN   LEVIN   SWIGGETT,   BUREAU   OF   EDUCATION,   WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

Do  commercial  education  and  training  for  business  mean  the  same 
thing,  that  is,  do  they  have  the  same  object  in  view  and  propose  by  similar 
means  to  accomplish  that  common  object  ?  Until  there  is  a  larger  degree 
of  common  thinking  with  respect  to  commercial  education  and  training  for 
business,  there  will  be  a  corresponding  lack  of  common  action;  and  the 
lack  of  common  action  on  the  part  of  the  schools  means  a  loss  to  the  nation's 
industrial  and  commercial  efforts  and  output.  We  have  confused  too  long 
vocational  training  for  specific  phases  of  organized  business  with  the  more 
general  subjects  that  not  only  train  for  the  profession  of  business  but  afford 
a  high  type  of  culture,  namely  culture  that  enables  one  to  swim  intelligently 
with  the  current  of  his  time  and  to  exercise  a  citizenship  wherein  obligations 
and  rights  are  in  full  accord. 

Shorthand,  typewriting,  bookkeeping,  office  practice,  machine  operat- 
ing, and  similar  subjects  are  distinctly  vocational.  No  one  can  become, 
however,  an  efficient  stenographer  or  bookkeeping  clerk  without  knowing 
how  to  write,  spell,  and  calculate.  In  consequence,  penmanship,  spelling, 
English,  and  arithmetic  are  added  to  the  course  of  instruction  simply  as 


Department]  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  FOR  FOREIGN  SERVICE  239 

aids  in  training  stenographers,  typists,  bookkeepers,  etc.  Retail  and  whole- 
sale merchandising  and  business  organization  in  general  have  developt  to 
such  a  point  that  there  are  many  kinds  of  service  within  business  for  which 
special  training  is  very  helpful  and  advantageous.  In  consequence,  such 
subjects  as  advertising,  salesmanship,  banking  practice,  shipping,  etc.,  may 
be  taught  solely  with  these  special  careers  in  view.  If  so,  they  are  voca- 
tional in  the  same  sense  that  stenography  is.  The  very  moment,  however, 
that  these  subjects  are  considered  as  merely  part  of  that  complementary 
body  of  knowledge  which  trains  for  the  profession  of  business,  they  lose  the 
merit  of  mere  instruction  for  a  definite  career  and  serve  perhaps  only  for 
the  purpose  of  illustration  in  unfolding  the  principles  of  comprehensive 
subjects  like  psychology,  ethics,  credit  and  banking,  transportation,  business 
organization  and  administration,  etc. 

Our  nation  demands  that  vocational  business  subjects  be  taught  most 
efficiently  and  with  full  opportunity  of  election  by  the  students.  We  must 
do,  therefore,  one  of  three  things:  (i)  encourage  as  an  emergency  measure 
the  introduction  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  and  in  all  high  schools, 
whether  on  the  four-  or  six-year  basis,  of  a  course  of  study  that  will  not  only 
offer  satisfactory  articulation  with  the  course  in  commerce  of  the  higher 
institutions,  but  be  so  arranged  as  to  permit  the  student  to  leave  school 
before  graduation  with  the  least  loss  to  himself  or  to  industry  and  com- 
merce; (2)  adopt  the  policy  and  more  general  practice  of  continuation  and 
part-time  instruction  in  the  schools;  or  (3)  amend  the  Smith-Hughes  Act 
so  as  to  permit  the  administration  of  business-training  courses  in  our  sec- 
ondary schools  by  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 

Training  for  foreign  trade,  in  common  with  all  training  for  foreign  serv- 
ice, differs  essentially  from  training  for  domestic  trade.  This  is  not  the 
general  belief.  One  of  the  world's  greatest  authorities  in  foreign  trade, 
James  A.  Farrell,  president  of  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  has 
frequently  stated  that  the  problem  of  training  for  foreign  trade  is  insepar- 
able, as  far  as  concerns  common-school  or  secondary  education,  from  that 
of  training  for  domestic  business.  I  hesitate  to  differ  with  Mr.  Farrell, 
but  I  am  constrained,  particularly  at  this  time  when  no  moment  is  to  be 
lost  in  the  vigorous  prosecution  of  a  nation-wide  program  of  educational 
preparation  for  foreign  trade,  to  state  my  honest  conviction  that  our  schools 
and  colleges  must  keep  constantly  in  mind  the  vital  difference  in  the  tech- 
nique of  domestic  and  foreign  trade  if  they  would  serve  the  end  in  view 
in  the  estabhshment  of  a  commercial-education  course  for  foreign  trade. 
Such  a  course  should  not  only  include  the  usual  business-training  subjects, 
but  all  related  academic  subjects,  Hke  language,  history,  mathematics,  and 
science,  should  be  presented  from  an  international  point  of  view.  A  nation's 
success  in  the  foreign  distribution  of  its  manufactured  products  demands 
that  this  viewpoint  be  taken  by  student  and  instructor  in  all  foreign- 
relations  courses  on  diplomacy  and  trade.     It  should  color  not  only  every 


240  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

course  considered  essential  to  the  manufacturer  or  executive,  but  all  those 
that  relate  to  packing,  shipping,  selling,  transporting,  and  financing  trade 
transactions. 


COMMERCIAL-EDUCATION  STATISTICS 

DAVID  H.   O'keEFE,   NEW  YORK,   N.Y, 

Commercial  education,  to  the  man  in  the  street,  means  instruction  in 
bookkeeping,  shorthand,  and  typewriting;  so  these  statistics  concern  those 
three  subjects.  To  have  attempted  more  would  have  made  it  impossible 
to  present  any  report  this  year. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  such  statistics  may  be  collected.  The 
questionnaire  on  the  back  of  an  addrest  stampt  postal  card  was  deemed  most 
convenient  for  the  busy  school  men  called  upon  to  supply  the  data.  The 
wording  of  our  questionnaire  follows  closely  the  form  used  successfully 
by  Juhus  Ensign  Rockwell  in  the  surveys  he  made  of  the  commercial 
schools  of  this  country,  pubhsht  in  1884  and  1893.  His  reports  in 
the  Circulars  of  Information  issued  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education  gave  details  concerning  shorthand  and  typewriting  only.  Our 
questionnaire  added  questions  concerning  bookkeeping  and  courses  of 
study. 

The  form  finally  decided  upon  askt  for  the  distribution  of  the  data 
desired  on  eighteen  numbered  Hues,  thus: 

1.  Location  of  school 

2.  Name  of  institution 

3.  Name  of  head  commercial  teacher 

4.  Name  of  head  stenography  teacher 

5.  Total  number  of  commercial  and  stenography  teachers 

6.  Date  of  introduction  of  commercial  subjects 

7.  Date  of  introduction  of  shorthand  and  typewriting 

8.  Bookkeeping  text  used 

9.  System  of  shorthand  taught 

10.  Number  of  typewriters  used,  Remington,  Underwood,  L.  C.  Smith,  Oliver, 

Royal,  etc 

11.  Typewriting  text  used 

12.  Time  required  for  completion  of  commercial  course 

Shorthand  course typewriting  course 

13.  In  private  schools  charge  for  tuition 

14.  Number  of  students  studying  bookkeeping shorthand typewriting.  . 

15.  Are  commercial  subjects  required  or  elective 

16.  Credit  allowed  for  bookkeeping shorthand typewriting 

17.  Will  you  please  send  me  a  copy  of  your  commercial  course  of  study 

18.  Sign  here 

Each  postal  was  inclosed  with  a  covering  letter  on  our  department 
letterhead. 


Department)  COMMERCIAL-EDUCATION  STATISTICS  241 

We  shall  not  weary  you  by  giving  in  detail  the  steps  which  were  taken 
in  the  past  four  months  to  compile  as  complete  a  list  of  the  commercial 
schools  as  was  possible.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  we  succeeded  in  securing 
about  11,000  addresses  which  we  believe  form  the  most  complete  Hst  of 
American  commercial  schools  ever  compiled.  We  mailed  the  question- 
naires to  approximately  4800  high  schools,  2300  business  schools,  700 
institutions  devoted  to  higher  education,  such  as  universities,  colleges,  and 
normal  schools,  2600  Catholic  schools,  and  600  miscellaneous  schools,  such  as 
Young  Men's  Christian  Associations  and  charitable  institutions,  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  believed  to  be  giving  instruction  in  commercial 
subjects.  An  annual  directory  of  those  institutions  offering  as  full  detail 
as  possible  under  the  eighteen  heads  shown  above  is  a  real  need  not  now 
filled  by  any  existing  publication. 

Secretary  Crabtree,  in  December  last,  wrote  an  encouraging  letter  sug- 
gesting that  this  work  might  serve  to  enlarge  National  Education  Associa- 
tion membership  among  commercial  teachers  and  supervisors.  An  annual 
directory  such  as  was  mentioned  above  would  be  great  help  to  a  secretary 
of  this  department  in  actively  developing  memberships  in  this  great  and 
as  yet  practically  unworkt  field  of  commercial  teachers.  If  we  had  even 
one  member  in  our  department  from  every  other  commercial  school,  the 
department  would  number  over  5000  and  would  be  the  greatest  department 
in  the  National  Education  Association. 

To  aid  in  the  tabulation  of  the  replies,  we  organized  in  the  New  York 
City  High  School  of  Commerce  a  Statistical  Club,  made  up  of  pickt  boys 
from  the  first  term.  After  the  usual  sifting  process  we  found  some  with 
a  real  Hking  and  ability  for  statistical  work.  Items  8  (Bookkeeping  texts), 
9  (Shorthand  texts),  10  (Typewriters),  and  11  (Typewriting  texts)  elicited 
answers  comparatively  easy  to  classify  and  tabulate.  We  have  com- 
pleted up  to  June  29  the  tabulations  of  the  answers  as  to  texts  and 
machines  used  in  giving  instruction  in  bookkeeping,  shorthand,  and 
typewriting. 

As  indicated  above,  the  returns  have  been  sorted  into  five  groups  and 
tabulated.  The  tabulation  has  been  done  directly  from  the  cards  on  large, 
ruled  control  sheets.  Each  control  sheet  has  space  at  the  left  for  the  names 
of  the  schools  to  which  questionnaires  were  sent.  The  names  of  the  schools 
are  arranged  geographically  as  to  states  and  cities,  but  alphabetically  by 
names  of  schools  under  the  cities.  To  the  right  of  the  names  of  the  schools, 
in  columns  for  the  items  of  the  questionnaire,  the  answers  were  copied. 
There  are  240  of  these  control  sheets.  The  schools  in  this  report  are 
arranged  in  five  groups:  (i)  high  schools;  (2)  business  schools;  (3)  CathoHc 
schools;  (4)  institutions  of  higher  education:  universities,  colleges,  and 
normal  schools;   (5)  miscellaneous,  meaning  all  other  schools. 

I.  High  schools. — In  1884,  Rockwell  report,  10;  in  1893,  Rockwell 
report,  59;  in  1918,  in  this  report,  2049. 


242 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


(Business 


1884 


No  report 


BOOKKEEPING 
1893 


No  report 


1918 

Williams  and  Rogers 567 

Moore  and  Miner 262 

Twentieth  Century 262 

Rowe 227 

Lyons  and  Camahan 203 

Goodyear-Marshall 44 

Ellis 41 

Cleary 17 

Belding 12 

Others 142 

Total 1777 


SHORTHAND 


1884 

Graham 

2 
2 
2 
2 
I 
I 

1893 
Ben  Pitman 

17 

saac  Pitman 

Munson 

10 

Cross 

Ben  Pitman 

Lindsley 

Scott-Browne 

Lindsley 

Pemin 

Allen 

Total 

Total 

10 

45 

1918 

Gregg 1524 

Ben  Pitman 189 

Isaac  Pitman 60 

Graham 44 

Munson 22 

Barnes 20 

Chandler 19 

Anderson 5 

New  Rapid 4 

Paragon 4 

Stenotypy 4 

Others  (two-thirds  Pit- 
manic) 128 

Total 2023 


TYPEWRITERS 


1884 


None  reported 


1893 

Machines 

Remington 63 

Smith  Premier 12 

Caligraph 9 

Hammond 6 

Yost 3 

Undistributed 22 

Total 115 

Schools 

Remington 24 

Caligraph 8 

Hammond 5 

Yost 3 

Smith  Premier 2 

Others 22 

Total 64 


1918 

Machines 

Remington 13112 

Underwood 12522 

Others 8802 

Total 34436 

Schools 

Underwood 1519 

Remington 1265 

Others 1196 

Total 3980 


No  report 


TYPEWRITING  TEXTS 

1893 
No  report 


1918 

Rational 1043 

Fritz-Eldridge 439 

Ross 55 

C.E.Smith 32 

Barnes 19 

Remington 17 

Underwood 12 

Smith's II 

Metropolitan 10 

Fuller 9 

Van  Sant 6 

Others 112 

Total 176s 


Department) 


COMMERCIAL-EDUCATION  STATISTICS 


243 


2.  Business  schools. — In  1884,  Rockwell  report,  225;  in  1893,  Rockwell 
report,  11 90;  in  19 18,  in  this  report,  570. 


No  report 


1884 

Graham 60 

Ben  Pitman 57 

Munson 31 

Lindsley 30 

Isaac  Pitman 18 

Cross II 

Longley 10 

Scovil 7 

Bumz 3 

All  others 26 

Total 253 


BOOKKEEPING 
1893 


No  report 


SHORTHAND 

1893 

Ben  Pitman 448 

Graham 153 

Munson 115 

Cross , 108 

Isaac  Pitman 92 

Lindsley 56 

Pernin 37 

Longley 26 

Scott-Browne... 26 

Sloan-Duployan 22 

McKee 16 

Moran 14 

Stenograph 10 

Haven 10 

Others 96 

Total 1229 


1918 

Twentieth  Century 155 

Rowe 125 

Williams  and  Rogers 69 

Ellis 37 

Goodyear-Marshall 34 

Lyons 22 

Practical 21 

Bliss 20 

Draughon's 13 

Own II 

Moore  and  Miner 6 

Total ,.  S13 

1918 

Gregg 3S9 

Ben  Pitman 59 

Graham 50 

Stenotype 44 

Isaac  Pitman 36 

Munson ^  . .  13 

Spencerian 13 

National  Shorthand 

Machine 8 

Byrne s 

Success s 

Barnes s 

New  Rapids 4 

Others 59 

Total 660 


1884 


Undistributed . 


TYPEWRITERS 

1893 

Machines 

Remington 1904 

Caligraph 953 

Hammond 435 

Yost 175 

Smith  Premier 90 

Undistributed 329 

Total 3886 

Schools 

Remington 713 

Caligraph 458 

Hammond 141 

Yost ,  88 

Smith  Premier 39 

Undistributed 204 

Total 1643 


1918 

Machines 

Remington 6624 

Underwood 6045 

Others 5094 

Total 17763 

Schools 

Underwood 450 

Remington 440 

Others 409 

Total 1299 


1884 


None  reported 


TYPEWRITINGITEXTS 

1893 
None  reported 


1918 

Rational 184 

Ross 47 

Fritz-Eldridge 46 

Smith  Budget 29 

Barnes 18 

Van  Sant's 16 

Deegan 14 

Correlated 14 

Fuller 10 

Own 7 

Scientific 6 

Dougherty 6 

Others 61 

Total 458 


244 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


[Business 


3.  Catholic  schools. — In  1884,  Rockwell  report,  10; 
report,  106;  in  1918,  in  this  report,  355. 


in  1893,  Rockwell 


No  report 


BOOKKEEPING 
1893 


No  report 


1918 

Twentieth  Century 66 

Williams  and  Rogers 60 

Rowe 23 

Goodyear-Marshall 21 

Moore  and  Miner 19 

Lyons 13 

Ellis 7 

Bryant  and  Stratton 4 

Metropolitan 4 

Pierce 3 

Others 19 

Total 239 


Ben  Pitman. 
Graham.  .  .  . 
Munson .  .  .  . 

Longley 

Lindsley .' . . . 
Duploye .  . . . 
White 

Total  . . 


SHORTHAND 

1893 

Ben  Pitman 30 

Pernin 10 

Graham 7 

Isaac  Pitman 5 

Munson 4 

Lindsley 2 

Stenograph 2 

Miscellaneous 8 

Total 68 


1918 

Gregg 108 

Ben  Pitman 44 

Pernin 14 

Isaac  Pitman 13 

Graham 7 

Stenotype 7 

Barnes 5 

Munson 5 

Periault's 5 

Spencerian 3 

Others 38 

Total 249 


1884 


None  reported 


TYPEWRITERS 

1893 

Machines 

Hammond 121 

Caligraph 80 

Remington 66 

Yost 34 

Smith  Premier 2 

Undistributed 25 

Total 328 

Schools 

Remington 47 

Caligraph 34 

Hammond 17 

Yost 4 

Smith  Premier 2 

Others: 25 

Total 129 


1918 

Machines 

Remington 966 

Underwood 881 

Others 619 

Total 2466 

Schools 

Underwood 186 

Remington 170 

Others 142 

Totd 498 


[884 


No  report 


TYPEWRITING  TEXTS 

1893 
No  report 


1918 

Rational 65 

Fritz-Eldridge 31 

Pickert 20 

Deegan 19 

Barnes 10 

Underwood 9 

Remington 7 

Fuller 6 

Smith 6 

Ross s 

C.E.Smith 5 

Others 31 

Total 214 


Department) 


COMMERCIA  L-EDUCA  TION  ST  A  TISTICS 


245 


4.  Higher  educational  institutions. — In  1884,  Rockwell  report,  28;    in 
1893,  Rockwell  report,  82;  in  1918,  in  this  report,  269. 


1884 


No  report 


BOOKKEEPING 
1893 


No  report 


1918 

Twentieth  Century 46 

Rowe 36 

Williams  and  Rogers 29 

Goodyear-Marshall 7 

Moore  and  Miner 6 

Others 44 

Total 168 


1884 

Ben  Pitman 8 

Isaac  Pitman S 

Graham 5 

Lindsley 4 

Cross 2 

Others 3 

Total 27 


SHORTHAND 

1893 

Ben  Pitman 20 

Graham 13 

Cross 13 

Isaac  Pitman 6 

Munson 5 

Longley 4 

Lindsley 4 

Porter 4 

Others 8 

Total 77 


1918 

Gregg 126 

Ben  Pitman 25 

Graham g 

Isaac  Pitman 8 

Others 39 

Total 207 


1884 


Undistributed . 


TYPEWRITERS 

1893 

Machines 

Remington 75 

Caligraph 61 

Hammond 10 

Yost 2 

Undistributed 13 

Total 161 

Schools 

Remington 54 

Caligraph 39 

Hammond 10 

Yost 2 

Others 13 

Total 118 


I918 

Machines 

Underwood 1 188 

Remington 986 

Others 764 

Total 2938 

Schools 

Underwood 123 

Remington 118 

Others 110 

Total 3SI 


TYPEWRITING  TEXTS 


1884 


None  reported 


1893 


None  reported 


1918 

Rational 98 

Fritz-Eldridge 28 

C.E.Smith 6 

Fuller 4 

Ross - 4 

Others 28 

Total 168 


246 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


(Business 


5.  Miscellaneous  schools. — In  1884  Rockwell  report,  25;  in  1893,  Rock- 
well report,  82;  in  1918,  in  this  report,  112. 


1884 


No  report 


1884 

Ben  Pitman 7 

Graham 7 

Isaac  Pitman 3 

Bumz 3 

Others 5 

Total f..  25 


BOOKKEEPING 
1893 


No  report 


SHORTHAND 

1893 

Ben  Pitman 21 

Isaac  Pitman 14 

Graham 10 

Munson 9 

Gabelsberger 6 

Cross 5 

Others 13 

Total 78 


1918 

Williams  and  Rogers 31 

Rowe 20 

Moore  and  Miner 15 

Twentieth  Centunr 10 

Goodyear-MarshaU 4 

Lyons 3 

Metropolitan a 

Others i 

Total 76 

1918 

Gregg 46 

Ben  Pitman 18 

Graham 7 

Isaac  Pitman 4 

Others 7 

Total 82 


1884 


Undistributed . 


TYPEWRITERS 

1893 

Machines 

Remington 64 

Caligraph 23 

Hammond 9 

Yost I 

Undistributed 39 

Total 136 

Schools 

Remington 37 

Caligraph 19 

Hammond 9 

Yost I 

Others 38 

Total 104 


1918 

Machines 

Underwood 532 

Remington 484 

Others 276, 

Total 1292 

Schools 

Underwood 70 

Remington 63 

Others 44 

Total 177 


TYPEWRITING  TEXTS 


1884 


None  reported 


1893 


None  reported 


1918 

Rational 38 

Fritz-Eldridge 12 

Smith 7 

Practical 3 

Others 14 

Total 74 


Department) 


COMMERCIA  L-EDUCA  TION  ST  A  TISTICS 


247 


NATIONAL  SUMMARY  OF  ALL  GROUPS 


Government 

Government 

National  Education 

Association  Report 

1918 

Total  schools  reporting 

299 
No  report 

I5I9 

No  report 

3355 

Bookkeeping* 

Williams  and  Rogers 

746 

Twentieth  Century 

Rowe   .         .             

*3J 
308 

Moore  and  Miner 

Lyons  and  Camahan 

241 

Others 

398 

Total 

2773 

Shorthand 

Gregg 

0 

11 

17 

0 

34 

■   0 

0 

0 

107 

0 
536 
122 
183 

0 
143 

0 

0 

2163 

Ben  Pitman     

335 

121 

117 

Isaac  Pitman 

Graham 

SI 

Barnes 

Chandler                  

ig 

Pemin                       

14 

Others 

331 

Total 

263 

iSSi 

2172 

0 

2454 

Typewriting  Machines 

Remington    

22172 

Underwood 

0 
67 

21168 

Undistributed 

1555s 

Total 

.: 

4626 

58895 

Typewriting  Texts 

1428 
556 

Fritz-Eldridge 

None  reported 

Others 

588 

Total   

2683 

*  Where  a  school  reported  that  it  was  using  two  texts,  systems,  or  machines,  each  was  credited. 

When  starting  the  survey  it  was  our  intention  to  present  in  this  report 
complete  information  pertaining  to  courses  of  study  in  public  schools,  which 
would  be  of  value  to  superintendents  and  principals  in  introducing  commer- 
cial work  or  in  improving  their  present  courses  of  study.  In  addition  to  this 
we  hoped  to  be  able  to  give  more  definite  information  than  has  hitherto  been 
available  regarding  the  credits  allowed  by  universities  and  other  institutions 
of  higher  learning  for  the  study  of  commercial  subjects  in  secondary  schools. 

The  great  amount  of  detail  involved  in  merely  classifying  the  answers 
to  the  questionnaires  rendered  it  physically  impossible  to  complete  that 
part  of  the  work  in  time  for  this  meeting.  We  hope  that  the  work  will  be 
continued  until  this  part  of  our  original  program  has  been  carried  out,  as 
we  earnestly  beheve  that  the  data  thus  obtained  will  be  extremely  valuable 
to  this  department.  It  seems  to  us  that  such  research  work  and  the  com- 
pilation of  definite  data  as  suggested  will  help  in  formulating  courses  of 
study  that  will  more  nearly  meet  the  present  demands  of  business.  It  must 
be  highly  gratifying  to  the  members  of  this  department  to  note  the  wonder- 
ful growth  in  the  teaching  of  our  special  subjects.  In  closing  we  want  to 
say  that  the  original  cards  and  documents  showing  all  answers  to  the  ques- 
tionnaire are  on  file  and  may  be  consulted  by  anyone  interested. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 
AND  PRACTICAL  ARTS 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — Frank  H.  Shepherd,  professor  of  industrial  education,  Oregon  State 

Agricultural  College Corvallis,  Ore. 

First  Vice-President — Arthur  Wesley  Dow,  professor  of  fine  arts,  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University New  York,  N.Y. 

Second  Vice-President — Adelaide  Steele  Baylor Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Secretary — Lester  W.  Bartlett.  vocational  adviser,  city  schools Pomona,  Calif. 


FIRST  SESSION— Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3,  1918 

In  the  absence  of  both  president  and  first  vice-president,  the  second  vice-president, 
Adelaide  Steele  Baylor,  presided.  Mrs.  Mary  Schenck  Woolman  acted  as  secretary  pro 
tent  in  the  absence  of  the  secretary,  Lester  W.  Bartlett.  The  program  was  opened  with 
community  and  patriotic  singing  under  the  leadership  of  E.  L.  Peterson,  secretary  and 
manager,  Pressed  Steel  Truck  Company,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

The  following  program  was  presented: 

"The  Reeducation  of  Our  Returning  Disabled  Soldiers  after  the  War" — Frank  Duffy, 
general  secretary.  United  Brotherhood  of  Carpenters  and  Joiners  of  America,  Indianapolis, 
Ind. 

"Vocational  Reeducation  of  Disabled  Soldiers — Canada's  Experience" — I.  B.  Kidner, 
vocational  secretary,  Military  Hospitals  Commission,  Ottawa,  Canada. 

Following  the  reading  of  the  first  paper,  time  was  allowed  for  a  discussion,  in  which  a 
large  number  of  those  present  participated.  Interest  centered  about  the  trend  of  legis- 
lation to  meet  the  needs  for  reeducation,  the  types  of  instruction  to  be  given,  the  method  of 
selection  for  these  different  groups,  the  relation  of  the  school  people  to  the  problem,  and 
the  work  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 

Mr.  Kidner's  address  was  illustrated  by  slides  that  showed  the  wonderful  strides 
that  have  been  made  in  Canada  in  meeting  the  problem  of  reeducation  of  disabled  soldiers. 

SECOND  SESSION— Wednesday  Afternoon,  July  3,  1918 

At  this  session  James  M.  Speer,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  presided.  The  following  program 
was  presented: 

"Vocational  Education  in  Wisconsin  with  Relation  to  Federal,  State,  and  Local 
Boards,  as  to  Organization,  Administration,  and  Operation" — John  Callahan,  state 
director  of  vocational  education,  Madison,  Wis. 

"The  American  Homemaker  and  Reconstruction" — Adelaide  S.  Baylor,  Indianapolis, 
Ind. 

"A  State  Plan  for  Vocational  Training" — Howard  G.  Burdge,  supervising  officer  of 
vocational  training,  Military  Training  Commission,  New  York,  N.Y. 

"The  Readjustment  of  the  School  from  the  Viewpoint  of  a  Manufacturer" — James  P. 
Munroe,  vice-chairman.  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 

Time  was  allowed  for  the  discussion  of  each  paper. 

249 


250  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Vocational 

THIRD  SESSION— Thursday  Afternoon,  July  4,  1918 

The  second  vice-president,  Adelaide  Steele  Baylor,  presided  at  this  session.  The 
papers  presented  were  as  follows: 

"The  Influence  of  War  Conditions  on  Vocational  Education  for  Girls" — Mary 
Schenck  Woolman,  specialist  in  vocational  education.  Hotel  Hemenway,  Boston,  Mass. 

"Preparing  the  Boy  for  Industry" — Louis  L.  Park,  superintendent  of  welfare,  Ameri- 
can Locomotive  Company,  Schenectady,  N.Y. 

"Education  Is  Preparation  for  Life" — Arthur  E.  Holder,  member.  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 

Dr.  P.  P.  Claxton,  scheduled  to  address  the  department  on  "  Education  to  Meet  the 
New  Economic  Demands,"  could  not  be  present,  and  Superintendent  William  M.  David- 
son, Pittsburgh,  supplied  the  vacancy  by  an  extemporaneous  address  on  the  subject  that 
was  so  fitting  and  inspiring  as  to  call  forth  an  enthusiastic  vote  of  thanks  from  the  depart- 
ment for  this  timely  service. 

FOURTH  SESSION— Friday  Afternoon,  July  5,  1918 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  Miss  Baylor. 

The  following  were  named  as  members  of  the  committee  to  nominate  oflScers  for  the 
ensuing  year: 

Joseph  M.  Speer,  district  supervisor  of  industrial  education,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  chairman. 

Mary  Schenck  Woolman,  specialist  in  vocational  education,  Boston,  Mass. 

C.  O.  Case,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  Phoenix,  Ariz. 

As  the  speakers  listed  for  the  afternoon  program  were  unable  to  attend  the  meeting 
because  of  urgent  demands  on  their  time  elsewhere,  the  entire  session  was  given  over  to  a 
discussion  of  vocational  education  in  the  United  States  under  the  administration  of  the 
Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 

At  the  request  of  the  chairman  of  the  meeting  Mr.  James  P.  Munroe,  vice-chairman  of 
the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Washington,  D.C,  answered  queries  and 
explained  fully  and  clearly  the  purpose,  plans,  and  conditions  for  conducting  vocational 
education  in  the  United  States  under  the  provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes  BiU. 

This  informal  round-table  discussion  made  a  most  valuable  session,  as  it  enlightened 
the  vocational  and  industrial  teachers  present  on  many  points  touching  upon  the  federal 
act  and  its  provisions  for  vocational  education. 

The  following  contributed  to  this  discussion:  Dean  C.  B.  Connolly,  Corrigan  Insti- 
tute of  Technology,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.;  Cleo  Murtland,  director  of  vocational  education  for 
girls,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Walter  Goodnough,  art  director,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.;  B.  E.  Rupert, 
director  of  manual  training.  Turtle  Creek,  Pa.;  Mr.  Bridge,  director  of  vocational  and 
industrial  training,  Galesburg,  111.;  Mrs.  Mary  Schenck  Woolman,  Boston,  Mass. 

At  the  close  of  the  discussion  the  Committee  on  Nominations  reported  as  follows: 

President — Arthur  F.  Payne,  associate  superintendent  of  public  schools,  Johns- 
town, Pa. 

First  Vice-President — Adelaide  Steele  Baylor,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Second  Vice-President — Robert  J.  Leonard,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  Calif. 

Secretary — Howard  G.  Burdge,  supervising  officer  of  vocational  training.  Military 
Training  Commission,  New  York,  N.Y. 

The  report  of  the  committee  was  unanimously  adopted,  and  the  meeting  adjourned. 

Mrs.  Mary  Schenck  Woolman 
Secretary  pro  tern 


Department]  REEDUCATION  OF  OUR  DISABLED  SOLDIERS  251 

PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


THE  REEDUCATION  OF  OUR  RETURNING  DISABLED 
SOLDIERS  AFTER  THE  WAR 

FRANK  DUFFY,  GENERAL  SECRETARY,  UNITED  BROTHERHOOD  OF  CARPENTERS 
AND  JOINERS   OF  AMERICA,  INDIANAPOLIS,  IND. 

The  entire  American  public,  including  the  government,  the  employers, 
the  school  authorities,  and  the  wage-earners,  must  do  their  part  toward 
refitting  the  disabled  and  maimed  soldiers  for  some  gainful  and  useful 
occupation  when  they  return  from  the  battlefields  of  Europe.  They  must 
be  given  every  advantage  and  every  opportunity  possible  in  order  that  they 
may  obtain  a  training  and  an  education  which  will  fit  them  for  some  useful 
work. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  an  injured  worker  is  an  additional  hazard 
in  industry,  and  this  raises  the  question  as  to  the  obligation  of  compensa- 
tion laws.  Then  again,  these  workers,  in  the  hurried  training  they  get, 
will  not  and  cannot  attain  the  same  degree  of  efficiency  as  that  acquired 
by  other  workers.  This  raises  the  wage  question.  The  competent,  capable, 
qualified,  and  efficient  man  will  not  stand  for  undercutting  in  wages  on 
account  of  the  employment  of  a  less  efficient  man.  Therefore  the  problem 
of  placing  back  into  the  economic  structure  injured  and  disabled  soldiers 
without  safeguards  for  the  protection  of  the  efficient  is  a  complicated  one. 
This  problem,  with  all  these  complications,  was  brought  forcibly  to  the 
attention  of  organized  labor  when  Mr.  H.  C.  Nesbitt,  commissioner  of  the 
Bureau  of  War  Risk  Insurance,  propounded  the  following  questions  to 
the  Executive  Council  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  in  February 
of  the  present  year: 

1.  How  can  we  induce  an  employer  to  give  employment  to  a  discharged  man  suffer- 
ing from  a  permanent  disability  ? 

2.  What  means  can  be  adopted  to  protect  such  an  employer  from  the  increast  liability 
consequent  in  a  second  disabling  accident  occurring  in  such  employment  ? 

3.  How  can  such  a  provision  be  made  uniform  for  all  compensation  states  ? 

4.  Can  the  same  provision  be  made  to  apply  in  liability  states  ? 

5.  What  is  likely  to  be  the  attitude  of  organized  labor  in  regard  to  the  employment 
and  remuneration  of  substandard  men  ? 

After  careful  consideration  of  the  whole  subject-matter  it  was  unani- 
mously decided  to  cooperate  in  any  and  every  effort  to  bring  about  the 
reeducation  of  our  disabled  soldiers,  including  injured  workmen,  for  replace- 
ment in  industry.  This  action  on  the  part  of  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor  lays  the  foundation  for  all  its  affiliated  organizations  and  component 
parts  to  do  likewise. 

Ways  and  means  of  caring  for  injured  soldiers  in  England,  Canada, 
and  Australia  should  furnish  an  example  to  America.    Provision  for  the 


252  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Vocational 

care  of  these  men  in  Queensland  includes,  in  addition  to  the  care  of  their 
dependents  while  they  are  away,  the  setting  aside  of  millions  of  acres  of 
land  for  agricultural  purposes,  protected  by  certain  well-defined  exemptions, 
and  the  privilege  of  free  instruction  on  the  government  training  farm,  with 
an  allowance  of  $12.50  per  week  to  those  taking  such  instruction.  Free 
technical  education  and  training  of  the  injured  to  fit  themselves  for  some 
light,  useful  employment  are  also  provided  for. 

Grouping  the  three  great  agencies,  the  government,  the  employers,  and 
organized  labor,  I  believe  that  it  should  be  the  part  of  the  government  to 
see  that  the  war-injured  are  taken  care  of;  that  they  should  be  educated 
and  fitted  for  some  useful  employment  free  of  all  cost;  that  artificial  limbs 
should  be  furnisht  free  of  cost  where  necessary;  that  the  men  should  be 
allowed  a  regular  weekly  salary  for  their  maintenance  and  support  during 
the  process  of  reeducation  and  training;  that  they  should  be  helpt  to 
secure  employment,  and  that  liberal  provisions,  surpassing  those  of  any 
other  country,  should  be  made  for  their  future  welfare. 

The  employer,  on  his  part,  should  give  the  men  employment  at  reason- 
able wages,  should  make  their  surroundings  as  pleasant  and  agreeable  as 
possible,  should  not  work  them  beyond  their  endurance,  should  provide 
rest,  recreation,  and  educational  facilities  for  them,  and  should  not  impose 
upon  them  nor  take  advantage  of  them. 

Organized  labor's  part  in  the  work  should  be  to  admit  the  men  to  its 
unions  so  as  to  protect  and  defend  them  in  their  rights;  should  permit  them 
to  work  for  wages  agreed  upon  by  the  union,  the  employer,  and  the  injured; 
should  see  that  the  shorter  work  day  is  observed  and  oppose  increast  hours 
and  overtime;  should  give  them  preference  in  all  branches  of  light  work, 
and  should  help  in  every  way  possible  in  their  reeducation  and  training. 

Vast  numbers  of  men  and  women  are  injured  in  industrial  accidents 
annually  in  the  United  States.  The  horrors  of  war  bring  home  to  the 
American  people  the  necessity  of  doing  something  toward  reeducating  and 
training  those  thus  injured  for  some  lighter,  useful  occupation.  Industrial 
workers  are  as  much  a  part  of  the  war  machine  as  are  the  soldiers  in  the 
trenches,  and  they  too  should  be  recognized  and  considered  when  steps  are 
taken  for  the  reeducation  of  the  returning  disabled  soldiers.  Statistics 
from  the  reports  of  the  state  and  federal  governments  show  that  the  annual 
losses  in  industry  in  the  United  States  thru  accidents,  occupational  diseases 
poverty,  and  baby  loss  total  more  than  12,000,000.  Of  these  losses  more 
than  4,000,000  are  attributed  to  accidents  in  industry.  This  waste  and 
loss  should  be  overcome  by  reeducating  and  retaining  injured  workers  as 
well  as  the  injured  soldiers. 


Department)     AMERICAN  HOMEMAKER  AND  RECONSTRUCTION  253 

THE  AMERICAN  HOMEMAKER  AND  RECONSTRUCTION 

ADELAIDE   STEELE  BAYLOR,  INDIANAPOLIS,  IND. 

Already  the  business  of  the  American  homemaker  is  emerging  with  such 
definite  importance  as  to  make  it  a  cornerstone  in  the  new  era.  The  appeal 
to  her  to  conserve  for  world-needs  in  the  feeding,  clothing,  and  operating 
expenses  of  her  household,  and  the  ready  and  intelligent  manner  in  which 
she  is  responding  to  this  appeal,  both  declare  more  unmistakably  than  all 
the  theories  that  could  be  built  up  that  the  American  homemaker  has  a 
distinct  vocation  that  is  an  integral  and  essential  part  of  national  life. 

Newer  and  better  Standards  of  living  are  the  answers  made  to  these 
appeals  by  the  intelligent  homemaker,  as  she  perceives  that  after  all  the 
fundamental  unit  in  national  life  is  the  family,  and  that  conservation  of 
family  life  is  conservation  of  national  life. 

She  finds  that  feeding  and  clothing  the  family  and  operating  the  affairs 
of  the  household  in  the  interests  of  national  life  is  conducting  the  household 
in  the  interests  of  family  life,  and  that  "  what  is  called  national  economy, 
\terld-economy,  or  social  economy  is  nothing  more  than  collective  economy 
with  family  economy  as  the  basis."  Everywhere  she  hears  less  of  an 
economy  that  might  sacrifice  the  health  and  happiness  of  the  family  and 
more  of  one  that  will  build  it  up. 

Now  and  for  years  to  come  human  life  must  be  made  more  and  more 
precious  in  all  phases  of  its  existence,  from  the  babe  in  the  cradle  to  the  man 
of  many  years,  not  only  to  counteract  any  tendency  to  disregard  its  value 
because  of  the  prodigal  waste  of  men,  women,  and  children  in  the  past  few 
years,  but  to  supply  the  losses. 

Every  institution  and  every  agency  should  be  made  to  contribute  to 
this  great  work  of  the  homemaker.  All  that  science  and  art  can  furnish 
by  way  of  information  and  guidance  in  the  housing,  feeding,  clothing,  and 
care  of  children  and  use  of  leisure  in  the  home  must  be  put  into  simple, 
concrete,  usable  form  and  placed  within  the  reach  of  the  American  home- 
maker. 

The  schools,  in  their  education  of  boys  and  girls,  must  develop  a  greater 
respect  for  family  life,  and  in  establishing  higher  and  loftier  ideals  of  the 
home  care  must  be  taken,  particularly  in  the  case  of  immigrant  and  depend- 
ent families,  not  to  divorce  children  and  parents.  The  business  of  the  voca- 
tional school  in  improving  the  American  homemaker  is  not  simply  that  of 
supplying  her  with  facts  and  practices  to  improve  homemaking,  but  to 
place  her  and  her  children,  educated  in  the  public  schools,  on  a  more  common 
footing  in  their  ideas  of  home  life. 

Many  avenues  and  many  methods  will  present  themselves  to  the 
American  homemaker  for  pursuing  her  vocation,  and  her  greatest  task 
will  be  that  of  making  an  intelligent  choice  in  the  interests  of  family 
life. 


254  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Vocational 

If  the  American  household  assumes  the  important  role  in  the  reconstruc- 
tion that  is  promist  and  needed,  the  American  homemaker  must  "play 
the  game  fair."  She  must  be  intellectually  honest  and  make  her  choice  of 
activities,  both  within  and  without  the  household,  with  an  eye  single  to 
conservation  of  the  life  of  the  family  and  the  still  larger  life  of  the  American 
nation. 

A  STATE  PLAN  FOR  VOCATIONAL  TRAINING 

HOWARD  G.   BURDGE,   SUPERVISING   OFFICER  OF  VOCATIONAL  TRAINING, 
MILITARY  TRAINING  COMMISSION,   NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

Military  authorities  tell  us  that  it  requires  from  three  to  eight  men  to 
equip,  place,  and  maintain  one  man  on  the  firing  line.  That  the  work  of 
from  three  to  eight  skilled  workers  behind  the  front-line  trench  has  equiva- 
lent mihtary  value  is  today  recognized  by  high  military  authority.  In 
fact,  it  seems  more  difficult  to  find  an  industrial  general  to  build  ships  than 
to  find  an  admiral  to  command  them. 

H.  E.  Miles,  chairman  of  the  Industrial  Training  Section  for  the  War 
Emergency  Council  of  National  Defense,  says: 

This  war  is  a  war  of  machinists  and  mechanics.  About  one-third  of  the  army  at  the 
front  must  consist  of  skilled  men  for  repairs  and  maintenance.  We  must  take  over 
great  numbers  of  skilled  men  from  the  nonessential  trades  into  war  production,  and  we 
must  pursue  the  English  and  French  method  of  fitting  each  man  to  the  job  he  is  to  do. 
Every  employer  of  three  hundred  men  or  more  in  France  has  been  required  to  place  a 
training  department  in  his  plant.  The  English  Ministry  of  Munitions  virtually  makes  the 
same  requirement  in  its  contracts  for  supplies. 

President  Wilson,  in  his  recent  telegrani  to  the  annual  convention  of 
the  American  AlHance  of  Labor,  says:  "The  war  can  be  lost  in  America 
as  well  as  on  the  fields  of  France,  and  ill-considered  or  unjustified  interrup- 
tions of  the  essential  labor  of  the  country  may  make  it  impossible  to  win  it." 

Assemblyman  Welsh,  Senator  Slater,  and  Governor  Whitman,  the 
framers  of  the  military-training  law  for  the  boys  of  New  York  state,  clearly 
recognized  that  vocational  training  has  equivalent  military  value,  or,  as  a 
prominent  mihtary  leader  in  New  York  state  puts  it,  "Vocational  training 
is  military  training,  because  the  skilled  mechanic  is  as  much  a  part  of  the 
army  as  is  the  man  who  carries  the  gun." 

A  year  previous  to  our  entrance  into  the  war  the  legislature  of  the  state 
of  New  York  enacted  the  so-called  Welsh-Slater  Law,  providing  for  the 
estabUshment  of  a  Mihtary  Training  Commission  to  be  composed  of  the 
major  general  commanding  the  state  guard,  a  member  to  be  appointed  by 
the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  University  of  the  state  of  New  York,  and  a 
member  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor.  The  appointed  members  hold 
office  for  terms  of  four  years.  As  at  present  constituted,  the  personnel  of 
the  commission  is  Brigadier- General  Charles  Sherrill,  Deputy  Commis- 
sioner of  Education  Thomas  E.  Finegan,  and  Dr.  George  J.  Fisher,  of  the 
International  Committee  of  the  Y.M.C.A. 


Department)  A  STATE  PLAN  FOR  VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  255 

In  order  thoroly  and  comprehensively  to  prepare  the  boys  and  girls  of 
the  elementary  and  secondary  schools  for  the  duties  and  obligations  of 
citizenship,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Military  Training  Commission  to  recom- 
mend to  the  Board  of  Regents  the  estabUshment,  in  the  schools  of  the  state, 
of  habits,  customs,  and  methods  best  adapted  to  develop  correct  physical 
posture  and  bearing,  mental  and  physical  alertness,  self-control,  disciplined 
initiative,  sense  of  duty,  and  the  spirit  of  cooperation  under  leadership. 
This  feature  of  the  law  has  been  put  into  execution,  and  the  schools  of 
New  York  state  now  have  a  complete  and  comprehensive  system  of  physical 
training  reaching  every  pupil  in  the  state. 

The  law  also  provides  that  all  boys  sixteen,  seventeen,  and  eighteen 
years  of  age,  except  boys  exempted  by  the  commission,  shall  be  given  such 
military  training  as  the  commission  may  prescribe  for  periods  aggregating 
not  more  than  three  hours  each  week  of  the  school  or  college  year,  and  for 
periods  not  exceeding  those  stated  above  for  forty-one  weeks  in  each  year 
in  the  case  of  boys  who  are  not  such  pupils. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  principal  or  other  officer  exercising  supervision  and 
control  over  any  school  or  college  to  exclude  such  boys  from  attendance 
upon  instruction  unless  they  are  enrolled  for  mihtary  drill  or  exempted  by 
the  Mihtary  Training  Commission.  Boys  of  these  ages  not  attending 
school  cannot  be  legally  employed  by  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation 
within  the  state  unless  they  are  enrolled  for  mihtary  training  or  are  exempted 
by  the  commission. 

Stcch  requirement  as  to  military  training,  herein  prescribed,  may  in  the 
discretion  of  the  commission  be  met  in  part  by  such  vocational  training  or 
vocational  experience  as  will,  in  the  opinion  of  the  commission,  specifically 
prepare  boys  of  the  ages  named  for  service  useful  to  the  state,  in  the  maintenance 
of  defense,  in  the  promotion  of  public  safety,  in  the  conservation  and  develop- 
ment of  the  state's  resources,  or  in  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  public 
improvements. 

To  carry  out  properly  the  provisions  of  the  law  the  commission  has 
establisht  three  bureaus,  for  physical  training,  military  training,  and  voca- 
tional training,  respectively,  each  under  the  direction  of  a  supervising  officer. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  Bureau  of  Vocational  Training  to  determine  which  of 
the  250,000  boys  between  sixteen  and  nineteen  years  of  age  in  the  state  of 
New  York  are  receiving  such  vocational  training  or  experience  as  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  law. 

Enough  prehminary  work  of  this  character  has  been  done  by  the  field 
inspectors  during  the  past  six  months  to  enable  us  to  form  some  very  definite 
conclusions  with  regard  to  the  method  of  procedure. 

That  all  boys  may  be  given  an  opportunity  to  comply  with  the  law,  it  is 
proposed  to  ask  the  governor  to  set  apart  a  day  early  in  September  on  which 
day  all  boys  sixteen,  seventeen,  and  eighteen  years  of  age  shall  be  required 
to  report  for  enrolment  to  the  nearest  public  school  in  the  territory  in  which 


256  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Vocational 

they  reside.  Thru  the  state  education  department  instructions  will  be 
issued  to  all  the  teachers  of  the  state  for  the  enrolment  of  these  boys. 

As  you  well  know,  too  many  so-called  vocational  and  industrial  schools 
have  been  estabhsht  in  the  past  without  an  adequate  survey  of  the  industrial 
needs  of  the  community.  It  is  not  the  function  of  our  Bureau  to  establish 
vocational,  trade,  or  industrial  schools  or  to  outline  courses  for  such  institu- 
tions. We  do,  however,  expect  to  be  able  to  furnish  to  school  authorities, 
labor  unions,  and  employers  reliable  data  concerning  the  industrial  needs 
of  any  community  in  the  state.  We  also  hope  to  awaken  the  citizens  of  the 
state  to  a  realization  of  the  fact  that  with  few  exceptions  boys  engaged  in 
mechanical  and  industrial  pursuits,  altho  receiving  an  enormous  wage,  do 
not  now  have  any  opportunity  for  acquiring  adequate  trade  skill  and 
training. 

Under  the  Military  Training  Law  "we  have  a  program  for  the  defen- 
sive training  of  the  soldier  and,  on  the  other  hand,  for  the  effective  mobi- 
lization of  the  resources  of  the  nation  in  training  boys  for  vocations — which 
training  of  itself  exalts  and  identifies  as  patriotic  service  all  the  effective 
activities  of  our  everyday  life." 


THE   INFLUENCE   OF   WAR   CONDITIONS   ON    VOCATIONAL 
EDUCATION  FOR  GIRLS 

MRS.    MARY    SCHENCK    WOOLMAN,    SPECIALIST    IN    VOCATIONAL    EDUCATION, 

BOSTON,  MASS. 

The  rapidity  with  which  women  have  entered  war  industries,  even 
those  of  a  mechanical  character,  since  the  war  began  has  been  one  of  the 
surprises  of  this  tremendous  conflict.  At  the  last  census  in  the  United 
States  8,000,000  women  were  in  paid  occupations,  but  now  3,000,000  more 
have  joined  this  vast  army,  of  which  it  is  said  that  1,500,000  have  entered 
war  industries. 

Munitions  factories  find  them  successful;  the  deadly  T.N.T.  has  no 
fears  for  them,  while  their  delicate  touch  is  highly  commended.  Aeroplanes, 
gas  masks,  rubber  boots,  and  tents  are  constructed  by  them.  Uniforms, 
underwear,  and  shirts  are  made  almost  exclusively  by  them.  Agricultural 
pursuits  and  business  are  calling  them  in  large  numbers.  They  are  running 
trolley  cars,  motor  trucks,  and  ambulances. 

In  the  first  year  of  the  war  in  England  the  stoppage  of  commerce  and 
industry,  due  to  panic  on  account  of  the  unexpected  conditions,  caused 
almost  universal  unemployment  among  women.  The  lack  of  work  was  so 
serious  that  organized  efforts  to  relieve  the  suffering  were  begun.  Work- 
rooms and  training  centers  were  speedily  opened  to  enable  women  to  make 
some  wage,  or  to  prepare  them  for  new  war  trades  that  were  in  need  of 
workers. 


Department!       WAR  CONDITIONS  ON  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  257 

The  second  year  of  the  war  found  these  unemployed  women  returning 
to  work,  frequently  in  mechanical  trades  in  which  they  had  seldom  been 
found  before  the  war.  The  demand  was  largely  in  munitions  work  and  in 
various  forms  of  army  equipment. 

On  account  of  the  need  for  greater  skill  in  the  munitions  worker  the 
English  government  opened  classes  to  train  women  to  handle  the  tools  which 
they  would  need  to  use.  The  munitions  plants  also  opened  training  classes 
of  their  own.  The  retail  trade,  clerical  occupations,  and  agriculture  also 
called  for  women  workers,  and  training  courses  were  begun  in  these  occupa- 
tions. The  spirit  of  the  English  women  was  spoken  of  with  enthusiasm, 
and  Conan  Doyle  is  quoted  as  starting  the  slogan,  "Hats  off  to  the  women 
of  England!" 

It  was  realized  that  continuous  unskilled  and  semi-skilled  work  is 
depressing  to  the  worker,  even  if  the  spirit  is  good,  and  committees  of  citi- 
zens were  appointed  to  consider  the  labor  and  hygiene  problems  involved, 
the  physical  influence  of  such  heavy  tasks  and  long  hours  on  women,  the 
kind  of  training  needed,  and  how  to  organize  it.  Adequate  courses  for 
instruction  for  all  the  war  occupations  into  which  the  women  were  going 
were  opened,  and  now,  after  almost  four  years  of  war,  English  women  are 
found  in  all  the  better-paid  branches  of  industry  which  require  skill  and 
ability.  They  have  risen  to  supervising  and  professional  positions  of  great 
responsibility.  The  definite  enlistment  of  women  for  all  forms  of  war 
service  except  fighting  has  followed. 

In  the  United  States  conditions  are  rapidly  repeating  those  of  England 
in  the  early  days  of  the  war.  There  is  less  scarcity  of  men  here,  conse- 
quently the  extreme  pressure  on  women  to  enter  the  mechanical  trades  is 
not  yet  felt.  Nevertheless  our  women  are  at  work  in  all  the  occupations  in 
which  their  English  sisters  have  been  substituted  for  men.  Their  hands 
easily  become  skilful  in  unwonted  trades,  and  their  spirit  of  willing  service 
has  made  them  welcome  in  spite  of  their  lack  of  training.  They  are  in 
munition  factories,  they  are  making  aeroplanes,  gas  masks,  and  parts  of 
torpedoes;  they  are  making  uniforms,  knapsacks,  underwear,  rubber  boots, 
shoes,  tents,  and  innumerable  other  army  supplies.  The  railroads,  business, 
and  transportation  are  beginning  to  depend  upon  them. 

As  yet  the  women  wage-earners  in  war  industries  have  had  little  organ- 
ized training.  Some  instruction  for  farm  workers,  over-sea  telephone  girls, 
and  other  occupations  has  been  begun,  but  in  general  the  women  wage- 
earners  are  taught  only  the  processes  they  are  to  carry  on,  and  no  concerted 
effort  has  been  made  to  help  them  that  compares  with  what  the  federal 
government  is  doing  to  train  the  men  for  radio  work,  for  the  shipyards,  and 
for  the  construction  of  motor  cars,  gas  engines,  and  aeroplanes.  Com- 
mittees in  Washington  and  elsewhere  are  studying  the  conditions  of  their 
labor  in  hours,  wages,  and  housing.  The  Women's  Division  of  the  Indus- 
trial Service  Section  of  the  Ordnance  Department  has  a  section  on  training 


258  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  IVocational 

for  women.  The  Bureau  of  Labor  and  also  state  and  local  surveys  are  at 
work  on  the  various  questions  relating  to  training,  to  conditions  of  labor, 
to  shopwork,  or  to  the  effect  of  the  mechanical  occupations  on  the  physique. 

The  trade  and  vocational  schools  for  girls  are  endeavoring  to  help  to 
the  best  of  their  ability,  but  there  are  not  enough  of  them.  The  Boston 
Trade  School  is  training  women  to  adjust  and  repair  the  electric-power 
machines  and  is  offering  older  women  instruction  in  uniform-making  by 
power  machines.  The  Manhattan  Trade  School,  in  New  York  City,  is 
placing  many  of  the  girls  trained  on  the  electric  machine  in  uniform,  gas- 
mask, and  knapsack  factories.  The  Girls'  Vocational  High  School  in 
Minneapolis  has  completed  government  contracts  of  one  thousand  olive- 
drab  shirts.  Other  schools  are  doing  similar  war  service  while  training 
girls  for  wage-earning. 

The  effect  of  the  war  on  the  regular  schools  has  been  distinctly  voca- 
tional. Food  conservation,  war  cookery,  canning,  drying,  meat  substitutes, 
and  the  reducing  of  expenses  are  all  considered  in  a  practical  way.  Vast 
quantities  of  pajamas,  convalescent  robes,  hospital  supplies,  refugee 
garments,  and  other  Red  Cross  work  are  being  turned  out.  Every  available 
piece  of  material  is  being  used.  Renovation,  repair,  and  the  making  of 
strong,  simple  garments  is  helping  families  to  conserve. 

The  professional  training  of  women  for  war  occupations  has  been  advan- 
cing with  great  rapidity.  The  colleges  are  offering  new  courses  to  train 
women  for  executive  positions  in  connection  with  war  needs.  The  Division 
of  Women's  War  Work  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Information  is  sending 
out  almost  daily  information  on  new  openings  for  trained  executive  women. 
They  are  bacteriologists  in  cantonment  hospitals,  industrial  secretaries  in 
munitions  factories,  ship  draftsmen,  and  teachers  of  physical  occupational 
therapy.  Summer  courses  are  being  offered  to  train  them  for  employment 
management,  the  work  centering  in  Cleveland,  Ohio.  The  National  Service 
School,  of  Chautauqua,  is  training  them  for  motor  mechanics,  intensive 
reconstruction,  telephone  operating,  telegraphy,  agriculture,  and  other 
fields.  Mount  Holyoke  is  training  health  officers,  and  many  of  the  colleges 
are  giving  training  for  nurses  for  the  front. 

Magnificent  results  are  following  the  effort  to  train  the  professional 
woman,  but  the  wage-earners  must  speedily  he  helpt,  for  their  own  sakes, 
to  take  them  out  of  deadening  pursuits  and  to  help  them  to  rise,  and  for  the 
sake  of  the  country's  industries,  as  skilled  workers  are  needed  to  take  the 
place  of  the  men.  It  is  unpreparedness  not  to  help  these  girls  who,  with 
devotion,  are  endeavoring  to  take  the  place  of  the  boys  over  there. 


Department]  PREPARING  THE  BOY  FOR  INDUSTRY  259 

PREPARING  THE  BOY  FOR  INDUSTRY 

LOUIS   L.   PARK,  SUPERINTENDENT   OF  WELFARE,   AMERICAN  LOCOMOTIVE 
COMPANY,   SCHENECTADY,   N.Y. 

If  the  boy  who  is  to  enter  industry  is  to  be  prepared  for  life,  much  will 
depend  upon  how  he  is  prepared  for  industry,  and  the  extent  to  which  our 
schools  prepare  the  boy  for  industry  will  in  many  cases  mark  the  extent  of 
their  influence  in  shaping  him  for  life  in  a  democracy.  If  he  is  to  emerge 
in  later  life  a  useful  citizen,  it  will  be  by  the  way  of  industry,  and  the  tone 
which  his  influence  is  to  give  to  the  affairs  of  his  community  will  be  colored 
to  no  small  extent  by  his  contact  with  industrial  life. 

How  then  may  our  schools  help  prepare  the  boy  for  industry?  How 
may  they  help  him  to  acquire  a  competency  and  live  a  normal  life  ?  How 
assist  him  to  withstand  the  temptation  to  misuse  the  freedom  and  the 
enlarging  opportunity  of  industrial  employment  ?  How  plant  firmly  within 
him  the  ideals  which  will  help  him  to  develop  into  a  useful  citizen  rather  than 
into  a  self-centered,  money-getting  artisan  ?  While  we  shall  not  attempt  a 
full  discussion  of  this  question,  we  wish  to  comment  upon  certain  of  its  phases. 

So  varied  are  the  demands  of  industry,  so  many  the  degrees  of  oppor- 
tunity offered,  and  so  different  the  provisions  made  for  training  after 
employment,  that  no  simple  rule  for  vocational  training  of  boys  for  industry 
can  be  suggested.  The  needs  of  each  locality  will  naturally  govern  to  some 
extent  the  vocational  training  advisable,  and  the  preparations  which  the 
employer  makes  will  modify  those  needed  in  the  school  for  the  training  of 
the  future  worker.  Still  further,  there  is  the  problem  of  adjusting  the 
individual  to  his  proper  task,  of  finding  the  work  which  will  afford  develop- 
ment and  provide  income  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  worker.  These  variables 
must  be  met  by  a  program  sufficiently  flexible  to  insure  justice  to  the 
greatest  possible  number. 

As  vocational  guidance  becomes  more  practical  in  the  years  of  school 
activity,  the  more  effective  may  become  the  vocational  training  possible 
to  the  boy,  and  the  more  certainly  may  the  variety  of  experience  be  made  to 
contribute  to  his  final  work. 

But  whatever  may  be  the  extent  of  trade  or  vocational  training  before 
the  boy  enters  the  shop  or  mill,  there  are  certain  mental  traits  which,  if  he 
has  acquired  them,  will  help  toward  successful  progress  in  industry.  The 
state  of  mind  is,  after  all,  one  of  the  great  things  desired,  the  attitude  of  the 
boy  toward  his  future  work.  His  conception  of  the  scope  of  his  school 
training,  his  ability  to  adjust  himself  to  his  work,  his  reaction  under  dis- 
cipline, his  sense  of  the  relation  of  quahty  and  quantity,  and  his  attitude 
toward  compensation  will  have  much  to  do  with  his  progress  toward  effi- 
ciency. The  extent  to  which  the  school  may  help  in  shaping  his  attitude 
toward  these  is  problematical,  but  whatever  it  may  be  able  to  accomplish 
in  this  direction  will  be  desirable, 


26o  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Vocational 

The  problem  of  discipline  is  one  of  both  school  and  shop,  tho  differing 
of  course  in  details  and  application.  Unfortunately  discipline  in  industry 
is  not  always  handled  wisely  or  effectively  and  is  frequently  the  cause  of 
changes  in  the  place  of  a  boy's  employment.  It  is  likely  to  be  the  case, 
however,  that  boys  who  in  school  have  learned  to  respect  authority  will  in 
industry  be  least  disturbed  by  the  exercise  of  authority  by  a  department 
or  gang  leader. 

"  Production  "  is  the  big  word  in  most  industrial  estabHshments.  How- 
ever promising  a  boy  may  be,  the  world  and  his  employer  will  not  long  be 
satisfied  with  promises;  he  must  produce  the  goods.  The  shop  was  called 
into  being  to  produce  needed  commodities,  and  it  must  fulfil  its  mission 
efficiently  or  die.  Whatever  else  the  boy  may  be  or  do,  or  may  not  do  or  be, 
he  must  produce  his  expected  share  of  the  shop's  grist.  It  is  "output" 
or  "put  out."  The  proper  balance  between  "quality"  and  "quantity"  is 
the  secret  of  success  in  industrial  production.  The  great  demand  is  for  those 
who  can  coordinate  carefulness  and  speed,  and  their  number  must  continue 
to  increase.  Both  traits  can  be  developt  in  some  degree  by  training.  One 
naturally  expects  our  schools  to  teach  accuracy  rather  than  speed,  but  if 
quick  thinking  can  be  stimulated  in  school  work  it  will  pave  the  way  for  the 
final  development  of  the  future  skilled  producer. 

We  believe  that  most  schools  have  a  direct  moral  influence  which  is  of  the 
greatest  value  in  steadying  the  lives  of  growing  youth.  Where  home  and 
other  agencies  cooperate  with  the  school  in  moral  training  the  results  are 
encouraging,  but  when  the  school  operates  alone  the  task  is  a  trying  one. 
Within  the  ranks  of  industry  will  be  found  some  of  the  finest  people  the 
world  has  produced,  men  and  women  of  high  ideals  and  of  excellent  influence. 
But  industry  as  a  whole  has  not  as  definite  a  moral  cahber  as  we  might  wish; 
its  detailed  influence  may  be  for  good  or  for  evil;  its  habit-changing  and 
habit-forming  power  will  sometimes  be  for  the  worse  as  well  as  for  the  better. 
The  substituting  of  this  environment  for  that  of  the  public  schools  may  well 
give  us  concern  as  to  the  effect  upon  the  morals  of  the  young  people  entering 
industry,  particularly  when  home  influence  is  not  strong.  From  eight  to 
ten  hours  a  day  in  the  shop  and  mill  will  count  strongly  in  helping  or  hinder- 
ing the  developing  of  manhood. 

Just  how  the  school  may  assist  in  the  solving  of  this  problem  may  not  be 
clearly  seen,  but  two  things  are  evident:  the  longer  the  time  allowed  the 
student  under  school  influence  and  the  older  the  boy  before  he  enters  in- 
dustry, the  more  strongly  will  he  be  estabHsht  in  his  ways;  and  the  more 
direct  and  powerful  the  influence  for  high  ideals  within  the  school,  the  better 
the  preparation  for  the  later  temptations.  It  may  also  be  that  the  over- 
lapping of  the  two  environments  for  a  time,  as  in  some  cooperative  schemes, 
may  help  to  prevent  a  letting  down  of  moral  standards  during  the  most 
trying  days  of  readjustment  and  assist  in  maintaining  the  moral  inertia 
needed  to  carry  the  boy  thru. 


Department!  EDUCATION  IS  PREPARATION  FOR  LIFE  261 

Since  the  problem  of  preparation  deals  with  an  endless  variety  of  student 
abilities  and  tendencies,  it  is  evident  that  individual  instruction  in  school 
will  count  effectively  to  whatever  extent  it  is  permissible,  for  that  preparation 
alone  can  be  effective  which  takes  into  account  the  needs  of  the  individual 
student.  Thoroness  in  a  smaller  number  of  subjects  will  outweigh  a  more 
pretentious  program  hurried  thru.  It  is  not  so  much  the  extent  of  his 
knowledge  as  it  is  his  abihty  to  apply  what  he  has  studied  that  measures 
the  value  of  his  training. 

We  beHeve  that  the  present  increase  in  cooperation  between  school  and 
employer  is  a  most  helpful  indication  of  future  progress,  for  this  mutual 
interest  will  accomplish  needed  improvement.  As  the  school  sees  more 
clearly  the  demands  of  the  future  upon  the  boy,  as  the  employer  appreciates 
more  fully  his  responsibilities  in  the  worker's  welfare,  we  may  expect  the 
boy  to  realize  more  fully  that  progress  in  industry  will  depend  upon  develop- 
ment and  not  upon  good  luck  or  friendly  influence.  This  mutual  under- 
standing will  make  most  effective  the  preparation  of  the  boy  for  industry, 
and  thru  industry  for  life. 

EDUCATION  IS  PREPARATION  FOR  LIFE 

ARTHUR  E.  HOLDER,  MEMBER,  FEDERAL  BOARD  FOR  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION, 

WASHINGTON,  D.C. 

Education  is  preparation  for  life.  Primarily  it  is  maintenance  of  life. 
It  is  necessary  to  a  continuation  of  life.  When  education  in  the  life  of  an 
individual,  a  group,  or  a  nation  stops,  then  decay  commences,  and  dissolu- 
tion and  death  are  a  natural  result. 

Education  as  a  preparation  for  life  should  primarily  aim  to  give  every 
individual  proper  control  over  his  physical  and  mental  powers.  Then  he 
should  be  taught  and  inspired  how  to  use  these  powers  to  the  best  advan- 
tage for  himself  and  for  society. 

The  problems  which  will  face  us  in  the  future  will  test  the  ability  of 
our  citizens  even  if  they  are  all  equipt  with  the  best  education  our  schools 
can  afford.  Within  our  Republic  every  individual  should  possess  the  rudi- 
ments of  an  education  upon  which  he  can  train  himself  to  a  higher  education, 
if  for  any  cause  he  has  been  denied  other  opportunities. 

In  our  moments  of  impatience  we  are  prone  to  criticize  our  schools  alto- 
gether too  harshly.  If  we  must  criticize,  let  us  be  sure  of  our  ground;  if 
we  refuse  to  bear  our  responsibilities  as  a  people  and  must  level  our  satire 
at  a  group,  then  let  us  hit  the  bull's-eye  and  place  the  principal  blame  for 
the  defects  in  our  educational  system  upon  that  group  in  society  which  is 
primarily  responsible  for  the  creation  of  our  free  schools  and  our  public- 
school  system.    That  group  is  the  labor  group. 

Labor  created  the  institution  and  fostered  and  protected  it  in  many 
struggles.  Labor  has  created  public  sentiment  in  behalf  of  compulsory- 
education  laws,  free  textbooks,  and  vocational  education,  but,  notwith- 


262  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Vocational 

standing  these  activities,  labor  has  neglected  the  personal  touch  and  the 
neighborly  acquaintance  which  should  be  maintained  with  the  teachers,  so 
that  the  teachers  themselves  can  continue  their  education  and  develop  the 
fund  of  new  knowledge  necessary  for  the  preparation  and  maintenance  of 
the  life  of  their  pupils. 

Laborers,  teachers,  and  employers  should  get  together  and  work  for  the 
common  good.  Sometimes  we  blindly  boast  of  our  schools,  public  and  pri- 
vate, of  our  richly  endowed  colleges  and  state  universities.  But  we  have  not 
yet  become  properly  enthused  with  the  functions  of  either,  neither  have  we 
yet  reacht  what  the  French  call  "the  grand  passion  for  education,"  and  we 
never  shall  until  we  collectively  come  to  the  point  where  all  the  normal  boys 
and  girls  under  the  age  of  eighteen  in  our  land  will  be  compulsorily  kept  in 
contact  with  the  school  and  properly  trained  for  the  preparation  for  life 
that  will  be  most  suitable  to  their  capacity  and  disposition. 

On  March  20  of  this  year  our  wonderfully  gifted  Chief  Magistrate  was 
credited  with  expressing,  in  his  most  convincing  and  scholarly  style,  a  timely 
warning  and  inspiring  exhortation. 

In  a  letter  to  his  New  Jersey  friends,  he  wrote: 

A  time  of  grave  crises  has  come  in  our  lives Every  sign  of  these  terrible  days 

of  war  and  revolutionary  change,  when  economic  and  social  forces  are  being  releast  upon 
the  "world  whose  effect  no  political  seer  dare  venture  to  conjecture,  bids  us  search  our 
hearts  thru  and  thru  and  make  them  ready  for  the  birth  of  a  new  day — a  day,  we  hope  and 
believe,  of  greater  opportunity  and  greater  prosperity  for  the  average  mass  of  struggling 
men  and  women — of  greater  safety  and  opportunity  for  our  children 

The  men  in  the  trenches  who  have  been  freed  from  economic  serfdom  to  which  some 
of  them  had  been  accustomed  will,  it  is  likely,  return  to  their  homes  with  a  new  view  and  a 
new  impatience  of  all  mere  political  phrases  and  will  demand  real  thinking  and  sincere  action. 

I  venture  to  say  that  search  as  we  might  thru  the  pages  of  ancient  or 
contemporaneous  history,  we  would  never  find  any  leader  of  men  uttering 
such  a  clarion  call  to  heed  the  signs  of  a  new  time,  a  new  freedom,  and  a 
new  world.  • 

If  we  heed  the  lesson  as  we  should,  we  shall  commence  to  overhaul  our 
whole  system  of  education,  commencing  with  the  homes  and  the  schools. 
We  shall  save  and  improve  old  ideals  that  are  proved  to  be  worth  whil^; 
we  shall  rebuild  and  readjust  our  educational  machinery;  we  shall  remove 
unnecessary  and  un-American  restraints;  we  shall  learn  the  difference 
between  economy  and  stinginess;  we  shall  generalize  before  we  specialize; 
we  shall  be  affirmative,  positive,  aggressive,  and  generous  rather  than 
cautious,  timid,  docile,  and  negative. 

Our  homes,  schools,  shops,  stores,  factories,  will  become  educational 
centers  of  greater  value  than  ever  before.  Real,  practical,  valuable  educa- 
tion, fitting  each  person  for  a  greater  enjoyment  of  life  and  a  greater  partici- 
pation in  public  affairs,  will  be  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception. 

Manual  toil  will  be  given  equal  credit  with  brain  labor.  The  hard, 
laborious  task  is  entitled  to  equal  consideration  with  the  pleasant  berths 
of  physical  ease. 


Department!  EDUCATION  IS  PREPARATION  FOR  LIFE  263 

Every  active  element  of  society  will  participate  with  educators  in  the 
administration  of  all  our  schools,  especially  in  the  elementary,  secondary, 
and  high-school  grades.  Freer  thought  and  freer  expression  will  be  the 
outcome.    These  functions  are  the  very  essence  of  democracy. 

More  school  revenue  must  be  forthcoming.  All  our  educational  work 
must  be  under  public  auspices  and  at  public  expense.  When  the  public 
knows  the  advantages  for  better  preparation  and  maintenance  of  life  thru 
better  and  broader  education,  the  public  will  open  its  pockets  and  gener- 
ously provide  the  wherewithal.  Our  public  schools  constitute  one  of  the 
greatest  public  investments.  Several  hundred  millions  are  invested  in 
buildings  alone.  These  buildings  should  be  used  more  generally  for  adult 
and  community  education  and  welfare. 

Once  this  step  is  taken,  the  public  will  realize  that  our  school  teachers 
are  being  mistreated,  and  that  their  wages  are  wholly  insufficient.  School 
teachers  deserve  a  raise  in  wages,  a  good  substantial  raise — more  than  a 
100  per  cent  raise  in  many  locaUties.  The  minimum  wage  base  which  has 
been  popularized  by  trade-unionists  and  has  been  so  effective  in  protecting 
the  interests  of  our  skilled  and  unskilled  manual  toilers  should  be  intelli- 
gently applied  to  the  method  of  paying  teachers'  wages  or  salaries. 

Nothing  less  than  $1200  per  year  will  be  adequate  or  just  as  a  minimum 
rate  for  our  teachers.  It  can  never  be  secured  by  teachers,  as  units,  or  by 
individual  effort;  they  must  learn  how  to  organize  and  protect  their  trade, 
occupational,  or  professional  interests  like  other  people.  Then  they  must 
demand  a  voice  in  the  management  of  the  schools  of  their  community,  so 
that  they  can  more  generously  contribute  from  their  knowledge  and  experi- 
ence for  the  benefit  of  the  schools.  In  addition  they  should  study  the 
methods  of  other  elements  in  society  by  association  and  federation.  The 
right  so  to  organize  and  federate  must  be  held  inviolate  for  school  teachers 
as  well  as  for  doctors,  lawyers,  mechanics,  and  laborers.  When  these  new 
activities  are  establisht  success  will  follow,  and  long-deferred  justice  will  be 
won  for  our  teachers. 

So  far  as  it  goes,  our  educational  system  is  all  right,  but  it  does  not  go 
far  enough  or  deep  enough.  It  is  still  a  long  distance  from  simon-pure 
democracy  and  will  be  until  we  realize  that  education  is  not  expected  or 
intended  to  be  a  luxury  in  which  a  superior  child,  or  an  exceptional  child, 
or  a  well-to-do  child  may  bask.  Our  future  bricklayers,  carpenters, 
plumbers,  and  blacksmiths  need  as  much  care  and  as  much  preparation 
for  life  as  do  our  futiure  doctors,  lawyers,  preachers,  and  teachers. 

This  great  bread-and-butter  question,  politely  called  the  economic 
problem,  is  the  impelling  force  that  will  drive  us  to  a  new  brand  of  democ- 
racy which  will  be  safe  for  us  and  safe  for  the  world,  a  democracy  which 
means  not  only  universal  liberty,  but  universal  organization  that  will 
guarantee  equal  opportunities  and  equal  justice  to  all. 


264  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Vocational 

VOCATIONAL  REEDUCATION  OF  DISABLED  SOLDIERS- 
CANADA'S  EXPERIENCE 

T.    B.    KIDNER,   VOCATIONAL  SECRETARY,   MILITARY  HOSPITALS   COMMISSION, 

OTTAWA,   CANADA 

Pensions  and  war  medals  are  not  sufficient  to  pay  the  nation's  debt 
to  those  who  have  become  disabled  by  wounds  or  disease  in  the  fight  for 
freedom  against  tyranny  on  the  battlefields  of  Europe  or  on  the  seven  seas. 

Pensions  alone,  however  generous,  are  not  sufficient  to  pay  the  nation's 
debt,  but  must  be  supplemented  by  sympathetic  and  efficient  aid  to  enable 
the  shattered  to  help  themselves — to  become  once  more  conscious  and 
able  to  participate  in  the  true  joy  of  living  which  comes  only  from  useful 
and  satisfying  work. 

The  state  should  not  only  protect  its  wounded  by  giving  them  the  means 
whereby  to  earn  their  liveHhood  by  work,  but  it  should  also  strive  so  to 
manage  its  work  that  the  mutilated  may  come  out  of  the  disaster  improved 
morally,  socially,  and  economically. 

One  of  the  most  vital  problems  which  the  "free"  nations  now  engaged 
in  this  war  against  despotism  have  to  face  is  the  demilitarization  of  their 
citizen  armies.  As  soon  as  it  is  establisht  that  a  man's  usefulness  as  a 
fighting  unit  is  over  he  should  commence  upon  his  vocational  rehabilitation. 
The  army  habit  of  mind  under  which  a  man  literally  need  "  take  no  thought 
for  the  morrow"  must  be  overcome,  and  an  important  part  of  the  duty  of  all 
who  have  to  do  with  the  industrial  rehabilitation  of  the  disabled  is  to  help 
and  encourage  them  once  more  to  think  for  themselves,  to  act  on  their  own 
initiative — in  short,  to  ''demilitarize"  them  for  their  own  good  and  that  of 
the  community. 

In  Canada,  as  soon  as  a  man  arrives  from  over  seas  and  is  transferred  to 
one  of  the  convalescent  hospitals  which  are  establisht  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific,  he  is  seen  by  a  vocational  officer  who  is  always  a  civiUan,  even 
tho,  as  in  many  instances,  he  may  have  seen  active  service  and  have  been 
himself  disabled.  This  officer,  acting  in  cooperation  with  the  medical 
officers,  arranges  that  the  man  shall  take  up  some  form  of  work  at  once. 
The  value  of  this  is  threefold:  First  of  all  it  has  a  great  therapeutic  value. 
Work  as  a  curative  agent  will  often  do  quite  as  much  for  a  man  as  the  medical 
care  he  receives.  Secondly,  it  has  a  splendid  moral  disciplinary  value,  inas- 
much as  it  counteracts  the  bad  effects  of  a  prolonged  period  of  idleness. 
Thirdly,  in  many  cases,  it  may  have  a  direct  bearing  upon  and  value  for 
the  man's  return  to  civil  Ufe. 

For  the  more  seriously  disabled,  that  is,  the  men  who  by  reason  of  their 
disability  incurred  on  service  cannot  return  to  their  former  occupations, 
the  training  begun  in  the  hospitals  is  continued  after  a  man  is  discharged, 
and  he  is  given  an  opportunity  of  learning  some  new  occupation  suited  to 
his  disability.    Only  a  small  percentage  of  the  disabled  from  war  will 


Department)  READJUSTMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL  26$ 

require  vocational  reeducation  for  a  new  occupation.  Canadian  experience 
shows  that  of  the  wounded  and  disabled  returned  to  Canada  only  about  10 
per  cent  will  be  unable  to  return  to  their  former  occupations.  Of  course 
only  the  more  seriously  disabled  are  returned  to  Canada,  as  many  of  the 
men  who  appear  in  the  casualty  Hsts  are  returned  to  duty  after  a  period  of 
treatment  in  the  hospitals  in  France  and  England. 

Canada  is  training  her  disabled  men  in  about  two  hundred  different 
occupations.  This  wide  extent  of  courses  has  been  possible  thru  the 
cooperation  of  manufacturers  who  have  taken  men  into  the  industries  them- 
selves for  the  purpose  of  receiving  training.  Had  the  InvaUded  Soldiers* 
Commission  been  confined  to  training  in  educational  institutions,  it  is 
evident  that  a  very  much  narrower  range  of  occupations  would  have  been 
possible. 

The  training  of  the  disabled  has  opened  a  real  j&eld  of  activity  in  voca- 
tional guidance.  Every  disabled  man  is  treated  as  an  individual  case,  and 
all  the  factors  of  his  education,  his  industrial  history,  his  mentality,  his 
remaining  physical  powers,  and  his  own  desires  for  the  future  are  taken  into 
consideration. 

Already,  as  the  result  of  the  vocational  training  provided  for  all  dis- 
abled sailors  and  soldiers  in  Canada,  many  men  are  now  in  better  positions 
than  they  occupied  prior  to  their  war  experience.  Vocational  training  and 
reeducation  have  solved  the  problem  of  the  old  soldier,  and  will  in  turn, 
it  is  hoped,  solve  the  problem  of  the  cripples  of  industry  of  this  nation. 


THE  READJUSTMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL  FROM  THE  VIEWPOINT 
OF  A  MANUFACTURER 

JAMES    P.     MUNROE,     VICE-CHAIRMAN,     FEDERAL    BOARD    FOR    VOCATIONAL 
EDUCATION,   WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

An  important  war  issue  is  that  we  have  been  wasters,  and  that  this  waste 
must  cease.  No  one  realizes  this  more  vividly  than  the  manufacturer.  His 
motive  power  has  been  stopt  by  the  coal  situation ;  the  receipt  and  distribu- 
tion of  his  goods  have  been  interrupted  by  the  congestion  of  transportation; 
his  markets  have  been  bewilderingly  changed;  and  his  labor  supply  has  been 
subjected  to  such  strain  as  was  never  before  known. 

The  manufacturer  is  therefore  chastened,  and  it  would  seem  a  good 
time  in  which  to  impress  upon  him  that  he  would  have  had  fewer  difficulties 
had  he  and  those  upon  whom  he  is  dependent  been  really  educated. 

The  manufacturer  is  learning  rapidly,  but  in  his  new  study  of  industry- 
he  will  not  accept  blindly  what  the  schools  have  been  giving  him  but  will 
demand  that  the  schools  be  made  over  to  meet  the  new  economic  and  social 
situation. 

Among  other  things  the  aroused  manufacturer  will  demand  that  educa- 
tion be  made  real  and  interesting;  that  it  shall  be  made  business-like;  that 


266  NATIONAL    EDUCATION    ASSOCIATION  [Vocational 

the  pupil  be  made  to  understand  his  future  responsibiUties  which  are 
mainly  (i)  the  duty  of  earning  a  living,  (2)  the  duty  of  establishing  himself 
as  a  real  member  of  society  by  marrying  and  bringing  up  a  family,  and 
(3)  the  duty  of  performing  his  full  share  as  a  citizen. 

He  will  demand  too  that  the  schools  cooperate  much  more  than  they 
do  with  the  parents,  the  industries,  and  civil  life  in  general.  This  they 
can  do  by  using,  first,  the  factory,  the  farm,  and  the  store  as  laboratories  in 
which  to  give  part  of  the  school  education;  secondly,  by  making  the  school 
an  adjunct  to  the  factory,  the  store,  and  the  farm;  and  thirdly,  by  dividing 
the  work  of  teaching  between  the  shop  and  the  school  under  the  so-called 
cooperative  method.  In  other  words,  the  manufacturer  will  soon  be  asking 
that  the  evening  school,  part-time  continuation  school,  and  the  cooperative 
day  school  shall  be  made  an  effective  part  of  public  education. 

This  development  is  being  helpt  by  the  Smith-Hughes  Law  for  the  pro- 
motion of  vocational  education.  Under  the  moral  and  financial  sanction 
thus  given,  the  schools  and  the  industries  can  cooperate  freely  and  effect- 
ively. In  so  doing  they  not  only  will  be  helping  production,  not  only  will 
be  giving  to  the  school  such  vigor  due  to  purpose  and  interest  as  they  have 
never  before  had,  but  will  at  the  same  time  be  building  up  a  generation  that 
will  not  tolerate  such  indifference,  such  waste,  such  slacking  in  the  matter  of 
active  devotion  to  the  duties  of  the  citizens  as  we  saw  before  the  Great  War. 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  UNDER  THE 
SMITH-HUGHES  ACT 

C.    A.    PROSSER,    DIRECTOR    FEDERAL    BOARD    FOR    VOCATIONAL    EDUCATION, 

WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  as  administered  by  the 
Federal  Board,  a  part-time  school  is  one  maintained  under  public  supervision 
or  control,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  instructions  to  persons  over  fourteen 
years  of  age  who  have  entered  upon  a  trade  or  industrial  pursuit,  and  who  are 
releast  during  working  hours  to  pursue  instruction  which  shall  fit  them  for 
more  active  and  useful  employment  in  the  same  or  an  aUied  trade  or  industry 
in  which  they  are  employed.  The  controlling  purpose  is  to  fit  the  students 
for  better  employment  in  a  given  trade  or  industrial  pursuit  in  which  they 
are  already  engaged,  but  in  which  are  upon  the  lower  levels,  with  small 
prospect  of  advancement  without  special  training. 

It  is  only  upon  this  kind  of  a  school  that  one- third  of  the  federal  fund  for 
trade,  home  economics,  and  industrial  education  can  be  expended  at  all. 

The  controlling  purpose  of  all  part-time  schools  draws  its  administration 
from  the  law  specifying  "increased  civic  and  vocational  intelligence,"  and 
as  one  aim  may  be  counted  the  increase  of  intelligence  in  a  new  vocation. 

Primarily,  the  work  is  to  make  each  pupil  a  better  mechanic  and  obtain 
entrance  into  a  better  occupation  than  the  one  in  which  he  is  employed. 


Department]     VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  AND  SMITH-HUGHES  ACT         267 

The  Federal  Board  has  taken  a  broad  point  of  view  concerning  the 
meaning  which  could  legitimately  be  given  to  the  phrase  "civic  and  voca- 
tional intelligence."  Under  this  interpretation  it  will  be  possible  for  the 
states  greatly  to  extend  the  number,  variety,  and  enrolment  of  part-time 
classes. 

Actual  trade  or  industrial  productive  work  must  come  first,  and  because 
of  the  Hmited  course  of  study  must  contain  only  the  points  of  greatest 
importance  and  value  to  the  learner.  The  long,  exhaustive,  and  detailed 
courses  of  the  day  schools  cannot  be  transplanted  to  the  part-time  schools. 
The  high  lights,  not  as  to  difficulty  but  as  to  importance,  for  immediate 
entry  into  the  trade  taught  must  form  the  nucleus  of  every  course.  As  the 
pupils  are  unfamiliar  with  the  simple  and  fundamental  manipulative  process 
of  the  employment  to  be  learned,  the  related  subjects  must  come  later  and 
occupy  a  place  of  secondary  importance. 

It  is  possible  to  reach  large  numbers  of  boys  and  girls  who,  having  left  the 
elementary  or  high  school,  find  themselves  in  most  cases  without  correct 
guidance  either  as  to  how  they  shall  get  promotion,  or  how  they  shall  make 
use  of  their  time  in  the  most  advantageous  manner,  or  how  they  may  choose 
a  more  advantageous  occupation.  It  is  for  these  young  persons  that  the 
law  provides  subjects  which  will  ''enlarge  their  civic  or  vocational  intelli- 
gence." 

As  a  rule  these  pupils  are  not  naturally  interested  in  learning  from  books. 
While  many  leave  school  for  economic  reasons,  the  majority  leave  school 
because  formal  school  work  does  not  appeal  to  them.  They  must  be 
approacht  thru  actual  trade  processes  and  activities  and  thru  their  interest 
in  advancement. 

They  are  ambitious.  The  fact  that  they  are  dissatisfied  with  their 
present  employment  and  seeking  entrance  to  a  better  one  affords  a  fine 
method  of  approach  to  their  interest  in  instruction  and  evidences  the  fact 
that  they  are  good  raw  material. 

If  the  local  community  providing  part-time  education  is  to  meet  a  real 
need  it  must  carry  the  part-time  education  to  the  places  where  it  can  be 
given  most  advantageously  to  the  persons  who  have  entered  upon  employ- 
ment. 

It  is  possible  under  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  to  organize  a  part-time 
school  or  class  which  will  fit  them  for  useful  employment  in  a  really  desirable 
trade  or  industrial  pursuit.  The  controlling  purpose  differs  but  little  from 
the  controlling  purpose  of  the  day  trade  or  industrial  school  or  class,  but 
the  work  must  be  given  under  different  conditions,  since  it  is  fair  to  assume 
that  most  of  the  energy  and  time  possest  by  any  person  who  has  entered 
upon  employment  must  be  given  to  that  employment,  while  the  all-day 
school  assumes  that  the  entire  day  can  be  given  to  preparation  for  a  trade 
or  industrial  pursuit. 


268  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Vocational 

The  occupations  taught  must  be  simple  enough  to  be  learned  in  say  thirty 
to  sixty  weeks  of  part-time  instruction,  or  the  work  must  be  capable  of 
division  into  distinct  units,  each  part  of  the  whole  trade  in  any  one  of  which 
sufficient  skill  will  insure  steady  employment.  Thus  a  lathe  hand,  turret- 
machine  operator,  ignition  and  battery-repair  man,  etc.,  are  divisions  of 
the  machinists  and  automobile  mechanics  trades  in  which  men  are  employed 
before  they  are  considered  all-round  high-grade  mechanics. 

That  there  is  great  need  for  part-time  education  is  too  patent  for  con- 
troversy. The  drift  had  been  away  from  the  ordinary  schools  and  into  the 
industries  long  before  the  war  opened  attractive  opportunities  for  work. 
Lack  of  interest  in  ordinary  school  work;  desire  to  be  getting  at  some  occu- 
pation where  tangible  returns  may  be  had,  and  the  spur  of  family  necessity 
are  all  crowding  the  industrial  ranks  with  young  people  whose  equipment 
is  meager.  The  field  is  a  large  one,  and  the  need  for  part-time  instruction 
is  great. 

THE  REHABILITATION  OF  DISABLED  SOLDIERS  AND  SAILORS 
OR  VICTIMS  OF  INDUSTRY 

CHARLES     H.     WINSLOW,     ASSISTANT     DIRECTOR    FOR     RESEARCH,     FEDERAL 
BOARD  FOR  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

Since  the  United  States  government  withdrew  from  industry  two  or 
three  million  men,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  government  to  replace  them  in 
industry,  with  due  regard  for  the  capabiUties  of  the  individuals,  and  to 
neutralize  such  handicaps  as  have  been  suffered  by  these  men  in  their 
patriotic  service.  This  is  the  position  taken  by  the  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education. 

The  rehabihtation  of  disabled  soldiers  and  sailors  or  victims  of  industry 
is  by  no  means  a  philanthropic  proposition ;  it  is  entirely  governmental  and 
national  in  its  scope.  Eliminating  absolutely  the  sentimental  and  humani- 
tarian aspect  of  the  question,  the  facts  all  point  irrevocably  to  this  work  as 
a  part  of  the  grim  business  of  war,  the  first  constructive  step  after  so  much 
destruction.  It  is  a  salvaging  of  precious  material  of  which  the  foundations 
of  this  nation  are  a  part — its  incomparable  manhood. 

Vocational  reeducation  of  men  disabled  for  military  service  is  therefore  a 
means  not  only  of  conserving  trade  skill  but  of  conserving  it  in  a  time  of 
national  emergency  and  of  preventing  in  some  degree  the  scarcity  of  skilled 
labor  that  is  certain  to  develop  as  the  war  progresses.  The  nation  which 
does  not  conserve  the  vocational  skill  of  its  trained  workers  will  to  that 
extent  weaken  its  recuperative  and  competitive  power  and  to  that  extent 
will  consequently  fail  to  achieve  the  immediate  national  rehabilitation  of  its 
industrial,  commercial,  and  agricultural  power. 

The  return  to  civil  employment  of  large  numbers  of  men  under  the 
abnormal  conditions  of  the  period  of  demobilization  will  occasion  far- 


Department)    AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  AND  SMITH-HUGHES  ACT     269 

reaching  economic  disturbances  and  maladjustment  of  labor  supply  to 
demand,  unless  that  return  is  made  under  some  comprehensive  scheme  of 
administration.  Vocational  reeducation  will  provide  one  means  of  so 
directing  the  return  of  men  into  civil  employments  as  to  occasion  the  least 
possible  disturbance,  and  will  go  far  to  avoid  impairment  of  establisht 
standards  of  living. 

The  industrial  restoration  of  men  has  been  found  a  very  important  fea- 
ture of  their  physical  restoration.  The  first  aim  of  the  doctors  is  to  inspire 
in  the  mind  of  the  man  a  belief  in  his  own  ability  to  live  and  be  useful. 
Once  the  man  himself  is  convinst  that  it  is  within  his  power  to  recover  and 
become  self-supporting,  half  the  battle  of  the  doctors  is  won. 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  UNDER  THE 
SMITH-HUGHES  ACT 

CHARLES  A.  GREATHOUSE,  MEMBER  OF  THE  FEDERAL  BOARD  FOR  VOCA- 
TIONAL EDUCATION 

As  a  people,  during  the  struggle  of  the  last  five  years,  our  attention  has 
been  focust  upon  the  resources  of  our  forests,  mines,  and  farms,  that  from 
them  might  come  the  greatest  possible  output  to  provide  the  necessities 
of  life  for  ourselves,  for  our  fighting  AlHes,  and  for  the  suffering  peoples  of 
Europe,  and  also  the  machines  and  materials  of  warfare  to  make  possible 
a  victorious  conclusion  of  the  war.  In  a  singular  way  we  now,  as  never 
before,  recognize  the  value  of  our  farms  and  their  products. 

The  encouragement  of  agricultural  education  is  of  necessity  the  first 
concern  of  every  enlightened  nation.  The  present  war  has  demonstrated  to 
a  striking  degree  how  true  this  is.  The  food  administrator  of  Great  Britain 
in  an  appeal  to  America  said:  "  Unless  America  can  send  us  at  least  75,000,- 
000  bushels  of  wheat  over  and  above  what  has  already  been  exported  and 
before  the  new  crop  comes  on,  I  cannot  insure  our  people  that  we  will  have 
food  enough  to  win  the  war." 

And  so,  true  to  the  call  of  service,  the  energies  of  a  vast  number  of  people 
are  centered  upon  food  production  and  conservation.  Local,  state,  and 
national  agencies  are  efl&ciently  directing  and  stimulating  production. 
Pubhc  educational  institutions  are  contributing  largely  to  the  success  of  the 
movement — the  land-grant  colleges  by  training  leaders,  and  the  public 
schools  by  training  our  young  men  for  actual  farming. 

Altho  drafted  primarily  for  times  of  peace,  the  provisions  of  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act  are  strikingly  adapted  to  times  of  war.  Under  the  stimulating 
influences  of  this  act  agricultural  schools  are  being  establisht  in  every  state 
in  the  Union.  Dedicated  to  serve  the  needs  of  the  nation,  the  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education  is  advancing  the  cause  of  agricultural 
education  that  the  American  people  and  their  Allies  may  now  be  fed,  and 
that  ultimately  agriculture  in  the  United  States  may  be  pursued  by  young 
men  properly  trained  for  their  work. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  RURAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL 
EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — C.  H.  Lane,  federal  agent  for  agricultural  education,  Federal  Board  for 

Vocational  Education Washington,  D.  C. 

Vice-President — W.  F.  Lusk,  professor  of  rural  education,  Cornell  University. .  .Ithaca,  N.Y. 
Secretary — Charl  O.  Williams,  superintendent,  Shelby  County  Schools Memphis,  Tenn. 


FIRST  SESSION— Tuesday  Afternoon,  July  2,  1918 

The  following  was  the  program  for  the  meetmg: 

"The  Relationship  between  Teacher-Training  Departments  under  the  Provisions  of 
the  Smith-Hughes  Act,  and  State  Supervisors  of  Agriculture  for  the  State  Boards  for 
Vocational  Education" — G.  W.  Works,  professor  of  rural  education.  State  College  of 
Agriculture,  Ithaca,  N.Y, 

Discussion — Leader,  G.  H.  Whitcher,  state  supervisor  of  agriculture.  Concord,  N.H. 

"Project  Methods  in  Teacher-Training  Courses" — A.  W.  Nolan,  state  supervisor  of 
agriculture,  State  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Springfield,  111. 

Discussion — Leader,  W.  S.  Taylor,  professor  of  agricultural  education.  State  Col- 
lege, Pa. 

Sectional  Conferences  and  Periods  of  Professional  Improvement  Work  for  Teachers 
of  High-School  Agriculture" — R.  W.  Stimson,  State  Board  of  Education,  Boston,  Mass. 

Discussion — ^Leader,  L.  H.  Dennis,  director  of  agricultural  education,  Harrisburg, 
Pa.;  A.  K.  Getman,  state  supervisor  of  agriculture,  Trenton,  N.J. 

"The  Organization  of  the  T.  N.  Vail  State  Agricultural  School  of  Vermont"— M.  B. 
Hillegas,  state  commissioner  of  education,  Montpelier,  Vt. 

SECOND  SESSION— Wednesday  Evening,  July  3,  1918 

The  following  was  the  program  for  the  meeting: 

"Rural  Secondary  Education  in  the  United  States  during  and  after  the  War" — 
H.  W.  Foght,  specialist  in  rural-school  practice.  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 

"Some  Outstanding  Illustrations  of  Progress  in  Organization  of  Rural  High  Schools" 
— Lee  Driver,  county  superintendent  of  schools,  Winchester,  Ind. 

THIRD  SESSION— Thursday  Afternoon,  July  4,  19 18 

The  following  was  the  program  for  the  meeting: 

"Home-Project  Work  Too  Small — Something  Bigger  Needed — a  Substitute  in 
Operation" — W.  S.  Welles,  director  and  supervisor  of  vocational  agricultural  instruction, 
River  Falls,  Wis. 

"The  Effect  of  Rural  Continuation  Schools  on  Agricultural  Efficiency" — R.  W. 
Stimson,  State  Board  of  Education,  Boston,  Mass. 

"The  Educational  Value  of  Practical  Agriculture  under  the  Provisions  of  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act" — R.  D.  Maltby,  supervisor  of  Agriculture,  Athens,  Ga. 

"The  Birth  and  Childhood  of  Vocational  Education  with  a  Forecast  as  to  Its  Develop- 
ment during  Adolescence" — David  Snedden,  professor  of  education.  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.Y. 

"State  Supervisor  of  Vocational  Agriculture  under  the  Provisions  of  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act" — J.  D.  Elliff,  director  of  vocational  education,  Jefferson  City,  Mo. 

"The  New  Education  in  Agriculture  Is  Based  on  Sound  Pedagogy" — W.  R.  Hart, 
professor  of  agricultural  education,  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  Amherst,  Mass. 

271 


272  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Agricultural 

PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


THE  RELA  TIONSHIP  BETWEEN  TEACHER-TRAINING  DEPART- 
MENTS UNDER  THE  PROVISIONS  OF  THE  SMITH-HUGHES 
ACT  AND  STATE  SUPERVISORS  OF  AGRICULTURE  FOR  THE 
STATE  BOARDS  FOR  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

G.  A.  WORKS,  PROFESSOR  OF  RURAL  EDUCATION,  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY, 

ITHACA,  N.Y. 

The  organization  of  the  two  phases  represented  by  supervision  of  the 
vocational  work  in  agriculture  and  the  preparation  of  persons  to  teach 
such  agriculture  may  be  on  one  of  two  bases:  (i)  The  responsibility  for 
both  phases  of  the  work,  supervision  of  vocational  agriculture  and  training 
of  teachers,  may  be  under  the  direction  of  one  person.  Such  an  arrange- 
ment is  possible  under  the  provision  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  by  making  a 
proper  division  of  the  supervisor's  time  between  the  two  fields  in  which  he 
functions.  This  adjustment  is  to  be  found  in  several  states  at  the  present 
time.  (2)  The  supervisory  function  may  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  one 
person  and  the  responsibility  for  the  preparation  of  teachers  vested  in 
another. 

Of  these  two  plans  I  believe  that  ultimately  the  second  will  show  greater 
strength  as  measured  by  the  results  accomplisht  in  the  teaching  of  vocational 
agriculture.  This  must  be  regarded  as  the  final  measure,  because  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act  does  not  exist  to  provide  supervisors  and  teacher-training 
departments  except  in  so  far  as  these  are  a  means  of  improving  the  instruc- 
tion in  agriculture  under  the  act. 

This  statement  should  not  be  interpreted  as  meaning  that  the  organiza- 
tion which  places  both  teacher-training  and  supervisory  functions  in  one 
head  is  without  merit.  There  is  a  strong  argument  for  it.  It  gives  the 
department  dealing  with  the  preparation  of  teachers  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity to  follow  its  product  into  the  schools  and  to  see  at  first  hand  the 
extent  to  which  the  persons  who  have  been  prepared  are  making  good  when 
they  have  assumed  their  responsibilities  as  teachers.  This  is,  of  course, 
the  final  measure  of  the  success  of  the  teacher-training  work.  A  weakness 
lies  in  the  fact  that  those  who  have  prepared  the  teacher  are  likely  to  over- 
look what  may  be  fundamental  weaknesses  in  his  work,  provided  that  he 
is  proceeding  in  accordance  with  the  instruction  received  at  their  hands. 
The  supervisor  who  is  independent  of  the  teacher-training  organization  will 
approach  the  work  of  the  teacher  with  an  unprejudist  attitude,  and,  other 
things  being  equal,  he  is  more  likely  to  see  the  faults  of  the  teacher  as  they 
are  exhibited  in  his  work  than  he  would  be  if  he  were  responsible  for  that 
teacher's  preparation. 

A  practical  difficulty  is  created  by  combining  the  supervisory  and  teacher- 
training  function  in  one  person,  because  it  is  necessary  for  the  supervisor  to 


Department!  STATE  SUPERVISORS  OF  AGRICULTURE  273 

distribute  his  work  over  the  entire  year.  He  cannot  well  have  one 
semester  for  supervision  and  the  other  for  teaching.  This  creates  diffi- 
culties incident  to  having  the  problem  of  an  instructor  spend  two  or  three 
days  a  week  in  the  field  and  the  remainder  of  the  time  in  the  classroom. 
Anyone  who  has  tried  this  realizes  that  it  is  usually  imsatisfactory.  The 
supervisory  work,  because  of  the  calls  for  assistance  that  come  from  the 
field,  is  the  more  insistent  of  the  two,  and  as  a  result  the  teacher  finds  that 
the  supervisor  has  robbed  him  of  time  which  he  should  have  for  the 
organization  and  development  of  his  instructional  work.  He  is  also  with- 
out the  time  necessary  to  become  intimately  acquainted  with  his  student 
body. 

It  is  quite  within  the  range  of  possibility  that  a  third  feature  might 
develop  that  contains  an  element  of  weakness  when  the  two  offices  are  com- 
bined. Naturally  the  supervisor  is  in  a  position  of  considerable  influence 
in  determining  the  teachers  selected  by  school  authorities.  He  would  fall 
short  of  being  human  if  he  did  not  favor  his  own  students.  Under  normal 
conditions,  with  reference  to  supply  of  teachers,  this  may  result  in  more  or 
less  inbreeding.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  at  least  15  to  25  per  cent  of  the 
teachers  of  vocational  agriculture  in  any  state  should  come  from  outside 
the  state.  Especially  will  this  be  true  when  the  Smith-Hughes  funds  have 
made  possible  the  development  of  strong  departments  for  the  preparation 
of  teachers  in  practically  all  the  states.  This  drawing  of  teachers  from  out- 
side has  its  Umitation  in  the  fact  that  usually  they  cannot  be  obtained  to 
advantage  from  regions  that  have  a  widely  different  agriculture  from  that 
foimd  in  the  state. 

When  the  two  functions  are  placed  on  essentially  coordinate  bases  and 
are  vested  in  different  individuals  a  broader  viewpoint  is  brought  to  the 
problems,  provided  that  the  proper  cooperation  exists  between  those  who 
are  responsible  for  the  training  of  teachers  and  those  who  are  charged  with 
the  duty  of  supervising  the  instruction  in  the  schools.  It  is  not  difficult 
to  secure  this  cooperation  when  the  men  occupying  the  two  positions  are 
big  enough  and  reasonable  enough  to  bear  such  responsibiUty. 

Those  engaged  in  professional  training  of  teachers  recognize  the  fact 
that  no  matter  how  carefully  their  work  is  planned  and  executed  they  can- 
not turn  out  finisht  teachers  from  training  departments.  To  remedy  this 
condition  every  state  should  be  able  by  use  of  the  Smith-Hughes  fxmds  to 
develop  plans  for  the  training  of  the  teachers  in  service.  Those  who  are  in 
charge  of  the  teacher-training  work  should  take  the  initiative  in  developing 
plans  for  further  training  of  the  teachers  after  they  are  in  service.  System- 
atic instruction  should  be  planned  for  and  required  of  every  teacher  during 
at  least  his  first  year  of  teaching.  This  work  should  be  developt  by  those 
in  charge  of  the  teacher  training,  with  the  advice  of  the  supervisor.  Since 
it  must  be  largely  individual  it  will  be  necessary  for  those  who  are  conduct- 
ing it  and  are  responsible  for  it  to  visit  the  novice  as  occasion  demands. 


274  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Agricultural 

In  order  that  this  visitation  may  work  out  to  the  best  advantage  the 
following  suggestions  are  made: 

1.  The  state  supervisor  should  send  a  letter  at  the  beginning  of  the  year 
to  the  principal  of  each  school  in  which  there  is  a  teacher  receiving  such 
training,  informing  him  of  the  fact  that  this  teacher  will  be  subject  to  visita- 
tion by  a  member  of  the  training  staff. 

2.  During  such  visitation  the  representative  should  confine  his  work  to 
the  improvement  of  the  teacher's  technique  of  instruction  as  represented 
by  his  work  with  pupils  in  the  field,  laboratory,  classroom,  or  at  the  project. 
The  visits  that  are  made  should  be  of  such  duration  that  it  will  be  possible 
to  accompUsh  this  result.  If  there  are  changes  of  an  administrative  nature 
that  would  result  in  improving  the  quality  of  instruction,  these  should  be 
brought  to  the  attention  of  the  state  supervisor,  who  may  take  them  up 
with  the  local  authorities  if  he  deems  it  wise  to  do  so,  but  under  no  circum- 
stances should  the  member  of  the  training  staff  assume  any  responsibility 
for  their  correction. 

3.  Since  the  state  supervisor  will  also  endeavor  to  improve  the  instruc- 
tion of  his  teachers  he  will  be  dealing  with  the  teachers  who  are  receiving 
training  in  service.  For  this  reason  it  is  desirable  that  the  supervisor  and 
those  who  are  training  teachers  come  to  an  agreement  upon  the  fundamental 
principles  that  are  to  be  observed  in  developing  the  work  in  vocational 
agriculture.  When  such  an  agreement  is  reacht  there  is  little  or  no  danger 
of  disparity  in  the  advice  that  comes  from  the  two  sources. 

4.  A  definite  period  of  time,  for  example,  one  year,  should  be  set  for  this 
systematic  instruction  in  service.  The  final  decision  as  to  whether  or  not 
it  may  be  desirable  to  continue  it  over  a  longer  period  with  certain  teachers 
should  be  determined  by  the  state  supervisor. 

The  state  supervisor  should  have  a  part  in  the  formal  instruction  that 
is  given  to  the  prospective  teacher.  Arrangements  should  be  made  by 
which  he  will  have  several  lecture  periods  for  the  purpose  of  getting  before 
the  class  his  views  regarding  the  work  which  they  are  planning  to  enter. 
These  visits  should  be  made  the  occasion  for  giving  the  supervisor  an 
opportunity  to  have  a  personal  interview  with  each  student.  He  should 
also  go  over  the  records  of  each  with  the  teacher-training  staff.  These, 
interviews  and  intimate  considerations  of  each  student  will  do  much  toward 
getting  the  teachers  into  the  communities  where  they  can  work  most 
effectively,  because  the  supervisor  will  know  the  difficulties  that  are  likely 
to  be  met  in  the  various  sections  of  the  state  much  better  than  they  are 
known  to  those  in  the  training  departments.  Those  who  are  preparing  the 
teachers  will  be  famihar  with  the  abihties  and  Hmitations  of  their  students 
and  can  judge  of  their  capacity  for  meeting  special  problems  that  are  pre- 
sented in  certain  communities. 

In  New  York  state  the  department  of  rural  education  was  able  to  coop- 
erate with  the  state  supervisor  in  a  special  work  that  was  mutually  helpful. 


Department]  PROJECT  METHODS  IN  TRAINING  COURSES  275 

The  supervisor  prepared  blanks  on  which  the  teachers  were  required  to 
make  monthly  statements  showing  by  means  of  a  daily  record  certain  facts 
regarding  topics  studied,  methods  used,  and  references  employed.  These 
reports  were  assigned  by  the  department  of  rural  education  to  advanst 
students  for  detailed  study  with  reference  to  time  allotment  to  the  various 
topics,  seasonal  sequence,  and  the  relation  between  recitation,  laboratory, 
field,  and  project  work.  One  of  the  annual  conferences  was  devoted  largely 
to  a  consideration  of  the  studies  that  had  been  made  of  the  work  reported 
during  the  year. 

The  Smith-Hughes  Act  has  placed  before  those  interested  in  the  develop- 
ment of  vocational  agriculture  and  those  interested  in  the  preparation  of 
teachers  for  this  subject  a  great  opportunity.  As  has  been  definitely 
pointed  out  the  greatest  strength  will  be  developt  in  each  of  the  phases 
when  they  are  working  upon  a  coordinate  basis  with  the  fullest,  freest,  and 
frankest  exchange  of  views  between  the  two  parties  who  in  the  end  will  be 
responsible  for  the  failure  or  success  of  the  work — the  one  who  prepares  the 
teacher  and  the  one  who  supervises  him  after  he  has  entered  the  profession. 
To  accomplish  this  there  must  be  conference,  conference,  conference. 


PROJECT  METHODS  IN  TEACHER  TRAINING  IN 
VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURE 

ARETAS  W.  NOLAN,  STATE  SUPERVISOR  OF  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION, 

URBANA,  ILL. 

A  project  is  a  reflective  act  carried  on  in  its  natural  setting.  Dr.  J.  A. 
Stephenson,  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  defines  a  project  as  a  problematic 
act  carried  to  completion  in  its  natural  setting.  It  is  a  large  problem  carried 
over  into  action.  It  may  be  composed  of  a  group  of  problems  which  con- 
stitute subdivisions  of  the  project.  The  project  is  the  normal  life-situation. 
In  school  we  often  take  these  problems  out  of  their  natural  setting  and 
study  them  one  by  one.  The  tendency  is  to  teach  the  problems  in  isolated 
groups  rather  than  as  related  to  one  life-situation. 

The  chief  educational  function  of  a  project  is  to  translate  information 
into  conduct.  It  arouses  interest,  since  there  are  many  reservoirs  from 
which  interest  may  flow,  being  tied  up  with  life-situations.  Dr.  Snedden, 
in  his  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  states  that  the  keynote  of  the  newer 
education  in  these  fields  is  to  be  found  in  the  development  of  facilities  for 
obtaining  practical  experience  under  conditions  as  nearly  approximating 
those  of  the  actual  vocation  as  can  be  obtained.  The  project  method  in 
agricultural  instruction  offers  these  facilities. 

The  great  problem  in  the  use  of  the  project  method  as  a  basis  for  the 
curriculum  is  to  select  such  projects  and  groups  of  projects  as  will  give  all 
essential  facts,  processes,  and  principles  of  the  subject-matter  which  may  be 
organized  as  units  of  knowledge. 


276  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Agricultural 

Since  all  instruction  in  vocational  agriculture  under  the  Smith-Hughes 
Act  must  include  projects  in  farm  practice,  institutions  training  teachers 
for  this  work  should  provide  actual  project  work  as  a  part  of  their  curriculum 
in  agricultural  education.  Land,  animals,  crops,  etc.,  should  be  available, 
and  the  students  should  have  the  opportunity  to  purchase  or  rent  materials 
for  agricultural  projects  in  connection  with  their  college  course.  Their 
projects  should  be  of  sufficient  scope  to  have  economic  as  well  as  educational 
value.  Such  work  has  already  been  provided  at  the  University  of  Illinois 
at  Urbana.  

PROJECT  METHODS  IN  TEACHER-TRAINING  COURSES 

W.  S.  TAYLOR,  PROFESSOR  OF  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION,  PENNSYLVANIA 
STATE  COLLEGE,  STATE  COLLEGE,  PA. 

For  purposes  of  our  study  I  think  we  shall  find  it  more  satisfactory  to 
discuss  this  subject  as  problem-project  methods  in  teacher-training  courses 
rather  than  as  project  methods  in  teacher-training  courses.  The  term 
"project"  does  not  mean  the  same  thing  to  all  the  people  who  use  it. 
Dr.  David  Snedden,  in  an  article  in  School  and  Society,  described  the  term 
project  as  "a  unit  of  educative  work  in  which  the  most  prominent  feature 
was  some  form  of  positive  or  concrete  achievement." 

Good  pedagogy  demands  that  the  subject-matter  of  a  course  be  divided 
into  teaching  units.  The  most  effective  teaching  unit  in  teacher-training 
courses  undoubtedly  is  the  problem.  This  the  lecture  method  formerly  in 
common  use  in  teacher-training  classes  failed  to  recognize.  It  is  not 
strange  to  us  today  that  the  lecture  method  of  instruction  proved  to  be 
even  more  ineffective  for  teacher-training  work  than  for  other  work. 
Instructors  offering  teacher-training  work  were  as  a  rule  well  trained  in 
agriculture  but  poorly  trained  in  education.  The  men  in  charge  of  the 
teacher-training  work  in  agriculture  were  not  slow  to  realize  that  the 
instruction  was  failing  to  give  the  help  that  such  courses  were  supposed  to 
give.  The  students  did  not  get  the  vision  of  the  possibilities  of  secondary 
agriculture.  The  courses  lackt  that  something  that  would  stimulate,  that 
would  motivate,  that  would  organize,  and  that  would  give  direction. 

At  the  same  time  that  instructors  in  charge  of  teacher-training  classes 
were  groping  around  in  search  of  better  methods  for  their  courses,  super- 
visors and  dhectors  of  secondary  agriculture  were  searching  diligently  for 
some  means  of  making  agricultural  instruction  in  secondary  schools  effective. 
Instruction  in  agriculture  in  secondary  schools  was  lifeless  and  all  but 
meaningless  until  project  teaching  put  life,  interest,  and  meaning  into  the 
work  offered.  The  child  foimd  in  his  project  definite  problems  to  be  solved 
and  a  goal  toward  which  to  work. 

In  the  same  way,  if  the  student  in  a  teacher-training  course  is  to  get 
the  greatest  possible  good  from  his  work  he  must  have  some  definite  problem 


Department]  PROJECT  METHODS  IN  TRAINING  COURSES  277 

before  him.  We  all  work  hardest  when  we  have  a  difficult  problem  to  solve. 
So  it  is  with  the  student.  The  result  which  he  is  seeking  "becomes  a 
conscious  aim,  a  guiding  and  inspiring  purpose."  He  thinks  with  less 
waste  when  he  has  something  central  as  a  motive  and  guide.  Problem- 
project  teaching  gives  a  realness  and  a  concreteness  to  instruction  that  can 
be  obtained  in  no  other  way. 

Endeavor  is  more  earnest  and  more  persistent  where  interest  is  keen  in 
the  end  desired.  Interest  is  keener  when  there  is  a  distinct  need  felt  for 
the  end  sought.  The  problem,  therefore,  the  need  of  whose  solution  is 
keenly  felt,  stimulates  thought  to  discover  the  best  methods  of  dealing  with 
the  situation.  Furthermore  the  project  that  enlists  the  energy  and  resources 
of  the  student  most  is  not  your  project  but  the  project  that  he  himself  is 
working  out. 

So  we  have  come  to  look  upon  our  teacher-training  courses  as  projects — 
big  projects  made  up  of  a  series  of  problems.  This  series  of  related  problems 
that  make  up  the  content  of  the  courses,  when  solved  and  properly  corre- 
lated and  organized,  comprises  the  working  out  of  the  project.  The 
planning  of  a  library  for  vocational  agriculture  in  secondary  schools  is  an 
example  of  one  of  the  problems  of  the  course.  Instead  of  having  the 
instructor  give  the  class  a  stereotypt  or  perhaps  a  mimeographt  lecture  on 
the  high-school  agricultural  library,  the  student  is  given  a  problem  to  work 
out.  Briefly,  he  is  askt  to  select  his  library  of  books  and  give  reasons  for 
each  book  selected.  He  is  askt  to  select  a  library  of  bulletins — ^bulletins 
that  will  be  useful  in  his  teaching — and  he  is  askt  to  catalog  them  in  the 
way  that  will  make  them  most  usable  to  his  students.  He  has  something 
definite  to  work  out — something  that  will  be  directly  helpful  in  his  work 
when  he  becomes  a  teacher  of  secondary  agriculture.  When  the  students, 
under  the  dhection  of  the  teacher,  have  decided  upon  the  list  of  books  that 
will  be  of  most  help  and  know  why  they  will  be  most  helpful,  when  they 
have  learned  how  to  select  bulletins  of  most  worth  and  catalog  them  so  as 
to  make  them  most  accessible,  they  wil)  feel  more  than  repaid  for  their  work 
and  will  attack  the  next  problem  with  enthusiasm  and  zeal.  A  problem  of 
this  kind  stimulates  interest  and  effort  because  of  its  practical  bearing.  Its 
solution  insures  better  library  materials,  better  library  methods,  and  better 
library  facilities  in  secondary  vocational  agricultural  libraries,  all  of  which 
are  greatly  needed. 

Let  us  suppose  again  that  the  problem  of  the  class  in  teacher  training 
is  properly  to  equip  the  agricultural  laboratory.  The  problem  will  be  first 
to  determine  what  will  be  incorporated  in  the  course  of  study  and  then  to 
buy  equipment  to  fit  the  course  as  outlined.  Too  frequently  the  teacher 
plans  instruction  to  fit  his  equipment  rather  than  equipment  to  make  clear 
his  instruction.  Equipping  the  agricultural  laboratory  becomes  relatively 
a  simple  matter  when  attackt  from  this  viewpoint,  and  again  the  student  has 
something  he  can  use  in  developing  his  work  in  secondary  schools. 


278  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Agricultural 

In  the  same  way  we  might  enumerate  all  the  problems  of  the  course  and 
show  how  each  gives  definite  help.  But  the  problem-project  method  does 
more  than  give  specific  help.  Every  project  is  a  life-problem,  and  we  get 
direction  and  power  to  handle  other  problems  of  life  from  having  success- 
fully workt  out  the  preceding  one.  The  project  may  be  small  or  it  may  be 
large;  the  lesson  from  each  should  lead  toward  the  same  end;  it  should 
develop  correct  procedure  in  thinking  and  in  working  out  similar  problems; 
it  should  aid  in  developing  clear  notions  of  accuracy  and  scientific  viewpoint; 
it  should  develop  initiative;  it  should  give  self-direction;  it  should  develop 
self-reliance;  and  lastly  project  teaching  should  motivate. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  project  teaching  in  teacher-training  courses 
must  have  careful  planning.  The  student  must  know  where  he  is  going,  or 
there  will  be  a  tremendous  amount  of  lost  motion.  Every  problem  of  the 
course  must  be  specific;  it  must  be  vitally  related  to  the  work  that  the 
student  expects  to  do  as  a  teacher,  and  its  working  out  must  lead  to  a  definite 
goal.  Problem-project  teaching  accomplishes  its  purpose  when  the  results 
of  the  effort  required  for  solving  the  problem  "are  of  such  positive  and 
abiding  interest  as  to  arouse  the  person  to  a  clearer  recognition  of  purpose 
and  to  a  more  thoughtful  consideration  of  means  of  accomplishment." 

The  result  that  is  most  desired  in  all  teaching,  according  to  Mr.  Dewey, 
is  "  that  the  mind  should  be  sensitive  to  problems  and  skilled  in  methods  of 
attack  and  solution."  The  acid  test  of  good  teaching,  according  to  Kirk- 
patrick,  is  "to  leave  the  student  with  a  desire  to  know  more."  I  want  to 
combine  these  two  and  say  that  the  acid  test  of  good  teaching  is  (i)  to  leave 
the  student  with  a  desire  to  know  more  and  (2)  to  enable  him  to  sense 
problems  quickly  and  attack  and  solve  them  in  the  most  economical  way. 
This  the  problem-project  method  of  teaching  attempts  to  do  in  teacher- 
training  courses. 

SECTIONAL  CONFERENCES  AND  PERIODS  OF  PROFESSIONAL 

IMPROVEMENT  WORK  FOR  TEACHERS  OF 

HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

RUFUS   W.   STIMSON,   STATE   SUPERVISOR  OF  VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURAL 
EDUCATION,  BOSTON,   MASS. 

The  aim  of  high-school  agricultural  instruction  need  not  be  vocational. 
It  may  have  strong  avocational  values.  It  may  also  have  important 
prevocational  or  vocational-guidance  values.  If  it  guides  pupils  into 
agricultural  colleges  it  will  at  the  same  time  be  assisting  them  to  accumulate 
experience  which  cannot  but  add  to  the  value  of  their  agricultural-college 
training. 

Those  in  charge  of  our  program  today  are  understood  to  have  had  high- 
school  teachers  of  agriculture  suited  to  vocational  courses  primarily  in  mind 
in  assigning  the  subject  of  this  address. 


Department]      PROFESSIONAL  IMPROVEMENT  WORK  FOR  TEACHERS       279 

The  vocational  agricultural  teacher  must  be  first  of  all  practical.  He 
must  know  the  farm  routine  of  the  region  in  which  he  teaches.  He  must  be 
able  to  do.  He  must  have  understanding  and  sympathy.  He  must  have 
common  sense — the  most  uncommon  of  all  senses.  He  must  be  not  only 
a  man  among  men  but  a  farmer  among  farmers.  Otherwise  he  cannot  hope 
to  command  the  respect  and  enlist  the  cooperation  for  good  home-project 
work  of  the  fathers  of  the  pupils  in  his  classes;  and  in  the  absence  of  such 
respect  and  cooperation  his  efforts  will  be  futile. 

The  vocational  agricultural  teacher  must  also  be  able  to  give  instruction 
in  the  bearings  of  the  sciences  upon  the  productive  farming  operations  he 
teaches.  His  boys  must  be  taught  not  only  to  do  but  also  to  comprehend. 
He  must  promote  both  action  and  reflection,  both  skill  and  judgment.  He 
must  develop  not  merely  farm  hands  but  also  farm  managers. 

Finally  the  vocational  agricultural  teacher  must  be  a  master  of  good 
teaching  methods.  He  must  understand  both  the  subject  method  and  the 
project  method  and  know  when  and  where  and  how  to  displace  the  former 
by  the  latter. 

It  is  small  wonder  perhaps  that  when  the  speaker  first  proposed  the 
home-project,  one-teacher,  high-school-department  plan  of  vocational 
agricultural  education  he  was  met  by  a  professor  of  agricultural  education 
with  the  declaration,  "The  plan  you  are  proposing  is  impossible!  This  is 
the  day  of  specialization.  Even  a  college  professor  can  hardly  hope  to 
master  completely  the  specialty  of  his  department,  and  you  are  proposing 
that  the  high-school  teacher  shall  be  a  specialist  in  all  agricultural 
specialties." 

Of  course  this  critic  was  laboring  under  a  misapprehension.  Students 
of  farm  management  are  arguing  that  the  most  profitable  farm,  the  country 
over,  is  the  general  farm.  What  the  speaker  proposed  and  still  advocates 
is  that  the  agricultural  instructor,  in  a  region  where  general  farming  ought 
to  be  the  rule,  should  know  and  be  able  to  do  the  things  that  agricultural 
educators  are  everywhere  claiming  that  the  general  farmer  ought  himself  to 
know  and  be  able  to  do.  If  this  program  is  not  impossible  for  the  farmer 
himself,  it  should  not  be  impossible  for  the  one-teacher  department 
instructor. 

Assurance  of  success  was  made  doubly  sure  at  the  outset  in  Massachu- 
setts by  a  definite  reservation  of  time  every  year,  in  the  case  of  every 
instructor,  for  professional  improvement. 

Every  instructor  should  keep  abreast  of  the  best  farm  practice.  If  his 
duties  with  his  boys  are  so  engrossing  as  to  absorb  most  of  his  time,  during 
part  of  the  year  he  may  be  taken  away  from  his  boys  and  be  put  to  work  with 
farmers.  His  work  with  farmers  may  be  work  at  one  or  another  branch  of 
farming  in  which  he  is  not  sufficiently  proficient. 

Owing  to  the  stress  put  upon  practical  farm  experience  and  technical 
agricultural  training,  in  approval  of  candidates,  men  of  considerable  matu- 


28o  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  lAgricultural 

rity  are  generally  appointed  to  high-school  agricultural  instructorships. 
Their  point  of  view  is  essentially  the  point  of  view  of  the  adult.  They  are 
strongest  in  their  hold  upon  the  older  boys  in  their  classes.  Such  men  may 
need,  not  so  much  to  be  taken  away  from  boys  to  be  put  with  men,  as  to  be 
taken  away  from  men  to  be  put  with  boys.  Professional  improvement 
credit  in  Massachusetts  is  therefore  given  for  all  supervision  of  agricultural 
club  work  of  boys  twelve  and  thirteen  years  of  age.  Incidentally  of  course 
such  work  with  children  provides  an  excellent  finding  or  guiding  system. 

Equally  important  with  keeping  abreast  of  farming  is  it  that  the 
instructor  shall  keep  abreast  of  the  development  of  agricultural  science  in  its 
various  phases.  Part  of  the  year  accordingly  an  instructor  may  be  taken 
away  from  both  boys  and  farmers  to  be  put  with  agricultural-college 
research  and  extension  workers.  He  thus  finds  his  way  to  sources  of  sound 
information  and  returns  to  his  teaching  with  his  stores  of  knowledge  enricht 
and  with  his  spirit  invigorated. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  evident  that  professional  improvement  may 
require  periods  apart  from  teaching.  Winter  periods  have  generally  been 
selected.  Absence  of  instructors  in  December,  January,  or  February  does 
not  interrupt  supervision  of  projects  during  the  growing  season  when  such 
supervision  ought  in  all  cases  to  be  continuous.  It  tends  to  prevent  an 
overdose  of  book  agriculture  for  the  pupils.  Boys  who  have  been  hard 
prest  by  heavy  project  study  and  project  work  during  the  spring,  summer, 
and  fall  months  sometimes  benefit  from  the  half-time  vacation  from  school 
work  which  may  be  allowed  during  the  agricultural  instructor's  absence. 
Winter  absence  of  the  agricultural  instructor  makes  it  possible  for  other 
teachers  to  claim  more  time.  Boys  who  have  fallen  behind  thus  make  up 
what  they  have  lost.  A  very  desirable  device  for  stopping  the  gap  occa- 
sioned by  the  winter  absence  of  an  agricultural  instructor  has  been  the 
employment  of  a  foreman  carpenter  to  give  agricultural  pupils  farm  shop- 
work  instruction. 

Periods  of  professional  improvement  may,  however,  be  concurrent  with 
teaching.  Where  the  number  of  boys  to  be  supervised  during  the  summer 
is  not  so  great  as  to  demand  all  of  the  time  of  the  instructor,  one- quarter — 
in  some  cases  one-half — of  his  time  between  the  close  of  formal  class  instruc- 
tion in  June  and  the  opening  of  such  instruction  in  September  may  be 
devoted  to  professional  improvement. 

In  Massachusetts  the  first  steps  in  the  agricultural  teacher-training 
plan,  under  the  Smith-Hughes  Act,  are  being  taken.  A  sort  of  project 
method  of  teaching  teachers  how  to  teach  agriculture,  after  they  have  been 
appointed  to  their  jobs,  has  been  adopted.  The  teacher  trainer  goes  from 
school  to  school  and  from  man  to  man.  He  helps  each  instructor  on  the 
spot.  The  project  plan  of  teacher  training,  however,  provides  for  seminar 
courses  at  the  agricultural  college,  during  part  of  the  winter  and  part  of  the 
summer,  to  be  conducted  by  the  agricultural  teacher  trainer. 


Department]  DISCUSSION  28 1 

Professional  improvement  has  from  the  beginning  been  a  fundamental 
feature  of  the  Massachusetts  plan  of  vocational  agricultural  education.  A 
maximum  of  two  months  a  year  has  been  and  still  may  be  required.  During 
this  time  the  instructor  is  on  salary.  His  program  of  improvement  may  be 
proposed  by  himself,  by  the  local  school  authorities,  by  the  agricultural 
teacher  trainer,  or  by  the  state  supervisor.  It  is  subject  to  the  state  super- 
visor's approval. 

The  minimum  requirement  of  professional  improvement  is  two  weeks  a 
year.  Every  instructor  in  the  agricultural  education  service  must  attend 
a  winter  conference  and  a  summer  conference  of  about  one  week  each. 
Attendance  at  these  conferences  is  credited  to  each  man  as  professional 
improvement  work. 

The  speaker  feels  that  the  best  headway  is  made  at  sectional  con- 
ferences of  teachers,  as  in  the  teaching  of  agriculture  itself  by  immediate 
contact  with  jobs.  Men  on  the  program,  scheduled  to  discuss  one  or  another 
phase  of  their  equipment,  method,  or  results,  do  their  talking  at  home  and 
not  at  a  distance.  Those  present  see  that  what  these  instructors  state  they 
are  doing,  they  actually  are  doing.  Most  men  see  better  than  they 
visualize. 

Of  fundamental  importance  also,  the  speaker  feels,  are  joint  conferences 
of  vocational  agricultural  directors  and  instructors,  agricultural-college, 
research,  and  extension  men,  and  agricultural  county  agents.  Just  as  the 
instructor  returns  to  his  post  from  a  summer  conference  with  a  better  back- 
ground of  knowledge  of  agricultural  conditions  in  Massachusetts  and  of 
teaching  methods,  so  he  returns  to  his  post  from  a  joint  conference  with  a 
better  sense  of  the  agricultural  education  and  extension  movement  of  the 
country  and  the  state.  The  conferences  contribute  unity  of  spirit  and  aim. 
They  are  of  fundamental  importance.  In  other  phases  of  professional 
improvement  the  instructor  may  feel  that  he  is  working  more  or  less  as  a 
unit  and  principally  for  his  own  good  or  the  good  of  his  particular  field  of 
service.  At  the  conferences  he  feels  himself  swung  into  the  great  forward 
movement,  feels  himself  falling  into  step  with  the  great  host  of  workers  for 
agricultural  betterment.  He  returns  to  his  post  stronger  in  his  own 
strength,  but  stronger  by  far  in  the  united  strength  of  the  men  he  has  met, 
and  he  now  feels  himself  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  them  in  an  unconquerable 
advance. 


DISCUSSION 


A.  K.  Getman,  state  supervisor  of  agricultural  education,  Trenton,  N.J. — It ''is  a 
matter  of  common  experience  that  there  is  great  need  for  the  professional  improvement  of 
agricultural  teachers  in  service.  In  spite  of  the  development  of  special  courses  for  the 
training  of  teachers  of  vocational  agriculture  in  our  state  agricultural  colleges,  young  men 
are  constantly  entering  the  work  with  a  sense  of  their  inability  to  do  the  job  in  the  most 
effective  way.    Aside  from  the  follow-up  of  the  inexperienst  teachers  on  the  part  of  the 


282 NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIA TION  (Agricultural 

teacher-training  departments  there  are  two  effective  "ways  whereby  the  work  of  the 
teacher  may  be  greatly  improved:  (i)  by  sectional  conferences  held  at  convenient  points 
in  the  state  and  at  varying  intervals  during  the  year,  and  (2)  by  the  setting  aside  of  a 
definite  time  during  which  the  teachers  may  engage  in  professional-improvement  work. 

Speaking  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  state  supervisor  and  teacher  tramer  combined, 
the  holding  of  sectional  conferences  and  the  providing  of  opportunities  for  professional 
improvement  are  fundamental  essentials  of  good  administration  of  agricultural  education. 
In  this  discussion  these  two  phases  of  the  work  will  be  considered  as  being  separate  from 
the  itinerant  teacher-training  activities. 

There  are  four  more  or  less  well-defined  functions  of  sectional  conferences  of  teachers 
of  agriculture:  (i)  These  conferences  serve  as  a  very  effective  means  of  placing  before  the 
teachers  new  plans  for  the  work  of  any  given  year.  During  the  past  year,  for  example, 
conferences  have  been  called  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  the  plan  for  the  reorganization 
of  the  work  under  the  provision  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act.  In  many  cases  this  reorganiza- 
tion was  slight,  whereas  in  others  it  meant  a  radical  change  in  the  former  plans.  Again 
the  stressing  of  some  special  phase  of  work  that  may  be  deserving  of  attention  thruout 
several  parts  of  the  state  may  be  brought  about  thru  conferences.  Aside  from  the  presen- 
tation of  new  plans  or  departures  from  the  regular  routine  work  it  is  often  possible  for  the 
state  supervisor  to  present  possible  plans  and  to  receive  the  very  helpful  reactions  from 
the  men  before  these  plans  are  finally  put  into  operation.  (2)  Unquestionably  one  of  the 
best  methods  of  teaching  is  to  give  first-hand  experience  in  the  problems  under  considera- 
tion. Sectional  conferences  present  a  very  effective  means  of  raising  the  standards  of 
certain  kinds  of  work  by  means  of  observation.  Arrangements  may  be  made  for  the 
assembling  of  several  teachers  whose  problems  are  somewhat  similar,  and  visits  may  be 
made  to  the  scene  of  some  specially  good  pieces  of  work  in  the  community.  (3)  Sectional 
conferences  offer  an  opportunity  for  the  presentation,  by  the  agricultural  specialists  from 
the  college,  of  any  special  phase  of  agricultural  practice.  A  campaign  against  oat  smut, 
or  a  concerted  attack  on  any  troublesome  disease  or  insect  pest,  or  the  study  of  the  farming 
of  a  community  by  means  of  survey  methods,  are  illustrations  of  this  phase  of  improve- 
ment. The  specialists  are  thus  able  to  promote  the  particular  practice  which  they  are 
anxious  to  have  the  farmers  put  into  operation,  and  the  teachers  are  kept  in  close  touch 
with  the  best  and  latest  methods.  (4)  In  the  administration  of  agricultural  teaching  in 
any  state  plan  the  question  of  the  courses  of  study  is  constantly  coming  up.  Experience 
seems  to  indicate  that  the  courses  of  study  should  be  organized  primarily  from  the  point 
of  view  of  local  agriculture  rather  than  from  that  of  a  state-wide  plan.  It  frequently 
happens  that  a  group  of  men  is  engaged  in  teaching  agriculture  in  a  community  where  the 
types  of  farming  are  similar.  It  is  possible  by  means  of  conferences  to  prepare  tentative 
courses  of  study  based  on  the  actual  teaching  experience  of  the  men  who  are  facing  like 
problems. 

With  the  development  of  the  practice  of  employing  teachers  of  agriculture  for  twelve 
months  there  comes  the  definite  need  for  the  setting  aside  Jof  periods  for  professional 
improvement  work.  Experience  has  shown  that  this  improvement  divides  itself  naturally 
into  two  rather  distinct  groups:  (i)  Teachers  feel  the  need  of  keeping  in  contact  with  the 
new  developments  in  the  field  of  technical  agriculture  and  of  getting  into  touch  with  new 
developments  in  special  phases  of  business  problems.  (2)  Teachers  are  coming  more  and 
more  to  realize  that  they  need  assistance  in  the  organization  of  subject-matter  and  in  their 
teaching  methods. 

After  a  few  years  of  teaching  experience  in  a  given  community  a  teacher  frequently 
feels  that  he  needs  further  instruction  in  some  special  branch  of  farming  or  in  the  problems 
of  organization  of  the  various  community  activities.  During  the  time  set  aside  for  his 
professional  improvement  such  a  teacher  might  attend  a  college  of  agriculture  where  he 
would  receive  the  desired  instruction,  or  he  might  get  into  close  contact  with  the  practical 
phases  of  the  work  in  which  he  wishes  help.    A  teacher,  for  instance,  in  a  community  where 


Department]  HOME-PROJECT  WORK  283 

there  is  need  of  organization  for  marketing  purposes  might  well  devote  several  weeks  to  the 
study  of  market  conditions  in  the  prevailing  markets  for  that  community.  He  might 
also  with  profit  receive  instruction  from  professors  of  rural  economics  and  rural  organiza- 
tions. Equipt  with  this  training  he  would  be  in  much  better  shape  to  conduct  a  strong 
department  of  agriculture  and  to  assist  the  farmers  of  the  community  in  their  market 
problems. 

The  establishment  of  departments  of  agricultural  education  in  the  state  agricultural 
colleges  has  made  possible  the  development  of  courses  dealing  with  teaching  methods. 
Many  colleges  are  now  oflfering  special  short-unit  courses  for  teachers  of  agriculture. 
These  courses  are  usually  offered  after  the  Christmas  holidays,  at  which  time  it  has  been 
customary  to  permit  the  agricultural  teachers  to  gain  their  professional  improvement. 

It  is  usually  necessary  to  make  clear  to  the  school  officers  the  importance  of  the  pro- 
fessional improvement  of  agricultural  teachers,  and  it  is  well  to  have  this  understanding 
at  the  time  the  work  of  the  department  is  started.  Boards  of  education  are  usually  willing 
to  provide  periods  for  improvement  work  if  they  understand  that  such  work  is  carried  on 
in  an  organized  way  and  is  of  direct  benefit  to  the  school. 


HOME-PROJECT  WORK  TOO  SMALL— SOMETHING  BIGGER 
NEEDED— A  SUBSTITUTE  IN  OPERATION 

W.  S.  WELLES,  STATE  SUPERVISOR  OF  VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURAL 
INSTRUCTION,   RIVER  FALLS,   WIS. 

This  paper  is  the  condenst  thinking  and  work  of  eleven  years  on  the 
problem  of  public-school  agricultural  instruction,  in  and  thru  an  institution 
which  has  for  its  sole  purpose  the  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  state  of 
Wisconsin.  The  convictions  which  have  arisen  in  this  long  series  of  tests 
and  efforts  to  work  out  the  agricultural  instruction  problem  in  these  various 
fields  are  wholly  personal  and  apply  to  Wisconsin  conditions. 

Agricultural  education  is  still  in  its  unformed  youth.  As  long  as  this 
work  was  in  its  infancy  and  childhood,  the  mode  of  learning  in  vogue  was 
applied  to  agriculture  as  it  was  to  arithmetic  and  grammar,  and  we  had 
agriculture  from  the  book.  This  was  early  carried  over  to  the  laboratory 
method,  and  demonstration  and  observation  materials  were  in  demand. 
School  gardens  had  their  day  as  an  attachment  to  all  the  schools,  from 
country  school  to  city  high  school.  These  gardens  have  a  place  yet  in  the 
work  in  the  proper  location,  but  not  where  agriculture  is  a  serious  business. 

There  were  encouraging  signs  all  about  that  we  were  thinking  and  work- 
ing in  the  right  direction.  The  next  step  was  evidence  of  advance.  Thru 
the  school  plat  we  hoped  to  secure  real  agricultural  atmosphere  and  experi- 
ence. It  did  not  take  long  to  demonstrate  that  this  had  some  glaring  faults 
that  became  public  gossip  and  came  back  upon  the  school  heads  in  an 
uncomfortable  way.  The  school  plat  still  has  some  points  of  merit.  There 
are  also  some  strong  points  against  it. 

But  we  must  have  concrete  work,  we  must  have  the  pupils  participate 
in  the  actual  work  in  agriculture.  If  it  is  not  practicable  to  do  this  at 
school,  then  let  us  have  it  done  at  home.     Enter  "home  project"!    The 


284  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Agricultural 

great  advantage  to  be  gained  from  home-project  work  is  the  fact  that  the 
work  is  done  out  of  the  schoolroom  and  is  centered  upon  the  actual  process  in 
agriculture  in  the  field  and  the  barn  at  home,  which  means,  not  only  that 
the  teacher  and  the  pupil  are  interested  in  the  work  in  hand,  but  that  the 
parents  are  drawn  in,  in  a  way  which  makes  everybody  a  participant  in  the 
things  which  are  to  be  done.  I  have  had  a  great  deal  of  conversation  with 
quite  a  wide  variety  of  people  who  are  interested  in  agriculture  from  the 
teaching  point  of  view  on  the  question  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  home-project  work,  its  strength  and  its  weakness.  I  find  that  the 
people  with  whom  I  have  talkt  may  be  roughly  divided  into  two  groups: 
the  first  group  may  be  said  to  be  mechanically  minded,  and  its  members 
fall  easily  into  beaten  paths,  carrying  out  with  success  definite  instructions. 
The  other  group  is  composed  of  those  people  who  look  upon  agricultural 
instruction  as  a  developing  field  of  work  in  which  there  are  no  main  traveled 
roads  or  scarcely  blazed  trails  to  lead  them  in  that  work,  and  consequently 
they  are  thrown  upon  their  own  initiative  and  resources  to  work  out  the 
very  best  things  possible  in  this  field. 

One  question  has  been  put  to  all  of  these  people:  "Are  you  satisfied 
that  home-project  work  is  the  best  type  of  practical  work  for  school  people 
to  engage  in,  in  agriculture  ?  "  One  group,  in  answer  to  that  question,  said 
"yes,"  the  other  "no." 

In  order  to  see  whether  this  was  a  state  of  mind  true  only  of  the  teaching 
class,  I  began  to  ask  questions  of  people  who  were  directly  engaged  in 
agriculture — ^people  who  had  boys  in  school  or  beyond  school — and  was 
very  much  gratified  to  find  that  the  farmers  themselves  had  something  of 
the  same  mental  stretch  toward  something  more  valuable  in  agriculture 
for  their  boys  and  girls  than  had  yet  been  achieved.  The  following  is  a 
conversation  with  a  good  type  of  farmer,  named  Miller,  who  lives  six  or  seven 
miles  from  town  in  Dunn  County,  Wisconsin.  I  askt  him  these  questions 
with  the  intention  of  getting  his  personal  expression  on  two  points: 

"Did  your  sons  go  to  agricultural  school?" 

"Yes." 

"Did  they  carry  out  home  projects  ?" 

"Yes." 

"  Would  you,  on  the  basis  of  that  practical  work,  be  willing  to  turn  over 
the  corn  crop,  the  pig  crop,  or  the  butter  crop  on  your  farm  to  your  son  for 
him  to  manage  and  handle  ?  " 

"No." 

"Why  not?" 

"That  experience  was  too  small." 

"What  would  you  desire  for  your  son's  practical  farm  experience  thru 
his  school  training  then?" 

"Something  that  would  give  him  connection  with  all  the  work  of  the 
farm;  not  one  crop  or  one  portion  of  farm  work,  but  all  the  items  that  make 


Department]  HOME-PROJECT   WORK  28$ 

up  farm  business.  I  would  want  him  to  learn  how  to  manage  all  the  business 
of  the  farm  and  take  care  of  the  special  things  in  their  time  and  turn  as  a 
successful  farmer  must." 

There  you  have  it.  "Home-project  work  too  small — something  bigger 
needed." 

The  conversation  continued: 

"You  get  good  farm  help?" 

"Yes." 

"What  do  you  mean  by  *good  help'  ?" 

"They  take  an  interest  in  the  farm.  They  work  well  and  take  care  of 
things.    They  know  what  is  going  on  all  about  the  farm." 

"How  do  you  get  such  help  ? " 

"  I  hire  my  men  on  a  partnership  sharing  basis  in  the  production  of  the 
farm." 

"If  your  son's  agricultural  instructor  askt  you  to  take  your  son  in  on 
such  a  partnership  basis,  would  you  do  it  ?" 

"  Would  I  ?    I  wish  I  had  the  chance." 

There  it  is — "a  substitute  in  operation."  Why  not  give  all  these 
fathers  a  chance  to  take  their  sons  into  the  business  on  the  same  kind  of  a 
partnership  basis  on  which  they  hire  their  help  ?  I  have  yet  to  find  one  who 
will  maintain  that  such  an  experience  with  a  small  unit  of  agricultural  work 
is  satisfactory  in  the  preparation  of  an  individual  who  expects  to  make 
farm  work  his  business.  The  reason  for  this  opinion  is  just  what  has  been 
said — that  the  type  of  work  represented  by  the  home  project,  while  it  is 
good  so  far  as  it  goes,  fails  to  go  far  enough.  It  is  piece  work  and  special 
work  on  which  any  amount  of  time  may  be  spent  if  necessary,  and  to  which 
attention  can  be  given  at  any  time  it  may  become  necessary  to  attend  to  it, 
while  in  the  actual  practice  of  agriculture  the  dealings  are  not  with  these 
small  units  of  work  which  can  be  given  attention  just  at  the  time  when  they 
demand  it.  Instead  there  are  a  dozen  other  things  which  must  be  attended 
to  at  approximately  the  same  time. 

I  want  you  to  take  recognition  of  the  fact,  and  I  believe  thoroly  that 
it  is  a  fact,  that  it  is  mostly  the  one-time  office  boys  who  now  sit  in  the 
managers'  chairs  in  the  business  world.  It  is  not  the  fellow  who  was  an 
expert  in  the  packing  department,  or  an  expert  in  the  sales  department,  or 
an  expert  in  the  accounting  department. 

In  my  work  in  Wisconsin  in  connection  with  the  State  Board  for  Voca- 
tional Education,  for  which  I  serve  as  state  supervisor  of  vocational  agri- 
cultural instruction,  we  have  succeeded  in  putting  this  desire  for  greater 
things  in  the  nature  of  home  work  for  students  in  agriculture  on  a  real  and 
practical  basis.  The  number  of  boys  who  have  been  enroled  in  these 
partnerships  up  to  the  present  date  I  am  unable  to  give  definitely,  but  I 
know  of  five  counties  in  the  state  in  which  there  are  such  partnership 
arrangements. 


286  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Agricultural 

THE  BIRTH  AND  CHILDHOOD  OF  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

WITH  A  FORECAST  OF  ITS  DEVELOPMENT  DURING 

ADOLESCENCE 

DAVID  SNEDDEN,  PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION,  TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA 
UNIVERSITY,  NEW  YORK,  N.Y. 

The  last  fifteen  years  have  been  the  toddling,  teething  stage  of  growth 
of  vocational  education.  It  has  naturally  been  subject  to  many  of  the 
diseases  of  childhood.  At  times  it  was  not  certain  that  the  infant  would 
live;  and  some  have  doubted  whether  it  was  worth  raising.  The  present 
writer  can  say  with  good  grace  that  it  has  been  a  noisy  brat;  and  he  is  well 
aware  that  some  of  its  foster-nurses  have  made  uninterested  people  rather 
tired  by  their  predictions  as  to  how  the  infant  would  some  day  become  a 
lusty  youth  who  would  whip  the  other  and  less  vulgar  youths  in  the  vicinity 
and  even  make  some  respectable  older  folks  look  to  their  laurels. 

Since  the  whole-hearted  entry  of  the  national  government  into  the 
support  and  partial  direction  of  vocational  education  of  the  kinds  here  under 
discussion  the  entire  situation  has  assumed  a  new  aspect.  The  infant  is  no 
longer  regarded  as  a  foundling  and  interloper.  He  is  growing  and  learning 
fast.  We  can  see  now  that,  while  he  will  not  meekly  confine  himself  to  a 
corner,  neither  is  he  likely  to  become  a  bully,  even  if  in  a  few  cases  he  is 
given  for  a  while  the  food  and  freedom  of  ''dual  control."  He  is  really 
capable  of  being  civilized,  even  tho  our  refined  schoolmaster  senses  will 
long  object  to  the  work-a-day  clothing  that  he  must  perforce  wear,  and  to 
the  odors  of  machine  shop  and  stable  that  necessarily  chng  to  him. 

One  of  the  largest  illusions  now  prevalent  in  vocational  education  is  that 
a  vocation,  once  entered  upon  by  a  young  person,  must  be  followed  thru 
life.  The  fact  is  that  modern  life  is  organized  very  much  on  a  series  of 
occupational  levels,  and  naturally  the  beginner  enters  upon  some  level 
adapted  to  his  immaturity  and  inexperience.  No  one  seriously  expects  a 
girl  of  sixteen  to  be  a  school  principal  or  a  housewife;  yet  in  many  states 
more  thaij  half  of  all  girls  at  sixteen  have  already  entered  upon  full-time 
wage-earning  in  calHngs  that  are  truly  juvenile  occupations.  No  one 
expects  a  youth  of  eighteen  to  be  a  locomotive  engineer,  a  machine-shop 
foreman,  or  a  contractor.  The  man  who  is  the  typical  farmer  at  the  age  of 
forty  was  probably  a  hired  worker  on  a  farm  (his  father's  or  another's) 
from  sixteen  to  twenty-five,  then  a  tenant  or  renter  farmer,  and  in  middle 
Ufe  a  farmer  managing  his  own  land  and  capital.  In  all  our  great  manu- 
facturing caUings  there  exist  sometimes  scores  of  levels  indicated  by  varying 
wage  rates,  and  to  a  large  extent  advancement  from  one  to  the  other  is 
effected  on  the  basis  of  increasing  maturity  and  experience  and  would  be 
greatly  simphfied  and  expedited  if,  prehminary  to  each  new  level,  adequate 
specific  vocational  training  could  be  provided.  Even  in  the  so-called 
skilled   trades — which  are   almost  everywhere  undergoing  an  inevitable 


Department]  THE  NEW  EDUCATION  IN  AGRICULTURE  287 

economic  decline — the  age  of  effective  entry  on  apprenticeship  is  rising. 
Anciently  in  Europe  it  was  in  what  we  would  now  call  childhood's  year,  and 
it  is  still  as  low  as  fourteen  there.  In  America  apprenticeship  is  rarely 
begun  before  sixteen,  and  in  many  cases  eighteen  is  now  preferred;  yet 
many  of  those  who  must  eventually  become  artisans  are  under  necessity 
of  contributing  to  their  own  self-support  from  the  age  of  eighteen  onward. 


THE  NEW  EDUCATION  IN  AGRICULTURE  BASED  ON 
SOUND  PEDAGOGY 

WILLIAM   R.    HART,   PROFESSOR   OF   AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION,    MASSACHU- 
SETTS AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE,  AMHERST,   MASS. 

In  order  to  set  forth  some  of  the  features  of  the  new  education  in 
agriculture  certain  characteristics  may  be  noted:  first,  it  has  definite 
objectives;  secondly,  it  has  definite  modes  of  procedure  in  the  endeavor  to 
reach  its  objectives;  thirdly,  it  has  a  multiplicity  of  means  and  appliances 
to  be  employed  and,  fourthly,  the  new  education  in  agriculture  has  a  good 
body  of  sanctions  which  justify  it. 

There  are  at  least  three  rather  distinct  objectives  which  may  be  aimed 
at  in  agricultural  study:  vocational  intelligence,  personal  satisfaction,  and 
scientific  research.  As  to  the  time  of  beginning  vocational  training,  intel- 
ligent choice  cannot  be  made  before  the  years  of  a  moderate  degree  of 
maturity  of  both  mind  and  body.  The  mind  must  be  able  to  master  what 
is  presented  and  the  body  must  be  able  to  handle  the  necessary  appliances. 
Even  a  superficial  analysis  resolves  vocational  agriculture  into  a  group  of 
agricultural  vocations.  These  agricultural  vocations  may  be  groupt  under 
three  main  heads:  productive,  scientific,  and  social. 

The  second  objective  is  personal  satisfaction.  The  study  caters  to  one's 
whims  and  satisfies  a  curiosity  and  desire  to  enter  new  fields  of  learning. 
The  study  of  agriculture  from  the  standpomt  of  personal  satisfaction  may 
seem  to  be  a  somewhat  selfish  one,  yet  the  effect  upon  the  person  who 
studies  from  this  viewpoint  would  be  to  make  him  a  better  neighbor,  a 
more  genial  companion,  and  a  more  desirable  citizen. 

A  third  objective  is  scientific  motivation.  From  the  standpoint  of 
education  this  puts  the  study  of  agriculture  on  a  plane  different  from  that 
of  almost  all  other  subjects.  In  the  production  of  primary  raw  materials 
agriculture  is  a  complex  of  interdependent  arts.  Take  producing  corn  as 
an  example.  This  involves  the  art  of  preparing  a  seed  bed,  which  includes 
the  art  of  using  certain  tools,  some  of  them  so  specialized  as  to  be  useless 
for  any  other  purpose.  It  involves  the  art  of  planting,  of  tillage,  of  harvest- 
ing, of  preparing  for  market,  or  of  storage.  In  the  progress  of  this  perform- 
ance there  is  a  complete  change  from  one  set  of  tools  and  appliances  to 
another.     Each  step  in  the  process  from  preparing  the  soil  to  preparing  the 


288  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Agricultural 

final  product  for  market  involves  the  art  of  using  one  or  more  specialized 
forms  of  machinery.  Some  of  these  machines  are  moved  by  man  power, 
some  by  animal  power,  and  some  by  mechanical  power.  Thus  in  the  pro- 
duction of  corn  the  operator  must  know  the  arts  of  the  process  as  well  as 
the  arts  of  directing  the  power  used  to  carry  on  the  process. 

Agriculture  is  the  "vestibule  of  all  the  sciences."  First,  it  is  the  earliest 
in  origin.  Many  practices  in  crop  and  animal  production  considered  sound 
now  were  in  vogue  many  centuries  before  the  dawn  of  the  physical  and 
biological  sciences  as  we  know  them  today.  Secondly,  it  contains  a  most 
suitable  body  of  material  in  facts  and  processes  for  the  exercise  of  the  mind 
in  accumulating  experimental  knowledge  of  the  world.  Thirdly,  the  mys- 
tery of  the  facts  and  processes  awakens  a  curiosity  which  does  not  stop  at 
merely  wondering  why  things  are  so,  but  which  seeks  to  know  why  they  are 
so.  This  attitude  of  inquiry  is  the  forerunner,  the  herald,  of  the  true  spirit 
of  scientific  inquiry. 

Sooner  or  later  the  inquisitive  attitude  becomes  an  active  search. 
Searching  is  more  concerned  with  discovering  a  truth  than  with  merely 
solving  a  present  difficulty.  The  mind  passes  from  the  consideration  of 
things  of  immediate  significance  to  the  realm  of  reasons  for  related  things. 
In  short,  curiosity  about  facts,  inquisitive  attitudes  toward  them,  and  the 
active  search  for  an  explanation  of  them  are  the  ascending  steps  in  the 
vestibule  leading  to  the  spacious  room  of  pure  science.  In  this  way  science 
or  scientific  research  becomes  a  most  important  objective  growing  out  of 
education  in  agriculture.  This  has  some  bearing  on  the  method  of  proce- 
dure and  the  psychological  sanctions  of  the  theme  to  be  discust  later. 

The  mode  of  procedure  in  the  new  education  in  agriculture  includes 
much  more  than  simply  methods  of  teaching.  People  engaged  in  many 
other  vocations  may  take  advantage  of  its  messages.  In  addition  to  the 
various  classes  of  persons  affected,  there  is  also  an  increasing  definiteness 
in  the  plans  of  organized  effort.  The  agencies  made  use  of  in  organized 
effort  are  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  made  up  largely  of  school  pupils  but  not 
confined  to  them,  and  extension  projects  for  children,  young  people,  and 
adults  carried  on  as  home  enterprises  under  guidance.  The  procedure  fol- 
lowed by  these  agencies  has  an  element  of  informality  which  is  more  or 
less  disturbing  to  some  of  our  educational  systematists.  These  haphazard 
modes  of  procedure  are  not  so  unsystematic  as  they  appear.  Four  factors 
contribute  to  their  educational  value:  (i)  the  instruction  is  for  the  most 
part  timely  or  seasonal;  (2)  the  problems  are  personal;  (3)  the  information 
is  applicable  to  individual  needs;  and  (4)  the  knowledge  imparted  becomes 
power  because  it  passes  over  into  action. 

Other  and  highly  important  modes  of  procedure  are  those  of  the  special 
course  in  schools  of  secondary  grade,  the  vocational  schools  of  secondary 
grade,  and  the  agricultural  colleges.  Thru  these  agencies  the  study  of 
agriculture  is  related  to  the  well-estabhsht  machinery  for  promoting 
education. 


Department)  THE  NEW  EDUCATION  IN  AGRICULTURE  289 

The  need  of  stressing  practice  in  the  agricultural  arts  in  vocational 
courses  is  obvious.  The  knowledge  gained  thru  practice  is  even  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  a  theory  of  why  any  given  thing  should  be  done.  In  pursuing  a 
vocation  for  a  livelihood  knowledge  of  how  to  do  things  is  an  all-essential 
part  of  one's  equipment. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  aim  or  intent  of  the  student  rather 
than  the  method  of  learning  determines  whether  or  not  the  course  is  infor- 
mational or  vocational.  Secondary  schools  of  agriculture  are  avowedly 
vocational.  Entrance  into  such  a  school  is  an  implicit  declaration  of  inten- 
tion to  pursue  the  subject  toward  a  vocational  end.  Furthermore  the  end 
sought  is  in  a  large  measure  limited  to  the  arts  of  production,  either  of 
crops  from  the  soil  or  of  live  stock. 

The  agricultural  college,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  has  never  been  able 
to  present  a  clearly  defined  aim.  It  has  been  repeatedly  askt  to  produce 
farmers;  it  has  produced  some,  but  it  has  produced  men  and  women  for  a 
multitude  of  other  vocations,  and  also  men  for  the  professions  of  law, 
ministry,  medicine,  and  education. 

The  mere  fact  that  the  agricultural  college  has  always  been  regarded 
as  a  college,  and  therefore  as  dealing  with  college  students,  is  sufficient  to 
account  for  the  apparent  anomaly  of  an  agricultural  college  turning  out 
fewer  agriculturists  than  members  of  other  vocations.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  this  type  of  college  and  the  development  which  comes  with  advancing 
maturity,  new  interests  spring  up,  new  capacities  for  achievement  reveal 
themselves,  and  new  opportunities  beckon  the  ambitious.  Instead  of  seeing 
the  product  of  the  college  ghding  smoothly  into  a  single  occupation,  we  see 
the  graduates  drawn  into  many  vocations. 

Let  us  turn  for  a  moment  to  the  factors  that  give  sanction  to  this  work. 
For  convenience  these  sanctions  may  be  groupt  as  legal,  psychological,  and 
social.  This  involves  the  pedagogical  aspect  of  the  theme.  The  legal 
sanctions  include  federal  legislation,  state  legislation,  and  local  regulations. 
Four  federal  legislative  acts  stand  out  as  epoch-making  events  in  agricul- 
tural education  in  the  United  States.  These  are  the  act  authorizing  the 
estabHshment  of  agricultural  colleges,  the  act  authorizing  experiment 
stations,  the  act  authorizing  extension  teaching,  and  the  act  authorizing 
the  teaching  of  agriculture  of  less  than  college  grade.  These  are  extremely 
important  steps,  but  the  series  is  still  incomplete.  Two  more  acts  should 
follow  in  the  near  future,  one  for  agriculture  of  less  than  secondary  grade 
and  one  for  agriculture  above  college  grade. 

A  few  observations  are  submitted  relative  to  the  psychological  aspect 
of  the  case.  In  the  first  place  agriculture  makes  a  strong  emotional  appeal. 
It  is  socialized  nature.  Its  objects  and  processes  arouse  the  curiosity  of 
the  young.  These  same  processes  of  growth  in  hving  things  stimulate  the 
scientific  inquisitiveness  of  the  mature,  which  is  merely  grown-up  curiosity. 
The  little  child  in  his  first  garden  is  not  only  filled  with  curiosity  over  what 


290  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Agricultural 

he  sees  in  the  germinating  seed  but  has  a  feehng  of  triumph  that  he  played 
some  part  in  causing  the  seed  to  produce. 

The  cultural  effects  of  the  agricultural  crafts  are  also  worth  while.  The 
man  who  cultivates  or  improves  a  plant  acquires  the  discipHne  of  persistent 
effort.  He  secures  something  more  than  discipline.  He  demonstrates  his 
power  over  the  forces  of  nature.  He  can  attack  new  problems  with  a 
courage  born  of  conquest. 

Education  in  agriculture  makes  its  intellectual  appeal  also.  The  mind's 
effort  to  set  before  itself  a  problem  is  a  revelation  to  itseff  of  its  own  method 
of  growth.  To  propound  its  own  question  and  then  proceed  to  the  solution 
is  the  severest  examination  the  mind  can  undergo.  When  a  worth-while 
problem  is  once  stated,  interest  springs  up  in  response  to  the  allurement  of 
finding  a  solution.  Herein  is  the  psychological  warrant  for  the  educative 
value  of  the  "project"  as  a  method  of  study.  The  making  of  butter,  the 
fattening  of  a  pig,  the  producing  of  vegetables,  the  producing  of  eggs,  all 
seem  simple  enough.  When  analyzed  into  their  elements  each  one  is  found 
to  contain  factors  that  reach  over  into  apparently  unrelated  fields  of  learn- 
ing, like  chemistry,  physics,  botany,  and  physiology.  On  this  account  the 
solution  of  a  problem  in  agriculture  affords  the  highest  form  of  mental 
activity  in  the  play  of  ideas. 

Such  a  process  gives  educational  value  to  facts  and  principles  by  putting 
the  blood  of  utiHty  into  dead  formulas.  It  conveys  the  important  lesson 
that  fundamental  truths  may  be  learned  in  the  process  of  application.  It 
also  teaches  that  most,  if  not  all,  problems  in  agriculture  must  be  solved 
by  resorting  to  other  related  fields  of  learning. 

The  social  sanctions  which  justify  agricultural  education  are  production 
on  the  one  hand  and  agriculture  as  a  mode  of  life  on  the  other.  The  aim 
of  production  brings  into  sharp  reUef  human  interdependence.  The  agri- 
culturist may  suffer  some  isolation,  but  trade  and  transportation  are  essen- 
tial factors  in  his  vocation.  This  brings  him  into  touch  with  the  so-called 
outside  world.  Nevertheless  the  pursuit  of  agriculture  must  be  thought 
of  as  a  Ufe  with  elements  peculiar  to  itself.  It  has  a  distinctive  group  of 
industries. 

The  pursuit  of  agriculture  as  a  mode  of  life  works  a  profound  influence 
upon  civilization.  Tho  the  study  of  agriculture  may  not  impart  any 
knowledge  of  the  world's  fine  art,  contact  with  nature  and  mother-earth 
nurtures  the  art  impulse.  Tho  the  artistic  symmetry  of  plants  and  animals, 
the  variety  of  shades  in  the  colored  woods,  the  ceaseless  phantasy  of  the 
clouds,  can  never  bring  the  student  of  agriculture  into  a  knowledge  of 
poetry,  they  wiU  beget  the  poetic  impulse.  Tho  the  student  of  animal 
instincts  in  the  management  of  herds  may  never  learn  of  the  work  of  great 
generals  or  statesmen,  he  will  imbibe  the  impulses  of  leadership.  The  mind 
nurtured  among  nature's  rugged  laws,  where  Hfe  is  a  daily  struggle  with  the 
unseen,  of  which  the  plant,  or  the  storm,  or  the  changing  season  is  but  the 


Department]  RURAL  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL 


291 


symbol,  is  ripened  into  a  toughened  fiber  that  gives  it  that  most  coveted 
quality,  the  power  to  achieve. 

Agricultural  teaching  aims  at  a  more  intelligent  use  of  the  forces  of 
nature  for  the  better  sustenance  of  human  life.  When  the  college  does  all 
its  work  scientifically  and  primarily  for  human  service  rather  than  for  the 
sake  of  science,  when  the  common  school  can  train  children  primarily  for 
efficiency  in  adult  activities  rather  than  for  mental  discipHne,  when  the 
farmer  can  go  to  his  toil  conscious  of  his  power  over  natural  forces  and  ply 
his  trade  primarily  for  fuhiess  of  life  rather  than  for  merely  making  a  hving, 
then  the  foregoing  principle  becomes  a  unifying  force  converging  the  activi- 
ties of  the  three  agencies,  the  college,  the  school,  and  the  farm,  toward  the 
same  goal— better  men,  better  farming,  better  living. 


&FECT  OF  RURAL  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL  ON 
AGRICULTURAL  EFFICIENCY 

RUrUS  W.  STIMSON,  STATE  SUPERVISOR  OF  VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURAL 
EDUCATION,   BOSTON,   MASS. 

Those  in  charge  of  our  program  have  singled  out  for  discussion,  con- 
tinuation schooling  as  an  aid  to  agricultural  efficiency.  It  is  understood 
that  by  continuation  schooling  is  meant  further  education  of  those  who, 
after  reaching  the  age  when  they  are  no  longer  compelled  to  go  to  school  full 
time,  choose  to  attend  school  part  time.  It  is  further  understood  that  the 
framers  of  this  program  have  intended  to  limit  the  discussion  to  that  type 
of  education  which  directly  addresses  itseK  to  the  betterment  of  farming. 

It  is  now  exactly  ten  years  ago  that  the  speaker  proposed  and  began  to 
put  into  effect  what  has  since  come  to  be  known  very  generally  as  the  home- 
project  plan  of  teaching  agriculture.  A  home  project  may  be  defined 
briefly  as  a  farming  enterprise,  studied  and  planned  by  a  pupil  at  school  and 
carried  out  on  the  farm  where  he  lives,  with  the  support  and  cooperation 
of  his  father  or  his  employer  and  under  the  frequent  supervision  of  his 
instructor. 

The  speaker  believed  ten  years  ago,  and  he  believes  today,  that  this 
plan  is  capable  of  universal  application  among  high  schools  accessible  to 
those  who  live  on  farms,  who  help  with  the  regular  farm  work  thruout  the 
year,  and  who  desure  preparation  for  careers  of  efficient  farming.  He 
believed  then,  and  still  believes,  that  this  plan  is  about  equally  well  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  those  who  can  attend  school  full  time  and  of  those  who  can 
attend  only  part  time. 

Home  projects  have  been  taught  by  high-school  teachers  of  science 
who  have  made  of  them  means  of  correlating  science  instruction  with  rural 
or  suburban  environments,  but  the  home-project  plan  is  likely  to  be  most 
efficiently  executed  when  the  instructor  is  a  practical  farmer  of  ten  years 


292  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Agricultural 

or  more  of  experience  in  farming  like  that  of  the  locality  in  which  the 
projects  are  to  be  conducted,  is  possest  of  at  least  the  equivalent  of  a  four- 
year  course  in  an  agricultural  college,  is  not  the  principal  of  the  high  school, 
and  is  permitted  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  the  teaching  of  agriculture. 
Given  high-school  instructors  of  adequate  agricultural  training  and 
experience,  the  following  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  home  projects  as 
aids  to  agricultural  efficiency: 

1.  Home  projects  give  better  health.  The  efficiency  of  farming  is  too 
often  impahed  by  an  improper  diet.  A  modest  home  project,  suited  even 
to  the  younger  boy,  but  one  which  will  promote  farming  efficiency  thru  a 
varied  diet,  may  be  the  making  of  a  good  home  garden.  The  garden 
should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  supply  not  only  green  food  for  summer  use 
but  also  vegetables  and  small  fruit  for  canning,  dr3dng,  and  other  storage 
for  continuous  use  at  all  other  seasons. 

2.  Home  projects  save  money.  Not  long  ago  the  speaker  had  a  most 
excellent  meal  at  the  home  of  a  prosperous  colored  farmer  in  the  South  who 
was  introduced  as  a  man  who  "lives  on  his  farm  and  boards  at  home." 
For  his  ample  and  varied  diet,  including  vegetables  and  fruit,  meat  and  milk 
and  sweets,  he  did  not  depend  on  canned  goods  or  other  purchases  from  the 
market  at  the  crossroads,  in  the  village,  or  in  the  city.  His  food  require- 
ments were  exacting,  but  he  made  his  own  farm  meet  them. 

3.  Home  projects  are  patriotic.  We  are  hearing  it  said,  and  in  a  very 
real  sense  we  believe  that  it  is  true,  that  food  will  win  the  war.  The  nearer 
every  farmer,  white  or  black,  North  or  South,  East  or  West,  can  come  today 
to  living  on  his  farm  and  boarding  at  home,  the  better  patriot  he  will  be. 

We  need  have  no  hesitation,  therefore,  in  tempting  boys  back  into 
school  to  study  and  plan  home  projects.  If  they  cannot  come  all  day,  let 
them  come  part  of  the  day.  If  they  cannot  come  on  fair  days  let  them 
come  on  rainy  days. 

Whether  you  are  a  vocational  agricultural  instructor,  or  only  a  teacher 
of  science  in  a  rural  high  school,  be  a  "big  brother"  and  a  good  one  to  every 
farm  boy  in  your  locality.  Do  not  think  that  you  must  cram  knowledge, 
ideas,  or  ideals  into  such  boys.  Just  give  them  a  chance  to  pick  up  the 
best  you  have  to  offer.  Help  them  to  study  and  plan  improvements. 
Call  to  see  how  the  improvements  progress  and  boost  a  bit  here  and  there 
when  the  home  load  is  heaviest  and  the  wheels  turn  hardest. 

Many  a  boy  who  has  graduated  from  school  and  feels  that  he  has  no 
further  claim  upon  it  needs  your  help  and  will  profit  from  your  home- 
project  instruction.  Arouse  every  such  boy  to  the  needs  and  possibilities 
of  greater  and  greater  agricultural  efficiency. 

Do  not  neglect  the  illiterate.  "  Telling  "  and  "  showing  "  are  among  the 
most  valuable  features  of  home-project  instruction.  They  will  lead  the 
illiterate  to  greater  efficiency  in  his  agricultural  work.  They  may  lead  him 
to  thirst  for  knowledge  and,  by  evening  classes  and  other  means,  to  mastery 


Department!  RURAL  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL  293 

of  letters,  figures,  and  at  least  the  rudiments  of  a  general  education  in 
worthy  American  ideas  and  ideals. 

But  do  not  array  son  against  father.  Array  son  with  father.  Repeated 
instances  have  shown  that  son  and  father  may  continue  schooling  together, 
and  that,  working  together,  the  efficiency  of  their  farming  may  be  all  the 
more  rapidly  advanst.  And  do  not  forget  those  older  boys,  the  grown-up 
farmers  who  have  no  sons  in  your  classes.  Two  fathers  and  two  employers 
permitted  three  Massachusetts  boys  to  conduct  home  projects  by  which 
four  herds  of  dairy  cows  were  cost-accounted  for  a  year.  Forty  farmers 
attended  a  pubUc  meeting  at  which  these  boys,  with  the  aid  of  blackboards, 
presented  figures  by  which  the  relative  profits  from  individual  cows  and 
various  groups  of  cows  were  shown.  They  conducted  a  discussion  and 
answered  questions  for  more  than  two  hours.  A  sequel  of  this  meeting  was 
a  request  from  adult  farmers  for  evening  instruction  in  dairying. 

Expose  all  to  the  contagion  of  agricultural  efficiency.  Whether  they 
can  spend  little  time  with  you,  or  much,  trust  the  method.  "  Expose  "  them 
at  home  if  they  cannot  come  often  enough  to  school.  Keep  all  of  these 
pupils  "exposed"  to  every  germ  of  agricultural  efficiency  which  you  yourself 
have  caught,  or  which  you  can  catch  by  keeping  yourself  perpetually 
exposed  to  all  the  influences  which  are  making  for  agricultural  betterment. 

Bring  out  their  best.  Let  your  home-project  instruction  be  a  bugle  call 
to  the  best  in  every  farmer,  young  or  old,  in  your  locality — a  drumbeat  to 
brighten  his  eye,  to  quicken  his  step,  and  to  hearten  him  with  the  sense  of 
comradeslup  and  proud  endeavor. 

With  federal  and  state  aid,  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act,  now  available  and  hereafter  to  be  at  hand  in  increasing 
amounts,  we  may  confidently  expect  to  see  vocational  agricultural  depart- 
ments in  high  schools  enormously  multiplied  thruout  the  country.  With 
the  extension  of  such  departments  conditions  for  continuation  of  schooling 
for  farm  boys  and  their  elders  will  become  more  and  more  favorable.  This, 
in  the  speaker's  judgment,  is  one  of  the  happiest  auguries  of  this  new 
movement  in  education. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  SCIENCE  INSTRUCTION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — W.  H.  Timbie,  head  of  applied  science  department,  Wentworth 

Institute Boston,  Mass. 

Vice-President — Chester  B.  Curtis,  principal,  Central  High  School St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Secretary — Fred  D,  Barber,  professor  of  physics,  State  Normal  University Normal,  111. 


FIRST  SESSION— Tuesday  Forenoon,  July  2 

In  the  absence  of  President  W.  H.  Timbie  and  Vice-President  Chester  B.  Curtis,  the 
meeting  was  called  to  order  at  9 :  00  a.m.  in  the  physical-science  room  of  the  Schenley 
High  School  by  H.  A.  Calderwood,  head  of  the  electrical  department  of  the  Carnegie 
Institute  of  Technology.    Ruth  Hogan,  Schenley  High  School,  was  appointed  secretary. 

The  topic  for  the  session  was  "Applied  Science  the  Foundation  of  Modem  Society 
as  Revealed  by  the  War,"  on  which  the  following  program  was  presented: 

"Application  of  Science  to  Industry" — E.  R.  Weidlein,  acting  director  of  the  Mellon 
Institute,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

"  Cooperation  in  Essential  Industries  as  a  Result  of  the  War  " — E,  P.  Harris,  professor, 
Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

"Work  at  the  University  of  Pittsburgh  and  the  Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology 
with  the  Soldiers  Stationed  There" — H.  A.  Calderwood,  head  of  the  electrical  depart- 
ment, Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

"Demonstration  of  the  Microscope  Illuminator" — Alexander  Silverman,  professor. 
University  of  Pittsburgh,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Following  these  papers  the  members  entered  into  a  general  discussion  on  "Applied 
Science  the  Foundation  of  Modern  Society,"  after  which  a  visit  was  made  to  the  labora- 
tories of  the  Schenley  High  School,  which  were  open  for  inspection. 

SECOND  SESSION— Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  C.  C.  Dunning,  of  the  Peabody  High  School, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

The  following  program  was  presented: 

"Demonstration  of  Class  Work" — P.  M.  Dysart,  Schenley  High  School,  Pittsburgh, 
Pa. 

"Technical  Training  for  Soldiers" — William  E.  Mott,  dean  of  the  School  of  Applied 
Science,  Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

A  general  discussion  on  "How  We  Can  Preserve  Our  Civilization  or  Our  Reorganized 
Society  so  as  to  Get  the  Maximum  Benefit  of  Each  Man's  Talents  and  Activities,"  led 
by  Mr,  Dunning,  concluded  the  session. 

THIRD  SESSION— Friday  Forenoon,  July  5 

The  following  program  was  presented: 

Survey  of  the  Chemistry  Taught  in  the  High  Schools  of  Pennsylvania" — Alexander 
Silverman,  University  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Officers  for  the  next  year  were  elected  as  follows: 

President — Arthur  S.  Williston,  director  of  Wentworth  Institute,  Boston,  Mass. 
Vice-President — E.  R.  Weidlein,  acting  director,  Mellon  Institute,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Secretary — George  R.  Twiss,  state  high-school  inspector,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

29s 


DEPARTMENT  OF  SPECIAL  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — Joseph  P.  Byers,  701-2  Empire  Building Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Vice-President — Ida  M.  Manley,  supervisor,  Department  for  Defective 

Children Portland,  Ore. 

Secretary — Emma  Kohnky,  Burnet  and  Hearne  Avenues Cincinnatti,  Ohio 


FIRST  SESSION— Tuesday  Forenoon,  July  2 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  President  Joseph  P.  Byers  at  nine  o'clock  in  the 
School  for  the  Blind,  Bellefield  and  Bayard  streets. 

After  patriotic  singing  led  by  Walter  Earnest,  tenor,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  the  following 
program  was  presented: 

"The  Educational  Significance  of  Psychological  Examining  in  the  Army" — Robert  F. 
Yerkes,  major.  Sanitary  Corps,  U.S.A.,  Washington,  D.C. 

"The  Practice  Value  of  Psychological  Tests — Do  They  Find  the  Bright  and  Dull 
Pupils?" — Bertha  M.  Luckey,  director  of  the  psychological  clinic,  public  schools,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio;  A.  H.  Sutherland,  school  psychologist,  Los  Angeles,  Calif.;  Frank  Cody, 
assistant  superintendent  of  schools,  Detroit,  Mich.;  Norbert  J.  Melville,  director  of  the 
Psychological  Laboratory,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

SECOND  SESSION— Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3 
The  following  program  was  presented: 

"Classes  for  Subnormal  Children" — Alexander  Johnson,  field  secretary,  Committee 
on  Provision  for  the  Feeble-minded,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

"What  and  How  to  Teach  Defectives" — Charlotte  Steinbach,  supervisor  of  special 
classes,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

"Overcoming  the  Objections  of  Parents  to  the  Special  Class — Can  it  be  Done? 
How?" — H.  E.  Blackmar,  superintendent  of  schools,  Ottumwa,  Iowa;  Anna  M.  Kord- 
siemon,  supervisor  of  Special  School,  Quincy,  111. 

"Teachers  for  Special  Classes" — Eleanor  A.  Gray,  director  of  department  for  super- 
visors and  teachers  of  subnormal  children.  State  Normal  and  Training  School,  Oswego, 
N.Y. 

THIRD  SESSION— Thursday  Afternoon,  July  4 
The  following  program  was  presented: 

"The  Value  of  FoUow-Up  Work  (after  Supervision)  of  Special-Class  Pupils — Its 
Effect  on  the  Pupil,  the  Home,  the  Teacher.  Does  This  Follow-Up  Work  Belong  to  the 
School  ?  Can  It  Be  Wholly  or  Partially  Delegated  to  Other  Agencies  ?  If  So,  to  What 
Agencies?" — Mamie  Franks,  special-class  teacher,  Oklahoma  City,  Okla.;  Charlotte 
Steinbach,  supervisor  of  special  classes,  Cleveland,  Onio. 

"Does  the  Special  Class  Equip  Pupils  for  Industrial  Employment  (or  Unskilled, 
Domestic  Work,  Shop,  or  Factory)  in  the  Community?  Can  the  Cooperation  of  Em- 
ployers during  and  following  the  Period  of  School  Training  be  Secured,  and  How?" — 
Edith  A.  Scott,  director  of  special  classes,  Rochester,  N.Y.;  N.  M.  Slauson,  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.;  E.  R.  Whitney,  superintendent  of  schools,  Schenec- 
tady, N.Y.;  David  B.  Corson,  superintendent  of  schools,  Newark,  N.J. 

297 


298  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Special 

FOURTH  SESSION— Friday  Forenoon,  July  5 
The  following  program  was  presented: 

"The  Advantage  of  the  Special  School  over  Segregated  Classes" — ^Wilmer  Kinnan, 
assistant  superintendent  of  schools,  Lynn,  Mass.;  W.  P.  Roseman,  superintendent  of 
schools,  Sheboygan,  Wis. 

The  election  of  oflScers  resulted  as  follows: 
President — Joseph  P.  Byers,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Vice-President — Charlotte  Steinbach,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Secretary — Emma  Kohnky,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


THE  PRACTICAL  VALUE  OF  PSYCHOLOGICAL  TESTS— DO 
THEY  FIND  THE  BRIGHT  AND  DULL  PUPILS? 

BERTHA    M.    LUCKEY,    DIRECTOR    OF    THE    PSYCHOLOGICAL    CLINIC,    PUBLIC 
SCHOOLS,   CLEVELAND,   OHIO 

In  any  public  school  system  we  have  a  group  of  backward  and  retarded 
children.  As  far  as  their  school  work  is  concerned  they  are  subnormal,  but 
this  alone  does  not  tell  us  whether  they  are  really  subnormal  mentally,  or 
whether  because  of  poor  environment,  physical,  social,  or  otherwise,  they 
have  been  held  back.  If  we  are  to  bring  these  children  up  to  the  standard 
of  their  age  they  will  need  special  tutoring.  In  this  group,  however,  there 
are  those,  so  mentally  inferior  as  to  be  clast  as  feeble-minded  children,  who, 
because  of  their  lack  of  mental  capacity,  will  never  be  able  to  grasp  the 
regular  academic  branches.  How  shall  we  separate  these  children  so  that 
the  feeble-minded  group  shall  get  its  particular  training  and  the  others 
who  can  be  benefited  by  it  shall  receive  special  tutoring  ?  Shall  we  leave 
it  to  the  teachers  and  doctors?  Can  they,  without  use  of  psychological 
tests,  make  a  judgment  as  to  the  mental  abihty  of  these  children?  The 
doctor  can  judge  of  the  child's  physical  well-being,  his  physical  development, 
and  also  whether  any  special  stigmata  of  degeneracy  are  present.  Both 
the  physician  and  the  teacher  have  the  personal  appearance  and  actions  of 
the  child  from  which  to  make  their  judgment,  but  appearances  may  be 
deceiving. 

As  a  rule,  in  our  chnic,  children  are  examined  who  are  suspected  of 
feeble-mindedness  by  the  principal,  teacher,  or  doctor.  However,  during 
this  past  year  we  were  askt  to  examine  a  group  of  boys  in  our  boys'  school. 
The  boys  had  been  sent  to  this  school  because  of  troublesomeness  in  school 
or  truancy,  or  because  of  some  more  serious  trouble  which  had  brought 
them  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  juvenile  court.  One  hundred  and 
seventy- three  boys  were  examined;  they  were  in  the  first  to  the  sixth 
grades,  inclusive.  In  this  school  an  effort  was  made  to  place  the  boys  in 
the  grade  where  they  could  do  the  best  work.     For  example,  if  a  boy's 


Department]        PRACTICAL  VALUE  OF  PSYCHOLOGICAL  TESTS  299 

card  on  entering  the  school  showed  that  he  was  in  the  fourth  grade  at  his 
former  school,  he  was  placed  in  that  grade.  If  after  a  few  weeks'  time  he 
showed  that  he  could  not  do  the  work  of  that  grade,  he  was  put  back  into 
the  third,  or  wherever  he  could  master  the  work.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  was  found  that  he  could  do  better  work,  he  was  promoted.  On  studying 
the  results  of  the  examination,  a  very  positive  correlation  was  notist  between 
the  number  of  years  average  that  a  boy  was  for  his  grade  and  the  number 
of  years  he  was  below  the  normal  mentality  for  his  chronological  age. 
That  is,  dulness  in  school  was  shown  to  correlate  very  positively  with 
psychological  defects.  If  on  entering  the  school  he  had  been  examined 
carefully  he  could  have  been  placed  in  the  room  where  he  belonged,  without 
waiting  for  the  trial  of  from  three  weeks  to  two  or  three  months  in  the  grade 
where,  according  to  his  school  card,  he  had  been  placed.  In  this  group 
there  were  two  very  bright  boys,  both  of  whom,  according  to  the  teacher's 
report,  altho  much  younger  than  the  other  boys  of  their  grade,  were  doing 
as  good  work,  if  not  better,  than  the  best  of  the  class.  On  the  other  hand, 
one  can  give  illustration  after  illustration  of  the  success  of  psychological 
tests  where  other  methods  have  failed,  but  in  order  that  I  may  help,  with 
the  time  limit  set,  I  shall  mention  only  four  specific  instances  of  this  success. 

At  demonstrations  last  fall  I  had  reason  to  use  a  normal  child  to  contrast 
her  reaction  with  a  feeble-minded  child.  A  Uttle  six-year-old  girl,  of  very 
unprepossessing  appearance,  was  sent  in.  It  soon  developt,  thru  the  child's 
responses,  that  she  was  not  only  normal  but  very  much  brighter  than  a 
normal  youngster.  In  fact  she  showed  the  mentality  of  an  eight-year-old 
child.  This  unusual  brightness  was  mentioned  to  the  teacher  and  a  special 
promotion  advised.  The  child  was  tested  again  this  spring  and  she  still 
retained  her  mental  advantage  over  normal  children  of  her  age. 

The  second  case  is  of  a  boy  coming  from  an  unusually  good  home  and 
very  fine  stock.  The  parents  were  very  much  concerned  over  the  poor 
school  reports  that  the  boy  brought  home.  He  was  not  only  reported  as 
doing  very  poor  school  work  but  also  as  being  very  troublesome.  He  was 
eight  years  old  at  the  time  of  the  examination,  but,  much  to  the  surprise  of 
parents  and  examiner,  he  past  the  eleven-year-old  tests  easily.  On  the 
basis  of  the  examination  he  was  put  in  the  next  higher  grade  and  since  then 
has  had  no  trouble  with  school  work. 

The  third  child  was  a  girl  in  one  of  our  moron  girls'  centers.  This  girl 
had  acquired  in  her  school  a  veneer  which  gave  a  false  impression  of  her 
abihties.  One  felt  that  she  could  do  much  better  than  she  was  doing.  The 
principal  felt  this  so  strongly  that  she  askt  that  the  girl  be  placed  in  a 
regular  room,  as  she  did  not  belong  with  feeble-minded  children.  The 
examiner,  basing  her  judgment  on  the  girl's  response  to  the  psychological 
tests,  advised  against  it.  The  girl,  however,  was  placed  in  a  regular  grade. 
After  three  months'  trial,  the  principal  came  back  with  the  very  earnest 
request  that  the  girl  be  placed  back  in  a  moron  girls'  center,  as  she  couldn't 


300  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Special 

do  the  work  of  the  regular  school  and  was  proving  a  disturbing  factor  in  the 
room. 

The  fourth  child  was  a  seven-year-old  girl  who  had  just  entered  school. 
When  the  examiner  visited  the  school  the  principal  greeted  her  with  the 
statement,  "Oh!  there  was  a  girl  so  obviously  feeble-minded  in  our  first 
grade  that  I  put  her  in  the  special  class  without  waiting  for  her  to  be  tested. 
I  showed  her  to  the  school  doctor  and  he  said,  'Yes  she's  surely  nuts.'" 
The  examiner  tested  the  child  and  found  that,  contrary  to  the  teacher's 
and  doctor's  opinion,  the  child  was  normal.  It  then  came  out  that  the 
child,  owing  to  peculiar  home  conditions,  was  very  timid  and  not  accus- 
tomed to  playing  or  working  with  other  children.  On  the  advice  of  the 
examiner,  she  was  placed  in  the  kindergarten,  where  she  soon  learned  how 
to  play  with  other  children.  In  a  month's  time  there  was  a  complete 
change  for  the  better  and  in  the  four  years  that  have  elapst  since  this 
examination  the  child  has  moved  thru  school  at  a  perfectly  normal  pace. 

As  the  results  of  our  clinic,  work  piles  up,  and  the  feeling  grows  stronger 
and  stronger  that  while  the  psychological  test  may  not  be  absolutely 
infallible,  the  percentage  of  error  is  much  smaller  and  the  results  are  very 
much  clearer  and  more  definite  than  in  any  other  method,  either  pedagogical 
or  medical,  that  can  be  devised.  Practical  experience  with  school  children 
shows  very  clearly  that  psychological  tests  do  pick  out  the  dull  and  the 
bright  pupils. 

THE    PRACTICAL    VALUE    OF    PSYCHOLOGICAL    TESTS— DO 
THEY  FIND  THE  BRIGHT  AND  DULL  PUPILS? 

A.   H.   SUTHERLAND,   SCHOOL  PSYCHOLOGIST,   LOS  ANGELES,   CALIF. 

Any  instrument,  in  the  manipulation  of  which  an  individual  shows  his 
information,  ability,  or  knowledge,  is  a  psychological  object.  Any  set  of 
psychological  objects  arranged  to  constitute  a  problem  to  an  individual  is 
a  psychological  test. 

Every  recitation  is  a  test  for  those  who  take  part  in  it.  Every  examina- 
tion, written  or  oral,  is  a  test.  Every  examination  of  a  form  used  by  others 
or  set  before  pupils  elsewhere  is  a  psychological  test.  Every  formal  set 
of  exercises  or  every  formal  set  of  questions  on  which  the  performance  of 
normal  children  is  known  advances  a  stage  toward  greater  accuracy  and 
is  therefore  a  form  to  be  preferred.  Every  set  of  questions  or  every  outHne 
of  activities  to  be  performed  on  which  the  normal  performances  of  children 
of  different  abihties  or  ages  is  known  is  a  scientific  test,  because  it  lends 
itself  to  classification  of  results  and  prediction  on  the  basis  of  the  results. 
But  of  all  the  general  abihties  shown  in  school  work,  or  playground,  or 
sloyd,  or  other  manual  or  mental  operations,  the  laboratory  has  shown 
that  these  are  made  up  of  simpler  mental  and  nervous  functions  which 
have  become  integrated  by  practice.    The  test  which  is  aimed  to  expose 


Department]        PRACTICAL  VALUE  OF  PSYCHOLOGICAL  TESTS  301 

the  stage  of  advancement  attained  by  an  individual  in  the  performance  of 
one  of  these  simpler  operations  is  the  product  of  laboratory  psychology, 
and  is  the  only  kind  of  test  which  can  finally  be  of  educational  service. 

A  Binet  test  is  a  set  of  particular  questions  from  which  it  is  easy  to 
generalize.  It  is  therefore  spoken  of  as  a  general-inteUigence  test.  By 
means  of  this  test  it  is  possible  to  compare  the  relative  accuracy  of  teachers' 
judgments  with  a  scientific  test.  Of  1000  children  tested  in  the  Los  Angeles 
schools  (all  the  pupils  of  twenty-two  imgraded  rooms  and  two  parental 
schools  and  the  failures  in  Grades  I  to  VI  in  twenty-two  elementary  schools) 
the  following  comparison  has  been  made: 

Teacher's  Judgment  Scientific  Test 

Ungraded  rooms 100  per  cent  defective        74 . 2  per  cent  defective 

Parental  schools 100  per  cent  defective        81 .0  per  cent  defective 

Non-promotion 100  per  cent  defective        36 .4  per  cent  defective 

It  cannot  be  doubted  that  many  factors  enter  into  the  judgment  of  the 
teacher  which  are  eliminated  by  the  scientific  test.  This  is  indeed  the 
purpose  of  the  scientific  test. 

Any  test  is  as  good  as,  and  no  better  than,  the  person  who  uses  it. 
There  is  some  pretense  that  certain  psychological  tests  can  be  used  auto- 
matically and  mechanically.  I  have  not  found  it  so  in  my  own  experience. 
After  teaching  several  hundred  teachers  to  perform  some  of  the  rough  pre- 
liminary tests  (such  as  the  Binet  in  one  or  more  of  its  modifications)  I  have 
become  more  and  more  convinst  that  teachers  will  find  innumerable  ways 
to  vary  the  procedure;  and  I  am  also  firmly  convinst  that  they  will  not  do 
full  justice  to  the  child  unless  they  do  vary  their  procedure.  There  is 
always  an  interpretation  to  be  considered.  In  the  minds  of  many  teachers 
the  arithmetic,  reading,  spelhng,  and  geography  tests  are  being  used  to 
diagnose  mental  defect.  This  is  frequently  a  rank  injustice  to  the  pupils. 
In  many  cases  I  have  found  a  high  grade  of  mentality  in  children  who  have 
fallen  in  the  lower  quartile  on  the  standardized  school  tests.  Every  teacher 
should  learn  to  perform  the  tests,  not  for  purposes  of  diagnosis  of  children, 
but  for  the  guidance  of  her  own  behavior  toward  them. 

Tests  should  be  used  analytically.  First  find  the  arithmetical  opera- 
tion, the  reading  operation,  the  spelling  operation,  which  can  be  performed 
at  or  above  the  median;  then  find  the  information  and  abihty  as  indicated 
by  some  modification  of  the  Binet  test;  and  in  the  light  of  these  two  facts 
test  the  senses,  perceptions,  memories,  associations,  discriminations,  apper- 
ceptions, and  logical  abiUties  as  indicated.  It  is  clear,  if  this  is  good  advice, 
that  a  psychological-laboratory  training  is  indispensable  to  accurate  testing. 

In  some  school  systems  of  approximately  10,000  children  there  will  be 
solved  the  problems  of  speed  classes,  extra  promotions,  and  the  care  of 
backward  and  defective  pupils.  Here,  I  venture  to  predict,  the  school- 
room tests  will  be  performed,  not  once  merely,  but  at  regular  intervals  as 
practice  exercises.    The  teacher  and  pupil  in  collaboration  will  work  out 


302  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Special 

for  each  pupil  his  learning  curve.  The  pupil  will  find  in  this  objective  mark- 
ing system  a  basis  of  comparison  of  his  own  abiUties  and  progress  coordinate 
with  similar  marking  methods  of  the  playground  and  of  Ufe.  He  will 
find  in  it  his  best  stimulus  and  his  best  reward.  He  will  cultivate  the  moral 
quahties,  the  manly  and  womanly  qualities,  the  social  quaHties,  and  the 
individuahty  which  society  will  demand  of  him.  He  will  remodel  the 
teacher.  From  a  day  laborer  engaged  in  shoveling  facts  into  thick  heads 
she  will  begin  to  assume  her  proper  function,  that  of  guide  and  inspiration 
to  the  enthusiasms  of  life. 

Psychological  tests,  in  the  hands  of  the  expert,  not  only  find  the  bright 
and  the  dull  pupils  but  enable  us  to  grade  them  and  rank  them  objectively. 
More  important  still,  we  are  enabled  to  discover  what  to  do  for  them,  and 
to  predict  with  a  fair  measure  of  scientific  accuracy  the  extent  to  which  they 
will  avail  themselves  of  the  opportunities  which  are  set  before  them. 


THE  PRACTICAL  VALUE  OF  PSYCHOLOGICAL  TESTS— DO 
THEY  FIND  THE  BRIGHT  AND  DULL  PUPILS? 

FRANK  CODY,  ASSISTANT   SUPERINTENDENT  OF   SCHOOLS,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

A  psychological  clinic  is  a  clearing-house  whose  function  it  is  to  help 
in  the  solution  of  all  kinds  of  problem  cases.  It  is  to  the  teacher  what  the 
specialist  is  to  the  general  physician.  To  it  are  brought  the  exceptional 
or  atypical  children,  the  misfits  in  the  school  system.  It  is  the  duty  of 
the  staff  of  the  clinic — clinical  psychologists,  physicians,  social  workers — 
to  discover  the  cause  of  the  child's  retardation  and  prescribe  the  proper 
remedial  treatment,  whether  the  treatment  be  educational,  medical,  or 
social.  Its  practical  value  to  a  school  system  may  perhaps  be  best  shown 
by  describing  the  types  of  cases  it  investigates,  thus  giving  an  idea  of  the 
scope  of  its  work. 

1.  Feeble-minded  or  permanently  retarded  children. — Of  these  children 
the  clinic  will  exclude  from  school  the  ones  of  so  low  a  grade  that  they 
cannot  be  educated,  and  thus  the  system  will  be  saved  from  the  paradoxical, 
situation  of  attempting  to  educate  those  incapable  of  training.  Those 
children  who  can  to  a  limited  extent  be  taught  will  thru  the  cUnic  be  assigned 
to  special  classes,  where  it  is  possible  to  adjust  school  activities  to  the  child's 
own  rate  of  progress.  In  addition  to  the  service  thus  rendered  thru  the 
chnic  to  the  feeble-minded  child,  there  will  be  the  inestimable  benefit  to 
the  regular  grade  child  of  removing  the  feeble-minded  from  the  regular 
grade  room. 

2.  Restorahle  cases. — Normal  children  who  are  pedagogically  retarded 
thru  late  entrance,  half-day  sessions,  poor  teaching,  pecuHar  mental 
make-up,  etc.,  may  be  assigned  to  a  restoration  class,  where,  under  the 
direction  of  an  expert  teacher  especially  trained  to  understand  such  cases, 


Department]         PRACTICAL  VALUE  OF  PSYCHOLOGICAL  TESTS  303 

the  work  of  the  room  may  be  adjusted  to  meet  the  child's  developmental 
needs.  By  such  treatment  these  children  can  be  restored  to  the  regular 
grade,  and  thus  the  system  will  be  saved  from  the  waste  of  repetition  and 
failure. 

3.  The  normal  child  with  certain  specific  mental  defects  which  do  not 
exclude  the  possibility  of  normal  progress  hut  require  special  treatment. — Thru 
the  advice  of  the  chnic  these  cases  can  be  taken  care  of  by  the  regular 
teacher,  thus  saving  the  child  and  the  system  from  the  cost  of  failure  or 
from  the  expense  of  residence  in  a  special  class  or  a  restoration  class. 

4.  Disciplinary  cases. — Thru  the  clinic  the  teacher  may  be  advised  as 
to  their  treatment,  or  they  may  be  assigned  to  ungraded  classes. 

5.  Speech  cases. — Thru  the  clinic  these  cases  may  be  assigned  to  special 
speech  teachers  for  correction  of  speech  defects  interfering  with  normal 
progress. 

6.  The  child  with  physical  defects  which  interfere  with  normal  progress. — 
These  cases  may  be  directed  to  physicians  or  medical  clinics  for  remedial 
treatment,  or,  in  cases  where  the  defect  makes  special  educational  treat- 
ment necessary,  as  in  the  case  of  the  blind,  deaf,  etc.,  the  child  may  be 
assigned  to  the  proper  special  class. 

7.  The  supernormal  child. — By  this  we  mean  the  child  who  is  capable 
of  progressing  at  a  more  rapid  rate  than  the  normal  child,  or  who  is  capable 
of  a  richer,  fuller  course.  These  children,  considering  their  possibilities, 
are  often  more  retarded  than  subnormal  children.  As  they  are  probably 
our  future  leaders,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  we  give  them  an 
education  fitted  to  their  needs,  one  which  will  make  them  the  right  kind 
of  leaders. 

8.  Vocational  guidance. — Allowing  a  child  when  he  leaves  school  to 
find  for  himself  his  place  in  the  industrial  world  is  expensive  for  him  and 
uneconomical  for  society.  Psychological  testing  has  advanst  to  a  point 
where  it  can  render  valuable  assistance  in  finding  the  vocation  to  which  a 
boy  or  girl  is  best  adapted,  thus  saving  the  child  and  society  much  valuable 
time  and  service. 

Can  this  work  be  done  without  a  psychological  clinic  ?  I  do  not  believe 
it  can  be  done  efficiently  or  without  much  waste.  The  experience  of  any 
clinic  will  verify  the  statement  that  most  teachers  are  not  qualified  prop- 
erly to  place  these  misfits  in  the  school  system.  Deaf  children  are  declared 
by  the  teacher  to  be  "stupid,"  disciplinary  cases  are  called  feeble-minded. 
The  bright  child  is  often  not  appreciated,  because  he  is  compared  with 
children  older  than  he  chronologically.  Or  a  child  is  declared  bright 
because  he  makes  a  good  appearance  or  expresses  himself  very  well.  Such 
a  child  was  recently  examined  at  the  clinic.  He  had  been  placed  in  a  class 
for  bright  children.  When  tested  he  was  found  only  normal,  with  a  special 
gift  in  language.  He  was  even  a  little  below  par  in  mathematical  subjects. 
By  the  report  of  the  teacher  of  the  class  he  was  as  much  of  a  drag  upon  her 


304  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Special 

children  as  the  subnormal  is  upon  the  normal  child.  A  psychological 
test  before  placing  that  child  would  have  prevented  his  assignment  to  a 
room  where  he  was  obviously  a  misfit. 

In  order  to  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  a  public-school  system,  the 
psychological  clinic  must  be  well  organized,  with  adequate  equipment. 
Provision  must  be  made  for  a  physical  and  sociological  examination,  as 
well  as  for  a  mental  examination.  The  staff  of  the  clinic  must  be  both 
trained  and  experienst.  A  set  of  standardized  tests  do  not  constitute  a 
psychological  clinic,  altho  they  are  a  valuable  aid  to  diagnosis.  Mentality 
is  very  complex  and  cannot  be  measured  by  a  yardstick  or  weighed  on  a 
scale.  The  use  of  standardized  tests  in  a  slide-rule  fashion  is  productive 
of  much  harm.  To  be  of  value,  the  test  must  be  interpreted.  The  purpose 
of  the  examination  is  to  make  a  mental  analysis  of  the  child  similar  to  the 
analysis  the  chemist  makes  of  a  chemical  compound.  The  mental  analysis 
should  discover  what  assets  and  defects  the  child  has,  and  on  the  basis  of 
this  analysis  the  examiner  can  prescribe  the  treatment  best  adapted  to 
the  child's  needs  and  best  directed  to  secure  the  maximum  mental  develop- 
ment for  that  child. 

That  principals  and  teachers  do  not  know  the  various  types  of  sub- 
normal children  is  shown  by  the  investigation  undertaken  by  the  psycho- 
logical chnic  this  year.  Four  rooms  for  children  pedagogically  retarded 
but  beheved  to  be  normal  by  teachers  were  examined,  with  the  following 
results:  Of  the  202  children  examined,  64,  or  32  per  cent,  were  normal; 
62,  or  31  per  cent,  were  dull;  76,  or  37  per  cent,  were  feeble-minded  or 
border-line. 

The  psychological  clinic  examined  1620  cases  this  year.  These  cases 
are  reported  to  the  clinic  by  the  school  principal  or  teacher  as  candidates 
for  special  classes  of  various  types.  Of  these,  10  per  cent  were  normal 
and  35  per  cent  dull.  Only  55  per  cent,  or  a  little  over  half,  were  found 
to  be  border-Hne  or  feeble-minded  children. 

That  the  psychological  clinic  is  of  inestimable  value  to  a  pubHc  school 
system  is  thus  easily  demonstrated. 


WHAT  AND  HOW  TO  TEACH  DEFECTIVES 

CHARLOTTE   STEINBACH,   SUPERVISOR   OF   SPECIAL  CLASSES, 
CLEVELAND,   OHIO 

Our  first  business  is  teaching  what  is  necessary  to  bring  the  pupil  more 
nearly  in  line  with  normal  children  in  appearance  and  conduct.  If  he  is 
dirty,  slovenly,  rude,  and  indolent,  we  must  train  him  to  habits  of  clean- 
liness, neatness,  and  poHteness. 

Then  comes  initiation  into  the  "what  and  how"  to  do  best  those  things 
that  must  be  done  in  every  schoolroom  to  keep  it  presentable,  orderly,  and 


Department!  OBJECTION  OF  PARENTS  TO  THE  SPECIAL  CLASS  305 

clean.  These  things  must  be  taught  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  to  nearly 
every  special  pupil  upon  entrance  to  the  class. 

The  curriculum  for  special-class  pupils  places  most  emphasis  upon  hand 
training,  beginning  with  simplest  exercises  for  those  of  low  grade  or  those 
with  weak  coordination,  and  progressing  to  the  departmental  work  carried 
on  in  the  schools  for  morons.  With  the  high-grade  classes  undoubtedly 
the  best  work  can  be  done  where  speciaUsts  are  provided  to  teach  the 
different  lines  of  work,  such  as  domestic  science  and  manual  training, 
sewing,  weaving,  brush-making,  and  work  with  reed.  Those  moron  pupils 
who  have  had  several  years  of  experience  in  such  training  centers  generally 
develop  considerable  skill. 

As  much  academic  work  should  be  given  as  can  be  profitably  used  by 
the  pupil:  simple  number  work  closely  correlated  to  life's  problems,  read- 
ing as  advanst  as  can  be  appreciated,  and,  most  important  perhaps,  oral  and 
written  language,  enabling  the  pupil  to  express  himself  as  well  as  possible. 

As  to  how  we  should  teach  defectives,  that  depends  upon  the  special 
make-up  of  each  child.  Each  teacher  must  work  out  her  own  salvation, 
studying  her  charges  individually. 

A  short  time  ago  a  regular  grade  teacher  of  domestic  science  visited  one 
of  our  girls'  centers  and  spent  some  time  in  the  sewing-room.  Later  she 
made  this  criticism  to  the  directing  teacher  of  the  center:  "I  saw  some 
excellent  work  in  the  room,  but  some  of  the  girls  were  holding  their  work 
in  awkward  fashion  and  one  girl  actually  held  her  needle  in  her  left  hand." 
The  directing  teacher  repUed,  "After  the  girls  have  been  with  us  for  some 
time  their  ways  will  improve,  but  as  for  the  girl  you  saw  with  the  needle 
in  her  left  hand,  we  are  glad  she'll  hold  a  needle  at  all.  For  the  present, 
in  fact,  I  would  be  happy  (knowing  her  as  I  do)  if  she  would  work  with 
her  toes,  if  we  couldn't  do  better." 

Do  what  you  can  in  any  way  you  can  go  as  far  as  you  can,  is  a  fair  motto 
for  our  special  classes. 

OVERCOMING  THE  OBJECTION  OF  PARENTS  TO  THE 
SPECIAL  CLASS— CAN  IT  BE  DONE?    HOW? 

H.   E.   BLACKMAR,   SUPERINTENDENT  OF   SCHOOLS,   OTTUMWA,   IOWA 

Any  program  for  improvement  of  school  work  must  begin  with  the 
teacher.  Of  course  every  teacher  should  be  patient,  sympathetic,  energetic, 
progressive,  and  resourceful;  but  the  teacher  who  gets  real  results  with 
subnormal  children  surely  must  have  all  these  qualities  in  the  highest 
possible  degree. 

The  subnormal  child  lacks  the  incentive  of  completing  the  school  course, 
which  is  such  a  strong  factor  in  keeping  the  normal  child  in  school  and  in 
keeping  his  work  up  to  the  required  standard.  He  sees  little  or  no  rela- 
tion of  the  school  work  to  his  future  needs;  so  the  teacher,  while  keeping 


3o6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Special 

the  future  of  the  child  in  mind,  must  make  her  appeal  almost  wholly  thru 
the  accomplishments  and  the  satisfaction  of  the  day.  This  child  lives 
largely  in  the  present,  and  the  small  tasks  accomplisht  and  the  word  of 
praise  given  mean  much  more  to  him  than  to  the  one  who  is  accustomed 
to  success.  Only  the  most  resourceful  and  tactful  teacher  discovers  what 
task  to  assign  and  how  to  get  the  best  possible  response. 

The  course  of  study  for  a  subnormal  room — if  it  may  be  called  by  that 
name — should  be  made  as  different  as  may  be  from  the  regular  work  of  the 
class,  first,  that  it  may  be  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  children,  and 
secondly,  that  it  may  prevent  comparison  with  the  regular  work,  which 
may  be  a  source  of  dissatisfaction  to  both  pupils  and  parents.  Different 
textbooks  are  used,  definitely  graded  books  are  avoided.  The  teacher 
has  a  smaller  number  of  pupils,  a  greater  variety  of  work  is  given,  and  pupils 
are  not  held  to  any  definite  accompHshment.  Some  class  work,  however, 
is  more  satisfactory  to  pupils  and  gets  better  results  because  it  stimulates 
rivalry. 

The  parents  of  subnormal  children  are  not  especially  critical  of  the 
associates  or  the  environment  of  their  children,  and  their  educational 
ideals  are  not  of  the  highest.  The  camouflage  of  ungraded  room,  special- 
help  room,  or  opportunity  room  is  sometimes  revealed  by  the  pupils  who 
use  the  plain  term  ''dummy  room."  This  may  annoy  sensitive  parents, 
but  they  can  easily  be  persuaded  that  such  terms  are  not  so  humiliating 
to  the  child  as  is  the  constant  comparison  of  his  class  work  with  that  of 
children  who  can  accompHsh  so  much  more  than  is  possible  for  him.  The 
low  educational  ideals  of  such  parents  make  them  indifferent  to  the  loss  of 
regular  classification,  because  the  purpose  of  finishing  a  definite  course  is 
lacking,  and  they  do  not  appreciate  the  value  of  the  organized  work  of  the 
grades  as  a  foundation  for  further  educational  progress. 

The  number  of  subnormal  children  whose  condition  is  due  to  causes 
other  than  heredity  is  comparatively  small,  and  if  they  are  sent  to  the 
pubHc  schools  their  parents  must  be  dealt  with  as  individuals.  Such  parents 
more  readily  appreciate  the  handicap  of  their  children  and  their  need  of 
special  help  than  do  parents  whose  mental  condition  is  more  like  that  of 
their  children. 

Parents  of  subnormal  children  are  not  different  from  the  average 
parents  in  that  they  give  comparatively  little  attention  to  the  school  Hfe 
of  their  children  as  long  as  the  child  is  contented  and  happy;  and  a  special 
room  for  subnormal  children,  properly  conducted,  cannot  fail  to  make  the 
children  happier  and  more  contented  with  their  work.  Most  human  beings 
have  more  or  less  ambition  to  do  something  better  than  other  people  can 
do  it,  or  at  least  to  appear  to  do  so.  The  only  chance  for  the  subnormal 
child  to  excel  is  to  compete  only  with  his  kind.  As  long  as  the  child  is 
happy  and  is  able  to  display  some  accomphshments  and  some  successes, 
however  small  they  may  be,  the  parents  are  satisfied. 


Department)  OBJECTION  OF  PARENTS  TO  THE  SPECIAL  CLASS  307 

OVERCOMING  THE  OBJECTION  OF  PARENTS  TO  THE  SPECIAL 
CLASS— CAN  IT  BE  DONE?    HOW? 

ANNA  M.   KORDSIEMON,   SUPERVISOR  OF   SPECIAL  SCHOOL,   QUINCY,   ILL. 

In  the  important  task  of  overcoming  the  objection  of  parents  to  the 
special  class  much  depends  upon  the  tact  and  personality  of  the  person 
with  whom  the  parent  has  the  interview. 

If  the  transfer  from  the  regular  grade  to  the  special  school  is  made  only 
after  a  careful  investigation  of  the  case,  a  scientific  test,  and  perhaps  a 
physical  examination,  then  the  teacher  or  supervisor  is  fairly  well  equipt 
with  facts  to  show  that  the  child's  welfare  is  being  considered.  I  have 
found  that  meeting  the  mother  in  her  own  home  usually  brings  the  best 
results.  Here  the  sympathetic  teacher  may  meet  the  mother  on  her  own 
ground,  and  often  the  mother  will  confide  in  her  and  give  her  exactly  the 
information  needed  in  the  care  and  training  of  the  child  in  school. 

Every  argument  should  be  used  to  show  that  the  change  is  being  con- 
sidered for  the  child's  good,  and  that  it  is  not  a  matter  of  ostracizing  the 
child.  The  smaller  groups  in  the  special  school  permit  more  individual 
observation  and  instruction,  and  the  child  may  be  able,  by  special  effort, 
to  regain  his  place  in  the  grade.  It  may  be  pointed  out  that  this  is  fre- 
quently done.  The  hope  of  reaching  a  higher  grade  sometimes  proves  an 
incentive  to  the  retarded  child,  and  in  the  special  school  his  weak  points 
may  be  more  closely  studied  and  he  may  be  able  to  make  reasonable 
progress.  A  child  is  rarely  equally  deficient  in  all  branches  of  study, 
and  here  he  is  permitted  to  advance  as  rapidly  as  possible  in  those  particular 
lines  in  which  he  has  abiUty,  while  he  is  given  special  time  and  attention 
in  those  in  which  he  is  "short."  In  the  special  school  progress  in  even  a 
single  branch  will  mean  much  in  the  way  of  encouragement  to  the  child  and 
the  parents.  Children  feel  that  they  have  been  promoted  when  per- 
mitted to  do  higher  work,  regardless  of  grade  rules. 

For  those  physically  handicapt,  as  well  as  for  those  of  slow  mentality, 
the  special  school  should  be  a  help.  Sometimes,  thru  repeated  failure,  the 
child  has  become  discouraged,  and  the  parents  are  in  despair.  Here  the 
optimistic  teacher  has  the  opportunity  of  pointing  out  some  special  bent 
of  efficiency  (be  it  ever  so  Httle)  in  the  child;  she  may  show  that  thru 
industrial  or  other  special  work  the  backward  child  may  be  stimulated  to 
renewed  interest  and  may  even  excel  in  some  line  of  activity. 

The  child  in  the  special  school  escapes  the  ridicule  of  more  fortunate 
children  while  working  with  his  equals.  He  is  happy  in  his  work,  and  we 
all  know  that  happiness  is  the  great  essential  in  child  Hfe.  Here  in  his 
own  Httle  world  he  is  given  the  opportunity  of  bringing  out  the  best  that 
is  in  him  and  of  working  out  the  problem  as  he  sees  it.  He  may  have 
encountered  years  of  failure  and,  because  he  is  a  misfit,  have  suffered  unde- 
served censure;   for  such  a  child  the  special  school  is  certainly  the  most 


3o8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Special 

desirable  place.  Parents  generally  desire  to  see  their  children  happy,  and 
this  desire  often  proves  the  "open  sesame." 

The  greater  freedom  given  these  children  is  a  help,  both  physically  and 
mentally,  especially  in  the  cases  of  restless,  irritable,  so-called  nervous, 
children — all  the  types  with  but  little  emotional  control.  Here  due  allow- 
ance is  made  for  their  limitations.  Sometimes  the  attention  of  parents 
may  be  called  to  a  physical  condition  that  may  be  improved  or  entirely 
corrected  by  expert  treatment.  Many  children  improve  both  physically 
and  mentally  under  special  care. 

I  beheve  that  many  of  the  younger  children  may  be  saved  from  retarda- 
tion or  deficiency  if  taken  in  the  early  stages  of  development.  Sometimes 
slight  deafness  has  been  neglected  or  eye  defects  ignored;  sometimes  it  is 
a  matter  of  malnutrition  or  imperfect  dentition.  Parents  are  often  sur- 
prised to  learn  that  there  is  something  out  of  the  ordinary  in  the  physical 
condition  of  their  child. 

When  parents  send  their  children  to  school  they  intrust  to  the  teacher's 
care  their  most  precious  possessions.  How  very  essential  it  is  then  that 
there  should  be  a  perfect  understanding  between  parents  and  teacher. 
Many  parents  have  never  even  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  teacher.  In 
some  cases  it  is  a  feehng  of  indifference;  in  others  a  spirit  of  antagonism, 
because  the  child  has  not  made  progress  with  his  comrades.  Friction 
always  has  a  bad  reaction.  One  friendly  visit  to  the  home  may  help  to 
eliminate  much  of  the  difficulty. 

Sometimes  a  parent  gives  a  half-hearted,  reluctant  sanction  to  the  trans- 
fer of  the  child  from  the  grade  school.  Such  a  parent,  in  noting  signs  of 
improvement  in  the  child,  is  usually  convinst  in  a  short  time  that  the  child 
is  in  his  proper  place.  If  the  sympathetic,  helpful,  optimistic  teacher  is 
able  to  gain  the  confidence  of  the  parent  (usually  the  mother)  and  to  awaken 
a  response  in  the  inert,  backward  child,  much  has  been  accompHsht  toward 
success. 

Looking  at  the  case  from  every  viewpoint,  never  forgetting  that  the 
parent  has  the  right  to  wish  the  child  placed  in  the  most  desirable  environ- 
ment, the  teacher  must  be  ready  to  point  out  every  advantage  to  be  antici- 
pated by  the  change.  She  must  pave  the  way  for  a  constant,  harmonious 
working  together  of  home  and  school,  with  every  effort  made  for  the  welfare 
of  the  child,  and  with  the  ideal  always  leading  onward. 

The  child's  happiness  in  his  work  and  the  parents'  conviction  that 
everything  is  planned  and  carried  out  for  the  child's  improvement  physi- 
cally, mentally,  and  morally,  must  work  toward  overcoming  the  objec- 
tion. Even  the  ''least  of  these"  who  come  under  our  care  is  worthy 
of  our  special  attention,  and  every  valid  incentive  must  be  brought  forth 
to  overcome  the  objection  to  the  special  school,  so  that  parents  and 
teachers  will  work  hand  in  hand,  a  united  force  for  the  welfare  of  the 
child. 


Department)        AFTER-SCHOOL  CARE  OF  THE  FEEBLE-MINDED  309 

AFTER-SCHOOL  CARE  OF  THE  FEEBLE-MINDED 

CHARLOTTE   STEINBACH,   SUPERVISOR  OF   SPECIAL  CLASSES, 
CLEVELAND,   OHIO 

Ask  any  special-class  teacher  what  is  the  greatest  problem  attacht  to 
the  special  class,  and  she  will  say,  ''The  after-school  period."  The  thing 
that  causes  the  special-class  teacher  unhappiness  and  discontent  is  her 
realization  that  much,  perhaps  most,  of  her  work  will  go  for  naught  after  her 
pupils  leave  school. 

As  we  view  the  situation  in  our  home  field  we  find  ourselves  classifying 
our  special-class  pupils  about  as  follows: 

A  small  percentage  (perhaps  10  or  15  per  cent)  come  from  good  homes, 
belong  to  the  moron  type,  have  good  social  traits,  are  fairly  reliable  and 
trustworthy,  and  will  get  on  well  enough  under  the  supervision  of  their 
parents  or  guardians. 

A  much  larger  group  (perhaps  30  or  40  per  cent)  should  be  considered 
permanent  institutional  cases — imbeciles  for  the  most  part,  but  a  few  of 
the  moron  group,  flighty,  unstable,  undependable.  No  scheme  of  supervi- 
sion out  in  the  world  will  ever  be  adequate  to  insure  proper  care  and  pro- 
tection to  these. 

The  rest  of  our  special-class  pupils  may  be  considered  as  needing  partial 
supervision  after  school  age.  It  is  this  group  which  claims  our  attention 
just  now.  These  are  morons  coming  from  poor  environment  or,  if  from 
good  homes,  manifesting  anti-social  traits. 

Some  who  discuss  the  question  of  the  after-care  of  special-class  pupils 
seem  to  assume  that  we  should  plan  just  for  follow-up  work  out  in  the 
world.  Dr.  Walter  E.  Fernald  recently  said:  "There  is  now  needed 
something  between  permanent  segregation  and  no  care.  We  may  be  able 
to  distinguish  between  those  who  can  go  out  into  the  community  and  those 
who  must  stay  in  an  institution.  The  ideal  should  be  segregation  for  those 
who  need  it  and  supervision  in  the  community  for  those  suitable  for  com- 
munity Hfe." 

It  seems  to  me  that  a  program  for  the  care  of  the  feeble-minded  must 
include  more  steps  than  these.  Normal  children  leave  school  at  fifteen 
or  sixteen;  is  it  not  obvious  that  the  feeble-minded  need  longer  to  fit  them- 
selves for  the  world  ?  If  we  could  send  most  of  our  morons  (all  with  poor 
records)  to  a  training  school  until  they  are  ready  to  go  out  into  the  world 
under  supervision,  back  to  their  homes,  or  into  colonies,  perhaps  we  should 
approach  more  nearly  a  proper  solution  of  this  matter. 

Sending  special-class  pupils  out  into  the  world  with  no  supervision  is 
almost  comparable  to  starting  an  automobile  off  without  any  driver. 
Whether  the  pupil  enters  the  industrial  world  directly  from  a  special  class 
or  from  an  institution,  he  needs  the  friendship,  the  advice,  the  encourage- 
ment, the  directing  force  which  the  field  worker  would  be  in  a  position  to 


3IO  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Special 

give.  We  believe  that  the  follow-up  work  would  wonderfully  encourage 
and  stimulate  the  special-class  teacher,  cheer  the  home,  and  strengthen  the 
pupil,  just  as  the  work  of  the  juvenile  court  probation  officer  helps  the 
delinquent  under  his  charge. 

As  the  special-class  pupils  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  school 
authorities  for  years,  probably  follow-up  work  could  best  be  managed  thru 
the  school  organization,  with  the  close  cooperation  of  the  juvenile  court. 
Possibly  a  field  worker  (I  should  prefer  a  school  nurse)  might  take  charge 
of  all  special-class  graduates  until  they  are  eighteen,  and  then  hand  over 
the  supervision  to  a  juvenile  court  probation  officer.  It  might  be  that  a 
special  office  to  handle  this  work  could  be  establisht  in  connection  with  our 
juvenile  courts,  just  as  the  Mothers'  Pension  Bureau  has  been. 


DOES  THE  SPECIAL  CLASS  EQUIP  PUPILS  FOR  INDUSTRIAL 

EMPLOYMENT? 

E.   R.   WHITNEY,   SUPERINTENDENT  OF   SCHOOLS,   SCHENECTADY,   N.Y. 

Ever  since  1893,  when  special  classes  were  first  organized  in  Providence, 
R.I.,  for  the  care  of  subnormal  children,  there  has  been  a  segregation  and 
assembhng  of  all  kinds  of  abnormal  children,  without  distinct  classification, 
into  special  classes  all  over  the  country.  This  promiscuous  mixing  of 
feeble-minded,  incorrigibles,  backward  children,  eccentric  children,  and 
others  of  varying  degrees  of  abnormality  and  miscibihty  soon  results  in  a 
decantation  of  the  Hghter  and  more  fluid  effervescent  portion — the  incor- 
rigibles— into  state  industrial  homes,  where  they  receive  institutional  care, 
and  leaves  a  heavy  residue  composed  chiefly  of  the  backward  children  and 
a  substratum  of  feeble  folk,  too  heavy  to  decant  and  rather  too  inert  for 
fusion.  In  some  school  systems  an  effort  is  made  to  separate,  by  what 
might  be  called  filtration,  the  backward  children  from  the  rest,  leaving  a 
special  class  composed  mostly  of  morons. 

In  most  feeble-minded  children  the  power  of  attention  is  both  weak  and 
intermittent,  and  is  hard  to  gain  and  harder  to  hold.  With  practically  no 
concentration  little  real  instruction  can  be  given,  because  with  constant 
inattention  memory  has  httle  chance  of  being  imprest,  and  there  is  little 
possibiKty  of  utilizing  either  judgment  or  reason. 

It  is  evident  that  academic  education  should  for  the  most  part  be  dis- 
carded, and  that  much  observational  and  some  handwork  should  be  given. 
Attempts  thru  the  regular  manual-training  shops  to  prepare  for  mechan- 
ical trades  result  in  failure.  When  given  handwork,  such  as  weaving  mats, 
braiding  baskets,  raffia  work,  sewing,  knitting,  etc.,  better  results  are 
observed. 

What  showing  do  these  graduates  of  atypical  classes  make  out  in  the 
world  ?    They  sometimes  do  well  at  boys'  jobs,  blind-alley  occupations,  and 


Department!  SPECIAL  CLASS  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EMPLOYMENT  311 

other  employment  requiring  no  great  degree  of  judgment,  where  there  is 
constant  intelligent  supervision.  If  an  intelligent,  sympathetic  person 
were  employed  to  follow  up  these  helpless  folk,  find  employment  for  them, 
and  keep  in  touch  with  their  employers  and  their  homes,  something  would 
be  gained,  but  I  fear  not  much,  for  they  are  lawless  and  irresponsible  and 
soon  tire  of  supervision. 

No  matter  how  hard  the  subnormal  tries,  he  cannot  compete  with 
normals.  He  is  constantly  faiUng,  both  at  home  and  in  his  work.  His 
parents,  his  employers,  his  associates,  are  Ukely  to  mistake  his  inability 
for  laziness  or  "cussedness"  and  punish  him  unmercifully  in  one  way  or 
another.  It  is  not  easy  to  discover  what  tasks  are  within  his  grasp,  and 
the  employer  has  no  time  for  such  discovery. 

For  many  of  these  children  the  school  is  home,  mother,  country,  and 
all.  The  public  city  school  is  good  as  far  as  it  goes,  but  it  cannot  be  with 
the  child  twenty-four  hours  in  the  day,  seven  days  in  the  week,  and  fifty- 
two  weeks  in  the  year,  nor  for  all  the  years  of  his  Hfe.  It  gives  only  a  very- 
small  fraction  of  time  to  the  child.  What  these  children  need  and  will 
always  need,  for  they  will  always  be  children  tho  in  adult  bodies,  is  a  home — 
a  colony — ^provided  by  the  state,  whose  motto  should  be  that  of  the  great 
institution  at  Vineland,  "Happiness  first;  all  else  follows.'* 

The  real  question  of  this  discussion  is,  it  seems  to  me,  not  whether  the 
special  class  should  give  a  training  suitable  for  industry,  or  whether  the 
labor  of  these  subnormals  is  valuable,  but  whether  the  product  of  the  special 
class,  even  if  prepared  to  do  manual  or  brain  work,  should  ever  be  allowed 
to  mingle  freely  with  normal  persons  and  eventually  damage  society. 

Governor  Whitman,  of  New  York,  has  rightly  said  that  "mental 
deficiency  is  today  perhaps  the  greatest  social  problem  that  confronts  the 
state."  He  is  right.  The  danger  is  increast  because  of  the  fact  that  tho 
these  subnormals  may  resemble  normals  in  stature  and  appearance,  they 
have  the  minds  of  children  and  sometimes  the  vices  of  demons,  and  are  at 
large,  free  to  reproduce  their  kind  at  will.  They  have  not  the  ability  to 
cope  with  competitive  conditions  and  frequently  land  in  charitable  institu- 
tions— almshouses  and  the  like — or  else  become  a  burden  on  a  relative  or 
a  kind  friend. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  the  pubhc,  municipal,  village,  or  rural 
schools  become  a  party  to  the  plan  of  feeding  such  material  thru  industrial 
employment  into  society.  The  state  should  give  institutional,  if  not 
custodial,  care  to  these  unfortunates.  Let  the  special  classes  in  the  schools 
be  maintained,  but  only  as  waiting-stations  or  transfer  points  in  which  the 
real  defective  is  detained  for  searching  examination  and  prolonged  observa- 
tion before  the  state  comes  in  to  take  complete  charge.  Too  many  of  our 
school  directors  forget  that  the  chief  and  paramount  function  of  the  local 
public  schools  is  education,  not  dentistry,  not  medicine,  not  optometry, 
not  even  custodial  care  of  the  unfortunate.    The  locality  cannot  have  the 


312  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Special 

facilities  to  do  well  all  of  these  things,  however  desirable,  and  if  these  acces- 
sory things  are  done,  they  are  often  done  by  depleting  the  treasury  which 
should  be  used  for  regular  education.  Only  a  great  aggregation  of  com- 
munities, in  other  words,  the  state,  can  do  these  things  and  do  them  well. 
Let  us  once  and  for  all  abandon  our  wild  competition  with  the  state  and  our 
usurpation  of  its  functions  and  its  institutions.  Let  us  unite  in  securing 
from  the  state  an  adequate  program  for  the  handling  of  this  problem. 


DOES  THE  SPECIAL  CLASS  EQUIP  PUPILS  FOR  INDUSTRIAL 
EMPLOYMENT  IN  THE  COMMUNITY?  CAN  THE  CO- 
OPERATION OF  EMPLOYERS  DURING  AND  FOLLOWING 
THE  SCHOOL  PERIOD  BE  OBTAINED  AND  HOW? 

DAVID  B.   CORSON,   SUPERINTENDENT  OF   SCHOOLS,   NEWARK,   N.J. 

The  term  "special  class"  requires  definition.  It  may  refer  to  the  class 
where  there  are  fifteen  grades  of  feeble-minded  pupils,  or  it  may  refer  to 
the  homogeneous  class  having  special  work  in  industrial  training.  Small 
returns  only  can  be  expected  from  classes  of  the  first  type;  so  small  that  it 
seems  hardly  justifiable  to  spend  the  money  necessary  to  maintain  them. 
It  is  not,  in  my  opinion,  sound  policy  to  maintain  such  classes,  at  least  in 
large  communities.  The  only  isolated  special  class  that  can  be  really 
serviceable  to  the  pupils  enrolled  in  it  is  the  one  composed  of  normal  pupils 
who,  by  special  effort  and  instruction,  seek  to  catch  up  in  the  work  of  the 
regular  classes.  These  normal  pupils,  because  of  absence  or  slowness, 
have  been  unable  to  maintain  themselves  in  their  respective  grades  and  must 
be,  for  their  own  good  and  the  well-being  of  their  classes,  removed  for  a 
time.  The  special  isolated  class  should  be  a  restoration  class.  This  is 
the  only  type  of  isolated  class  that  should  find  place  in  the  regular  schools, 
except  as  a  makeshift.  The  special  class  of  homogeneous  grading  can  and 
does  equip  pupils  for  industrial  employment. 

The  program  of  studies  for  the  industrial  classes  for  defectives  in  the 
Newark  schools  includes  carpentry  and  cabinet-making,  weaving,  brush- 
making,  basket-making,  chair-caning,  laundering,  dressmaking,  gardening, 
cooking,  house-cleaning,  serving,  waiting,  cobbling,  and  shoeblacking.  All 
of  these  have  been  taught  successfully,  and  they  afford  a  good  general 
training  of  the  character  under  discussion.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  success  is  sufficient  basis  for  a  positive  statement  that  some  feeble- 
minded can  be  made  manually  efficient.  Many  of  the  pupils  obtain  employ- 
ment at  good  wages. 

It  must  not  be  inferred,  of  course,  that  all  who  have  been  or  can  be 
trained  are  or  will  be  equally  successful,  or  that  the  duty  of  the  school  is 
performed  when  the  pupil  has  been  recommended  and  has  secured  a  job. 
He  is  still  a  feeble-minded  person. 


Department)  SPECIAL  CLASS  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EMPLOYMENT  ■       313 

The  remedy  for  difficult  cases  may  be  found  partially  in  educating 
employers  of  labor.  They  do  not  understand  feeble-mindedness,  altho 
they  may  recognize  it.  They  must  know  that  the  feeble-minded  workman 
is  easily  angered,  leaves  his  job  on  small  provocation,  and  does  not  con- 
sider the  consequences  of  such  action.  Feeble-minded  people  have  "  spells.-' 
The  employer  must  know  this,  and  if  he  can  manage  the  "spell  time"  tact- 
fully and  skilfully  he  will  reduce  the  labor  turnover  in  his  factory  and 
conduce  to  the  well-being  of  his  charges,  for  these  people  are  as  truly  charges 
of  the  employer  as  they  are  of  the  teacher. 

The  right  educational  policy  to  follow  in  securing  positive  affirmative 
answers  to  the  two  questions  seems  to  warrant  the  establishment  of  school 
centers  for  those  having  sufficient  mentaUty  to  profit  by  the  training.  The 
five  or  more  classes  together  should  constitute  what  might  be  called  a 
Binet  school,  each  having  a  vocational-training  class.  The.best  type  of 
Binet  school  must  have  for  each  sex  at  least  the  following  accommodations 
fully  equipt:  a  kindergarten,  a  gymnasium,  a  kitchen  and  dining-room, 
a  manual-training  shop  or  sewing-room,  a  garden,  an  academic  room,  and 
a  vocational  shop.  This  will  permit  careful  classification  into  three  groups. 
The  school  should  not  be  larger  than  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  pupils. 
The  kindergarten  should  be  of  low-grade  pupils  and  should  have  them  all 
day  long  on  the  class  system;  the  gymnasium,  kitchen,  and  dining-room, 
manual  shop  or  sewing-room,  and  academic  room  should  constitute  a 
departmental  circuit  for  as  many  different  classes,  the  garden  in  season 
being  additional  to  the  shop  or  sewing-room.  Such  classes  should  be  of 
ascending  grades,  and  promotion  from  one  to  another  should  be  made  when 
warranted.  Above  these  should  be  the  industrial  shop,  having  the  highest- 
grade  pupils.  The  classes  in  the  departmental  cycle  should  have  the  general 
educational  aim,  but  the  shop  should  have  the  vocational  aim. 

To  train  the  feeble-minded  for  industrial  employment  the  program  of 
studies  must  be  based  upon  the  broadest  possible  sense  training  and  a  wide 
"experience  training."  We  must  provide,  purposefully,  intelligently,  and 
systematically  sense  and  basic  experiences  in  very  great  numbers.  It 
will  undoubtedly  prove  true  that  many  will  not  profit,  but  some  will,  even 
tho  in  varying  degrees  of  satisfaction.  Those  who  do  well  will  be  the  pupils 
who  can  be  trained  for  vocational  employment. 

The  teacher  of  the  special  class  must  work  with  the  employer  as  well 
as  with  the  pupil,  and  teach  him  to  guide  the  boys  and  girls  and  to  be 
patient  with  them.  To  do  this  great  task  there  must  be  some  form  of 
supervision  and  vocational  guidance,  as  suggested,  either  by  the  teachers 
or  by  other  experts.  There  must  be  much  follow-up  work  by  the  super- 
visor, so  that  a  body  of  suggestive  and  valuable  information  may  be  col- 
lected, and  so  that  the  influence  of  the  supervisor  upon  the  worker  and  the 
employer  shall  be  helpful.  We  have  so  much  to  learn  in  this  field  that  it 
is  mere  speculation  to  discuss  it  now.    The  one  fact  that  is  clear  is  that 


314  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Special 

supervisory  work  must  be  done,  and  that  it  must  be  done  by  the  best- 
educated,  the  keenest,  and  the  wisest  person  obtainable.  How  to  obtain 
the  cooperation  of  employers  for  the  apprenticeship  period  must  be 
answered  by  the  efforts  of  the  school  authorities  and  the  supervisor.  They 
must  obtain  it.  There  must  be  a  propaganda  or  campaign  of  education 
by  the  former,  and  persuasion,  personal  work,  and  follow-up  work  by  the 
latter.  Widespread  knowledge  of  the  problem  and  intelHgent  and  wise 
oversight  and  friendliness  will  secure  it. 

However,  given  the  right  grade  of  pupils,  the  wisest  educational  poHcy, 
the  well-organized  school,  the  right  program  of  studies,  the  best  equipment, 
and  the  most  skilful  teachers,  even  then  the  problem  is  solved  for  a  chosen 
few  only.  Even  the  best  can  do  only  work  of  routine  character,  requiring 
little  initiative.  They  work  as  machines  and  need  a  guiding  hand.  There 
will  be  others  who  cannot  be  employed  in  the  industries,  for  their  minds 
are  not  strong  enough  to  do  more  than  the  most  menial  and  most  mechanical 
kinds  of  work.  What  shall  be  done  with  them  ?  Shall  classes  and  schools 
be  maintained  merely  to  occupy  these  children  until,  lacking  the  care  of 
parents  or  relatives  or  friends,  they  become  the  criminals  and  outcasts  of 
society?  No.  The  state  must  assume  responsibiUty.  There  must  be  a 
state  policy,  well  carried  out.  The  conception  underlying  the  American 
educational  scheme  is  that  all  shall  be  educated.  If  a  child  be  able  to 
learn  much  or  Httle,  that  should  he  learn.  His  learning  should  be  to  some 
purpose.  For  the  feeble-minded  child  that  purpose  must  be  self-support, 
if  possible,  even  tho  in  the  humblest  manner.  If  society  will  not  give  him 
work,  the  state  must.  Several  states  have  estabhsht  homes  for  the  feeble- 
minded and  colonies  where  farming  is  carried  on  by  them  under  direction. 
This  points  the  way.  If  the  state  may  estabHsh  farms  where  custodial 
care  and  home  comforts  and  supervised  work  are  provided,  why  not  fac- 
tories, laundries,  bakeries,  and  other  institutions,  where  under  like  condi- 
tions those  too  feeble-minded  to  care  for  themselves  may  help  carry  the 
load  of  the  state  by  earning  their  own  way  ?  This  will  be  less  satisfactory 
and  less  valuable  than  the  Hfe  in  the  open,  but  it  is  necessary  to  help  the 
feeble-minded. 

In  a  democracy  there  must  be  not  only  equal  opportimity  but  a  measur- 
able distribution  of  the  comforts  and  blessings  and  happiness  of  Hfe.  The 
state  seeks  to  protect  all  against  ignorance,  delinquency,  disease,  vice,  and 
dependency.  Her  chief  and  most  effective  method  is  by  education.  Until 
all  her  people  learn  and  recognize  the  moral  law  of  "visiting  the  iniquities 
of  the  father  upon  the  children  unto  the  third  and  fourth  generation  of 
them  that  hate  me,"  she  must  herself  attempt  regulation  and  bear  the 
greater  part  of  the  burden,  receiving  such  assistance  as  the  beneficiary 
may  be  able  to  render. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  MUSIC  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — Osbourne  McConathy,  professor  of  music,  Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  III. 

Vice-President — Teresa  Finn,  supervisor  of  music St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Secretary — Philip  C.  Hayden,  editor  of  School  Music Keokuk,  Iowa 


FIRST  SESSION,  Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3 

In  the  absence  of  President  McConathy,  the  Department  was  called  to  order  at 
9:00  a.m.  by  the  vice-president,  Miss  Teresa  Finn.  Mr.  W.  B.  Kinnear,  of  Lamed, 
Kan.,  was  appointed  secretary  pro  tern. 

The  exercises  were  opened  by  the  singing  of  "The  Star-Spangled  Banner"  under  the 
direction  of  Mr.  Will  Earhart,  of  Pittsburgh.  Following  this  song  Mr.  Earhart  read 
his  paper,  "The  Essential  Factors  in  Music  Education."  At  the  close  of  this  paper 
Mr.  McConathy,  president  of  the  department,  and  Mr.  Hayden,  secretary,  having  arrived, 
assumed  their  respective  stations. 

After  the  reading  of  Mr.  Earhart's  paper  the  department  sang  a  song  by  John  A. 
Carpenter,  "The  Home  Road,"  led  by  Mr.  Earhart.  Then  followed  a  paper  by  President 
McConathy,  "In  What  Direction  Is  Public-Music  Education  Tending?"  At  the  close 
of  this  paper  the  department  sang  the  song,  "America's  Battle  Cry,"  the  words  of  which 
are  by  Mr.  Congdon  and  the  music  by  Mr.  Earhart,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Gantvoort. 
Mr.  Gantvoort  then  conducted  a  song,  the  music  of  which  was  written  by  himself, 
"They  Go  to  End  War." 

President  McConathy  appointed  the  following  nominating  committee:  W.  B.  Kinnear, 
Larned,  Kan.,  Chairman;  Miss  Eunice  Ensor,  Detroit;  and  Miss  E.  Jane  Wisenall, 
Cincinnati. 

A  general  discussion  of  the  proposition  of  teaching  the  various  instruments,  including 
piano,  in  classes,  was  participated  in  by  Mr.  Baltzell,  of  Boston;  Mrs.  Clark,  of  Camden, 
N.J.;  Mr.  McConathy,  of  Evanston,  111.;  Miss  Teresa  Finn,  of  St.  Louis;  Miss  E.  Jane 
Wisenall,  of  Cincinnati;  Miss  Eunice  Ensor,  of  Detroit;  Mr.  Will  Earhart,  of  Pitts- 
burgh; and  others.  Another  feature  of  the  discussion  was  a  reference  to  the  remarkable 
work  of  Professor  Carl  Seashore  in  the  psychological  laboratory  of  Iowa  University  and 
the  system  for  measuring  music  ability  which  he  has  developt  and  made  practical. 

Dr.  William  B.  Owen,  of  the  Chicago  Normal  College,  gave  a  most  interesting  address 
on  the  subject  of  "The  New  Place  of  Music  in  Public-School  Education." 

On  motion  the  session  adjourned. 

SECOND  SESSION,  Wednesday  Evening,  July  3 

President  McConathy  called  the  evening  meeting  to  order  and  introduced  Mr.  Lee 
Hanmer,  War  Department  Commission  of  Training  Camp  Activities,  who  gave  a  talk 
on  "Music  in  the  United  States  Army  and  Navy  Camps."  This  address  was  followed  by 
an  active  demonstration  of  methods  and  practices  in  camp  music  by  John  B.  Archer, 
division  song  leader,  Camp  Custer,  Mich.  Mr.  Hanmer  and  Mr.  Archer  gave  very  inter- 
esting talks  and  demonstrations,  and  the  audience  took  great  pleasure  in  singing  the  songs 
of  the  camps  under  Mr.  Archer's  direction. 

315 


3i6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Music 

At  the  business  meeting,  which  followed  these  addresses,  Vice-President  Teresa 
Finn  presided.  The  chairman  of  the  nominating  committee,  Mr.  W.  B.  Kinnear,  pre- 
sented the  following  report: 

President — Teresa  Finn,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Vice-President — Otto  Miessner,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Secretary — Philip  C.  Hayden,  Keokuk,  Iowa. 

Mr.  Hayden  moved  that  the  report  of  the  committee  be  amended  by  substituting 
the  name  of  Mr.  W.  B.  Kinnear  for  that  of  Mr.  Hayden  as  secretary.  The  motion  was 
adopted,  and  the  officers  named  declared  elected. 

On  motion  the  meeting  adjourned. 

Philip  C.  Hayden,  Secretary 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


THE  ESSENTIAL  FACTOR  IN  MUSICAL  EDUCATION 

WILL  EARHART,  PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

We  come  before  the  world  today  with  large  claims  for  music.  The 
results  obtained  are  not  always,  however,  commensurate  with  our  claims. 
Is  the  reason  to  be  found  in  music  itself  or  in  our  conception  and  treatment 
of  music  ?  I  believe  that  it  is  the  latter.  Too  much  of  our  endeavor  along 
musical  lines  is  vitiated  by  imperfect  conceptions  of  what  music  is  and  what 
its  function  is.  Assuming  that  music  has  uplifting  and  redeeming  power 
for  the  souls  of  men,  to  what  element  or  factor  does  it  owe  that  power  ? 

Many  answers  to  this  question,  most  of  them  carelessly  made,  have  been 
given.  Music  has  been  said  to  knit  up  the  raveled  sleeve  of  care,  expand 
the  lungs,  have  therapeutic  value  in  nervous  and  cerebral  diseases,  socialize 
the  masses,  develop  patriotism,  inspire  courage,  sustain  the  physical 
strength  in  prolonged  endeavor,  stimulate  the  minds  of  public-school  chil- 
dren in  their  efforts  at  arithmetic  and  geography,  restore  discipline,  comfort 
the  wounded  heart,  inspire  affection  in  the  opposite  sex,  and  energize  the 
individual  in  the  activities  of  life  thru  stimulation  of  his  emotions.  That 
music  has  all  these  results  in  some  measure  is  probably  true;  yet,  even  if 
true,  it  is  comparatively  unimportant.  Precisely  the  highest  value  which 
music  can  claim  is  not  mentioned  in  this  list,  and  it  is  to  plead  for  this 
highest,  so  seldom  striven  for,  so  little  seen,  that  I  speak. 

Never  before  has  the  world  lived  so  much  and  so  eagerly,  even  fever- 
ishly. We  stimulate  life's  activities  to  the  farthest  limit;  we  strain  to 
catch  the  faintest  hint  of  meaning  from  its  humblest  circumstances.  In 
this  stress  of  Hfe,  emotion  has  in  some  measure  been  crowded  out;  and  that 
measure  which  remained  has  been  almost  entirely  such  as  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  incidents  of  life.  Art,  following  as  always  the  adventures 
of  man's  soul,  good  or  ill,  has  shaped  herself  into  conformity;  and  the 
function  that  has  fallen  to  her  has  been  to  express  our  emotional  reactions 
to  the  specific  circumstances  into  which  hfe  carries  us. 


Department)        TH^ESSENTIAL  FACTOR  IN  MUSICAL  EDUCATION        317 

It  is  curious,  but  a  fact  nevertheless,  that  man  has  a  range  of  mood  and 
emotion  that  lies  quite  outside  of  feelings  stimulated  by  life's  incidents. 
In  these  moods  are  found  his  aspirations,  his  visions,  his  purest  and  highest 
exaltations.  The  moods  born  out  of  experience  of  life  are  sharp,  bitter, 
and  exciting;  the  moods  born  out  of  this  other  range  bring  pleasure  rather 
than  excitement,  and  an  uplift  of  spirit  that,  while  it  lacks  the  snug  comfort 
of  worldly  sentiment,  has  infinite  regenerative  power  for  the  soul  of  man. 

This  other  world  of  feeling  is,  in  one  word,  the  realm  of  the  aesthetic. 
The  two  are  almost  inextricably  interwoven;  but  let  us  try  to  distinguish 
the  aesthetic  and  define  its  character. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact,  as  William  Morris  points  out,  that  there  has 
never  been  a  savage  so  low  that  some  vague  idealistic  promptings  were  not 
present  to  him.  Not  even  an  earthen  cooking-pot  could  he  make  without 
endeavoring,  beyond  the  demands  of  utility,  to  give  it  some  grace  of  shape, 
some  charm  of  color,  some  touch  of  ornamental  design  which  revealed  his 
obscure  impulse  toward  idealistic  ends.  This  impulse  is  quite  beyond  and 
above  any  worldly  taint. 

My  objection  to  emotion,  which  doubtless  all  my  hearers  are  making 
ready  to  defend,  is  that  of  itself  it  intensifies  or  energizes  life  but  does  not 
necessarily  uplift  it.  I  wish  to  emphasize  that  qualification,  "of  itself." 
Important  considerations  depend  upon  it. 

If  music  is  to  express  emotion  alone,  then  the  beginning  and  end  of 
music  are  the  ^out,  the  sigh,  the  moan.  The  cry  of  the  Walkiire  or 
Alberich's  cry  would  be  supreme  ideals  of  musical  expression.  We  must 
shout  Hail!  to  the  music  drama  and  turn  a  disapproving  back  to  the  fugue 
and  the  classical  symphony  if  we  embrace  this  theory.  It  is  precisely  this 
that  Wagner  did.  Fortunately  for  the  world  he  was  not  too  consistent. 
He  could  not  construct  a  whole  score  of  a  succession  of  emotional  cries. 
As  a  consequence  we  have  those  treasures  of  composition,  extended,  intri- 
cate, and  glowing,  which,  tho  Wagner  contended  that  they  should  never 
be  heard  apart  from  the  drama,  because  of  their  descriptive  quality,  still 
charm  us  because  they  stand  alone  as  music.  It  is  so  with  all  music;  it 
must  be  interesting  and  beautiful  as  music,  or  else  all  the  "explanatory" 
notes  in  the  world  will  not  persuade  us  to  endure  it. 

"But,"  the  hearer  will  say,  "music  does  express  emotion."  It  does; 
but  why  limit  it  to  that?  So  does  language  that  is  not  formal,  so  do 
bodily  pose,  gesture,  facial  expression.  We  cannot  move  thru  emotional 
scenes  without  expressing  emotion  in  some  of  these  ways;  yet  they  are  not 
art.  Clive  Bell,  in  his  book  Art,  puts  the  matter  in  a  nutshell  when  he 
says:  "To  caper  and  shout  is  to  express  oneself,  yet  is  it  comfortless,  but 
introduce  the  idea  of  formality,  and  in  dance  and  song  you  may  find  satis- 
fying delight.    Form  is  the  talisman." 

Thus  it  happened  that  the  savage  exprest  his  feelings  in  tone  by  shouts 
and  formless  and  inchoate  cries;  but  at  the  same  time  his  ear  was  charmed 


3i8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Music 

with  the  twang  of  a  bowstring,  the  sound  of  the  wind  passing  over  reeds; 
and  he  made  himself  stringed  instruments  and  flutes  and  began  to  form 
successions  of  tones  into  rude  patterns.  His  progress  in  this  direction  is 
perhaps  best  described  by  Parry  in  his  Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music.  It 
continued  to  the  point  of  the  first  movement  of  a  "Fifth  Symphony"  by 
Beethoven,  or  a  "Fugue  in  G-Minor"  by  Bach. 

This  creation  of  pure  form,  of  pure  beauty,  is  one  of  the  most  unselfish 
things  a  man  can  accomplish.  It  lifts  him  above  the  sharp,  clamoring 
emotions  that  spring  out  of  the  dramatic  clash  of  incident,  into  a  world  of 
pure  vision  and  desire.  When  shall  we  learn-  this  ?  When  shall  we  under- 
stand that  art  has  primarily  to  do  with  beauty,  not  with  worldly  signifi- 
cance? It  is  the  despair  of  the  painter  as  it  is  of  the  musician  that  the 
public  looks  only  for  a  story  of  life  in  his  work  and  passes  unheeding  those 
elements  which  make  it  a  work  of  art. 

Our  error  probably  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  two  elements,  worldly 
significance  and  ideal  beauty,  are  curiously  blended;  and  being  saturated 
with  life  we  interpret  the  art  work  in  terms  of  worldly  experience  alone. 
Yet,  all  unconsciously,  it  is  beauty — formal  beauty — ^which  moves  us,  not 
the  literal  emotion.  If  this  were  not  true,  the  cry  and  the  moan,  I  repeat, 
would  be  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  music,  and  Alberich's  hoarse  shout 
would  satisfy  us  more  than  the  Tristan  prelude  or  a  Beethoven  symphony. 

A  child  lives,  far  more  than  an  adult,  in  a  world  of  pagan  simplicity  and 
directness.  Light  and  shade,  form,  color,  and  sound  come  to  him  as  direct 
sensation.  He  needs  and  seeks  no  meaning  beyond  their  direct  accept- 
ability. Imagine  teaching  a  child  that  the  Monteverde  string  tremolo 
means  fear,  excitement,  tragedy.  He  hears  only  some  violins  making 
interesting  rustling  sounds.  If  these  ascend  and  descend  in  interesting 
and  pleasant  undulations  and  attractive  rhythm,  if  there  is  contour  and 
balance,  he  is  pleased.  If  they  do  not,  he  soon  ceases  to  attend.  In  this 
attitude  the  child  is  on  the  high  road  to  a  real  appreciation  of  the  beautiful 
in  music.  If  we  took  him  there  and  guided  him  wisely  later  in  observations 
as  to  how  music  attains  contour  and  symmetry,  we  would  eventually  have 
intelligent  and  discriminating  audiences  for  our  classical  programs. 

What  we  do  is  to  teach  him  rote  songs.  This  we  must  do.  There  is 
no  other  instrumentality  than  his  voice,  no  other  medium  than  the  song. 
Not  content,  however,  with  doing  that  simply  and  directly,  we  call  his 
attention  to  the  words  particularly.  We  teach  the  words  first,  we  expatiate 
on  the  pictures  or  stories  they  represent,  we  even  add  physical  movements 
and  "dramatize"  the  song  often  to  the  extent  of  making  a  whole  play  out 
of  it.  Sometimes,  it  is  true,  if  the  lesson  period  is  long  enough,  a  note  or 
two  of  the  music  of  a  rote  song  that  is  being  "taught"  may  be  heard  before 
the  end  of  the  lesson  is  reacht;  but  in  the  main  the  process  tends  to  teach 
the  child  to  visualize  instead  of  hear  when  he  sings,  and  to  feel  that  energy 


Department]        THE  ESSENTIAL  FACTOR  IN  MUSICAL  EDUCATION        319 

of  delivery  takes  precedence  over  refinement  and  fidelity  to  the  musical 
facts  of  the  song. 

Instead  of  such  a  method  we  might  select  songs  that  have  real  merit  as 
music,  albeit  of  a  childlike  range;  we  might  play  these  first,  as  beautifully 
as  possible,  upon  the  piano;  we  might  then  sing  them  entire,  as  attractively 
as  we  could,  so  that  the  song  might  come  to  the  child,  as  it  should,  in  the 
form  of  an  artistic  whole.  We  could  then  sing  a  phrase  at  a  time;  and  all 
the  while  we  could  give  him  beauty  of  tone  and  lead  him  to  strive,  in  his 
turn,  for  such  beauty.  If  we  did  this  I  need  not  point  out,  I  trust,  that  we 
would  be  resting  upon  a  belief  or  assumption  that  music  is  beauty  of  tone 
and  tonal  design;  that  it  is  an  art  of  impression  as  well  as  of  expression; 
that  the  ear  must  be  cultivated  as  well  as  the  emotional  energy  of  the  singer 
developt;  and  that  feelings  of  the  highest  type  are  not  aroused  by  the  clang 
of  circumstances  but  rather  by  endeavor  toward  the  ideal. 

Our  blindness  to  the  supreme  importance  of  the  aesthetic  element  in 
music  is  shown  in  numerous  other  ways.  There  is  a  tendency  to  choose 
songs  of  intense  realistic  character  and  sing  them  in  an  excessively  declama- 
tory style.  In  countless  schools  there  is  an  obsession  with  voice  that  is 
most  unfortunate.  The  supervisor  of  music  is  styled — ^let  us  hope  unjustly ! 
— the  "  teacher  of  vocal  music."  Children  in  such  schools  who  are  stud3dng 
Mozart  or  perhaps  even  Beethoven  outside  of  school  are  rated  in  school 
according  to  their  response  on  songs  that  hold  far  less  value  than  their 
piano  music;  and  their  puzzled  condition  because  of  the  difference  in  char- 
acter between  their  music  in  and  out  of  the  school  is  almost  tragic.  A  boy 
who  plays  the  vioHn  beautifully,  but  who  has  no  impulse  to  express  himself  in 
song,  is  likely  to  sit  neglected  thru  the  daily  music  lesson,  dimly  conscious 
of  power  of  another  kind,  which  outside  of  school  is  rated  as  musical  power, 
but  which  in  school  seems  to  be  held  in  small  account.  The  possibiKty 
of  developing  a  high  grade  of  musical  inspiration  and  accomplishment 
thru  instrumental  combinations  or  small  orchestras  is  neglected.  Because 
freedom  and  fervor  of  response  are  valued  above  broad  musical  develop- 
ment, unison  singing  is  perpetuated  in  undue  measure  upward  thru  the 
seventh  and  even  the  eighth  grade.  As  a  result  the  pupils  are  weakened 
musically,  miss  the  pure  enjoyment  of  the  tonal  richness  and  complexity 
of  parts,  and  are  far  less  intelligent  than  they  should  be  about  their  voices, 
especially  with  regard  to  their  range  and  classification  in  relation  to  the 
bass  and  treble  clefs. 

Outside  the  school  we  are  engrost  now  with  music  as  a  social  agency. 
I  welcome  the  advent  of  community  music;  but  we  must  realize  that  com- 
munity music  does  not  mean  some  inferior  brand  of  music  too  common  to 
hold  any  interest  for  us  but  good  enough  to  exert  some  beneficent  power 
upon  the  proletariat.  It  rather  means  the  great  and  noble  music  of  the 
ages  which,  by  our  ardor,  our  power  as  musical  prophets  and  interpreters  of 


320  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  iMusic 

the  musical  gospel,  we  must  restore  in  all  its  beauty  to  the  heart  of  man, 
from  which  it  came. 

Perhaps  the  grossest  error  that  is  made  by  those  who  are  groping  toward 
some  hoped-for  regeneration  thru  music  is  that  which  manifests  itself  in 
certain  forms  of  effort  toward  so-called  musical  appreciation.  Mechanical 
music  is  responsible  for  a  large  stimulation  of  this  kind  of  effort.  Countless 
persons  are  reading  the  stories  of  operas,  learning  the  names  of  composi- 
tions, composers,  singers,  players,  and  conductors,  with  little  more  result 
than  to  enable  them  to  enter  into  a  drawing-room  conversation  with  less 
likehhood  of  embarrassment.  My  great  fear  is,  however,  that  this  musical 
sophistication  will  be  taken  up  by  teachers  of  music  in  public  schools  and 
imposed  upon  children.  I  can  think  of  nothing  more  deplorable  than  that 
children,  with  their  frank  and  open  receptivity  to  the  aesthetic  product 
itself,  their  unscarred  background  of  wordly  experience,  their  disregard 
of  artificial  social  demands,  should  spend  their  time  conning  the  unsavory 
story  of  some  opera,  or  learning  irrelevant  biographical  and  historical  facts, 
when  they  might  be  singing  with  pure  joy  some  song  in  which  a  beauty 
untroubled  of  earth  is  revealed. 

The  essential  factor  then  in  musical  education  is  the  aesthetic.  With- 
out any  particular  attention  from  us  it  is  working  all  such  regenerative 
wonders  as  are  accomplish t  at  all  thru  music.  We  can  take  measures  to 
develop  subconscious  and,  at  a  later  date,  conscious  appreciation  of  it,  and 
we  should  do  this.  At  least  we  should  not  constantly  ignore  and  deny 
the  one  element  that  is  essential  in  all  art  by  always  calling  the  attention 
of  pupils  and  the  whole  world  to  phases  of  musical  appeal  that  are  not 
distinctively  musical,  that  are  of  minor  and  incidental  importance,  and  that 
at  best  are  characteristic  of  only  one  class  of  musical  composition. 


IN  WHAT  DIRECTION  IS  PUBLIC  MUSIC  EDUCATION 
TENDING? 

OSBOURNE   MCCONATHY,  NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY,   EVANSTON,   ILL. 

It  was  Walt  Whitman  who  said,  "I  see  America  go  singing  to  her  des- 
tiny." Could  that  grand  old  poet  open  his  eyes  today,  how  gloriously  would 
he  see  his  prophecy  fulfilled.  For  today  America,  as  one  great  united 
people,  has  gone  forth  to  battle  for  the  freedom  of  the  world,  and  her  armies 
are  singing  as  they  train,  singing  as  they  march,  singing  as  they  fight.  Let 
us  not  mistake  the  purpose  of  this  use  of  music  in  the  building  of  our 
marvelous  war  machine.  The  busy  men  who  have  performed  this  modern 
miracle  of  organization  have  not  included  music  in  their  plans  merely  as 
a  pleasant  pastime  for  our  boys.  In  these  stern  days  there  is  no  time  for 
anything  but  absolute  necessities.  Our  leaders  have  learned  that  the  needs 
of  the  spirit  are  as  fundamental  as  the  needs  of  the  body,  and  that  in  min- 


Department!  PUBLIC   MUSIC   EDUCATION  321 

istering  to  the  spiritual  uplifting  of  our  men  music  has  as  fundamental  a 
place  in  our  Army's  organization  as  have  those  things  which  contribute  to 
its  physical  upbuilding. 

It  is  not  in  our  Army  alone  that  music  contributes  to  our  spiritual 
growth.  All  over  our  country,  wherever  our  people  gather,  we  are  learning 
to  voice  our  patriotism  in  song.  "Community  singing,"  as  it  is  called,  is 
rapidly  becoming  an  establisht  institution.  We  must  not  imagine,  however, 
that  the  vital  value  of  music  is  in  any  degree  restricted  to  war  times.  Its 
usefulness  is  every  whit  as  real  in  times  of  peace. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  in  the  years  to  come  music  is  destined 
to  play  an  increasingly  important  part  in  the  lives  of  the  people  of  our 
country.  It  is  well,  therefore,  that  those  educators  on  whom  must  fall 
much  of  the  responsibility  for  directing  our  musical  development  should 
carefully  consider  the  problems  before  them.  Music  education  in  the  days 
to  come  will  be  quite  a  different  thing  from  what  it  was  in  the  haphazard 
times  that  are  past.  Remarkable  changes  are  taking  place  in  the  attitude 
of  our  people  toward  music,  and  these  changes  of  attitude  are  reflected  in 
the  musical  training  of  our  young  people  in  our  schools  and  colleges,  in 
musical  institutions,  and  to  some  extent  in  the  studios  of  private  music 
teachers. 

Let  us  consider  some  of  these  tendencies  which  seem  particularly 
significant,  especially  some  that  are  noticeable  in  oiu:  public  grade  schools 
and  high  schools.  One  of  the  most  interesting  movements  in  public-school 
music  is  that  which  involves  the  use  of  musical  instruments.  I  refer  to 
school  orchestras,  bands,  violin  classes,  lessons  on  various  instruments  of 
the  orchestra  and  band,  credit  in  school  for  the  study  of  outside  music, 
free  piano  lessons  in  school,  and  the  use  of  schoolrooms  for  private  studio 
purposes  by  teachers  of  public-school  music.  The  school  orchestra,  of 
course,  is  not  a  new  thing,  neither  is  the  school  band.  In  the  last  few  years, 
however,  these  school  activities  have  multiplied  greatly  in  number  and  have 
been  placed  on  a  basis  of  school  credit  under  competent  instructors.  In 
this  way  the  movement  has  taken  a  form  and  occupies  a  place  in  school 
life  such  as  was  not  dreamed  of  even  a  decade  ago.  In  many  cities  of  our 
country  the  best  of  instruction  on  all  the  instruments  of  the  orchestra  is 
given  to  the  young  pupils.  In  most  instances  this  instrumental  instruction 
is  free,  and  in  no  small  number  of  places  the  instruments  themselves  are 
provided  without  expense  to  the  students. 

Violin  classes  are  becoming  a  rather  commonly  establisht  feature  in 
many  of  our  high  schools  and  are  even  more  common  in  connection  with 
the  grade-school  work.  The  same  practice  is  growing  with  regard  to  piano 
instruction.  Teachers  are  studying  the  processes  of  group  instruction  on 
the  piano  and  other  instruments  and  are  making  possible  not  only  better 
instruction  but  instruction  at  greatly  reduced  expense.  The  number  of 
schools  which  grant  credit  for  work  in  piano  or  other  instruments  done 


322  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Musk 

under  outside  teachers  is  large.  The  movement  as  a  whole  plainly  shows 
the  higher  evaluation  of  instrumental  music  as  an  educational  subject  and 
presages  the  time  when  all  instrumental  study  may  be  accepted  as  a  part 
of  regular  school  activity. 

Another  important  development  in  school  music  that  has  been  conspicu- 
ous in  recent  years  is  work  in  what  is  called  "music  appreciation"  or 
"lessons  in  listening  to  music."  It  is  well  understood  that  only  a  limited 
number  of  people  can  ever  expect  to  be  real  artists  in  performance,  and  that 
by  far  the  larger  number  of  people  may  expect  to  enjoy  their  contact  with 
music  thru  listening  to  it.  The  art  of  listening  to  music  may  be  culti- 
vated just  as  truly  as  the  art  of  performing  music.  To  this  end  systematized 
courses  of  study  in  listening  to  music  are  now  in  operation  in  many  cities 
of  our  country,  beginning  with  the  first  grade  and  extending  thru  the  high 
school. 

Another  important  aspect  of  the  newer  attitude  toward  music  is  a  recog- 
nition of  the  subject  as  a  vocational  study.  Our  schools  are  beginning  to 
recognize  the  fact  that  a  student  who  expects  to  become  a  musician  has  as 
much  right  for  preparation  in  his  vocation  as  has  a  student  who  expects 
to  become  a  lawyer,  a  doctor,  an  engineer,  a  chemist,  or  a  clerk.  To  this 
end  well-organized  courses  of  music  are  being  introduced  in  our  schools, 
preparing  directly  for  professional  music  schools,  and  our  children,  at  public 
expense  and  with  high-school  and  grade-school  credit,  are  being  trained 
for  their  future  profession  of  music. 

Quite  recently  another  step  has  been  inaugurated  in  some  of  our  schools, 
looking  to  a  type  of  music  education  fitted  to  tiie  various  individual  capa- 
cities of  the  dififerent  children.  Some  children  are  well  fitted  by  nature  to 
study  the  piano  or  some  certain  other  musical  instrument.  The  school 
is  endeavoring  to  discover  this  fact  and  see  that  such  children  are  given  the 
opportunity  to  pursue  that  Hne  of  study  for  which  nature  has  fitted  them. 
Other  children  may  be  so  lacking  in  musical  endowment  that  it  is  unwise 
to  offer  them  any  music  instruction  other  than  help  in  hstening  to  music. 
Piano  lessons  would  be  a  waste,  and  even  singing  is  serviceable  only  as  it 
fits  them  to  know  more  about  music,  to  know  that  their  power  of  enjoy- 
ment in  listening  to  music  may  be  increast.  By  far  the  largest  number  of 
children  will  be  those  who,  without  talent  of  a  really  superior  order,  never- 
theless have  ability  enough  to  warrant  the  study  of  an  instrument  or  of 
singing  with  a  view  to  such  enjoyment  as  a  trained  amateur  would  secure. 
In  such  cases  the  school  will  provide  adequate  instruction  and  opportunity 
for  these  children  to  be  tramed  so  that  they  may  make  the  most  of  the 
capacities  which  nature  has  given  them.  The  coming  music  education 
will  train  the  individual  child  in  those  lines  of  musical  endeavor  which  his 
individual  capacities  warrant,  and  this  training  will  be  at  public  expense. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  CHILD  HYGIENE 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President— Bs..  E.  A.  Peterson,  head,  Department  of  School  Hygiene Cleveland,  Ohio 

Vice-President — Dr.  Arthur  Holmes,  dean  of  faculties State  College,  Pa. 

Secretary — Mary  E.  Lent,  Public  Health  Nursing  Association New  Yoi^,  N.Y. 


The  Department  of  Child  Hygiene  of  the  National  Education  Association  met  in 
Pittsburgh  on  July  3,  1918,  with  Dr.  E.  A.  Peterson  in  the  chair.  The  following  program 
was  presented: 

Twenty-fifth  Anniversary  of  the  Founding  of  this  Department 
Honoring  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  the  First  President 

FIRST  SESSION— Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3,  1918 

"What  Teachers  Ought  to  Know  about  the  Physical  Grow*th  of  Children"— Dr. 
John  W.  Tyler,  Amherst  College,  Amherst,  Mass. 

"The  Mental  Development  of  Children" — Dr.  G.  W.  A.  Luckey,  University  of 
Nebraska,  Lincoln,  Nebr. 

"Mental  Hygiene" — Dr.  W.  H.  Bumham,  Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass. 

SECOND  SESSION— Wednesday  Afternoon,  July  3,  1918 

"A  General  Survey  of  Child-Study"— Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  president,  Clark  Uni- 
versity, Worcester,  Mass. 

"Children's  Sense  of  Time"— Earl  Barnes,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

After  the  morning  session  Dr.  Hall  discust  the  papers  read. 

The  president  appointed  a  nominating  committee  composed  of  G.  E.  Jones,  Pitts- 
burgh; E.  A.  Kirkpatrick,  Fitchburg;  Netta  Ferris,  Cleveland.  This  committee  reported 
at  the  close  of  the  afternoon  session  and  nominated  for  next  year's  oflficers  the  following : 

President — Dr.  Louis  Terman,  Leland  Stan^'ord  Junior  University,  Palo  Alto,  Calif. 

Vice-President — Dean  W.  G.  Chambers,  University  of  Pittsburgh,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Secretary — Alma  Bmzell,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

The  foregoing  oflficers  were  unanimously  elected  and  the  meeting  adjourned. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


WHAT  TEACHERS  OUGHT  TO  KNOW  ABOUT  THE  PHYSICAL 
GROWTH  OF  CHILDREN 

DR.   JOHN  M.   TYLER,   AMHERST  COLLEGE,   AMHERST,   MASS. 

The  first  fact  which  teachers  should  know  and  recognize  is  that  physical 
growth  is  the  chief  business  of  childhood  and  youth.  The  stunted  body  will 
dwarf  the  mmd,  and  the  incompletely  grown  and  developt  organ  is  always 

323 


324  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Child Hygiene 

a  seat  of  weakness  and  an  open  door  of  entrance  to  disease.  Growth  must 
precede  development. 

The  teacher  should  recognize  the  fact  that  all  parts  of  the  body  do  not 
develop  with  equal  rapidity  at  the  same  time.  During  infancy  the  vegeta- 
tive vital  organs  are  growing  and  developing  very  rapidly.  Then  the  heavy 
muscles  of  trunk  and  legs  take  their  turn.  Children  romp,  run,  and  tussle 
like  kittens.  The  use  of  these  heavy  muscles  stimulates  the  growth  of  the 
vital  organs  and  of  a  steady  and  tough  nervous  system.  The  sense  organs 
also  are  maturing  rapidly.  The  child  is  inquisitive,  eager  to  see  and  feel 
and  handle  everything  about  it,  and  wishes  to  hear  everything  that  is 
said.    The  centers  of  perception  in  the  brain  are  developing  fast. 

We  can  thwart  nature  for  a  time  by  our  prejudices  and  invincible  igno- 
rance, but  later  she  will  exact  the  last  farthing  of  a  heavy  penalty.  Almost 
no  child  can  do  logical  thinking  before  it  is  eleven  years  old.  Very  few  of 
us  exercise  them  after  that  period,  except  briefly  under  the  spur  of  pain  or 
necessity.  A  very  Uttle  exercise  of  these  nascent,  highest  powers  is  all  that 
the  child  requires.  Why  compel  children  to  thumb  Ustlessly  the  leaves  of 
their  books  and  spoil  all  their  future  habits  of  study,  not  to  mention  the 
temper  of  their  teg,chers,  when  if  three-fourths  of  their  time  were  spent  in 
the  open  air  they  would  store  up  health  and  vitality  of  body  and  mind  and 
a  longer  and  more  useful  body  of  knowledge  ? 

The  tenth  year  of  the  girl  and  the  eleventh  of  the  boy  are  years  of  mini- 
mum growth  followed  by  two  or  three  years  of  rapid  increase  in  height, 
mainly  in  the  legs,  and  of  slight  gain  in  girths.  The  child  looks  lank  and  as 
if  it  had  been  violently  stretcht.  The  trunk  and  the  vital  organs  are  now 
too  small  for  the  legs  and  arms.  In  the  boy  these  proportions  change  for 
the  better  at  fourteen  and  again  at  sixteen.  In  the  girl  the  periods  of 
improvement  are  far  less  markt  and  distinct.  This  is  the  period  of  pubertal 
metamorphosis,  hurried  and  strong  in  the  girl,  less  noticeable  in  the  boy. 

It  is  a  period  of  very  low  death-rate  but  of  much  physical  disorder. 
Loss  of  appetite,  constipation,  headaches,  nervousness,  anemia,  pallor, 
and  general  lassitude  or  weakness  are  very  common.  Probably  not  one- 
half  of  our  girls  could  enter  high  school  with  a  clean  bill  of  health  after  a 
moderately  strict  physical  examination.  Now  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs, 
which  is  responsible  for  one-third  of  all  deaths  between  the  ages  of  fifteen 
and  twenty-four,  is  likely  to  gain  a  foothold  and  intrench  itself  in  her  sys- 
tem. Most  of  these  disorders  are  avoidable  and  should  be  greatly  decreast 
or  mitigated.  A  bit  of  mercy  or  even  a  bhnd  side  will  be  a  good  quality 
in  the  teacher,  for  bright  girls  of  this  age  are  liable  to  periods  of  dulness  or 
stupidity,  when  perfect  recitations  are  not  to  be  expected. 

The  period  after  sixteen  or  seventeen  in  both  boy  and  girl  should  be  one 
of  vigorous  health  and  overflowing  vitality.  Care  and  attention  to  physical 
health  should  not  be  relaxt  during  the  first  year  in  the  high  school.  During 
the  later  years  the  chief  danger  seems  to  lie  in  late  hours  and  too  much  social 


DepartmentI  THE  PHYSICAL  GROWTH  OF  CHILDREN  325 

excitement,  altho  a  reasonable  amount  of  social  pleasure  and  training  is  most 
desirable.  The  old  Greek  motto  of  due  proportion,  "  Too  much  of  nothing," 
applies  here  as  everywhere  else. 

The  group  games,  with  their  team  play,  loyalty  to  their  side  and  leader, 
and  obedience  to  discipline  for  the  honor  of  class  or  school,  are  an  excellent 
training  in  civic  virtues.  The  boy  is  learning  to  play  the  game  of  life. 
"Waterloo  was  won  at  Rugby."  But  all  pupils,  especially  the  retiring, 
unathletic,  studious,  and  conscientious  boys — ^for  some  boys  have  a  con- 
science— should  share  in  this  exercise. 

Every  period  is  in  a  sense  prophetic.  Childhood  stores  up  for  puberty, 
and  puberty  prepares  for  adolescence.  Adolescence  furnishes  the  impetus 
of  adult  life.  The  instincts,  cravings,  and  interests  of  every  period  furnish 
the  best  guide  and  suggestions  as  to  form,  method,  and  content  of  training 
and  instruction.  Is  not  this  perhaps  the  soul  and  essence  of  the  teaching 
of  the  Master  whom  we  all  dehght  to  honor  today  ?  Every  suppression  of 
natural  and  normal  instincts  and  cravings,  every  failure  to  satisfy  them, 
leads  to  arrest  of  development  or  to  maKormation.  It  is  his  glory  that  this 
thought  has  become  a  truism  of  education,  it  is  so  obvious  that  we  can  no 
longer  remember  or  imagine  how  strange  his  doctrine  sounded  when  first 
announst  to  us. 

Industrial  and  economic  training  has  become  an  important  part  of  the 
curriculum  of  our  colleges  and  high  schools,  and  this  is  excellent.  Every 
business  man  recognizes  the  value  of  our  system  and  approves  it.  I  have 
used  the  word  "value."  I  ask  one  of  my  students  what  determines  the 
value  of  any  object.  He  answers  ghbly,  "What  I  can  get  in  exchange  for 
it."  What  then  is  the  value  of  friendship,  virtue,  honor,  loyalty,  and  of 
everything  which  cannot  be  bought  or  sold,  but  which  makes  Ufe  worth 
living  ?  Are  we  training  our  pupils  to  live  or  to  get  a  Hving  ?  Our  boys  and 
girls  are  emphatically  intent  today  on  a  life  which  shall  include  but  go  far 
beyond  getting  a  Uving;  and  they  are  quite  right.  Is  our  system  of  educa- 
tion fast  becoming  frankly  materialistic  ?  If  so,  we  would  do  well  to  change 
it  at  once. 

Do  you  say  sadly.  Can  virtue  be  taught?  Perhaps  or  probably  not. 
But  it  can  be  imparted  by  that  infection  which  streams  from  living,  dynamic 
men  and  women  whose  touch  and  laying  on  of  hands  admits  the  pupil  to 
the  "apostolic  succession  of  great  souls,  the  only  people  in  the  world  who 
see  anything  as  it  is  and  understand  it."  This  infecting,  however,  is  the 
life  of  education,  as  you  know  well.  Are  we  training  our  teachers  to  live 
freely  and  largely,  or  to  devote  their  best  energies  to  the  soul  study  of 
some  dead  and  deadening  system  of  soul-destroying  pedagogics  ?  Do  you 
prefer  in  your  teachers  vitahty  or  docility?  They  do  not  always  go 
together. 

Church  and  school  are  being  called  upon  today  to  give  an  account  of 
their  stewardship.    Men  are  asking  the  impossible  of  religion  and  the 


326  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Child  Hygiene 

church  today;  tomorrow  they  will  demand  the  impossible  from  the  school. 
If  we  are  growing  and  living,  what  was  impossible  a  year  or  a  generation 
ago  is  possible  today,  if  we  are  ahve  to  our  opportunities.  Changes  are 
rapid  and  radical.  Men  are  ready  to  submit  to  discipline,  face  hardship, 
bear  burdens,  and  make  more  sacrifices  as  almost  never  before.  They 
are  throwing  aside  old  systems,  methods,  and  habits.  They  are  ready 
and  eager  to  be  led  into  something  higher  and  better  than  they  have  yet 
attained.  Who  will  lead  in  this  forward  march,  if  not  the  students  of 
childhood  and  youth  ? 


THE  MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  CHILDREN 

DR.  G.  W.  A.  LUCKEY,  DEAN,  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF  EDUCATION,  UNIVERSITY 
OF  NEBRASKA,   LINCOLN,   NEBR. 

The  deeper  and  richer  our  study  of  this  subject  becomes,  the  more  we 
become  convinst  that  the  essence  of  life  and  the  laws  of  growth  are  the  same 
in  plant,  animal,  and  man.  The  common  elements  in  all  hfe  are  so  numer- 
ous and  so  convincing  that  only  the  ignorant  or  mentally  perverse  need  fail 
to  see  the  relation  and  catch  the  spirit  of  the  unity  of  Hfe. 

Man  begins  the  journey  of  life,  as  do  the  plants  or  other  animals,  with  a 
single  cell.  By  adult  Ufe  the  single  cell  of  the  beginning  has  multiplied  to 
represent  more  than  four  hundred  biUion  cells,  clustered  into  groups  and 
differentiated  into  organisms,  each  with  its  special  function  and  work  to 
perform.  Any  disturbance  of  a  single  organ  may  be  sufficient  to  throw  the 
whole  machinery  out  of  gear. 

The  individual  of  today  represents  the  accumulated  experiences  of 
countless  generations.  At  the  bottom  of  the  push  for  greater  and  better 
life  is  the  will  to  live.  Every  cell  or  organism,  whether  acting  alone  or  in 
group,  manifests  this  particular  individual  will  to  five;  when  acting  in  group, 
it  takes  on  a  new  function  without  surrendering  the  old,  i.e.,  the  will  to  five 
as  a  member  of  the  special  group.  This  is  the  essence  of  all  later  develop- 
ment, whether  physical  or  psychical,  and  probably  represents  the  biological 
root  of  individuaHsm  and  sociaHsm,  a  duahsm  in  all  that  cannot  be  changed 
without  the  destruction  of  life  itself. 

In  this  growth  and  Uving  over  the  history  of  the  past  the  individual 
does  so  on  many  different  levels.  There  are  three  in  particular,  found  in 
childhood  and  again  repeated  in  adolescence,  to  which  I  desire  to  call  your 
attention.  From  birth  to  the  age  of  twenty,  or  possibly  twenty-five,  the 
individual  passes  thru  two  important  Hfe-cycles  of  growth,  each  containing 
three  distinct  stages  or  levels  of  growth.  The  first,  from  birth  to  two  or 
possibly  three,  is  the  emotional  level,  when  the  feelings  are  dominant.  The 
child  is  now  a  dermal  animal.  The  epithehal  tissue,  which  includes  not  only 
the  covering  of  the  body  but  also  the  ahmentary  canal,  the  lungs,  nervous 


Departmentl  THE  MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  CHILDREN  327 

system,  etc.,  is  making  its  greatest  growth,  and  since  it  contains  all  the 
sensitive  end-organs  it  is  easy  to  see  why  the  feelings  are  now  storing  up  a 
rich  harvest  for  future  use. 

The  second,  from  three  to  seven  or  eight,  is  the  voHtional  level,  when 
will  is  dominant.  The  child  is  now  a  motor  animal.  The  muscles,  espe- 
cially the  large  fundamental  muscles,  are  passing  thru  their  most  rapid 
growth  and  require  the  exercise  that  makes  of  the  child  a  dramatic  or  doing 
animal. 

The  third,  from  eight  to  twelve  or  fourteen,  is  the  intellectual  level, 
when  intelligence  begins  to  get  control  and  is  dominant.  The  child  is  now  a 
discriminating  animal.  The  finer  muscles  are  developing  and  demanding 
exercise  or  use.  Skill  of  movement  now  takes  the  place  of  the  awkwardness 
of  former  years  and  lays  the  foundation  of  the  formal  side  of  education 
essential  in  later  years. 

The  second  cycle  is  known  as  the  cycle  of  adolescence.  It  repeats  in  a 
similar  order  the  same  three  levels  or  stages  of  development.  A  new  birth 
occurs,  the  entire  physical  growth  begins  anew.  The  motive  is  sex  hunger, 
procreation,  and  parental  instincts.  SociaHsm  and  altruism  become  neces- 
sary concomitants  of  future  existence  and  tend  to  increase  the  individual 
love  of  life  and  interest  in  nature. 

The  difference  in  the  rate  of  development  now  between  the  boy  and  the 
girl  makes  it  necessary  in  our  scheme  to  separate  them.  Hence  I  shall  pro- 
ceed with  the  boy  in  mind.  From  fourteen  to  sixteen  the  dominant  growth 
changes  seem  to  be  dermal,  affecting  the  epithelial  tissue  and  producing 
innumerable  new  feehngs  and  emotional  desires.  This  is  known  as  the 
adolescence  period  par  excellence  in  gathering,  testing,  trying  out,  and 
storing  away  new  experiences,  laying  the  foundation  for  later  versatiUty 
and  strength. 

From  sixteen  to  eighteen  (the  definiteness  of  these  statements  should 
not  indicate  that  there  are  not  many  overlappings)  is  the  second  period  of 
most  rapid  growth  of  the  large  fundamental  muscles,  when  the  will  and  the 
desire  to  do  are  again  dominant.  This  is  the  time  for  general  training  and 
education.  The  boy  now  deUghts  in  rivalry  and  f';ats  of  strength.  If  he  is 
not  handled  right  he  may  leave  school  before  his  time  to  enter  the  dynamic 
world  where  he  can  do  and  dare.  Woe  to  the  insipid  teacher  in  this  stage 
and  the  next,  if  later  generations  must  suffer  for  the  want  of  a  man.  Today, 
as  never  before,  the  world  needs  men,  truly  educated  men;  men  of  clear 
vision  and  consecrated  will;  men  who  believe  in  God  and  love  his  children; 
men  who  will  not  hesitate  nor  falter  where  truth  points  the  way. 

From  eighteen  to  twenty  or  twenty-five  is  the  period  of  the  second  rapid 
development  of  the  finer  or  accessory  muscles.  This  is  the  period  par 
excellence  for  specialization  in  education,  the  selecting  of  a  profession  or 
trade  and  the  perfecting  of  ability  and  worth  in  it;  for  seeing,  appreciating, 
and  promulgating  the  finer  things  of  life. 


328  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  {Child  Hygiene 

As  the  individual  passes  thru  his  ontogeny  by  means  of  special  steps  or 
levels,  so  he  lives  over  and  develops  his  racial  history  on  definite  strata  or 
special  levels,  three  of  which  must  have  held  his  forbears  fixt  for  ages.  If 
we  now  take  a  sweeping  view  of  racial  history  and  experience  we  note  that 
besides  the  dualism  resulting  from  the  interaction  of  the  physical  and  psychi- 
cal there  is  the  well-known  trinity  of  the  psyche  emotion,  volition,  and 
intelligence.  Now  if  we  consider  the  larger  period  of  human  development, 
when  the  feelings  and  emotions  are  dominant  and  body  growth  is  the 
principal  function,  I  think  we  can  safely  say  that  it  covers  the  first  twenty 
to  twenty-five  years  of  life.  Barring  the  stress  and  strain  and  the  many 
struggles  of  altruism  that  appear,  it  is  the  period  of  selfish  individualism,  the 
perfecting  of  the  body,  and  of  being  stimulated  thru  the  fundamental 
feehngs  and  emotions.  It  is  a  period  of  body-building,  egoism,  and  self- 
preparation.  The  chief  motive  is  physical  hunger,  including  the  instinct 
of  self-preservation. 

From  the  early  twenties  to  forty-five  or  fifty  the  whole  purpose  and 
nature  of  life  change.  It  is  now  actuated  by  sex  hunger,  procreation, 
parenthood,  and  the  protection  and  care  of  the  young.  As  the  former  life 
centered  in  the  immediate  interest  of  the  individual,  the  development  of  a 
strong  body  and  an  energetic  mind,  the  present  life  centers  around  the 
needs  and  immediate  interests  of  offspring.  It  is  to  a  degree  social  and 
altruistic.  In  a  broad  sense  it  is  the  volitional  period  of  life  par  excellence, 
when  man,  for  the  sake  of  offspring  and  his  immediate  group,  executes  the 
earlier  fundamental  functions  of  the  world's  work. 

From  fifty  to  seventy-five  or  eighty,  as  life  is  now  constituted,  is  another 
vitally  important  period  to  every  normal  individual.  It  is  the  period  of 
intelligence  par  excellence,  when  the  individual  who  has  lived  in  harmony 
with  nature's  plan  is  free  and  ready  to  render  his  best  service  to  humanity. 
The  individual  who  has  lived  wisely  and  past  normally  through  the  other 
two  stages  is  now  ready  to  enter  efficiently  and  religiously  upon  his  highest 
life's  work.  The  fundamental  motive  now  is  the  hunger  for  truth,  the 
desire  to  know  the  true  purpose  of  life,  and  the  will  to  render  the  greatest 
service  to  mankind. 

One  fact  of  human  development  I  should  like  to  leave  with  you  with 
such  burning  clearness  that  you  can  never  forget  it.  The  book  of  nature 
from  which  I  have  been  sketching  is  written,  thru  nervous  complexes, 
impulses,  traits,  and  instincts,  indelibly  in  the  soul  of  every  individual. 
The  least  stimulation  of  these  latent  elements,  when  nascent  and  ripe, 
will  set  them  off.  When  nature  becomes  to  you  a  mirror,  look  in,  behold 
yourseff,  and  see  God.  Why  any  man  who  by  controlling  his  own  complexes 
and  working  out  his  own  salvation  might  become  great  should  desire  to 
force  his  thought  and  methods  of  thinking  upon  another,  thus  preventing 
the  other  from  reaching  his  highest  goal,  is  an  enigma  hard  to  understand. 


Department)  MENTAL  HYGIENE  329 

Teachers  should  avoid  it  and  never  give  for  truth  what  is  not  truth.    Educa- 
tion should  make  men  free  and  not  slaves. 

Are  you  intelHgent  and  clean  ?  Are  you  blest  with  a  real  hunger  for 
truth  ?  Have  you  been  a  faithful  student  of  child  life  ?  Do  you  really 
love  children?    All  children?    You  are  saved;  go  forth  and  save  others. 


MENTAL  HYGIENE 

DR.   WILLIAM  H.   BURNHAM,   CLARK  UNIVERSITY,   WORCESTER,   MASS. 

The  war  has  greatly  increast  the  scope  of  mental  hygiene.  And  on  the 
other  hand  mental  hygiene  has  made  to  the  war  a  contribution  of  vast  impor- 
tance and  unprecedented  character  in  its  examination  of  recruited  officers 
and  men  for  the  detection  of  nervous  and  mental  disorder,  in  the  reeducation 
of  disabled  soldiers,  and  in  its  aid  to  the  morale  of  the  army.  This  last  is 
distinctly  the  aim  of  mental  hygiene;  for  the  conditions  of  morale  and  of 
mental  health  are  practically  the  same. 

1.  Especially  the  study  of  nervous  disorders  in  the  war  has  made  great 
contribution  to  mental  hygiene.  It  appears  that  shell  shock  (not  surgical 
shock)  is  similar  to  certain  mental  troubles,  hysteria  and  the  like,  with 
which  every  alienist  is  familiar,  and  that  conditions  of  fatigue,  anxiety,  and 
strain  are  the  predisposing  factors  making  a  person  liable  to  such  disorder. 

And  again  the  effect  of  war  upon  children  suggests  the  need  of  sound 
mental  hygiene.  One  of  the  saddest  reports  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  was 
that  the  children  were  no  longer  seen  playing  in  the  streets  of  the  German 
cities;  and  in  some  localities  in  the  present  war  it  has  been  said  that  the 
children  have  forgotten  how  to  smile. 

It  may  be  said  perhaps  that  the  war  has  put  an  emphasis  upon  mental 
hygiene  that  it  never  had  before. 

2.  Physiological  studies,  both  before  and  during  the  war  have  placed 
mental  hygiene  upon  a  solid  scientific  basis.  What  occurs  in  the  brain 
when  the  mind  thinks?  was  the  problem  attackt  long  ago  by  the  great 
Italian  physiologist  Mosso.  And  a  long  series  of  investigations  since  has 
shown  definite  physiological  changes  correlated  with  mental  work,  changes 
in  the  distribution  of  the  blood,  an  increast  liberation  of  heat,  and  increast 
metabolism.  The  simplest  test  of  these  changes  is  the  increast  pulse-rate 
that  accompanies  attention. 

Among  the  most  important  of  the  physiological  investigations  are  the 
studies  of  the  glands  with  internal  secretion — the  thyroid,  the  thymus,  the 
pituitary,  etc.  Altho  the  function  of  these  glands  was  not  discovered  until 
recent  years,  a  vast  literature  on  the  subject  has  been  produced. 

These  modern  studies,  especially  those  by  Cannon  and  Crile,  have  shown 
not  only  that  normal  growth  and  development  depend  upon  the  proper 


330  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Child Hygiene 

functioning  of  these  glands,  and  that  the  various  forms  of  feeble-mindedness, 
cretinism,  myxoedema,  and  the  like,  are  caused  by  defect  in  one  or  more  of 
them,  but  that  their  normal  functioning  is  significant  for  our  life  of  feeling 
and  action. 

3.  Recent  studies  in  psychiatry  have  also  greatly  broadened  the  field  of 
mental  hygiene.  They  have  shown  the  possibility  of  preventing  many 
forms  of  mental  disorder,  especially  cases  on  the  border  line  between 
the  normal  and  the  defective,  cases  of  the  depressive  type,  the  various 
anxiety  neuroses,  and  even  some  cases  of  dementia  praecox,  where  suitable 
environment  and  suitable  training  can  be  provided.  They  have  shown 
that  in  many  cases  the  best  means  of  cure  is  some  form  of  reeducation 
involving  the  development  of  wholesome  interests  and  regular  habits  of 
attention  and  orderly  association. 

4.  Psychology  in  recent  years  has  made  many  important  contributions 
to  mental  hygiene.  Among  the  most  noteworthy  of  these  are  the  results 
of  the  Wiirzburg  school  in  Germany  and  of  Dr.  Baird  and  other  followers 
in  this  country.  These  investigations  have  shown  that  deeper  than  the  life 
of  perception  and  ideas  are  the  mental  tendencies,  the  set  of  the  mind,  the 
mental  attitudes,  and  the  like. 

These  attitudes  are  determined  in  the  schools  by  the  tasks  set  for  the 
pupils,  by  the  directions  given  by  the  teacher,  by  the  presence  and  behavior 
of  the  other  children,  and  by  the  whole  environment  of  the  pupils.  Many 
other  investigations,  especially  in  experimental  psychology,  have  widened 
the  scope  of  mental  hygiene.    I  can  speak  of  only  one  of  these. 

5.  The  most  important  contribution  to  mental  hygiene  providing  a 
method  of  unlimited  application  is  probably  the  modern  study  of  the  con- 
ditioned reflex  by  the  Russian  school  of  Pavlov  and  the  adaptation  of  this 
to  the  study  of  children  by  Krasnogorski  and  by  Drs.  Mateer  and  Watson 
in  this  country. 

Pavlov  has  developt  an  elaborate  technique  for  the  study  of  this  subject 
and  has  shown  that  the  sensation  from  any  receptor  organ — sight,  hearing, 
the  dermal  senses,  etc. — may  be  made  a  conditioned  stimulus  by  repeated 
association.  Krasnogorski  in  Russia,  Dr.  Mateer  at  Clark  University,  and 
Dr.  Watson  at  Johns  Hopkins  University,  have  shown  that  motor- 
conditioned  reflexes  can  be  developt  in  children,  and  that  the  ability  to 
form  such  reflexes  is  correlated  with  the  development  of  the  mind  and 
brain. 

All  this  is  of  great  importance  to  education  and  hygiene,  for  it  furnishes 
an  objective  method  for  studying  the  development  of  the  brain  cortex  on 
the  one  hand  and  the  growth  of  habit  in  the- individual  child  on  the  other 
hand.  All  training  in  animals  and  children  consists  largely  in  the  acquisition 
of  conditioned  reflexes. 

We  know  relatively  little  about  the  conditioned  reflexes  developt  by  our 
ordinary  school  and  home  environment;   but  the  studies  made  show  the 


Department)  MENTAL  HYGIENE  33 1 

vast  number  of  them  acquired  by  a  child  during  the  period  of  school  life, 
groups  of  habits  and  associations  probably  for  every  teacher  and  companion, 
and  the  importance  of  these  for  the  mental  health  of  the  individual. 

If  it  appears  that  this  broad  view  of  mental  hygiene  makes  it  overlap  the 
field  of  morals  and  social  hygiene,  it  is  true  enough  that  the  boundaries  are 
indefinite,  and  that  mental  hygiene  does  have  to  do  with  anything  which 
concerns  the  health  and  sanity  of  society  as  well  as  of  individuals.  In  the 
present  crisis  new  problems  of  the  utmost  gravity  confront  us;  and  these 
problems,  significant  for  the  welfare  of  society,  are  matters  of  vital  concern 
to  mental  hygiene  also. 

In  any  good  movement  in  education  there  lurks  the  danger  of  exaggera- 
tion and  the  development  of  an  extreme  that  will  be  the  ruin  of  all  the  good 
attained  by  it. 

During  the  last  two  years  a  great  moral  and  educational  development 
has  occurred  in  this  coimtry,  transforming  our  somnolent  pacificism  and 
selfish  individualism  into  an  active,  ardent,  and  united  patriotism  and  into 
ideals  of  cooperation,  unity,  and  national  and  even  international  service. 
Men  who  seldom  thought  of  anybody  but  themselves  and  their  immediate 
companions  are  now  sacrificing  for  others.  Young  men  who  perhaps 
seemed  worthless  are  now  apparently  saved  by  the  training  of  the  camp. 
Everybody,  in  fact,  is  receiving  a  training  of  great  value  from  the  war;  but 
care  should  be  taken  even  here  to  avoid  an  overdevelopment  and  the  evils 
inevitably  connected  with  this. 

After  a  great  war  there  is  always  an  opportunity  for  education,  especially 
for  the  defeated  nation.  In  the  present  war  we  are  bound  to  be  victorious; 
and  after  the  war  will  come  a  time,  not  only  of  opportunity,  but  of  great 
danger  in  educational  matters.  The  great  task  for  the  schools  will  be  to 
seize  the  opportunity  and  to  avoid  the  danger. 

A  few  things  are  pretty  certain.  It  is  certain  that  during  the  next 
ten  years  we  shall  have  either  war  or  peace.  If  we  have  continued  war,  a 
great  military  class  must  be  maintained.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  soon 
have  peace,  we  can  never  relapse  into  om:  former  state  of  unpreparedness. 
We  must  at  least  be  ready  to  enforce  peace;  and  military  training  to  some 
extent  is  likely  to  be  demanded.  In  either  case  there  is  bound  to  be  a  large 
class  devoted  for  a  time  to  military  affairs;  interest  in  military  affairs  is 
bound  to  be  developt,  and  military  training  is  likely  to  appear  necessary. 

An  educational  problem  already  pressing  for  solution  is  the  question 
whether  we  shall  have  military  training  and  instruction  in  the  high  schools 
of  this  country.  The  strong  feeling  of  many  educators  and  physical  trainers 
is  that  military  training  is  not  the  best  form  of  education  for  students  in  the 
high  school,  and  that  it  is  not  in  harmony  with  the  educational  aims  of  the 
public  schools.  If,  however,  this  contention  is  to  be  satisfactorily  main- 
tained it  is  necessary  that  the  high  schools  should  provide  that  moral  dis- 
cipline and  that  training  in  the  sound  principles  of  mental  hygiene  and 


332  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Child  Hygiene 

morale  that  give  the  preparation  necessary  for  the  occupations  of  peace 
as  well  as  of  war. 

Before  military  training  certain  habits  and  attitudes  should  be  developt. 
A  great  part  of  military  training  today  is  training  in  physical  education, 
hygiene,  obedience,  cooperation,  sacrifice  of  individual  interest  for  the  sake 
of  the  social  group,  and  in  the  principles  of  mental  hygiene  that  make  for 
morale  and  sanity.  We  shall  never  be  satisfied  again  without  extended 
training  of  this  kind.  This  part  of  military  training  should  be  empha- 
sized. It  can  and  should  be  given  in  the  public  schools.  It  would  be  the 
gravest  mistake  to  leave  all  this  to  be  provided  after  school  life  merely  in 
special  military  training. 

In  a  time  when  the  danger  of  mental  disorder  is  more  serious  than  ever 
before;  when  the  number  needing  the  help  of  a  sound  mental  hygiene  is 
greater  perhaps  than  ever  before;  in  the  storm  and  stress  of  war,  when  the 
hearts  of  men  and  women  at  home  are  breaking,  and  the  morale  of  the  best 
soldiers  at  the  front  is  being  tested;  in  a  time  of  numerous  fads  and  cults, 
when  men  cry,  Lo  here,  or  Lo  there,  is  the  kingdom  of  health,  mental  hygiene 
preaches  its  quiet  gospel,  based  upon  scientific  fact,  and  offers  the  aid  of 
our  vastly  increast  knowledge  to  those  in  grievous  need  of  sympathy  and 
aid,  a  gospel  quite  as  important  for  children  as  for  adults,  quite  as  helpful 
for  normal  children  as  for  the  defective. 


A  GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  CHILD-STUDY 

DR.   G.   STANLEY  HALL,  PRESIDENT,   CLARK  UNIVERSITY,  WORCESTER,  MASS. 

[The  first  part  of  this  address  was  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  child-study  during  the 
twenty-five  years  which  had  elapsed  since  it  was  given  a  department  in  the  National 
Education  Association. — Editor.] 

But  I  turn  from  these  more  familiar  fields  to  indicate  also  only  roughly 
and  inadequately  as  the  most  notable  of  all  contributions  to  paidology  those 
that  have  come  to  us  from  the  psychoanalysts.  Here  we  have  studies  of 
perhaps  twoscore  eminent  men  and  women  which  show  how  the  chief 
influences  that  shaped  their  characters  and  their  careers  originated  in  the 
infantile  years,  and  added  to  this  we  have  what  has  been  estimated  at 
nearly  twoscore  thousand  clinical  studies  that  show  that  it  is  to  these  years 
that  we  must  chiefly  look  for  the  sources  of  all  mental  and  moral  abnormal- 
ities. It  is  preeminently  thus  during  the  first  four  years  of  life  that  all  the 
fundamental  traits  of  character  and  disposition  or  diathesis  are  formed. 
These  very  rarely  change  after  the  age  of  three  or  four.  These  are  just 
the  years  that  the  adult  forgets,  but  the  character  of  life-interests  and  the 
intensity  and  direction  of  its  momentum  are  already  estabhsht.  The  infan- 
tile in  us  is  the  unconscious,  and  the  unconscious  includes  most  of  what 
we  call  instincts,  feelings,  sentiments,  emotions,  or,  in  popular  language, 


Department)  A  GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  CHILD-STUDY  333 

the  heart,  out  of  which  are  the  issues  of  hfe.  The  studies  of  childhood 
in  this  field  thus  take  us  down  to  deeper  strata  of  human  nature  than  the 
plummet  of  any  previous  psychology  has  sounded.  The  child  is  vastly 
older  than  the  adult,  not  only  because  its  traits  precede  those  of  adulthood, 
which  is  a  far  later  acquisition,  but  because  the  mainspring  of  every  disturb- 
ance of  sanity  or  virtue  is  also  found  in  this  first  quadrennium  of  life.  More- 
over, all  thru  life  we  live  on  a  very  slippery,  genetic  scale  and  easily  slide 
back  or  relapse  into  infantile  states  if  fatigue,  disappointment,  or  disease 
befalls  us.  All  the  delusions  of  all  insanities,  all  our  dreams,  are  made  on 
the  same  pattern  as  our  habitual  dream  types,  and  these  are  the  warp  and 
woof  out  of  which  the  day  dreams,  reveries,  and  wishes  of  childhood,  which 
fancy  can  so  often  almost  make  come  true,  are  made. 

Thus  the  theoretical  and  the  practical  in  this  new  Une  of  paidology  are 
closely  knit  together,  and  we  have  here  at  last  found  a  number  of  funda- 
mental mechanisms  which  go  distinctly  beyond  the  old  doctrine  of  the  four 
temperaments,  a  field  where  psychology  had  made  almost  no  progress  all 
the  way  from  Hippocrates  to  Wundt.  I  have  time  today  to  glance,  only 
briefly  at  a  very  few  of  these  traits: 

1.  Active  and  passive  (Nietzsche,  Freud,  Jung),  which  does  not  coincide 
with  masculine  and  feminine.  Actives  are  more  prone  to  anger,  passives 
to  fear;  the  former  do;  the  latter  learn  or  adapt.  In  their  pathological 
extremes  the  actives  may  be  cruel  and  the  passives  crave  to  suffer. 

2.  Another  fundamental  type  of  character  laid  down  in  the  first  three 
or  four  years  of  life  is  erethism.  Some  have  markt  power,  that  others  lack, 
to  draw  on  their  reserves  in  emergencies  and  exigencies.  Its  physical 
phenomenon  is  second  breath.  It  is  the  same  diathesis  that  often  brings 
the  exaltation  that  poets  call  the  afflatus  of  the  muse  versus  the  plodder. 
Those  who  have  it  can  tap  reservoirs  of  phyletic  energy. 

3.  Somewhat  related  is  the  other  distinction  between  the  egoists  and 
the  altruists,  those  who  are  selfish  and  prone  to  hyperindividuation  versus 
those  in  whom  genesis  and  self-sacrifice  culminate.  One  type  wants  to  do, 
be,  get  everything,  regardless  of  others  and  perhaps  of  means.  The  other 
type  is  inclined  to  self-abnegation.  It  loves  to  serve,  to  die  for  others  or 
causes  greater  than  itself.  The  extreme  types  are  set  forth  in  Christianity 
as  Christ  and  Satan. 

4.  The  attitude  toward  authority  is  now  estabHsht.  The  father  is  the 
child's  first  object  of  reverence,  and  it  is  the  father  whom  he  would  imitate. 
He  loves  but  also  fears  him.  He  has  to  submit  to  his  will,  perhaps  to  his 
chastisement,  so  love  and- respect  alternate  with  resentment,  obedience  with 
revolt.  Now  the  father  is  the  modulus  on  which  is  fashioned  the  child's 
attitude  toward  great  men,  the  community,  state,  church,  or  God  himself. 
So  we  have,  on  the  one  hand,  those  who  develop  morbid  symptoms  at  every 
suggestion  of  control,  constraint,  command.  They  are  negativists  who 
respond  to  any  hint  of  compulsion  by  protesting  their  readiness  to  die  for 


334  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Child  Hygiene 

liberty.  They  may  make  incorrigibles,  anarchists,  or  conscientious  ob- 
jectors. But,  on  the  other  hand,  those  of  the  better  type  make  pioneers 
and  inventors. 

5.  Compensation  is  establisht  just  as,  if  sight  is  gone,  touch  is  refined; 
or  if  the  left  hand  is  withered,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Kaiser,  the  right  may  be 
overdevelopt.  So  we  know  that  Demosthenes  stammered,  Beethoven  was 
deaf,  tall  boys  are  prone  to  stoop,  little  men  to  strut,  ugly  men  and  women 
have  a  stimulus  to  compensate  by  intellectual  development  as  Socrates  did; 
and  the  young  child,  because  it  has  always  served,  may  develop  a  great  sense 
of  power  with  a  compensating  sense  of  weakness  and  smallness.  Thus  we 
pad  our  minds  and  characters  as  well  as  our  bodies.  Here  we  have  another 
apparition  of  the  universal  push-up,  tlan  vital,  libido,  horme,  or  will  to  live. 

6.  More  difficult  than  to  avoid  arrest  is  the  maintenance  of  psychic 
unity.  The  soul  is  a  congeries  of  very  different  and  often  opposite  activi- 
ties, for  example,  between  pleasure  and  pain,  each  of  which  has  a  mental 
horizon  of  its  own,  as  do  fear  and  anger.  So  there  is  constant  need  of 
synthesis,  and  degenerate  souls  split  into  multiple  personalities,  so  that 
education  has  to  organize  the  soul  that  all  its  powers  may  be  brought  out, 
brought  to  bear,  and  brought  together  before  the  ego  can  sphere  itself  into 
individuality.  Mature  life  is  nothing  but  an  amplification  of  these  funda- 
mental impulses  of  the  first  four  years. 

Thus  I  have  toucht  on  only  six  of  the  score  or  two  of  psychic  mechanisms 
which  have  been  definitized  by  the  new  line  of  psychogenetic  study  which 
has  made  contributions  of  incalculable  value  to  our  knowledge  of  child- 
study.  Of  course  there  are  many  themes  of  child-study,  as  we  see  it, 
which  are  still  unaffected  by  this  new  departure,  which  is  exposed  to  some 
danger  of  inferring  from  the  abnormal  to  the  normal.  If  there  were  danger 
at  first  in  this  new  line  of  stressing  sex  too  much,  now  (thanks  to  the  younger 
generation  of  analysts  led  by  Adler  and  Jung)  the  whole  scope  of  psycho- 
analysis has  been  broadened  and  its  method  shown  to  apply  to  all  affective 
factors,  so  that  it  is  now  best  taught  and  studied  without  offense  and  with 
tremendous  gain  to  mental  effectiveness.  Nothing  could  be  worse  than  to 
psychoanalyze  normal  children.     Still  a  touch  of  it  needs  only  insight. 

Finally,  from  no  other  standpoint  has  it  been  so  clear  that  in  the  study 
of  childhoold  Hes  the  key  to  all  our  knowledge  of  human  nature.  To  under- 
stand the  psychic  life  of  the  child  is  first  of  all  to  understand  all  the  deeper 
springs  of  activity  in  adult  life,  even  those  that  make  men  and  women  great 
or  make  them  criminal  or  insane,  for  here  human  nature  is  laid  bare  to  its 
roots.  Again,  the  child  is  the  key  to  the  study  of  primitive  man  and  savages. 
Much  of  the  most  important  literature  in  the  whole  field  of  genetics  in 
recent  years  has  consisted  in  pointing  out  the  childish  traits  in  savages  and 
the  savage  traits  in  children.  Even  our  forbears  who  dwelt  in  caves  Hved 
their  lives,  were  wise  or  foolish,  good  or  bad,  sound  or  unsound  in  soul, 
according  to  these  rubrics.    Indeed,  even  the  higher  animals  in  their  funda- 


Department)  CHILDREN'S  SENSE  OF  TIME  335 

mental  instinctive  activities  can  be  thus  better  understood.  In  this  field 
too  are  to  be  found  the  very  best  psychological  explanations  of  war,  its 
causes,  and  the  basal  impulses  that  it  unleashes.  In  fine,  the  more  clearly 
we  see  that  the  unconscious  or  racial  factors  of  the  human  soul  are  older, 
vaster,  stronger  than  the  conscious,  just  to^that  degree  do  we  reaUze  that 
the  psychology  of  the  future  is  to  be  genetic,  for  the  best  definition  possible 
of  anything  in  the  world  today  is  a  plain  description  of  the  stages  by  which 
it  has  been  evolved.  Very  many  movements  have  already  sprung  from  the 
recognition  that  the  soul  itself,  no  less  than  the  body,  has  been  genetically 
evolved;  and  for  myself  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  tendencies  that  have  so 
broadened  and  enricht  the  field  of  child-study  during  the  last  twenty-five 
years,  since  it  was  recognized  by  this  Association,  will,  at  the  end  of  another 
quarter-century,  have  far  more  cause  for  satisfaction. 


CHILDREN'S  SENSE  OF  TIME 

EARL  BARNES,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

A  well-trained  sense  of  time  is  essential  to  all  efficient  living.  Without  it 
our  activities  are  chaotic  and  Httle  is  accompHsht.  In  developt  communi- 
ties, where  individuals  must  cooperate  with  their  fellows,  the  sense  of  time 
is  indispensable.  Beyond  this  our  modern  theories  of  life,  which  gather 
around  such  words  as  evolution,  genesis,  development,  and  growth,  make  a 
well-developt  sense  of  time,  capable  of  reaching  out  over  long  periods,  the 
very  foundation  of  rational  thinking. 

Babies  have  little  or  no  sense  of  time,  and  young  children  know  only 
"now,"  "right  away,"  "by  and  by,"  "a  httle  while."  Later  on  they 
understand  "today,"  "yesterday,"  and  "tomorrow."  How  do  they 
acquire  content  for  such  terms  as  second,  minute,  hour,  day,  week,  month, 
year,  and  century  ?  What  can  the  home  and  the  school  do  to  organize  their 
habits  and  their  thinking  on  a  sound  and  fairly  accurate  time  basis  ? 

In  the  past  the  schools  have  all  emphasized  the  evils  of  tardiness.  Every 
child  must  be  in  his  seat  at  a  fixt  hour.  Unfortunately  promptness  in  com- 
ing to  school  has  been  dependent  on  conditions  largely  outside  the  child's 
control.  Superintendent  Gregory  once  made  a  study  of  tardiness  in  the 
schools  of  Trenton,  N.J.,  where  the  records  were  pretty  complete  for  several 
years.  He  found  that  the  percentage  of  children  who  came  late  to  school 
ran  thru  the  same  curve  year  by  year.    The  average  by  months  was: 

Month                                            Percentage                 Month                            Percentage 
September 3.6  February 4.0 


October 4 

November 4 

December 5 

January 5 


1  March 3 

2  April 4 

7  May 4 

4  June 3 


33^  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Child  Hygiene 

Probably  the  school  pressure  varied  from  time  to  time,  but  it  would  be 
difficult  to  estimate  this.  What  is  evident  is  that,  beginning  with  Sep- 
tember, when  the  days  are  still  long  and  home  conditions  not  too  difficult, 
tardiness  is  at  a  low  point.  As  the  winter  approaches,  with  its  shortening 
days,  its  dark  mornings,  increast  clothing  to  look  up  and  put  on,  and  slower 
locomotion,  tardiness  increases  month  by  month  till  January.  Then,  as 
the  days  lengthen  and  cold  decreases,  tardiness  falls  off,  until  April  and  May 
breed  "spring  fever,"  which  increases  it  a  httle  until  the  June  examinations 
push  it  back  to  its  lowest  level.  Tardiness  follows  the  sun;  it  is  a  cosmic 
matter  with  children,  as  with  adults;  and  education  to  be  effective  should 
reach  the  parents  rather  than  the  children. 

The  only  effort  that  the  schools  have  made  to  train  children  in  correct 
modes  of  thinking,  where  time  is  concerned,  has  been  in  connection  with 
history  and  biography.  Even  here  it  has  been  taken  for  granted  that  our 
system  of  chronology  is  a  common  possession  of  all  intelligent  minds,  and 
Httle  has  been  done  to  clear  up  difficulties.  The  fact  is  that  few  adults 
have  any  definite  sense  of  the  centuries  along  which  life  has  progrest;  and 
probably  half  the  people  in  our  midst  would  not  be  sure  whether  1492  is 
in  the  fourteenth  or  the  fifteenth  century.  For  events  occurring  before 
the  year  i  the  pubhc  mind  is  almost  without  content.  The  matter 
has  been  still  further  confused  by  the  fact  that  the  dates  which  the 
children  have  been  required  to  memorize  were  badly  selected  and  often 
unimportant. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  adjusting  our  adult  activities  to  a  schedule  of  rising, 
meals,  work,  social  and  business  engagements,  amusements,  trains,  and 
going  to  bed,  we  are  all  the  slaves  of  our  watches  and  clocks.  No  accurate 
feehng  for  periods  of  less  than  an  hour  can  come  to  anyone  not  in  contact 
with  time-measuring  devices.  After  sufficient  experience  our  bodies  become 
adjusted  to  time  relations  so  that  combinations  of  digestive  and  other  vital 
processes,  fatigue,  and  events  past  over  make  us  feel  the  passage  of  five 
minutes  or  an  hour,  or  the  arrival  of  noon  or  midnight. 

How  does  this  mechanism  develop  in  children,  and  how  do  they  form 
the  habit  of  thinking  intelligently  in  longer  periods  of  time  ?  It  seemed 
to  me  that  our  older  method  of  child-study  might  yield  results  in  this 
field,  and  so  I  collected  one  thousand  papers  written  by  children  from  eight 
to  fourteen  years  old,  inclusive,  in  the  Pittsburgh  schools. 

The  teachers  were  askt  to  have  the  children  sit  with  their  hands  extended 
before  them  for  forty-five  seconds  and  then  state  how  long  it  had  been. 
Then  they  were  askt,  "What  does  1913  mean?"  The  last  question  was, 
"How  long  has  it  been  since  the  Civil  War  ?" 

These  tests  were  given  in  1 913.  The  answers  of  the  boys  and  girls  were 
so  nearly  the  same  that  for  convenience  I  have  mast  them  together.  This 
gave  me  a  hundred  or  more  papers  of  each  age,  a  sufficient  number  on  which 
to  base  generalizations. 


Department]  CHILDREN'S  SENSE  OF  TIME  337 

The  first  test,  sitting  with  the  hands  extended  for  forty-five  seconds, 
gave  answers  varying  from  five  seconds  to  fifteen  minutes.  Those  who 
estimated  exactly  right  were: 


Ages 

Ageg 

Age  lo 

Age  11 

Age  12 

Age  13 

Age  14 

1% 

2% 

2% 

2% 

3% 

3% 

8% 

Of  course  it  is  very  difficult  to  estimate  forty-five  seconds,  and  we  would  not 
expect  this  to  be  a  strong  fine. 

Other  tests  I  have  made  bear  out  the  conclusion  that  children  greatly 
overestimate  short  periods  of  time  and  only  slowly  come  back  within 
reasonable  limits.  Professor  Seashore's  studies  showed  the  same  condition 
with  adults. 

In  deahng  with  the  longer  periods  of  time,  which  should  regulate  most 
of  our  thinking,  we  are  faced  with  the  difficulties  of  our  complex  chronology, 
which  begins,  nominally,  with  the  birth  of  Jesus  and  runs  backward  and 
forward.  Every  history  teacher  knows  what  a  difficult  matter  this  is.  For 
my  purpose  I  used  the  test  originally  workt  out  by  Mary  Sheldon  Barnes, 
"What  does  1913  mean?" 

The  younger  children,  from  eight  to  ten  years  old,  attach  no  more 
meaning  to  the  date  than  is  contained  in  the  statement,  "It  is  the  name  of 
the  year,"  or,  "It  tells  what  year  it  is."    The  percentage  runs: 


Ages 

Age  9 

Age  10 

Age  II 

Age  12 

Age  13 

Age  14 

57% 

53% 

45% 

-       41% 

3S7o 

18% 

19% 

There  is,  of  course,  a  group  that  falls  below  this  level  of  understanding, 
most  of  whom  simply  feel  some  time  connection  with  1913  and  make  state- 
ments that  are  hard  to  relate  to  any  organized  form  of  thinking.  These 
papers  are,  however,  few  in  number,  and  the  majority,  even  of  the  youngest 
children,  know  that  19 13  names  the  year. 

Even  at  the  age  of  eight  some  of  the  children  know  that  19 13  measures 
the  time  since  Jesus'  birth.    The  percentage  having  this  answer  runs: 


/VgeS 

Age  9 

Age  10 

Age  II 

Age  12 

Age  13 

Age  14 

3% 

T  r-O/ 
1570 

14% 

21% 

19% 

35% 

38% 

Few  children  seem  to  reach  this  correct  understanding  durectly  and  at 
once.  Evidently  this  most  important  factor  in  our  chronology  is  taken  for 
granted  and  is  not  taught  in  our  schools.  Large  numbers  of  children  who 
have  come  to  realize  that  19 13  measures  the  time  behind  us  have  no  starting- 
point  for  the  series. 

A  less  academic  study  gathers  about  the  question,  "How  long  has  it 
been  since  the  Civil  War  ?  "  The  correct  answer  is  fifty- two  years  since  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War  and  forty-eight  years  since  its  close.  The 
children  whose  answers  fall  within  these  limits  are: 


Ages 

Ageg 

Age  10 

Age  II 

Age  12 

Age  13 

Age  14 

15% 

24% 

41% 

49% 

55% 

66% 

78% 

338  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  [Child  Hygiene 

This  is  a  fairly  good  and  steadily  growing  line.  If  we  take  a  larger  grouping 
and  include  all  those  whose  answers  fall  between  twenty-five  years  and 
one  hundred  years  we  have: 


Age  8 

Age  g 

Age  lo 

Age  II 

Age  12 

Age  13 

Age  14 

24% 

40% 

58% 

69% 

71% 

83% 

93% 

This  is  a  fairly  creditable  line  measuring  general  information. 

Those  who  give  an  answer  under  twenty-five  years  are  obviously  possest 
of  slight  historical  feeling.  Those  who  give  an  answer  over  one  hundred 
years  are  clearly  without  much  sense  of  time. 

From  these  slight  studies  it  is  safe  to  say  that  children's  sense  of  time, 
whether  used  to  regulate  life  in  short  periods  or  to  direct  thinking  in  longer 
periods,  is  very  imperfect.  This  is  what  we  should  expect,  but  it  empha- 
sizes the  necessity  of  having  regular  exercises  at  home  and  in  schools  in 
using  watches  and  clocks  and  in  estimating  short  periods. 

It  also  impresses  the  need  of  teaching  chronology  in  history,  not  by 
memorizing  unimportant  dates,  but  by  planning  an  intelligent  time  chart 
and  drilling  children  on  twenty  or  thirty  dates  distributed  across  the  cen- 
turies. These  dates  should  represent  important  persons  or  events  and  the 
chart  would  thus  give  an  outline  of  the  past  6000  years,  into  which  events 
met  in  reading  or  in  discourse  would  fit  as  they  now  fit  into  the  map  forms 
possest  by  almost  every  intelligent  person. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — Baroness  Rose  Posse,  president,  Posse  Normal  School  of  Gym- 

nasties Boston,  Mass. 

Vice-President — C.  Ward  Crampton,  director  of  physical  training New  York,  N.Y. 

Secretary — E.  H.  Arnold,  director,  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics New  Haven,  Conn. 


Tuesday  Forenoon,  July  2,  191 8 

In  the  absence  of  the  officers  of  this  department  Randall  D.  Warden,  of  Newark,  was 
placed  in  the  chair  as  presiding  officer,  with  Gterhard  E.  N.  Havekotte,  of  Pittsburgh,  as 
secretary. 

After  the  novel  feature  of  opening  the  meeting  by  singing  a  few  patriotic  hymns  and 
war  songs,  conducted  by  James  Mcllroy,  Jr.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  the  meeting  was  called  by 
the  chairman. 

The  first  paper  on  the  program,  entitled  "The  Strength  of  a  Nation  Promoted  thru 
Physical  Education,"  given  by  W.  Fowler  Bucke,  of  Geneseo,  N.Y.,  brought  out,  thru  dis- 
cussion, the  need  of  a  national  campaign  and  the  indispensable  aid  of  nurses  in  this  cam- 


All  discussions  were  limited  to  five  minutes. 

The  second  paper  was  on  "Physical  Training  for  Delinquents."  This  address  was 
given  by  Olive  M.  Jones,  principal.  Probationary  School,  New  York,  N.Y.  Many  good 
points  were  mentioned,  showing  that  the  author  had  given  a  great  deal  of  study  to  her 
subject. 

The  third  paper,  "The  Influence  of  Physical  Education  on  the  Development  of  the 
Individual,"  was  given  by  S.  H.  Replogle,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  The  statistics  in  this  and  the 
previous  paper  showed  that  if  more  investigations  were  made,  physical  training  would 
be  given  a  higher  standing. 

These  were  followed  by  "Effects  of  Physical  Education  on  School  Morale,"  given 
by  May  H.  Prentice,  Kent,  Ohio,  and  "  Physical  Education  in  Rural  Schools,"  by  Lawrence 
S.  HiU,  Albany,  N.Y. 

Mr.  Warden  spoke  briefly  on  his  subject,  "Creed  of  Physical  Education,"  to  allow 
time  for  the  business  meeting  which  followed. 

A  paper  on  "The  Policy  of  New  York  State  with  Regard  to  Physical  Training"  was 
given  by  James  G.  Riggs,  Oswego,  N.Y. 

Clara  G.  Baer,  of  New  Orleans,  La.,  presented  a  paper  entitled  "Women  and  the 
War,"  and  Helen  L.  Gregory,  Rochester,  N.Y.,  one  on  "Effective  Health  Education 
Thru  Public  Schools." 

Miss  Esther  Watson,  Boston,  Mass.,  presented  the  following  proposals  as  a  basis  for 
discussion  and  action,  which  were  adopted: 

Resolutions  adopted  by  the  Department  of  Physical  Education. 

Whereas,  We,  the  Department  of  Physical  Education  of  the  National  Education 
Association,  realize  the  war  necessities  of  a  higher  degree  of  physical  fitness  for  our  future 
fighters  and  present  home  workers  and  of  an  ample  provision  for  the  physical  reeducation 
of  disabled  soldiers,  be  it 


I 

I- 


339 


340  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Physical 

Resolved,  That  we  define  the  fundamental  distinction  between  military  training  and 
physical  education,  namely,  that  military  training  is  one  among  a  number  of  vocational 
occupations,  whereas  physical  education  is  the  upbuilding  development  and  efl&cient 
management  of  the  human  body  and  consequently  is  the  foundation  for  all  Ufe-work, 
physical,  mental,  and  spiritual. 

Resolved,  That  we  seek  to  establish,  in  connection  with  governmental  educational  and 
medical  agencies,  scientific  research  for  the  betterment  of  our  knowledge  of  physical  recon- 
struction work  and  physical  standards  which  will  provide  and  secure  the  enactment  of  laws 
for  such  discoveries. 

Resolved,  That  we  extend  to  the  consideration  :ii  superintendents,  normal  schools, 
teachers  and  students  of  physical  education,  and  all  educational  institutions  the  need  for 
greater  activity  in  providing  a  strong  personnel  for  these  new  demands  of  physical  educa- 
tion. That  we  seek  to  cooperate  with  all  community  agencies  for  health  and  recreation 
and  suggest  for  local  needs  the  formation  of  a  community  health  council,  including  a 
representative  from  the  Community  Center  Association,  the  Playground  and  Recreation 
Association,  Scouts  and  other  clubs,  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association,  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  Young  Men's  Hebrew  Associa- 
tion, the  chamber  of  commerce  and  commercial  amusement  places. 

Resolved,  That  play  be  incorporated  in  all  normal-school  courses,  with  credit  toward  a 
degree. 

Resolved,  That  the  Department  of  Physical  Education  of  the  National  Education 
Association  recommend  and  urge  that  boards  of  public  education  make  physical  training  a 
major  subject,  with  at  least  equal  rating  with  all  other  school  subjects,  and  that  adequate 
facilities,  teachers,  playfields,  and  apparatus  be  provided. 

The  whole  atmosphere  of  this  session  was  to  meet  the  great  public  awakening  to 
the  need  and  value  of  physical  training  as  disclosed  by  the  war  and  army  draft. 

The  officers  elected  for  the  coming  year  were: 

President — Randall  D.  Warden,  director  of  physical  education,  Newark,  N.J. 

Vice-President — Lawrence  L.  Hill,  director  of  physical  education,  Albany,  N.Y. 

Secretary— Miss  Esther  Watson,  Boston,  Mass. 

G.  E.  N.  Havekotte, 
Acting  Secretary 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


THE  STRENGTH  OF  A  NATION  PROMOTED  THRU  PHYSICAL 

EDUCATION 

W.   FOWLER  BUCKE,   DEPARTMENT   OF  EDUCATION  AND  PRACTICE,   STATE 
NORMAL   SCHOOL,    GENESEO,   N.Y. 

It  is  preferable  to  use  the  term  physical  education  rather  than  physical 
training,  since  the  idea  is  education  thru  the  physical  approach,  and  not 
merely  the  training  of  the  nature-muscular  mechanism.  It  will  include 
physical  education  thru  gymnastics  and  games,  educational  hygiene  and 
health,  and  athletics.  It  will  have  for  its  aim  to  "make  children  healthful, 
vigorous,  strong,  happy,  and  efficient,"  or,  to  be  more  exphcit,  to  build 
muscle,  to  train  muscular  coordination,  to  overcome  physical  defects,  espe- 
cially posture,  and  to  develop  traits  of  character  which  come  thru  muscular 
control. 

The  second  consideration  must  be  the  meaning  of  national  strength. 
It  is  understood  to  mean  the  survival  of  the  nation  or  state  most  fit  to  sur- 
vive when  put  to  the  supreme  test.  Perhaps  in  an  ideal  and  coming 
democracy  this  means  the  combination  of  many  factors  into  an  organic 


Department!     PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  THE  STRENGTH  OF  A  NATION       341 

unity.  The  organic  unity  making  for  national  strength  is  one  of  men  and 
resources,  or  men  in  control  of  resources — the  control  over  industry,  com- 
munication, chemical  and  physical  forces,  etc.  In  short,  the  strength  of 
a  nation  depends  upon  the  character  of  its  citizens  in  relation  to  each  other 
and  to  their  territorial  domain,  and  upon  their  ideals  of  individual  and 
community  Hfe. 

Accepting  these  positions,  it  must  be  determined  to  what  extent  physical 
education  accompHshes  national  strength.  Neither  opinion  nor  instrument 
can  measure  this  to  the  satisfaction  of  all.  That  in  the  evolution  of  nations 
it  was  greatly  strest  history  confirms.  The  ideals  embodied  in  Achilles 
and  the  mythological  interpretations  of  physical  power,  where  ideals  and 
gods  are  synonymous,  are  known  to  all.  The  reliance  of  Greece  was  placed 
upon  her  citizens.  This  dynamic  ideal  among  the  Greeks  came  to  develop 
a  physical  consciousness  that  made  him  ashamed  to  strip  who  lackt  physical 
symmetry.  It  represented  an  education  which  was  more  than  half  physical. 
They  would  have  styled  it  the  fundamentals  of  an  education  and  of  national 
strength. 

The  support  of  the  city  state  in  Greece  is  typical  of  that  in  Rome. 
But  with  the  advent  of  Christianity  came  a  markt  change.  Pagan  civiliza- 
tion did  not  satisfy,  pagan  Hterature  was  banisht.  Physical  education 
was  not  essential,  for  a  new  and  spiritual  kingdom  was  the  ideal.  With 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  as  the  law  of  life  and  the  reign  of  love  as  the 
world-ideal,  physical  education  as  a  preparation  for  war  must  cease. 

At  the  same  time  and  parallel  with  this  doctrine  went  that  of  the  feudal 
lords.  Their  protection  rested  upon  physical  education,  with  reckless 
courage  and  daring.  Thus  the  sons  of  noblemen  and  gentlefolk  should  be 
prepared  physically  for  that  which  in  modern  parlance  would  be  styled 
national  defense. 

It  remained  for  a  statesman,  a  philosopher,  a  diplomat,  a  scientist,  and 
a  modern  psychologist,  all  combined  in  one  man,  to  give  to  the  world  in 
acceptable  form  a  principle  that  has  stood  the  test  of  both  experiment  and 
opinion.  It  is  that  of  a  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body.  Here  the  messages 
of  biology,  physiology,  and  psychology  meet.  With  John  Locke's  contri- 
bution the  thinking  world  is  satisfied. 

Man,  both  physically  and  mentally,  is  the  resultant  of  all  racial  activities 
of  the  centuries.  His  life  is  an  epitome  of  the  progress  of  the  world,  so  to 
speak.  We  are  told  that  the  world  in  all  the  centuries  has  been  at  peace 
but  227  years.  It  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  whatever  of  physical  educa- 
tion we  have  has  been  the  result  of  mihtary  training.  The  fitness  of  the 
soldier  depends  upon  the  child's  being  physically  fit.  One  need  but  com- 
pare the  two  types  of  training  to  observe  how  the  military  justly  carries 
out  the  general  scheme  of  physical  education.  This  being  true,  the  program 
of  physical  education  is  the  program  of  military  education  fitting  the  pre- 
military  or  preprofessional  period. 


342  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Physical 

That  department  of  physical  education  most  unconscious,  or  most 
truly  instinctive,  is  play.  Some  delight  to  call  it  unlearned  behavior.  A 
careful  study  of  the  plays  of  children  shows  their  value  as  the  conserving 
force  of  all  that  is  good  and  valuable  for  the  future,  transmitted  from  the 
past,  and  shows  how  the  physical  carries  over  into  the  mental  as  mind  and 
soul  qualities  function.  Here  are  the  early  and  more  purely  physical 
activities  involving  first  the  fundamental  muscles,  then  the  necessary.  The 
progress  is  into  cooperative  activities  of  parts  of  body.  The  individualistic 
nature  of  games  leads  by  and  by  to  cooperation  and  leadership,  developing 
finally  a  sense  of  superiority,  dignity,  endurance,  and  courage,  while  inspir- 
ing confidence  and  giving  real  virtue  and  general  virility.  With  it  comes 
the  real,  naive  spirit  of  cooperation,  leadership,  simpUcity  of  life,  and  dash 
so  useful  to  national  spirit.  From  the  kindergarten  thru  elementary  and 
high  school  the  logical  work  of  one  who  directs  is  simply  to  round  out, 
complete,  or  supplement  the  spontaneity  of  child  life,  that  play  may  be 
enricht,  initiative  and  inventive  genius  expanded,  reservation  converted 
into  devotion,  and  principles  of  honesty  and  fairness  fostered.  The  further 
purpose  is  that  the  play  habit  may  be  acquired  and  carried  thruout  life. 
Thus  play  becomes  a  real,  national  asset. 

The  same  natural  function  of  physical  adolescence  is  found  in  athletics. 
Perhaps  this  is  true,  as  someone  has  observed,  because  love  and  war  are 
so  closely  connected  that  individual  pugnacity  is  greatly  increast  at 
sexual  maturity,  and  a  new  sense  of  organization  arises,  making  the  team 
possible. 

Here  are  developt  new  schools  of  mental  and  moral  training.  There 
must  be  conformity  to  rule  of  the  game,  self-subordination  or  the  struggle 
for  an  ideal,  the  sacrifice  hit,  the  unflinching  interest  in  the  group,  the  level- 
ing of  all  to  a  spirit  of  human  sympathy  and  recognition.  Here  come  the 
sense  of  honor  and  the  idea  to  win  for  the  sake  of  an  external  end.  Dr.  Sar- 
gent says  that  athletics  affords  a  wealth  of  new  and  profitable  topics  for 
discussion  and  enthusiasm  which  helps  against  triviality  and  mental 
vacuity,  prompts  discussion  of  diet  and  regimen,  gives  new  standards  of 
honor,  supplies  motive  against  all  errors  and  vices  that  weaken  or  corrupt 
the  body,  and  is  a  vent  for  reckless  courage  and  respect  for  deeds. 

In  addition  to  these  values  native  or  instinctive  possibihties  provide 
motivation  for  health  and  hygiene  involved  in  corrective  and  other  gym- 
nastic exercises  of  the  more  truly  conscious  sort.  Who  has  not  seen  the 
value  of  these  for  posture,  the  right  use  of  the  margin,  a  love  for  the  out- 
doors, a  study  of  the  problems  of  digestion,  the  general  interpretation  of 
symptoms,  and  the  development  of  a  wholesome  optimism?  Who  can 
estimate  the  value  of  medical  inspection  and  the  work  of  the  school  nurse  ? 
Thru  the  efforts  of  Dr.  McCurdy  and  others  the  public  is  learning  the  rela- 
tion of  physical  education  to  the  defective  body,  and  how  one  otherwise  a 
dependent  may  be  made  self-supporting.     In  this  respect  the  director  of 


Department]        PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  343 

physical  education  parallels  the  work  of  the  good  Samaritan  and  more, 
for  he  not  only  relieves  the  unfortunate,  as  it  were,  but  keeps  the  thieves 
out  of  the  narrow  passes  and  makes  the  country  safe. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  ON  THE 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL 

S.  H.  REPLOGLE,  ASSISTANT  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  ALLEGHENY 

COUNTY,  PA. 

The  aims  of  physical  training,  says  Dr.  Sargent,  may  be  included  under 
four  general  heads:  hygienic,  educative,  recreative,  and  remedial.  That 
it  does  improve  the  health,  that  it  does  give  the  body  skill  in  executing  the 
commands  of  the  mind,  and  that  it  is  recreative  and  remedial  I  think  we 
accept  without  question.  But  does  physical  education  produce  these 
qualities  and  conditions  and  make  them  contributory  to  the  ultimate  end 
of  all  education  to  a  degree  sufficient  to  give  it  a  place  of  first  importance 
on  the  daily  program  of  the  school  ? 

In  spite  of  all  the  testimony  as  to  its  value  as  a  part  of  a  scheme  of 
education,  physical  training  has  had  little  place  in  the  curriculum  or  on  the 
program  of  the  school.  With  reference  to  it  little  has  been  done  to  make 
practice  harmonize  with  theory,  or  to  test  out  theory  to  determine  whether 
it  holds  good  in  practice.  About  the  only  attempt  at  education  with 
physical  development  as  a  fundamental  basis  was  that  of  the  ancient 
Greeks.  They  emphasized  the  development  of  the  body  for  three  reasons: 
(i)  the  attainment  of  individual  strength  and  courage  as  a  means  of  national 
defense,  (2)  the  establishment  of  a  physical  basis  for  mental  development, 
and  (3)  the  cultivation  of  the  beautiful  in  form  and  proportion.  Can  we 
conceive  of  what  the  world  might  have  gained  had  their  philosophy  not 
been  lacking  in  moral  stability  ? 

Is  there  not  reason  to  believe  that  the  development  of  physical  health, 
strength,  and  endurance,  out  of  their  true  relation  to  right  ideals  and  true 
moral  purposes,  has  had  something  to  do  with  making  Germany  the  power- 
ful, dangerous,  brutal,  and  criminal  outlaw  that  has  drencht  all  Europe  in 
blood  and  brought  all  the  rest  of  the  world  to  the  defense  of  justice,  mercy, 
truth,  and  right  ? 

When  we  entered  the  war,  far  too  few  of  our  young  men  had  the  properly 
balanst  physical,  mental,  and  moral  qualities  necessary  for  immediate 
service.  And  now  we  find  ourselves  in  a  frantic  effort  to  qualify  a  sufficient 
force  to  outdistance  and  defeat  the  Hun. 

It  has  taken  a  pretty  severe  jolt  to  break  the  tie  that  has  been  binding 
us  to  the  tradition  of  the  past  and  to  get  us  out  of  the  feeling  that  our 
problem  is  largely  that  of  informing  and  reforming  the  minds  of  boys  and 
girls  and  of  making  them  familiar,  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  with  the 


344  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Physical 

sum  of  human  knowledge  as  it  now  exists,  but  we  are  seeing  the  handwriting 
on  the  wall  and  are  getting  a  broader  vision  of  the  whole  problem  of  educa- 
tion. The  great  world-war  has  revealed  to  us  many  shortcomings  and 
neglected  opportunities.  Perhaps  no  phase  of  our  national  life  has  felt 
the  test  more  keenly  than  the  one  with  which  we  are  concerned,  that  of 
education.  From  the  standpoint  of  moral  development  we  have  stood  the 
test  very  well.  And  that  the  intellectual  training  has  been  of  a  superior 
quality  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  those  who  are  accepted  prepare  for  service 
with  almost  incredible  rapidity,  showing  a  high  degree  of  intelligence  and 
keenness  of  mind.  But  when  about  one-half  of  those  who  offer  themselves 
for  service  to  their  country  must  be  rejected  because  of  physical  imperfec- 
tions, we  ask  ourselves  whether  we  have  not  been  neglecting  a  most  impor- 
tant phase  of  education,  whether  we  have  not  been  weighed  in  the  balance 
and  found  wanting  from  the  standpoint  of  physical  education.  Who  can 
estimate  what  would  have  been  the  gain  to  the  nation  if  the  physical  powers 
of  its  boys  had  been  developt,  as  well  as  their  mental  and  moral  qualities  ? 

A  means  of  definitely  measuring  the  results  of  our  work  in  all  of  *its 
phases  would  doubtlessly  bring  us  to  a  keener  realization  of  the  importance 
of  physical  education  as  a  necessary  part  of  the  work  of  the  school.  The 
intellectual  ability  of  our  boys  and  girls  and  the  effectiveness  of  our  training 
in  this  respect  we  do  measure  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy,  and  our 
work  is  influenst  very  greatly  by  the  results  of  such  measurement.  But 
thus  far  we  have  concerned  ourselves  very  little  about  their  physical  fitness, 
and  we  have  done  very  little  to  find  out  what  progress  their  bodies  are 
making  in  keeping  pace  with  their  mental  development.  We  take  no 
measure  of  the  effect  life  in  school  and  outside  is  having  upon  them  physi- 
cally. We  have  been  trying  to  build  up  a  sound  mind  without  first  pro- 
viding for  the  development  of  a  sound  body.  As  a  result,  far  too  many  of 
our  young  men  and  women  are  unable  to  stand  the  strain  and  test  of  life. 

We  have  begun  only  in  spots  to  organize,  supervise,  and  teach  play. 
Medical  inspection  of  a  superficial  type  is  bringing  to  notice  only  the  most 
glaring  of  physical  defects,  some  of  which  are  remedied  by  medical  atten- 
tion outside  of  school,  but  so  far  no  consistent,  systematic,  effective  work 
is  being  done  in  our  schools  to  remedy  physical  defects,  or  to  make  the 
knowledge  which  the  children  get  concerning  the  laws  of  health  and  the 
care  of  the  body  a  part  of  their  habits  of  life,  or  to  promote  health,  strength, 
and  vigor  of  the  body. 

In  order  that  we  might  have  a  way  of  determining,  to  some  extent  at 
least,  the  physical  fitness  of  our  boys  and  girls  in  Allegheny  County,  and 
to  provide  them  with  definite  lines  of  self-training  and  a  motive  for  such 
training,  we  workt  out  a  plan  of  tests,  with  standards  by  which  they  could 
be  measured  and  toward  which  they  could  train. 

Reports  from  the  districts  where  the  tests  were  given  indicated  their 
value  beyond  our  expectation.     They  were  given  credit  for  aiding  discipline 


Department]  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  AND  SCHOOL  MORALE  345 

and  improving  the  quality  of  mental  work,  and  for  a  deeper  interest  and 
better  spirit  in  the  school. 

Number  of  boys  tested 7147 

"       qualifying  in  running 1504  or  about  20  per  cent 

"jumping 2094"      "      29    "      " 

"  "  "chinning 2938"       "      40    "      " 

"  all  three  tests 508"      "        7    "      " 

Number  of  girls  tested 7008 

"       qualifying  in  running 2713  or  about  38  per  cent 

"throwing 914"      "      13    "      " 

"balancing 2692"      "      38"      " 

"  all  three  tests 212"      "       3    "      " 

Only  7  per  cent  of  the  boys  and  3  per  cent  of  the  girls  were  able  to  qualify 
in  all  three  of  the  tests  given.  Evidently  too  few  are  developing  physi- 
cally strong  in  every  respect.  As  a  rule  the  mentally  retarded  are  also 
physically  weak.  A  study  of  the  results  of  the  test  in  relation  to  retarda- 
tion helps  to  prove  that  there  is  a  close  relation  between  the  condition  of  the 
body  and  the  efficiency  of  the  mind.  It  has  been  demonstrated  in  other 
ways  that  improving  the  child  physically  results  immediately  in  improved 
mentality.  Attention  to  removable  defects,  such  as  adenoids,  poor  eye- 
sight or  hearing,  or  decayed  teeth,  almost  invariably  gives  the  child  a  new 
lease  of  life.  Is  it  not  evident  that  physical  training  of  the  right  type  would 
help  very  materially  to  reduce  retardation,  and  that  our  boys  and  girls 
need  exercises  selected,  varied,  and  adapted  to  the  end  that  their  bodies 
may  grow  symmetrically  strong,  vigorous,  and  healthy  ? 

It  would  seem  that  the  school  in  its  effort  to  educate  must  make 
physical  education  a  part  of  its  daily  program.  Without  school  life  so 
ordered  can  we  ever  hope  to  produce  efficient  men  and  women  ? 


EFFECTS  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  ON  SCHOOL  MORALE 

MAY  H.  PRENTICE,  DIRECTOR  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING,  KENT  STATE  NORMAL 
SCHOOL,   KENT,   OHIO 

The  matter  of  morale,  intangible,  yet  most  real,  is  in  all  our  thoughts 
at  the  present  time.  The  relation  of  this  spiritual  attitude  to  the  physical 
is  a  fascinating  consideration. 

In  one  sense  physical  education  is  the  only  education.  Not  only  do 
we  learn  to  know  by  doing,  but  we  learn  to  know,  in  the  ultimate  reahty, 
only  by  doing.  Purposeful,  joyful  action  is  a  mental  and  spiritual  stimulant 
and  tonic  quite  as  much  as  it  is  a  developer  of  physique. 

We,  the  people  of  the  schools,  who  associate  five  or  more  hours  a  day 
with  childhood  and  youth,  have  so  little  felt  in  friendly  sympathy  with  the 
throbbing  of  the  eager  young  hearts  that  we  have  waited  for  the  city 
gymnasium,    the   swimming-pool,    the   settlement   playground,    the   Boy 


346  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Physical 

Scouts,  and  the  Camp  Fire  Girls  to  demonstrate  to  us  that  attenuated 
intellectuality  can  never  be  the  mainspring  of  healthy,  hearty,  joyous 
youth. 

If  the  child's  impulses  are  to  be  transmuted  into  spiritual  values,  if 
thru  them  he  is  to  be  made  a  creature  of  a  larger  life,  until  his  life  is  rounded 
into  Froebel's  three  great  unities,  with  himself,  with  man,  with  God,  then 
his  physical  education  cannot  be  left  to  chance.  It  must  become  a  serious 
and  large  part  of  his  school  life. 

In  the  majority  of  American  schools  physical  education  still  plays  a 
very  small  part.  Even  the  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  of  daily  exercises  are 
often  crowded  out  by  work  considered  more  important,  and  the  exercises 
are  often  perfunctory  and  poorly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  children. 
Adequate  gymnasium  facilities  and  ample  open-air  playgrounds  are  the 
exception  rather  than  the  rule. 

When  Americans  were  mostly  country  dwellers,  even  the  city  child 
could  usually  walk  from  his  home  in  the  heart  of  the  city  to  the  fields  and 
woods.  Motor  control  was  learned  at  the  spinning-wheel,  the  churn,  the 
bread-board,  and  the  cheese- vat;  at  the  scythe,  the  ax,  the  haymow,  in 
nutting  and  apple  gathering.  Sometimes  there  was  a  heaviness  in  the 
rustic  grace,  something  of  the  joy  of  life  was  often  lacking;  but  always  there 
was  for  the  children  and  young  people  a  sense  of  the  dignity  of  labor,  of 
being  an  integral  part  of  the  family  and  community.  Much  that  was 
admirable  in  physical  development  and  social  morale  came  thus. 

These  are  other  times.  Our  children  and  young  boys  and  girls  are  a 
leisure  class  by  legislation,  with  no  occupation  but  mental  culture.  More 
and  more  what  they  are  and  are  to  become  is  made  the  responsibility  of  the 
school. 

Admitting  then  that  the  first  duty  of  the  school  is  to  make  the  child  a 
healthy,  happy  animal  and  to  furnish  him  a  fitting  habitat  as  such,  we  find 
that  we  cannot,  because  he  is  human,  do  this  first  thing  without  doing  more. 
He  is  an  "ideal  farming  animal,"  and  we  are  obliged  to  ponder  the  service 
which  physical  education  may  render  through  using  this  great  spiritual 
instinct. 

The  health  and  happiness  of  the  individual  require,  not  only  that  the 
proper  muscles  shall  be  exercised  and  each  organ  given  its  due  share  of 
work,  but  that  his  education,  intellectual,  spiritual,  and  physical,  shall  be 
social  instead  of  solitary;  that  it  shall  give  opportunity  for  losing  himself 
and  so  finding  a  greater  and  worthier  self  in  the  group,  the  side,  the  team, 
the  nation,  the  humanity,  to  which  he  belongs.  This  sense  of  belonging 
is  morale.  "Except  as  he  is  member,  citizen,"  says  Mr.  Joseph  Lee,  "the 
child  will  lack  the  chief  basis  of  morality."  The  relation  of  morality  and 
morale  is  like  that  of  honesty  and  honor. 

Step  by  step  the  different  forms  of  physical  education  deepen  the  belong- 
ing feeling.     Merely  doing  things  in  unison,  as  in  drill,  where  each  is  inde- 


Department!  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  347 

pendent,  yet  all  are  actuated  by  a  common  purpose,  gives  a  sense  of  unity 
and  makes  each  feel  himself  a  part  of  the  whole.  And  since  the  feeling  of 
belonging  is  fundamental,  those  features  of  physical  training  in  which  a 
common  end  is  sought  by  the  group  are  the  most  far-reaching  from  a  social 
point  of  view.  Human  life  is  a  cooperative  project.  "No  man  liveth  to 
himself  alone." 

Morale  is  that  nth  power  to  which  man  is  raised  by  his  faith  in  the  end 
sought  by  the  group  to  which  he  is  bound  by  a  common  ideal  or  purpose. 
In  all  the  great  moments  of  the  world  men  have  thus  been  lifted  out  of 
themselves  into  a  realm  in  which  their  powers  become  those  of  supermen, 
and  the  beginnings  of  this  superhuman  power  are  to  be  found  on  the  play- 
ground. In  those  forms  of  sport  requiring  combination  and  initiative  all 
the  quahties  of  morale  are  found.  "In  team  play  there  are  needed,"  says 
Dr.  Dudley  Sargent,  "quick  judgment  in  unforeseen  exigencies,  alertness, 
quick  perception,  prolonged  attention,  great  self-control,  self-direction, 
and  self-sacrifice." 

In  addition  to  all  the  foregoing  in  group  play  is  the  almost  greater  one 
of  fair  play,  which  in  organized  play  is  taught  by  the  game  itself.  Our 
chief  accusation  against  the  Hun  is  his  lack  of  sportsmanship.  He  does  not 
play  fair.  He  does  not  abide  by  the  rules  of  the  game.  The  whole  world 
is  engaged  in  the  effort  to  teach  the  Hun  the  standards  learned  on  the  foot- 
ball and  baseball  fields. 

Physical  training  has  already  done  wonders  in  transforming  the  old, 
hard,  undemocratic,  unsocial  school.  It  can  do  much  more,  but  there  is  a 
lurking  danger.  It  is  that  of  the  mechanical  standardization  of  physical 
education.  Joy,  will,  social  interplay,  real  opportunities  for  leadership 
must  remain  if  it  is  to  continue  to  be  a  living  factor  in  the  ascent  of  the 
school  to  better  things. 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

LAWRENCE  L.  HILL,  DIRECTOR  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION,  ALBANY,   N.Y. 

Physical  education  in  rural  schools  is  a  problem  that  has  not  yet  been 
satisfactorily  solved.  It  is  a  problem  that  presents  several  angles.  We 
must  determine  the  needs  of  the  rural  communities  in  a  physical,  moral, 
and  social  way.  We  must  determine  what  physical  education  should 
include  and  how  to  inaugurate  and  organize  its  various  phases. 

There  has  been  rather  consistent  opposition  to  physical  education  in  the 
rural  communities.  Opposition  to  this  so-called  "fad"  has  its  beginning  in 
several  facts.  First,  it  involves  the  expenditure  of  money.  The  problem 
is  indeed  difficult  of  solution  when  communities  come  to  value  money  more 
highly  than  they  do  activities  that  make  for  greater  social,  moral,  and 
physical  efficiency.  Another  reason  for  opposition  to  physical  education  in 
the  rural  schools  is  that  the  people  of  these  communities  do  not  realize  the 


348  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  (Physical 

value  of  this  phase  of  education.  They  do  not  appreciate  the  need  for  a  well- 
organized  health  program.  They  have  not  the  right  conception  of  what  it  is, 
what  it  includes,  and  what  it  should  accomplish.  Not  the  least  of  all 
causes  for  opposition  is  that  in  many  of  those  districts  where  physical 
training  has  already  been  inaugurated  the  instructors  supervising  the 
work  have  not  been  properly  trained.  With  such  conditions  it  is  little 
wonder  that  we  find  opposition  to  physical  training  as  a  part  of  the  school 
curriculum. 

What  then  can  we  do  to  overcome  this  opposition  ?  We  must  go  slowly. 
The  most  vital  factor  in  the  physical  education  program  is,  after  all,  the 
teacher  and  supervisor.  People  of  proper  training,  of  faculty  for  the  work, 
with  enthusiastic  interest,  and  with  a  vision  of  the  possibilities  of  the  work 
and  the  opportunity  for  service  will  do  more  to  develop  wholesome  recrea- 
tional and  civic  activities  than  any  other  possible  agency.  They  will 
popularize  this  training  in  the  rural  communities  and  wipe  out  the  opposi- 
tion to  it. 

And  now  we  must  determine  the  needs  of  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  rural 
schools  and  of  the  rural  communities.  These  must  necessarily  be  stated 
in  general  terms.  In  the  first  place,  healthful  and  attractive  surroundings 
are  essential  to  the  physical,  mental,  social,  and  moral  welfare  of  the  chil- 
dren and  to  the  life  of  the  community.  Instruction  in  personal  hygiene  and 
sanitation  of  the  schoolroom  and  school  grounds  is  needed.  But  it  is  useless 
to  preach  if  preaching  is  all  we  do.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  boys 
and  girls  to  learn  these  laws  of  health  thru  observation  and  practice. 

School  life  is  a  severe  nervous  strain  if  the  child  is  expected  always  to 
observe  proper  decorum  and  to  sit  still  for  long  periods.  We  are  fighting 
nature  if  we  compel  the  child  to  do  this.  On  the  other  hand,  school  life  will 
not  become  a  nervous  strain  if  sufficient  periods  are  given  for  relaxation 
and  physical  exercise.  It  is  not  a  question  of  whether  the  school  program 
affords  time  for  this  relaxation  thru  activity.  It  is  a  matter  of  changing 
our  school  program,  if  necessary,  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  child. 

Traditional  school  life  has  a  harmful  effect  upon  the  normal  posture 
of  the  body,  and  poor  posture  in  turn  works  great  havoc  with  the  health 
of  the  child,  because  of  the  crowding  of  the  vital  organs  of  the  body.  The 
need  of  postural  exercises  is  apparent.  Rhythm  and  grace  of  movement  are 
needs  of  the  child.  The  habitual  rhythm  of  motion  is  fundamental  for  full 
intellectual  development.  No  phase  of  our  education  can  train  the  indi- 
vidual in  this  respect  quite  as  well  as  can  games,  athletics,  rhythmic 
exercises,  exercises  to  response,  commands,  and  other  branches  of  physical 
training. 

The  children  of  the  soil  need  physical,  mental,  and  moral  courage. 
Exercises  and  games  which  require  nerve,  daring,  courage,  and  skill  should 
be  given.  Thru  the  appointment  of  leaders  the  individuals  acquire  confi- 
dence in  themselves  and  the  ability  to  lead  others.    They  acquire  the  abiUty 


Department)  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  IN. RURAL  SCHOOLS  349 

to  stand  defeat  as  gracefully  as  victory;  they  learn  recognition  of  the  rights 
of  others,  cooperation,  self-subordination  for  the  good  of  the  majority,  and 
leadership  thru  team  games  and  athletics.  These  rural  children  need  per- 
haps more  than  any  other  one  thing  the  social  aspect  of  these  games  and 
contests.  Rural  communities  must  have  more  wholesome  social  life. 
There  is  a  dire  need  for  social  centers  in  the  country.  We  must  develop 
these  children  while  they  are  in  school  and  give  them  something  they  can 
use  when  school  days  are  past.  We  must  develop  the  habit  of  wholesome 
exercise  for  after-school  life. 

To  sum  up  these  needs  we  may  say  that  the  rural  child  requires  a 
special  type  of  activity.  It  is  useless  to  preach  morality,  self-control, 
recognition  of  the  rights  of  others,  altruism,  self-confidence,  determination, 
loyalty,  cooperation,  courage,  skill,  and  a  host  of  other  attributes  which 
the  individual  should  acquire  in  school,  if  mere  preaching  is  all  that  is 
attempted.  It  is  necessary  to  give  the  individual  opportunity  to  learn  these 
valuable  lessons  for  himself,  and  this  he  can  do  thru  normal  directed  activity 
,  better  than  he  can  in  any  other  way. 

In  order  to  inaugurate  a  program  of  this  character  it  is  necessary  that 
each  community  should  have  a  general  community  leader.  Whatever  the 
future  may  develop  in  bringing  this  need  to  a  practical  realization  in  terms 
of  specific  organization,  for  the  present  at  least  this  work  must  be  done  by 
the  local  leader  of  physical  education.  The  physical  director  in  a  rural 
community,  to  be  able  properly  to  work  out  this  program,  must  have  a 
very  definite  and  concrete  knowledge  of  personal  and  school  hygiene,  health 
and  sanitary  inspections,  of  inspection  for  signs  of  abnormality  and  injury 
or  illness,  for  conditions  which  call  for  immediate  attention  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher,  and  for  signs  of  disordered  health  for  which  children  should 
be  kept  at  home;  of  the  organization  and  duties  of  health  officers  and  pupil 
sanitary  inspectors;  she  must  have  a  very  definite  and  concrete  knowledge  of 
physical  training  and  all  that  this  term  implies,  and  the  practical  conduct  and 
organization  of  the  various  phases  of  physical  training  into  a  rational  health 
program;  she  must  have  a  very  definite  and  concrete  knowledge  of  the 
nature  and  function  of  play,  of  child  nature,  of  festivals  and  entertainments 
for  old  and  young,  of  the  social  center  or  community  center;  and,  besides 
all  this,  she  must  have  a  vision  of  the  service  and  duties  of  a  general  com- 
munity leader  as  well  as  a  technical  knowledge  of  her  subject. 

The  oft-repeated  assertion  that  the  rural  communities  are  the  basic  social 

organization  upon  which  rests  the  stability  of  the  nation  still  holds  true.     A 

proper  conception,  therefore,  of  rural  physical  education  is  a  fundamental 

educational  necessity  if  a  definite  program  of  development  is  needed.     An 

adequately  trained  personnel  to  put  this  program  in  operation  is  the  first 

^^     step  in  the  right  direction.    In  some  of  the  states  this  idea  is  already  taking 

^B     definite  form  in  legislation  and  educational  organizations.     A  nation-wide 

^H     movement  to  this  end  is  indicated  for  the  near  future.     This  body  can  do 


350  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Physical 

no  more  constructive  service  to  the  general  advancement  of  physical  educa- 
tion in  America  than  by  a  sane  and  enthusiastic  support  of  that  important 
phase  of  physical  education  so  urgently  needed  in  rural  communities. 


CREED  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

RANDALL    D.    WARDEN,    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    PHYSICAL    TRAINING,    PUBLIC 
SCHOOLS,   NEWARK,   N.J. 

My  body  is  my  house.  I  must  live  in  it  as  long  as  life  lasts.  If  I  take 
proper  physical  exercise  this  house  will  last  longer  and  be  a  stronger,  hand- 
somer dwelling-place. 

My  muscles  are  the  machines  with  which  I  must  do  all  the  tasks  that 
destiny  and  determination  place  in  my  way.  Exercising  will  keep  the 
parts  in  smooth  working  order. 

My  will  coordinates  the  forces  within  me.  Physical  education  helps  to 
develop  man's  will — the  will  to  make  the  best  of  himself  and  to  serve  others. 
Consequently  physical  education  is  a  factor  in  the  world's  progress,  in  its 
happiness,  and  in  its  joy  in  working  and  playing. 

To  build  and  preserve  any  nation  it  is  necessary  to  inculcate  ideals  of 
physical  prowess,  national  courage,  sportsmanship,  fair  play,  and  self- 
preservation  of  man.  To  this  end  it  is  the  first  duty  to  perfect  the  body, 
attain  symmetry  of  form,  develop  the  coordinations  of  perfectly  attuned 
nerves  and  muscles,  and  secure  the  lithesome  power  of  the  athlete. 

This  necessitates  physical  exercises  of  graded  progression  which  must 
be  given  in  the  gymnasium  on  suitable  apparatus.  I  am  emphatic  about 
this — ^in  our  country  there  have  grown  up  systems  of  physical  training  in  our 
public  schools  which  are  unworthy  of  public  respect.  You  cannot  teach 
manual  training  without  a  manual-training  shop,  you  cannot  teach  chem- 
istry without  a  laboratory,  neither  can  you  teach  physical  training  without 
a  gymnasium  and  gymnasium  appliances.  We  must  develop  manhood  and 
courage,  and  this  cannot  be  done  without  a  gymnasium  to  teach  vaulting, 
swinging  and  climbing,  boxing  and  wrestling,  jumping  and  tumbling  exer- 
cises. 

The  playfield  too  must  be  utilized,  and  competitive  games,  strenuous 
antagonistic  sports,  and  daring  feats  must  be  practist.  All  over  this  country 
the  mistake  is  being  made  of  building  schools  with  inadequate  playground 
and  playfield  facilities.  The  public  schools  of  the  nation  should  be  built  in 
one  corner  of  a  six-acre  field,  and  the  playground  and  the  athletic  field  should 
be  just  as  much  a  part  of  the  school  plant  as  is  the  school  building  itself. 

It  is  also  the  duty  of  the  schools  to  give  a  knowledge  of  hygiene,  so  that 
pupils  shall  know  the  simple  rules  of  health  and  thru  habits  of  practice  be 
led  to  adopt  regular  periods  of  play  and  outdoor  recreation. 

Public  attention  has  been  directed  to  the  very  surprising  percentage  of 
our  youths  who  are  unfit  for  military  service.    Everybody  is  now  asking, 


Department]  CREED  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  35 1 

"Why  is  it  that  our  boys  are  physically  unfit  to  become  soldiers?"  In 
seeking  for  an  answer  to  this  we  naturally  turn  to  examine  and  scrutinize 
critically  the  constructive  period  of  youth. 

Is  the  home  and  environment  responsible  for  this  lack  of  stamina  and 
undevelopt  physique?  Or  is  the  national  school  system  of  our  country 
responsible  ?  In  the  end  it  makes  no  difference  how  much  the  home  is  to 
blame;  if  our  democracy  is  to  endure,  the  American  people  must  demand 
that  the  schools  assume  the  burden  of  this  preparation  for  physical  fitness. 

The  school  children  of  today  will  become  the  soldiers  of  tomorrow  and 
will  have  to  pass  the  same,  or  greater,  tests  in  future  peace  or  warfare.  The 
nation  must  never  again  be  caught  with  the  necessity  of  lowering  the 
physical  standards  in  its  endeavor  to  fill  the  ranks  and  to  make  it  possible 
for  her  young  manhood  to  pass  the  physical  tests  for  the  army.  It  is  per- 
haps difficult  to  make  boards  of  education  realize  that  this  responsibility 
rests  upon  them. 

The  idea  that  physical  education  is  a  fad,  a  game  of  "hide-and-seek," 
and  can  be  adequately  given  with  the  expenditure  of  eight  or  nine  hundred 
dollars  for  a  supervisor  and  three  or  four  hundred  dollars  for  a  syllabus,  and 
that  the  classroom  teacher  is  prepared  and  trained  and  has  the  vision  to 
teach  this  important  subject,  is  an  antiquated  idea.  Schools  are  willing  to 
spend  money  on  machine-shops,  on  manual- training  shops,  on  laboratories; 
they  are  quite  willing  to  employ  teachers  of  stenography,  of  agriculture,  of 
astronomy,  and  pay  them  good  salaries;  so  too  they  must  be  willing  to 
employ  specialists  to  train  and  develop  the  manhood  of  the  nation — men  and 
women  who  can  take  the  burden  of  this  particular  work  off  the  hands  of  the 
regular  classroom  teacher,  who  has  all  she  can  do  to  teach  the  subjects 
already  in  the  curriculum. 

A  gymnasium  costs,  let  us  say,  $8000,  but  it  is  a  permanent  investment; 
it  is  there  for  all  time.  Gymnastic  apparatus  is  practically  unbreakable; 
under  proper  teaching  the  equipment  will  last  several  generations.  Thus 
the  only  expense  is  the  employment  of  the  trained  teacher — one  who  knows 
corrective  gymnastics  and  can  help  the  defective  as  well  as  the  normal  child; 
one  who  loves  athletics  and  will  organize  and  develop  the  athletics  of  the 
entire  school  so  that  each  child  may  play  his  part;  one  who  loves  the  out-of- 
doors,  the  sunshine,  play,  and  happiness;  one  who  will  mold  character  and 
develop  qualities  of  honesty  and  respect  for  authority  and  loyalty  to  leader- 
ship. Think  of  the  many  advantages  arising  from  an  expert  in  charge  of 
the  physical  training  of  each  school.  He  looks  after  the  organized  recesses, 
he  looks  after  the  seats  and  sees  that  they  are  adjusted  in  size,  he  instructs  in 
simple  measures  of  hygiene,  he  has  the  entire  grammar  department  in  after- 
school  recreation,  he  develops  dancing,  he  organizes  athletics,  he  is  a  great 
factor  in  the  discipline  and  esprit  de  corps  of  the  school.  In  short,  by  pre- 
cept and  example,  he  has  an  opportunity  to  mold  character,  develop  man- 
hood, and  inculcate  ideals  of  fair  play  and  citizenship  among  the  pupils  of 


352  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Physical 

the  school  as  no  other  teacher  can,  because  of  the  sympathetic  association 
he  has  with  the  student  body. 

The  present  war  has  brought  us  all  up  with  a  shock  over  our  previous 
lethargy  and  indifference  to  universal  physical  training.  It  is  vitally  impor- 
tant that  our  schools  henceforth  include  physical  training  in  their  curriculum 
and  carry  it  out  with  the  same  degree  of  enthusiasm  and  success  and  with  the 
same  progressive  advancement  as  has  been  experienst  in  the  past  in  mental 
training. 

A  few  states  have  undertaken  by  law  to  compel  the  teaching  of  physical 
training,  but  these  laws  are  not  at  all  satisfactory  because  they  are  not 
radical  enough.  Our  physical  education  must  be  as  radical  as  our  recent 
development  of  an  army.  We  have  in  our  United  States  a  school  popula- 
tion of  over  twenty  million  pupils — a  population  greater  than  the  entire 
number  of  inhabitants  of  Persia,  Portugal,  or  any  South  American  state. 
The  future  destiny  of  this  Republic  depends  upon  the  physical  vigor  with 
which  these  young  citizens  are  able  to  attack  the  problems  which  arise  to 
confront  them. 

We  are  just  beginning  a  new  epoch  in  military  affairs,  and  so  too  are 
about  to  begin  a  new  epoch  in  public-school  education.  Our  teachers 
must  have  greater  recognition,  their  work  must  be  appreciated,  and  they 
must  be  paid  more  money  than  day  laborers.  It  is  a  shameful  fact  that 
teachers  in  America  have  been  compelled  to  take  the  wages  offered  to 
apprentices,  laborers,  and  household  servants.  Never  again,  however, 
should  the  women  of  this  country  accept  the  mean  wages  offered  them  by 
ignorant  school  commissioners. 

The  classroom  teacher  must  also  be  relieved  of  teaching  every  subject 
under  the  sun.  It  has  come  to  be  expected  of  her  to  teach  successfully  the 
three  R's,  all  the  cultural  subjects,  science,  and  manual  training.  It  is  pre- 
posterous. We  must  recognize  the  fact  that  some  of  these  subjects  are  in 
the  province  of  the  specialist,  and  of  all  these  physical  training  ranks  as 
foremost,  because  nations  survive,  not  thru  art,  not  thru  science,  not  even 
thru  religion,  but  only  thru  manhood  and  physical  vigor. 

As  surely  as  the  pendulum  swings  backward  and  forward,  as  surely  as 
history  repeats  itself  in  cycles,  just  so  surely  physical  education  is  beginning 
to  receive  thruout  the  world  the  consideration  and  the  veneration  that  the 
Greeks  gave  to  it  before  the  decline  of  their  civilization. 


THE  POLICY  OF  NEW  YORK  STATE  WITH  REGARD  TO 
PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

JAMES   G.   RIGGS,  PRINCIPAL,   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,   OSWEGO,   N.Y. 

Since  the  wax  broke  on  us,  numerous  facts  growing  out  of  the  entrance 
of  our  young  men  into  the  military  and  naval  service  have  brought  sharply 
to  our  notice  a  certain  lack  in  national  health  and  a  disclosure  of  a  surpris- 


Department]  PHYSICAL  TRAINING  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE  353 

ingly  large  percentage  of  men  with  a  defective  physique.  A  good  physique 
is  not  for  war  purposes  only.  It  is  the  first  requirement  for  a  steady  occu- 
pation, good  pay,  and  a  contented  mind.  It  is  also  the  requisite  for  a 
happy  home  and  a  useful  place  in  the  social  group.  The  successful  pursuit 
of  peace  and  happiness  makes  its  claim  for  a  virile  manhood  as  well  as  does 
the  profession  of  war.  Neglect  of  physical  well-being  is  the  prelude  to  a 
train  of  ills  for  which  the  state  in  some  form  must  pay  the  bills.  These  are 
truisms.  There  is  no  new  way  of  stating  them,  but  they  emphasize  a  great 
lesson  growing  out  of  the  Great  War — that  the  fundamental  problem  is 
one  of  education.  School  administrators  believe  that  the  remedy  lies  in 
legislation  for  instruction  in  physical  training  thru  the  period  of  school  life. 
The  New  York  State  Department  of  Education,  taking  a  broad  and 
comprehensive  view  of  its  duty  toward  the  health  of  its  future  citizens  and 
of  the  scope  of  physical  education  in  the  schools,  caused  appropriate  legis- 
lation to  be  enacted.  It  grew  out  of  the  state  of  public  feeling  on  prepared- 
ness and  embodies  a  notably  constructive  scheme.  The  New  York  law, 
approved  May  15,  19 16,  and  amended  the  following  year,  makes  the  follow- 
ing provision: 

All  male  and  female  pupils  above  the  age  of  eight  years,  in  all  elementary  or  secondary 
schools  of  the  state,  shall  receive  as  a  part  of  the  prescribed  course  of  instruction  therein, 
such  physical  training,  under  direction  of  the  commissioner  of  education,  as  the  regents, 
after  conference  with  the  Military  Training  Commission,  may  determine,  during  periods 

which  shall  average  at  least  twenty  minutes  each  school  day Similar  courses  of 

instruction  shall  be  prescribed  and  maintained  in  private  schools  of  the  state,  and  all 
pupils  in  such  schools,  above  eight  years  of  age  shall  attend  upon  such  course;  and  if 
such  courses  are  not  so  establisht  and  maintained  in  any  private  school,  attendance  upon 
instruction  in  such  school  shall  not  be  deemed  substantially  equivalent  to  instruction 
given  to  children  of  like  ages  in  the  public  school  or  schools  of  the  city  or  district  in  which 
the  child  resides. 

Coincident  with  the  physical-training  law  and  also  growing  out  of  the 
public  feeling  toward  preparedness,  a  law  was  adopted  providing  for  military 
instruction.  Altho  it  is  under  the  control  of  the  military  authorities  and 
its  operations  are  carried  on  outside  the  schools,  it  is  a  companion  measure 
to  the  physical-training  law,  as  its  provisions  bear  a  direct  relation  to  the 
young  people  of  the  state.  It  creates  a  Military  Training  Commission 
which  recommends  to  the  regents  courses  of  instruction  in  physical  training, 
"habits,  customs,  and  methods  best  adapted  to  develop  correct  physical 
posture  and  bearing,  mental  and  physical  alertness,  self-control,  disciplined 
initiative,  sense  of  duty,  and  the  spirit  of  cooperation  under  leadership." 
The  law  provides  that  all  boys  above  the  age  of  sixteen  and  not  over  nine- 
teen who  are  pupils  in  the  public  or  private  schools  or  colleges  except  cer- 
tain exemptions,  shall  receive  such  military  training  as  the  commission  may 
prescribe  for  periods  aggregating  not  more  than  three  hours  in  each  week 
during  the  school  year.  The  law  provides  similar  training  for  boys  not  in 
school,  excepting  such  as  are  employed  in  any  occupation  for  a  livelihood. 


354  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Physical 

Insufficient  time  has  elapst  properly  to  report  on  the  actual  workings  of 
this  measure. 

Quoting  from  Dr.  Thomas  A.  Storey,  state  inspector  of  physical  training, 
'*  The  administration  of  this  law  is  a  function  of  the  regents  of  the  University 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  that  is,  of  the  State  Department  of  Education.  A 
Bureau  of  Physical  Training  has  been  establisht  as  a  subdivision  of  the 
state  military  commission.  The  state  inspector  of  physical  training,  the 
chief  officer  of  the  bureau,  is  required,  in  accordance  with  the  law,  to  observe 
and  inspect  the  work  and  methods  described  under  the  provisions  of  the 
education  law  relating  to  physical  training.  The  state  law  in  New  York 
also  provides  that  all  public  schools  in  the  state  employing  teachers  of 
physical  training,  qualified  and  duly  licenst  under  the  regulations  of  the 
regents,  may  receive  financial  support  from  the  state  to  the  extent  of  half 
the  salary  of  each  teacher  so  employed,  provided  that  half  the  salary  does 
not  exceed  $600." 

At  the  last  session  of  the  legislature  the  sum  of  $60,000  was  appropriated 
for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  Department  of  Education  of  the  state  of 
New  York  to  provide  for  the  supervision  and  special  instruction  in  physical 
training  of  teachers  of  other  subjects  who  are  assigned  or  designated  as 
required  by  law  to  give  instruction  in  physical  training.  This  has  special 
reference  to  rural  teachers.  The  regents'  rules  already  prescribe  qualifi- 
cations for  teachers  of  physical  training:  the  completion  of  an  approved 
four-year  high-school  course,  and  subsequent  thereto  the  completion  of 
an  approved  two-year  professional  course  in  physical  training. 

At  the  instigation  of  Dr.  Thomas  E.  Finegan,  deputy  commissioner  of 
education,  the  legislature  provided  for  the  coming  year  a  teacher  of  health 
subjects  for  the  state  normal  schools  and  the  state  college  for  teachers. 
This  also  goes  to  the  root  of  the  matter  in  requiring  each  teacher  who  holds 
a  normal  diploma  to  have  received  instruction  in  the  fundamentals  of  health 
and  physical  training.  Obviously,  a  teacher  of  health  subjects  should  be 
a  trained  nurse  with  a  broad  education  and  a  personality  which  shall 
itself  commend  her  subject. 

Another  provision  not  unconnected  with  physical  training  is  the  estab- 
lishment at  one  of  the  state  normal  schools  of  a  department  for  the  training 
of  teachers  for  that  increasing  class  of  children  whose  minds  have  not  fully 
developt.  A  recently  enacted  law  of  the  state  requires  that  for  each  ten 
such  children  a  special  teacher  and  room  shall  be  provided.  This  is  another 
evidence  of  the  broad  and  human  interest  of  the  state  in  her  children,  the 
future  citizens,  that  they  may  have  full  opportunity  in  the  formative 
years  to  reach  the  best  development  of  which  they  are  capable. 

The  State  Department  of  Education  has  under  its  direction  a  chief 
medical  inspector  who  has  both  a  man  and  a  woman  as  assistants;  also  a 
woman  superintendent  of  school  nurses;  a  lecturer  on  hygiene,  a  man; 
an  inspector  of  oral  hygiene,  a  man;     a  nuritional  expert,  a  woman;   a 


Department!  WOMEN  AND  THE  WAR  355 

mental  and  physical  diagnostician,  a  man;  and  finally  a  woman  organizer 
of  special  classes  for  the  mentally  retarded  children. 

These  evidences  show  the  attitude  of  New  York  state  toward  physical 
education,  an  attitude  both  positive  and  constructive,  as  exemplified  in  the 
legal  provisions  which  have  furnisht  the  basis  for  this  paper. 


WOMEN  AND  THE  WAR 

CLARA  G.   BAER,  PROFESSOR  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION,  NEWCOMB  COLLEGE, 
TULANE  UNIVERSITY,   NEW  ORLEANS,   LA. 

In  looking  backward  over  the  history  of  the  world  one  is  always  conscious 
of  the  presence  of  woman  as  shaping,  more  or  less  definitely  as  the  customs 
of  the  period  permitted,  the  destiny  of  races.  It  is  true,  except  in  very 
rare  instances,  that  her  career  as  a  public  character  has  been  the  simplest 
and  least  conspicuous;  yet  she  has  always  shared  the  life  of  man — tho 
humbly,  abjectly  even,  at  times.  One  can  truly  say,  and  without  prejudice, 
that  the  position  woman  has  occupied  in  the  development  of  a  people  is  the 
measure  of  that  people's  civilization. 

Civilization  is  changing,  but  the  human  heart  and  purposes  seem  the 
same  thruout  the  ages ;  and  woman  is  constantly  repeating  herself  in  history, 
accepting  what  life  holds  for  her  of  devotion  to  a  cause.  Even  when  her 
sphere  was  limited  she  was  often  in  the  home  alone,  its  only  protection, 
while  the  man  was  off  seeking  means  of  sustenance  thru  field  and  forest. 
And  when  it  became  necessary  to  fight  the  wilderness  she  was  at  man's 
side,  doing  her  part  in  the  development  of  a  new  country  and  making  it 
safe  for  liberty. 

Is  it  any  wonder  then,  when  we  are  facing  the  most  gigantic,  nay  titanic, 
struggle  in  the  history  of  races,  that  we  find  woman  intelligently  interested 
and  purposefully  active  in  all  projects  where  she  may  prove  of  real  worth 
to  the  cause  ?  It  may  not  be  necessary  for  her  to  be  organized  into  bat- 
talions to  do  the  active  work  at  the  front.  That  has  ever  been  man's  prov- 
ince, and  while  man  exists  it  probably  always  will  be.  The  famous  Russ 
Death  Battalion,  however  whole-hearted  in  its  devotion,  proved  that  to 
bear  arms  is  not  the  real  work  of  women. 

The  modern  woman's  work  on  the  battlefields  today  is  chiefly  that  of 
caring  for  the  wounded  and  the  dying.  In  this  great  war  crisis  the  service 
of  women  as  angels  of  mercy,  in  the  great  work  of  the  Red  Cross,  will  go 
down  in  history.  Only  time  can  tell  how  glorious  the  work  has  been.  There 
are  thousands  of  men  who  will  testify  before  the  great  throne  the  comforting 
power  of  woman's  work  in  this  Great  War.  And  many  sons,  sweethearts, 
and  fathers  will  come  home  from  "over  there"  restored  to  life  and  home  as 
the  result  of  the  devoted  nursing  and  care  of  some  good  woman. 

The  absoluteness  of  the  surrender  of  life  to  the  cause  by  women  of 
high  and  low  degree  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  time.    Yet  not  a  marvel 


356  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Physical 

when  one  realizes  that  women  are  but  a  part  of  the  great  mother-heart  of 
nature.  Man,  injured,  bleeding,  suffering,  calls  forth  the  greatest  services 
of  which  a  woman  is  capable.  Here  one  could  pause — for  in  this  fact  lies  the 
crux  of  the  whole  matter:  man,  the  fighter;  woman,  the  helpmeet. 

The  question  of  how  to  help  today  is  not  so  simple.  Life  is  making 
so  many  more  calls  upon  woman.  It  is  becoming  much  more  complex  in 
the  ever-increasing  avenues  of  service  opening  to  her,  but  her  intensive 
preparation  for  the  work  she  intends  to  do  is  manifested  on  all  sides,  both 
in  this  country  and  abroad.  As  always  in  her  history,  woman  is  accepting 
her  lot,  answering  the  call  with,  "Here  am  I,  Lord,"  and  giving  her  whole 
heart  to  the  service.  It  is  true  that  she  will  make  mistakes;  she  may 
stumble  by  the  way,  but  her  eyes  are  directed  to  the  duty  ahead  and  she 
will  not  falter.  How  much  the  future  holds  of  duty  and  service  for  each 
woman  only  time  can  tell. 

Thousands  of  our  men  are  yielding  up  their  lives  that  the  home  may  be 
safe.  In  this  great  need  we  can  feel  assured  that,  so  far  as  human  nature  can 
work,  woman  will  do  her  part  to  hold  civilization  together,  to  keep  the  wheels 
of  progress  turning,  and  to  safeguard  the  young  citizens  of  the  land.  A 
Herculean  task  it  will  prove. 

To  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  occasion  the  life  of  woman  must,  for  a  time 
at  least,  be  more  or  less  revolutionized.  She  will  be  called  upon  to  do  things 
scarcely  thought  to  be  woman's  work.  One  cannot  say  how  or  what  shall  be 
the  limit  of  her  opportunities.  We  are  not  afraid  that  she  will  fail.  The 
woman's  touch  will  glorify  and  make  fine  the  task  wherever  it  may  be  per- 
formed. The  same  single-heartedness  of  purpose  and  devotion  to  an 
ideal  that  have  always  characterized  her  life  will  furnish  the  motive  power 
in  this  new  life,  among  these  greater  cares  and  graver  responsibilities.  Out 
of  this  great  carnage  will  spring  a  purer  ideal  of  citizenship.  It  will  no 
longer  be  a  question  of  woman  "unsexing"  herself  in  doing  a  more  varied 
work  and  in  living  a  larger  life,  but  it  will  be  a  finer  civilization,  where  men 
and  women,  as  God  intended,  shall  work  together  for  the  betterment  of 
humanity. 

In  order  to  fit  herself  for  the  task  woman  recognizes  that  the  first  and 
greatest  requisite  for  success  is  a  fine,  strong,  resistive  body.  The  athletic 
girl  has  come  to  stay.  With  her  has  come  the  recognition  that  fresh  air 
is  the  greatest  beautifier  on  earth;  that  what  one  eats  and  drinks  determines 
largely  how  one  thinks;  that  freedom  of  carriage  and  life  depend  upon 
proper,  hygienic  dress;  that  littleness  of  thought  has  no  place  in  the  larger 
life;  also  that  "thoughts  are  things" — vivid,  life-compelling,  purpose- 
ful, or  death-dealing  and  destructive.  She  will  manifest  in  her  life  what 
Ingomar  meant  when  he  said  of  Parthenia,  "She  rules  herself,"  determining 
what  character  of  life  she  will  live,  planning  it  definitely  and  intelligently. 

Woman,  this  "New  Woman,"  added  to  the  great  army  of  earth,  is  a 
power  tremendous  in  her  gentle,  forceful  nature.    As  the  simple  blade  of 


Departmentl         HEALTH  EDUCATION  THRU  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  357 

grass  forces  its  way  between  great  rocks  to  reach  the  sunlight,  so  woman 
will  pass  thru  the  difficulties  that  beset  her  life,  and  in  this  new  light  of  a 
greater  opportunity  will  bring  to  the  world  blessed,  efficient  service. 


EFFECTIVE  HEALTH  EDUCATION   THRU  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

HELEN  L.  GREGORY,  MEMBER,  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION,  ROCHESTER,  N.Y. 

If  the  nation  is  to  have  a  strong,  enduring  foundation,  if  compulsory 
educational  laws  are  worth  anything,  then  there  is  an  absolute  necessity 
for  children  to  have  the  most  skilful  training  and  care  possible;  otherwise 
the  "nation  will  have  but  poor  material  to  lean  upon." 

Children  should  be  trained  in  youth,  when  habits  are  less  fixt  and  the 
sports  and  games  are  inherent;  then  students  on  leaving  school  would  carry 
with  them  the  love  of  health-giving  sports  and  games,  the  knowledge  of  how 
to  keep  themselves  "fit,"  as  the  Enghsh  say,  and  our  nation  would  not  be 
forst,  as  it  is  today,  to  report  50  per  cent  only  as  physically  able  for  service, 
and  this  too,  remember,  among  those  of  vigorous  years. 

Dr.  Thomas  Wood  says  that  all  the  necesary  forces  should  be  marshaled 
for  the  work  of  developing  physical  and  health  training,  and  we  have  the 
right  to  look  to  the  schools  as  the  official  accredited  agency  to  lead  in  such  a 
program. 

We  believe  a  pupil-governed  health  club  in  every  schoolroom  offers  the 
most  practical  means  of  driving  home  the  classroom  lessons  in  hygiene. 

This  subject,  hygiene,  will  never  be  taught  effectively,  no  matter  how 
perfect  the  outhne  may  be,  or  how  strongly  presented,  until  the  children 
have  some  incentive  to  live  up  to  hygienic  rules  other  than  the  teacher's 
constant  appeal  to  do  so. 

This  pupil-governed  health  club,  one  of  the  most  aUve  contributions 
in  the  field  of  physical  training  today  and  one  adopted  in  very  many  states, 
is  the  "incentive"  which  is  going  to  make  possible  effective  health  training, 
and  the  extra  time  demanded  for  this  work  is  well  spent  and  pays  large 
dividends. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — O.  M.  Plummer,  member,  Board  of  Education Portland,  Ore. 

Vice-President — Albert  Wunderlich,  school  director St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Secretary — William  C.  Bruce,  editor,  School  Board  Journal Milwaukee,  Wis. 


FIRST  SESSION— Tuesday  Forenoon,  July  2,  1918 

The  Department  of  School  Administration  was  called  to  order  for  the  first  session  at 
9:35  a.m.  The  vice-president  of  the  department,  Mr.  Albert  Wunderlich,  presided. 
Addresses  were  given  as  follows: 

"Introductory  Address" — Albert  Wunderlich,  commissioner  of  schools,  St.  Paul, 
Minn. 

"Recent  Growth  in  the  Administration  of  City  Schools" — W.  S.  Deflfenbaugh, 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 

"War  Policies  for  Schools" — George  W.  Gerwig,  secretary.  Board  of  Education, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

"State  and  School  Administration" — Thomas  E.  Finegan,  deputy  state  commissioner 
of  education,  Albany,  N.Y. 

"Americanization  as  a  War-Time  Duty  of  the  Schools" — J.  George  Becht,  secretary, 
Pennsylvania  State  Board  of  Education,  Harrisburg,  Pa. 

The  chair  appointed  Mr.  A.  A.  McDonald,  Sioux  Falls,  S.D.,  and  Mr.  L.  N.  Hines, 
Crawfordsville,  Ind.,  to  act  as  a  nominating  committee. 

The  meeting  adjourned  at  noon,  after  a  general  discussion  of  the  papers. 

SECOND  SESSION— Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3,  1918 

The  department  reassembled  on  Wednesday  at  9:30  a.m.  Papers  were  read  as 
follows: 

"School  Finances  as  a  War-Time  Problem" — Edward  L.  Taylor,  president,  Board 
of  Education,  Williamsport,  Pa. 

"School  Budgets  and  School  Finance" — Marvin  E.  Griswold,  president,  Board  of 
Education,  Erie,  Pa. 

"Uniformity  in  School  Accounting" — James  Storer,  secretary.  Board  of  Education, 
Buffalo,  N.Y. 

"The  Responsibilities  of  Boards  of  Education" — Mrs.  Charles  A.  Perkins,  president, 
Board  of  Education,  Knoxville,  Tenn. 

The  nominating  committee  reported  the  following  names  for  191 8-19: 
President — Mr.  Albert  Wunderlich,  commissioner  of  schools,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 
Vice-President — Dr.    George   W.    Gerwig,   secretary.    Board   of   Education,    Pitts- 
burgh, Pa. 

Secretary — Wm.  C.  Bruce,  editor.  School  Board  Journal,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
The  nominations  were  unanimously  accepted. 

359 


360  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Administration 

THIRD  SESSION— Wednesday  Afternoon,  July  3,  1918 

The  department  met  in  round-table  session  to  receive  the  report  of  the  Committee 
on  Standardization  of  Schoolhouse  Planning  and  Construction. 

A  general  preliminary  report  was  read  by  Frank  Irving  Cooper,  chairman.  Supple- 
mentary reports  on  special  phases  of  the  subject  were  received  as  follows: 

"Investigation  of  the  Amount  of  Illumination  Required  on  the  Printed  Page" — 
Frank  N.  Freeman,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

"Heating  and  Ventilation  of  School  Buildings" — John  D.  Cassell,  chairman,  Asso- 
ciate Committee,  Society  of  American  Heating  and  Ventilating  Engineers. 

The  discussion  of  the  report  was  participated  in  by  James  0.  Betelle,  Newark,  N.J.; 
H.  B.  C.  Eicher,  Harrisburg,  Pa,;  Dwight  H.  Perkins,  Chicago,  111.;  J.  H.  Berkowitz, 
New  York,  N.Y.;  William  C.  Bruce,  Milwaukee,  Wis.;  George  W.  Gerwig,  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.;  A.  E.  Winship,  Boston,  Mass.;  and  Mr.  Dambach,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

On  motion  the  reports  were  received  and  the  committee  was  continued  to  complete  its 
work. 

The  foUowmg  resolution  was  introduced  by  Wm.  C.  Bruce: 

Resolved,  That  the  Department  of  Administration  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation desires  to  express  its  appreciation  of, the  financial  support  given  by  the  General 
Education  Board  to  the  Committee  on  Standardization  of  Schoolhouse  Planning  and 
Construction. 

This  support  has  made  possible  the  extension  work  of  the  committee  during  the  past 
year,  the  tabulation  of  hundreds  of  plans  from  many  states,  the  fixing  of  tentative  stand- 
ards of  space  for  the  various  divisions  of  school  activities,  and  a  method  of  determining 
efficiency  or  taste  in  the  plan  of  the  school  building. 

The  Department  of  Administration  believes  the  work  of  the  committee  will  be  of 
importance  in  the  economic  administration  of  the  erection  of  school  buildings,  and  further 
directs  that  the  secretary  send  a  copy  of  this  resolution  to  the  General  Education  Board. 

The  resolution  was  adopted  unanimously. 

On  motion  of  G.  W.  Gerwig,  of  Washington,  the  committee  was  authorized  to  have 
its  preliminary  report  publisht  by  arrangement  with  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. 

The  meeting  adjourned  until  the  Chicago  winter  meeting  of  the  Association. 

Wm.  C.  Bruce,  Secretary 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


INTRODUCTORY  ADDRESS 

ALBERT  WUNDERLICH,  DIRECTOR  OF  SCHOOLS,  ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 

It  is  impossible  to  discuss  anything  today  except  in  terms  of  the  war. 
More  particularly  is  this  true  of  education.  We  are  fighting  the  greatest 
war  of  all  time;  we  are  spending  incalculable  sums  of  money;  we  are 
focusing  all  of  our  industries,  transportation,  and  processes  of  production 
on  the  great  issue  of  making  the  world  safe  for  democracy. 

It  is  an  axiom  of  political  science  that  no  democracy  can  long  endure 
upon  any  other  basis  than  widespread  general  intelligence  and  virtue.  It  is 
peculiarly  the  problem  of  the  school  to  provide  the  means  whereby  general 
intelligence  may  become  possible,  and  the  kind  of  intelligence  which  will 
insure  ideals  of  honesty,  thrift,  industry,  and  patriotism. 


Department!  ADMINISTRATION  OF  CITY  SCHOOLS  361 

The  fact  that  we  are  now  at  war  has  not  in  any  degree  lessened  the 
responsibihty  of  the  school.  In  my  judgment  it  has,  on  the  contrary,  greatly 
increast  that  responsibility.  As  school-board  members  We  have  a  larger 
obhgation  than  the  past  has  ever  given  to  us  to  see  that  our  schools  are 
operated  with  the  maximum  of  efficiency. 

It  must  not  be  said  of  the  United  States  that  it  cheerfully  raises  billions 
of  dollars  for  the  prosecution  of  a  war  to  make  the  world  safe  for  democracy 
and  grudges  a  sufficient  expenditure  for  public  education — the  only  means 
of  making  democracy  safe  at  home. 

In  the  city  from  which  I  come  the  children  of  the  public  schools  have 
raised  for  the  federal  government  in  the  last  ten  months  twice  as  much 
money  as  has  been  spent  by  the  city  for  schoolhouses  in  its  entire  corporate 
existence. 

There  has  been  no  more  loyal  or  efficient  agency  at  the  command  of 
the  government  than  the  pubhc  schools.  They  have  demonstrated  beyond 
question  their  value  as  an  investment  of  public  money.  I  beUeve  that  it  is 
our  duty  to  stop  talking  about  costs  of  education  and  unite  our  energies  with 
all  our  other  agencies  in  a  widespread  national  campaign  in  the  interest  of 
more  efficient  education.  In  this  campaign  I  believe  that  we  should  stand 
squarely  on  the  proposition  of  largely  increast  salaries  to  teachers;  I  believe 
that  we  must  insist  upon  the  employment  of  better-trained  teachers  and 
upon  the  unqualified  ehmination  of  the  incompetent.  I  do  not  believe  that 
it  is  an  honest  expenditure  of  money  or  sound  educational  pohcy  to  force 
children  in  their  tender  years  to  sit  under  anything  but  the  best  type  of 
instruction. 

I  believe  that  we  must  continue  our  building  program;  we  must  empha- 
size physical  education;  we  must  insist  upon  vocational  education  as  a 
part  of  our  regular  educational  policy.  I  do  not  believe  that  the  question 
of  buildings  and  school  architecture  should  absorb  all  the  deliberations  of 
the  school-board  section;  I  believe  that  there  are  other  problems  entitled 
to  equal  consideration.  I  urge  upon  the  attention  of  this  body  the  careful 
consideration  of  the  whole  educational  situation. 


RECENT  GROWTH  IN  THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF 
CITY  SCHOOLS 

W.    S.    DEFFENBAUGH,   UNITED   STATES   BUREAU   OF   EDUCATION, 
WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

School  laws  have  been  so  changed  that  it  is  now  the  rule  for  city  school 
boards  to  have  not  more  than  nine  members.  This  has  been  a  distinct 
improvement.  Business  relating  to  the  schools  is  discust  with  more  thoro- 
ness.  The  man  with  ideas,  tho  unable  to  make  a  speech,  is  able  to  present 
them  while  he  sits  at  a  table.     An  equal,  or  even  greater,  improvement  in 


362  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Administration 

the  administration  of  city  schools  has  been  the  substitution  of  elections  at 
large  for  election  by  wards.  Men  of  a  better  class  are  elected;  they  are 
more  inclined  to  pull  together  in  the  interests  of  the  whole  city;  they  do 
less  logroUing. 

Tho  the  size  of  school  boards  has  been  reduced,  one  of  the  evils  of  the 
large  board  remains  in  some  cities — a  large  number  of  standing  committees. 
These  have  hung  on  as  a  sort  of  vermiform  appendix,  with  no  useful  function 
to  perform,  and  often  cause  internal  trouble.  The  functions  of  many  com- 
mittees, such  as  those  on  promotion  of  pupils,  examinations,  course  of 
study,  truancy,  and  school  entertainments,  duplicate  the  function  of  the 
superintendent  and  his  assistants. 

The  tendency  is  to  get  away  from  committee  organization,  or  at  least 
from  the  practice  of  having  many  different  committees.  Some  of  the  school 
boards  in  both  the  smaller  and  the  larger  cities  have  aboKsht  all  standing 
committees.  Some  others  have  reduced  the  number,  usually  to  two  or 
three,  thus  tending  to  make  the  administrative  machinery  simpler  and 
lighter  running. 

The  new  type  of  superintendent  has  learned  to  show  what  the  schools 
are  accomplishing  and  what  the  children  have  achieved.  He  is  using  more 
definite  measurements.  His  annual  reports  are  no  longer  abstract  treatises 
on  education  or  mere  political  documents.  The  frankness  with  which 
many  superintendents  set  forth  conditions  in  their  schools  is  an  indication 
of  a  change  for  the  better. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  the  improvement  in  school  administration 
thru  the  influence  of  the  school  survey.  Tho  the  results  in  the  cities  where 
surveys  have  been  made  have  not  always  been  all  that  could  be  desired, 
they  have  on  the  whole  been  helpful  to  school  administrators.  They 
have  at  least  shown  a  method  of  attacking  educational  problems,  and  they 
have  aroused  greater  interest  in  school  administration,  especially  in  the 
approach  from  the  fact  side.  As  a  result  of  the  surveys  more  superintendents 
are  surveying  their  own  schools,  which  is  evidenst  by  the  better  type  of  school 
report.  If  the  outside  survey  has  accompHsht  nothing  more  than  to  cause 
school  men  to  study  their  own  schools  it  has  been  worth  while.  Whether 
surveys  by  persons  from  outside  the  school  system  being  surveyed  will  con- 
tinue is  a  question.  One  thing  is  certain:  there  will  be  more  and  better  self- 
surveys.  Superintendents  surveying  their  own  schools  may  call  in  someone 
as  a  consulting  specialist  to  help  them  interpret  the  facts.  As  bureaus  of 
research  are  organized  surveys  by  outsiders  will  no  doubt  become  fewer. 

Among  other  improvements  in  school  administration  should  be  men- 
tioned the  introduction  of  courses  of  study  to  meet  individual  weaknesses 
and  strengths  in  pupils.  The  aim  is  to  give  every  child  a  fair  show,  to  make 
education  more  democratic,  to  offer  the  child  who  has  ability  in  manual  and 
technical  lines  the  same  opportunity  as  the  child  who  is  book-minded, 
or  the  child  who  is  preparing  for  the  college  classical  course. 


Department!         AMERICANIZATION  AS  A  DUTY  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  363 

AMERICANIZATION  AS  A  WAR-TIME  DUTY  OF  THE  SCHOOLS 

J.  GEORGE  BECHT,  SECRETARY,  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION, 

HARRISBURG,  PA. 

The  problem  of  Americanizing  America  has,  in  view  of  the  war,  assumed 
an  unusual  place  in  the  thought  of  the  general  public.  Up  to  a  few  years 
ago,  in  our  fancied  security,  we  did  not  even  dream  that  it  was  a  problem. 
We  assumed  that  thru  the  process  of  education  and  environment  the  amal- 
gamation of  the  alien  into  our  American  life  would  take  care  of  itself.  But 
our  smug  complacency  was  rudely  jarred  when  we  awoke  to  the  fact  that 
about  one-sixth  of  our  population  was  directly  or  indirectly  subject  to 
alien  influences.  In  the  life  of  some  of  the  commonwealths  the  problem 
may  be  a  mere  incident,  but  in  a  considerable  number  of  states  the  question 
is  freighted  with  tremendous  consequences.  More  particularly  was  our 
attention  drawn  to  the  facts  when  this  alien  element  registered  for  the  great 
Army,  and  later,  when  these  men  were  drafted  into  the  service,  whole 
groups  were  found  who  could  not  understand  English  and  consequently 
did  not  know  how  to  respond  to  the  commands  of  officers. 

Roughly  speaking,  there  are  two  general  aspects  of  the  case:  first, 
the  education  of  the  adult  alien;  secondly,  the  education  of  the  children  of 
the  alien.  So  far  as  the  children  are  concerned  the  problem  will  work  out 
its  own  answer  in  the  public  schools.  If  the  schools  are  good  for  the  Ameri- 
can child  and  are  saturated  with  the  spirit  of  loyalty,  service,  and  sacrifice 
for  the  country,  there  is  every  probability  that  the  alien  child  will  absorb 
this  spirit  and  become  a  patriotic  citizen.  Indirectly  too  this  influence  will 
exert  itself  on  the  alien  parents  in  the  home. 

The  real  problem,  however,  is  the  problem  of  the  adult.  He  is  often 
illiterate  and  generally  suspicious.  He  does  not  understand.  He  isolates 
himself  with  his  kind.  He  broods  over  the  conditions  under  which  he  lives 
and  works  and  becomes  dissatisfied.  The  group  with  which  he  associates 
is  influenst  in  the  same  manner.  Such  groups,  misunderstood  and  often 
ostracized,  are  disappointed;  and  this  disappointment  gives  way  to  dis- 
content and  dissatisfaction  which  often  expresses  itself  in  turbulence. 
Something  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  organizing  social  centers  where  all  of 
these  people  may  come  in  contact  with  American  ideas  and  American  activi- 
ties. Much,  however,  remains  to  be  done.  One  of  the  most  significant 
phases  of  the  problem  is  that  of  teaching  the  adult  alien  to  read  and  under- 
stand the  English  language  and  its  literature.  Night  schools  have  been 
establisht  in  many  towns  and  cities,  and  these  have  been  giving  reasonably 
good  service,  but  on  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that  the  results  have  not  been 
satisfactory.  The  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  adult,  having  workt  at 
his  occupation  all  day,  comes  to  the  class  at  night  physically  fatigued.  It  is 
a  very  short  step  from  that  physical  tire  to  mental  inattention,  and  I  have 
seen  in  many  of  these  classes  the  attempts  of  earnest  and  conscientious 


364  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Administration 

aliens  to  keep  awake  during  the  hour  when  the  school  was  in  session.  It 
seems  to  me  that  one  of  the  best  methods  of  dealing  with  the  education  of 
the  adult  will  be  to  cooperate  with  the  employer  of  the  alien  and  work  out 
his  education  as  a  part  of  his  employment.  Wherever  that  has  been  done 
the  most  conspicuous  success  has  been  attained.  Not  only  has  the  alien 
profited,  but  the  employer  was  more  than  compensated  for  the  time  given 
to  the  employe  out  of  working  hours. 

This  transfer  of  patriotic  f eehng  from  one  country  to  another  is  no  simple 
matter.  We  must  make  more  than  lip  patriots.  The  first  step  that  the 
school  must  emphasize,  whether  that  school  be  in  a  regular  school  building 
or  connected  with  the  shop  or  factory,  is  a  mastery  of  the  English  language; 
the  second  problem  is  to  make  the  alien  understand  the  opportunities, 
responsibihties,  and  limitations  of  liberty.  Here  is  a  tremendous  task. 
Citizenship  is  not  a  special  topic  in  the  schools  or  the  work  of  a  separate 
department.  Every  recitation  is  a  lesson  in  citizenship.  It  does  not  involve 
new  institutions,  new  organizations,  new  texts,  or  new  subject-matter.  It 
does  mean  a  new  attitude  on  the  part  of  teachers  and  a  new  atmosphere 
in  the  school.  Children,  as  well  as  adults,  must  be  helpt  to  think  thru  the 
problems  of  the  community  and  the  relationship  of  the  individual  to  the 
social  group  to  which  he  belongs,  as  well  as  to  the  civic  order.  The  prob- 
lem in  the  last  analysis  is  individual.  The  wealth  in  character  of  the  state 
is  the  wealth  in  character  of  the  individuals  composing  it.  The  public  school 
has  been  an  efficient  agency  in  developing  personal  ideals.  If  that  influence 
can  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  adult  alien,  there  is  Httle  reason  to  doubt 
that  America  can  and  will  be  thoroly  Americanized. 


SCHOOL  FINANCES  AS  A  WAR-TIME  PROBLEM 

EDWARD  L.   TAYLOR,  PRESIDENT,   BOARD   OF  EDUCATION, 
WILLIAMSPORT,   PA. 

With  the  demand  and  necessity,  on  the  one  side,  that  the  standard  of 
efficiency  of  the  public  schools  be  maintained,  that  teachers'  salaries  be 
increast  in  proportion  to  the  increast  cost  of  living  and  to  the  services 
rendered,  that  all  necessary  equipment  be  provided  for  teachers  and  pupils, 
and,  on  the  other  side,  that  the  strictest  economy  in  all  public  affairs  be 
observed,  the  school-board  member  is  indeed  confronted  with  a  serious 
financial  problem  in  these  unusual  times. 

It  will,  of  course,  be  admitted  that  the  first  requisite  for  efficient  schools 
is  efficient  teachers.  But  we  cannot,  in  the  face  of  present  conditions, 
retain  many  of  our  best  teachers  unless  we  provide  for  salary  increases 
sufficient  to  cover  at  least  the  larger  part  of  the  increast  cost  in  living 
expenses.  All  over  the  country  we  are  losing  thousands  of  our  men  and 
many  of  our  best  women  teachers  thru  their  entrance  into  the  United  States 


I 


Departmentl         SCHOOL  FINANCES  AS  A  WAR-TIME  PROBLEM  365 

service  or  into  some  organization  connected  with  the  conduct  of  the  war. 
We  commend  the  patriotism  of  these  noble  young  men  and  women,  but 
their  going  makes  it  still  more  necessary,  still  more  important,  that  thou- 
sands of  other  good  teachers  must  not  be  allowed  to  abandon  their  pro- 
fession for  business  if  a  fair  recognition  of  their  financial  needs  on  the  part  of 
those  in  control  will  keep  them  in  the  schoolrooms. 

In  our  city,  since  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  1914,  we  have  increast  the 
salary  list  nearly  35  per  cent  on  the  average  amount  paid  our  teachers.  In 
consequence  of  this  action  the  members  of  our  teaching  force  feel  that  the 
board  of  directors  and  the  superintendent  of  schools  have  endeavored  to 
treat  them  as  fairly  as  conditions  will  permit,  and  an  excellent  spirit  of 
cooperation  as  well  as  enthusiasm  and  efficiency  has  been  developt. 

You  may  ask  how  we  have  found  it  possible  to  increase  our  average 
salary  35  per  cent  in  four  years.  The  answer  is  very  simple.  We  have 
increast  the  tax  rate  40  per  cent  in  the  same  period,  and  I  am  glad  to  say 
that  while  there  has  been  some  criticism  of  this  large  increase  the  great 
majority  of  our  citizens  recognize  the  fact  that  the  standard  of  efficiency 
in  our  schools  cannot  be  maintained  upon  the  financial  basis  which  existed 
before  the  war. 

Altho  the  increase  in  the  teachers'  salary  list  is  the  largest  item  of  our 
increast  expenses,  we  have  found  that  there  has  been  an  enormous  increase 
in  the  cost  of  all  kinds  of  supplies  and  equipment.  Our  coal  bill  for  19 17-18 
shows  an  increase  of  108  per  cent  over  the  year  19 13-14.  The  advances 
in  the  cost  of  all  kinds  of  stationery  have  been  nearly  as  large,  but  by  prac- 
ticing the  most  rigid  economy  in  the  use  of  supplies  we  have  saved  con- 
siderable money  in  this  item.  The  cost  of  minor  repairs  to  buildings  has 
shown  a  great  increase  as  far  as  material  is  concerned,  but  we  have  cut  the 
labor  cost  in  two,  compared  with  four  years  ago,  thru  the  election  of  a 
superintendent  of  buildings  who  is  a  thoro  mechanic  and  either  makes  the 
repairs  himself  or  has  them  made  by  competent  workmen  under  his  direc- 
tion. All  improvements  to  buildings  that  can  be  postponed  without 
affecting  the  efficiency  of  the  schools  are  withheld  for  more  favorable  con- 
ditions. 

The  financing  of  new  school  buildings  under  present  conditions  is  also 
a  great  problem  for  school  authorities.  The  city  that  does  not  need  a  new 
building,  either  to  provide  for  increase  in  the  school  population  or  to  take 
the  place  of  an  obsolete,  perhaps  condemned,  building  is  indeed  fortunate. 

In  our  city  we  built  a  very  good  high-school  building  four  years  ago 
at  a  cost,  including  equipment,  of  approximately  $300,000.  We  had 
planned  to  use  the  old  high-school  building  for  either  a  grammar  school  or 
a  junior  high  school,  but  it  was  destroyed  by  fire  just  before  the  new  building 
was  ready  for  occupancy.  We  then  proposed  to  build  two  new  buildings. 
We  askt  our  citizens  to  approve  a  bond  issue  of  $300,000  to  provide  these 
buildings,  and  as  our  people  are  always  ready  to  sustain  the  board  of 


366  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Administration 

education  in  its  efforts  to  improve  school  facilities  their  approval  of  the 
loan  was  secured  at  the  election  held  in  November  last. 

It  took  some  time  to  conclude  all  the  legal  proceedings  incidental  to  the 
loan,  and  we  found  that  in  the  meantime  the  price  of  labor  and  material 
had  advanst  to  such  an  extent  that  it  had  become  impossible  to  obtain 
two  buildings  of  the  construction  and  capacity  needed  for  the  amount  we 
had  been  authorized  to  expend.  Even  tho  we  had  a  larger  loan  authorized 
there  would  still  be  obstacles  to  overcome,  for  while  it  might  be  possible  to 
obtain  the  approval  of  the  capital  issues  committee  for  at  least  one  of  our 
needed  buildings,  it  is  very  doubtful  if  that  committee  would  approve  the 
erection  of  both  of  them. 

Of  still  more  importance  than  the  financial  problem  of  new  school 
buildings  just  now  is  the  necessity  for  observing  the  demand  for  the  closest 
restriction  of  consumption  for  private,  state,  and  municipal  purposes  of  labor 
and  raw  material.  Paul  M.  Warburg,  at  a  recent  meeting  of  the  National 
Conference  on  War-Time  Economy,  held  in  New  York  and  called  under 
the  initiative  of  the  Academy  of  Political  Science  and  the  Bureau  of  Muni- 
cipal Research,  said: 

Individuals  will  save  in  small  things  when  state  and  city  governments  demonstrate 

their  determination  to  save  in  the  great  ones In  time  of  war  nothing  is  more 

dangerous  than  delay.  The  present  emergency  requires  that  the  country  be  aroused  to  a 
thoro  consciousness  of  the  fact  that  whoever  uses  material,  credit,  labor,  or  transportation 
unnecessarily  is  placing  a  handicap  upon  his  government  in  its  progress  toward  victory. 

In  view  of  such  a  statement,  made  by  a  man  recognized  as  an  authority 
on  economics,  who  is  in  close  touch  with  governmental  affairs,  it  seems 
imperative  that  the  building  of  new  schoolhouses  be  postponed  if  possible. 

And  yet  it  will  probably  be  many  years  before  schoolhouses  can  be  con- 
structed at  less  than  such  buildings  would  cost  today.  Mr.  Replogle, 
government  director  of  steel  supply,  recently  made  an  interesting  state- 
ment bearing  upon  this  matter  to  a  gathering  of  the  principal  manufacturers 
of  the  country.  He  said,  "The  building  construction  and  plans  of  the 
United  States  government,  incidentally,  are  right  now  some  20  per  cent  in 
excess  of  the  total  building  construction  of  the  United  States  for  the  three- 
year  period  1915,  1916,  and  1917."  He  went  on  to  say  that  plans  "are 
advancing  into  1919  and  1920,"  and  he  declared  to  the  intelligent  body 
addrest  that  he  thought  the  construction  plan  of  the  government  "far 
beyond  the  impression  of  almost  any  of  you."  Mr.  Replogle's  statement 
is  a  revelation  to  most  of  us  and  should  have  full  consideration. 

We  should  remember,  however,  that  our  good  friends  the  school  archi- 
tects have  not  made  any  material  advance  in  their  commissions  for  preparing 
plans  and  specifications,  and  the  wise  board  of  school  directors  in  districts 
where  new  buildings  are  needed  will  employ  an  architect  and  have  their 
plans  drawn  and  ready  for  the  contractors'  bids  when  the  word  is  flasht  that 
Kaiser  Bill  and  his  bloodthirsty  Huns  have  been  forst  to  sue  for  peace  and 
the  war  is  at  an  end. 


Department]  SCHOOL  BUDGETS  AND  SCHOOL  FINANCE  367 

And  finally  I  dppeal  to  school  authorities  all  over  the  land  to  stand  for 
efficiency  in  the  public  schools,  to  oppose  the  lowering  of  the  standard  in 
any  manner,  to  have  the  courage  to  make  such  advance  in  tax  levies  as 
may  be  required  to  meet  advance  in  the  cost  of  the  maintenance  of  the 
schools.  The  school-board  member  who  does  these  things  faithfully  is  a 
true  patriot  and  is  performing  for  his  country  a  great  service  in  these  critical 
times  when  men  of  intelligence  and  courage  are  needed. 


SCHOOL  BUDGETS  AND  SCHOOL  FINANCE 

MARVIN  E.   GRISWOLD,  PRESIDENT,   BOARD   OF  EDUCATION,   ERIE,   PA. 

In  considering  the  subject  of  budgets  and  finance  it  is  particularly 
important  to  have  before  one  sufficient  statistics  of  what  has  been  done 
in  previous  years,  so  that  there  can  be  some  intelligent  comparisons  as 
to  both  receipts  and  expenditures. 

I  have  been  a  member  of  the  board  of  education  of  the  city  of  Erie  for 
approximately  eight  years,  and  during  that  time  I  fail  to  recollect  or  remem- 
ber that  we  have  had  from  our  state  board  of  education  any  assistance,  or 
any  statistics  that  would  be  of  any  help,  or  any  communications  giving  us 
assistance  along  the  fines  of  what  the  legitimate  expense  of  operating  a 
modern  school  should  be. 

It  would  seem  to  me  that  the  state  board  could  well  afford  to  assemble 
a  financial  statement  of  the  various  school  districts,  not  only  of  this  state 
but  of  other  states,  and  put  it  out  in  the  form  of  a  primer  that  would  be  of 
decided  assistance  to  the  board  members  of  the  local  boards  in  fixing  the 
estimates  and  expenditures  in  their  several  communities. 

If  we  had  some  statistics  that  would  give  us  the  cost  per  capita  for  educa- 
tion in  the  various  cities,  groupt  according  to  size,  it  would  throw  consider- 
able light  on  the  subject  of  how  much  we  ought  to  spend,  or  could  spend, 
if  we  were  going  to  keep  up  with  the  progressive  cities  or  to  stay  back  with 
the  unprogressive  ones. 

In  making  up  a  budget  it  is  well  to  have  the  expenditures  subdivided 
under  the  various  classifications.  I  think  that  in  Erie  we  have  workt  out 
along  this  line  a  system  that  is  exceptionally  good.  We  subdivide  our 
expenditures  into  eight  different  heads,  or  groups,  numbered  and  named 
as  follows: 

EXPENDITURES 

(10)  General  Administration,  (20)  Instruction,  (30)  Operation  of 
School  Plant,  (40)  Maintenance  of  School  Plant,  (50)  Auxifiary  Agencies, 
(60)  Miscellaneous  Expenses,  (70)  Outlays  for  Acquisition  and  Construc- 
tion, (80)  Debt  and  Debt  Service. 

We  have  drawn  up  on  a  sheet  under  these  eight  different  heads  the 
amounts  we  have  appropriated  each  year  for  four  or  five  years  previous  to 


368  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Administration 

compare  with  the  amount  of  the  estimates  or  requirements  for  expenditures 
under  these  heads  for  the  coming  year,  and  this  shows  graphically  under  each 
head  the  yearly  increase  or  decrease  in  cost. 

On  the  receipt  or  opposite  side  of  the  ledger  we  subdivide  into  two  general 
heads,  non-revenue  and  revenue.  Numbering  and  naming  the  heads,  we 
subdivide  them  as  follows: 

RECEIPTS 

(120)  Non-Revenue:  Sale  of  Bonds,  Temporary  Loan,  Sale  of  Property, 
Sale  of  Leases,  Subscriptions,  Balance  on  Hand. 

(140)  Revenue:  State,  Bequests,  Taxes  (8 J,  gj,  and  io|  mills).  Rents, 
Interest  on  Daily  Balances,  Non-Resident  Tuition,  General. 

This  shows  us  what  the  receipts  are  to  be.  These  receipts  keep  chan- 
ging by  the  increase  or  decrease  of  the  amount  of  bonds  sold  and  of  the 
amount  of  tax  levied.  The  other  items  will  naturally  be  practically  sta- 
tionary and  can  easily  be  estimated. 

Farther  on  in  the  budget  we  go  into  the  details  of  these  subdivisions 
under  each  general  head,  itemizing  with  considerable  detail  to  show  what 
each  particular  item  is,  and  what  is  its  estimated  cost. 

In  order  to  get  all  this  information  together  we  send  out,  about  three 
months  in  advance,  blank  sheets  to  all  the  departments  requesting  them  to 
submit  estimates  and  details  of  what  they  think  is  necessary  in  their  several 
departments  for  the  coming  year.  These  estimates  are  then  assembled  and 
placed  in  the  proper  sections  or  subdivisions. 

After  this  is  all  assembled  in  one  book  it  is  then  the  province  of  the 
Finance  Committee  to  go  over  this  entire  budget  in  detail  and  study  each 
item  carefully  to  see  what  should  be  eliminated  or  what  should  be  added. 

During  the  deliberations  of  the  Finance  Committee  on  the  budget  it  is 
very  necessary  that  we  have  present  a  representative  of  each  of  the  various 
departments,  so  that  we  can  get  their  views  on  each  individual  item  as  it  is 
considered.  It  is  also  very  necessary  to  have  before  us  the  exact  amount  of 
what  has  been  spent  under  each  division  in  previous  years;  also  actual 
statistics  of  the  number  of  pupils  to  be  served  in  comparison  with  the  num- 
ber served  in  previous  years. 

With  careful  study  of  the  records  and  with  the  knowledge  on  the  part 
of  the  school  directors  of  what  the  real  needs  of  the  schools  are,  an  intelligent 
and  workable  estimate,  or  budget,  can  be  workt  out. 

In  a  recent  issue  of  the  School  Board  Journal  I  notist  an  article  by  Dr. 
Ballou,  assistant  superintendent  of  schools  in  Boston,  in  which  he  states  that 
in  his  opinion  "efficient  finance  in  a  city  school  system  depends  primarily  on 
a  reasonable  amount  of  money  for  the  needs  of  the  schools  and  a  rational 
plan  for  its  distribution." 

An  efiicient  and  carefully  studied  budget  certainly  meets  the  idea  of  a 
rational  plan  for  distribution  and  does  not  leave  the  matter  for  haphazard 
expenditure  during  the  fiscal  year. 


Department)  UNIFORMITY  IN  SCHOOL  ACCOUNTING  369 

He  also  states  that  it  depends  on  a  reasonable  amount  of  money.  We 
are  fortunate  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  at  least  in  the  school  districts 
of  cities  of  the  second  class  (of  which  Erie  is  one),  in  having  the  law  so  read 
that  the  taxes  are  levied  for  school  purposes  directly  by  the  board  of  educa- 
tion. The  amount  of  the  levy  does  not  have  to  be  approved  by  any  other 
department  of  the  city  government  and  therefore  is  in  no  way  mixt  up  with 
any  poHtics,  outside  of  the  politics  that  there  might  be  in  the  school  board 
itself. 

If  we  are  to  maintain  in  this  country  an  efficient  public-school  system  we 
must  make  up  our  minds  to  spend  a  reasonable  amount  of  money  per  capita 
to  educate  the  children  and  must  justify  ourselves  and  the  public  in  spending 
as  much  money,  or  even  more  money,  for  education  during  the  stress  of 
war  time  as  we  have  spent  previously. 

We  have  been  told  that  we  are  fighting  for  democracy,  and  we  realize 
that  the  nations  of  the  world  are  at  war  to  uphold  their  ideas  of  government. 
If  nations  and  the  people  of  the  nations  are  willing  to  sacrifice  their  wealth 
and  life  itself  to  uphold  their  ideas  of  government,  is  it  not  important  that 
we  make  some  efforts  to  teach  the  coming  generation  what  we  believe  are 
the  true  ideas  of  government,  and  what  we  really  mean  by  democracy  ? 

It  would  seem  to  me  that  this  is  one  of  the  most  important  things  that 
our  schools  can  do.  Teach  the  children  what  a  government  is,  what  a 
government  is  for,  and  what  we  think  a  government  should  be,  and  perhaps 
if  this  is  done,  and  done  thoroly,  the  seed  may  be  sown,  and  such  a  govern- 
ment may  be  developt  that  its  effect  will  spread  universally,  as  its  benefits 
are  seen,  and  the  next  generation  will  be  spared  such  a  bloody  and  costly 
war  as  we  are  now  enduring.  I  believe  that  the  schools  and  the  schools 
alone  can  do  it,  and  I  believe  that  a  war  budget  should  not  be  cut  but  should 
be  maintained  and  even  expanded,  and  that  our  educators  should  give  a 
great  deal  of  time  and  study  to  developing  a  study  of  government  that  will 
make  a  lasting  impression  on  the  children  in  the  grades. 


I 


UNIFORMITY  IN  SCHOOL  .ACCOUNTING 

JAMES   STOVER,    SECRETARY,    BOARD   OF   EDUCATION,   BUFFALO,    N.Y. 

Public  education  is  a  state  function.  A  board  of  education  acts  as  an 
agent  of  the  state  and  also  acts  in  the  capacity  of  agent  for  the  local  com- 
munity in  establishing  the  poHcies  under  which  the  officials,  teachers,  etc., 
of  the  department  shall  operate  in  the  administration  of  its  schools. 

The  problem  of  securing  the  funds  necessary  for  school  administration 
rests  with  the  board  and  the  superintendent,  hence  upon  them  lies  the 
burden  of  proving  to  the  community  the  needs  of  the  school  department. 
The  pubUc  is  entitled  to  know  and  should  know  how  school  appropriations 
are  expended. 


370  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Administration 

In  all  our  cities  we  find  citizens  who  are  very  much  interested  in  the 
schools  of  their  city  and  are  proud  of  the  fact  that  it  maintains  a  high  school 
with  an  enrolment  of  a  thousand  pupils,  with  fifty  men  and  women  on  the 
faculty,  and  that  this  or  that  special  feature  may  be  found  in  their  high 
school.  These  same  citizens  very  likely  would  be  much  interested  in  making 
comparisons  of  their  city  with  other  cities  of  nearly  the  same  size,  that  is,  to 
analyze  the  statistics  of  other  cities  of  nearly  the  same  size  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain whether  or  not  the  teachers  receive  the  same  salary  in  all  of  the  cities, 
whether  the  repair  of  buildings  and  upkeep  of  grounds  are  nearly  the  same 
in  all  cities,  whether  the  cost  of  education  per  pupil  is  nearly  the  same,  and 
many  other  items  which  cannot  be  enumerated. 

If  this  is  true  of  the  people  of  our  communities  it  is  equally  true  of  the 
officials  of  the  school  system  who  must  prepare  the  estimates  of  expenditures 
for  presentation  to  the  city  council. 

A  board  of  education  may  have  under  consideration  the  estabhshment 
of  a  special  class  for  the  instruction  of  the  partially  bUnd.  One  of  the  first 
steps  will  be  that  the  superintendent  or  secretary  find  out  what  is  being  done 
in  other  cities  and  what  it  costs.  Files  are  resorted  to  and  the  annual  reports 
of  various  cities  searcht.  In  some  it  is  found,  in  others  not.  Why  ?  Be- 
cause up  to  a  very  few  years  ago  there  were  about  as  many  different  methods 
of  school  accounting  as  there  were  city  school  systems.  It  is  only  within 
very  recent  years  that  city  school  systems  have  adopted  a  fairly  uniform 
form  to  be  used  in  recording  financial  statistics. 

Railroad  companies,  insurance  companies,  interstate  corporations, 
banks,  etc.,  all  use  uniform  or  standardized  methods  of  accounting  and 
find  this  to  be  an  absolute  necessity  for  intelligent  and  profitable  admin- 
istration. 

In  order  then  to  make  comparisons  of  costs  for  different  items  and  for 
different  parts  of  a  school  system  it  has  been  found  expedient  gradually  to 
adopt  a  uniform  financial  report,  so  that  when  the  superintendent  and  the 
board  of  education  are  considering  budget  estimates  they  may  have  before 
them,  not  only  the  statement  of  annual  expenditures  of  their  own  city  for 
various  educational  activities  over  a  period  of  years,  but  that  of  other 
cities  of  the  same  size  situated  in  the  eastern,  southern,  northern,  or  western 
part  of  the  United  States.^ 

Thru  the  use  of  uniform  financial  reports  a  gradual  elimination  of 
"lump  sums  with  no  details"  is  being  brought  about.  School  officials  can 
now  readily  provide  information,  when  requested,  as  to  the  total  expendi- 
tures for  salaries  of  principals  of  day  elementary  schools,  day  high  schools, 
evening  elementary  schools,  evening  high  schools,  vocational  schools,  normal 
schools,  and  special  schools,  whereas  in  former  years  all  of  these  appeared 

'  For  those  who  are  interested  in  the  preparing  of  budgets  see  the  article  "Efficient 
Finance  in  a  City  School  System,"  by  F.  W.  Ballou,  in  the  American  School  Board  Journal, 
June,  1918. 


I 


Department)  UNIFORMITY  IN  SCHOOL  ACCOUNTING  371 

in  the  financial  statement  as  salaries  of  principals.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
salaries  of  teachers,  cost  of  textbooks,  janitorial  service,  etc. 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  the  United  States  Census 
OflSce,  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  the  Association  of  School 
Accounting  Officers,  and  the  Committee  of  the  National  Council  of  Educa- 
tion on  Uniform  Records  and  Reports  have  cooperated  in  preparing  a 
form  which  has  been  adopted  within  recent  years  by  many  city  school 
systems. 

The  form  recently  adopted  in  the  state  of  New  York  involved  the  keep- 
ing of  all  school  financial  records  under  the  following  headings: 

I.  Expenses  of  General  Control  (Overhead  charges) 

(Classified  for  Ledger  Column,  Total,  Salaries,  and  Other  Objects) 

A.  Business  Administration 

1.  School  election 

2.  Board  of  education  and  secretary's  oflfice 

3.  Finance  offices  and  accounts 

4.  OflSces  in  charge  of  buildings  and  supplies 

5.  Legal  services 

6.  Operation  and  maintenance  of  ofl&ce  buildings 

7.  Other  expenses  of  business  control 

B.  Educational  Administration 

8.  Office  of  superintendent  of  schools 

9.  Enforcement  of  compulsory  education,  truancy  laws,  and  census  enumera- 
tion 

10.  Other  expenses  of  educational  control 

Total  Expenses  of  General  Control 

II.  Expenses  of  Instruction — Day  Schools 

(Classified  under  Ledger  Column,  Total,  Elementary  Secondary,  Normal, 
Vocational,  Special) 

A.  Supervision 

11.  Salaries  of  supervisors  of  grades  and  subjects 

12.  Other  expenses  of  supervisors 

13.  Salaries  of  principals 

14.  Salaries  of  principals'  clerks  and  office  assistants 

15.  Other  expenses  of  principals'  offices 

16.  Other  expenses  of  supervision 

B.  Teaching 

17.  Salaries  of  teachers 

18.  Textbooks 

19.  Other  supplies  used  in  instruction 

20.  Other  expenses  of  instruction 

Total  Expense  of  Instruction  for  Day  Schools 

III.  Expenses  of  Instruction — Night  Schools 
(Classified  under  Ledger  Column,  Total,  Elementary,  Secondary,  Normal,  Voca- 
tional, Special) 
A.  Supervision 

21.  Salaries  of  supervisors  of  grades  and  subjects 

22.  Other  expenses  of  supervisors 

23.  Salaries  of  principals 


372  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [AdmiDistration 

24.  Salaries  of  principals'  clerks  and  office  assistants 

25.  Other  expenses  of  supervision 

26.  Other  expenses  of  principals'  offices 
B.  Teaching 

27.  Salaries  of  teachers 

28.  Textbooks 

29.  Other  supplies  used  in  instruction 

30.  Other  expenses  of  instruction 

Total  Expense  of  Instruction  for  Night  Schools 
Total  Expense  of  Instruction 

IV.  Expenses  of  Operation  of  School  Plant 

(Classified  under  Ledger  Column,  Total  Salaries,  Other  Objects) 

31.  Wages — janitors,  other  employes 

32.  Fuel 

33.  Water 

34.  Light  and  power 

35.  Janitors'  supplies 

36.  Services  other  than  personal 
36a.  Other  expenses  of  operation 

Total  Expenses  of  Operation  of  Plant 

V,  Expenses  of  Maintenance  of  School  Plant 

(Classified  under  Ledger  Column,  Total,  Salaries,  Other  Objects) 

37.  Upkeep  of  grounds 

37a.  Repair  of  buildings  ^ 

38.  Repair  and  replacements 

a)  Of  heating,  lighting,  and  plumbing  equipment 
h)  Of  apparatus  used  in  instruction 

c)  Of  furniture 

d)  Of  other  equipment 

39.  Other  expenses  of  maintenance  of  school  plant 

VI.  Expenses  of  Auxiliary  Agencies  and  Sundry  Activities 

(Classified  under  Ledger  Column,  Total,  Salaries,  and  Other  Objects) 

40.  Libraries 
a)  Salaries 

h)  Books,  repairs,  and  replacements 
c)  Other  expenses  for  libraries 

41.  New  books  (capital  outlay) 

42.  Promotion  of  health 
a)  Medical  inspection 
h)  Nurse  service 

c)  Dental  service 

d)  Other  expenses 

43.  Transpprtation  of  pupils 

44.  Care  of  children  in  institutions 

45.  Provision  of  lunches 

46.  Community  lectures 

47.  Social  centers 

48.  Recreation 

49.  Other  auxiliary  agencies  and  sundry  activities 

50.  Payment  to  private  schools 

51.  Payments  to  schools  of  other  civil  institutions  (tuition) 

Total  Expenditures  for  Auxiliary  Agents 


Department)  UNIFORMITY  IN  SCHOOL  ACCOUNTING  373 

VII.  Expenses  of  Fixed  Charges 

(Classified  under  Ledger  Column,  Total,  Salaries,  Other  Objects) 

52.  Pensions 

53.  Rent 

54.  Insurance 

55.  Taxes 

56.  Contributions  and  contingencies 

Total  Expenses  of  Fixed  Charges 
Total  Current  Expenses 

VIII.  Expenses  of  Debt  Service 

(Classified  under  Ledger  Column,  Total,  Salaries,  Other  Objects) 

57.  Redemption  of  bonds 

58.  Payment  of  sinking  fund 

59.  Redemption  of  short- term  loans 

60.  Payment  of  interest  on  bonds 

61.  Payment  of  interest  on  short-term  loans 

62.  Refunds  (tax  and  tuition) 

Total  Expenses  of  Debt  Service 

IX.  Expenditures  in  Capital  Outlay 

(Acquisition  and  construction)  (Classified  under  Ledger  Column,  Total, 
Salaries,  Other  Objects) 

63.  Land  (new) 

63a.  Improvement  of  new  grounds 

64.  New  buildings 

65.  Alteration  of  old  buildings 
65a.  New  buildings  and  grounds 

66.  Heating,  lighting,  plumbing 
66a.  Furniture 

66b.  Instructional  apparatus 

66c.  Other  equipment 

6f)d.  Old  buildings  and  grounds,  exclusive  of  replacement 

67.  Heating,  lighting,  plumbing,  and  electrical 
67a.  Furniture 

676.  Instructional  apparatus 
67c.  Other  equipment 

68.  Other  capital  outlay 

Total  Expenditures  in  Capital  Outlay 
Total  Payments  for  the  Year 
Balances  at  the  Close  of  the  Year 
Total  Payment  and  Balances 

Those  who  are  interested  in  securing  a  copy  of  this  form  should  write 
to  the  Statistical  Division  of  the  State  Department  of  Education  of  New 
York. 

Income  receipts  should  also  be  carefully  classified.     The  following  is 

suggested: 

RECEIPTS 

(Include  all  departments) 

1.  Balance  on  hand  at  close  of  fiscal  year 

2.  Public  money  from  the  Council  for  salaries  and  supplies.     (This  may  be  itemized  and 
classified  to  whatever  degree  feasible) 


374  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Administration 

3.  Amount  deducted  from  teachers'  wages  for  teachers'  retirement  fund 

4.  Quota  apportioned  by  the  federal  government  for 

Vocational  education 
School  gardening 
Other  activities 

5.  Quota  apportioned  by  the  state  for 

Instruction 

General  academic  \ 

Vocational 
Physical  education 
Teachers'  training  class 
Agricultural  schools 
Supplies 

Vocational 
Visual  instruction 
School  gardens 
Libraries 
Reproductions  of  art 

6.  City  Revenues  from 

Tuition  from  non-resident  pupils 

Sale  of  articles  manufactured  by  pupils  in  vocational  schools 

Refunds  for  lost  or  mutilated  textbooks 

Forfeits  of  registration  fees 

Receipts  from  conducting  school  luncheons 

Rents 

Insurance 

Other  items 

7.  Amount  received  during  the  year  from  the  sale  of  bonds 

8.  From  all  other  sources  not  mentioned  above 

Total  Receipts 

Better  accounting  methods  lead  to  the  preparation  of  a  better  annual 
budget  and  a  better  annual  report  of  the  superintendent.  With  such  a 
system  of  keeping  records  the  superintendent  may  report  to  the  board  of 
education  at  any  time  the  per  pupil  cost  for  any  form  of  service  or  supply 
and  the  per  building  cost  of  any  item  of  maintenance  or  upkeep  and  may 
check  wastes  wherever  found.  The  board  of  education  in  turn  may  deter- 
mine the  most  effective  and  the  most  economical  units  of  organization  and 
administration  for  the  schools. 

It  is  recommended  that  such  a  system  of  keeping  financial  records 
should  be  installed  in  every  city,  and  from  such  records  clear,  accurate 
statements  should  be  prepared,  similar  to  bank  statements,  and  given  to  the 
community  at  least  once  a  year,  so  that  the  people,  the  taxpayers,  the 
parents  of  the  children  (for  schools  are  for  the  children),  may  know  how 
the  school  budget  is  expended  by  the  board  of  education. 

In  conclusion,  "let  us  stop  wastage,  extravagance,  and  poor  admin- 
istration in  school  accounting,  make  use  of  the  systems  available,  help  to 
improve  them,  and  thereby  aid  this  glorious  and  great  country  of  ours  in 
the  prosecution  of  this  war,  which  will  bring  us  victory,  and  so  do  our  bit  as 
school  men  in  making  the  'world  safe  for  democracy.' " 


I 

I 


Department)  WAR  POLICIES  FOR  SCHOOLS  375 

WAR  POLICIES  FOR  SCHOOLS 

GEORGE  W.   GERWIG,   SECRETARY,   BOARD   OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION, 
PITTSBURGH,   PA. 

In  order  to  determine  wise  war  policies  we  should  first  agree  upon  our 
urgent  needs  and  the  order  of  their  importance.  On  the  administrative 
side  the  most  urgent  need  of  the  schools  during  and  after  the  war  will  be  for 
money.  On  the  educational  side  the  most  vital  need  will  be  for  a  quick 
and  sure  method  of  abolishing  adult  illiteracy  and  teaching  everyone 
Enghsh. 

Our  war  policies,  therefore,  should  promptly  meet  these  prime  needs. 
We  should  adopt  a  financial  war  policy  which  will  guarantee  abundant 
funds  for  education  and  an  educational  war  policy  which  will  make  illiteracy 
in  America  impossible.    Neither  of  these  problems  is  an  easy  one  to  solve. 

This  is  no  time  to  waste  a  penny  or  to  spend  it  except  for  essentials. 
No  one  could  be  more  loyal  than  the  schoolmasters  have  been  in  dedicating 
every  possible  dollar  to  the  first  line  of  defense.  But  we  realize,  as  every 
nation  in  the  war  does,  that  education  is  the  second  fine  of  defense,  and  that 
the  second  line  must  be  held  as  well  as  the  first.  It  is  the  bounden  duty  of 
the  nation  to  furnish,  thru  the  cooperation  of  all,  adequate  training  for  the 
welfare  of  all.  To  neglect  this  is  national  bankruptcy  as  well  as  national 
suicide. 

Personal,  municipal,  school,  state,  and  national  expenditures  are  increas- 
ing at  a  rate  absolutely  unheard  of  in  the  past.  The  demands  in  every 
department  of  life  increase  in  speed  and  in  urgency  far  faster  than  the  appar- 
ent ability  to  meet  them.  Municipalities  everywhere  are  facing  rapidly 
climbing  expenditures,  with  fixt  tax-levying  limits,  with  limited  bonding 
capacity,  with  a  certainty  that  interest  must  be  paid  and  that  bonds  must 
be  redeemed.  Nations  are  all  borrowing  to  the  verge  of  bankruptcy. 
The  vicious  circle  of  increasing  costs  and  increasing  expenditures  continues, 
the  situation  apparently  getting  worse  and  worse. 

Fortunately,  however,  several  considerations  come  to  the  rescue,  each 
of  which  is  a  tremendous  tonic.  In  the  first  place,  America  is  recognizing 
at  last  that  the  things  we  are  fighting  for  are  of  infinitely  greater  value  than 
any  possible  cost  may  be,  and  that  all  our  other  possessions  would  be  as 
dust  and  ashes  without  our  ancient  ideals  of  liberty.  In  the  second  place, 
we  see  that  individually  and  nationally  we  have  been  criminally  wasteful 
and  extravagant,  and  that  we  can  readily,  without  serious  discomfort, 
indeed  with  positive  benefit  to  health,  save  enough  to  share  generously 
with  our  less  fortunate  neighbors,  and  each  have  abundance.  In  the  third 
place,  and  most  important  of  all,  we  are  beginning  to  recognize  that  we  are 
developing  and  releasing  unknown  and  untold  resources  of  cooperative  power 
and  energy,  and  that,  as  William  James  tried  to  teach  us  long  ago,  and  a 
greater  Teacher  centuries  before,  there  are  untapt  reservoirs,  abundant  for 


376  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  lAdministration 

every  need  of  mankind,  as  exhaustless  as  the  widow's  cruse  of  oil,  if  only 
used  for  unselfish  service. 

We  have  entered  upon  a  new  and  tremendously  interesting  experiment 
into  the  wider  meaning  and  content  of  democracy — the  life  of  all  the  people, 
thru  the  cooperation  of  all,  for  the  welfare  of  all.  There  have  been  abun- 
dant instances  in  the  past  in  which  certain  sections  of  the  people  have  enjoyed 
a  life  which  was  ideal,  except  in  its  selfishness.  There  have  been  many 
instances  in  which  certain  groups  have  cooperated  among  themselves  with 
almost  faultless  efficiency,  but  for  the  benefit  of  the  preferred  group.  It 
remains  for  the  patriots  of  our  day  to  dedicate  in  their  turn  their  lives,  their 
fortunes,  their  sacred  honor,  to  the  tremendously  interesting  experiment  of 
working  out,  in  a  manner  both  ideal  and  practical,  a  scheme  of  life  for  all, 
thru  the  cooperation  of  all,  for  the  welfare  of  all. 

The  school  and  a  national  system  of  education  are  the  best  mediums. 
For  the  old  Greek  negative  motto,  "Nothing  too  much,"  we  will  substitute 
the  American  positive  constructive  motto,  "Enough  for  everybody."  We 
must  recognize  that  in  a  democracy  a  tax  is  not  a  burden  imposed  upon  an 
unwilUng  people  by  a  tyrant,  but  a  cooperative  investment  of  a  fair  portion 
of  the  material  assets  of  a  people,  set  aside  as  a  permanent,  dividend-paying 
investment  for  the  betterment  of  the  life  of  the  whole  people.  The  schools 
are  the  best  asset,  the  best  advertisement,  the  best  dividend-producing 
investment  any  community  can  have. 

Every  schoolmaster  should  go  after  adult  illiteracy  with  the  same  energy 
and  singleness  of  purpose  with  which  the  Dutch  woman  in  the  advertise- 
ment goes  after  dirt.  Americanization  is  in  no  sense  a  narrow  term.  It 
involves  a  wealth  and  breadth  of  ideals  which  represent  the  best  that  the 
experience  and  wisdom  of  the  ages  have  taught  mankind.  Liberty  does  not 
absolutely  depend  for  its  life  upon  literacy,  but  it  does  almost  depend  on 
Hteracy  for  its  preservation.  It  is  intolerable  that  15  per  cent  of  the  adult 
population  of  many  portions  of  the  United  States  should  be  illiterate. 
Every  individual  case  should  be  carefully  studied.  Every  latent  possible 
incentive  to  study  English  must  be"  aroused.  The  strongest,  or  a  group  of 
the  strongest,  should  be  enhsted. 

One  or  more  of  the  following  methods  of  approach  should  be  tried: 

1.  Thru  the  children  at  home.    The  child  may  be  made  the  medium  for 
bringing: 

a)  The  desire  to  know  English. 

b)  The  material  for  learning  in  schoolbooks  and  simple  story-books. 

2.  Schools,  day,  evening,  or  special,  with: 

a)  The  usual  academic  instruction. 

b)  Action  illustrations. 

c)  Picture  instruction. 

3.  Church  instruction,  including: 
a)  Parochial  schools. 


Department]     THE  RESPONSIBILITY  OF  BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  377 

h)  Other  forms  of  language  training,  particularly  familiar  portions  of 
the  Bible  or  Prayer  Book  in  English,  or  of  religious  songs. 

4.  Newspapers: 
a)  In  Enghsh. 

h)  In  the  native  tongue. 
c)  Each  in  parallel  columns. 

5.  Trade  and  industry  devices: 

a)  A  fair  requirement  of  some  knowledge  of  English,  or  at  least  a  willing- 
ness to  learn,  as  a  condition  of  securing  employment. 

h)  Definite  instruction  in  shop  or  factory,  preferably  part  at  least  on  the 
employers'  time  and  under  practical  teachers  who  focus  on  the  things 
needed  first. 

c)  A  fair  requirement  of  proficiency  or  willingness  to  learn  as  a  condi- 
tion of  promotion  or  increase  in  wages. 

6.  Government  stimulation  or  control: 

a)  Enghsh  as  a  fundamental  requirement  for  citizenship. 
h)  A  fair  presentation  of  the  advantages  of  becoming  a  citizen  and  the 
disadvantages  of  not  becoming  one. 

7.  Social  settlements.  Encouragement  and  aid  in  acquiring  not  only  the 
English  language  but  also  American  ideals  of  life. 

8.  Fraternal  organizations.  Aid  in  language  and  in  American  ideals  thru 
ritualistic,  fraternal,  and  beneficial  work  of  all  kinds. 

9.  Sports  and  sporting  pages.  American  games,  particularly  baseball  and 
football,  are  among  the  most  potent  agencies,  not  only  for  teaching 
English,  but  also  for  teaching  the  American  ideals  of  individual  skill, 
initiative,  team  work,  and  fair  play. 

10.  Training  for  girls  and  women.     In  their  recreation  and  in  their  work 
there  are  abundant  opportunities  for  instruction  in  English  and  in 
American  ideals  of  costume,  of  deportment,  of  the  American  home,  and 
of  the  ideal  relation  between  American  men  and  women. 
Preparedness  is  a  school  problem.     A  democracy  is  doomed  to  destruc- 
tion which  consents  to  remain  inefficient.     A  nation's  destiny  is  finally  fixt 
by  its  training.     Nations  are  learning  the  art  of  imbuing  their  people  with 
certain  chosen  national  ideals.     The  important  thing  is  the  type  of  ideals  to 
be  instilled.     The  supreme  function  of  the  schools  is  to  discover,  clarify, 
and  develop  high  ideals,  as  well  as  to  find  and  train  the  ability  to  convert 
htese  ideals  into  realities. 


THE  RESPONSIBILITY  OF  BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION 

MRS.    CHARLES   A  PERKINS,   KNOXVILLE,   TENN. 

Can  we  overestimate  the  responsibihty  of  boards  of  education,  inas- 
much as  they  are  the  ones  who  primarily  are  deciding  the  destiny  of  the 
millions  of  children  in  America  today  ? 


378  NATIONAL    EDUCATION    ASSOCIATION  (Administration 

The  petty  politician  and  the  uninterested  man  should  find  no  place  on 
a  board  of  education.  These  places  should  be  given  to  the  best  and  most 
competent  citizens  that  the  community  affords.  It  is  claimed  that  these 
places  should  be  filled  by  appointment,  and  the  appointment  should  be  on  a 
non-partisan  basis  in  order  that  the  best  available  men  and  women  may  be 
induced  to  assume  the  responsibility  of  board  service.  Each  member 
should  feel  that  he  represents  the  city  as  a  whole,  and  not  any  particular 
part  of  it.  He  should  visit  the  schools  that  he  may  see  for  himself  the  work 
that  is  being  done.  Then  he  will  not  be  obliged  to  pass  perfunctorily 
upon  the  work  of  teachers  but  can  give  his  own  personal  stamp  of  approval. 

The  school  system  is  one  great  business  institution  where  the  directors 
must  understand  the  workings  and  the  work  accomphsht,  and  a  well- 
informed,  interested  board  member  is  a  positive  and  potent  factor  in  the 
system.  Therefore  we  believe  that  the  board  member  should  give  con- 
siderable time  and  attention  to  school  matters. 

Remembering  the  vast  sums  expended  on  school  buildings,  the  board 
members  should  see  to  it  that  these  buildings  represent  a  fine  public  taste, 
a  noble  pubhc  spirit,  and  a  general  refinement.  Simple  architecture,  good 
lines,  and  harmonious  colors  cost  no  more  than  poor  architecture,  bad  lines, 
and  ugly  colors.  Board  members  should  see  to  it  that  these  public  build- 
ings are  so  constructed,  heated,  ventilated,  and  furnisht  as  to  be  conducive 
and  not  detrimental  to  the  health  of  the  children  who  occupy  them  for  six 
hours  a  day  and  two  hundred  days  a  year. 

In  these  momentous  days  we  must  give  heed  to  the  call  to  arms,  in  order 
that  we  may  repel  the  foe  that  would  impose  autocracy  upon  the  world. 
Our  boards  of  education  must  also  heed  the  call  to  arms  along  educational 
lines  that  they  may  do  their  part  in  overcoming  the  foe  of  ignorance  that  is 
threatening  our  land. 

In  order  that  we  may  help  eradicate  illiteracy  in  this  country  boards 
of  education  should  see  to  it  that  compulsory-education  laws  are  enforced, 
that  truant  officers  are  efficient,  and  that  night  schools  are  opened  for  those 
boys  and  girls,  and  for  those  men  and  women  who,  on  account  of  being 
obliged  to  work,  have  been  deprived  of  even  the  rudiments  of  education. 
As  a  nation  we  have  five  and  one-half  millions  who  cannot  read  or  write 
the  Enghsh  language,  and  these  are  not  all  of  foreign  birth.  A  milhon  and 
a  half  are  native  born.  More  than  ten  million  men  and  women  of  the 
United  States  cannot  read  well  enough  to  read  a  newspaper  or  the  Constitu- 
tion and  laws  of  the  state  or  of  the  United  States,  nor  can  they  read  well 
enough  to  enable  them  to  keep  personal  or  business  accounts  intelligently. 
Our  federal  government  is  spending  millions  of  dollars  in  sending  to  the 
people  in  the  rural  districts  information  about  farming  and  other  rural 
industries.  Yet  over  lo  per  cent  of  the  country  people  in  1910  could  not 
read  or  write  a  word,  and  as  many  more  could  not  read  well  enough  to  read  a 
bulletin  on  agriculture  or  a  farm  paper. 


Department]     THE  RESPONSIBILITY  OF  BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  379 

Most  important  of  all  just  now  is  the  fact  that  an  ilhterate  man  does 
not  make  a  good  soldier.  We  are  drafting  into  our  Army  men  who  cannot 
understand  the  orders  that  are  given  them  to  read,  and  our  officers  say  that 
our  man  power  is  deficient  because  our  education  is  inefficient.  Until 
last  April  the  regular  Army  would  not  enhst  illiterates,  yet  in  the  first  draft 
between  thirty  and  forty  thousand  iUiterates  were  brought  into  the  Army, 
and  approximately  as  many  near-illiterates.  It  takes  much  more  time  to 
train  them,  and  in  many  things  they  are  permanently  deficient.  K  their 
inefficiency  amounts  to  only  25  per  cent,  then  the  United  States  Army 
raised  by  this  draft  is  weakened  by  the  equivalent  of  the  loss  of  ten  thousand 
effective  men.  The  additional  cost  of  training  these  men  must  be  many 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars,  and  their  lack  of  efficiency  in  the  battle 
line  is  incalculable. 

In  1904  among  the  army  recruits  of  Great  Britain  there  was  i  per  cent 
who  could  not  read  or  write.  Among  the  army  recruits  of  France  there 
were  14.7  per  eent,  while  among  the  army  recruits  of  Germany  there  were  only 
0.04  of  I  per  cent  who  were  ilhterate.  Among  the  men  in  America  first 
drafted  for  this  war  there  were  between  thirty  and  forty  thousand  iUiter- 
ates. 

It  has  been  said  that  Pestalozzi,  the  great  German  educator,  won  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  in  1870.  Today  it  may  be  claimed  that  the  school- 
masters of  Germany  are  responsible  for  whatever  success  has  been  accorded 
the  German  arms.  The  war  has  caused  an  immense  awakening  among  the 
allied  nations.  President  Wilson  has  said  ''that  next  to  caring  for  the 
soldiers  in  the  trenches  we  must  care  for  the  children  at  home.  If  we  are 
to  win  this  war  and  look  out  for  the  after-results,  we  must  maintain  our 
schools  at  their  very  highest  efficiency."  The  war  has  aroused  England, 
France,  and  America  to  a  consciousness  of  the  deficiency  in  their  educational 
systems,  as  compared  with  that  of  Germany.  In  the  summer  of  191 6  it  was 
declared  in  the  English  House  of  Lords  that  a  "living  national  system  of 
education  must  be  organized  if  the  nation  is  to  maintain  its  position."  The 
people  of  England  are  thoroly  alive  to  the  absolute  necessity  of  better 
educational  training  for  the  youth  of  their  country.  And  today,  in  England 
and  Scotland,  bills  are  pending  for  the  continuation  system  of  education, 
or  the  requirement  on  the  part  of  every  employer  to  compel  his  employes 
to  go  to  school  a  part  of  the  time  until  they  are  eighteen  years  of  age.  In 
spite  of  her  limited  finances,  England  is  showing  her  desire  for  better  schools, 
and  superior  teachers  by  appropriating  more  money  for  education  this  year 
than  ever  before. 

Boards  of  education  should  see  to  it  that  our  children  receive  cultiva- 
tion of  the  hand  and  the  eye,  together  with  the  improvement  of  the  mind. 
By  industrial  education  we  are  fitting  the  child  for  practical  duties,  drawing 
to  the  surface  some  latent  talent,  or  forming  his  taste  for  that  which  may 
prove  to  be  his  life-work. 


38o  NATIONAL    EDUCATION    ASSOCIATION  [Administration 

In  our  schools  thousands  of  children  leave  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  grade, 
and,  of  those  who  continue,  50  per  cent  never  graduate  from  the  high  school. 
The  majority  of  those  who  leave  go  to  work,  but  not  in  a  way  or  along  lines 
for  which  they  have  received  any  special  training.  If  they  could  have 
obtained  such  training,  then  their  wage-earning  capacity  would  have  been 
greatly  increast.  One  cause  of  Germany's  great  material  advance  during 
the  last  quarter  of  a  century  has  been  because  of  her  trade  schools,  which 
dot  the  country.  Before  the  war  in  Bavaria  alone  there  were  more  trade 
schools  than  in  all  the  United  States.  In  the  German  Empire,  where  a 
boy  is  obliged  to  attend  school  until  he  is  fifteen  years  of  age,  provision  is 
made  for  the  vocational  training  of  every  child  who  desires  it.  They  have  a 
system  that  has  made  for  efficiency  among  that  people  and  has  provided 
an  army  of  trained  workmen  who  have  flooded  the  markets  of  the  world  with 
German-made  articles.  We  are  not,  however,  going  to  be  dependent  upon 
German  workmen,  or  German  wares.  We  want  American  chemists,  engi- 
neers, and  workmen  who  will  show  sufficient  skill  and  research  abihty  to 
submerge  or  put  down  and  out  of  sight  forever  the  "made  in  Germany" 
slogan  that  has  obsest  the  world  for  the  last  decade.  And  in  order  to  do  this 
our  boards  of  education  must  see  to  it  that  we  have  schools  which  will  pro- 
duce these  artisans  and  skilled  mechanics. 

The  full  efficiency  of  the  human  mechanism  cannot  be  obtained  unless 
all  the  parts  are  in  good  working  order.  More  and  more  are  school  boards 
everywhere  giving  the  child's  body  the  first  consideration  instead  of  the 
last.  According  to  Provost  Marshal  General  Crowder  a  majority  of  the 
physical  disabihties  of  the  29  per  cent  of  men  rejected  in  the  selective  draft 
could  have  been  prevented  in  childhood.  Do  you  think  that  our  school  chil- 
dren do  not  need  some  kind  of  medical  inspection,  with  foUowup  care  by 
nurses,  to  prevent  epidemics  of  scarlet  fever  and  other  juvenile  diseases  ? 

Boards  of  Education  should  try  to  obtain  practical,  well-trtiined 
teachers,  and  should  then  be  willing  to  give  them  due  compensation. 
The  present  times  require  practical,  trained  men  and  women.  The  ideal 
of  education  demanded  today  is  a  scheme  of  study  which  shall  help  us  win 
the  war,  fit  the  youth  of  this  land  for  the  changed  condition  after  peace 
comes,  and  prepare  them  for  the  responsibilities  of  life — and  the  day  of 
attaining  this  largely  devolves  upon  boards  of  education. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  CLASSROOM  TEACHERS 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — Sara  H.  Fahey,  teacher  of  English,  Seward  Park  School New  York,  N.Y. 

Vice-President — Viola  Ortschild,  grade  teacher,  Cauch  School Portland,  Ore. 

Secretary — Mary  V.  Donaghue,  grade  teacher,  Stewart  School .'. .  .Chicago,  111. 


FIRST  SESSION— Tuesday  Afternoon,  July  2 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  President  Sara  H.  Fahey  at  two  o'clock  in  the 
Oakland  M.E.  Church  auditorium. 

After  singing  patriotic  songs,  led  by  Bertha  Baker,  South  Hills  High  School,  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  the  following  program  was  presented  on  the  topic  "Relation  of  Democracy 
in  Education  to  Democracy  in  Government": 

"The  Training  of  Teachers  as  a  Factor  in  Establishing  Professional  Standards" — 
Sara  H.  Fahey,  New  York,  N.Y. 

"The  Status  of  the  Classroom  Teacher" — W.  C.  Bagley,  professor  of  education, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.Y. 

SECOND  SESSION— Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3 
The  following  program  was  presented: 

"Department  Problems  of  the  Immediate  Present — A  Look  Ahead" — Wm.  M. 
Davidson,  superintendent  of  schools,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

"Causes  of  the  Present  Shortage  of  Teachers" — Isabel  A.  Ennis,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.; 
Claire  McWilliams,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.;  Viola  Ortschild,  Portland,  Ore. 

The  following  resolutions  were  offered  by  Sara  H.  Fahey,  of  New  York  City,  seconded 
by  J.  T.  Rorer,  of  Philadelphia,  and  unanimously  past: 

Resolved,  That  the  Department  of  Classroom  Teachers,  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation, undertake  at  once  a  nation-wide  campaign  for  increast  salaries  for  teachers,  in 
order  to  avert  the  most  serious  menace  that  public  education  in  the  United  States  has 
ever  had  to  meet,  namely,  an  alarming  shortage  in  the  teaching  force. 

Resolved,  That  the  Department  of  Classroom  Teachers  appeal  to  the  federal  govern- 
ment to  appropriate  sufficient  funds  to  provide  such  salaries  for  teachers  as  will  enable 
boards  of  education  to  retain  able  teachers  who  are  daily  being  withdrawn  from  the  pro- 
fession for  more  lucrative  positions  in  the  business  world. 


381 


382  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION       IcWstobiA Teachers 

PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


TEE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  AS  A  FACTOR  IN 
ESTABLISHING  PROFESSIONAL  STANDARDS 

SARA  H.   FAHEY,  PRESIDENT,   DEPARTMENT  OF   CLASSROOM  TEACHERS, 
NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

Two  words  of  highest  importance  in  our  speech  of  today  are  "con- 
servation" and  "cooperation,"  for  they  express  the  new  spirit  of  progress 
that  is  actuating  modern  hfe.  We  are  beginning  to  realize  too  that  in  the 
last  analysis  the  real  wealth  of  the  nation,  the  hope  of  democracy,  Hes  in 
what  the  people  are  able  to  make  of  themselves.  Just  to  that  degree  to 
which  their  strength  of  body  and  of  character  is  increast  is  the  productive 
efficiency  of  the  nation  increast. 

In  times  gone  by  education  had  to  do  with  conserving  the  storehouse 
of  knowledge  from  past  ages.  Today  it  has  to  do  more  largely  with  devel- 
oping and  conserving  the  powers  of  the  individual  child.  If  in  the  process 
of  training  a  child  loses  his  eyesight  or  his  hearing  we  denounce  the  system 
that  destroyed  those  functions.  Yet  year  after  year  we  tolerate,  with 
provoking  calmness,  teaching  conditions  and  systems  of  teaching  that 
result  in  shattered  nerves  for  both  teacher  and  child. 

Patriotism  demands  today  that  we  rid  ourselves  of  the  uselessly  burden- 
some in  teaching,  particularly  when  so  many  cities  and  states  are  deplor- 
ing the  lack  of  funds  with  which  properly  to  remunerate  their  teachers. 
One  way  to  increase  salaries  is  to  make  more  pleasurable  the  conditions 
under  which  work  is  done. 

We  look  to  the  training  school  to  help  estabHsh  professional  standards. 
It  must  not  be  satisfied  to  hold  an  insignificant  place  in  the  educational 
world.  The  teacher  must  get  from  it  a  vision  of  the  power  and  efficiency 
that  constitute  enlightened  manhood  and  womanhood. 

During  the  last  two  decades  a  notable  advance  has  been  made  in 
pedagogic  methods  along  scientific  and  industrial  lines,  but  in  the  funda- 
mentals we  are  still  teaching  largely  thru  the  printed  page.  We  have  made 
a  fetish  of  books.  We  have  become  a  reading  rather  than  a  thinking  people. 
This  worship  of  the  printed  page  develops  certain  tendencies  in  teachers 
which  hamper  their  efficiency  and  destroy  the  esprit  de  corps  that  ought 
to  obtain  among  professional  workers. 

There  is  the  habit  of  undue  respect  for  unreasoned  authority  in  intel- 
lectual matters.  Teachers  form  the  habit  of  constantly  quoting  people 
or  books  as  authority  for  what  they  think.  They  lack  confidence  in  their 
own  abihty  to  think.  In  a  democracy  this  is  not  a  desirable  state  of  mind 
for  those  who  are  to  train  the  youth  of  the  land.  Another  weakness  is 
shown  in  the  attitude  toward  the  field  of  knowledge.  Altho  today  every 
scholar  knows  that  the  field  is  limitless,  the  teacher  feels  embarrast, 


Department!  THE  STATUS  OF  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER  383 

ashamed,  to  find  herself  lacking  in  any  Hne.  She  must  give  the  appear- 
ance of  knowing,  which  leads  to  "bluffing."  This  tendency  to  be  authori- 
tative in  matters  of  which  we  know  little  breeds  camouflage  and  intellectual 
dishonesty.  Other  people  in  the  educational  system  may,  with  impunity, 
confess  their  ignorance,  nay,  even  wax  jocose  over  their  errors,  but  the 
conventional  attitude  of  school  officials  toward  the  teacher  is  such  that 
she  assumes  that  she  is  to  be  a  lexicon.  Again,  these  are  not  desirable 
traits  for  a  teacher  of  the  young  people  who  are  to  be  the  citizens  of  the 
democracy  of  the  future.  Intellectual  trickery,  the  ability  to  pass  examina- 
tions rather  than  to  master  the  subject  in  hand,  becomes  the  goal  to  be 
attained. 

The  lack  of  professional  standards,  the  lack  of  esprit  de  corps,  is  more 
exhausting  to  the  true  teacher  than  even  the  conffict  between  her  small 
salary  and  the  high  cost  of  living. 

Among  teachers  as  a  body  there  is  a  notable  lack  of  knowledge  of  their 
own  legal  rights.  They  will  endure  the  domineering  of  a  certain  type  of 
school  official,  or  of  parents,  without  so  much  as  a  protest,  yet  their  spirits 
are  crusht  by  this  sort  of  thing,  and  the  happiness  is  taken  out  of  their 
work.  Anyone  in  authority  who  needlessly  adds  to  the  burdens  of  teachers 
in  this  year  of  overwork  and  underpayment  ought  to  be  tabooed  as  flagrantly 
unpatriotic. 

War  forces  people  to  solve  problems  that  in  time  of  peace  drag  on  from 
generation  to  generation.  Now,  as  never  before,  teachers  are  beginning  to 
see  that  patriotism  is  not  blind  subserviency  but  discriminating  loyalty, 
and  they  are  glad  to  do  battle  for  the  flag  of  America,  because  it  stands  for 
ideals  the  maintenance  of  which  is  essential  for  the  freedom  of  the  world. 


THE  STATUS  OF  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER 

W.   C.   BAGLEY,   PROFESSOR   OF  EDUCATION,   TEACHERS   COLLEGE, 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY,   NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  internal  organization  of  the  American 
educational  system  the  most  unsatisfactory  situation  today  is  that  which  is 
represented  by  the  anomalous  status — or  perhaps  better,  the  lack  of  status 
— of  the  classroom  teacher.  In  spite  of  the  fundamental  educational  axiom 
that  the  critical  and  vital  element  in  every  school  is  the  teacher,  in  spite 
of  the  unction  with  which  the  work  of  the  teacher  is  lauded  and  the  tre- 
mendous responsibility  of  the  teacher  emphasized,  it  still  remains  true  that 
the  actual  work  of  teaching  in  this  country  neither  offers  the  opportunities 
nor  provides  the  conditions  of  a  real  career.  Educational  work,  it  is  true, 
affords  opportunities  for  careers  of  various  types — for  careers  in  administra- 
tion, careers  in  scholarship,  careers  even  in  politics — but  the  basic  act  of 
education  which  is  represented  by  the  work  of  the  classroom  teacher  affords 


384  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION        (Classroom  Teachers 

no  such  opportunities.  Here  unusual  success  brings  no  unusual  recogni- 
tions or  rewards  except  as  it  may  actually  lead  one  away  from  the  work  of 
teaching  into  administrative  and  supervisory  activities. 

Our  conception  of  what  constitutes  promotion  in  educational  work  is 
in  itseK  a  sad  commentary  upon  the  unprofessional  status  of  our  caUing. 
In  general  the  Hne  of  promotion  is  from  rural  school  to  graded  elementary 
school,  from  lower  grades  to  higher  grades,  from  elementary  school  to  high 
school,  from  high  school  to  administration  or  perhaps  to  college  teaching. 
And  even  in  college  and  university  work  the  effective  sanctions  and  recogni- 
tions attach,  not  to  teaching  as  such,  but  either  to  the  kind  of  productive 
scholarship  that  finds  expression  in  printer's  ink,  or  again  to  administration. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  current  policy  of  promotion  in  educational 
work  is  actually  backward — from  the  most  exacting  tasks  to  those  which, 
while  still  difficult  enough,  really  make  smaller  demands  upon  the  individual. 

THE   ''factory"   plan   OF   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

In  common  with  many  of  you  in  this  audience  I  have  tried  to  think  out 
plans  by  means  of  which  the  status  of  the  classroom  teacher  in  the  scheme 
of  public  education  might  be  effectively  recognized — ^plans  thru  which  effec- 
tive rewards  and  sanctions  might  come  to  attach  to  the  actual  work  of 
teaching.  I  think  that,  upon  the  whole,  you  and  I  have  been  animated 
in  these  plans  and  hopes  by  purely  unselfish  motives.  We  find  certain 
satisfactions  in  our  work — satisfactions  that  often  overtop  any  material 
rewards  of  which  we  can  conceive — but  this,  after  all,  does  not  solve  the 
problem.  The  great  majority  of  our  pubhc-school  teachers  are  transient, 
immature,  and  untrained.  They  do  not  look  upon  teaching  as  a  permanent 
career.  They  do  not  prepare  themselves  adequately  for  it.  They  do 
not  remain  in  the  service  long  enough  to  acquire  anything  more  than  an 
amateur's  conception  of  its  problems,  its  methods,  its  technique,  and  its 
responsibiHties.  Those  who  enter  it  as  a  permanent  calling  are  continually 
tempted  to  seek  promotion  that  takes  them  away  from  the  actual,  vital 
contact  with  pupils  and  students.  The  great,  and  just  now  the  very 
momentous,  problem  of  getting  the  next  generation  ready  for  its  serious 
responsibiHties  is  being  accomphsht  more  and  more  upon  the  factory  plan. 
I  mean  by  this  very  frankly  that  the  status  of  the  classroom  teacher  is 
becoming  more  and  more  akin  to  that  of  the  ''hands"  in  a  factory,  working 
under  foremen  and  superintendents  who  assume  the  real  responsibihty. 
More  and  more  frequently  too  these  foremen  and  superintendents  in  our 
schools  are  being  recruited  from  a  group  which  has  never  served  an  appren- 
ticeship in  the  actual  work  of  teaching  boys  and  girls. 

Schools,  however,  cannot  be  operated  on  the  factory  plan  except  at 
the  peril  of  the  vital  and  fundamental  function  that  they  must  discharge. 
We  are  wont  to  think  of  teaching  as  an  apphed  science.  It  is  the  fashion  to 
believe  that  general  principles  analogous  to  those  that  govern  the  processes 


Department]  THE  STATUS  OF  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHER  385 

of  agriculture  and  engineering  can  be  workt  out  and  reduced  to  simple  rules 
that  anyone  can  apply  under  competent  direction,  and  the  plain  corollary 
of  this  thesis  is  that  the  teacher  may  be  considered  as  an  artisan,  analogous 
in  every  essential  way  to  the  carpenter  and  the  bricklayer  and  the  plumber 
who  take  the  plans  and  specifications  workt  out  by  the  architect  and  the 
construction  engineer  and  realize  them  in  actual  material  production. 

I  have  all  sympathy  with  the  scientific  study  of  educational  problems 
up  to  this  point,  but  here  I  balk.  Teaching  is  only  in  part  an  applied 
science.  The  analogy  with  agriculture  and  engineering  is  mischievously 
misleading,  once  it  has  been  carried  beyond  a  relatively  narrow  range  of 
application.  The  alliance  of  teaching  is  rather  with  the  fine  arts  than  with 
the  appUed  sciences,  The  effective  teacher  must  be  an  artist  rather  than  an 
artisan. 

ADMINISTRATION  V.   EDUCATIONAL  POLICY 

A  final  suggestion,  thoroly  practicable,  is  designed  primarily  to  offset 
the  insidious  tendency  that  I  have  noted — the  tendency  to  operate  the 
modern  public  school  on  the  factory  plan.  There  is  a  very  great  difficulty 
to  overcome  here.  In  so  far  as  administrative  matters  are  concerned,  there 
must  be  in  every  large  educational  institution,  or  system  of  institutions,  a 
hierarchy  of  authority  and  responsibility.  Administratively  we  must  have 
our  foremen  and  our  superintendents;  but  this  is  not  at  all  inconsistent 
with  delegating  to  the  teachers  as  such  a  large  measure  of  collective  responsi- 
bihty  for  what  may  be  called  the  educational  policies  of  the  school  or  the 
school  system.  This  distinction  between  purely  administrative  matters 
on  the  one  hand  and  educational  policies  on  the  other  has  been  workt 
out  most  admirably  in  certain  of  the  colleges  and  universities  that  are  sup- 
ported at  pubHc  expense.  The  lay  boards  of  trustees  are  responsible  to 
the  people  for  the  proper  expenditure  of  the  people's  money,  but  these 
boards,  if  they  are  intelligent,  depend  almost  entirely  upon  professional 
judgment  for  educational  policies.  In  the  colleges  that  I  refer  to  these 
educational  policies  are  always  initiated  by  the  faculties,  which  comprise 
usually  only  the  mature  and  permanent  teachers.  The  president  of  the 
institution,  while  administratively  the  agent  of  the  board,  is  educationally 
not  the  autocratic  boss  but  rather  the  cooperating  leader  of  the  faculty. 

I  believe  that  a  similar  plan  is  thoroly  practicable  in  a  high  school  or 
in  a  complete  school  system,  assuming  in  each  case  that  the  teaching  staff 
is  mature,  permanent,  and  well  trained.  Educational  pohcies  concerning 
the  course  of  study,  the  adoption  of  textbooks,  the  adjustment  of  the 
program,  the  provisions  for  exceptional  pupils  of  all  types,  and  similar 
matters  may  well  be  determined  either  by  the  teaching  staff  acting  as  a 
unit,  or  by  a  representative  "senate"  of  teachers  elected  by  the  teachers 
themselves.  That  the  administrative  and  supervisory  officers  will  exercise 
a  leadership  is  both  inevitable  and  proper,  but  leadership  in  these  educa- 
tional matters  should  be  entirely  without  the  authority  of  coercion  or  even 


386  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION        [Classroom  Teachers 

the  suggestion  of  such  authority.  The  recommendations  of  the  teachers 
must,  of  course,  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  board  representing  the 
the  people,  but  they  should  not  be  subject  to  an  individual  administrative 
veto. 

ADEQUATE  PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS 

It  should  go  without  saying  that  the  permanent  betterment  of  the 
classroom  teacher's  status  is  absolutely  dependent  upon  far  better  facilities 
for  the  professional  preparation  of  teachers.  It  is,  after  all,  the  dead  weight 
of  the  transient,  immature,  and  untrained  majority  of  our  teaching  popula- 
tion that  forms  the  heaviest 'handicap  to  educational  efficiency  and  pro- 
gress. With  more  than  half  of  the  nation's  children  under  teachers  who 
have  had  absolutely  no  adequate  preparation  for  their  serious  responsi- 
bihties,  teachers  who  themselves  are  scarcely  more  than  boys  and  girls  at 
work,  there  can  be  little  hope  of  an  essentially  modified  conception  of  the 
teacher's  service.  As  a  nation  we  give  less  attention  to  the  preparation  of 
teachers  than  does  any  other  country  of  equal  standing.  Until  this  con- 
dition is  corrected  fundamentally  we  are  hopelessly  handicapt. 

I  sincerely  trust  that  the  classroom  teachers  as  a  group  will  aid  and 
abet  in  every  possible  way  the  movement  that  is  already  on  foot  to  raise 
the  status  of  our  normal  schools  and  city  training  schools.  This  is  part 
and  parcel  of  your  cause.  Personally  I  am  strongly  in  favor  of  federal 
cooperation  in  the  support  of  these  schools.  I  beUeve  that  the  national 
government  should  do  for  these  schools  the  same  effective  and  stimulating 
service  that  it  has  done  for  the  state  agricultural  colleges.  I  think  indeed 
that  the  measure  of  cooperation  should  be  even  closer  with  the  normal 
schools.  At  the  present  time  the  teachers  of  our  pubhc  schools  as  a  group 
are  recruited  from  an  economic  level  of  the  population  that  cannot  afford 
to  send  its  children  to  distant  schools  for  an  extended  term  of  preparation 
for  the  work  of  teaching.  This,  I  take  it,  is  at  basis  the  fundamental 
cause  of  our  low  professional  standards.  There  is  but  one  way  out  of  this 
dilemma,  and  that  is  to  place  the  preparation  of  public-school  teachers 
upon  the  same  basis  that  we  have  placed  the  training  of  officers  for  the  army 
and  navy;  namely,  to  select  candidates  for  the  service  upon  a  rigorous 
basis  of  merit  and  then  to  pay  them  a  living  wage  so  that  they  can  afford 
to  prepare  for  teaching  in  a  way  and  to  an  extent  consistent  with  the 
responsibilities  that  they  are  to  assume.  For  the  government  to  cooperate 
with  the  states  in  doing  this  would  be  to  recognize  in  a  most  effective  way 
the  much-talkt-of  dependence  of  the  nation's  welfare  upon  the  public 
srhool  and  the  significance  of  the  teacher's  service  to  the  nation's  hfe. 

The  present  time  is  pecuUarly  opportune  to  project  an  extended  national, 
perhaps  even  an  international,  movement  looking  toward  an  appropriate 
status  of  the  classroom  teacher.  Such  a  movement  planned  and  projected 
now  and  launcht  full  tilt  immediately  after  the  war  would  be  thoroly  in 
harmony  with  the  great  democratic  moyeineRt  which  has  already  gained 


Department!       CAUSES  OF  THE  PRESENT  SHORTAGE  OF  TEACHERS       387 

momentum  in  industry  and  politics  both  here  and  abroad.  And  this  larger 
movement  itself  is  thoroly  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  and  purpose  of  the 
great  cause  for  which  we  are  fighting. 


CAUSES  OF  THE  PRESENT  SHORTAGE  OF  TEACHERS 

ISABEL  A.   ENNIS,   BROOKLYN,   N.Y. 

As  a  result  of  the  world-war  perhaps  no  greater  menace  faces  the  people 
of  this  country  than  the  present  shortage  of  teachers.  A  glance  at  the  daily 
papers  and  at  school  reports,  city,  state,  and  national,  reveals  everywhere 
a  shortage  of  present  teachers  and  of  teachers  for  the  future.  Fewer  pupils 
are  entering  the  high  schools,  and  there  is  a  decided  falling  off  in  the  number 
of  high-school  pupils  entering  the  training  schools  for  teachers.  Hundreds 
of  experienst  teachers,  men  and  women  thruout  the  country  are  resigning 
their  positions  for  places  in  banks,  in  the  government  service,  and  in  the 
various  mercantile  and  industrial  pursuits,  where  th^  responsibility  is  not 
so  great  and  the  remuneration  is  far  greater.    And  why  ? 

A  pamphlet  on  Teacher  Shortage  Reasons  by  D.  William  Allen,  Institute 
for  Public  Service  of  New  York  City,  reads: 

1.  Salaries  are  too  low  compared  with  salaries  in  other  fields,  and  too 
low  compared  with  the  high  cost  of  living. 

2.  The  attractions  of  other  fields,  apart  from  salary  differences,  are 
greater  and  are  better  advertised. 

3.  The  training  value  of  successful  teaching  as  preparation  for  other 
fields  is  underadvertised. 

4.  Working  conditions  of  schools  and  supervision  are  many  times  un- 
inspiring and  unagreeable,  even  when  not  disagreeable  and  discouraging. 

5.  Public  and  social  recognition  is  too  low  [I  would  add,  too  slow]. 

Salaries  are  too  low.  There  are  nearly  800,000  teachers  in  the  United 
States.  There  are  perhaps  22,000,000  pupils.  The  average  salary  of 
the  teachers  in  the  United  States  is  considerable  less  than  $600.  It  is  said 
that  in  Richmond,  Va.,  there  are  teachers  receiving  less  than  $200  a  year. 
Salaries  should  be  increast.  War  bonuses  should  be  given,  and  given  imme- 
diately, to  meet  the  increast  cost  of  living  and  the  competition  of  these 
various  industrial,  commercial,  governmental,  and  clerical  positions  which 
9,re  9-ttracting  some  of  the  very  good  teachers  from  the  pubHc  schools. 

The  public  owes  the  teacher  a  duty  and  a  recognition  which  it  is  all  too 
sjow  to  acknowledge  and  to  render.  When  one  considers  the  conditions 
of  eligibility  for  a  teacher  in  this  ever-changing,  complex  civilization,  class- 
room work  is  only  incidental  to  her  great  work.  She  must  fill  every  gap 
and  want  in  the  child's  life  except  perhaps  his  keep,  and  many  times  she 
attends  to  that  too. 


388  NATIONAL   EDUCATION    ASSOCIATION        [Classroom Teachers 

Twenty-five  years  ago  a  woman  could  sew,  do  housework  for  herself 
or  someone  else,  and  she  could  teach;  but  the  avenues  of  employment 
open  to  women  today  are  so  many  and  so  varied  that  the  profession  of 
teaching  is  not  being  sought  as  it  was  in  former  years.  Grammar-school 
graduates  who  may  easily  secure  employment  at  $8,  $io,  or  even  $12  a 
week,  with  Httle  or  no  responsibiHty,  will  not  be  drawn  toward  $16  or  $17 
a  week  after  six  years  of  severe  training.  On  the  walls  of  the  Hall  of  the 
Board  of  Education  of  New  York  City  are  numerous  United  States  govern- 
ment advertisements  for  stenographers,  t3^ewriters,  clerks,  etc.,  with 
salaries  ranging  from  $900  to  $1200  per  year. 

Much  is  made  of  the  fact  that  the  inflated  salaries  of  these  positions 
will  not  continue  after  the  war,  and  that  many  places  now  filled  by  civilians 
will  be  given  to  returning  soldiers.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the  fact  remains 
that  many  teachers  have  left  the  profession  because  they  could  not  make 
ends  meet  on  the  very  small  pay  given  them  in  the  cities  in  which  they  teach, 
and  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  warns  us  that  "conditions 
that  will  follow  the  war  will  demand  a  higher  standard  of  general  intelligence, 
industrial  efficiency,  and  civic  equipment  than  we  have  yet  attained." 
If  these  standards  are  demanded,  the  salary  paid  to  the  competents  will 
not  go  down.  In  my  judgment  salary  increases  given  to  the  teaching  corps 
will  not  be  withdrawn  after  the  war. 

Education  is  a  state  function;  it  ought  to  be  recognized  as  a  national 
duty.  The  United  States  is  spending  enormous  sums  for  the  education 
and  rehabilitation  of  those  who  are  fighting  ''to  make  the  world  safe  for 
democracy,"  but  it  is  not  making  certain  whether  these  milUons  of  dollars 
are  actually  providing  for  the  efficient  instruction  of  the  future  citizens  of 
this  country  in  what  may  be  termed  the  "new  education" — "to  make 
democracy  safe  for  the  world."  A  precedent  has  been  set  by  the  passage 
of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act,  which  provides  for  an  appropriation,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  state,  to  pay  the  increast  cost  of  instruction  thruout  the 
United  States.  Instead  of  the  United  States  paying  half  and  the  state 
paying  hah,  should  not  the  federal  government  pay  the  whole  of  it  ? 

Some  of  the  remedies  suggested  for  the  shortage  of  teachers  are: 

1.  While  this  is  not  the  time  to  lower  standards  of  efficiency,  circum- 
stances warrant  the  same  treatment  being  accorded  to  students  in  our  high 
schools  as  to  those  in  our  military  and  naval  academies:  {a)  rearrange  the 
selection  of  the  subjects;  {h)  reduce  the  time  for  the  courses;  (c)  intensify 
the  work  so  that  the  students  may  cover  in  two  or  three  years  what  is  now 
required  of  them  in  four  years. 

2.  Reduce  the  time  for  training  teachers  about  one  half.  Make  the 
training  period  an  intensive  one  and  provide  professional  courses  for 
teachers  to  pursue  during  the  period  of  probation. 

3.  First  provide,  then  advertise,  the  rewards,  opportunities,  and  attrac- 
tion of  successful  teaching. 


Department]    CAUSES  OF  THE  PRESENT  SHORTAGE  OF  TEACHERS         389 

4.  Encourage  the  ablest  men  and  women  to  register  as  teachers  in 
training  for  many  or  any  kinds  of  work. 

5.  Let  down  the  barriers  and  invite  the  married  women  or  any  others 
who  have  left  the  school  system  to  return. 

6.  Quoting  Dr.  Allen  again:  "Enhance  the  working  conditions,  includ- 
ing supervision,  without  waiting  for  salary  increases  and  as  the  first  and 
best  step  towards  getting  the  needed  salary  increases." 

7.  In  the  final  analysis  perhaps  the  most  important  suggestion  is: 
"Increase  salaries,  not  a  little,  but  enough  to  prove  the  intent  to  draw  into 
the  teaching  profession  the  country's  ablest  personalities." 


DEPARTMENT  OF  DEANS  OF  WOMEN 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 

PITTSBURGH  MEETING 


OFFICERS 


President — Kathryn  Sisson  McLean,  dean  of  women,  Ohto  Wesleyan,  Univer- 
sity  Delaware,  Ohio 

Vice-Ptesident — Margaret  Jean  Calvin New  York,  N. Y. 

Secretary-Treasurer — Rhoda  M.  White,  State  College Pullman,  Ohio 

Assistant  Secretary — Anna  D.  Blitz,  dean,  William  Smith  College,  Geneva.  .New  York,  N.Y. 


I 


FIRST  SESSION— Monday  Afternoon,  July  i,  1918 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  2 :  00  p.m.  and  greetings  were  extended  by  Florence 
M.  Root,  dean  of  Pennsylvania  College  for  Women,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.;  and  Mary  B.  Breed, 
dean  of  Margaret  Morrison  Carnegie  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

The  following  papers  were  presented: 

"Organization  of  Social  Life  Where  There  Are  No  Dormitories,  and  Housing  Students 
under  Such  Conditions" — Bemice  E.  Sanford,  dean  of  women.  State  Normal  School,  River 
Falls,  Wis. 

"Mobilization  of  Students  to  Assist  in  Household  and  Campus  Duties" — Speaker 
to  be  announst  later. 

SECOND  SESSION— Monday  Evening,  July  i,  1918 

Reception  to  all  Deans  and  their  friends  at  the  Margaret  Morrison  Carnegie  School. 
Music — A  short  program  by  Mrs.  Arthur  B.  Siviter,  soprano;  Miss  Nellie  J.  Bender, 
vioUnist;  and  Miss  Mary  A.  Ledwith,  pianist. 

THIRD  SESSION— Tuesday  Forenoon,  July  2,  1918 
The  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  10:00  a.m.,  and  the  following  program  was  given: 

"What  a  President  May  Rightly  Expect  from  a  Dean  of  Women" — George  S.  Dick, 
president.  State  Normal  School,  Kearney,  Nebr. 

"What  a  Dean  May  Rightly  Expect  from  a  President" — Helen  M.  Smith,  Western 
Reserve  University,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  Florence  L.  Richards,  dean  of  women.  State  Normal 
School,  Winona,  Minn. 

Luncheon — 12:00  m.  to  2:00  p.m..  Twentieth  Century  Club. 
Address — Sarah  Louise  Arnold,  Simmons  College,  Boston,  Mass. 

FOURTH  SESSION— Tuesday  Afternoon,  July  2,  1918 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  2 :  00  p.m.  Mrs.  Thomas  J.  Preston,  Jr.,  secretary, 
Bureau  of  Patriotism  thru  Education,  National  Security  League,  New  York,  N.Y., 
presided,  and  the  following  papers  were  read: 

"The  Responsibility  of  the  College  in  Training  Leaders  for  the  Reconstruction  Work 
of  the  Future" — Thomas  E.  Finegan,  deputy  commissioner  of  education,  Albany,  N.Y. 

"The  College  Community  Life  as  an  Opportunity  for  Socialization" — Mina  Kerr, 
dean  of  Milwaukee-Downer  College,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

391 


392  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Deans  of  Women 

FIFTH  SESSION— Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3,  1918 

The  regular  business  meeting  of  the  Deans  of  Women  in  session  at  the  annual  meeting 
of  the  National  Education  Association,  was  held  at  the  close  of  their  special  conference, 
Wednesday  morning,  July  3,  with  Dean  McLean  presiding. 

A  report  of  the  reception  of  fifteen  new  members  was  heard  first. 

The  bill  amounting  to  $21  submitted  by  Dean  Blitz  for  expenses  incurred  by  the 
organization  was  allowed  by  vote  of  the  assembly. 

The  report  from  the  Conference  of  Deans  of  Women  from  the  Pacific  Northwest  was 
then  read,  and  a  vote  was  taken  to  the  effect  that  a  committee  be  appointed  to  look  farther 
into  the  wishes  of  the  Northwest  branch,  and  that  final  action  be  taken  in  Chicago  at  the 
time  of  the  next  national  conference.  The  following  were  appointed  members  of  this 
committee:  Dean  Lytton,  EUensburg,  Wash.;  Dean  Sanford,  River  Falls,  Wis.;  Dean 
Carpenter,  University  of  Tennesse^e. 

The  report  of  the  Committee  on  Resolutions  was  heard,  and  a  vote  was  taken  to 
accept  the  resolutions  read. 

The  assembly  exprest  its  desire  that  Dean  Blitz  write  Miss  Arnold  that  the  Depart- 
ment of  Deans  of  Women  wishes  to  assure  the  Department  of  Food  Administration  of 
its  interest  in  every  phase  of  its  activity  and  of  its  entire  willingness  to  cooperate  with  the 
Department  in  all  its  efforts  to  make  better  adjustments  in  the  interests  of  the  world's 
food  supply. 

After  a  brief  discussion  of  some  features  of  the  constitution  as  submitted  by  the 
Constitution  Committee,  it  was  the  vote  of  the  assembly  that  individual  and  careful 
consideration  be  given  this  tentative  constitution,  and  that  final  action  be  deferred  until 
the  February  meeting. 

A  motion  was  made  and  carried  that  a  Press  Committee  be  appointed  by  the  chair 
in  order  that  more  careful  consideration  may  be  given  to  those  reports  from  the  conference 
which  should  be  given  publication.  Dean  Kerr,  of  Milwaukee-Downer  College,  and 
Dean  Sawyer,  of  Western  College  of  Women,  were  appointed. 

Dean  Sanford  then  submitted  the  report  of  the  nominating  committee.  It  was  voted 
to  accept  the  report  and  the  following  became  officers  for  the  ensuing  year: 

President — Dean  McLean,  Delaware,  Ohio 

Vice-President — ^Dean  Johnson,  Columbia,  Mo. 

Secretary — Dean  Blitz,  Geneva,  N.Y. 

Treasurer — Dean  Richards,  Winona,  Minn. 

Then  followed  an  informal  discussion  by  the  members  concerning  questions  of 
importance  and  interest  which  might  profitably  be  considered  in  outlining  a  program  for 
the  February  meeting.     Some  suggestions  were  as  follows: 

"On  what  committees  do  deans  serve,  and  on  what  ones  should  they  serve ?" 
"Would  it  not  be  well  to  enlist  the  interest  of  the  deans  of  liberal  arts  as  well  as  the 
presidents  in  the  various  activities  of  the  deans  of  women  ?  " 

Kathryn  S.  McLean,  President 
Mabel  Lytton,  Secretary  pro  tern 


I 


Departnientl       ORGANIZATION  OF  SOCIAL  LIFE  OF  STUDENTS  393 

PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


ORGANIZATION  OF  SOCIAL  LIFE  WHERE  THERE  ARE  NO 

DORMITORIES,  AND  HOUSING  STUDENTS  UNDER 

SUCH  CONDITIONS 

BERNICE  E.   SANFORD,   DEAN   OF   WOMEN,   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 
RIVER  FALLS,   WIS. 

As  the  large  groups  of  students  come  surging  into  the  college  and  norma 
towns  and  cities  each  fall,  the  organization  of  the  social  life  of  these  students 
and  the  housing  of  them  constitute  one  of  the  largest  problems  for  adminis- 
trative officers.  These  young  people  come  full  of  enthusiasm,  eagerness, 
and  good  spirits,  full  of  a  new  sense  of  liberty — all  of  which  must  be  capital- 
ized for  good.  For  another  group — the  unsocial  students — the  adapting 
of  oneself  to  new  living  conditions  is  an  untried  experience,  and  it  is  here 
again  that  the  tested  and  clearly  defined  policy  of  the  faculty  advisors  and 
administrative  officers  can  smooth  the  hard  places  in  student  life. 

In  institutions  where  there  are  dormitories  a  standard  for  the  kind  and 
cost  of  living  and  also  social  standards  may  be  set  by  the  dormitory.  Where 
there  are  no  halls  of  residence  the  problem  is  quite  different.  Regulations 
pertaining  to  the  life  of  the  girls  while  away  from  the  school,  such  as  have 
grown  up  gradually  from  the  experiences  of  many  other  students,  may  be 
formulated  by  the  dean  of  women  working  with  the  faculty  committee. 
These  regulations  which  students  are  askt  to  observe  can  be  interpreted  to 
them  and  discust  with  them  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  appreciate  the 
point  of  view  of  advisors  and  administrators.  However,  this  constitutes 
a  year's  task  as  carried  on  in  assembly  talks,  in  individual  conferences,  and 
in  home  calls.  In  a  like  manner  the  landladies  must  know  of  the  desires 
and  social  standards  of  the  school.  Much  can  be  accomplisht  by  two  or 
more  meetings  of  landladies  each  year,  where  these  social  standards  and 
matters  of  supervision  and  guidance  may  be  studied  and  discust,  by  the 
dean  of  women  calling  at  the  lodging-places  for  students,  and  by  frequent 
correspondence. 

The  lodging-houses  are  in  no  way  connected  with  the  school  save  thru 
the  relation  of  their  landladies  to  the  dean  of  women.  The  arrangements 
are  usually  made  between  landladies  and  parents  or  students,  and  the 
school  cannot  assume  responsibility  for  such  arrangements.  However, 
it  may  be  required  that  certain  standards  be  met,  and  inspection  of  these 
houses  should  be  made  at  least  once  a  year. 

It  is  advantageous  that  parents  should  know  of  these  school  standards 
and  cooperate  with  school  authorities  in  adhering  to  them.  Early  in  the 
year  a  bulletin  setting  forth  these  social  standards,  including  the  regulations 
which  the  students  are  askt  to  observe,  and  also  inviting  the  interest  and 


394  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Deans  of  Women 

cooperation  of  parents  will  create  a  harmonious  situation  out  of  which 
excellent  team  work  may  develop. 

A  school  whose  numbers  are  such  as  to  permit  a  daily  convocation,  or 
at  least  a  frequent  one,  has  at  its  disposal  a  valuable  and  effective  agency  for 
assimilating  the  new  students  into  the  student  body  and  the  school  and  for 
letting  these  students  know  what  their  Alma  Mater  expects  of  them.  At 
some  meetings  both  young  men  and  young  women  may  be  present;  here 
large  matters  of  student  ethics  and  discussions  of  the  various  aspects  of 
college  life  may  be  considered.  At  other  meetings  the  dean  of  women  and 
presidents  of  the  more  important  girls'  organizations  may  address  the  girls. 
In  this  way  the  larger  ideals  of  the  community,  so  far  as  women  are 
concerned,  may  be  emphasized. 

Another  way  in  which  the  scattered  students  of  a  non-dormitory  school 
may  be  toucht  and  helpt  is  by  a  student  council  made  up  of  the  heads  of  the 
different  organizations,  meeting  with  the  dean  of  women  from  four  to  six 
times  a  year  for  conference  on  student  affairs.  When  the  members  of  the 
council  report  to  their  organizations  the  net  results  of  such  meetings,  nearly 
all  of  the  women  students  have  been  reacht. 

A  larger  measure  of  student  self-government  can  be  incorporated  in  the 
social  life  of  the  students  by  organizing  them  into  communities  and  electing 
a  representative  from  each  group  to  constitute  a  council.  Each  community 
is  made  up  of  girls  rooming  in  a  specific  area  of  the  city — the  numbers 
ranging  from  twenty  to  forty  in  each  group.  These  individual  groups  meet 
for  get-acquainted  and  social  times,  for  consideration  of  all-campus  projects 
and  interests,  and  for  discussion  of  social  standards  and  regulations.  The 
representatives  from  these  communities  will  take  the  discussions  and 
reports  from  the  council  meetings  to  their  various  groups,  and  thus  again 
all  the  students  are  reacht. 

When  one  considers  the  social  life  of  the  women  students  in  the  broader 
sense — in  the  sense  of  bringing  to  each  young  woman  a  vital  consciousness 
of  her  membership  in  the  different  social  groups  with  which  her  life  is 
concerned,  whether  it  be  the  family,  the  school,  or  the  state — there  the 
school  has  its  most  vital  task.  All  the  special  organizations  lend  themselves 
to  this  task,  and  in  their  ranks  is  the  social  sense  in  its  larger  meaning 
developt. 

The  social  functions  for  entertainment  may  be  carried  on  jointly  by 
social  committees  of  each  organization  and  a  social  committee  of  the  faculty, 
of  which  the  dean  of  women  may  well  be  chairman.  The  faculty  committee 
formulates  the  general  social  policy  of  the  school,  while  the  students  plan 
and  work  out  the  details  of  the  functions. 

At  all  times  the  social  life  of  the  students  must  be  subordinated  to  the 
demands  of  the  curriculum,  it  must  be  raised  above  the  standard  of  the 
outside  world,  and  it  should  always  aim  to  produce  better  men  and  women. 
Any  scheme  which  will  aid  in  these  purposes  is  worth  trying. 


Department]        TEE  PRESIDENT  AND  THE  DEAN  OF  WOMEN  395 

This  matter  of  lodging  students  outside  of  dormitories  is  regulated 
largely  by  the  laws  of  supply  and  demand.  The  number  of  students  to  be 
cared  for,  the  size  and  character  of  the  city,  and  the  school  traditions  enter 
so  largely  into  the  transaction  that  each  school  is  a  problem  unto  itself 
to  be  studied  and  solved  in  the  light  of  its  own  conditions. 


WHAT  A  PRESIDENT  MAY  RIGHTLY  EXPECT  FROM  A 
DEAN  OF  WOMEN 

GEORGE   S.   DICK,   PRESIDENT,   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,   KEARNEY,  NEB. 

What  a  president  may  expect  from  a  dean  of  women  depends  entirely 
upon  whom  the  president  has  selected  for  this  position — upon  her  natural 
and  acquired  qualifications.  Since  she  is  a  human  being,  she  can  be 
expected  to  render  service  only  in  proportion  to  her  natural  and  acquired 
ability.  The  position  is  one  of  the  greatest  importance,  most  inspiring  and 
far-reaching  when  well  filled,  but  one  that  may  cause  the  greatest 
disturbance,  friction,  and  may  even  be  a  menace  to  the  best  interests  of  the 
college  if  not  well  filled. 

The  real  dean  of  women  is  just  coming  to  be  recognized  for  what  she  is 
able  to  do  under  fair  surroundings  and  reasonable  opportunity  and  support. 
No  line  of  college  service  is  rising  more  rapidly,  advancing  more  steadily 
than  is  this,  owing  to  the  increasing  number  of  well-prepared,  devoted, 
inspiring  women  who  have  chosen  this  line,  or  who  have  been  chosen  for  this 
almost  sacred  service. 

Since  the  position  is  now  establisht  and  universally  recognized,  and 
since  the  educated,  trained,  thoroly  competent  dean  may  be  secured  for 
the  most  difficult,  most  important  of  these  places,  a  proportional  rise  is 
seen  and  will  continue  to  be  noted  in  the  quality  and  effectiveness  of 
influence  rendered  in  this  field  of  unlimited  service — limited  only  by  human 
devotion  and  endurance  on  one  side  and  susceptibility  of  influence  on  the 
other. 

As  in  every  other  line  of  work,  not  every  person  of  proper  age,  weight, 
height,  and  dress  can  make  a  dean  of  women.  She  must  be  strong  and  well, 
with  plenty  of  bone  and  muscle,  and  not  too  many  nerves.  Physical 
strength  is  necessary  to  endure  the  strain  of  perplexing  daily  problems 
that  continue  to  rise  for  solution.  She  must  have  age  sufficient  for  judg- 
ment and  discretion,  yet  she  must  not  be  so  old  as  to  lack  sympathy 
with  young  people  or  to  forget  that  she  too  was  once  young  and  even 
susceptible  to  attention  from  proper  young  men.  Perhaps  it  is  well  that 
she  still  be  not  entirely  averse  to  helpful  associations  with  men  as  well  as 
with  women. 

She  is  expected  to  dress  with  becoming  taste  and  judgment  and  to 
comply  with  sane  manners  and  customs  of  the  day.     In  all  this,  both  in 


30  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Deans  of  Women 

and  out  of  school,  she  must  do,  say,  and  be  what  she  may  wish  our  girls 
to  do,  say,  and  become. 

Intellectually  she  must  be  the  peer  in  study  and  training  of  any  other 
member  of  the  faculty.  If  she  is  to  be  a  guide  to  young  people  in  their 
college  years,  she  herself  must  have  traveled  successfully  this  way  that  she 
may  be  a  safe  pilot  and  a  wise  counselor. 

She  must  be  ready  to  assist  in  the  making  of  courses  of  study,  be  they 
in  the  physical,  mental,  moral,  spiritual,  social,  or  vocational  field,  suitable 
for  young  women.  Not  that  she  must  be  a  specialist  in  each  of  these  lines, 
but  she  should  be  familiar  with  good  studentship  with  a  proper  balance  of 
work  and  recreation,  study  and  entertainment.  She  will  not  attempt  to 
dictate  courses  of  study,  but  will  be  heard  in  discussion  of  what  may  be  too 
much  or  too  little,  suitable  or  unsuitable,  for  young  women  of  college  age 
with  varying  abilities.  In  order  to  render  this  service  she  must  be  a  woman 
of  broad,  liberal  education  and  have  that  rare  experience  of  a  thoro,  suc- 
cessful classroom  teacher. 

In  addition  to  the  deep  interest  in  the  physical  well-being  of  the 
student  and  the  ability  to  assist  in  the  guidance  of  the  intellectual  life, 
she  is  the  natural  guide,  if  not  the  real  leader,  in  the  social  activities 
of  the  school.  If  the  institution  be  coeducational,  she  becomes  a  real 
influence  in  the  social  life  of  the  young  men  as  well  as  that  of  the  young 
women,  as  it  is  impossible  and  undesirable  to  separate  the  naturally  mutual 
interests  of  all  the  suitable  social  activities  of  the  one  from  those  of  the 
other. 

In  communities  where  it  is  necessary  to  house  the  young  women  in 
private  homes,  she  knows  conditions  and  regulates  affairs  much  more  easily 
and  efficiently  if  she  has  full  control  of  house  inspection  and  the  approval 
of  assignment  and  change  of  location.  Supported  by  faculty  rules  and 
regulations,  she  is  enabled  to  control  the  conditions  under  which  students 
may  live.  In  connection  with  this  duty  she  prefers  to  have  control  of 
employment  for  young  women  who  must  earn  a  part  or  all  of  their  support 
while  in  college. 

We  have  said  that  the  dean  of  women  should  be  a  successful  teacher. 
Many  go  farther  and  say  that  she  should  continue  to  teach.  If  the  school 
is  large,  it  is  better  that  she  give  time  to  the  care  of  and  personal  interest 
in  every  girl  than  that  she  give  so  much  time  to  knowing  a  few  girls  in  some 
one  department  of  a  liberal-arts  course.  Her  duties  are  too  many  and  too 
arduous  for  her  to  be  able  to  keep  up  with  the  development  of  a  growing 
department  and  also  be  up  to  date  in  her  special  line.  If  she  has  time  and 
ability  to  do  it  well,  her  line  of  teaching  service  should  be  that  which  would 
bring  her  into  close  association  with  a  greater  number  of  the  young  women 
thru  lectures,  conferences,  study,  and  readings  along  lines  of  special  interest 
and  real  help  to  women.  It  would  seem  that  such  study  and  help  as  this 
is  of  greater  value  and  more  vital  and  far-reaching  in  its  influence  than 


Department]         THE  DEAN  OF  WOMEN  AND   THE  PRESIDENT  397 

what  teaching  she  might  be  able  to  do  in  some  one  department,  either 
as  head  or  associate  professor. 

The  president  may  reasonably  expect  complete  and  sympathetic 
cooperation  in  everything  that  may  affect  the  general  policy  of  the  institu- 
tion. As  he  stands  ever  ready  to  carry  the  heavy  end,  to  do  the  difficult 
thing,  to  discharge  the  disagreeable  duty  in  line  of  discipline,  mild  or. 
severe,  if  need  be,  he  reasonably  expects  a  frank  and  clear  understanding  of 
policies  that  the  dean  may  be  endeavoring  to  establish  or  carry  out.  He 
should  be  consulted  early,  that  the  suggestions  of  the  "ounce  of  prevention" 
may  be  considered  before  the  "pound  of  cure"  is  necessary.  Counsel  is 
expected  on  means  of  management  and  control  or  of  executing  rules  and 
regulations,  and  the  dean  must  not  be  left  to  meet  alone  cases  of  serious  or 
final  discipline.  Of  untold  value  and  usefulness  is  the  nobility  of  real 
culture  in  the  heart  of  a  true  woman,  her  genuineness  of  purpose,  with  a 
vision  of  what  she  may  reasonably  attempt  to  accomplish  as  she  impresses 
upon  the  young  lives  of  future  women  and  men  her  own  ideals  of  a  life  in 
the  making  in  preparation  for  daily  service  to  others.  This  is  a  part  of 
what  a  president  may  expect  from  the  right  woman  in  a  position  of  dean  of 
women  in  a  teachers'  college  or  normal  school. 


WHAT  THE  DEAN  MAY  RIGHTLY  EXPECT  FROM  THE 
PRESIDENT 

HELEN  M.  SMITH,  DEAN  OF  WOMEN,  WESTERN  RESERVE  UNIVERSITY, 
CLEVELAND,   OHIO 

The  duties  and  responsibilities  of  deans  are  so  diverse  and  the  con- 
sequent needs  so  unlike  that  it  is  rather  difficult  to  state  just  what  a  dean 
may  rightly  expect  from  her  president.  The  dean  of  a  separate  college  for 
women  finds  herself  confronted  with  a  multiplicity  of  problems  of  entrance 
credits,  of  curriculum,  of  student  activities,  and  of  executive  and  adminis- 
trative action  that  may  not  trouble  the  dean  of  women  of  a  coeducational 
institution;  and  the  dean  of  a  college  in  a  coordinate  educational  system 
may  be  concerned  with  interrelations  of  colleges  in  the  university  that 
neither  of  the  deans  before  mentioned  realizes.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
dean  of  a  coeducational  college  is  concerned  with  questions  of  social  rela- 
tionships that  other  deans  may  not  know. 

In  all  this  diversity  of  needs,  have  deans  any  rights  in  common?  I 
think  they  have. 

With  such  a  chance  as  this,  one  could  not  afford  to  miss  the  opportunity 
of  making  an  ideal  president  and,  doubtless,  as  he  is  created  each  dean  may 
discover  the  likeness  of  her  superior. 

The  president  may  have  been  wholly  or  partially  responsible  for  putting 
the  dean  in  her  place.  Because  he  is  so  busy  he  must  needs  delegate  a 
number  of  responsibilities  to  her,  and,  once  delegated,  the  dean  has  a  right 


398  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Deans  of  Women 

to  expect  the  president's  confidence  that  she  will  perform  her  duties  con- 
scientiously and  efficiently.  If  she  is  expected  to  judge  the  entrance 
certificates  her  judgment  should  be  final.  If  her  work  includes  the  housing 
problem,  she  should  be  expected  to  make  arrangements  and  decisions  and 
to  take  the  consequences  that  may  result,  without  involving  the  president. 
And  if  certain  questions  of  student  discipline  are  supposed  to  be  within  her 
realm  of  decision,  the  students'  appeal  to  the  president  should  result  in  the 
return  of  the  question  to  the  dean.  She  may,  and  doubtless  will,  sometimes 
make  mistakes — even  as  a  president — but  she  has  a  right  to  expect  that  he 
will  get  his  information  about  a  question  in  point  from  her,  and  that  he  will 
confer  with  her  as  to  the  best  way  to  proceed  in  the  matter  under  discussion. 
If  she  is  not  given  this  confidence  on  the  part  of  the  president,  and  the 
consequent  crippling  of  her  authority  results,  the  effect  upon  her  and  upon 
the  college  is  unwholesome. 

Again,  if  a  large  measure  of  confidence  is  given  her  she  is  encouraged 
to  take  a  leading  place  in  the  question  of  women's  education.  In  the  ever- 
changing  ideas  of  what  women  need  and  should  have  in  their  education  to 
keep  pace  with  the  increasingly  varied  and  widened  fields  which  they  enter, 
the  dean  of  women  must  be  more  and  more  alert  and  profound.  She  should 
rightly  expect  the  president  to  allow  her  freedom  in  discussion  of  these 
problems  and  as  much  freedom  in  action  in  bringing  about  changes  as  the 
policy  of  the  institution  will  allow. 

It  scarcely  seems  reasonable  to  expect  it,  but  it  helps  over  many  rough 
places  and  often  saves  the  situation  and  the  people  concerned  if  the  president 
has  a  sense  of  humor.  Even  a  spark  of  it  is  not  to  be  scorned,  and  a  greater 
amount  of  it  is  a  god-send. 

Perhaps  it  is  not  right  to  expect  patience  on  the  part  of  the  president. 
It  is,  however,  a  quality  that  is  often  required  of  presidents  as  well  as  of 
deans.  After  years  of  service  as  the  foremost  college  president  in  America, 
one  president  said  that  the  most  necessary  quality  in  his  office  was  patience. 

The  foregoing  is  meant  to  suggest  that  a  sympathetic  understanding 
of  the  dean,  and  the  confidence  that  grows  out  of  it,  is  her  prime  right  from 
the  president — confidence  in  her  judgment,  her  integrity,  and  her  ideals. 

A  second  right  that  the  dean  may  expect  from  the  president  is  pro- 
tection. If  the  dean  has  entire  or  partial  charge  of  admissions  and  dis- 
missals, of  elections  of  courses,  of  scholarship,  of  curriculum,  of  schedule  of 
student  activities,  and  of  student  aid,  and  then  has  added  to  this,  care  for 
housing  conditions,  dormitory  assignments,  publicity  work,  vocational 
guidance,  and  a  bureau  of  occupations,  besides  adjustment  of  relations 
between  different  parts  of  the  university  and  her  own  social-academic 
relations,  she  is  likely  to  become  a  jack  of  all  trades  and  a  master  of  none. 
And  while  one  knows  that  the  value  of  a  dean  is  increast  by  the  larger 
number  of  interests  that  she  can  understand  and  direct,  there  is  neverthe- 
less a  limit  to  the  powers  of  even  the  best  of  them,  and  the  dean  has  a  right 


Department]         THE  DEAN  OF  WOMEN  AND  THE  PRESIDENT  399 

to  expect  protection  from  the  president  from  an  excessive  number  of  these 
responsibilities. 

A  third  right  which  deans  may  expect  of  presidents  is,  in  my  estimation, 
inspiration.  While  it  is  true  that  all  connected  with  a  college  want  it  to 
reahze  its  highest  possibilities,  yet  there  are  times  when  hope  lags.  The 
dean  has  not  the  controlling  power,  nor  has  she  free  access  to  the  official 
ear  of  the  trustees,  nor  does  she  wish  it,  but  if  a  change  or  a  realization  of 
aims  is  within  a  reasonable  hope  the  inspiration  to  press  on  must  come  from 
the  president,  who  knows  the  facts  and  can  control  the  situation  in  a  large 
degree. 

The  president  is  expected  to  be  an  expert  in  matters  of  education;  that 
is  probably  why  he  is  president.  The  dean  has  possibly  not  so  compre- 
hensive a  view  of  the  educational  field,  cannot  see  it  from  so  many  angles. 
She  may  therefore  rightly  expect  the  president  to  throw  light  upon  many 
educational  problems.  In  university  life,  as  in  any  other  complex  life,  so 
much  lies  behind  the  scenes,  so  much  with  which  the  president  is  conversant. 
Why,  therefore,  may  not  the  dean  look  for  guidance  and  direction  from  him  ? 

If  deans  were  askt,  "Whom  would  you  like  to  be  if  you  were  not  the 
dean  ?"  I  have  an  idea  that  very  few  of  them  would  answer,  "The  presi- 
dent." His  is  not  always  a  straight  and  narrow  path;  it  is  broad  and 
sometimes  rough,  and  sometimes  it  leads  to  destruction.  His  relation  to 
the  position  of  dean  must  not  be  too  circumscribing,  nor  must  it  be  too 
indifferent.    He  should  always  be  an  inspiration. 


I 


WHAT  A  DEAN  MAY  RIGHTLY  EXPECT  FROM  A 
PRESIDENT 

FLORENCE   L.   RICHARDS,   DEAN   OF  WOMEN,   STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 
WINONA,   MINN. 

As  the  purpose  of  the  institution  determines  the  kind  of  man  called  to 
its  presidency,  so  its  purpose  also  determines  the  kind  of  woman  called  as 
its  dean  of  women.  In  a  teachers'  college  the  dean  of  women  shares  with 
the  president  an  appreciation  of  those  qualities  predominant  in  an  ideal 
teacher;  and  she  also  has  in  common  with  him  the  ability  to  see  not  only  the 
individual  student  needing  personal  help  but  also  the  students  in  the  mass 
as  a  unit,  and  to  work  unceasingly  for  that  unit  as  a  whole,  emphasizing  no 
one  department,  no  one  class,  but  seeing  as  a  unit  all  departments  dove- 
tailed, working  for  one  purpose — to  prepare  successful,  service-loving, 
patriotic  teachers.  Consequently,  to  do  her  work  efficiently,  she  must 
receive  from  the  president  when  she  first  joins  the  faculty,  a  clear  conception 
of  the  personality  of  the  school,  what  factors  have  made  that  personality, 
what  additional  features  are  now  contributing  to  its  success,  what  the 
president  wishes  especially  to  emphasize,  what  flaws  he  wishes  her  to  help 


400  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Deans  of  Women 

eradicate,  and  what  type  of  woman  the  state  has  lookt  to  this  institution  to 
furnish  for  its  pubUc  schools — for  in  a  professional  school,  as  in  all  other 
schools,  the  college  must  produce  a  type  of  student  stampt  with  its  person- 
ality. In  other  words,  the  dean  of  women  should  be  given  all  that  prelimi- 
nary information  which  the  head  of  a  professional  firm  would  give  to  one 
joining  the  firm,  to  whom  shall  be  delegated  much  of  the  responsibiHty  of  at 
least  preserving  the  high  standard  already  acquired  and  of  taking  advantage 
of  constantly  occurring  new  conditions  to  broaden  the  scope  of  the  firm  and 
to  raise  still  higher  its  standard.  And  in  these  war  days  how  essential  is 
foresight  and  vision  in  our  teachers'  colleges  in  pointing  out  the  signboards 
of  the  times  to  the  trackless  plain  of  unlimited  opportunity  for  big  teachers, 
in  whose  hands  lies  the  future  of  the  Republic.  This  preliminary  informa- 
tion saves  the  dean  of  women  time,  makes  clear  her  duties,  and  gives  her 
an  opportunity  for  original,  unhindered  work. 

As  her  work  as  a  teacher  must  necessarily  be  secondary  to  her  work 
as  an  executive,  and  molder  of  the  social  standard,  the  president  of  vision 
will  see  that  her  academic  work  does  not  by  its  scope  hinder  her  in  planning 
and  executing  for  the  student  body  as  a  whole.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
year,  one  class  is  all  that  she  should  teach,  while  she  is  engaged  in  such  vital 
problems  as  seeing  that  organizations  are  getting  under  headway,  that  new 
students  are  being  sympathetically  lookt  after  by  "big  sisters,"  that  all  are 
properly  housed  and  well  cared  for,  that  the  homesick  are  weathering  the 
storm,  and  that  the  landladies  are  sensing  their  responsibiHty  to  the  big 
professional  unit.  In  the  meantime  any  president,  upon  investigation,  will 
find  that  the  duties  of  the  dean  of  women  often  extend  far  into  the  night 
while  she  is  gathering  the  new,  thoughtless,  irresponsible  crowd  into  a  new 
environment,  with  the  proper  atmosphere  conducive  to  developing  a  type 
of  womanhood  which  will  shoulder  responsibility  and  be  equal  to  the  biggest 
task  on  earth,  the  molding  of  little  aliens,  little  street  waifs,  Httle  embryo 
I.W.W.'s,  into  loyal  English-speaking  patriots,  and  of  teaching  them 
American  customs,  American  manners,  and  American  ideals. 

Moreover,  the  president  should  see  that  the  dean  of  women  has  not 
only  time  for  her  administrative  and  social  work,  but  also  a  fund  of  money 
at  her  disposal  for  her  work  among  the  sick,  for  her  social  "at  homes" 
to  student  groups,  and  for  general  social  welfare  work  in  the  college.  Worry 
over  finance  soon  weakens  the  efficiency  of  the  strongest. 

The  president,  as  head  of  a  professional  school,  should  also  see  the 
advantage  to  the  institution  in  sending  the  dean  of  women  to  the  annual 
meeting  of  superintendents  with  her  expenses  paid  in  whole  or  in  part,  for 
such  opportunities  assure  her  necessary  information  and  inspiration  to  keep 
her  work  abreast  of  the  times. 

But  granted  that  the  president  of  a  normal  school  takes  time  to  explain 
to  a  dean  of  women  the  new  field  for  her  activities  and  that  he  sees  that  she 
has  time  and  money  for  her  best  work,  the  dean  of  women  is  still  more 


Department]        THE  DEAN  OF  WOMEN  AND  THE  PRESIDENT  401 

exacting.  She  expects  to  find  in  him  a  capable  advisor.  Much  of  her 
professional  information  should  not  be  shared  with  faculty  members,  as 
family  affairs  of  students  or  the  reputation  of  individuals  are  often  involved. 
She  needs  advice  from  one  who  holds  the  viewpoint  of  what  is  best  not  only 
for  the  individual  but  for  the  school.  She  asks  for  candid  discussion  and 
expects  cordial  reception  and  clear,  unbiast  thought  from  a  judicial  mind. 

The  dean  of  women  also  turns  to  the  president,  as  her  superior  officer, 
for  any  information  he  may  possess  which  will  help  her  in  her  work.  At  the 
beginning  of  each  year  her  burden  is  much  lightened  if  the  president  urges 
the  members  of  the  faculty  (not  the  critic  teachers  only)  to  report  individ- 
ually to  the  dean  of  women  all  delinquencies,  moral,  mental,  or  social,  of 
students,  wherever  those  faults  have  been  perceived — in  their  classes,  on 
the  streets,  or  in  other  public  places — so  that  this  information  may  be  of 
help  in  the  all-round  training  of  young  women  asking  for  teachers'  diplomas. 
It  is  amazing  how  a  few  private  instructions  on  etiquette  will  transform  the 
personality  of  a  whole-hearted,  fine  young  woman  from  absolute  crudeness 
to  genuine  gentility.  How  many  college  women  are  allowed  to  depart 
from  their  universities  with  no  effort  having  been  made  to  remove  such 
life-handicaps!  When  the  faculty  gives  its  services  ungrudgingly,  the  dean 
of  woman  can  then  make  the  most  of  her  opportunities  for  personal  service 
by  using  often  the  departments  of  the  school.  Thru  her  suggestion  certain 
young  women  go  to  the  physical  director  for  private  conference  (as  they 
have  not  applied  what  they  heard  in  the  general  lectures)  on  cleanliness  and 
care  of  the  teeth  or  of  the  nails;  others  go  to  the  domestic-science  depart- 
ment for  private  conference  *on  a  more  becoming  style  of  dress,  hair  dress, 
hat,  etc.;  others  to  the  public-speaking  department  for  voice  training; 
some  to  the  art  department  for  special  conference  on  combination  of  colors. 
The  English  teachers,  after  a  suggestion  from  the  dean  of  women,  ascribe 
to  certain  girls  books  which  they  particularly  need  in  their  general  reading. 
And  so,  thru  the  thoughtfulness  of  the  president,  the  dean  of  women  is  able 
to  use  all  existing  media  to  furnish  that  information  for  which  an  eager 
student  is  sincerely  grateful. 

In  these  war  days  a  president  of  foresight  will  cooperate  with  the  dean 
in  introducing  a  compulsory  course  on  social  morality  which,  beginning 
with  a  scientific  discussion  of  the  origin  of  life  and  ending  with  talks  on 
practical  problems  of  conduct,  will  help  safeguard  the  individual  and  make 
these  prospective  teachers  sane,  wide-eyed,  intelligent  directors  ready  to 
implant  in  their  pupils  a  wholesome  view  of  life. 

Today  of  all  days  the  dean  of  women  should  find  in  the  president  one 
whose  action  is  that  of  a  fearless  patriot,  and  one  who  backs  her  in  all  her 
community  activities,  for  prospective  teachers  are  influenst  in  the  long  run 
by  example.    Lip  service  counts  for  little  today. 

With  such  a  president,  who  gives  his  time  and  influence  in  cooperation 
and  encouragement,  a  dean  of  women  should  be  able  to  do  much  in  furnish- 


402  NA TIONAL  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA TION  IDeans  of  Women 

ing  as  teachers  for  the  public  schools  today  big  American  women,  themselves 
representative  of  American  customs,  American  manners,  and  American 
ideals. 


THE  COLLEGE  COMMUNITY  LIFE  AS  AN  OPPORTUNITY 
FOR  SOCIALIZATION 

MINA  KERR,   DEAN,   MILWAUKEE-DOWNER  COLLEGE,   MILWAUKEE,   WIS. 

If  a  truly  socialized  world  is  to  be  constructed  after  the  war,  and  if  our 
universities  and  colleges  are  to  be,  what  someone  has  called  them,  "the 
official  training  camps  of  the  leaders  of  the  nation,"  then  we  must  ask 
ourselves  how  we  shall  so  train  our  boys  and  girls  that  they  may  be  ready 
to  lead  others  aright  in  the  future  time  of  reconstruction.  By  a  socialized 
person  I  mean  one  who  has  learned  the  art  of  living  and  working  with  other 
people,  one  who  has  learned  to  share  both  privileges  and  responsibilities. 

There  are  and  always  will  be  only  two  ways  of  teaching,  by  instruction 
and  by  actual  practice.  There  is  undoubtedly  great  socializing  value  in  the 
study  of  literature,  history,  sociology,  ethics,  and  religion.  Students  in 
these  subjects  are  taught,  in  some  measure  at  least,  to  think  in  terms  of 
other  people,  to  understand  something  of  the  human  situation  in  which 
they  have  to  live,  to  take  the  social,  national,  and  world-wide  point  of  view. 
However,  instruction  in  these  subjects  is  not  enough.  We  must  teach 
college  students,  by  actual  practice,  the  business  of  understanding  one 
another,  giving  and  taking,  working  and  living  together.  Is  not  more  of 
the  laboratory  method  needed  here  ? 

It  seems  to  me  there  are  four  especial  aims  for  which  we  need  to  seek: 

1.  To  cultivate  the  power  to  see  the  other  person's  point  of  view. 
This  is  what  Gilbert  Chesterton  calls  reciprocity  and  declares,  in  his  book 
on  The  Barbarism  of  Berlin,  to  be  the  greatest  lack  in  the  Germans.  It  is  a 
sense  of  proportion,  of  humor,  if  you  will,  of  give  and  take,  of  things  as 
working  both  ways,  of  sympathetic  or  dramatic  imagination.  It  is  being 
able  to  say  not  only,  "I'm  as  good  as  you  are,"  but  also,  "you  are  as  good 
as  I  am."  There  is  surely  abundance  of  opportunity  on  a  college  campus  to 
show  a  student  that  another's  will  is  as  real  as  his  own,  that  the  Hkes  and 
dislikes,  the  whims  and  prejudices,  the  ambitions  and  aspirations  of  other 
people  are  very  real  facts  to  be  reckoned  with. 

2.  To  observe  the  fundamental  and  inexorable  law  of  good- will  in, 
human  relationships.  As  Dr.  James  Macdonald  says,  this  law  is  as  certain 
as  the  law  of  gravitation,  and  he  who  violates  it  breaks  not  the  law  but 
himself.  The  world  has  had  enough  of  the  "will  to  live,"  "the  will  to 
power,"  and  "the  will  to  self,"  taught  by  German  philosophers,  and  the 
time  has  come  to  teach  and  practice  the  only  kind  of  will  that  works  per- 
manently among  human  beings,  "  the  will  to  serve." 


Department!         COLLEGE  COMMUNITY  LIFE  AND  SOCIALIZATION  403 

3.  To  realize  that  every  right  has  its  reciprocal  duty.  Americans 
realize  fully,  certainly  at  least  for  themselves,  that  "all  men  are  created 
equal,  with  inalienable  rights  to  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness." 
They  have  yet  to  learn  that  there  is  a  most  important  corollary  to  this 
proposition,  that  likewise  all  men  are  created  equal  with  inalienable  duties 
to  one  another  and  to  the  institutions  of  which  they  are  a  part.  Somehow 
Americans  must  learn  that  they  cannot  have  rights  without  duties.  The 
institutional  sense  has  been  weak  in  America  the  past  decades.  H.  G.  Wells 
calls  it  "state  sense."  We  have  been  individualists.  Certainly  one  of 
the  things  we  are  working  for  in  college  community  life  is  to  teach  students 
that  every  right  has  its  duty,  every  privilege  its  responsibiUty. 

4.  To  understand  that  liberty  and  law  are  friends,  not  enemies.  The 
hope  of  America  and  of  every  democracy,  large  or  small,  must  always  be  in 
voluntary  submission  to  self-imposed  law.  There  can  be  no  institution 
and  no  government  without  obedience,  but  the  kind  of  obedience  given 
makes  human  beings  slaves  or  free  men;  slaves  if  the  obedience  is  forst  on 
them  by  external  and  autocratic  power,  free  men  if  the  obedience  is  given 
voluntarily  in  accord  with  their  own  reason  and  knowledge.  I  like  to 
come  back  to  Dean  Briggs's  fine  expression  of  this  great  truth,  "A  man's 
freedom  consists  in  binding  himself."  We  need  to  make  our  students  see 
that  the  binding  is  a  necessity  for  happiness  and  success,  and  that  freedom 
lies  in  doing  one's  own  binding  of  oneself. 

The  various  students'  organizations,  and  preeminently  the  student  or 
self-government  association,  afford  the  greatest  opportunities  for  such 
socialization  as  we  have  been  discussing.  Here  students  learn  to  take 
authority  as  officers  and  to  yield  obedience  to  authority  in  turn;  as  members 
of  an  organization,  to  work  on  committees;  to  map  out  plans  for  a  particular 
piece  of  work  and  carry  it  thru  to  success;  to  preside  in  good  parliamentary 
form  at  a  meeting;  to  elect  officers  because  of  qualifications  for  the  offices, 
not  for  personal  reasons;  and  to  regard  both  the  claims  of  tradition  and  the 
values  of  change.  Gradually  the  members  of  the  little  republic,  which  a 
self-government  association  is,  begin  to  see  that  by  the  enforcement  of 
certain  laws  the  reputation  and  welfare  of  all  are  protected,  opportunity  for 
study  and  rest  is  made  possible,  and  everyone  gains  more  individual  freedom 
for  happy  work  and  relationships.  They  begin  to  see  too  that  as  citizens 
they  can  have  their  share  of  rights  and  privileges  only  if  they  assume  their 
share  of  duties  and  responsibilities. 

One  means  of  increasing  the  knowledge  of  principles  of  community  life 
and  of  getting  cooperation  is  by  a  community  meeting  for  all  students. 
Here  the  interests  of  different  student  organizations  are  presented,  all  kinds 
of  subjects  are  discust,  changes  are  proposed  and  argued  for  and  against, 
all-college  events  are  planned  for,  and  every  possible  phase  of  community 
life  is  given  a  hearing.  Students  feel  that  they  know  what  is  going  on  and 
that  they  have  a  part  in  it. 


404  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  IDeans  of  Women 

Two  things  are  essential  to  make  the  most  of  the  opportunities  of  the 
college  community  life — organization  and  guidance.  The  organization 
emphasizes  the  institutional  element  and  has  the  value  of  good  machinery 
anywhere  in  economy  and  efficiency.  It  must  be  simple,  workable,  and  not 
too  rigid,  adapted  to  the  place  and  the  group  of  students.  The  guidance 
must  somehow  find  the  middle  ground  between  all  absence  of  supervision 
and  domination,  for  either  is  equally  fatal  to  the  best  community  democracy. 
We  must  work  with  our  students  and  not  for  them. 

Can  we  not  make  our  college  community  life  a  laboratory  and  practice 
field  in  the  business  of  living  together  successfully  ? 

We  wish  to  send  out  from  our  college  communities  social-minded 
citizens,  men  and  women  self-controlled,  disciplined  to  freedom,  abounding 
in  good-will,  hospitable  to  new  ideas,  eager  to  serve.  A  certain  senator  was 
reproacht  by  a  great  minister  for  voting  in  the  United  States  senate  in 
support  of  a  measure  undoubtedly  against  the  best  interests  of  the  people. 
"The  outside  pressure  was  so  strong,"  said  the  senator.  "Where  were 
your  inside  braces?"  askt  the  minister.  A  great  deal  of  our  work  in  a 
college  community  is  to  develop  "inside  braces"  in  our  students. 


DEANING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL 

JANET  M.   PURDUE,  NEW  HAVEN  HIGH  SCHOOL,  NEW  HAVEN,   CONN. 

Within  the  past  six  or  seven  years  there  has  been  created,  in  a  number  of 
the  most  progressive  high  schools  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  an  adminis- 
trative position  filled  by  a  woman  whose  work  thus  far  is  so  unstandardized 
that  her  title  varies  from  that  of  dean  of  women  to  dean  of  girls,  adviser  of 
girls,  vice-principal,  counselor,  etc. 

At  present  I  am  filling  this  kind  of  a  position  in  our  large  New  Haven 
high  school,  a  coeducational  institution  numbering  twenty-two  hundred 
girls  and  eighteen  hundred  boys,  to  all  of  whom  I  am  permitted  to  minister, 
the  care  of  girls,  however,  being  my  chief  province. 

Our  New  Haven  board  of  education  has  been  most  generous  in  recog- 
nizing that  our  adolescent  girls  are  entitled  to  the  especial  attention  of  an 
older  woman,  because  there  arise  every  day  delicate  questions  of  health,  as 
well  as  of  conduct,  which  cannot  suitably  be  discust  in  conference  with  a 
male  principal.  Mothers  and  fathers  generally  prefer  to  discuss  their 
daughters'  failings,  indiscretions,  and  health  problems  with  a  sympathetic, 
understanding  woman,  and  one  who  loves  girls.  Fathers  come  too  to  pour 
out  their  hearts,  which  are  sorely  tried  by  wayward  sons,  to  explain  domestic 
difiiculties,  or  that  the  mother  is  dead  and  the  father  away  from  home  carry- 
ing on  his  business  while  the  boys  drift,  and  to  ask  that  the  dean  mother 
those  boys  with  her  sympathy,  her  advice,  her  admonition,  and  her  personal 
interest  in  their  marks  in  school.     It  is  the  personal  touch  which  counts 


Department!  DEANING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL  405 

with  these  young  people,  and  I  feel  that  the  well-being  and  possibly  the 
saving  of  those  girls  and  boys,  physically,  mentally,  and  morally,  depends 
upon  the  knowledge  of  these  facts  by  some  school  officer  who  is  empowered 
to  use  this  knowledge  wisely  in  their  training,  and  who  will  endeavor  to 
mold  and  direct  their  thoughts  and  ideals. 

The  duties  of  the  counselor  in  a  coeducational  institution  are  of  a  more 
difficult  character  than  are  those  in'»  women's  colleges,  normal  schools  for 
women,  or  high  schools  devoted  exclusively  to  the  education  of  girls.  It  is 
the  very  complex  social  problem  in  the  coeducational  school  which  keeps 
the  counselor  constantly  on  the  alert  and  has  made  her  realize  that  she 
must  clarify  her  ideas,  define  her  authority,  and  secure  definite  results. 

I  may  say  that  as  I  have  studied  this  position  its  duties  run  a  gamut  of  all 
known  relations  which  an  older  woman  bears  toward  young  men  and 
young  women,  from  that  of  sympathetic  counselor  and  friend  under  all 
conditions  to  that  of  leadership  in  things  educational;  the  adjustment  of 
courses  of  study  to  fit  the  individual's  ability  and  future  needs ;  vocational 
information  and  advice;  vocational  lectures;  oversight  of  social  life,  both  in 
and  out  of  school;  inspirational  and  ethical  talks;  the  subject  of  attitude, 
manners,  dress;  personal  hygiene;  disciplinary  cases;  attendance;  punctu- 
ality; scholarship  aid;  Junior  Red  Cross  estabhshment  and  the  care  of  its 
activities  and  work;  athletics,  etc.;  conferences  with  parents;  and  study  of 
home  conditions.  I  also  render  first  aid  in  all  cases  of  illness  or  accident 
in  the  school. 

I  feel  that  the  social  conditions  surrounding  our  students  in  the  school 
are  exceptionally  good.  The  problem  here  seems  easy  to  handle,  and  our 
students  ready  to  cooperate  with  the  standard  held  by  the  school.  How- 
ever, the  outside  problems  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  keep  in  touch  with  at 
all  angles.  Our  large  school  is  located  almost  in  the  midst  of  university 
buildings,  dormitories,  etc.,  where  there  are  ordinarily  thirty-five  hundred 
male  students,  a  large  modern  hotel  near  by  with  its  finely  appointed  grill 
room  and  alluring  music  and  dancing,  afternoons  and  evenings,  as  well  as  a 
splendid  new  theater  built  at  the  rear  of  the  hotel  and  connecting  with  it. 
Does  not  this  alone  create  a  situation  for  young  hfe  as  interesting  as  it  is 
perilous  ? 

Add  to  this  the  lure  of  the  moving  picture,  the  telephone,  and  the 
automobile,  and  you  must  realize  that  the  high-school  dean  needs  not  only 
much  sharpening  of  her  wits  but  also  a  buoyant  realization  that  she  must 
and  can  master  these  adverse  conditions. 

Many  times  the  home  gives  Uttle  or  no  support,  and  the  dean  must 
correct  conditions  and  regenerate  the  student  thru  her  own  earnest,  forceful 
personaHty.  However,  one  can  do  much  to  win  the  cooperation  of  the 
home  by  being  willing  to  respond  to  every  call  made  upon  her  to  talk  to 
mothers'  clubs  and  women's  organizations  in  general,  and  I  am  doing  this 
right  along.     It  has  been  a  wonderful  assistance  in  my  work.    The  influ- 


4o6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Deans  of  Women 

ence  of  such  talks  is  far-reaching.  Last  month  I  was  invited  to  speak  before 
the  Connecticut  State  Congress  of  Mothers  convention  on  "The  Responsi- 
bihty  of  the  Home  and  School  in  Training  the  Adolescent."  The  talk  has 
already  borne  fruit  in  three  of  my  cases. 

I  want  the  students  first  of  all  to  feel  my  intense  personal  interest  in 
them,  and  thus  to  win  their  confidence  and  respect,  so  that  they  shall  look 
upon  me,  not  as  primarily  a  disciplinary  officer,  but  as  one  who  would 
eliminate  as  much  discipline  from  the  school  as  possible  by  giving  the  pupil 
high  pride  in  self-control  and  by  setting  high  standards  and  a  fine  spirit  for 
the  school.  This  can  be  accompHsht  by  being  especially  thoughtful  of 
students  who  are  absent  thru  illness  or  bereavement;  of  those  Hving  in  an 
unsettled,  if  not  stifled,  domestic  atmosphere ;  thru  special  care  of  those  who 
are  working  their  way  thru  school,  and  of  cases  where  immoraUty  exists 
on  the  part  of  parents,  etc.  With  confidence  once  estabhsht  between  the 
dean  and  the  students,  her  power  for  good  is  limitless. 

Students  failing  in  subjects  come  under  my  care.  The  causes  may  be 
many — lack  of  study,  lack  of  interest,  lack  of  systematic  study  hours,  or 
it  may  be  that  the  student  is  pursuing  the  wrong  course  of  study.  All  these 
cases  must  be  studied  and  proper  readjustment  made. 

Early  dismissals  from  school  for  any  reasons  must  not  unduly  multiply, 
and  here  again  the  dean  must  handle  every  case,  and  only  with  her  signature 
to  the  printed  pass  form  is  the  student  allowed  to  go.  All  such  dismissals 
are  recorded  in  the  dean's  office. 

All  cases  of  accident  or  illness  in  school  also  come  under  my  care,  and  I 
am  usually  able  to  doctor  them  successfully.  This  kind  of  work  gives  me 
valuable  knowledge  many  times  of  the  student's  physical  condition,  and 
the  opportunity  to  have  such  students  properly  treated. 

It  is  also  the  dean's  duty  and  privilege  to  plan  for  the  girls'  assemblies. 
Last  year  I  planned,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Education  Committee  of  the 
Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae,  informational  talks  on  vocations  for 
girls,  choosing  prominent  men  and  women  as  speakers.  During  the  past 
year  my  assembly  programs  have  been  largely  along  patriotic  and  war-time 
lines. 

In  closing  I  would  say  that  the  dean's  work  in  the  public  high  school  is 
invaluable,  for  boys  and  girls  of  adolescent  age  need  not  only  the  firm,  guid- 
ing hand  of  the  head  master  of  the  school,  but  also  the  strong,  kindly,  sympa- 
thetic attitude  and  motherly  instinct  of  a  good  woman  dean. 


Department!  WHAT  CONSTITUTES  SOCIAL  ETHICS  407 

WHAT  CONSTITUTES  SOCIAL  ETHICS 

ROMIETT  STEVENS,   TEACHERS   COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY, 
NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

Society  is  a  factor  to  be  reckoned  with  in  any  consideration  of  ethics, 
since  it  establishes  the  criteria  of  conduct.  Society,  with  its  specialized 
activities,  its  institutions,  traditions,  and  standards,  has  been  at  work  quite 
unconsciously  for  a  very  long  time  trying  out,  evaluating,  and  standardizing 
conduct.  It  has  found  out  that  certain  elements  of  conduct  have  stood  the 
test  of  ages,  becoming  transformed  finally  into  moral  sanctions,  no  longer 
open  to  question,  while  other  elements  of  conduct,  satisfactory  for  a  time 
perhaps,  have  eventually  been  discarded  as  wholly  incompatible  with  right 
living. 

The  ethical  standards  of  yesterday  are  not  the  standards  of  today,  nor 
can  those  of  today  become  the  standards  of  tomorrow,  for  as  the  fabric  of 
society  changes  social  theories  and  practices  change.  Social  custom  of 
today  has  cast  off  as  unnecessary  to  right  living  such  elements  in  the  educa- 
tion of  women  as  that  the  girl  must  forever  remain  within  her  domicile  and 
never  be  seen  by  men,  but  has  kept  its  belief  in  chastity;  it  has  cast  off  the 
right  of  the  father  to  select  a  husband  for  his  daughter,  but  has  kept  its 
belief  in  monogamy;  it  has  rejected  the  limitation  of  cultural  training  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  classics,  but  has  retained  and  greatly  strengthened  its 
emphasis  upon  education  for  women,  changing  only  the  nature  of  the 
education  given;  it  has  discarded  certain  elements  of  deportment  considered 
to  be  of  vital  importance  in  the  training  of  our  grandmothers,  such,  for 
example,  as  the  curtsy  of  the  maiden  upon  entering  the  presence  of  her 
elders,  but  has  retained  the  elements  of  graciousness  and  modesty;  it  has 
discarded  the  training  in  aloofness  and  superiority  of  the  mistress  over  the 
maid,  but  has  retained  the  teaching  of  responsibility  for  the  welfare  of 
those  who  serve. 

The  justification  of  your  president  in  asking  for  a  discussion  of  this 
question  of  social  ethics  in  a  conference  of  deans  of  women  is  perhaps 
apparent.  The  dean  of  women  can  no  longer  live  exclusively  in  the 
sequestered  byways  of  an  academic  life;  she  must  come  out  of  her  com- 
fortable retreat  and  live  close  to  the  throbbing  pulse  of  human  action. 
She  is  no  longer  shielding  her  young  people  from  the  world — from  its 
complexities,  snares,  deceptions,  falsities — but  she  is  leading  them  out  into 
the  very  heart  of  the  world,  to  be  part  of  it,  to  help  remove  its  snares, 
deceptions,  falsities,  and  to  make  it  a  safe  place  for  herself  and  for  all 
women,  especially  those  less  well  endowed  than  she  by  education  and 
influence  and  health  for  the  struggle. 

I  believe  that  everyone  is  aware  of  the  fact  that  in  all  phases  of  education 
we  have  come  to  a  parting  of  the  ways.  Roads  that  were  perfectly  clear 
and  open,  well  defined,  leading  straight  on  across  life  as  far  as  the  mind 


408  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  [Deans  of  Women 

could  penetrate,  have  been  completely  obliterated  by  those  battlefields 
out  there  at  the  crossroads.  We  need  just  now  the  powers  of  the  seer  to 
catch  the  vision  of  what  are  to  be  the  issues  of  greatest  importance  for  the 
education  of  women  in  the  changed  social  order  that  is  just  beyond.  Lack- 
ing the  power  to  catch  the  perfect  vision  is  no  excuse  for  not  beginning  at 
once  a  consideration  of  a  few  of  the  problems  which  are  already  claiming 
attention. 

The  first  of  these  in  importance,  it  seems  to  me,  is  the  problem  of  health 
and  hygiene.  We  have  been  content  in  the  past  to  let  the  matter  of  health 
rest  wholly  with  the  physician  and  the  individual.  If  a  woman  student 
came  to  the  college  with  any  form  of  physical  handicap,  the  most  that  was  to 
be  expected  of  us  was  to  safeguard  her  existing  health  and  not  permit  her 
academic  work — that  all-important  academic  work — to  make  further 
inroads  upon  health.  Is  not  the  time  near  at  hand  when  we  are  to  say  of 
every  entering  Freshman:  The  first  duty  of  the  college  is  to  make  her 
physically  fit  for  woman's  work  in  the  world  and  to  fix  ineradicably  those 
habits  of  personal  hygiene  that  are  fundamental  to  personal  happiness  and 
to  social  welfare  ? 

If  this  is  a  vital  issue — and  who  can  question  it — some  immediate 
adjustments  of  curricula,  methods,  and  social  organization  are  called  for. 
There  must  be  reapportionment  of  time  with  respect  to  indoor  and  outdoor 
occupations;  college  life  must  be  planned  so  that  more  hours  per  day  will 
be  spent  in  the  open  air;  gymnasiums  must  be  used  for  the  corrective  and 
physical  development  of  every  girl,  every  day,  and  not  be  reserved  for  the 
team  work  of  the  few  who  need  it  least;  personal  hygiene  must  have  a  place 
of  dignity  in  the  curriculum  and  be  considered  from  the  scientific  side.  I 
refer  to  the  biological  interpretation  of  sex  hygiene,  the  science  of  eugenics, 
the  scientific  principles  involved  in  the  health  and  care  of  the  skin  and  hair 
and  other  bodily  functions.  If  these  things  interfere  with  the  establisht 
order  of  the  curriculum,  than  I  say  "to  the  winds"  with  the  curriculum  but 
remember  the  girll 

Another  problem  in  social  ethics  is  that  of  training  young  women  for 
economic  independence.  Society  has  shown  a  distinct  trend  in  this  direc- 
tion in  late  years,  but  the  idea  has  advanst  by  such  leaps  and  bounds  since 
the  world-struggle  began  that  it  dwarfs  into  insignificance  the  progress  of 
earlier  decades.  Women  have  placed  themselves  beside  men  in  this  struggle 
as  we  never  dreamed  they  could,  and  having  once  taken  the  step  they  will 
never  recede.  The  problem  that  remains  is  that  of  equipping  them  for 
economic  equality  with  men  before  their  education  is  completed,  girls  from 
homes  of  wealth  as  well  as  poor  girls. 

Still  another  problem  in  social  ethics  is  that  of  social  usage.  This  is 
the  same  old  problem  that  confronted  leaders  of  youth  among  the  cave 
dwellers,  the  pastoral  tribes  of  the  Orient,  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans, 
the  family  of  the  mediaeval  knight,  the  finishing-school  of  a  half-Century 


Department]  COLLEGE  WOMEN  IN  BUSINESS  409 

ago,  but  with  this  difference — that  we  are  concerned  with  the  twentieth- 
century  interpretation  of  social  usage.  One  long-cherisht  standard  of  social 
usage  that  has  received  its  deathblow  since  the  war  began  is  that  of  social 
exclusiveness  for  the  young  college  woman.  I  confess  that  the  tremendous 
forward  stride  in  the  democracy  of  conduct  fairly  takes  one's  breath  away. 
Therefore  a  new  problem  in  social  ethics  confronts  the  adviser  of  women: 
how  to  teach  the  young  woman  to  adjust  her  social  standards  to  these  new 
situations  and  at  the  same  time  help  to  create  a  higher  social  plane  for  those 
with  whom  she  comes  into  contact. 

In  the  work  of  reconstruction  after  the  war  we  realize  that  these  prob- 
lems in  social  ethics  will  have  to  play  a  tremendous  part.  The  educators 
of  girls  and  women  can  no  longer  leave  them  out  of  consideration  but  must 
meet  them  in  the  truest  spirit  of  democracy.  We  realize  that  the  problems 
that  are  ahead  of  us  as  teachers  and  advisers  of  young  women  are  the  finest 
and  truest  ever  yet  undertaken,  since  they  breathe  the  spirit  of  democracy 
in  education.  As  Jane  Addams  says,  "We  are  brought  to  a  conception  of 
democracy,  not  merely  as  a  sentiment  which  desires  the  well-being  of  all 
men,  nor  yet  as  a  creed  which  beHeves  in  the  essential  dignity  and  equality 
of  all  men,  but  as  that  which  affords  a  rule  of  living  as  well  as  a  test  of  faith." 


COLLEGE  WOMEN  IN  BUSINESS 

LUCINDA  W.  PRINCE,  DIRECTOR,  TEACHERS'   CLASS,   WOMEN'S  EDUCATIONAL 
AND  INDUSTRIAL  UNION,   BOSTON,   MASS. 

Some  twelve  years  ago  the  first  effort  was  made  to  reach  girls  in  depart- 
ment stores,  to  teach  them  better  methods  of  selling  and  of  personal  effi- 
ciency, to  improve  their  earning  capacity  and  also  their  worth  to  their 
employers.  This  work  was  started  in  connection  with  the  Women's 
Educational  and  Industrial  Union  of  Boston.  Of  course  the  first  step  was 
to  convince  the  managers  of  the  stores  themselves  that  the  work  was  worth 
while,  and  that  it  ought  to  produce  results.  So  skilfully  and  thoroly  were 
the  managers  convinst  that  now  they  are  the  heartiest  supporters  of  the 
work. 

The  first  groups  were  composed  of  girls  from  outside  not  already  placed 
in  positions  in  stores.  They  too  had  to  be  convinst  of  the  worth  of  the 
training.  Next  the  groups  were  recruited  from  the  occupation  itself.  Girls 
already  employed  by  department  stores  were  formed  into  classes  and  given 
training  to  enable  them  to  better  the  work  they  were  doing. 

A  course  was  workt  out  in  such  a  way  that  it  would  be  acceptable  for 
high-school  credit,  but  it  was  not  primarily  academic  at  all.  Its  aims  were 
threefold:  to  train  the  individual  for  her  particular  work,  to  train  her  so 
that  her  power  and  efficiency  in  this  work  would  be  increast,  and  to  open  her 
eyes  to  the  possibilities  of  her  position.  The  course  in  salesmanship  included 
such  topics  as  hygiene,  arithmetic,  geography,  industrial  history,  design, 
and  color — everything  in  fact  that  would  give  the  sales  person  a  merchandise 


4IO  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Deans  of  Women 

background  and  enlarge  her  vision  regarding  the  material  that  she  was 
selling  and  her  own  personal  living. 

The  greatest  change  takes  place  in  the  girls  themselves.  They  become 
articulate.  They  study  the  problems  coming  up  in  their  own  work.  They 
study  the  psychology  of  salesmanship,  not  from  books  or  magazine  articles, 
but  by  analyzing  their  own  sales,  showing  the  means  used  when  successful, 
or  trying  to  find  out  the  reason  for  failure  if  the  sale  is  lost.  The  store 
itself  is  the  laboratory,  and  each  sale  helps  to  train  their  judgment. 

In  Boston  there  are  at  present  eight  stores  cooperating  with  the  Women's 
Educational  and  Industrial  Union  in  these  courses  of  salesmanship.  From 
8 :  30  to  1 1 :  30,  the  time  when  the  trade  is  slackest,  a  group  of  girls  is  excused 
in  store  hours  to  take  this  work  without  loss  of  pay.  The  course  lasts  for 
twelve  weeks,  and  there  are  only  about  thirty  girls  in  each  group.  This 
means  that  all  the  work  can  be  individual,  personal,  and  full  of  discussion 
of  special  problems. 

The  number  of  those  who  can  be  trained  for  carrying  on  this  type  of 
work  each  year  is  very  limited,  and  they  are  usually  placed  long  before  their 
period  of  training  is  completed.  They  go  mostly  into  large  department 
stores,  where  the  position  is  known  under  a  variety  of  titles,  but  the  work  is 
practically  the  same  wherever  it  is  found.  The  chief  problem  of  the 
educational  director  is  with  the  personnel  of  the  store.  Often  the  one  who 
engages  and  assigns  employes  for  the  various  departments  is  the  lowest  paid 
of  the  managers,  the  one  who  is  least  carefully  selected.  Stores  are  just 
coming  to  realize  that  this  work  of  fitting  the  person  to  the  job  is  of  the 
highest  importance,  and  that  the  one  who  does  it  must  be  an  expert  in 
handling  people.  The  educational  director  usually  teaches  the  new  people 
the  system  of  the  store.  This  is  a  very  complicated  thing,  for  each  store 
has  its  own  system,  which  differs  from  all  others.  It  may  be  that  in  teach- 
ing the  new  employes  the  system  of  the  store  the  trained  educational 
director  sees  where  there  might  be  reorganization  or  great  improvement, 
and  this  may  be  applied,  to  the  great  gain  of  the  store.  To  the  new 
employes  she  shows  the  opportunities  in  the  stores,  the  openings  and 
"streams  of  promotion,"  such  as  the  service  department,  the  merchandising 
(buyer),  the  auditing,  etc.  She  sees  that  they  know  something  of  the 
merchandise  which  they  are  to  sell,  and  that  they  are  placed  in  the  depart- 
ment to  which  they  are  best  fitted.  She  sees  that  the  compensation  due 
for  the  work  done  is  fair.  She  usually  works  with  two  sets  of  people  in  the 
early  morning  store  hours:  first,  the  new  employes  whom  she  is  breaking 
into  the  store  system;  secondly,  the  older  employes  whose  interest  and 
efficiency  she  is  improving.  Possibly  the  second  class  is  held  right  in  the 
department  itself.  The  salesgirls  are  taught  to  look  upon  each  sale  as  an 
opportunity,  as  a  practice  problem  just  like  a  practice-teaching  lesson  in 
the  normal  school.  Even  the  dissatisfied  customer  is  made  to  yield 
profitable  material  in  correcting  errors. 


Department]  SOME  IDEALS  FOR  DEANS  411 

There  are  other  places  where  the  trained  teacher  of  salesmanship  may 
help  the  store  very  greatly.  One  is  in  making  over  the  error  system,  finding 
the  causes  of  the  greatest  number  of  errors,  how  they  can  be  reduced  both 
in  number  and  cost,  and  whether  the  fault  is  with  the  sales  people,  with  the 
deUvery  system,  or  with  the  system  of  the  store  itself. 

Another  department  where  the  educational  director  has  been  very 
helpful  is  in  systematizing  correspondence  so  that  the  letters  may  really 
represent  the  store  and  reflect  the  spirit  of  the  management.  This  requires 
more  than  mere  correctness  of  English.  It  is  courtesy,  patience,  and 
intelligence  in  filling  mail  orders  that  customers  most  appreciate. 

The  complaint  department  too  may  be  in  need  of  reorganization.  It 
may  be  in  the  hands  of  someone  who  antagonizes  rather  than  concihates, 
or  the  causes  of  complaints  may  not  be  sufficiently  analyzed  so  that  they 
can  be  properly  remedied. 

In  addition  to  this  the  educational  director  represents  the  store  at  such 
meetings  as  those  of  the  Consumers'  League,  the  Union  of  Workers,  Labor 
League,  etc.  She  can  speak  for  the  store  as  no  salesman  can.  She  can  get 
the  point  of  view  of  the  dissatisfied  clerk;  she  can  represent  the  point  of 
view  of  the  employer;  she  can  adjust  difficulties  that  have  arisen  more 
from  ignorance  than  from  intention.  Her  work  all  thru  is  one  where 
personality  counts.  The  tact,  patience,  intelHgence,  and  judgment  that 
such  work  calls  for  are  almost  infinite. 

In  return  for  this,  however,  the  pay  is  good.  The  salaries  range  from 
$1200  to  $3500,  and  there  is  almost  no  limit  to  the  amount  that  a  valuable 
woman  may  earn  in  this  work. 

At  present  the  newest  development  is  the  introduction  of  departments 
of  salesmanship  in  high  schools,  making  this  work  elective  like  stenography 
or  bookkeeping.  This  course  is  not  in  the  commercial  department  but 
under  a  separate  teacher.  The  schools  that  have  tried  it  have  required 
that  the  students  go  into  the  stores  on  Saturdays  and  at  the  times  of  the 
rush  sales,  such  as  before  Christmas  and  Easter.  The  schools  all  report 
that  one  of  the  most  important  and  surprising  results  is  the  strengthening 
of  the  English  work  of  the  students,  their  greatly  increast  interest,  the 
enlargement  of  their  vocabulary,  and  the  freeing  of  their  personaUty  thru 
oral  and  written  expression.  In  other  words,  the  work  approaches  them 
on  the  side  of  their  real  interest  rather  than  from  the  academic  standpoint. 


SOME  IDEALS  FOR  DEANS 

MARY  W.   WOOLLEY,  PRESIDENT,  MOUNT  HOLYOKE  COLLEGE, 
SOUTH  HADLEY,  MASS. 

No  office  is  less  standardized  than  that  of  dean.  Probably  no  two 
people  in  this  audience  have  exactly  the  same  duties.  In  one  institution 
the  academic  side  predominates,  in  another  the  social,  in  a  third  a  combina- 


412  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Deans  of  Women 

tion  of  the  two.  It  would  be  difl&cult  to  lay  down  a  program  of  methods 
and  functions,  and  even  if  it  were  possible  to  do  that,  I  fear  that  my 
interest  would  not  be  as  great  as  in  the  idealistic  subject  assigned 
to  me. 

In  a  very  true  sense  the  office  of  the  dean  consists  in  the  practical 
application  of  ideals.  First  there  is  an  ideal  for  the  dean  herself.  A 
requisite  at  the  outset  is  interest  in  human  nature;  let  no  one  adopt  the 
profession  who  does  not  like  human  beings,  good,  bad,  and  indifferent. 
Whatever  the  specific  duties  of  the  deanship  in  the  particular  institution, 
its  business  is  with  individuals  and  their  problems,  and  anyone  who  is 
bored  by  them  is  handicapt  from  the  start.  She  cannot  afford  to  accept 
the  principle — or  lack  of  principle— involved  in  the  remark  of  a  certain 
college  instructor,  "  My  classes  might  just  as  well  be  made  up  of  so  many 
cabbage  heads.  I  am  vitally  interested  in  my  subject,  but  my  students 
do  not  matter."  Human  beings  are  not  like  pawns  to  be  moved  about  at 
will.  Dealing  with  them  often  takes  time,  but  the  time  is  well  expended. 
Human  nature,  at  least  American  human  nature,  resents  being  told  that 
certain  things  must  be  done  without  being  given  a  reason  for  doing  them, 
and  explanations  and  conferences  with  students  more  than  pay  for  the 
demand  which  they  make  on  our  time. 

In  a  certain  sense  the  problem  before  the  dean,  the  ideal  for  which  to 
strive,  is  the  reconciliation  of  opposites.  She  must  learn  to  think  standing 
on  her  feet,  and  yet  the  thought  must  not  be  superficial.  She  must  realize 
that  snapshot  judgments  are  not  wise  and  yet  must  be  capable  of  deciding 
quickly.  It  is  a  good  rule  always  to  hear  both  sides  before  reaching  a 
decision  but,  after  reaching  it,  to  accomplish  the  somewhat  difficult  task  of 
neither  "wobbling"  nor  being  " stiff-neckt " ! 

One  of  the  first  requirements  on  the  part  of  our  students  is  genuineness; 
greatly  to  their  credit  they  have  little  patience  with  what  does  not  ring 
true.  No  position  is  more  open  to  misunderstanding  than  that  of  dean. 
To  be  guarded  in  what  one  says  and  at  the  same  time  direct;  sympathetic 
as  well  as  definite;  exact  but  not  precise,  of  the  "prunes  and  prisms"  type; 
natural  but  not  rash;  skilled  in  the  use  of  words  but  not  pedantic;  all  this 
is  easier  to  talk  about  than  to  practice.  I  believe  that  no  one  should  offer 
herself  as  a  candidate  for  a  deanship  who  has  not  a  good  memory;  the  risk 
is  too  great;  and  I  may  add,  as  another  essential,  the  power  of  discrimina- 
tion in  dealing  with  offenses.  A  woman  executive  in  whose  sincerity  of 
purpose  and  character  I  had  absolute  confidence  was  misunderstood  and 
distrusted  by  her  students  because  of  two  faults:  first,  a  poor  memory, 
giving  her  students  the  impression  of  insincerity;  second,  failure  to  dis- 
criminate between  the  light  and  the  serious  offense,  appearing  to  them  to 
emphasize  not  the  wrong  done,  but  her  wishes  in  the  matter. 

That  dean  is  happy  indeed  who  is  regarded  by  her  students  as  a  comrade 
rather  than  as  an  official,  but  an  effort  or  an  ambition  to  be  popular  is 


DepartmentI  SOME  IDEALS  FOR  DEANS  413 

unworthy  of  a  high  office.  An  academic  "climber"  is  almost,  if  not  quite, 
as  contemptible  as  a  social  "climber." 

Be  sympathetic  but  never  sentimental.  Be  dead  in  earnest,  but  do  not 
take  yourself  too  seriously;  a  sense  of  humor  saves  many  a  situation.  Be 
enthusiastic,  but  do  not  gush.  Above  all  things  a  gushing  dean  is  to  be 
avoided!  Make  a  point  clear,  but  do  not  say  too  much.  Students  are  not, 
as  a  rule,  in  love  with  verbosity. 

Perhaps,  after  all,  the  surest  way  for  a  dean  to  attain  an  ideal  for  herself 
is  to  fix  her  eyes  upon  the  ideal  for  the  student.  And  that  may  be  summed 
up  under  one  head — ^bring  out  the  best  in  the  individual. 

Bring  out  the  intellectual  best.  As  a  means  to  that  end  I  should  like  to 
consider  four  points  which  seem  to  me  of  prime  importance  because  they 
emphasize  individual  instruction  and  supervision,  not  education  en  masse. 

1.  Small  divisions. 

2.  Some  method  of  knowing  the  student  as  an  individual,  i.e.,  a  pre- 
ceptorial or  advisory  system. 

3.  A  goodly  proportion  of  discussion  in  the  classroom,  not  exclusively  or 
even  mainly  lectures. 

4.  The  best  instructors — best  from  every  point  of  view — it  is  possible 
to  secure. 

Bring  out  the  social  best.  There  are  probably  few  of  us  who  have  never 
cringed  because  of  the  crudity  or  lack  of  fineness  of  perception  on  the  part 
of  some  college  women.  "Manners  are  the  happy  way  of  doing  things; 
each,  once  a  stroke  of  genius  or  of  love,  now  repeated  and  hardened  into 
usage,"  says  no  less  an  authority  than  Emerson, 

Bring  out  the  moral  and  spiritual  best.  Did  ever  the  world  need  the 
spiritual  best  as  it  needs  it  today  ? 

We  are  standing  at  the  parting  of  the  ways.  "  All  my  historical  study 
convinces  me  that  we  are  living  thru  one  of  the  crucially  decisive  ages  in 
world-history,  and  that  old  things  are  passing  away  and  all  things  are 
becoming  new,"  writes  an  American  historical  student,  quoted  by  President 
King.  The  world  needs  thinkers  as  never  before — but  even  more  it  needs 
men  and  women  of  spiritual  vision  who  shall  be  able  to  lead  in  that  "  deliber- 
ate and  conscious  change  in  the  ideas  and  the  wills  of  men"  without  which 
we  cannot  hope  for  a  future  free  from  the  tragedy  of  today.  How  great 
a  mission  is  yours,  is  ours,  to  help  in  the  training  of  women  to  solve  problems, 
to  meet  opportunities,  to  carry  responsibilities,  such  as  have  never  before 
come  to  them  in  the  history  of  the  world.  We  stand  indeed  at  the  parting 
of  the  ways.  Shall  it  be  backward  into  barbarism  or  forward  into  a  new 
and  higher  type  of  civilization  ?  From  the  women,  not  less  than  from  the 
men,  from  the  women  of  tomorrow  even  more  than  from  the  women  of 
today,  must  come  the  answer. 


414  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Deans  of  Women 

COOPERATION  BETWEEN  SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE  IN 
CHARACTER  FORMATION 

ANNA  P.   MACVAY,   WADLEIGH  HIGH  SCHOOL,   NEW  YORK,  N.Y. 

Serious-minded  persons  are  unanimous  in  thinking  that  the  highest 
values  in  Hfe  are  moral,  not  material.  The  thought  that  what  a  man  is 
counts  for  more  than  what  he  has  or  what  he  knows  should  be  uppermost 
in  the  minds  of  all  exponents  of  education.  If  in  the  routine  of  teaching 
and  administration  we  lose  our  sense  of  values  and  center  attention  wholly 
on  statistics  that  can  be  publisht  or  equipment  that  can  be  seen,  we  need 
to  take  time  for  meditation  till  we  regain  a  true  sense  of  proportion  and 
put  first  things  first. 

The  aim  of  education  is  twofold:  to  make  the  students  good  and  to  make 
them  good-for-something.  Much  is  said  nowadays  about  vocational  guid- 
ance and  the  need  of  specialists  in  that  important  subject,  but  every  teacher 
should  be  a  moral  guide.  The  poet  calls  to  the  youth  of  America:  "Ye 
Are  the  Hope  of  the  World."  But  how  can  Mr.  Hagedorn  or  any  other 
optimist  see  his  vision  reahzed  unless  we  who  teach  the  youth  are  true  to 
our  high  vocation?  The  formation  of  character  is  the  supreme  duty  of 
the  schools. 

In  our  fear  of  transgressing  the  law  against  doctrinal  teaching  in  state 
institutions  we  fail  to  emphasize  the  fundamentals  of  morahty.  The 
Bible — that  great  storehouse  of  ethics  and  religion — is  generally  ignored 
by  the  experts  who  plan  our  courses  of  study  and  fix  the  requirements  for 
entrance  to  higher  schools.  Comparable  to  this  neglect  of  moral  education 
is  the  lack  of  instruction  in  patriotism.  When  the  searchlight  of  pubUc 
interest  was  turned  recently  upon  our  educational  system  to  discover  what 
means  were  there  employed  to  develop  loyal  citizens,  it  was  found  that  in 
the  up-bringing  of  American  youth  little  heed  has  been  taken  to  teach 
inteUigent  patriotism.  We  have  trusted  to  haphazard  methods  to  awaken 
in  them  national  consciousness  and  to  tinge  their  emotions  with  love  of 
country.  The  only  sure  way  to  make  them  loyal  is  to  teach  them  the 
fundamental  principles  and  ideals  of  our  forefathers  and  make  them  able 
to  justify  their  faith. 

Many  a  teacher  or  professor  is  more  interested  in  his  department  of 
instruction  than  he  is  in  his  students.  His  one  aim  seems  to  be  to  make 
them  familiar  with  his  particular  subject  and  to  encourage  them  in  scholar- 
ship. He  manifests  no  interest  in  the  higher  values  of  student  life.  This 
misplaced  emphasis  should  be  corrected.  The  school  ought  to  concern 
itself  with  the  personality  of  the  student.  Its  chief  aim  should  be  to  develop 
boys  and  girls  into  men  and  women  of  the  finest  type,  characterized  by 
self-control,  self-respect,  and  consideration  for  the  rights  and  feeUngs  of 
others.  The  responsibihty  for  imparting  moral  lessons  to  students  does 
not  belong  exclusively  to  any  one  ofiicer  or  teacher,  altho  principals  and 


Department!     CHARACTER  FORMATION  IN  SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE  415 

deans  feel  its  weight  most  because  of  their  advisory  positions.  Every 
instructor  in  contact  with  the  student  body  exerts  an  influence  for  better 
or  worse.  Every  subject  in  the  curriculum  has  its  moral  aspect.  It  is 
not  so  much  what  one  teaches  as  how  one  teaches  that  impresses  right  ideals 
on  students. 

Professor  Giddings,  head  of  the  department  of  sociology,  Columbia 
University,  in  an  address  on  "The  Aim  and  Scope  of  the  Public  High 
School,"  delivered  before  the  New  York  High  School  Teachers'  Association, 
surprised  his  audience  by  showing  that  the  chief  value  of  manual  training 
is  to  teach  pupils  pride  in  their  work  and  the  vital  truth  that  a  plumb  line 
and  a  try-square  cannot  lie;  that  the  chief  value  of  commercial  training  in 
schools  is  to  teach  respect  for  contracts  and  the  rights  of  others;  and  that 
the  surest  and  most  direct  road  to  efficient  leadership  in  the  industrial  and 
business  world  is  thru  unremitting  study  of  the  Latin  language  and  of 
algebraical  mathematics.  Undoubtedly  moral  values  lurk  in  other  sub- 
jects, many  of  t^em  wholly  unsuspected  by  the  very  ones  who  are  supposed 
to  teach  them! 

The  responsibihty  for  training  American  youth  in  morals  does  not  rest 
upon  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools  but  is  shared  by  the  colleges 
which  undertake  the  higher  education.  Schools  furnish  students  to  the 
colleges,  and  colleges  furnish  teachers  to  the  schools.  Cooperation  is 
mutually  advantageous  and  promotes  the  welfare  of  the  students,  for  whose 
sake  all  our  educational  institutions  exist.  The  confederation  between 
school  and  college  for  furthering  academic  preparation  is  well  recognized. 
Its  success  is  demonstrated  by  the  good  work  of  the  College  Entrance 
Examination  Board.  All  schools  and  colleges  keep  permanent  records  of 
their  students'  scholarships  and  furnish  copies  to  interested  inquirers; 
but  in  how  many  of  them  are  kept  systematic  records  of  character  and 
conduct  ? 

Personality  records  kept  with  care  and  justice  are  valuable  factors  in 
organizing  America's  forces  for  the  present  war.  The  National  Advisory 
Committee  on  Personnel  of  the  United  States  Army  is  composed  of  psycho- 
logists and  teachers,  skilled  judges  of  human  nature  and  individual  endow- 
ment, who  classify  the  recruits  according  to  their  several  abiHties  and 
aptitudes  and  assign  them  to  duty.  Wherever  this  intelligent  handling 
occurs  it  increases  the  happiness  of  the  men  and  the  efl&ciency  of  the  service- 
The  card  for  recording  data  concerning  the  recruits  has,  following  their 
names,  columns  in  which  are  to  be  indicated  their  physical  qualities,  intel- 
ligence, ability  for  leadership,  character,  and  value. 

Vassar  College  has  begun  a  somewhat  similar  rating  of  its  students. 
The  instructors  are  askt  to  rate  the  students  in  their  classes  on  originaHty, 
accuracy,  logic,  industry,  and  general  ability.  The  wardens  of  the  halls 
of  residence  are  askt  to  rate  the  girls  under  their  supervision  on  rehabihty, 
leadership,  judgment,  industry,  and  cooperation.    These  data  enable  the 


4l6  NATIONAL    EDUCATION    ASSOCIATION  Peans  of  Women 

college  officers  to  exercise  greater  wisdom  in  selecting  those  whom  they  can 
commend  as  candidates  for  various  positions  of  trust  and  responsibility. 

The  character  records  kept  at  Wadleigh  High  School  are  useful  in  a 
variety  of  ways.    They  often  influence  teachers  who  are  hasty  in  judgment 

Confidential 
BARNARD  COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 
NEW  YORK 

confroential  information  for  the  use  of  the  committee  on  undergraduate 

Admissions 

To  the  Principal  of  the  High  School: 

Please  supply  information  on  the  following  points  and  return  this  blank  to  the 
Secretary,  Barnard  College,  New  York,  N.Y. 

Miss 

Graduated  from  the  f 

,    ,  ,        ,     .      ,    { High  School 

completed  the  course  of  study  m  the  (^ 

in 191 

She  was  especially  proficient  in  the  following  subjects: 

She  was  especially  weak  in  the  following  subjects: 

Should  the  candidate's  work  be  carefully  supervised,  or  can  she  be  trusted  to  work 
well  without  special  oversight  ? 

Please  give  also  any  information  regarding  the  candidate's  character  and  personality 
which  ought  to  be  in  the  possession  of  those  who  would  have  special  charge  of  her  college 
work. 

Do  you  certify  that  the  candidate  is  a  person  of  good  moral  character  ? 

Signature  of  Principal 

Name  of  School 

Date Address  of  school 

to  modify  their  opinions  of  girls.  They  help  judges  to  decide  who  shall 
receive  scholarships  and  other  school  honors.  They  enlighten  parents  who 
inquire  about  their  daughters.  They  show  the  evidence  on  which  the  school 
officers  base  their  recommendation  of  candidates  for  teachers'  training 
schools.  On  these  blanks  appear  such  questions  as:  Is  she  reliable?  Is 
she  truthful  ?  Is  she  obedient  ?  If  teachers  answer  these  questions  in  the 
negative  concerning  any  girl,  her  chance  of  admission  to  the  training  school 
will  be  slight.  Likewise  these  records  furnish  data  for  answering  the 
numerous  letters  of  inquiry  which  employers  send  to  the  school,  re- 
questing confidential  information  concerning  the  abiUty  and  character 
of  alumnae  and  undergraduates  who  are  seeking  positions  in  the  business 
world. 


Department]     CHARACTER  FORMATION  IN  SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE  417 

These  records  are  a  chief  source  of  information  in  estimating  candidates 
for  entrance  to  college.  The  knowledge  that  they  are  so  used  helps  to 
sober  many  otherwise  irresponsible  girls.  Altho  they  may  think  that 
diligent  cramming  will  help  them  to  pass  examinations  in  subjects  which 
they  have  neglected,  they  know  that  cramming  is  not  possible  in  the  matter 
of  character  tests  and  records.  In  discipHning  girls  who  are  inclined  to 
idleness  and  indifferent  to  duty  it  is  of  incalculable  assistance  to  show 
them  that  the  colleges  which  they  hope  to  enter  will  ask  information  con- 
cerning their  conduct  and  habits  of  study.  Too  many  colleges  assume  that 
all  candidates  are  alike  morally  desirable  and  ask  nothing  of  the  schools 
except  their  scholarship  records.  Others  make  their  requests  in  such  vague 
and  general  terms  that  there  is  no  opportunity  for  replies  to  be  specific  and 
to  distinguish,  for  example,  between  the  best  candidates  and  those  nega- 
tively good. 

The  Barnard  College  confidential  blank,  which  is  very  satisfactory, 
is  found  on  page  416. 

The  most  important  use  we  make  of  character  records  at  Wadleigh  is 
as  a  means  of  helping  toward  self-mastery.  A  censure  card  filed  by  a 
teacher  concerning  a  girl's  misconduct,  or  a  statement  that  she  is  unreHable, 
or  disobedient,  or  untruthful,  or  lacking  in  punctuality,  gives  us  an  oppor- 
tunity to  have  an  earnest  talk  with  her  alone  or  in  the  presence  of  a  parent 
or  a  teacher.  We  appeal  to  her  to  overcome  her  weaknesses  of  character 
and  offer  her  our  help  in  so  doing;  her  resolution  taken,  she  generally 
fulfils  our  hopes.  The  knowledge  that  records  are  kept  probably  deters 
some  girls  from  wrongdoing  and  causes  them  to  ponder  the  significance  of 
standards.  They  may  not  know  Philip  Gilbert  Hammerton's  definition 
of  the  intellectual  hfe  as  "that  preference  for  higher  thoughts  over  lower 
thoughts,"  but  few  of  them  fail  to  realize  by  experience  that  attainments 
depend  upon  aspirations,  that  choice  determines  actions,  that  actions  grow 
into  habits  which  form  character,  and  that  character  makes  destiny. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  SCHOOL  PATRONS 


SECRETARY'S   MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — Mrs.  Charles  F.  Harding.  Secretary  of  Vocational  Supervision  League.  .Chicago,  III. 
Vice-President — Mrs.  Gertrude  S.  Martin,  Executive  Secretary,  Association  of  Collegiate 

Alumnae Ithaca,  N.Y. 

Secretary — Mrs.  Henry  Kdh Chicago,  HI. 


FIRST  SESSION— Tuesday  Forenoon,  July  2 

The  department  met  for  its  j&rst  session  in  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  in  Pitts- 
burgh at  ten  o'clock,  Mrs.  Harding  in  the  chair.    The  following  program  was  given: 

President's  Address — Mrs.  Charles  F.  Harding. 
Reports  of  affliated  organizations: 
Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae — Gertrude  S.  Martin. 

National  Council  of  Jewish  Women  and  Department  of  School  Patrons  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania State  Educational  Association — Mrs.  Charles  Long. 
General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs — Mary  E.  Parker. 
Congress  of  Mothers  and  Parent-Teacher  Associations — Elizabeth  Harrison. 

The  following  standing  committees  made  reports: 

Committee  on  Outside  Activities  and  Organizations — Mrs.  O.  Shepard  Bamum. 
Paper  read  by  Ella  Adams  Moore. 

Committee  on  School  Health — Cooperation  with  Joint  Committee  of  the  National 
Education  Association  and  American  Medical  Association — Sarah  M.  Hobson.  Paper 
read  by  Grace  P.  Andress. 

Committee  on  Vocational  Supervision — Ella  Adams  Moore. 

Committee  on  School  Revenue — Margaret  S.  McNaught.  Paper  read  by  Grace 
P.  Andress. 

The  reports  of  Emilie  W.  McVea,  of  the  Southern  Association  of  College  Women, 
and  of  Marie  Turner  Harvey,  for  the  Committee  on  Rural  Schools,  were  received  too 
late  to  be  read  at  this  meeting. 

At  eleven  o'clock  Anna  Howard  Shaw,  chairman  of  the  Woman's  Committee, 
Council  of  National  Defense,  spoke  on  the  topic,  "The  School  a  Vital  Factor  in  War 
Service." 

SECOND  SESSION— Tuesday  Afternoon,  July  2 

This  meeting  took  the  form  of  a  luncheon,  which  began  at  i :  20,  Ella  Flagg  Young 
presiding.  Mary  C.  C.  Bradford,  Anna  Howard  Shaw,  and  Ella  Flagg  Young  were  guests 
of  honor.  The  meeting  took  the  form  of  a  symposium  on  vocational  supervision. 
The  following  persons  spoke:  W.  B.  Owen,  Anna  Howard  Shaw,  Mary  C.  C.  Bradford, 
William  M.  Davidson,  and  Ella  Adams  Moore. 

THIRD  SESSION— Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3 

The  department  met  in  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  at  ten  o'clock,  Mrs.  Charles 
F.  Harding  presiding.    The  following  program  was  given: 

"New  Aspects  of  an  Old  Problem" — Elizabeth  Harrison,  president,  National  Kinder- 
garten and  Elementary  College,  Chicago,  111. 

"The  Status  of  the  Child,  State  and  National,  as  a  Result  of  the  War"— W.  H. 
Swift,  National  Child  Labor  Committee,  New  York. 

"Health  Problems  in  Education" — Sally  Lucas  Jean,  Child  Health  Organization, 
New  York. 

419 


420  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [School  Patrons 

"The  Scope  of  the  Department  of  School  Patrons" — Mary  E.  Parker,  Western 
Reserve  University,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

"Educating  Our  Soldiers'  Children" — Ella  Flagg  Young,  National  Woman's  Liberty 
Loan  Committee,  Washington,  D.C. 

Business  Meeting 

The  business  meeting  occurred  at  twelve  o'clock,  immediately  after  the  close  of  the 
forenoon  session,  Mrs.  Harding  presiding.  The  following  rules  and  regulations  were 
adopted: 

The  members  of  the  Patrons'  Department  shall  be:  • 

1.  Teachers,  others  actively  engaged  in  educational  work,  and  educational  institu- 
tions, as  defined  in  Article  I,  Section  2,  By-Laws  of  the  National  Education  Association, 
may  become  members  of  this  Department. 

2.  Any  national  organizations  (other  than  professional  educational  ones)  interested 
in  the  purposes  and  needs  of  educational  work  may  become  affiliated  members  of  the 
Department  whether  general  members  of  the  National  Education  Association  or  not. 

The  officers  of  the  Department  shall  be  a  President,  a  Vice-President,  and  a  Secretary. 
These  shall  be  elected  and  vacancies  shall  be  filled  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  General 
By-Laws  of  the  National  Education  Association  (see  Article  VI,  Section  5). 

There  shall  be  an  Executive  Committee  of  the  Department,  consisting  of  the  officers, 
who  shall  manage  the  affairs  of  the  Department,  but  who  shall  confer  from  time  to  time 
with  the  Advisory  Council. 

There  shall  be  an  Advisory  Council  of  the  Department,  consisting  of  one  repre- 
sentative appointed  or  elected  by  each  national  affiliated  organization,  and  of  all  the 
ex-presidents  of  the  Department  and  of  other  members  who  may  be  elected  by  the  Depart- 
ment or  appointed  by  the  President.  The  chairman  of  this  Council  shall  be  elected  at 
the  annual  business  meeting  of  the  Department. 

Mary  E.  Parker,  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Nominations,  reported  the  names 
of  the  following  officers,  who  were  unanimously  elected: 

President — Mrs.  Oliver  W.  Stewart,  Chicago,  111. 

Vice-President — Gertrude  S.  Martin,  Ithaca,  N.Y. 

Secretary — Charlotte  Greenebaum  Kuh,  Chicago,  111. 

The  Advisory  Council  for  the  coming  year  consists  of  the  following  members: 

Ex-Presidents:  Mrs.  Charles  F.  Harding,  chairman  of  the  Council;  Mrs.  O.  Shepard 
Barnum;  Mrs.  Wm.  S.  Hefferan;  Mrs.  Louis  Hertz. 

Representatives  of  affiliated  organizations:  Cora  Helen  Coolidge,  Association  of 
Collegiate  Alumnae;  Mrs.  Charles  Long,  Council  of  Jewish  Women;  Emilie  W.  McVea, 
Southern  Association  of  College  Women;  Mrs.  O.  Shepard  Barnum,  General  Federa- 
tion of  Women's  Clubs;  Elizabeth  Harrison,  Congress  of  Mothers  and  Parent-Teacher 
Associations. 

The  following  were  elected  by  the  Department:  Ella  Flagg  Young,  Mary  E.  Parker, 
Mrs.  Addison  W.  Moore,  Mrs,  Louis  F.  Post. 

The  meeting  passed  unanimously  and  offered  to  the  Committee  on  Resolutions  of 
the  National  Education  Association,  for  adoption  by  the  Association,  a  resolution  request- 
ing Congress  to  pass,  as  soon  as  possible,  a  federal  Child  Labor  Law  which  will  not  only 
meet  the  objections  to  the  one  recently  declared  unconstitutional  but  will  extend  legal 
protection  to  a  greater  number  of  the  children  of  the  United  States. 

Following  the  suggestion  of  Mrs.  O.  Shepard  Barnum,  chairman  of  the  Committee 
on  Outside  Activities  and  Organizations,  the  department  voted  to  cooperate  so  far  as 
possible  in  the  work  of  the  Children's  Year  as  carried  on  under  the  joint  auspices  of  the 
federal  Children's  Bureau  and  the  Department  of  Child  Welfare  of  the  Woman's  Com- 
mittee, Council  of  National  Defense,  and  also  to  ask  other  organizations  which  now 
make  up  the  Woman's  Committee,  Council  of  National  Defense,  to  cooperate  both  now 
and  after  the  war  in  the  work  of  the  Patrons'  Department  for  children,  especially  for  those 
between  six  and  sixteen. 

The  meeting  adjourned  |Until  1919. 

^^  Ella -Adams  Moore,  Secretary  pro  tern 


Departmentl  PRESIDENT'S   ADDRESS  421 

PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


PRESIDENT'S  ADDRESS 

MRS.    CHARLES   F.    HARDING,   CHICAGO,   ILL. 

The  Department  of  School  Patrons  is  the  official  connection  between  the 
great  body  of  educators  represented  by  the  National  Education  Association 
and  the  public,  as  led  by  the  five  affiliated  national  organizations  which 
make  up  this  department. 

Its  object  is  to  bring  to  the  schools,  thru  the  professional  organization 
(the  National  Education  Association)  the  support  and  assistance  of  the 
affihated  national  organizations  and  of  the  great  pubHc  led  by  the  members 
of  these  organizations,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  bring  to  these  volunteer 
organizations  the  professional  direction  and  permanent  poUcies  which  are 
essential  to  educational  progress,  and  which  are  outlined  from  time  to 
time  by  the  National  Education  Association. 

The  Department  of  School  Patrons  in  the  last  two  years  has  added  to 
its  affiliated  membership  the  body  of  women  who  are,  thru  their  children, 
closest  to  the  schools,  the  Congress  of  Mothers  and  Parent-Teacher  Asso- 
ciations. The  department  is  now  at  work,  thru  its  Committee  on  Outside 
Activities,  on  the  problem  of  increasing  the  membership  by  adding  other 
national  organizations. 

Thru  its  Vocational  Supervision  Committee  the  department  has  under- 
taken, in  cooperation  with  the  Children's  Bureau  of  the  United  States,  an 
inquiry  into  the  question  of  vocational  guidance  and  employment  super- 
vision for  children  of  working  age.  This  inquiry  is  nation-wide  in  its  scope, 
and  some  valuable  facts  have  already  been  obtained.  The  National 
Council  of  the  Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae  has  arranged  for  definite 
and  valuable  service  to  this  inquiry  from  its  members. 

Thru  its  School  Health  Committee,  in  cooperation  with  the  Joint  Com- 
mittee of  the  National  Education  Association  and  the  American  Medical 
Association,  the  department  has  distributed  widely  in  the  United  States 
the  health  charts  and  other  health  pamphlets  prepared  by  the  leading 
medical  experts  of  the  country  under  the  guidance  of  Dr.  Thomas  D.  Wood, 
chairman  of  the  Joint  Committee. 

Thru  its  School  Revenue  Committee  the  department  has  issued  two 
pamphlets  entitled  Guard  the  Schools  as  Well  as  the  Trenches  and  The 
Safeguard  of  Democracy.  These  pamphlets  are  being  used  by  the  legislative 
chairman  of  the  General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  in  the  states  where 
legislatures  are  in  session  this  year,  to  counteract  any  tendency  to  decrease 
school  revenue,  if  such  tendency  exists,  and  further  to  increase  school 
revenue  where  it  is  needed. 

Thru  addresses  and  conferences  at  the  annual  meetings  of  the  five 
affihated  organizations  and  thru  printed  material  widely  distributed  the 


422  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (School  Patrons 

department  has  brought  before  large  and  influential  groups  progressive 
ideas  in  education  contributed  by  the  educators  of  the  National  Education 
Association  and  others. 

Thru  its  program  at  the  National  Education  Association  and  thru 
printed  matter  the  department  has  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  National 
Education  Association  the  actual  education  accompHshments  of  the  pubHc- 
spirited  organizations  interested  in  education.  These  persons  stand  ready 
to  support  and  assist  the  National  Education  Association  and  its  work 
both  in  initiating  measures  for  the  good  of  the  schools  and  in  supporting 
and  interpreting  to  the  community  the  plans  for  educational  progress 
made  by  the  National  Education  Association. 

The  department  stands  committed  by  its  point  of  view  to  this  support 
and  enlargement  of  pubUc  education.  It  is  a  fact  that  many  of  the  most 
progressive  features  introduced  into  the  school  system  in  the  past  have 
existed  first  thru  private  initiative  and  private  enterprise  in  the  form  of 
experiment,  and  only  when  found  successful  and  workable  have  they  been 
taken  over  by  school  boards  and  incorporated  into  school  systems.  It  is 
in  this  class  of  problems  that  the  Department  of  School  Patrons  finds  its 
special  field,  and  to  the  further  development  of  such  educational  projects 
it  plans  to  devote  its  enlarged  resources  and  opportunities. 

The  outgoing  administration  suggests  that  during  the  coming  year  the 
Department  of  School  Patrons  give  its  energies  to  supplementing  and 
strengthening  the  work  outlined  for  the  Children's  Year,  especially  as  it 
relates  to  the  child  between  six  and  sixteen — always  keeping  in  mind  the 
main  function  of  the  department,  which  is  the  furthering  of  the  closest 
cooperation  between  the  educators  and  the  public. 


REPORT  OF  THE  ASSOCIATION  OF  COLLEGIATE  ALUMNAE 
FOR  THE  YEAR  1917-18 

GERTRUDE   S.   MARTIN,   ITHACA,   N.Y. 

Like  other  organizations  of  its  kind  the  Association  of  Collegiate 
Alumnae  has  this  year  subordinated  all  other  activities  to  the  effort  to 
assist  in  every  way  possible  in  the  one  task  of  paramount  importance, 
namely,  the  winning  of  the  war. 

At  its  biennial  convention,  which  opened  in  Washington  three  days  after 
the  United  States  entered  the  war,  a  War  Service  Committee  was  appointed. 
This  committee  soon  reacht  the  conclusion  that  one  of  the  most  vitally 
important  tasks  confronting  the  government  is  the  work  of  patriotic 
education;  and  they  proposed  that  a  speaking  campaign  be  at  once  under- 
taken to  assist  in  this  work  of  bringing  home  to  all  the  people  an  under- 
standing of  the  fundamental  issues  involved  in  the  war,  the  necessity  of 
our  entering  it,  the  necessity  of  fighting  it  thru  to  a  victorious  conclusion, 
and  the  menace  of  a  premature  peace. 


Department!  ASSOCIATION  OF  COLLEGIATE  ALUMNAE  423 

When  this  work  was  proposed  as  our  special  war  work  the  creation  of 
the  Speaking  Division  of  the  Committee  on  Public  Information  had  not 
yet  been  announst.  As  soon  as  it  was  made  known  that  such  a  division 
had  been  created,  our  Washington  representative  on  our  War  Service  Com- 
mittee informed  the  director  of  the  division  of  the  plan  we  already  had  in 
hand  and  offered  the  services  of  the  Association  to  assist  the  government 
wherever  possible.  Our  representative  was  thereupon  made  a  member  of 
the  Advisory  Committee  of  the  Speaking  Division,  and  we  have  from  the 
beginning  workt  in  the  closest  cooperation  with  the  division. 

In  order  to  launch  the  work,  college  women's  rallies  were  held  under  the 
direction  of  the  executive  secretary  and  the  War  Service  Committee  in  a 
great  number  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  country,  and  an  appeal  was  made 
for  the  cooperation  of  college  women.  As  a  result  a  large  number  of 
speakers'  bureaus  were  formed.  These  bureaus  have  registered  hundreds 
of  volunteer  speakers  and  have  made  connections  for  them  with  all  sorts 
of  audiences  thru  schools,  colleges,  community  centers,  women's  clubs, 
church  societies,  moving-picture  theaters,  industrial  plants,  granges,  etc. 

In  addition  to  the  speaking  campaign,  however,  many  of  the  branches 
have  found  other  methods  of  spreading  patriotic  propaganda.  Collections 
of  government  and  other  publications  have  been  made  and  have  been 
placed  in  public  restrooms  and  in  the  lobbies  of  public  libraries,  with  a  vol- 
unteer worker  in  charge,  who  tries  to  interest  as  many  persons  as  possible 
in  taking  the  pamphlets  home.  "Current  events"  classes  have  been 
organized  among  foreign  women  and  other  working  women  who  would  find 
it  difficult  to  get  an  understanding  of  the  war  without  such  assistance. 

The  Association  is  also  endeavoring  to  cooperate  as  fully  as  possible 
with  the  Food  Administration  in  its  effort  to  use  the  college-trained  women 
and  the  college  students  as  its  interpreters  to  the  people.  We  are  urging 
all  the  colleges  to  see  to  it  that  if  possible  every  student,  particularly  every 
woman  student,  is  given  at  least  the  short  course  of  lectures  prepared  for 
the  colleges  by  the  Food  Administration.  Similarly  we  are  cooperating  with 
the  Children's  Bureau  and  the  Child  Welfare  Department  of  the  Woman's 
Committee  in  the  work  of  the  Children's  Year.  The  Association  has 
adopted  many  French  orphans.  It  is  difficult  to  keep  track  of  this  rapidly 
growing  family,  but  we  are  quite  safe  in  placing  the  number  of  our  foster- 
children  at  more  than  a  hundred  and  twenty-five. 

The  Association  is  deeply  interested  in  the  project  of  the  Association 
of  American  Colleges  for  bringing  to  this  country  a  hundred  or  more  young 
French  women  to  be  educated  in  our  American  colleges,  and  one  of  our 
members.  Miss  Benton,  dean  of  women  at  Carleton  College,  has  been 
appointed  to  go  to  France  to  select  these  young  women  and  bring  them  to 
the  United  States,  and  our  standing  Committee  on  Foreign  Students  will 
do  everything  in  its  power  to  provide  warm  hospitality  and  friendly 
assistance. 


424  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (School  Patrons 

In  its  interest  in  the  newer  war  activities  the  Association  has  not 
allowed  its  old  activities  to  lapse.  Its  fellowships  have  been  maintained 
and  most  of  the  fellowships  awarded  thru  it  by  other  organizations  have 
been  assigned  as  usual.  The  work  of  interesting  girls  in  going  to  college 
has  been  continued  and  will  be  intensified  this  year  in  an  effort  to  counter- 
act to  some  extent  the  lure  of  war  work.  A  still  greater  effort  than  hereto- 
fore will  also  be  made  to  hold  the  younger  pupils  in  the  schools. 

Following  is  the  proposed  program  of  work  which  has  been  issued  for 
the  year  1918-19: 

1.  To  continue  to  mobilize  all  the  college  women  of  the  various  states 
to  cooperate  in  every  possible  way  with  the  Woman's  Committee,  the 
State  Councils  of  Defense,  and  the  Food  Administration. 

2.  To  continue  the  work  of  patriotic  education. 

3.  To  continue  and  extend  our  work  in  behalf  of  French  orphans. 

4.  To  cooperate  with  the  Children's  Bureau  and  the  Child  Welfare 
Department  of  the  Woman's  Committee  in  their  effort  to  save  thru  the 
activities  of  the  Children's  Year  at  least  100,000  of  the  300,000  babies  who 
die  annually  in  this  country  from  preventable  causes. 

5.  To  watch  every  piece  of  educational,  social,  or  industrial  legislation 
proposed  this  year  by  the  forty-one  state  legislatures  that  will  be  in  session, 
and  to  be  prepared  to  create  the  necessary  pubHc  opinion  either  for  or 
against  the  measures  proposed. 

6.  To  prevent  as  far  as  possible  the  abandonment  of  school  and  college 
by  our  young  people  in  response  to  the  call  for  war  workers. 

7.  To  launch,  whenever  the  time  seems  opportune,  a  campaign  for 
increast  school  revenue  to  meet  the  new  demands  which  the  war  is  laying 
upon  the  schools. 

8.  To  assist  the  Bureau  of  Education  in  every  possible  way  in  the  work 
of  Americanization. 

9.  To  make  a  study  in  each  state  of  the  condition  of  the  rural  schools. 

10.  To  assist  in  the  organization  of  community  centers,  both  rural  and 
urban,  and  to  recruit  college  women  for  training  as  community-center 
workers. 

11.  To  continue  our  effort  to  widen  vocational  opportunities  for  women 
by  assisting  in  procuring  adequate  vocational  guidance  in  schools  and 
colleges  and  by  the  support  of  bureaus  of  occupations  for  trained  women. 

12.  To  further  a  campaign  for  an  adequate  federal  Department  of 
Public  Health  that  shall  have  as  one  of  its  main  divisions  a  Division  of 
Public  Health  Education. 

13.  To  assist  in  the  effort  for  permanent  peace  by  bringing  about  a 
better  understanding  between  nations  thru  an  interchange  of  pickt  students. 
To  this  end  to  maintain  our  already  establisht  Latin-American  Fellowship, 
and  to  create  as  rapidly  as  possible  new  fellowships  of  similar  character 
for  other  foreign  students.    To  help  in  the  creation  of  scholarships  for  the 


Department!  NATIONAL  COUNCIL  OF  JEWISH  WOMEN  425 

French  women  students  whom  it  is  proposed  to  bring  to  this  country  this 
year.  To  facilitate  the  sending  of  American  students  to  foreign  univer- 
sities. To  form  in  as  many  foreign  countries  as  possible  branches  of  our 
Association,  which  shall  in  turn  undertake  the  organization  in  those  coun- 
tries of  associations  of  their  college  women  to  be  affiliated  with  us,  thus 
gradually  forming  a  federation  of  the  trained  women  of  the  world. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  EDUCATION,  NATIONAL 
COUNCIL  OF  JEWISH  WOMEN 

MRS.  CHARLES  LONG,  CHAIRMAN,  EDUCATION  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  NATIONAL 
COUNCIL   OF  JEWISH   WOMEN,   WILKES   BARRE,   PA. 

It  is  with  very  conscious  pride  that  we  point  to  the  record  of  the  edu- 
cational work  of  the  Council  of  Jewish  Women  for  the  war  period,  which 
reveals  pretty  uniformly  the  policy  of  "hold  fast  to  what  I  give  you"  and 
Red  Cross  yourself. 

This  has  been  the  time  to  show  to  all  that  the  Jewish  woman  is  a  loyal, 
devoted,  efficient  American,  contributing  to  American  honor  and  purposes 
and  practical  labors.  The  record  of  every  community  shows  that  the 
Jewish  womanhood  in  and  out  of  the  Council,  but  always  represented  by 
the  Council,  is  educating  America  properly  to  place  her  as  no  alien  to  any 
labor  or  purpose  of  America  while  she  herself  is  being  educated;  to  hold 
fast  to  the  religious  ideals  which  have  made  her  the  traditional  good  mother, 
but  to  give  up  every  material  standard  unless  it  absolutely  conforms  to 
the  best  in  the  American  manner.  She  is  tremendously  earnest  and 
absorbed  in  this  war  work  which  gives  the  world  the  opportunity  of  judging 
her  as  a  unit,  and  thru  the  Council  groups  she  is  contributing,  in  dispro- 
portionate members  and  efficiency,  as  a  real  war  measure  to  the  solution 
of  the  problems  of  those  of  her  people  who  are  still  "different"  and  therefore 
ignorant  of  the  American  ways. 

The  Triennial  Conference  of  the  Council  of  Jewish  Women  w^s  held  in 
Chicago  in  November,  191 7.  This  markt  the  Council's  entrance  upon  its 
twenty-fifth  year  of  service.  There  it  reconsecrated  itself  to  stand  for  the 
whole  of  Jewish  womanhood  before  the  world,  responsible  for  her  tradition, 
available  for  her  service,  with  a  pride  in  its  membership  of  more  than 
ninety  sections  and  twenty-thousand  women. 

Out  of  this  convention  have  come  more  definite  national  pohcies  on 
Americanization  of  Americans  as  well  as  of  foreign-born,  thru  education 
and  personal  effort.  The  Council  Committee  on  Education  in  each  section 
now  holds  itself  willing  to  help  any  Jewish  school  child  in  its  community. 
Every  n^ed  of  any  sort  may  be  referred  to  the  local  section's  chairman  on 
education,  or  to  the  president  of  the  section.  Intelligent  interest  and  con- 
scientious service  are  guaranteed.     Shall  educators  be  quick  to  the  full 


X 


426  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [School  Patrons 

usefulness  of  this  offer?    San  Francisco  already  points  the  way  in  this 
service. 

The  second  item  in  education  is  a  promising,  common-sense,  Ameri- 
canization program.  "Jew"  is  the  common  name  we  accept  with  the  last 
arrival;  "American"  is  the  common  name  we  aim  to  share  with  her.  We 
make  her  previous  knowledge  and  condition  the  foundation  of  the  new 
in  American  knowledge  and  condition.  We  reestablish  her  as  the  light, 
not  the  learner,  in  her  own  household.  And  so  in  Newark  you  will, 
see  the  actuality  in  its  most  recent  "Two  R's  School"  for  mothers  of 
Americans. 

A  third  objective  in  this  educational  program  is  providing  the  potential 
voters  with  definite  information  and  dignified  appreciation  of  the  serious 
duty  of  the  franchise,  thru  which  she  shall  help  to  make  the  laws  by  which 
others  shall  live,  and  so  in  New  York,  Illinois,  and  other  sections  classes 
for  the  women  voters  are  flourishing. 

The  educational  service  that  has  been  reported  from  almost  every 
section  is  class,  group,  and  personal  instruction  in  the  purchase  and  prepara- 
tion of  food  and  in  the  war  regulations;  also  classes  in  personal  and  social 
hygiene;  lectures  building  up  the  historic  background  for  our  present-day 
status  of  woman;  Judaism  and  the  war;  child-study  and  parliamentary 
law;  the  drama  and  music,  with  scholarships  for  the  talented;  and  special 
classes  for  the  physical  misfits,  penny  lunches,  and  other  socio-educational 
measures  and  lectures  on  religion  go  quietly  along  as  part  of  a  practical 
patriotism. 

The  common  objectives  for  all  the  Council's  work  are  the  widening  of 
American  Hfe  and  ideals  thru  education,  the  adjustment  to  American  stand- 
ards thru  education,  and  the  conquest  of  physical  ills  and  material  injustice 
thru  education.  We  ask  in  return  that  all  that  holds  the  Jew  up  to  ridicule 
and  discrimination  be  eliminated  and  the  American  school  live  up  to  the 
spirit  and  letter  of  democracy  and  good-will. 

The  Council  therefore,  for  this  war  period,  sums  up  its  labor.  For  war 
service  nowhere  have  more  loyal,  efficient,  or  proportionately  larger  num- 
bers been  provided  in  every  line  than  from  among  its  members.  For 
Americanization  no  program  more  conscientious,  or  more  earnestly  hopeful, 
or  more  practically  arranged  has  been  projected  than  thru  its  lecture,  class, 
and  personal  contact.  For  community  activity  nowhere  more  cheerful 
or  wider  helpfulness  than  is  in  its  pledge  of  personal  interest  in  every  root 
and  branch  of  the  house  of  Jacob  in  the  great  American  family.  For  group 
activity  nowhere  is  the  responsibility  for  one's  brother  and  to  one's  country, 
its  privileges  and  welfare,  more  constantly,  earnestly,  and  lovingly  fostered. 
If  a  wider,  a  more  inclusive,  or  a  more  effectual  labor  can  be  suggested, 
speak,  for  the  Council  is  consecrated  to  project  it.  Thru  each  of  ij:s  ninety 
groups  the  Council  of  Jewish  Women  offers  a  right  arm  in  the  building  of 
the  perfect  American  community. 


Department]  GENERAL  FEDERATION  OF  WOMEN'S  CLUBS  427 

REPORT  OF  PENNSYLVANIA  DEPARTMENT  OF  SCHOOL 

PATRONS 

MRS.   CHARLES   LONG,  PRESIDENT,  PENNSYLVANLA.  DEPARTMENT  OF 
SCHOOL  .PATRONS,   WILKES-BARRE,  PA. 

The  Department  of  School  Patrons  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Educa- 
tional Association  was  created  at  the  earnest  request  of  the  Wilkes-Barre 
Central  Council  of  Parent-Teachers  Associations  and  the  Committee  on 
Education  of  the  Council  of  Jewish  Women.  The  formal  petition  was 
presented  by  Dr.  Samuel  Weber,  of  Scran  ton,  now  state  president. 

At  the  Association  meeting  in  Johnstown,  December,  191 7,  the  new 
department  conducted  a  symposium  on  its  purposes,  presented  from  the 
angle  of  the  teacher  by  the  president  of  a  Teachers'  League,  of  the  parent 
by  the  president  of  the  Pennsylvania  Mothers'  Congress,  of  the  child  by 
the  president  of  the  Child  Study  Round  Table,  of  the  taxpayer  by  the 
president  of  a  Rotary  Club,  letting  in  the  light  upon  "  the  needs  and  interests 
of  children,  the  welfare  and  purposes  of  teachers,  the  privileges  and  duties 
of  parents,  the  rights  and  obligations  of  taxpayers,  so  that  each  may  better 
understand  and  help  the  other." 

The  second  program  dealt  with  the  general  topic  "Sprags  in  the 
Machinery  of  Education,"  setting  forth  "The  Defective  as  the  Teacher's 
Cross,"  "The  Immigrant  in  the  Process  of  Melting,"  "Industry  and  the 
School  Child,"  and  Dr.  S.  Weber,  superintendent  of  the  Scranton  schools, 
cleverly  explained  "How  the  School  System  Meets  These  Problems." 

The  December,  191 8,  meeting,  in  Harrisburg,  will  deal  with  those  war 
purposes  which  involve  the  child's  best  interests,  such  as  labor  laws,  kinder- 
gartens, vocational  direction,  and  recreational  and  other  summer  programs; 
the  teacher's  just  salary  and  service  rating;  the  parent  and  citizen's  neces- 
sary and  legitimate  right  to  instruction  and  forum  in  the  schoolhouse  as  the 
heart  of  the  state's  Hfe,  making  the  dominant  note  of  the  program  the 
potentialities  of  the  schoolhouse  as  the  source  from  which  all  blessings 
of  our  true  democracy  shall  flow,  the  place  to  "put  it  over"  in  the  best 
sense,  with  a  downright  get- togetherness  of  family,  community,  and 
federal  interests. 


GENERAL  FEDERATION  OF  WOMEN'S  CLUBS 

MARY  E.   PARKER,   WESTERN  RESERVE  UNIVERSITY,  CLEVELAND,   OHIO 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  report  accurately  and  adequately  the  work 
of  the  General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  during  the  past  year,  because 
in  the  attempt  to  define  war  educational  work  it  is  difficult  to  differentiate 
between  work  done  with  a  view  to  meeting  specific  and  immediate  war  needs 
and  that  done  to  meet  needs  which  have  arisen  or  grown  more  acute  on 
account  of  war  conditions.    The  women  in  our  clubs  have  done  both  types 


428  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (School  Patrons 

of  work.  They  have  assisted  the  schools  in  their  work  in  food  conservation 
and  in  campaigns  for  Red  Cross,  Liberty  Loans,  War  Savings,  and  other 
war  measures,  and  in  some  cases  our  departments  of  education  have  less 
to  report  because  their  strongest  workers  have  been  absorbed  in  direct  war 
service.  It  has  been  the  policy  of  this  department  to  encourage  such 
activity,  because  the  demands  of  the  war  itself  have  been  so  insistent  during 
the  past  year  that  all  other  work  has  seemed  to  be  of  minor  importance. 
There  have  been  attempts  to  reduce  appropriations  for  school  purposes, 
and  children  have  been  allowed  to  leave  school  for  one  cause  or  another. 
Many  seem  to  forget  these  days  that  the  war  is  being  waged  in  order  that 
the  ideals  which  this  people  have  cherisht  may  be  perpetuated  for  coming 
generations,  and  if  the  sacrifices  of  today  are  not  to  be  in  vain,  the  next 
generation  must  be  educated  now  to  continue  worthily  the  work  which 
America  has  begun.  We  need  to  remind  ourselves  constantly  not  only 
that  our  schools  must  not  suffer  now,  but  that  they  must  become  even  more 
effective  instruments  of  education  than  they  have  ever  been. 

There  is  a  stupendous  task  before  the  schools  of  America,  and  more  is 
expected  of  them  than  they  can  possibly  meet  unaided,  particularly  in  the 
more  sparsely  settled  sections  of  the  country.  They  need  all  the  help  they 
can  get  from  volunteer  agencies,  and  upon  no  organization  rests  a  heavier 
obligation  than  upon  the  women's  clubs  thruout  the  country.  It  is  in 
their  power  to  demand  not  only  more  generous  appropriations  for  the  main- 
tenance of  our  schools  but  also  indorsement  and  support  of  progressive 
educators  who  see  clearly  the  modifications  which  the  changed  conditions 
are  demanding.  It  should  be  the  concern  of  school  authorities  to  enlist 
as  far  as  possible  this  volunteer  cooperation.  More  and  more  our  activities 
must  be  under  the  direction  of  the  expert.  Our  work  is  supplementary, 
but  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  we  do  not  duplicate  work  already 
done,  and  above  all  things  do  not  work  at  cross  purposes  with  those  upon 
whom  rests  the  responsibility  for  conducting  our  schools  at  this  time  of 
national  emergency. 

About  a  year  ago  letters  were  sent  by  the  chairman  of  the  department 
of  education  of  this  organization  to  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education,  the  president  of  the  National  Education  Association,  and  all 
the  state  superintendents  of  public  instruction  in  the  country,  asking  how 
we  could  best  serve  the  cause  of  education  in  time  of  war.  The  response 
was  cordial,  gratifying,  and  stimulating.  Many  of  the  suggestions  which 
were  made  were  incorporated  in  a  pamphlet  which  was  sent  in  quantities 
to  all  the  state  chairmen  of  education  and  later  distributed  at  the  biennial 
convention  at  Hot  Springs.  These  suggestions  may  be  summarized  in 
the  need  for  the  extension  of  educational  opportunities  which  the  war  has 
made  all  the  more  acute.  There  should  not  be  in  this  great  country  any 
such  thing  as  adult  illiteracy,  because  the  state  should  see  to  it  that  every 
child  has  the  opportunity  for  at  least  an  elementary  education.    There 


Department!  GENERAL  FEDERATION  OF  WOMEN'S  CLUBS  429 

should  not  be  a  state  in  the  union  without  compulsory-education  laws, 
and  those  who  have  come  into  our  midst  from  other  countries  should  not 
only  speak  but  read  and  write  the  EngUsh  language.  In  states  in  which 
there  is  no  compulsory-education  law  the  club  women  have  been  actively 
interested  in  campaigns  to  effect  such  legislation.  In  Maryland,  in  par- 
ticular, vigorous  work  has  been  carried  on  during  the  past  year.  The 
Federation  contributed  definitely  to  the  success  of  the  Compulsory  Educa- 
tion Bill  which  became  law  in  191 6. 

In  the  southern  states,  notably  in  Kentucky,  the  women  have  been 
working  in  the  campaign  for  the  ehmination  of  illiteracy  among  the  English- 
speaking  whites  in  the  sparsely  settled  sections  of  the  country.  We  have 
indorst  the  Smith-Bankhead  Bill,  and  by  resolutions  at  the  biennial  con- 
vention have  committed  ourselves  to  work  for  the  elimination  of  ilUteracy. 

In  the  larger  cities  we  have  contributed  to  thfe  work  of  Americanizing 
the  foreign  population.  Massachusetts  has  had  an  active  special  Ameri- 
canization Committee  with  much  good  work  to  its  credit.  In  California 
the  state  chairman  of  education  has  been  a  member  of  the  State  Commission 
of  Immigration  and  Housing,  and  some  of  the  most  stimulating  and  helpful 
Americanization  material  pubHsht  is  sent  out  by  this  Commission. 

With  the  importance  which  the  war  has  attacht  to  all  agricultural 
pursuits  has  come  a  largely  increast  appreciation  of  the  significance  of  the 
rural  school,  and  it  is  a  pleasure  to  report  that  apparently  in  no  other  single 
cause  are  so  many  clubs  enlisted.  This  service  covers  a  wide  range  of 
activities,  and  almost  every  state  in  the  Union  reports  some  type  of  work. 
The  women  are  closely  in  touch  with  state  departments  of  pubhc  instruc- 
tion and  with  state  university  extension  departments,  so  that  what  they 
do  has  local  significance  and  is  well  directed.  We  regard  it  as  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  our  different  federations  and  clubs  ally  themselves  closely 
with  the  schools  of  the  rural  districts.  The  rural  school  stands  in  a  very 
fundamental  relation  to  our  nation's  welfare. 

Closely  allied  with  the  foregoing  activities  has  been  the  work  undertaken 
with  a  view  to  meeting  the  health  requirements  for  rural  schools  fiound  in 
Dr.  Wood's  Report  on  Health  Conditions.  This  has  meant  necessarily 
increast  appropriations  for  school  purposes,  and  in  many  cases  the  program 
of  the  clubs  has  included  a  definite  campaign  for  increast  school  revenues. 

In  spite  of  the  pressure  which  the  war  has  brought  upon  all  sections  of 
the  country  we  are  glad  to  report  that  scholarship  funds  have  been  main- 
tained in  almost  every  state  in  the  country  and  in  many  cases  have  been 
increast.  In  addition  to  this,  different  clubs  have  distributed  leaflets  in 
the  schools,  giving  reasons  why  it  is  a  form  of  patriotic  service  to  remain  in 
school  as  long  as  possible,  because  the  country  is  going  to  need  trained  and 
educated  citizens  more  than  ever  after  the  war  is  won. 

The  new  committee  in  the  department  has  concerned  itself  with  kinder- 
garten extension  and  has  been  successful  in  forming  special  committees  in 


430  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [School  Patrons 


several  of  the  states.  In  Texas  and  Maine  the  club  women  have  con- 
tributed to  the  passage  of  more  progressive  kindergarten  laws. 

At  the  convention  held  at  Hot  Springs  we  were  honored  by  the  presence 
of  the  President  of  the  National  Education  Association,  who  spoke  to  us 
upon  Americanization.  Mrs.  Bradford  also  indicated  to  us  briefly  the 
purpose  of  the  joint  Commission  which  has  been  studying  the  national 
emergency  in  education,  and  we  shall  await  with  interest  the  findings  of 
this  Commission.  The  women  of  the  General  Federation  may  be  depended 
upon  to  support  those  school  authorities  who  attempt  to  modify  their 
procedure  in  accordance  with  the  recommendations  made  in  the  report. 

Never  before  have  we  workt  so  well  under  the  guidance  of  the  educa- 
tional leaders  in  our  several  states,  and  never  have  we  joined  forces  with 
other  organizations  to  such  a  degree  as  we  have  during  the  past  year.  In 
this  time  of  national  testing  there  are  great  pieces  of  work  to  be  done  for 
which  no  single  organization  is  adequate,  and  the  value  of  our  service  is 
often  greatest  when  we  combine  forces  with  other  organizations,  accepting 
definite  and  detailed  responsibiHties  and  working  always  under  the  guidance 
of  those  who  see  educational  problems  with  a  broader  and  clearer  vision 
than  ours  can  possibly  be. 


GUARDING  THE  SCHOOLS  IN  WAR  TIME 

MRS.   O.    SHEPARD   BARNUM,    CHAIRMAN,    COMMITTEE    ON   COORDINATION   OF 

OUTSIDE  ACTIVITIES 

(Paper  read  by  Mrs.  Addison  W.  Moore) 

The  Committee  on  the  Coordination  of  Outside  Activities  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  School  Patrons  of  the  National  Education  Association  was  assigned 
the  task  of  finding  out  what  volunteer  organizations — ^particularly  organiza- 
tions of  women — were  doing  to  aid  the  schools.  Experience  had  shown  that 
in  sqme  communities  stimulation  of  outside  activities  on  behalf  of  the  schools 
was  greatly  needed,  while  in  other  communities  there  was  waste  and  con- 
fusion due  to  overlapping. 

With  the  first  shock  of  war  the  assigned  task  obviously  became  super- 
fluous, because  all  organizations,  professional  and  volunteer,  concentrated 
attention  and  activities  on  helping  to  get  our  national  forces  to  the  front, 
and  helping  to  supply  their  every  need.  The  schools,  the  teachers,  the 
clubs,  and  other  organizations  with  one  accord  have  workt  with  all  war 
organizations. 

The  second  year  of  the  war,  however,  has  brought  a  keen  reahzation 
of  another  most  profound  problem.  The  winning  of  the  titanic  world- 
struggle  for  the  safety  of  our  nation  and  the  safety  of  civilization  in  the 
future  cannot  be  accomplisht  in  very  truth  unless  we  save  all  our  children 
now — the  children  who  are  the  nation  of  the  future;   unless  furthermore 


Department!  GUARDING  THE  SCHOOLS  IN  WAR  TIME  431 

we  secure  for  all  the  children  of  the  nation  the  education  by  which  alone 
the  hard-won  heritage  of  civilization  can  be  transmitted. 

The  Children's  Bureau  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Labor  has 
been  keenly  alive  to  this  problem  and  has  workt  out  masterly  plans  for  its 
solution  in  cooperation  with  the  Department  of  Child  Welfare  of  the 
Woman's  Committee,  Council  of  National  Defense.  The  second  year  of 
the  war,  April  6,  1918,  to  April  6,  1919,  is  to  be  known  as  "Children's 
Year,"  and  the  plan  indicate^  has  received  the  sanction  of  our  President, 
who  says: 

Next  to  the  duty  of  doing  everything  possible  for  the  soldiers  at  the  front,  there 
could  be,  it  seems  to  me,  no  more  patriotic  duty  than  that  of  protecting  the  children  who 
constitute  one-third  of  our  population. 

The  success  of  the  efforts  made  in  England  in  behalf  of  the  childreji  is  evidenst  by 
the  fact  that  the  infant  death-rate  in  England  for  the  second  year  of  the  war  was  the 
lowest  in  her  history.  Attention  is  now  being  given  to  education  and  labor  conditions 
for  children  by  the  legislatures  of  both  France  and  England,  showing  that  the  conviction 
among  the  Allies  is  that  the  protection  of  childhood  is  essential  to  winning  the  war. 

I  am  very  glad  tnat  the  same  processes  are  being  set  afoot  in  this  country,  and  I 
heartily  approve  the  plan  of  the  Children's  Bureau  and  the  Woman's  Committee  of  the 
Council  of  National  Defense  for  making  the  second  year  of  the  war  one  of  united  activity 
on  behalf  of  children,  and  in  that  sense  a  children's  year. 

The  President  has  exprest  the  hope  that  the  Children's  Year  "will  not 
only  see  the  goal  reacht  of  saving  100,000  lives  of  infants  and  young  chil- 
dren, but  that  the  work  may  so  successfully  develop  as  to  set  up  certain 
irreducible  minimum  standards  for  the  health,  education,  and  work  of  the 
American  child." 

In  the  Children's  Year  Leaflet,  No.  3  (Bureau  pubhcation  No.  40),  will 
be  found  carefully  workt-out  plans,  especially  for  young  children  imder 
six.  Much  is  indicated  also  for  children  from  six  to  sixteen.  Miss  Lathrop 
stresses  the  enforcement  of  child  labor  laws,  and  attention  to  rural  districts. 
She  stresses  also  community  recreation,  particularly  "patriotic  recreation 
week"  for  the  last  week  in  August.  Health  is  emphasized  thruout,  and 
proper  provision  for  mothers  and  for  home  conditions.  Compulsory  school 
attendance  thruout  the  legal  age  and  vocational  supervision  thruout  the 
critical  period  thereafter  are  urged. 

Commissioner  P.  P.  Claxton  has  pointed  out  a  number  of  important 
ways  in  which  schools  and  school  children  should  be  guarded  during  the 
war.  The  care  of  the  health  of  children  of  school  age  and  the  "great  need 
for  an  increase  in  school  revenues"  are  most  convincingly  urged.  He  says 
in  part: 

It  is  now  necessary  to  increase  very  largely  the  school  revenues  in  order  to  keep 
tne  schools  up  to  their  former  standards.  It  is  a  case  of  being  necessary  to  run  very  fast 
in  order  to  stand  still. 

The  school  revenues  are  not  adequate  for  war  times,  and  almost  everywhere  the 
better  teachers  are  leaving  for  other  occupations. 

In  some  places  appropriations  and  tax  levies  are  being  increast,  but  reports  of  smaller 
appropriations  and  the  lowering  of  tax  rates  come  from  many  places. 


432  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (School  Patrons 

Workers  for  the  schools  and  for  child  welfare  during  the  past  year 
report  great  difficulty  in  finding  helpers;  those  usually  able  and  willing 
are  now  engrost  in  doing  everything  possible  for  the  soldiers  at  the  front. 
Yet  the  other  "patriotic  duty"  must  be  fulfilled  for  "protecting  the  chil- 
dren," for  "united  activity  on  behalf  of  children." 

Clearly  the  Department  of  School  Patrons  must  mobilize  the  two  or 
three  millions  of  members  in  its  affiliated  organizations  and  must  enlist  all 
other  volunteer  organizations  to  help  guard  the  schools  and  protect  the 
children,  and  to  help  fuffil  all  the  expert  plans  of  the  Children's  Year. 


CONSERVING  THE  HEALTH  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN 

SARAH  M.   HOBSON,   CHAIRMAN,   COMMITTEE   ON  SCHOOL  HEALTH 

(Paper  read  by  Mrs.  Grace  P.  Andress) 

The  child  comes  into  the  world  not  by  his  own  will  but  by  the  will  of 
others.  He  has  a  right  to  demand  safety  from  gross  physical  and  spiritual 
poison. 

It  is  scarcely  to  our  credit  as  a  nation  that  we  cannot  be  aroused  to  the 
necessity  of  conserving  the  health  of  children  until  child  life  becomes  an 
economic  problem. 

This  Association  should  go  on  record  actively  to  support  the  Children's 
Year,  and  to  follow  up  registration  by  stated  conferences  with  mothers  and 
children.  These  conferences  will  disclose  bad  living  conditions — food  and 
housing;  the  disproportion  of  wages  to  wholesome  living;  the  factor  of 
ignorance  and  vice  in  scholastic  record.  They  will  lay  bare  community 
shortcomings,  the  inaccessibihty  of  skilled  medical  aid  except  thru  the 
charity  of  a  public  dispensary,  the  practical  impossibility  at  present  of 
giving  every  child  a  generous  daily  portion  of  clean  raw  milk,  the  indiffer- 
ence of  the  municipahty  to  unsanitary  housing,  the  moral  turpitude  of 
social  conditions  in  recreation. 

Food  not  measured  by  calories  alone  should  be  provided — food  for 
growth  as  well  as  for  energy. 

War-time  housing  means  lodgers  to  eke  out  the  family  income.  Lodgers 
mean  Hmited  air  space  and  loss  of  individual  privacy.  Lodgers  mean  more 
intimate  exposure  to  communicable  diseases — overcrowding  of  the  body. 

Tuberculosis,  that  scourge  of  early  maturity,  frequently  has  its  incep- 
tion in  early  childhood.  Examiners  in  this  campaign  for  child  welfare 
should  be  instructed  to  give  particular  attention  to  this  opportunity  for 
discovering  such  errors  of  life  and  environment  as  predispose  to  this  disease. 

Speeding  up  on  war  service  is  unnecessary.  There  has  been  in  some 
schools  a  deplorable  loss  in  intellectual  training  and  mental  poise  from  the 
speeding  up  in  war-time  school  activities.  This  is  overcrowding  of  the 
spirit. 


Department!  REPORT  ON  VOCATIONAL  SUPERVISION  433 

A  campaign  for  the  health  conservation  of  children  is  not  particularly 
spectacular.  Educational  campaigns  do  not  lend  themselves  to  glitter 
and  applause. '  There  is,  however,  a  wonderful  possibility  of  improving  the 
quality  of  our  citizenship  if  we  begin  with  the  children. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  VOCATIONAL 
SUPERVISION 

ELLA  ADAMS  MOORE,   CHAIRMAN,   CHICAGO,   ILL. 

In  the  city  of  New  York  about  50,000  children  apply  each  year  for  per- 
mission to  begin,  at  fourteen  or  fifteen,  the  long  task  of  making  a  living; 
in  Chicago  there  are  about  half  as  many,  in  Philadelphia  a  sHghtly  smaller 
number,  and  so  on  in  every  city,  town,  and  village  in  the  United  States  these 
hosts  of  young  workers  are  taking  upon  themselves  the  industrial  burdens 
of  the  nation. 

Where  do  these  little  "sons  of  Martha" — and  daughters  too — find  their 
employment  ?  What  friendly  hand  is  stretcht  out  to  them  as,  timid  and 
bewildered,  they  seek  an  open  door  in  industry  ? 

The  Vocational  Supervision  Committee  of  the  Department  of  School 
Patrons  has  had  these  questions  in  mind  during  the  two  years  of  its  exist- 
ence. In  the  autumn  of  191 6  it  planned  a  nation-wide  inquiry  as  to  voca- 
tional guidance  and  employment  supervision  in  the  case  of  these  untrained 
children,  but  after  six  months  of  effort  it  was  found  that  such  an  investi- 
gation would  be  impossible  for  the  committee,  since  time  and  money  were 
limited,  and  authority  to  ask  for  statistics  entirely  wanting. 

The  committee  therefore  applied  to  Miss  Lathrop,  chief  of  the  Chil- 
dren's Bureau  in  Washington,  for  help.  Thru  this  bureau  a  questionnaire 
was  sent,  in  the  spring  of  191 7,  to  424  towns  and  cities  of  10,000  inhabitants 
or  more  in  the  United  States.  About  60  per  cent  of  these  cities  repUed, 
but  because  of  the  limited  time  given  them  for  returning  their  answers  and 
because  of  a  lack  of  understanding  on  the  part  of  some  of  those  who  received 
the  questionnaire,  the  findings  were  very  incomplete.  The  movement  is 
new  and  in  most  cities  still  in  an  experimental  stage.  Hence  the  informa- 
tion was  meager  in  the  case  of  many  cities  which  replied.  Yet  much  more 
than  is  indicated  by  the  figures  came  out  of  the  inquiry.  The  question- 
naire has  been  of  distinct  value  for  the  following  reasons: 

1.  It  has  given  us  some  facts  in  the  case  of  more  than  60  per  cent  of 
the  cities  addrest. 

2.  It  has  shown  that  some  form  of  vocational  guidance  exists  in  25  per 
cent  of  the  cities. 

3.  It  has  shown  that  extensive  and  systematic  work  is  being  carried 
on  in  about  sJ  per  cent  of  the  cities. 

4.  This  has,  of  course,  revealed  the  need  of  better  methods  or  more 
extensive  operation  in  nearly  95  per  cent  of  the  cities. 


434  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [School  Patrons 

5.  The  effect  on  the  cities  addrest  was  good.  The  letter  from  the 
Children's  Bureau  evidently  acted  as  a  stimulus. 

In  the  press  of  other  work  the  Children's  Bureau  has  not  been  able  to 
prosecute  the  inquiry  further  this  year.  Plans  are  being  made,  however, 
to  take  it  up  again  soon  and  to  carry  it  on  to  more  definite  results. 

The  Council  of  the  Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae  in  its  session  last 
winter  in  Chicago  voted  to  establish  a  National  Committee  on  Juvenile 
Vocational  Supervision.  It  has  offered  its  services  to  the  Children's  Bureau 
to  do  preliminary  investigation  thru  its  branch  associations.  It  believes 
that  it  can  be  of  service  in  finding  out:  (i)  in  what  cities  and  towns 
forms  of  vocational  guidance  or  employment  supervision  are  being 
carried  on;  (2)  the  organizations,  public  or  private,  which  are  carrying  on 
such  work;  (3)  the  names  and  addresses  of  officials  having  the  work  in 
charge. 

We  hope  that  the  Bureau  may  find  it  possible  to  take  up  this  inquiry 
very  soon,  and  that  it  will  pubHsh  a  report  which  will  (i)  show  exactly 
where  adequate  vocational  supervision  is  being  carried  on  in  the  United 
States;  (2)  make  a  study  of  methods  in  use  in  different  cities;  (3)  make 
some  recommendations  as  to  the  best  way  in  which  to  estabhsh  vocational 
guidance  or  employment  supervision  in  cities  where  they  do  not  yet  exist; 
(4)  make  recommendations  as  to  the  best  methods  of  carrying  on  the  work 
in  cities  of  various  classes. 

As  a  second  piece  of  work  this  committee  has  planned  to  bring  before 
clubs  and  schools  the  need  for  vocational  supervision  and  to  suggest  methods 
for  beginning  and  prosecuting  the  work.  The  need  for  vocational  super- 
vision is  especially  urgent  now.  More  children  are  leaving  school  than 
ever  before  in  the  history  of  the  school  system. 

Many  causes  are  operating  to  cut  short  the  education  of  these  children. 
The  enUstment  of  bread-winners,  the  increast  cost  of  living,  and,  perhaps 
most  potent  of  all,  a  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  child  that  in  some  way  he  is 
doing  his  bit  for  his  country  by  going  to  work.  The  retarded  child  who 
is  already  dissatisfied  with  school  would  leave  under  almost  any  circum- 
stances if  he  could  get  a  job.  The  superior  child  leaves  now  only  because 
he  believes  that  in  so  doing  he  is  helping  his  family  or  his  country. 

Perhaps  the  first  thing  we  can  do  for  these  children  is  to  show  them 
that  patriotism  points  to  an  education  rather  than  to  a  job.  Commissioner 
Claxton  has  pointed  out  that  this  country  will  need  trained  workers  at  the 
end  of  the  war  as  no  country  ever  needed  them  before. 

The  children  should  be  led  to  see  the  future  value  of  a  few  years  more 
in  school.  They  should  be  told  that  the  Massachusetts  Commission  on 
Industrial  and  Technical  Education  has  found  that  of  one  hundred  children 
who  go  to  work  at  fourteen,  ninety-eight  remain  untrained  workers  all 
their  lives;  that  the  Henry  Street  Settlement  has  found  that  after  working 
three  years  those  people  who  have  had  two  years  of  training  are  making 


Department!  GUARDING  THE  SCHOOLS  IN  WAR  TIME  435 

wages  two  and  one-half  times  as  great  as  those  who  have  been  working  five 
years  and  who  left  school  without  training. 

The  committee  is  planning  a  circular  for  distribution  among  the  clubs 
which  make  up  the  Department  of  School  Patrons,  giving  the  foregoing 
facts  in  as  telling  a  form  as  possible.  It  also  plans  a  series  of  charts  to  be 
used  in  public  schools,  community  centers,  etc.,  giving  graphically  these 
facts  and  quoting  such  statements  as  the  following: 

The  most  useful  thing  a  high-school  boy  can  do  is  to  finish  his  course. — Secretary 
Baker. 

Any  boy  who  has  the  opportunity  to  complete  at  least  a  high-school  course  and  fails 
to  do  so  is  making  the  greatest  mistake  of  his  life.  The  present  war  conditions  only 
emphasize  this, — Secretary  Daniels. 

The  committee  plans  also  to  distribute  widely  circulars  on  the  subject 
of  scholarships,  or  direct  financial  aid  to  keep  children  in  school.  It  hopes 
to  organize  as  many  vocational-guidance  centers  and  scholarship  com- 
mittees as  possible  thruout  the  country,  and  in  every  way  it  will  seek  to 
awaken  a  wider  sense  of  parenthood  in  the  great  body  of  the  pubhc,  and  a 
desire  on  the  part  of  every  adult  in  each  community  to  obtain  for  all  the 
children  of  the  community  the  best  possible  training  for  their  life-work. 


GUARDING  THE  SCHOOLS  IN  WAR  TIME 


MARGARET  S.   MCNAUGHT,   COMMISSIONER  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

OF  CALIFORNIA;     CHAIRMAN,   COMMITTEE   ON  SCHOOL 

REVENUE,   SACRAMENTO,   CAL. 


^P  Suddenly  the  war  has  summoned  the  school  to  the  tasks  of  the  nation. 
To  its  duties  as  a  community  center  there  have  been  added  those  of  a 
national  center.  This  summons  has  come  directly  from  the  President  of 
the  United  States,  and  no  message  to  Congress,  nor  any  to  a  foreign  power, 
shows  in  its  language  more  evidence  of  careful  thought,  deep  feeling,  and 
sincerity  of  eloquence  than  his  message  to  the  pubHc  schools.    He  said: 

In  these  vital  tasks  of  acquiring  a  broader  view  of  human  possibilities  the  common 
school  must  have  a  large  part.  I  urge  that  teachers  and  other  oflScers  increase  materially 
the  time  and  attention  devoted  to  instruction  bearing  directly  on  the  problems  of  com- 
munity and  national  life.  Such  a  plea  is  in  no  way  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  American 
public  education  or  of  existing  practices.  Nor  is  it  a  plea  for  the  temporary  enlargement 
of  the  school  problem  appropriate  merely  to  the  period  of  the  war.  It  is  a  plea  for  a 
realization  in  public  education  of  the  new  emphasis  which  the  war  has  given  to  ideals  of 
democracy  and  to  the  broader  conceptions  of  national  life. 

Secretary  Lane's  statements  are  no  less  significant.  In  his  annual 
report  for  191 5  he  refers  to  the  ''twenty- two  million  boys  and  girls  in  our 


436  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [School  Patrons 

schools  as  our  chief  resource  and  chief  concern,"  and  in  a  personal  letter 
to  your  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  School  Revenue  he  says: 

We  cannot  afford  to  do  anything  that  will  interrupt  their  education.  We  are  fighting 
that  democracy  may  be  preserved  for  them,  but  we  must  not  let  the  war  turn  us  aside 
from  our  duty  of  seeing  that  they  shall  be  mentally  trained  to  take  their  places  in  the 
world  when  life's  responsibilities  shall  come  to  them  as  men  and  women. 

Undoubtedly  this  attitude  of  our  President  and  of  our  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  has  had  much  to  do  with  influencing  pubHc  opinion  regarding  the 
stability  of  education;  for  so  far  as  investigation  reveals  facts,  there  is  no 
direct  effort  being  made  to  deprive  children  of  this  all-important  factor  for 
good  citizenship. 

In  order  to  place  these  facts  plainly  before  the  people  and  to  state 
clearly  reasons  why  the  schools  should  be  held  to  their  present  standards 
of  efficiency  or  even  increast  inefficiency,  two  leaflet  bulletins  were  printed, 
entitled,  The  Safeguard  of  Democracy  and  Guard  the  Schools  as  Well  as  the 
Trenches.  The  former  was  intended  for  general  distribution  in  order  to 
fix  as  firmly  as  possible  in  the  minds  of  our  people  the  idea  of  the  importance 
of  maintaining  our  schools  at  a  high  degree  of  efiiciency.  The  latter  was 
intended  to  be  used  in  those  states  whose  legislatures  were  advocating 
retrenchment  in  school  expenditure.  Secretary  of  the  Interior  Franklin  K. 
Lane,  on  request,  wrote  a  letter  supporting  the  facts  set  forth  in  the  leaflet. 

These  leaflets,  embodying  Secretary  Lane's  letter,  were  distributed  as 
follows:  To  the  state  chairman  of  legislation  and  of  education  of  the  General 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs;  to  the  general  ofl&cers  and  sectional  vice- 
presidents  of  the  Collegiate  Alumnae;  to  the  officers  of  the  Council  of 
Jewish  Women;  and  to  the  officers  of  the  Southern  Association  of  College 
Women.  A  circular  letter  was  sent  with  the  leaflets  explaining  their  nature 
and  purpose  and  stating  that  if  necessary  a  limited  number  could  be  supplied 
for  distribution. 

It  is  gratifying  to  be  able  to  report  that  no  responses  were  received 
stating  that  in  any  state  was  there  a  tendency  to  lessen  the  amount  of 
school  expenditure.  However,  certain  very  definite  requests  have  been 
made  for  the  leaflets.  Four  hundred  were  forwarded  to  the  Biennial  Con- 
vention of  the  General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  held  at  Hot  Springs, 
Ark. 

Mrs.  Maynard  Kimberland,  chairman  of  education.  General  Federation 
of  Women's  Clubs,  Wheeling,  W.Va.,  wrote  on  May  5,  1918,  as  follows: 

"We  have  a  movement  on  foot  to  revise  the  state  school  laws I 

think  The  Safeguard  of  Democracy  most  adaptable  to  our  local  situation  and 
should  like  to  have  a  quantity  soon  to  scatter  over  the  state." 

Correspondence  with  Miss  Lucy  Bartholomew,  treasurer.  Southern 
Association  of  College  Women,  Virginia,  reveals  the  fact  that  Virginia  has 
increast  its  appropriation  of  school  funds  to  the  amount,  approximately, 
of  $776,050. 


I 


Department!  GUARDING  THE  SCHOOLS  IN  WAR  TIME  437 

The  report  of  Miss  Elizabeth  L.  Clarke,  Williamstown,  Mass.,  states: 
"So  far  as  I  know  there  has  been  no  question  in  the  Massachusetts  legisla- 
ture of  restricting  educational  appropriations  at  all.  Indeed  the  tendency- 
is  the  other  way,  a  new  bill  making  application  for  physical  training  being 
now  in  committee." 

Miss  Cora  G.  Lewis  reports  that  Kansas  has  no  thought  of  dropping 
back. 

Mrs.  E.  Buchner  says  that  in  Maryland  a  number  of  destructive  educa- 
tion bills  were  brought  in,  but  public  opinion  defeated  them. 

Miss  Anna  J.  Hamilton,  dean  of  women.  University  of  Kentucky, 
writes:  "The  Kentucky  General  Assembly  adjourned  March  20,  and  the 
tendency  was  toward  raising  rather  than  lowering  the  apportionment." 

Mrs.  Mary  Leal  Harkness,  of  Louisiana,  secretary  of  the  Southern 
Association  of  College  Women,  says  that  there  is  no  tendency  in  that  state 
toward  retrenchment;  on  the  contrary,  there  is  a  strong  campaign  on  for 
increase  in  teachers'  salaries. 

Mrs.  Florence  M.  Hale  writes  that  in  Maine  people  are  thinking  of 
increasing  rather  than  of  decreasing  school  appropriations.  In  connection 
with  this  statement,  however,  it  is  well  to  call  attention  to  a  publisht  letter 
of  State  Superintendent  A.  O.  Thomas.    He  writes: 

The  pull  of  greater  compensation  in  business  positions  and  in  clerical  work  for  the 
federal  government  has  depleted  our  ranks.  Teachers  who  have  taught  for  several  years 
on  a  salary  of  $10  to  $12  per  week  for  thirty-six  weeks  in  the  year  have  accepted  govern- 
ment positions,  recently,  at  $1,100  to  $1,200.  There  is  a  national  call  for  a  25  per  cent 
increase  in  the  wages  of  teachers  for  the  coming  year. 

Facts  such  as  these  clearly  demonstrate  the  necessity  for  an  increase 
in  teachers'  salaries  and  therefore  in  the  funds  from  Which  salaries  are  paid. 

Mrs.  J.  N.  Kelly  reports  favorably  for  Montana,  saying,  "Appro- 
priations by  the  last  legislature  for  school  purposes  were  as  liberal  as  usual." 

It  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  guide  the  thoughts  of  people  along  right 
lines  before  they  have  been  turned  in  wrong  directions.  Thus  while  there 
seems  to  be  no  cause  for  fear  at  present  that  school  revenues  thruout 
the  United  States  will  be  reduced,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  changes  in 
opinion  are  made  with  surprising  rapidity  these  days.  Therefore  it  is 
advisable  to  have  fixt  in  the  pubUc  consciousness  definite  reasons  why  the 
schools  should  be  maintained  at  a  high  degree  of  efficiency,  so  that  if  an 
attack  is  made  in  the  attempt  to  weaken  their  efficiency  these  facts  will  be 
in  mind  ready  to  repulse  the  attack. 


438  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [School  Patrons 

RURAL  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  WAR 

MARIE  TURNER  HARVEY,   CHAIRMAN,   COMMITTEE   ON  RURAL  SCHOOLS, 
KIRKSVILLE,   MO. 

On  March  15  last.  Secretary  of  Interior  Lane  addrest  a  letter  to  the 
Chairman  of  the  Senate  and  House  Committees  on  Education. 
What  it  reveals  cannot  be  overemphasized.    He  says: 

The  war  has  brought  facts  to  our  attention  that  are  almost  unbelievable,  and  that 
are  in  themselves  accusatory.  There  are  in  the  United  States  (Census  of  1910)  5,516,163 
persons  over  ten  years  of  age  who  are  unable  to  read  or  write.  There  are  700,000  men  of 
draft  age  who  cannot  read  or  write  in  English  or  in  any  other  language.  Over  4,600,000 
illiterates  are  twenty  years  of  age  or  more  ....  over  58  per  cent  of  this  number  are 
white  persons,  1,500,000  being  native-horn  whites 

The  federal  government  and  the  states  spend  millions  of  dollars  trying  to  give 
information  to  the  people  in  rural  districts  about  farming  and  home  making.  Yet 
3,700,000,  or  10  per  cent  of  our  country  folk,  cannot  read  or  write  a  word.  They  cannot 
read  a  bulletin  on  agriculture,  a  farm  paper,  a  food  pledge  card,  a  Liberty  Loan  appeal,  a 
newspaper,  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  or  their  Bibles;  nor  can  they  keep 
personal  or  business  accounts. 

An  uninformed  democracy  is  not  a  democracy.  A  people  who  cannot  have  means 
of  access  to  the  mediums  of  public  opinion  and  to  the  messages  of  the  President  and  the 
acts  of  Congress  can  hardly  be  expected  to  understand  the  full  meaning  of  this  war  to 
which  all  must  contribute  in  life  or  property  or  labor. 

The  obvious  relation  of  illiteracy  to  the  democracy  of  American  ideals 
demands  nation-wide  concerted  action  by  all  educational  forces  of  the 
United  States  to  eliminate  as  speedily  as  possible  the  curse  of  illiteracy. 

Some  12,000,000  of  America's  youth  are  spending  at  least  seven  of  the 
most  important  years  of  their  Hves  in  the  typical  one-  and  tvi^o-room  school 
buildings,  inadequate  viewed  from  every  standpoint,  and  under  the  direc- 
tion of  itinerant  teachers. 

Since  the  emergency  demands  that  we  make  every  rural  community 
in  the  land  realize  its  possibilities  thru  its  present  legal  educational  machine, 
the  school  teacher  is  obviously  the  pivot  on  which  this  big  project  swings. 
Our  public  school  system,  rural  and  city  alike,  must  be  made  to  serve  the 
cause  of  democracy  as  efficiently  as  Germany  made  hers  serve  autocracy. 

Money  must  be  found  to  call  into  the  rural  field  men  and  women  having 
necessary  qualifications  for  this  pressing  national  service.  "The  National 
Education  Association  Commission  on  the  Emergency  in  Education  and 
Program  for  Readjustment  during  and  after  the  War"  has  no  more 
iijiportant  work  to  do  than  to  evolve  a  plan  for  immediate  nation-wide 
propaganda  in  the  interest  of  state  and  federal  aid  to  expedite  the  entrance 
of  a  small  army  of  such  teachers  into  the  rural  field.  Given  such  teachers, 
with  freedom  to  readjust  the  traditional  course  of  study,  etc.,  to  local 
conditions,  what  could  result  in  five  short  years  is  best  indicated  by  citing 
a  case  in  point:  the  Porter  School  District,  Adair  County,  Missouri,  con- 
taining nine  square  miles  of  prairie  farming  land,  having  a  sparse  popula- 


Department)  RURAL  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  WAR  439 

tion  of  less  than  two  hundred,  lies  contiguous  to  Kirksville,  a  town  of  10,000. 
Conditions  were  appaUing;  farming  practices  were  poor.  It  is  incon- 
ceivable that  there  could  have  been  such  isolation  and  such  extreme  indi- 
vidualism so  near  a  good  town.  There  was  absolute  lack  of  cooperation, 
local  initiative,  and,  most  tragic  of  all,  lack  of  local  faith  in  the  possibiUties 
of  bringing  about  a  permanent  regime  of  progress.  How  a  small  group  of 
intelHgent  taxpayers  and  a  resident  teacher-leader  changed  the  ''old  order" 
with  the  limited  resources  of  the  t3^ical  school  district  is  a  gripping  story. 

This  sketchy  outline  shows  conditions  in  19 12  which  are  only  too  general 
in  rural  sections.  Look  at  it  today!  There  are:  a  flourishing  farmers' 
club;  an  active  woman's  club;  a  poultry  club  of  young  people  that  in  three 
years  has  driven  out  "scrub"  poultry;  a  pig  club  which  will  do  for  hog 
breeding  what  the  poultry  club  has  done  in  its  field;  an  interdenominational 
Sunday  school;  a  high-school  annex,  where  its  students  are  able  to  make  4^ 
units  of  accredited  work;  a  community  band,  numbering  20  young  men 
and  women;  a  junior  band  of  14  members. 

It  has  touched  every  interest  of  old  and  young,  holding  to  the  farm  every 
boy  and  girl  grown  to  maturity.  Not  one  has  been  lost  to  the  community 
during  the  five  years,  excepting  in  the  several  cases  where  the  family  moved 
out  of  the  district  for  business  reasons. 

Thru  cooperation,  this  school  has  become  more  than  a  community 
center;  it  is  in  fact  a  distributing  center  of  efficiency,  social  and  economic, 
used  every  day  in  the  week,  twelve  months  of  the  year.  Its  people  are 
happy,  contented,  striving  for  the  better  things  in  life,  and  intensely 
patriotic,  because  they  are  an  informed  people.  War  found  this  community 
'in  a  state  of  "preparedness."  The  following  is  an  incomplete  statement 
of  war  service  by  this  community  (their  total  land  values  being  assest 

I  at  some  $112,000.00)  between  July  4,  1917,  and  July  i,  1918: 
I 


Red  Cross  (cash) $     380.00 

Y.M.C.A.  (cash) 80.00 

Thrift  and  War  Savings  Stamps 480 .  00  (School  children) 

War  SaNongs  Stamps 10,020.00  (Community) 

Liberty  Loan  bonds S.ooo .  00 

Canned  vegetables,  3 116  quarts  valued  at 

20  cents  a  quart  (14  families) 623 .00 


Total $16,583.00 

Adair  County  has  80  school  districts.  Under  similar  conditions  Adair 
County  would  as  cheerfully  have  furnisht  $1,326,640.00.  Missouri's  114 
counties,  under  similar  conditions,  would  have  yielded  $151,236,960.00. 

Two  of  this  community's  young  men  are  volunteers  in  the  Army,  two 
in  the  Navy,  and  the  others  are  bravely  restraining  their  desire  to  enUst 
and  are  making  more  acres  yield  more  food  for  the  United  States  and  her 
Allies — allowing  themselves  to  be  drafted  in  order  to  render  such  service. 
The  hour  demands  this  service.    Teachers,  100  per  cent  American  in  their 


440  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [School  Patrons 

ideals  and  purpose,  are  as  imperative  in  the  rural  sections  of  this  country 
as  are  loyal  and  competent  officers  with  the  American  Expeditionary 
Forces. 


THE  STATUS  OF  THE  CHILD,  STATE  AND  NATIONAL,  AS  A 
RESULT  OF  THE  WAR 

W.   H.   SWIPT,   SPECIAL  AGENT,  NATIONAL  CHILD  LABOR  COMMITTEE, 
NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

At  the  time  when  our  country  was  about  to  enter  the  war  for  the  vindi- 
cation of  the  right  and  for  the  ultimate  establishment  of  better  world- 
conditions  for  all  people  there  was  great  anxiety  lest  this  war  should,  as 
all  former  wars  had  done,  levy  the  most  onerous  tribute  upon  the  children 
of  our  land.  We  knew  that  in  England  and  France  children  had  been 
hurried  away  from  school  to  do  the  work  of  men  in  the  shops  and  in  the 
field.  We  knew  that  delinquency  had  increast  fearfully  in  England,  and 
that  the  best  authorities  traced  this  increase  to  the  unusual  conditions 
caused  by  the  war.  We  knew  that  it  had  been  said  on  the  floor  of  the 
British  Parhament,  "A  large  portion  of  our  elementary-school  system  is  in 
ruin";  and  that  Mr.  Sidney  Webb,  speaking  of  England,  had  said,  "Peace 
will  involve  almost  the  remaking  of  the  nation's  educational  machinery." 

We  knew  that  there  were  men  in  our  own  country  ready  to  use  the 
war  as  an  excuse  for  drawing  children  from  their  books  and  their  necessary 
play  into  the  shops  and  fields,  ready  to  use  the  war  as  an  excuse  for  con- 
tinuing the  exploitation  of  childhood;  and  these  men  were  not  negligent  in 
their  business  or  in  the  molding  of  pubUc  opinion  to  their  own  end.  There 
ran  over  our  country  a  sort  of  wave  of  demand  that  all  laws  enacted  for 
the  protection  of  workers,  whether  adult  or  child,  be  suspended  for  the 
term  of  the  war.  In  fact,  the  legislatures  of  one  or  two  states  took  legis- 
lative steps  to  that  very  end. 

How  much  irreparable  harm  was  done  by  that  first  wave  of  eagerness 
to  throw  children  into  the  work  of  the  conduct  of  the  war  no  one  will  ever 
know.  In  Kansas  we  know  that  the  following  resolution  was  adopted  by 
the  Board  of  Education  and  transmitted  by  the  State  Superintendent  of 
Education  to  county  and  city  superintendents: 

Resolved,  That  superintendents  and  principals  be  advised  that  in  view  of  the  war 
situation  and  the  food  crisis  the  State  Board  of  Education  will  approve  granting  a  full 
year's  credit  to  pupils  who,  having  passing  grades,  find  it  necessary  to  withdraw  from 
school  before  the  end  of  the  school  year,  either  to  enlist  in  the  military  service  or  actually 
engage  directly  in  food  production. 

There  were  no  requirements  as  to  physical  fitness  for  the  work.  Some  of 
the  superintendents,  however,  did  make  certain  requirements  for  their  own 
school.  The  State  Superintendent  did  not  know  and  had  no  way  of  know- 
ing how  many  children  were  excused  from  school  to  their  lasting  hurt. 


DepartmentI      STATUS  OF  THE  CHILD,  STATE  AND  NATIONAL  441 

In  Missouri  the  State  Superintendent  sent  on  April  13,  191 7,  the 
following: 

Excuse  at  once  from  your  high  school  all  boys  over  fourteen  years  of  age  who  will 
go  out  to  farms  and  work.  Give  them  full  credit  for  their  year's  work  at  the  end  of  the 
school  year  with  the  standing  that  they  have  at  present  ....  include  boys  who  live 
in  the  country  and  boys  who  will  go  to  the  farm  to  work.  Extend  the  privilege  to  girls 
where  you  deem  it  advisable. 

No  one  knows  how  many  dropt  out  of  school. 

After  May  i  in  Illinois  "to  work  on  the  farm  was  accepted  as  an  excuse 
for  absence  from  school,  provided  the  boy  was  over  fourteen." 

In  Indiana,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  canning  factories,  the  State  Depart- 
ment of  Pubhc  Instruction  recommended  that  the  opening  of  the  schools 
be  delayed  so  that  the  children  might  work  in  the  canning  industry. 

When  we  remember  that  wherever  a  detailed  study  has  been  made  it 
has  been  found  that  farm  work  is  the  chief  cause  of  the  absence  of  children 
from  the  public  schools  in  rural  conomunities,  we  see  how  significant  these 
facts  become.  The  schools  were  disrupted,  with  the  excuse  that  we  were 
in  war  and  that  the  labor  of  children  was  needed — and  all  this  in  a  time  of 
unequaled  prosperity.  Boys,  without  any  regard  to  physical  fitness  and 
without  any  careful  investigation  of  living  conditions  or  moral  surround- 
ings, were  sent  out  to  be  exploited  by  farmers.  The  whole  scheme  threatened 
to  be  destructive  to  our  educational  system  and  to  child  Ufe. 

Fortunately,  however,  things  were  not  so  bad  as  they  seemed  to  be. 
In  our  depression  we  were  forgetting  for  the  time  the  native  good  sense  of 
the  American  people,  and  that  they  do  not  willingly  surrender  high  ground 
either  in  peace  or  in  war.  A  second  and  deeper  wave  of  thought  swept 
over  the  country  contradicting  or  rather  submerging,  except  in  certain 
narrow  straits,  much  of  the  evil  influences  of  that  first  wave.  America 
now  lives  and  works  in  this  second  wave,  and  there  is  no  good  reason  for 
thinking  that  our  sober  second  thought  upon  this  very  serious  matter  will 
not  endure  and  control. 

The  result  of  the  whole  war  movement  is  a  new  status  for  the  child 
in  both  the  state  and  the  nation.  There  has  been  such  a  tremendous  change 
in  the  public  thought  that  we  seem  to  be  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  era. 
At  the  point  where  there  seemed  to  be  a  weakness  of  the  line  of  defense 
drawn  around  our  children  strength  has  been  added.  W.  E.  Hall,  National 
Director  of  the  United  States  Boys'  Working  Reserve,  says: 

We  arrived  at  the  decision  to  make  minimum  age  sixteen  for  boys  who  leave  home 
to  work  on  farms,  and  then  only  after  a  careful  examination  of  all  the  conditions  sur- 
rounding farm  life.  ....  The  United  States  Boys'  Working  Reserve  deals  almost 
entirely  with  the  city  boy,  who  in  many  instances  is  leaving  his  home  for  the  first  time 
to  live  amid  strange  surroundings.  It  is  most  important  that  he  be  mature  enough  to 
take  care  of  himself  under  all  conditions,  and  that  he  be  strong  enough  to  stand  the 
rigors  of  hard  work  on^the  farm. 


442  NA  TIONA  L  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  [School  Patrons 

I  quote  from  a  bulletin  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education: 

Aside  from  casual  work,  chores,  and  the  like,  which  might  be  done  outside  of  school 
hours,  the  labor  of  boys  under  fourteen  years  of  age  is  not  a  vital  factor  on  the  farm. 
City  boys  without  farm  experience  are  not  generally  useful  under  sixteen  years  of  age. 
There  appears  to  be  nothing  in  the  present  or  prospective  war  emergency  to  justify 
curtailment  in  any  respect  of  the  session  of  elementary  schools. 

The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  stated  the  general 
thought  of  the  country  when  he  said,  "I  do  not  believe  that  there  is  any 
need  for  taking  children  from  school  or  for  shortening  school  terms." 

There  are  three  reasons  for  this  recent  strengthening  of  the  line  of 
defense  for  children.  The  first  is  that  whoever  has  taken  the  trouble  to 
make  inquiry  has  found  that  children  under  sixteen  years  of  age  are  not 
wanted  and  cannot  be  profitably  used  in  farm  work.  In  time  this  in  itself 
would  have  cured  much  of  the  evils  of  the  first  period. 

The  other  two  reasons  are  much  more  fundamental.  There  is  an 
increasing  but  largely  unexprest  consciousness  of  the  inalienable  right  of 
every  child  to  make  the  most  of  himself.  This  is  not  new.  Circumstances 
have  simply  brought  it  more  clearly  into  the  foreground  for  the  time  being. 

The  natural  law  of  sympathy  has  borne  its  just  fruit  in  forcing  us  to 
think  of  our  own  boys  and  girls.  What  was  it  that  held  our  closest  atten- 
tion in  those  first  months  of  the  war  ?  Not  the  marching  of  the  hosts  of 
men  as  they  hurried  to  the  trenches.  We  expected  that.  It  was  the 
devastating  of  Belgian  homes  and  the  ruthless  scattering  or  slaughtering 
of  Belgian  children  and  the  great  losses  suffered  by  the  children  of  England 
and  France  by  reason  of  the  war.  Thinking  of  the  child  over  there  has 
turned  our  eyes  upon  our  own  children  over  here. 

The  result  is  that  the  American  people,  now  keenly  conscious  of  all 
human  rights,  are  ready  to  say  that  every  child  in  this  country  must  be 
given  a  free,  fair,  fighting  chance  to  make  the  most  and  the  best  of  his 
individual  life.  Democracy  demands  this  and  will  be  content  with  nothing 
else.  Our  soldiers  upon  their  return  will  feel  keen  disappointment  if  they 
find  that  we  have  allowed  ourselves  to  accept  any  lower  standard.  Ameri- 
can ideals  demand  that  society,  the  state,  should  hold  itself  responsible  for 
the  proper  care  of  every  child  and  should  actually  see  that  every  child  has 
a  good  home,  good  food,  proper  clothing,  proper  education,  his  opportunity 
for  play,  for  recreation,  and  for  growth  and  all-round  development — a  fair 
chance  at  life  for  every  child.  In  our  time  that  is  what  we  understand  to 
be  the  rights  of  a  child. 

But  we  are  not  now  thinking  so  much  of  the  individual  rights  of  the 
child.  Our  chief  concern  lies  in  the  state,  in  society  in  the  aggregate.  It 
is  principally  this  which  has  saved  us  from  the  foolish  destruction  of  much 
of  the  good  work  already  done.  We  are  at  this  hour  bending  our  energies 
to  preserve,  develop,  and  perfect  our  civilization.  The  war  has  forst  us 
to  realize  far  more  fully  than  ever  before  that  our  nation,  any  nation  for 


Department]  HEALTH  PROBLEMS  IN  EDUCATION  443 

that  matter,  needs  most  and  must  have,  first  of  all,  men  and  women  able 
to  do  and  endure  to  the  uttermost.  At  this  hour  of  stress  and  strain  the 
chief  demand  is  for  intelligent,  efficient,  human  power,  and  we  know  that 
this  same  intelligent,  efficient  man  power  will  be  our  best  asset,  that  upon 
which  we  may  rely,  after  the  war.  We  can  make  machines;  we  must  grow 
men.  The  war  has  taught  and  is  teaching  us  the  economic  and  social  value 
of  the  child.  We  are  profiting  by  the  lessons  already  learned  in  both 
England  and  France.  Our  great  desire  is  to  see  ours  become  a  country 
in  which  all  men  are  strong  and  women  are  their  equals,  and  in  which  the 
child  is  to  be  one  of  the  chief  concerns  of  the  nation.  The  people  of  America 
have  spoken  in  plain  terms  and  have  declared  that  the  child  must  be  cared 
for.  The  time  is  ripe  for  the  making  of  great  strides  forward.  Everybody 
is  looking  for  it.  Social  thinkers  and  educators  will  blunder  if  -they  do  not 
make  the  most  of  their  present  opportunities  and  of  the  aroused  state  of 
public  opinion. 

Much  valuable  work  has  already  been  done,  not  only  by  the  Bureau 
of  Education,  but  by  the  Department  of  Public  Health  and  the  Children's 
Bureau  of  the  Department  of  Labor.  We  are  just  beginning  to  become 
conscious  of  how  very  much  the  national  government  can  do  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  proper  citizenship.  In  view  of  all  these  matters  I  now  raise  for 
your  consideration  one  question,  whether  it  is  not  time  for  the  nation  to 
make  appropriation  for  the  aid  of  education  in  the  states  where  it  is  needed, 
and  for  the  creation  of  a  Department  of  Education  empowered  to  direct 
and  regulate  in  a  more  extensive  mannar  the  education  of  all  the  children 
of  America.  It  seems  to  me  that  our  recent  experiences  have  taught  us 
that  education  is  a  national  as  well  as  a  state  problem. 


HEALTH  PROBLEMS  IN  EDUCATION 

SALLY  LUCAS   JEAN,   CHILD  HEALTH  ORGANIZATION,   NEW  YORK,  N.Y. 

Not  until  the  public  was  roused  to  the  importance  of  keeping  well 
babies  well  was  the  high  mortality-rate  among  infants  appreciably  affected. 
We  have  found  that  the  establishment  of  welfare  stations  where  mothers 
are  advised  about  the  care  of  their  sick  babies  is  not  an  effective  means  of 
bringing  about  a  markt  drop  in  the  death-rate.  It  has  been  proved  that 
the  weight  of  the  baby  is  a  most  sensitive  index  to  its  general  condition  of 
health,  and  the  weekly  weighing  of  well  babies  has  been  an  indispensable 
measure  in  the  prevention  of  infant  mortality. 

Children  of  school  age  who  are  not  living  under  proper  hygienic  condi- 
tions do  not  die  in  large  numbers;  they  struggle  against  the  adverse  con- 
ditions which  are  hampering  their  development  and  lowering  their  vitality, 
and  the  result  is  a  warped,  stunted  child  or  grown-up.  Up  to  the  present 
time  it  has  not  been  found  necessary  systematically  to  examine  children  of 


444 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


[School  Patrons 


Right  HEIGHT  and  WEIGHT  for  GIRLS 

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Department) 


HEALTH  PROBLEMS  IN  EDUCATION 


445 


school  age  except  to  ascertain  whether  physical  defects  existed.  The  weak- 
ness of  our  present  plan  is  shown  in  the  wide  prevalence  of  malnutrition 
among  the  school  children  of  New  York  and  other  large  cities,  resulting  in 
a  very  high  rate  of  tuberculosis  in  young  adult  life.    The  need  has  attracted 


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«<  lb»  Record  Shcci  >nd  elh»  oulcrieL  mpply  10  Uie  CHILD  HEALTH  ORGANIZATION.  lOT  FourU.  A.eouc.  New  Yofk      | 

the  attention  of  a  group  of  child  specialists,  and  there  has  been  formed  a 
national  organization  of  physicians  and  laymen,  with  Dr.  L.  Emmett  Holt 
as  chairman.  Its  purpose  is  to  standardize  the  teaching  of  health  in  ele- 
mentary schools.  The  present  scarcity  of  doctors  and  nurses  throws  this 
task  of  teaching  health  largely  upon  the  teachers.    Altho  normal  schools 


446 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


[School  Patrons 


have  not  usually  prepared  teachers  for  this  work,  its  methods  are  so  simple 
that  they  will  find  it  practicable. 

A  pair  of  scales  and  a  tape  line  gives  us  the  necessary  equipment  for 
ascertaining  the  child's  condition  and  his  rate  of  growth.  The  accompany- 
ing table  has  been  prepared  by  Dr.  Thomas  D.  Wood,  which  makes  it 
possible  for  each  child  to  know  whether  he  is  of  the  average  weight  for  his 
height. 


O 


HEALTH  IN  EDUCATION 
EDUCATION  IN  HEALTH 


CHILD  HEALTH 

ORGANIZATION 

189  FOURTH  AVE. 

NEW  YORK 

You  should  gain  at  least  one-half 
lb.  amoflth.  Be  a  good  soldier  for 
Uncle  Sam  and  help  win  the  war 
by  keeping  your  body  strong.  Eat 
the  right  foods.  Eat  slowly.  Sleep 
long  hours  with  windows  open. 
Bathe  your  body  often.  Use  your 
tooth  brush  daily. 


The  "Class-room  Weight  Record"  stimulates  his  interest  thru  competi- 
tion. 

The  words  used  on  the  weight  tag  cover  the  essential  points  of  instruc- 
tion. 

You  should  gain  at  least  one-half  a  pound  a  month. 

Eat  the  right  foods. 

Eat  slowly. 

Sleep  long  hours  with  windows  open. 

Bathe  your  body  often. 

Use  your  toothbrush  daily. 


LIBRARY  DEPARTMENT 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — C.  C.  Certain,  head'of  English  Department,  Cass  Technical  High 

School Detroit.Mich. 

Vice-President — Lucile  F.  Fargo,  librarian,  North  Central  High  School Spokane,  Wash. 

Secretary — ^Lucy  E.  Fay,  librarian,  University  of  Tennessee Nashville,  Tenn, 


I 


First  Session — Tuesday  Forenoon,  July  2 

The  opening  meeting  of  the  Library  Department  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation was  called  to  order  in  the  lecture  hall  of  the  Carnegie  Library  by  President  C.  C. 
Certain.    Miss  Helen  Hoopes  was  appointed  secretary  pro  tern. 

Following  a  short  musical  program  consisting  of  community  and  patriotic  singing 
led  by  Jane  Packham  Alexander,  contralto,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  the  following  programs  were 
presented: 

Topic:    Book  Selection 

"Socializing  Values  as  a  Basis  of  Book  Selection" — James  F.  Hosic,  editor  of  the 
English  Journal,  Chicago,  111. 

"The  Child  and  the  Book  in  War  Times"— Clara  W.  Hunt,  superintendent.  Chil- 
dren's Department,  Public  Library,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

"Selecting  Books  for  High-School  Boys" — Edwin  L.  Miller,  principal,  Northwestern 
High  School,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Topic:    Cooperation  with  the  Junior  Red  Cross 

"Practicable  Library  Cooperation  with  Junior  Red  Cross  Organizations  in  Rural 
Schools" — 0.  S.  Rice,  state  supervisor  of  school  libraries,  Madison,  Wis. 

"Report  of  Elementary-School  Committee:  Library  Cooperation  with  the  Junior 
Red  Cross" — Annie  S.  Cutter,  chairman.  Children's  Department,  Public  Library,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio. 

Second  Session,  Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3 
Joint  program  with  Department  of  Secondary  Education. 

"The  High-School  Student  and  the  Book" — Robert  J.  Aley,  president.  University 
of  Maine,  Orono,  Me. 

"The  Relation  of  the  High-School  Library  to  Modern  Educational  Aims" — J.  A. 
Churchill,  state  superintendent  of  Education,  Salem,  Ore. 

"Report  of  the  Committee  on  High-School  Library  Standardization" — C.  C.  Certain, 
chairman,  Cass  Technical  High  School,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Discussion  of  the  Report: 

"The  Report  from  the  Point  of  View  of  the  School  Administrator" — Jesse  H.  Newlon, 
superintendent  of  schools,  Lincoln,  Neb. 

"The  Report  from  the  Point  of  View  of  the  High-School  Principal" — James  Rule, 
principal,  Schenley  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

The  report  of  the  Library  Committee  on  a  motion  by  Jesse  H.  Newlon,  duly 
seconded,  was  adopted  by  the  two  departments  in  joint  session  as  a  statement  of  national 
standards  in  high-school  library  development, 

447 


448  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

A  motion  made  by  Mr.  Newlon,  duly  seconded,  was  then  past  to  continue  the  Library 
Committee  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  study  of  the  technique  of  modem  classroom 
procedure  in  relation  to  library  use. 

A  motion  was  made,  recorded,  and  carried  asking  for  the  continuance  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Red  Cross  Work. 

Third  Session,  Friday  Forenoon,  July  5 

"War  Library  Service" — William  H.  Brett,  librarian,  Cleveland  Public  Library, 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

"Library  Cooperation  with  the  Junior  Red  Cross" — Effie  L.  Power,  head  of  Chil- 
dren's Department,  Carnegie  Library,  Pittsburgh,  Pa, 

Reports  of  Committees: 

Colleges  and  Universities — Harriet  Wood,  chairman,  Library  Association,  Portland, 
Ore. 

High  Schools:  Emphasis  upon  Library  War  Service — Mary  E.  Hall,  chairman,  Girls' 
High  School,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

The  following  officers  were  elected  for  the  year  191 8-1 9: 

President — C.  C.  Certain,  head  of  the  English  department,  Cass  Technical  High 
School,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Vice-President — Delia  G.  Ovitz,  librarian  of  the  State  Normal  School,  Milwaukee, 
Wis. 

Secretary — Annie  T.  Eaton,  librarian,  Lincoln  School,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,  New  York,  N.Y. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


THE  CHILD  AND  THE  BOOK  IN  WAR  TIMES 

CLARA  W.  HUNT,   SUPERINTENDENT,   CHILDREN'S  DEPARTMENT,  PUBLIC 
LIBRARY,   BROOKLYN,   N.Y. 

A  book  read  by  a  fourteen-year-old  boy  was  the  spark  that  exploded  the 
powder  magazine  which  set  on  fire  this  world-war.  So,  in  effect,  said 
Garvio  Prinzip,  murderer  of  the  Austrian  royalties. 

While  the  anarchist  book  read  by  Prinzip  was  not  the  "cause"  of  the 
war,  books — or  the  lack  of  them — have  had  much  to  do  with  making  the 
war;  and  the  books  we  give  our  children  will  be  enormous  factors  in  hasten- 
ing or  deferring  the  day  when  wars  shall  cease. 

The  bad  influence  of  the  morally  vicious  book  is  recognized.  Too  few 
people  realize  the  harmfulness  of  the  mediocre  reading-habit. 

It  takes  brains  as  well  as  hearts  and  consciences  to  make  strong  charac- 
ters. Many  children's  minds  are  being  reduced  to  pulp  by  debauches  of 
reading  weak  books. 

Our  children  will  not  be  ready  for  the  grave  problems  of  the  future 
unless  we  teach  them  to  think  clearly,  wisely,  courageously.  The  habitual 
reading  of  many  of  the  present-day  story-books  for  children  will  make  lazy- 
mindedness  a  fixt  habit. 

Many  people  have  unselfish  hearts  but  selfish  minds.  They  are  kind  to 
suffering  next  door,  callous  to  suffering  across  the  sea.    We  must  give  to 


Department]  SELECTIVE  BOOKS  FOR  HIGH-SCHOOL  BOYS  449 

children  books  of  the  sort  that  make  all  the  world  neighbors.  There  is  a 
time  for  opening  windows  in  the  child's  mind  thru  his  imagination,  and 
unless  we  begin  early  the  child  may  live  his  Hfe  shut  up  in  a  windowless 
prison  of  narrow-mindedness. 

Many  children  have  no  access  at  all  to  books.  There  are  too  many 
states  in  this  Union  which,  from  the  point  of  view  of  library  progress,  are 
living  in  the  dark  ages.  Teachers  and  Hbrarians  must  work  together  till 
not  only  good  schools  but  good  books  for  home  reading  are  free  to  all  children 
in  America. 

We  must  be  careful  about  the  kind  of  books  on  this  war  which  we  give 
to  children.  Do  not  buy  low-class  battlefield  thrillers  tost  off  by  the 
juvenile-story  writer  to  put  money  into  his  pocket.  Only  a  writer  of  serious 
and  honest  purpose  should  be  allowed  to  speak  to  our  children  thru  stories 
of  the  war. 

SELECTING  BOOKS  FOR  HIGH-SCHOOL  BOYS 

EDWIN  L.  MILLER,  PRINCIPAL,  NORTHWESTERN  HIGH  SCHOOL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

A  student  at  Yale  was  once  askt,  "Did  you  take  Greek ?"  He  repUed, 
"No,  but  I  was  exposed  to  it."  In  this  anecdote  there  is  contained  the 
germ  of  the  whole  philosophy  of  books  and  their  choice  for  boys.  "You 
may  lead  a  horse  to  water,  but  you  cannot  make  him  drink."  You  may 
print  lists  of  the  best  books  by  the  thousand,  but  you  cannot  make  the 
boys  read  them.  All  that  you  can  do  is  to  expose  the  boys  to  their  influence 
and  if  they  take  to  them  thank  your  stars,  provided  the  result  is  such  as 
you  desire.  A  certain  eminent  educator  has  indeed  suggested  that  it  would 
be  well  to  place  all  of  the  books  which  one  desired  a  boy  to  read  in  a  lockt 
bookcase  and  label  it  "Forbidden  Fruit,  Highly  Improper  for  Boys."  The 
result  would  always  be  the  same — a  boy  would  read  eagerly  and  thoroly. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  ever  since  I  can  remember  I  have  been  a  reader, 
a  lover,  and  a  collector  of  books.  I  have  not  studied  them  for  the  sake  of 
improving  my  mind,  for  that  would  have  been  impossible;  I  have  read 
them  in  the  same  spirit  in  which  boys  play  ball,  girls  dress  their  dolls,  men 
attend  prize  fights,  and  women  gossip  about  their  neighbors.  I  have  read 
them  as  Macaulay  says,  "with  my  feet  on  the  fender."  The  consequence 
is  that,  logic  or  no  logic,  reason  or  no  reason,  I  am  convinced  that  it  is  a 
good  thing  for  a  boy  to  acquire  this  harmless  habit. 

The  way  to  begin,  it  seems  to  me,  is  to  expose  Mr.  Boy  at  the  outset 
to  something  which  he  really  will  read  for  the  pure  fun  of  the  thing.  I  sug- 
gest Tom  Sawyer  and  Huckleberry  Finn,  tho  several  years  ago,  when  I  asked 
a  certain  high-school  hbrarian  to  purchase  them  for  her  shelves,  she  held 
up  her  hands  in  horror  exclaiming,  "You  don't  expect  me  to  put  them  on 
my  shelves,  do  you  ?  "  I  repHed,  "  I  do.  What  is  your  objection  to  them  ?  " 
"Why,"  she  answered,  "If  I  were  to  have  those  among  my  books,  they 


450  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

would  be  in  use  all  the  time  and  would  soon  be  worn  out."  She  was  quite 
right.  There  are  also  certain  boys  who  like  Treasure  Island.  A  certain 
young  gentleman  of  eight  recently  read  Jack  London's  Call  of  the  Wild  with 
understanding  if  not  with  pleasure  under  my  eye,  though  he  knew  it  not, 
and  I  later  found  him  devouring  Over  the  Top  and  My  Four  Years  in  Ger- 
many.   I  have  even  seen  him  dipping  into  the  Literary  Digest. 


PRACTICABLE  LIBRARY  COOPERATION  WITH  JUNIOR  RED 
CROSS  ORGANIZATIONS  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

O.   S.  RICE,   SUPERVISOR  OF  SCHOOL  LIBRARIES,   STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF 
PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  MADISON,  WIS. 

No  great  work  involving  millions  of  free  people  can  be  successfully 
accomplisht  without  the  wide  and  wise  use  of  the  printed  word.  This 
truth  is  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  carrying  out  of  the  many  war  drives 
since  our  entry  into  the  world-war.  Newspapers,  magazines,  pamphlets, 
and  posters  are  depended  upon  not  only  for  the  specific  purposes  of  any 
particular  drive  but  also  for  the  rousing  of  the  popular  mind  to  the  war 
situation  in  general,  so  that  the  people  will  respond  as  a  unit  to  the  appeals 
for  national  action  in  this  world-crisis. 

Much  is  said,  with  good  reason,  concerning  the  necessity  of  maintaining 
the  morale  of  the  Army  and  Navy  in  order  to  win  the  war.  Keeping  up 
the  morale  of  the  civihan  population  is  not  a  whit  less  important.  Patriotic 
addresses,  pubHc  discussions,  parades,  moving  pictures,  and  the  like, 
accomplish  much  toward  this  end;  but  after  all  the  power  of  print  is  the 
greatest  force  that  can  be  utilized  to  maintain  the  general  morale  in  these 
critical  times.  In  fact,  all  other  agencies  themselves  depend  for  their 
material  largely  upon  what  appears  in  print. 

Children  who  read  Over  the  Top  or  Private  Peat  will  both  know  and  feel 
what  we  are  fighting  for  and  what  sacrifices  must  be  made;  those  who  read 
Florence  Nightingale,  the  Angel  of  the  Crimea,  will  reahze  the  dreadful  con- 
ditions now  prevented  by  the  Red  Cross;  Hospital  Sketches,  by  Louisa  May 
Alcott,  makes  the  work  of  the  Red  Cross  nurse  vividly  real;  the  Rhymes 
of  a  Red  Cross  Man  nerve  to  heroic  action  without  un-Christian  hate;  news- 
papers and  magazines  warn  against  insidious  enemy  propaganda;  bulletins, 
pamphlets,  and  posters,  well  chosen  and  used  in  season,  point  the  way  to 
practical  efforts  in  production,  conservation,  and  contribution. 

Such  reading  serves  the  principal  purpose  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross 
organization,  which  is  education  in  patriotic  citizenship  with  practical 
apphcation  to  the  present  world-crisis.  To  bring  it  about  on  a  large  scale 
the  best  attainable  library  service  is  necessary.  Little  has  been  done  to 
this  end,  however,  up  to  the  present  time. 

The  children  of  rural  communities  need  the  services  of  the  printed  word 
in  this  world-crisis  even  more  than  do  the  city  children.     In  the  country 


Department]        LIBRARY  COOPERATION  WITH  JUNIOR  RED  CROSS  451 

there  are  fewer  opportunities  to  hear  addresses,  see  war  ''movies,"  etc., 
than  in  the  city;  and  yet  the  rural  population  of  our  country  has,  per 
capita,  only  about  one-fortieth  of  the  pubhc-library  service  enjoyed  by  city 
people.  Vast  rural  areas  and  millions  of  the  rural  population  are  absolutely 
without  public  Hbraries.  Only  a  relatively  minor  role  then  can,  as  a  whole 
be  played  by  pubHc  libraries  in  library  cooperation  with  Junior  Red  Cross 
organizations  in  rural  schools.  We  must  look  largely  to  other  agencies 
for  such  service,  at  least  for  the  present. 

State  traveling-library  systems  can  do  a  great  service  for  Junior  Red 
Cross  organizations  in  rural  schools  by  sending  to  them  small  but  well- 
selected  collections  of  books  suitable  for  promoting  the  aims  of  the  Junior 
Red  Cross.    Packages  of  such  books  can  be  inexpensively  sent  by  parcel  post. 

Loans  to  teachers  of  individual  books  on  Red  Cross  topics  would  be  a 
valuable  way  of  reaching  the  schools.  Hundreds  of  such  loans  were  made 
during  the  past  year  by  the  Wisconsin  Free  Library  Commission. 

Package  libraries  of  pamphlets  and  clippings  would  make  available 
much  Junior  Red  Cross  material.  The  Extension  Division  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin  sends  out  on  application  such  packages  to  the  schools  of 
the  state. 

County  travehng-hbrary  systems  can  be  utihzed  on  the  plan  recom- 
mended for  state  travehng  libraries. 

Public  libraries  in  cities  would  render  a  valuable  service  by  supplying 
Junior  Red  Cross  material  to  schools  in  surrounding  rural  communities 
during  the  period  of  the  war. 

School  libraries  are  now  s6  general  thruout  the  country  that  in  their 
use  he  great  possibilities  for  promoting  Junior  Red  Cross  activities  in  rural 
schools.  Selection  of  books  and  periodicals  for  such  hbraries  and  the 
general  reading  of  the  pupils  should  be  based  to  a  considerable  extent  on 
the  educational  aims  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross.  Schools  should  have  a 
simple  filing  system  to  take  care  of  war  pamphlets  and  clippings,  so  that 
their  contents  may  be  easily  available. 

State  young  people's  reading  circles,  by  emphasizing  the  reading  of 
books  relating  to  the  world-war  and  the  various  patriotic  subjects  con- 
nected therewith,  can  do  a  great  work  thru  the  Junior  Red  Cross  organi- 
zations. In  fact,  the  promotion  of  reading-circle  activities  may  well  be 
concentrated  in  the  form  of  a  ''drive"  seeking  to  enrol  the  pupils  in  all  the- 
schools  of  a  state  for  patriotic  reading  under  reading-circle  auspices. 

Junior  Red  Cross  organizations  in  rural  schools  can  be  of  effective 
service  in  future  drives  for  money  and  books  for  the  camp  hbraries  admin- 
istered by  the  American  Library  Association.  Only  public  hbraries  have 
been  appealed  to  in  past  drives  for  camp  libraries.  Over  half  the  people 
of  the  country,  however,  reside  in  communities  not  maintaining  a  public 
library,  and  in  such  communities  the  Junior  Red  Cross  organizations  can 
well  do  the  work. 


45 2  NA  TIONAL  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  [Library 

Junior  Red  Cross  organizations  aim,  above  all,  to  give  to  the  rising 
generation  that  vision  of  patriotism  and  duty  which  points  the  way  to  the 
rehef  of  suffering,  makes  clear  the  issues  of  the  world-war,  teaches  the 
ideals  of  true  democracy,  and  nerves  for  the  sacrifices  necessary  to  make 
the  world  safe  for  democracy  and  to  make  democracy  more  and  more  a 
blessing  to  the  world.  No  higher  service  can  be  rendered  by  library 
agencies  than  by  effectively  cooperating  in  this  patriotic  program.  This 
they  can  best  do  by  expanding  and  extending  for  this  purpose  their  primary 
function  of  providing  literature  suitable  to  the  needs  of  those  whom  they 
serve. 


REPORT  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL  COMMITTEE: 

LIBRARY  COOPERATION  WITH  THE  JUNIOR  RED 

CROSS 

ANNIE    S.   CUTTER,  CHAIRMAN,  CHILDREN'S    DEPARTAIENT,  PUBLIC    LIBRARY, 

CLEVELAND,  OHIO 

It  was  only  a  little  river,  almost  a  brook;  it  was  called  the  Yser.  One  could  talk 
from  one  side  to  the  other  without  raising  one's  voice,  and  the  birds  could  fly  over  it 
with  one  sweep  of  their  whigs.  And  on  the  two  banks  there  were  millions  of  men,  the 
one  turned  toward  the  other,  eye  to  eye.  But  the  distance  which  separated  them  was 
greater  than  the  stars  in  the  sky;  it  was  the  distance  which  separates  right  from  injustice. 

The  ocean  is  so  vast  that  the  sea  gulls  do  not  dare  to  cross  it.  During  seven  days 
and  seven  nights  the  great  steamships  of  America,  going  at  full  speed,  drive  thru  the 
deep  waters  before  the  light  houses  of  France  come  into  view;  but  from  one  side  to  the 
other  hearts  are  touching. 

You  are  probably  familiar  with  this  letter  of  the  fourteen-year-old 
French  student,  which  is  remarkable  in  spirit  and  expression  for  so  young 
a  girl.  I  quoted  it  because  of  the  last  sentence,  ''But  from  one  side  to  the 
other  hearts  are  touching."  This  expresses  so  simply  yet  so  beautifully 
one  actual  good  which  is  emerging  from  the  present  great  evil — the  growing 
oneness  of  the  nations.  We  feel  also  the  quickening  everywhere  of  that 
ideahsm  common  to  all  nations  which  thru  long  years  has  always  exprest 
itself  in  service  and  sacrifice.  It  is  the  aim  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross  to  seize 
this  enthusiasm  for  service,  intensified  by  the  great  experience  of  war, 
and  make  it  contribute  toward  a  truer  community  of  spirit  and  better 
world-citizenship. 

Mr.  McCracken  says,  "If  history  is  so  taught  and  so  studied  that  the 
age-long  struggle  toward  Hberty  and  democracy  is  vital  to  the  students  and 
they  are  imprest  with  their  potential  part  in  it,  both  students  and  teachers 
are  doing  the  highest  kind  of  Red  Cross  work. "  How  may  the  pubHc  Hbrary 
help  in  this  highest  kind  of  Red  Cross  work  ?  Surely  one  way  is  to  keep 
before  the  children  well-told  accounts  of  great  patriotic  deeds,  not  simply 
those  performed  by  our  own  heroes  of  past  and  present  days,  but  also  those 
performed  by  the  great  men  of  other  times  and  countries.    True  patriotism 


Department]      REPORT  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL  COMMITTEE         453 

means  more  than  an  emotional  thrill.  It  is  compounded  of  so  many  things; 
a  knowledge,  as  well  as  love,  of  one's  country;  a  desire  to  obey  its  laws;  the 
wish  to  share  its  privileges  with  others  less  fortunate;  the  determination  to 
serve  it  by  courageous  Hving.  Too  often  in  these  days  the  finer  feelings 
of  children  are  blunted  by  a  cheap  emotional  excitement  that  passes  for 
patriotism.  Are  we  cultivating  real  patriotism  when  we  let  young  girls  sell 
liberty  bonds  for  kisses,  or  have  school  children  for  the  cHmax  of  their  parade 
pound  nails  in  a  dummy  Kaiser's  coffin  ? 

The  Junior  Red  Cross  is  counteracting  just  such  negative,  if  not  really 
destructive,  influences  by  presenting  a  program  of  war  service  for  children 
which  is  at  once  educative,  patriotic,  and  enticing. 

In  considering  the  question  of  how  the  public  library  may  cooperate 
with  the  Junior  Red  Cross,  the  Elementary  School  Committee  suggests  that 
the  hbrary's  service  is  to  make  available  to  children  in  every  way  possible 
that  Hterature  which  will  give  them  an  appreciation  of  their  country's  part 
in  the  "age-long  struggle  for  democracy"  and  strengthen  their  desire  to 
perform  unselfish  service.    The  following  definite  ways  are  suggested: 

1.  To  place  on  display  racks  in  Ubrary  or  school  small  collections  of 
books  under  headings  such  as  "Love  of  Country,"  "Men  and  Women  of 
the  Day,"  "National  Holidays,"  "Heroes  and  Heroines,"  "Fighting  for 
Freedom,"  "National  Heroes." 

2.  To  make  picture  bulletins  illustrating  some  particular  Red  Cross 
activity. 

3.  To  compile  reading-Hsts  and  leaflets  on  such  subjects  as  "Why  We 
Are  at  War,"  "War-Time  Changes  in  Commerce,"  "Why  We  Must  Save 
Wheat,"  "How  Boys  and  Girls  Can  Help,"  "How  the  Red  Cross  Helps  the 
Soldiers  and  Sailors." 

4.  To  keep  on  file  reports  and  Uterature  pertaining  to  the  activities  of 
the  Red  Cross  in  civiHan  and  war  relief  and  the  part  the  Junior  Red  Cross 
plays  in  these  activities. 

5.  To  work  with  teachers,  wherever  such  assistance  is  welcome,  in 
planning  a  series  of  compositions  on  patriotic  subjects  and  programs  for 
national  hoHdays. 

6.  To  coUect  informational  material  for  children's  use  in  writing  these 
compositions. 

7.  To  have  exhibits  held  in  the  hbrary  showing  some  of  the  work  of 
the  Junior  Red  Cross. 

8.  To  provide  means  of  coordinating  Junior  Red  Cross  activities  with 
library  war  service,  e.g.:  {a)  making  scrapbooks  for  the  hospitals;  {b)  mak- 
ing boxes  in  which  to  ship  books  to  the  soldiers;  {c)  holding  meetings  for 
sewing,  knitting,  scrapbook  making,  etc.,  in  the  library;  {d)  converting 
library  clubs  into  clubs  with  a  definite  war  service  in  view;  {e)  holding  in 
the  library  exhibits  of  food  organized  by  Junior  Red  Cross  groups,  with 
the  purpose  of  giving  tangible  form  to  recommendations  for  conserving 


454  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

wheat,  etc.     Such  exhibits  are  especially  helpful  in  foreign  neighborhoods 
when  the  exhibits  have  been  prepared  by  the  foreign  women. 

These  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  hbrary  may  be  of  service.  To 
illustrate  the  kind  of  list  that  the  library  might  prepare  for  teachers'  use 
with  their  pupils  in  connection  with  war  work  the  committee  is  presenting 
the  beginnings  of  a  list  on  "What  Is  Patriotism?"  It  is  only  tentative 
and  far  from  complete,  but  we  feel  that  the  outline  is  such  that  it  can  be 
built  upon  and  enlarged. 


THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  STUDENT  AND  THE  BOOK 

ROBERT  J.  ALEY,  PRESIDENT,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MAINE,  ORONO,  ME. 

It  is  a  great  many  years  since  I  have  had  close  contact  with  high-school 
students.  For  a  number  of  years  I  was  a  teacher  and  for  four  years  prin- 
cipal of  a  high  school.  I  have  had  considerable  contact  with  high-school 
students  after  they  had  finisht  their  high-school  course  and  had  entered 
college. 

I  recall  that  in  my  high-school  work  the  student  who  fell  in  love  with 
the  book  did  not  give  me  trouble.  I  have  found  in  a  long  experience 
in  college  and  university  work  that  the  high-school  graduate  who  comes 
to  college  invariably  gives  a  good  account  of  himself  if  he  has  fallen  in 
love  with  the  book.  The  other  side  of  the  story  is,  as  many  of  you  doubt- 
less know,  that  the  high-school  student  who  is  not  caught  by  the  lure  of 
the  book  either  leaves  school  without  completing  the  course,  or  after  gradua- 
tion helps  to  recruit  that  army  of  young  people  who  do  nothing  worth  while. 
You  also  know  that  many  of  those  who  fail  in  college  have  not  learned  how 
to  use  books  or  have  not  been  caught  by  their  lure.  Some  time  ago  a  young 
woman  was  assisting  a  professor  in  packing  his  library.  She  remarkt  that 
it  was  curious  how  many  people  there  were  who  gathered  together  great 
collections  of  books,  and  who  seemed  to  have  so  much  pleasure  from  them. 
"As  for  myself  I  care  very  little  for  books.  Of  course,  it  may  be  that  the 
reason  for  this  is  that  I  cannot  read."  Books  are  valuable  only  to  those 
who  really  know  how  to  read. 

Perhaps  some  of  you  may  have  heard  Don  Seitz,  of  the  New  York  World, 
.in  that  rather  eccentric  address  of  his  at  the  Atlantic  City  meeting  of  the 
Department  of  Superintendence.  Mr.  Seitz  insisted  that  the  whole  course 
of  study  should  not  only  start  with,  but  should  center  in,  reading.  Reading 
is  the  first  great  task.  While  he  perhaps  put  it  in  a  very  emphatic  form, 
there  is,  after  all,  much  truth  in  his  statement  that  the  ability  to  read  is 
the  most  fundamentally  important  thing  in  education. 

I  have  found  as  a  teacher  that  the  difficulties  occurring  in  the  various 
fields  of  study  are  many  times  due  to  the  inability  to  read.  Some  of  the 
absurd  things  that  come  back  to  us  in  oral  answers  and  written  papers  come 


I 


Department]  THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  STUDENT  AND  THE  BOOK  455 

back  because  the  student  cannot  read.  Students  err  in  some  important 
proposition,  or  in  the  solution  of  some  difficult  problem,  and  a  little  inves- 
tigation shows  that  they  have  failed  simply  because  they  have  not  read. 
I  have  had  some  experience  in  sending  to  members  of  faculties  a  written 
outline  workt  out  in  some  detail,  and  have  been  surprised  to  find  almost 
as  many  interpretations  of  the  thing  I  had  sent  out  as  there  were  people 
to  whom  it  had  been  sent.  By  the  time  the  receiver  had  explained  it  to 
someone  who  had  not  received  it,  and  that  individual  came  to  me,  I  could 
not  recognize  that  I  had  had  anything  to  do  with  starting  the  matter.  I 
had  similar  experiences  many  times  as  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
in  Indiana.  I  had  to  send  many  communications  to  school  officials  and 
school  teachers.  Whenever  these  communications  failed  to  "get  over"  it 
was  either  because  I  did  not  write  English  or  because  the  receivers  could 
not,  or  did  not,  read  what  I  wrote.  Reading  is  back  of  and  fundamental 
to  almost  everything  in  education.  It  would  greatly  simplify  the  life  of 
the  Republic  if  all  our  people  could  read. 

Back  of  any  important  library  work  there  needs  to  be  increast  emphasis 
in  the  schools  upon  teaching  young  people  to  read.  Most  of  us  have  not 
had  experience  enough  in  reading  material  that  is  difficult  to  understand. 
We  have  the  newspaper  habit  of  reading,  the  magazine  habit  of  reading, 
the  best-seller  habit  of  reading.  In  this  sort  of  reading  there  is  no  par- 
ticular strain  upon  the  gray  matter.  A  large  part  of  the  meaning,  perhaps 
all  that  is  needed,  may  be  obtained  by  reading  a  sentence  here  and  there. 
One  may  read  a  best  seller  of  the  usual  size  in  an  hour  and  get  the  story 
well  enough  in  mind  to  listen  intelligently  to  those  who  rave  about  the 
book.  The  kind  of  reading  that  most  young  people  actually  do  does  not 
call  for  very  much  effort.  It  does  not  require  much  attentive  study,  and 
hence  the  results  have  no  serious  value. 

It  was  William  T.  Harris  who  told  this  interesting  story  of  his  own 
experience  in  learning  to  read.  Desiring  to  improve  himself,  he  askt  an 
older  man  in  whom  he  had  confidence  to  recommend  a  book.  The  book 
recommended  was  Kant's  Critique  of  Pure  Reason.  Young  Harris  secured 
the  book.  He  supposed  from  its  size  and  appearance  that  it  would  occupy 
him  for  a  few  evenings.  It  was  with  confidence  that  he  began  the  reading 
on  the  first  evening.  After  some  time  he  awoke  to  the  realization  that  he 
was  not  reading.  Then  he  backt  up  and  tried  the  first  page  again.  But 
he  could  not  get  an  idea  out  of  it.  Then  the  splendid  quahty  that  made 
Dr.  Harris  a  leader  of  philosophic  thought  in  this  country  asserted  itself, 
and  he  said,  "I  will  read  it."  .It  was  almost  two  years  before  he  finish  the 
book.  He  put  considerable  time  on  it  every  day  and  finally  mastered  it. 
"I  haven't  found  anything  hard  to  read  since"  was  his  comment. 

Young  people  in  high  school  and  college  need  to  be  led  to  master  some- 
thing that  is  hard  to  read.  I  have  great  faith  in  the  virtue  of  doing  hard 
things.    We  have  had  for  almost  a  generation  soft  pedagogy  and  soft  home 


456  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

discipline.  They  have  not  produced  the  result  desired.  It  is  still  worth 
while  to  do  hard  things.  Those  boys,  our  friends  and  former  students, 
who  come  back  for  a  day  or  two  from  some  cantonment  where  they  have 
been  several  months  are  transformed.  Eight  months  ago  I  bade  goodbye 
to  a  boy.  He  was  in  my  office  the  other  day.  He  was  a  man — the  kind 
of  a  man  you  like  to  see.  The  same  transformation  has  already  been  made 
in  two  million  cases  and  will  be  made  in  as  many  more  cases  as  there  are 
young  men  who  are  given  the  opportunity;  and  it  has  been  made  because 
these  young  men  have  had  a  splendid  chance  to  do  hard  things.  There  is 
no  soft  pedal  in  an  army  camp.  It  is  hard  work  and  discipline  from  the 
beginning  of  one  day  to  the  beginning  of  the  next. 

If  boys  and  girls  are  to  come  under  the  power  of  the  book  they  must 
learn  to  read.  They  must  have  the  discipline  that  will  make  it  easy  for 
them  to  read  the  difficult  page.  This  will  come  if  there  is  increast  emphasis 
upon  the  teaching  of  reading  in  the  grammar  school  and  much  required 
practice  in  the  high  school. 

Boys  and  girls  of  the  high  school  are  tremendously  influenst  by  the 
attitude  of  their  teachers  toward  books.  I  do  mean,  not  the  attitude  of 
the  English  teachers  alone,  but  the  attitude  of  all  the  teachers.  Many 
young  people  think  that  it  is  the  business  of  the  English  teacher  to  recom- 
mend books.  They  beHeve  the  commendation  if  it  comes  from  someone 
else.  It  seems  that  the  teachers  of  English  have  not  wholly  succeeded  in 
creating  a  love  for  the  book. 

A  number  of  us,  particularly  schoolboys  and  schoolgirls,  sympathize 
with  the  view  exprest  by  a  writer  in  the  Nation.  He  made  a  very  strong 
plea  for  a  markt  reduction  in  the  required  Enghsh  readings  in  high  school. 
His  reason  was  that  there  might  be  left  some  good  things  to  be  enjoyed 
after  school  days  are  over.  Did  you  ever  know  a  high-school  student  to 
treasure  the  classic  that  he  had  read  in  school  ?  Generally  the  day  after 
the  examination  there  is  a  glut  in  the  second-hand  market  on  the  classic 
covered.  The  book  is  sold,  and  the  student  never  wants  to  see  it  again. 
I  don't  blame  him  very  much.  I  re-read  Dante  recently;  I  stopped  several 
times  in  the  reading  and  tried  to  imagine  how  fine  it  would  be  if  I  were 
reading  in  order  that  some  school  teacher  might  examine  me  or  inquire  of 
me  just  what  Dante  meant  and  just  why  Dante  used  a  particular  word. 
Too  much  work  in  literature  is  of  this  sort. 

I  shall  not  attempt  to  discuss  at  any  length  the  mechanical  side  of 
library  management.  I  regard  it  as  a  fortunate  change  that  hbrarians  no 
longer  regard  the  books  as  their  personal  pr(^erty  which  must,  at  all  cost, 
be  protected  from  the  contaminating  touch  of  the  reader.  The  reader 
should  and  generally  does  have  free  access  to  the  shelves.  It  is  by  this 
free  access  that  the  student  learns  something  of  the  range  of  literature  and 
knowledge  and  gets  a  speaking  acquaintance  with  books  of  which  he  would 
otherwise  know  nothing.    My  own  richest  book  experiences  have  come  in 


Department]  HIGH-SCHOOL  UBRARY  AND  EDUCATIONAL  AIMS  457 

that  way.  Exposure  to  books  is  a  great  thing.  The  librarian  and  the 
teacher  should  unite  to  make  this  exposure  as  great  as  possible. 

I  have  said  nothing  about  the  reference  library,  or  its  use.  I  think  this 
is  fairly  well  cared  for  everywhere.  Recent  developments  in  teaching  have 
tended  to  make  a  greater  and  greater  use  of  recorded  knowledge.  The  use 
of  the  book  as  a  reference,  as  well  as  interest  in  books  in  general,  will  depend 
upon  the  intensity  of  desire  created  in  the  student.  We  have  at  the  Uni- 
versity a  training  detachment  of  two  hundred  United  States  soldiers.  They 
are  being  trained  as  soldiers  and  also  as  mechanicians.  These  men  have 
an  intense  interest  in  the  thing  they  are  preparing  to  do.  They  have  a 
long  and  fully  occupied  day  from  5:45  a.m.  to  8:00  p.m.  These  men  use 
the  library  for  a  definite  purpose.  They  want  authoritative  answers  to 
questions  in  carpentry,  blacksmithing,  auto-mechanics,  electrical  wiring, 
gas-engine  theory  and  practice,  etc.  Such  knowledge  attained  guarantees 
to  the  possessor  a  better  assignment  and  greater  certainty  of  promotion. 

If  in  school  and  college  we  could  create  desire  and  establish  definite 
purpose  in  the  student  we  might  make  the  reference  library  a  great  power 
in  education.  The  librarian  should  patiently  and  carefully  teach  the  stu- 
dent how  to  use  the  reference  book.  Many  intelligent  and  fairly  well- 
educated  people  are  almost  helpless  in  the  presence  of  a  dictionary, 
encyclopedia,  or  other  book  of  reference.  The  query  pages  of  newspapers 
and  magazines  furnish  ample  verification  of  this  statement. 

The  reader  and  lover  of  the  book  is  a  safe  and  valuable  citizen.  Our 
duty  is  to  see  to  it  that  our  scholars  have  every  opportunity  to  know  the 
books,  to  be  expert  in  using  them,  and  to  come  under  the  influence  of  their 
charm  and  power. 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  TO  MODERN 
EDUCATIONAL  AIMS 

J.  A.  CHURCHILL,  STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  EDUCATION,  SALEM,  ORE. 

"A  just  judge  always  seeks  to  increase  his  jurisdiction."  This  old  say- 
ing is  the  assumption  that  one  who  can  do  his  work  efficiently  assumes  that 
he  owes  it  to  himself  to  enlarge  his  opportunities  for  service,  in  order  that 
he  may  fill  a  larger  sphere  of  usefulness  and  perform  duties  that  may  not 
be  rendered  so  well  by  others.  Instead  of  visualizing  clearly  the  definite 
ends  of  his  particular  work  and  striving  daily  for  their  accompHshment, 
he  too  often  attempts  to  do  the  work  that  falls  wholly  within  the  respon- 
sibiHties  of  others,  with  the  result  that  his  efforts  are  scattered  and  his 
work  ineffective. 

This  criticism  may  apply  to  the  high-school  library.  Too  often  it 
attempts  to  duphcate  the  service  of  the  public  Hbrary.  If  it  functions  as 
a  high-school  library  it  will  so  supplement  the  work  of  the  school  that  it 


458  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Library 

will  meet  all  of  its  special  needs.  It  will  leave  to  the  public  library  all  the 
kinds  of  work  that  are  to  be  continued  after  school.  The  high-school 
librarian  must  confine  herself  to  certain  definite  lines  on  account  of  three 
limitations:  (i)  The  number  of  books  in  her  Ubrary  service  is  small  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  public  library.  (2)  Four  years  is  all  the  time 
she  can  have  out  of  the  student's  life,  and  each  of  those  four  years  is  closed 
to  her  for  several  months  each  year.  (3)  She  can  have  but  a  small  part 
of  his  time  each  day,  as  his  school  hours  are  full  of  activities  outside  of 
the  library.    What  then  can  the  library  do  within  these  limits  ? 

First  of  all,  there  can  be  no  effective  high-school  library  unless  it  has 
a  librarian  whose  full  time  is  devoted  to  its  work.  A  fine  building  splen- 
didly equipt  cannot  make  a  school.  An  intelHgent  group  of  well-mannered 
children  cannot  make  it.  The  teacher  makes  the  school;  if  he  be  well 
trained,  has  had  a  good  preparation,  has  physical  strength,  enthusiasm,  and 
love  for  his  work,  the  community  in  which  he  teaches  will  have  a  good  school, 
even  tho  the  school  plant  be  inadequate.  The  librarian  makes  the  high- 
school  library;  for  the  kind  of  service  she  renders  determines  its  measure 
as  an  educational  asset.  She  must  not  only  have  been  trained  for  her  work, 
but  have  had  experience  as  a  librarian,  that  she  may  have  a  wide  knowledge 
of  books,  the  bibliography  of  the  high-school  subjects,  and  a  human  interest 
in  the  pupil.  She  must  be  a  capable  director  of  good  reading  and  inspire 
an  interest  in  good  books.  With  all  these  qualities  and  with  all  the  knowl- 
edge she  may  possess  she  will  fail  unless  she  is  really  eager  to  open  the  world 
of  books  to  young  people  with  different  tastes  and  environments,  and 
unless  she  knows  her  books  so  thoroly  that  she  gives  the  right  books  to  the 
right  pupil  at  the  right  time.  She  should  have  the  same  college  prepara- 
tion as  the  other  members  of  the  high-school  corps,  and  in  addition  she 
should  bring  to  her  work  two  years  of  full  professional  training  guaranteed 
by  an  approved  Hbrary  school.  It  is  a  wise  economy  on  the  part  of  school 
boards  employing  ten  or  more  teachers  in  a  high  school  to  secure  such  a 
trained  librarian  who  will  give  her  full  time  to  contributing  to  the  success 
of  the  work  by  intelligently  cooperating  with  teachers  of  all  subjects. 

One  of  the  aims  of  education  is  to  open  the  mind  of  the  pupil  to  the 
possibihties  of  life,  professionally,  socially,  and  vocationally.  He  must  be 
so  taught  that  he  will  understand  that  his  chief  aim  in  life  is  to  prepare 
not  for  a  business  or  a  profession  but  for  Hfe;  for  work  in  the  group  for  his 
own  good  and  the  advantage  of  others. 

History  must  be  so  taught  that  it  furnishes  a  basis  for  the  development 
of  intelligent  civic  patriotism  that  puts  the  student  more  fully  in  touch  with 
his  political,  civil,  and  industrial  environment.  Each  section  of  every 
state  should  devote  much  attention  to  preserving  such  of  its  stories  and 
traditions  as  will  contribute  to  the  understanding  of  the  broader  and  more 
general  movements  in  our  national  history,  for  there  is  little  of  value  in  the 
study  of  any  history  that  may  not  be  connected  with  the  child's  present 


Department]     HIGH-SCBOOL  LIBRARY  AND  EDUCATIONAL  AIMS  459 

or  future  environment.  The  stories  of  the  sacrifices  and  achievements  of 
those  who  subdued  the  Middle  and  the  Far  West  will  interpret  the  struggles 
of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  and  Pilgrim  Mothers  and  are  just  as  noble  and 
worthy.  Assistance  in  gathering  the  local  material  and  in  assembhng  it 
falls  within  the  scope  of  the  high-school  library. 

Strong  emphasis  on  the  relations  of  the  individual  as  a  member  of  the 
group  must  henceforth  be  the  prominent  feature  in  the  teaching  of  civics. 
The  rights,  duties,  and  hberties  of  every  individual  are  linkt  with  the  laws, 
conventions,  and  requirements  of  society,  and  no  one  can  radically  separate 
himself  from  his  social  fellows.  Anarchy  is  the  failure  to  recognize  the 
interdependent  relation  in  the  development  of  the  individual.  Without 
such  recognition  there  can  be  no  family,  community,  state,  or  national  life. 
In  our  present  great  crisis  we  are  thinking  less  and  less  in  terms  of  the 
individual  and  more  and  more  in  terms  of  the  nation. 

The  future  economic  structure  of  society  is  largely  within  the  keeping 
of  the  high  schools  of  today,  for  those  who  are  now  in  school  are  to  be  called 
upon  for  such  a  large  contribution  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  world.  It  is 
a  wonderful  opportunity  to  be  young  now  and  on  the  threshold  of  great 
possibilities  for  achievement.  It  is  a  glorious  privilege  for  those  who  are 
older  to  set  the  feet  of  the  young  people  in  the  right  path,  fitting  them  for 
the  rich  accomplishments  that  are  to  be  theirs. 

Thru  all  the  preparation  for  this  gigantic  task,  with  its  scientific  prepa- 
ration for  citizenship,  the  teachers  of  literature  are  still  the  persons  who  give 
the  inspiration.  The  rich  heritage  of  vision,  knowledge  of  mankind,  sound 
judgments,  justice,  and  wisdom  must  come  from  them.  If  this  be  our  aim, 
it  is  clear  that  a  textbook  alone  and  a  great  teacher  are  not  sufficient,  but 
that  a  finely  selected  library  and  well-directed  outside  reading  are  necessary. 
[For  an  intellectual  comprehension  of  our  world-situation  the  young  citizen 
must  have  supervised  independent  reading;  for  the  supreme  object  of  his 
study  of  hterature  is  to  have  him  realize  the  beauty  of  literature  as  an 
interpretation  of  Hfe. 

Another  chief  aim  of  the  high-school  Hbrary  is  to  make  sure  that  there 
is  to  be  a  continuation  of  education  beyond  the  high  school.  The  young 
citizen  should  have  definite  plans  for  continuing  his  education  thru  the 
public  library  and  be  thoroly  imprest  with  the  importance  of  following 
them.  In  a  western  high  school  with  an  enrolment  of  more  than  three 
hundred  a  careful  inquiry  disclosed  the  fact  that  out  of  all  those  pursuing 
higher  learning  90  per  cent  never  entered  the  public  library  and  took  little 
or  no  interest  in  the  communities'  activities. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  high-school  librarian  to  stimulate  and,  so  far  as 
possible,  to  direct  the  vacation  reading  of  the  pupil.  When  he  finally  leaves 
school  he  should  go  with  well-defined  plans  for  continuing  his  reading  and 
should  be  turned  over  to  the  public  librarian,  with  whom  the  high-school 
librarian  works  always  in  helpful  cooperation. 


46o  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  STANDARDIZATION  AIMS  FROM  THE 
POINT  OF  VIEW  OF  THE  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATOR 

JESSE  H.  NEWLON,  SXJPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  LINCOLN,  NEB. 

(Discussion  of  Committee  Report) 

In  the  erection  of  high  schools  in  the  past  a  fair  provision  has  been  made 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  sciences  and  the  practical  arts.  The  plan- 
ning and  equipment  of  shops  and  laboratories  have  been  standardized. 
School  boards  and  superintendents  have  found  it  possible  to  obtain  definite 
information  as  to  the  demands  of  science  and  practical-arts  instruction  in 
schools.  There  have  been  standards  relating  to  the  number  and  the  types 
of  various  rooms  and  shops,  to  their  lighting,  heating,  and  ventilation,  to 
the  arrangement  of  floor  space  and  of  window  and  wall  space,  to  their 
equipment  to  the  minutest  detail.  The  result  has  been  excellent  shops 
and  laboratories. 

The  library  is  the  laboratory  of  the  social  sciences,  English,  the  lan- 
guages, art,  and  indeed  of  practically  every  other  subject  taught  in  the 
secondary  school.  It  will  be  impossible  adequately  to  socialize  methods 
of  instruction  and  to  cultivate  fully  the  initiative  and  originality  of  pupils 
in  these  subjects  without  an  adequate  library  properly  administered. 

Outside  of  some  of  the  newer,  large  high  schools  there  are  very  few  well- 
planned  libraries.  We  have  had  no  standards  of  plans  and  equipment. 
This  report  sets  up  definite  standards  relating  to  the  materials  that  should 
be  foimd  in  libraries  in  schools  of  various  sizes.  It  will  furnish  school 
executives  with  authoritative  information  as  to  the  needs  of  high-school 
libraries,  with  the  result  that  in  making  the  annual  budget  and  in  designing 
schools  they  can  be  guided  by  authoritative  information.  We  may  now 
expect  good  hbraries. 

To  my  mind  the  committee  has  completed  only  one-half  of  its  work. 
Its  next  important  task  is  to  investigate  the  best  methods  of  using  the 
high-school  libraries.  It  is  one  thing  to  secure  adequate  reference  books 
and  materials  and  another  to  develop  an  effective  technique  for  their  use. 
The  latter  is  a  big  problem,  and  the  success  of  the  high-school  library 
depends  upon  it  quite  as  much  as  upon  the  material  equipment.  In  most 
schools  such  technique  has  not  been  developt.  Its  development  involves 
the  training  of  high-school  librarians  and  teachers  and  the  working  out  of 
methods  of  cooperation  between  the  librarian  and  the  teacher.  This  com- 
mittee should  be  continued  with  instructions  to  take  up  the  consideration 
of  this  important  problem. 


Department]         LIBRARY  COOPERATION  WITH  JUNIOR  RED  CROSS         461 
WAR  LIBRARY  SERVICE 

WILLIAM  H.  BRETT,  LIBRARIAN,  CLEVELAND  PUBLIC  LIBRARY, 
CLEVELAND,  OHIO 

American  libraries  have  greater  opportunities  than  ever  before.  It  is 
their  duty  to  carry  on  the  work  at  home  more  fully,  to  provide  information 
about  the  war,  and  to  help  educate  public  sentiment  for  its  support;  to 
provide  technical  and  military  books — books  on  food  production  and  con- 
servation; to  help  in  Red  Cross  drives,  Liberty  Bond  sales,  and  every 
patriotic  work,  and  with  it  all  to  carry  on  the  normal  work  of  the  library. 

Our  home  folk  need  relief  from  the  strain  and  stress  of  war  work,  from 
the  anxiety  they  now  feel,  from  the  sorrow  which  is  inevitable.  They  need 
the  relaxation,  the  consolation,  the  inspiration,  of  good  books. 

To  this  is  added  the  work  of  supplying  our  men  in  camp  and  field  and 
fleet  here  and  overseas.  The  libraries  of  this  country,  united  in  the  Ameri- 
can Library  Association,  took  up  this  work  as  soon  as  our  country  went 
into  the  war.  The  Association  carried  on  a  campaign  for  money  which  pro- 
duced over  $1,700,000.  It  has  erected  36  camp  library  buildings  and  is 
serving  more  than  553  camps,  stations,  and  vessels.  It  has  sent  nearly 
200,000  selected  books  overseas,  has  purchast  over  300,000  volumes,  mostly 
mihtary,  naval,  and  other  technical  books,  and  has  sent  to  camps  and 
stations  nearly  2,000,000  books  and  5,000,000  magazines. 

All  this  work  is  under  the  charge  of  Dr.  Herbert  Putnam,  Librarian  of 
Congress,  with  headquarters  in  Washington  at  the  Library  of  Congress 
Building.  .  Dr.  Putnam  is  serving  without  compensation,  and  more  than 
one  hundred  and  fifty  librarians  from  different  parts  of  the  country  are  in 
the  service;  the  services  of  many  of  these  are  volunteered  personally  or 
are  supplied  by  their  libraries.  The  Library  Association  will  institute  a 
campaign,  within  a  short  time,  for  a  fund  of  $3,000,000  to  continue  and 
increase  this  great  work. 

The  schools  have  cooperated  very  cordially  and  effectively  with  the 
libraries  in  the  campaigns  for  supplying  books  for  our  soldiers  and  sailors, 
as  they  have  in  so  many  other  things. 

The  men  are  eager  for  books,  the  need  is  immediate  and  they  are  most 
gratefully  received  and  appreciated.  This  need  will  continue  as  long  as 
the  war  lasts,  and  I  am  sure  that  we  shall  receive  the  continued  support 
of  the  schools. 

LIBRARY  COOPERATION  WITH  THE  JUNIOR  RED  CROSS 

EFFIE  L.  POWER,  HEAD,  CHILDREN'S  DEPARTMENT,  CARNEGIE  LIBRARY 
PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

In  a  Uttle  book  called  Adrift  on  an  Ice-Pan,  Doctor  Grenfell,  the  great 
medical  missionary  to  Labrador,  tells  how  he  once  faced  death  in  a  field 
of  floating  ice.    The  big  thing  he  expresses  is  what  religion  is  and  how  it 


462  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

actually  helps  a  man  in  a  crisis.  In  interpreting  this  Dr.  Grenfell  re- 
lates an  experience  of  having  recalled  to  his  mind,  in  his  extreme  trial, 
a  hymn  which  was  an  unconscious  memory  of  boyhood  days.  In  the 
enrichment  of  the  subconscious  self  (or  soul)  lies  the  reward  of  great 
literature. 

For  many  years  the  pubHc  libraries  in  this  country  have  placed  before 
children  the  best  of  books,  secure  in  the  belief  in  their  power  to  prepare 
the  children  to  meet  the  emergencies  of  life.  Looking  back  over  an  experi- 
ence of  twenty  or  more  years  in  various  children's  rooms  the  writer  can 
recall  many  a  tousled  head  buried  deep  in  a  dingy  volume  and  bright  eyes 
meeting  hers  in  mutual  admiration  of  a  great  story-book  hero.  Of  these 
browsers  among  books  one  is  now  "flying  for  France";  one  is  directing  a 
battahon  of  men  in  an  American  training  camp;  one  is  organizing  a  depart- 
ment of  industry  for  the  national  government.  Have  they  forgotten  their 
boyish  dreams  of  Perseus  who  slew  the  dragon  which  was  devastating  his 
country  ?  Or  of  Hercules,  who  battled  with  the  hundred-headed  serpent 
and  before  Troy,  and  who  was  not  ashamed  to  clean  the  king's  stable? 
Or  of  King  Arthur,  honorable  and  gentle  knight?  Or  of  Beowulf,  "bold 
to  rashness  for  himself,  prudent  for  his  comrades,  daring,  resourceful,  know- 
ing no  fear,  loyal  to  his  king  "  ?  No !  The  young  men  of  today  are  meeting 
the  emergency  of  war  with  an  idealism  that  shows  a  marvelous  spiritual 
background.  This  has  not  been  gained  overnight  thru  the  beating  of  drums 
but  is  the  result  of  gradual  growth  by  the  grace  of  God,  and  in  this  growth 
good  books  have  played  their  part. 

The  reading  of  great  books  stimulates  and  directs  the  imagination,  and 
it  is  the  properly  stimulated  imagination  of  the  children  which  the  Junior 
Red  Cross  organization  expects  to  turn  into  channels  of  constructive 
patriotic  service.  Library  service  can  assist  the  Junior  Red  Cross  (i)  by 
promoting  the  reading  of  great  heroic  literature;  (2)  by  properly  informing 
children  regarding  their  national  life;  (3)  by  training  children  to  be  useful 
members  of  society;  (4)  by  keeping  children  normal  in  war  time  thru 
recreative  reading,  story  hours,  reading  clubs,  etc. 

These  aims  are  not  new  ones,  but  present  conditions  have  placed  new 
emphasis  upon  them.  The  pubHc  Hbrary  is  accepted  as  a  great  democratic 
institution  where  children  of  all  nationalities,  classes,  and  creeds  mingle 
and  thru  the  free  use  of  books  and  equipment  are  taught  to  respect  and 
preserve  pubHc  property.  The  attendance  is  voluntary,  but  groups  are 
organized  for  story  hours,  poetry  hours,  and  reading  clubs.  Books  on  his- 
tory, biography,  and  civics  are  generously  provided,  and  the  process  of 
Americanization  among  the  Httle  new  citizens  is  an  interesting  feature  to 
observe.  The  times  demand,  however,  that  children's  librarians  shall  inten- 
sify their  interest  and  effort  in  order  that  no  opportunity  shall  be  lost  or 
past  lightly  over,  and  that  time  may  be  saved  for  the  children  for  other 
lines  of  activity  required  of  them. 


Department]     LIBRARY  COOPERATION  WITH  JUNIOR  RED  CROSS  463 

To  carry  out  this  plan  the  following  program  of  reading  is  suggested: 

1.  Heroic  and  patriotic  literature  which  shall  make  a  strong  emotional 
appeal. 

2.  Books  of  American  history  and  travel  which  shall  fully  inform  the 
reader. 

3.  Accounts  of  critical  periods  in  the  history  of  the  world,  selected  to 
show  loyalty  to  the  country. 

4.  Accounts  of  critical  periods  in  American  history. 

5.  Biographies  of  heroes  and  heroines  of  service. 

6.  Autobiographies  of  New  Americans. 

7.  Popular  books  on  civics,  showing  duties  and  privileges  of  Americans. 
Books  on  handicrafts,  teaching  Red  Cross  activities. 

8.  Modern  patriotic  poems,  speeches,  letters,  and  narratives. 

9.  General  recreative  reading. 

The  method  of  procedure  to  be  followed  in  presenting  this  literature 
to  Junior  Red  Cross  members  should  be  the  usual  one  followed  in  well- 
organized  children's  departments.  They  may  include  the  purchase  of 
books  in  attractive  editions,  the  setting  aside  of  special  shelves  attractively 
labeled,  the  use  of  posters,  the  preparation  and  distribution  of  lists,  special 
story  hours,  lectures.,  etc. 


I 


DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATIONAL  PUBLICATIONS 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President— Artbus.  A.  Chamberlain,  editor,  Sierra  Educational  News.  .San  Francisco,  Calif. 
Secretary — George  L.  Towne,  editor,  Nebraska  Teacher Lincoln,  Nebr. 


The  Department  of  Educational  Publications  went  into  session  Wednesday  forenoon, 
July  3,  1918. 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order,  as  scheduled  at  the  Schenley  High  School  by 
President  Arthur  H.  Chamberlain. 

The  program  as  announced  in  the  Official  Bulletin  was  carried  out. 

The  first  address  was  made  by  Superintendent  Fred  M.  Hunter,  of  Oakland,  Calif., 
on  "  Needed  Modifications  in  Textbooks  as  Shown  by  the  War."  This  paper  was  discust 
by  a  number  of  superintendents  and  educational  publishers. 

The  second  main  address  of  the  morning  was  given  by  Superintendent  W.  M. 
Davidson,  of  Pittsburgh,  on  "  Should  the  Textbooks  in  United  States  History  Be 
Re-written?" 

After  a  general  discussion  of  Dr.  Davidson's  address  the  meeting  adjourned. 

George  L.  Towne,  Secretary 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


NEEDED  MODIFICATIONS  IN  TEXTBOOKS 
AS  SHOWN  BY  THE  WAR 

FRED  M.   HUNTER,   SUPERINTENDENT  OF   SCHOOLS,   OAKLAND,   CALIF. 

In  the  educational  world  the  war  has  made  evolution,  revolution. 
Curriculums,  classroom  methods,  and  administrative  policies  have  changed 
over  night.  The  change  has  had  two  markt  characteristics,  the  crystalliza- 
tion and  incorporation  of  the  national  ideals  in  the  work  of  the  schools,  and 
a  mighty  breaking  of  the  shackles  of  tradition.  Powerful  and  well-estabUsht 
institutions  tend  to  glorify  and  preserve  traditions.  The  pubUc  school 
system,  for  various  and  obvious  reasons,  has  been  a  tradition  worshiper. 
Textbook  publishers  have  been  both  a  result  of  this  tendency  and  a  con- 
tributing agent  in  cementing  it  more  firmly  upon  the  school  system.  Pub- 
lishers in  many  noteworthy  instances  have  been  leaders  and  guides  in  great 
forward  movements,  but  in  general  pubHshers  of  textbooks  have  explored 
new  fields  rather  conservatively — have  awaited  the  firm  estabhshment  of  a 
movement  before  risking  their  investment  or  their  dividends  in  the  new  field. 

46s 


466  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION     [Educational  Publications 

Now,  however  the  revolution  with  a  new  regime  is  upon  us,  and  pub- 
Hshers,  responding  with  all  the  rest  of  us  to  the  patriotic  spur,  are  asking 
"What  do  these  things  mean ?    What  can  we  do  to  be  saved ?" 

The  answer  seems  to  me  to  be  obvious:  First,  be  iconoclasts  of  the 
traditional  idols,  not  worshipers  at  the  shrine  and  mere  recorders  of  the 
sacred  rites,  and  fear  not  investment  in  a  good  cause,  even  tho  it  does  not 
reveal  immediate  dividends.  Secondly,  make  all  your  works  serve  first 
the  great  national  purposes  and  ideals  of  our  democracy. 

Let  us  now  analyze  the  meaning  of  such  an  attitude  and  policy  a  little 
more  closely.  In  seeking  to  incorporate  the  national  ideals  and  ideals  of 
community  service  in  the  actual  production  of  textbooks  publishers  must 
understand  and  be  in  accord  with  the  new  administrational  policies  and  the 
general  poHcy  of  curriculum-making  and  of  developing  classroom  methods. 
Good  textbooks  produced  in  accordance  with  these  ideals  should  make  easy 
the  advance  now  taking  place  in  these  fields.  The  pubhsher  who  subscribes 
to  these  ideals  to  the  point  of  action  becomes  a  co-leader  in  establishing  a 
new  administrational  policy  in  our  state  and  city  school  systems — a  fellow- 
maker  of  curriculums  with  the  teacher  and  supervisor  and  an  agent  of  the 
nation  and  state  in  establishing  a  proper  civic  attitude  of  service  and  loyalty 
thru  classroom  instruction.  Hence  pubhshers,  together  with  other  educa- 
tional leaders,  administrators,  and  teachers,  must  analyze  carefully  the 
changes  now  in  progress  and  plan  poHcy  and  action  accordingly. 

Such  analysis  must  consider  first  wherein  our  schools  have  shown  them- 
selves defective  and  must  attempt  to  define  clearly  the  new  point  of  attack. 

Our  great  national  crisis  has  shown  us  the  defects  in  our  system  of 
education  as  it  has  brought  us  into  realization  of  the  tremendously  respon- 
sible relation  between  pubHc  education  and  nationality.  Everybody  knows 
that  we  have  no  thorogoing  machinery  for  Americanization.  The  patriotic 
spirit  of  every  community  has  revolted  at  the  un-American  sentiment  that 
has  been  evident  wherever  patriotic  pressure  has  become  intense.  The 
terrible  danger  that  lurks  in  our  large  unamalgamated  elements  is  no  longer 
apparent  only  to  the  students  of  sociaHty.  It  is  now  a  part  of  our  pubhc 
consciousness. 

That  13  per  cent  of  our  national  population  is  foreign-born  or  children 
of  the  first  generation  of  foreign  parentage,  and  that  30  per  cent  of  these  are 
illiterate,  is  not  conducive  to  smug  satisfaction  either  on  the  part  of  the 
public  or  on  the  part  of  those  responsible  for  our  educational  machinery. 
Thus  the  first  great  defect  in  the  organization  of  our  schools  and  its  relation 
to  national  Hf e  is  shown  by  the  lack  of  a  well-developt  system  for,  American- 
ization. 

The  second  great  defect  is  the  failure  of  our  schools  to  cover  thoroly 
their  field;  that  is,  their  failure  to  provide  for  all  American  youth  up  to  an 
age  nearing  maturity  a  fairly  adequate  training  for  citizenship.  The 
experiments  made  in  the  states  that  have  begun  a  system  of  industrial 


I 


Department)  NEEDED  MODIFICATIONS  IN  TEXTBOOKS  467 

education  have  brought  the  conclusion  that  such  training  should  extend 
to  the  age  of  eighteen  for  all  the  youth  in  our  land.  The  Massachusetts 
Registration  of  Minors,  the  Wisconsin  Continuation  Law,  and  similar  steps 
taken  by  various  cities  and  communities  place  the  legislative  stamp  of 
approval  upon  these  conceptions. 

How  signal  has  been  the  failure  of  public  education  completely  to  carry 
out  such  conceptions  is  shown  by  every  investigation  upon  this  point.  We 
have  been  all  too  famiUar  with  the  situation  in  the  communities  with  which 
we  are  acquainted.  One  of  the  most  recent  of  these  investigations,  that  by 
C.  D.  Jarvis,  the  results  of  which  are  publisht  by  the  Bureau  of  Education, 
Bulletin  No.  2,  191 7,  covers  fifteen  thousand  children  who  have  left  school 
in  eleven  different  states.     Mr.  Jarvis'  conclusion  is  this: 

Eight  and  one-half  per  cent  of  the  children  desire  to  leave  school,  and  of  these  34 
per  cent  frankly  state  that  they  do  not  like  school,  60  per  cent  would  rather  go  to  work. 
Of  those  who  intend  to  leave  during  the  current  year,  approximately  one-third  claim 
economic  necessity  as  the  reason,  and,  except  for  a  small  portion  who  leave  on  account 
of  illness  or  some  unmentioned  reason,  the  remainder  leave  on  account  of  dissatisfaction 
exprest  or  implied. 

Even  yet  we  force  upon  the  schools  of  our  congested  industrial  districts 
the  same  curricula  that  are  offered  in  the  schools  peopled  by  the  children  of 
the  so-called  best  families.  Even  yet  our  high  schools  still  maintain  in 
most  sections  of  the  country  their  hard-and-fast  regulations  as  to  entrance 
into  the  high  school  as  to  graduation,  as  to  promotion,  and  as  to  variations 
of  curricula  to  meet  group  needs. 

The  first  demand  growing  out  of  our  recognition  of  national  purposes 
and  school  defects  is  this:  The  curriculum  shall  be  an  organized  series  of 
practices  and  activities  rather  than  a  body  of  knowledge  based  upon  the 
principle  that  action  alone  is  educative.  The  government  has  called  upon 
us  to  incorporate,  not  as  additions  to  our  curriculum,  but  as  integral  parts 
of  it,  pupil  organizations  for  carrying  on  Liberty  Loan  drives.  Red  Cross 
campaigns,  sales  of  War  Savings  Stamps,  and  the  like.  School-garden 
armies  and  the  Boys'  Working  Reserve  have  been  organized.  In  fact,  to  the 
teacher  who  has  been  thinking  in  terms  of  the  past  there  has  seemed  to  be 
no  time  whatever  for  school  work.  The  government  has  been  remaking  our 
curricula  for  us  before  our  very  eyes.  It  has  been  forcing  into  our  classrooms 
activities  which  have  done  more  in  the  past  six  months  in  training  for  real 
citizenship  than  all  our  laboriously  devised  schedules  of  social  studies  have 
done  in  the  past  five  years.  The  principle  involved  is  a  new  definition  of 
the  curriculum,  and  that  definition  has  come  to  stay.  It  will  not  only  be 
written  in  the  reports  of  superintendents  but  will  be  actually  practist  in  the 
classrooms  of  the  schools. 

The  second  principle  involved  in  the  new  demand  is  that  of  variation. 
This  principle  of  variation,  as  opposed  to  uniformity,  will  guide  the 
curriculum-making  of  the  future  upon  two  definite  planes:  First,  curricula 


468  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION     [Educational  Publications 

will  vary  in  accordance  with  the  individual  needs  or,  in  more  practical 
terms,  the  group  needs  of  boys  and  girls  as  determined  by  social  inheritance, 
economic  environment,  and  natural  tendencies.  Secondly,  curricula  will 
vary  in  the  respective  organizational  units  in  accordance  with  the  varying 
needs  of  the  communities  in  which  such  units  are  located.  In  no  other  way 
can  a  proper  machinery  for  Americanization  and  for  universal  training  for 
citizenship  be  developt. 

The  third  principle  in  curriculum-making  under  the  new  demands 
will  be  this:  curricula  will  be  made  by  classroom  teachers,  or  their  respective 
committees,  who  are  studying  the  needs  of  children  by  first-hand  contact. 
In  our  industrial  districts,  where  neighborhood  and  community  centers 
will  develop  at  a  rapid  pace,  groups  of  teachers  themselves  must  decide 
curricula. 

Classroom  and  laboratory  practices  must  not  cease  abruptly  with  the 
graduation  of  the  pupil  or  his  elimination  from  the  school.  Continuation 
and  part-time  classes  must  become  a  universal  habit  on  the  part  of  our 
public  educational  system.  The  laboratory  must  gradually  grade  into  the 
shop,  so  that  the  student  who  goes  into  industry  may  go  to  the  continuation 
or  evening  classes  of  the  school  for  inspiration  and  help  until  he  is  aged  and 
infirm.  The  home  and  the  school  must  be  so  closely  united  that  the  habits 
of  home  Hfe  can  still  be  reacht  thru  neighborhood  classes,  thru  classes  in 
mother-craft  and  dietetics,  and  thru  home  clubs  conducted  in  the  schools. 
PubHc  education  must  offer  service  to  all  classes  of  Americans  who  need 
service. 

Textbook  publishers  are  called  upon  to  decide  whether  or  not  their  chief 
objective  should  be  commercial.  Here  lie  plainly  before  them  the  educa- 
tional objectives  of  our  public  school  system  as  they  are  defined  by  our 
national  government  and  the  responsibihty  placed  upon  public  education. 
Here  are  the  principles  underlying  the  changes  taking  place  in  the  work  of 
the  schools.  If  pubUshers  continue  as  in  the  past  to  cater  to  a  sure  market 
without  risking  the  principles  of  good  business  and  certain  profits,  they  will 
continue  to  be  as  in  the  past  mainly  the  recorders  of  tradition.  If  they 
prefer  to  adopt  as  their  purposes  the  purposes  now  clearly  defined  for  the 
schools  and  the  principles  of  curriculum-making  and  method,  if  they  will 
break  tradition  and  cast  into  the  scrapheap  most  of  the  school  pubHcations 
of  the  past,  there  is  a  great  place  in  the  ranks  of  education  for  them — even 
if  not  a  reward  in  increast  dividends  and  enlarged  profits. 

Subscription  to  these  objectives  and  principles  requires  a  new  code  for 
the  formulation  of  textbooks.  In  the  overstock  of  available  textbooks  at 
the  present  time  the  chief  feature  in  classification  and  make-up  is  subject- 
matter.  Say  what  you  will  about  teachers  *' teaching  children"  not 
subject-matter.  The  chief  characteristic  of  all  the  mass  of  printed  books 
for  schoolroom  use  is  their  division  into  subjects  and  the  logical  and  proper 
presentation  of  those  subjects. 


Department]  NEEDED  MODIFICATIONS  IN  TEXTBOOKS  469 

None  of  them  thus  far — or  not  at  least  until  the  last  few  months — have 
been  planned  and  executed  around  a  series  of  projects  in  themselves  worth 
doing  in  any  community  and  of  natural  interest  and  appeal  to  children. 

None  of  them  have  been  add  rest  primarily  to  children  in  child  language, 
with  the  chief  activities  suggested  rather  than  completely  exprest  in  terms 
of  adult  logic. 

None  of  them  have  placed  real  emphasis  on  child  initiative,  child 
judgment,  and  child  organization.  Such  of  them  as  have  made  attempts 
in  this  Hne  have  made  the  projects  used  carefully  subservient  to  certain 
principles  and  facts  of  logically  outlined  subject-matter  which  the  author 
mistakenly  deemed  essential  to  the  development  and  happiness  of  young  life. 

None  of  them  have  set  high  ideals,  personal  character,  and  the  spirit  of 
community  and  national  service — in  brief,  citizenship  by  practice — above 
information  and  everything  else  and  made  subject-matter  a  mere  incident 
and  means  of  accomplishment. 

In  the  new  code  suggested  for  adoption  the  central  emphasis  is  to  be 
placed  upon  these  ideals  unrecognized  in  practice  in  education  and  only  of 
late  given  any  great  prominence  in  modern  educational  philosophy.  Such 
a  code  for  the  making  of  textbooks  should  make  the  following  provisions: 

1.  That  every  suggested  activity  have  moral  and  civic  motive.  These 
motives  may  not  be  recognized  by  the  child  as  moral  except  as  the  activity 
provided  connects  itself  with  some  child  interest  or  principle  which  is  in 
itself  worth  accomplishing  from  the  child's  point  of  view.  The  pull  of 
interest  and  the  ultimate  moral  principle  must  always  be  present,  or  the 
activity  is  unmotivated  and  compelled,  and  useless  from  an  educational 
standpoint. 

The  development,  thru  the  practicing  of  interesting  and  motivated 
activities,  of  a  patriotic  spirit  of  service  and  a  moral  and  personal  fitness  for 
such  service  is  the  common  element  that  should  run  thru  all  textbook- 
making,  no  matter  what  the  age  of  the  student  or  what  class  of  population 
the  text  may  be  prepared  for. 

2.  That  great  emphasis  shall  be  placed  on  pupil  initiative  citizens  of  a 
democracy  are  to  be  taught  by  means  of  constant  practice  to  assume 
responsibihty,  make  choices,  and  undertake  organization.  Textbooks 
which  merely  give  direction  and  assume  obedience,  with  the  hope  of  incul- 
cating knowledge  or  developing  skill  can  never  make  an  efiicient,  self-rehant 
well- trained  citizenship.  Textbooks  must  therefore  be  addrest  largely  to 
the  pupils,  coucht  in  the  pupil's  language,  suggestive  of  a  wide  range  of 
pupil  interest.  They  must  be  of  the  laboratory  type,  offering  wide  range  of 
choices  in  projects  and  problems,  for  the  schools  are  to  be  the  laboratories 
of  democracy. 

3.  That  the  material  of  textbooks  consist  of  series  of  suggested  projects, 
of  themselves  worth  while  in  the  school  community,  or  the  larger  community 
outside,  and  of  impelhng  interest  to  the  varying  types  of  child  life.    This 


470  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION      [Educational  Publications 

means  the  obliteration  of  school  subjects  as  such,  except  in  the  realm  of 
scientific  research  and  specialization.  Subject-matter  in  such  a  scheme 
must  necessarily  be  incidental.  The  materials  of  geography,  of  history,  of 
literature,  all  come  into  play,  because  they  may  be  of  assistance  in  giving 
foundation  for  civic  attitudes  for  appreciation  of  the  present,  for  planning 
for  the  future.  Subject-matter  of  the  mechanical  type  is  necessary  too, 
such  as  arithmetic,  mechanics  of  reading,  etc.,  because  without  them  skill 
cannot  be  developt  that  will  solve  the  individual  or  community  problem 
presented.  They  are  not,  however  to  be  all-important  because  they  are 
arithmetic,  or  geography,  or  spelling,  or  because  child  hfe  will  not  develop 
happily  and  beautifully  and  usefully  unless  a  modicum  of  them  is  pounded 
into  their  craniums.  These  subjects  are  to  be  involved  because  they  help 
child  life  in  an  activity  that  works  out  a  useful  project,  an  activity  that 
develops  the  pupil  into  a  more  useful,  patriotic  citizen. 

4.  That  grades  and  classifications  of  textbooks  shall  be  upon  a  new 
basis.  Obhteration  of  subjects  as  a  basis  of  classification  will  mean  the 
adoption  of  another  set  of  bases.  Let  me  suggest  these:  (a)  things  to  be 
done  in  the  school  and  community  instead  of  subjects;  {b)  mental  capacities 
and  measured  intelligence  instead  of  grades  or  classes;  (c)  kinds  of  neigh- 
borhood or  types  of  school  instead  of  uniformity. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  WIDER  USE  OF 
SCHOOL  HOUSES 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


Vice-President — Charles  C.  Kelson,  director  of  social  center Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

Secretary — Raymond  F.  Crist,  deputy  commissioner  of  naturalization. ..  .Washington,  D.C. 


Wednesday  Forenoon,  July  3 

The  Program  consisted  of  a  general  discussion  of  the  "Wider  Use  of  Schoolhouses  " 
and  of  the  "Purposes  of  the  Bureau  of  Naturalization  in  Extending  the  Influence  of  This 
Department."  The  usual  business  meeting  was  held,  at  which  the  following  officers  were 
elected: 

President — Raymond  F.  Crist,  deputy  commissioner  of  naturalization,  Bureau  of 
Naturalization,  Department  of  Labor,  Washington,  D.C. 

Vice-President — Charles  C.  Kelson,  principal,  Los  Angeles  public  schools,  Los  Angeles, 
Calif. 

Secretary — Mrs.  Margarita  Spaulding  Gerry,  Board  of  Education,  2944  Macomb 
Street,  Washington,  D.C. 


471 


DEPARTMENT  OF  SUPERINTENDENCE 

ATLANTIC  CITY  MEETING,  FEBRUARY  25-MARCH  2,  1918 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


OFFICERS 


President — ^Thomas  E.  Finegan,  deputy  commissioner  of  education Albany  N.Y. 

Vice-President — A.  A.  McDonald,  superintendent  of  schools Sioux  Falls,  S.Dak. 

Second  Vice-President — Carlos  M.  Cole,  superintendent  of  schools Denver,  Colo. 

Secretary — Lida  Lee  Tall,  supervisor  of  grammar  grades Baltimore,  Md. 


FIRST  DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 
EVENING  SESSION— Tuesday,  February  26,  1918 

The  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Education  Association  met  on 
Young's  Million  Dollar  Pier,  Atlantic  City,  N.J.,  at  8:00  p.m.,  President  Thomas  E. 
Finegan,  deputy  superintendent  of  schools,  Albany,  N.Y.,  presiding. 

A  preliminary  musical  program  of  community  and  patriotic  singing,  led  by  A.  J. 
Gantvoort,  was  participated  in  by  the  audience. 

The  session  opened  with  an  invocation  by  Rev.  Henry  M.  Mellen,  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church. 

Addresses  of  welcome  were  given  by  Harry  Bacharach,  mayor  of  Atlantic  City,  and 
Calvin  N.  Kendall,  state  commissioner  of  education,  Trenton,  N.J.,  to  which  response 
was  made  by  Mary  C.  C.  Bradford,  president  of  the  National  Education  Association. 

Charles  S.  Whitman,  governor  of  the  state  of  New  York,  Albany,  N.Y.,  delivered 
the  address  of  the  evening. 

After  Governor  Whitman's  address  Mortuner  E.  Cooley,  dean  of  the  School,  of 
Engineering,  University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  gave  a  talk  on  "The  Shortage 
of  Trained  Engineers." 

President  Finegan  announst  the  following  committees: 

COMMITTEE   ON  RESOLUTIONS 

F.  B.  Pearson,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Columbus,  Ohio. 
H.  S.  Weet,  superintendent  of  schools,  Rochester,  N.Y. 

Josephine  C.  Preston,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Olympia,  Wash. 
John  W.  Withers,  superintendent  of  schools,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

C.  P.  Cary,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Madison,  Wis. 
Henry  Snyder,  superintendent  of  schools,  Jersey  City,  N.J. 

Frank  E.  Spaulding,  superintendent  of  schools,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

COMMITTEE   ON  NOMINATIONS 

A.  N.  Cody,  superintendent  of  schools,  Flint,  Mich. 

D.  J.  Kelly,  superintendent  of  schools,  Binghamton,  N.Y. 

R.  W.  Heimlich,  superintendent  of  schools.  Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

E.  A.  Smith,  superintendent  of  schools,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 
S.  J.  Slawson,  superintendent  of  schools,  Bridgeport,  Conn. 

473 


474  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  tity 

SECOND  DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 
MORNING  SESSION— Wednesday,  February  27,  1918 

A  preliminary  musical  program  of  community  and  patriotic  singing,  led  by  A.  J, 
Gantvoort,  was  participated  in  by  the  audience. 
The  following  program  was  presented: 

Topic:  Centralizing  Tendencies  in  Educational  Administration 

a)  "Limitations  of  State  Control  in  Education" — Payson  Smith,  state  commissioner 
of  education,  Boston,  Mass. 

h)  "The  County  as  a  Unit  for  Local  Administration" — Albert  S.  Cook,  superinten- 
dent of  Baltimore  County  Public  Schools,  Towson,  Md. 

c)  "The  Township  as  a  Unit  for  Local  Administration" — R.  B.  Teitrick,  deputy 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Harrisburg,  Pa. 

d)  "How  a  State  Department  May  Stimulate  Local  Initiative  and  Increase  Effi- 
ciency"— George  D.  Strayer,  professor  of  educational  administration.  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.Y. 

Discussion — C.  P.  Gary,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Madison,  Wis.; 
J.  Y.  Joyner,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Raleigh,  N.C.;  Edith  K.  O. 
Clark,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Cheyenne,  Wyo.;  A.  A.  McDonald, 
superintendent  of  schools,  Sioux  Falls,  S.Dak.;  Charl  0.  Williams,  county  superintendent 
of  schools,  Memphis,  Tenn. 

A  four-minute  talk  was  given  by  William  McCormick  Blair,  national  director  of  the 
Four  Minute  Men,  Chicago,  111. 

A  five-minute  talk  was  given  by  Robert  McElroy,  chairman  of  the  Committee  on 
Patriotic  Education  of  the  National  Security  League,  Princeton,  N.J. 


AFTERNOON  SESSION— Wednesday,  February  27,  1918 

After  the  preliminary  musical  program  of  community  and  patriotic  singing  by  the 
audience,  led  by  A.  J.  Gantvoort,  the  following  program  was  presented: 
Topic:  Opportunity  and  Leadership  in  American  Education 

a)  "The  Place  of  the  Privately  Supported  and  Managed  Institution" — Alexander 
Meiklejohn,  president,  Amherst  College,  Amherst,  Mass. 

b)  "The  Place  of  the  State  Supported  and  Managed  Institution" — Benjamin  Ide 
Wheeler,  president.  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  Calif. 

c)  "The  Place  of  the  Educational  Institution  for  Women" — Kathryn  Sisson  McLean, 
dean  of  women,  Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  Delaware,  Ohio, 

d)  "The  Place  of  the  Educational  Foundation" — Clyde  Furst,  secretary,  Carnegie 
Foundation,  New  York,  N.Y. 

e)  "The  View  of  the  Entire  Situation  from  the  Outside" — Don  C.  Seitz,  Editor, 
The  World,  New  York,  N.Y, 


EVENING  SESSION— Wednesday,  February  27,  1918 

After  the  preliminary  musical  program  of  community  and  patriotic  singing  by  the 
audience,  led  by  A.  J.  Gantvoort,  the  following  program  was  presented: 

"Re-education  of  Crippled  Soldiers" — Major  Wilson  H.  Henderson,  War  Depart- 
ment, Washington,  D.C. 

"Education  during  the  War" — P.  P.  Claxton,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, Washington,  D.C, 

Mademoiselle  Clement,  of  Bordeaux,  France,  spoke  for  five  minutes  on  the  reasons 
for  extending  the  teaching  of  French  in  this  country,  due  to  the  war  situation. 

Greetings  from  Canada  were  presented  by  A.  Kennedy,  inspector  of  schools  for 
Saskatchewan,  Weyburn,  Canada,  in  which  he  said  in  part:  "As  our  countries  lie  side 
by  side;  as  our  boys  fight  side  by  side;  as  our  flags  hang  side  by  side — so  may  our  teachers 
work  side  by  side." 


J 


Superintendence)  SECRETARY'S  MINUTES  475 

President  Finegan  appointed  the  following  committee  to  represent  the  Department 
of  Superintendence  in  cooperation  with  members  of  a  commission  appointed  by  the 
National  Education  Association  to  consider  constructive  educational  principles  growing 
out  of  the  war: 

Payson  Smith,  commissioner  of  education,  Boston,  Mass. 

Josephine  C.  Preston,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Olympia,  Wash. 

F.  E.  Spaulding,  superintendent  of  schools,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

J.  A.  C.  Chandler,  superintendent  of  schools,  Richmond,  Va. 

J.  M.  Gwinn,  superintendent  of  schools.  New  Orleans,  La. 

J.  W.  Withers,  superintendent  of  schools,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

F.  D.  Boynton,  superintendent  of  schools,  Ithaca,  N.Y. 

THIRD  DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 

MORNING  SESSION— Thursday,  February  28,  1918 

The  morning  session  was  devoted  to  the  reports  of  committees  and  to  the  annual 
business  meeting. 

"Report  of  the  Committee  on  Economy  of  Time  in  Elementary  Education" — 
H.  B.  Wilson,  superintendent  of  schools,  Topeka,  Kans.,  chairman. 

"Economy  in  Learning  in  Relation  to  Economy  of  Time" — Ernest  Horn,  University 
of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

"The  Problem-Project  Attack  in  Organization,  Subject-Matter,  and  Teaching" — 
William  H.  Kilpatrick,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.Y. 

"School  Practice  as  Affected  by  the  Reports  of  the  Committee  on  Economy  of 
Time" — J.  H.  Withers,  superintendent  of  schools,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Calvin  N.  Kendall, 
state  commissioner  of  education,  Trenton,  N.J. 

The  report  of  the  Committee  on  Organization  of  the  National  Education  Association 
was  presented  by  William  B.  Owen,  president,  Chicago  Normal  College,  Chicago,  III., 
chairman.  A  general  discussion  was  opened  by  Robert  J.  Aley,  president,  University 
of  Maine,  Orono,  Me.  Durand  W.  Springer,  educational  director  of  Camp  Custer, 
and  former  secretary  of  the  National  Education  Association,  offered  some  suggestions 
to  the  report.  At  this  point  Mr.  Owen  stated  that  Mr.  Springer's  suggestions  would 
be  printed  with  his  report.  The  spirit  of  the  report  of  the  committee  was  approved  by 
vote  of  the  department  and  recommended  to  the  meeting  at  Pittsburgh  for  final 
consideration. 

The  report  of  the  Committee  on  Publicity  was  presented  by  Charles  J.  Judd,  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111.,  executive  secretary,  who  moved  that  the  work  of  his 
committee  be  accepted  and  the  committee  be  retained  to  continue  its  work.  There  was 
no  discussion  and  the  motion  was  carried. 

The  report  of  the  Commission  on  Administrative  Legislation  was  presented  by 
Charles  E.  Chadsey,  superintendent  of  schools,  Detroit,  Mich.,  chairman,  who  moved 
that  his  report  be  accepted  and  printed  in  the  Proceedings,  and  that  the  Commission  be 
continued  another  year  to  complete  its  study  of  the  question  of  a  model  school  law  and 
submit  a  special  report  concerning  this  subject.  There  was  no  discussion  and  the  motion 
carried. 

The  report  of  the  Committee  on  Cooperation  with  School  Boards  was  presented  by 
Fred  M.  Hunter,  superintendent  of  schools,  Oakland,  Calif.,  chairman.  The  report  was 
accepted. 

The  annual  business  meeting  followed  the  program. 

The  Committee  on  Nominations  reported  as  follows  thru  the  chairman,  A.  N.  Cody: 

President — E.  C.  Hartwell,  superintendent  of  schools,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 
First  Vice-President — D.  B.  Corson,  acting  superintendent  of  schools,  Newark,  N.J. 
Second  Vice-President — J.  R.  Morgan,  superintendent  of  schools,  Trinidad,  Colo. 
Secretary— MiiTie  Gugle,  assistant  superintendent  of  schools,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

The  report  of  the  committee  was  accepted  unanimously. 


476  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

The  following  report  of  the  Committee  on  Resolutions  was  adopted  as  presented  by 
F.  B.  Pearson,  chairman: 

In  this  time  of  stress  and  anxiety  we  pledge  anew  our  loyal  support  to  every  move- 
ment, such  as  the  Junior  Red  Cross  and  War  Savings,  whose  objectives  are  a  triumphant 
victory  and  the  preparation  of  our  people  for  the  subsequent  peace.  We  shall  hail  the 
day  when  every  person  who  claims  the  protection  of  our  flag  will  be  deeply  imbued  with 
real  Americanism  and  with  a  patriotism  that  will  smile  in  the  face  of  sacrifice.  We  pledge 
our  best  efforts  to  hasten  the  day  when  all  our  people  will  be  able  to  speak,  read,  and 
write  our  language  and  will  thrill  at  the  sight  of  our  flag.  It  shall  be  our  aim  to  train  the 
youth  of  our  land  that  they  may  have  strong  bodies,  clear  minds,  and  clean  spirits.  We 
shall  renew  our  efforts  to  eliminate  waste  in  every  form,  whether  of  resources,  time,  or 
energies,  and  to  strive  toward  a  civilization  that  thinks  soberly,  plans  wisely,  acts  right- 
eously, and  has  won  immunity  from  the  frivolous,  the  superficial,  and  the  artificial.  We 
shall  do  our  utmost  to  banish  ignorance  and  idleness  that  we  may  become  a  nation  of 
intelligent,  thrifty,  efl5cient  workers.  In  the  reconstruction  period  that  lies  just  ahead, 
there  will  be  no  place  for  slacking  in  our  ranks,  but  every  teacher  must  be  both  able  and 
willing  to  assume  his  full  share  of  responsibility  in  making  our  school  work  more  vital, 
that  it  may  most  effectively  aid  in  the  life-processes.  To  this  end  we  call  upon  all  our 
people  to  see  to  it  that  there  is  no  relaxing  of  educational  standards  and  that  school  work 
may  not  be  subordinated  to  other  activities.  We  need  to  intensify  our  work  and  trans- 
form dull  routine  into  pulsing  energy.  We  call  upon  our  colleges  and  normal  schools, 
therefore,  to  give  us  teachers  who  are,  fifst  of  all,  successful  as  human  beings,  and  who 
are  keen,  alert,  and  dynamic,  that  their  work  with  the  children  may  demonstrate  that 
education  is  a  spiritual  process  and  not  a  mechanical  process. 

We  favor  a  comprehensive,  thorogoing  program  of  health  education  and  physical 
education  as  absolutely  necessary  for  all  boys  and  girls  of  elementary-  and  secondary- 
school  age,  both  rural  and  urban,  in  every  state  of  the  Union. 

We  recommend  that  the  Smith-Hughes  law  be  so  amended  by  Congress  as  to  prevent 
the  possibility  of  the  creation  of  a  dual  system  of  education  in  any  state.  All  acts  appro- 
priating money  for  the  advancement  of  public  education  in  the  states  should  place  the 
administration  in  the  hands  of  the  commissioners  of  education  and  the  chief  school  officers 
in  the  various  states. 

We  favor  the  movement  for  Americanization  conducted  and  directed  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  and  urgently  recommend  the  appropriation  by  Congress  of 
funds  in  liberal  amount  in  support  of  this  movement. 

In  order  that  eflScient  teachers  may  be  retained  in  the  service  and  that  an  adequate 
supply  of  trained  teachers  may  be  assured  for  the  future,  the  urgent  need  of  much  larger 
appropriations  for  the  payment  of  the  salaries  of  teachers  should  be  strongly  emphasized 
and  brought  to  the  attention  of  appropriating  bodies. 

We  desire  to  express  the  thanks  of  this  organization  to  the  president,  Dr.  Thomas  E. 
Finegan,  for  the  excellence  of  the  program  he  has  provided  and  for  the  dignified  and 
courteous  way  in  which  he  has  administered  this  program.  Our  thanks  are  due  also  to 
the  ofl&cials  and  citizens  of  Atlantic  City  for  their  helpful  cooperation  with,  and  cordial 
attitude  toward,  this  Association  and  its  officers. 

The  following  resolution  was  presented  by  Charles  H.  Keyes,  of  Skidmore  College, 
Saratoga  Springs,  N.Y.: 

Resolved,  That  we  note  with  extreme  satisfaction  the  high  standard  of  professional 
recognition  fixt  by  the  Board  of  Education  of  New  York  City  in  the  generous  treatment 
which  it  accorded  Superintendent  William  H.  Maxwell,  who  for  many  years  rendered 
distinguisht  service  in  this  department.  In  expressing  our  appreciation  of  the  action  of 
the  Board  of  Education,  we  at  the  same  time  assure  Dr.  Maxwell  of  our  pleasure  that 
his  work  has  been  so  appropriately  recognized. 

Miss  Kate  D.  Blake,  of  New  York  City,  moved  from  the  floor  the  adoption  of  the 
following: 

Resolved,  That  the  Department  of  Superintendence  urge  the  boards  of  education  of 
this  country  to  provide  school  luncheons  for  children  who  are  undernourisht.  The  reso- 
lution was  seconded  and  adopted. 

The  cities  desiring  to  invite  the  Department  of  Superintendence  for  its  191 9  meeting 
were  represented  as  follows:  Chicago,  John  D.  Shoop;  Milwaukee,  Milton  C.  Potter; 
New  York,  George  Sweeny,  manager  of  the  Hotel  Comodore;  St.  Louis,  J.  W.  Withers; 
and  letters  of  invitation  came  from  Columbus,  Ohio,  and  San  Francisco,  Calif.    The 


Superintendence!  SECRETARY'S  MINUTES  477 

result  of  the  vote  was:   Chicago  277,  Milwaukee  41,  New  York  71,  St.  Louis  58.    Mr. 
Withers,  of  St.  Louis,  moved  that  the  decision  be  made  unanimous  for  Chicago. 

EVENING  SESSION— Thursday,  February  28,  1918 

The  following  program  was  presented: 

Address  by  Dan  V.  Stephens,  congressman  from  Nebraska,  Washington,  D.C. 
Mr.  Stephens  drew  a  series  of  vivid,  thrilling  pictures  from  the  battle  fronts  of  France, 
England,  and  Belgium,  narrating  scenes  thru  which  he  had  past  as  a  member  of  a  Con- 
gressional committee  to  study  war  conditions  at  the  front. 

Address,  "A  Message  from  France,"  by  John  Huston  Finley,  president  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  State  of  New  York,  Albany,  N.Y. 

Mrs.  Cora  Wilson  Stewart,  chairman,  National  Illiteracy  Committee,  Frankfort,  Ky., 
appeared  on  the  program  and  spoke  on  Americanization. 

The  following  resolution  was  offered  by  John  F.  Keating,  superintendent  of  schools, 
Pueblo,  Colo.,  representing  superintendents  of  smaller  cities,  and  was  unanimously 
adopted: 

Whereas,  Our  country  is  now  engaged  in  a  world- war  upon  the  outcome  of  which 
depends  the  perpetuity  of  democratic  ideals  and  the  liberty  of  our  nation;   and 

Whereas,  We  recognize  the  heavy  burdens  and  responsibilities  resting  upon  him, 
who  for  the  time  being  is  the  concrete  embodiment  of  our  country's  aims  and  ideals;  be  it 

Resolved,  That  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Education 
Association  here  assembled  indorse  the  war  aims  and  the  altruistic  motives  of  the  United 
States  as  exprest  by  President  Woodrow  Wilson,  and  that  we  in  full  confidence  and  faith 
pledge  him  our  hearty  and  loyal  support  in  prosecuting  this  war  to  a  decisive  and  com- 
plete victory,  and  to  a  full  realization  of  the  lofty  democratic  ideals  which  he  has  so  clearly 
and  eloquently  presented  to  the  world;  and  be  it  further 

Resolved,  That  the  president  of  this  department  transmit  this  resolution  to  President 
Wilson. 

FOURTH  DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 
MORNING  SESSION— Friday,  March  i,  1918 

The  following  program  was  presented  under  the  general  topic  "National  Responsi- 
bility for  the  Education  of  the  Colored  People": 

a)  "The  Status  of  Negro  Education" — Kelly  Miller,  dean  of  Howard  University, 
Washington,  D.C. 

b)  "The  Nation's  Responsibility  to  the  South  for  Negro  Education" — W.  T.  B. 
Williams,  field  agent  for  the  Jeanes  Fund  and  the  Slater  Fund,  Hampton  Institute, 
Hampton,  Va. 

c)  "The  Nation's  Responsibility  to  Itself  for  Negro  Education  and  Its  Constitu- 
tional Power  to  Render  Aid  Thereto  "—Isaac  Fisher,  University  Editor,  Fisk  University, 
Nashville,  Tenn. 

Discussion— James  H.  Dillard,  president,  Jeanes  Foundation,  Charlottesville,  Va. 
The  following  motion,  which  was  carried  unanimously,  was  offered  by  Mr.  Mead  of 
Ohio: 

Resolved,  That  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation urge  the  federal  government  to  grant  financial  aid  to  negro  elementary  education 
based  upon  some  plan  which  is  equitable  and  which  will  stimulate  greater  support  for 
negro  education  among  the  state  receiving  such  aid. 

The  report  of  the  Committee  on  War  Savings,  appointed  by  the  president  of  the 
Department  of  Superintendence  to  cooperate  with  the  government  at  the  beginning  of 
the  National  War  Savings  campaign  in  December,  was  made  by  John  Huston  Finley, 

chairman. 


478  NA  tlONA  L  EDUCA  71  ON  A SSOCIA  TION  (Allanlic  Ciiy 

The  following  motion  was  made  by  Professor  Hanus,  of  Harvard  University,  and  was 
carried: 

Resolved,  That  the  action  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  in  appointing  a 
committee  to  cooperate  with  the  National  War  Savings  Committee  be  approved,  the 
report  accepted,  and  the  work  of  the  Committee  continued. 


AFTERNOON  SESSION— Friday,  March  i,  iqtS 
The  following  program  was  presented: 

"Standardization  of  Schoolhouse  Planning  and  Construction" — Frank  Irving 
Cooper,  architect,  Boston,  Mass. 

"Relation  of  Home  Economics  to  the  War  Movement" — Sarah  Louise  Arnold,  dean 
of  Simmons  College,  Boston,  Mass. 

"Work  and  Scope  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross" — Henry  Noble  MacCracken,  president 
of  Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie,  N.Y. 

"Scouting  Education  for  Girls" — Abby  Porter  Leland,  director.  National  Girl  Scouts, 
New  York,  N.Y. 

"Victory  thru  Thrift" — George  M.  LaMonte,  member,  War  Service  Executive  Com- 
mittee for  New  Jersey,  Bound  Brook,  N.J. 

Mr.  Rost,  of  the  Navy  League,  spoke  for  five  minutes  on  the  work  of  that  organi- 
zation, 

A.     CONFERENCE  OF  STATE  SUPERINTENDENTS 

Tuesday  Afternoon,  February  26,  1918 

The  Conference  of  State  Superintendents  met  in  the  English  Room,  Dennis  Hotel, 
at  2:30  p.m.,  J.  B.  Pearson,  superintendent  of  schools,  Columbus,  Ohio,  presiding. 
The  following  program  was  presented: 

"The  New  Responsibilities  and  Opportunities  Which  the  War  Situation  Has  Brought 
to  the  State  Department  and  the  Schools" — Fred  L.  Keeler,  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  Lansing,  Mich. 

Discussion — A.  N.  Farmer,  superintendent  of  schools,  Evanston,  111. 

"How  Shall  We  Conduct  the  War  Savings  Campaign  so  as  to  Cause  It  to  Attain  Its 
Maximum  Effectiveness?" — M.  P.  Shawkey,  state  superintendent  of  free  schools, 
Charleston,  W.Va. 

Discussion — R.  B.  Teitrick,  deputy  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
Harrisburg,  Pa. 


B.     CONFERENCE  OF  COUNTY  SUPERINTENDENTS 
Monday  Afternoon,  February  25,  1918 

The  Conference  of  County  Superintendents  met  in  the  English  Room,  Dennis  Hotel, 
at  2:30  p.m.,  Lawton  B.  Evans,  superintendent  of  schools,  Augusta,  Ga.,  presiding. 
The  following  program  was  presented: 

"The  County  Superintendency  and  Its  Problem" — P.  C.  Fair,  principal  of  city 
schools,  Mansfield,  La.  " 

General  Discussion. 

"Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools" — C.  H.  Bruce,  county  superintendent  of  schools, 
Macon,  Ga. 

General  Discussion. 

"Standardizing  the  Small  Country  School" — J.  H.  Binford,  second  assistant  super- 
intendent of  schools,  Richmond,  Va. 

General  Discussion, 

"The  County  as  a  Unit  of  Organization" — M.  S.  H.  Unger,  superintendent  of  schools, 
Westminster,  Md. 

General  Discussion. 


Superintendence)  SECRETARY'S  MINUTES  479 

Thursday  Afternoon,  February  28,  1918 
The  following  program  was  presented: 

"The  Rural  School  as  a  Social  Center" — Mrs.  Thomas  W.  Hayes,  county  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  Roswell,  N.M. 

Discussion. 

"Training  Teachers  Already  in  the  Service" — J.  N.  Hillman,  secretary,  State  Board 
of  Education,  Richmond,  Va. 


C.     CONFERENCE  OF  SUPERINTENDENTS  OF  CITIES  WITH  POPU- 
LATION OVER  250,000 

Thursday  Afternoon,  February  28,  19 18 

The  Conference  of  Superintendents  of  Cities  with  Population  over  250,000  met  in 
the  Rose  Room,  Traymore  Hotel,  at  2:30  p.m.,  E.  C.  Hartwell,  superintendent  of  schools, 
St.  Paul,  Minn.,  presiding. 

The  following  program  was  presented: 

"Why  the  Cost  of  Public  Education  Is  Constantly  Increasing" — J.  H.  Francis, 
superintendent  of  schools,  Columbus,  Ohio;  J.  D.  Shoop,  superintendent  of  schools, 
Chicago,  111.;  H.  S.  Weet,  superintendent  of  schools,  Rochester,  N.Y. 

"Educating  the  Public  to  the  Financial  Needs  of  the  School" — G.  D.  Strayer,  pro- 
fessor of  educational  administration.  Teachers  College,  Colimibia  University,  New 
York,  N.Y. 

Informal  Discussion. 

"Efficient  Finance  for  the  City  School  System" — Frank  W.  Ballou,  assistant  super- 
intendent of  schools,  Boston,  Mass. 

Discussion — C.  E.  Chadsey,  superintendent  of  schools,  Detroit,  Mich.;  Albert 
Shiels,  superintendent  of  schools,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 


D.     CONFERENCE  OF  SUPERINTENDENTS  OF  CITIES  WITH  POPU- 
LATION BETWEEN  25,000  AND  250,000 

Thursday  Afternoon,  February  28,  igi8 

The  Conference  of  Superintendents  of  Cities  with  Population  between  25,000  and 
250,000  met  on  the  Million  Dollar  Pier,  at  2:30  p.m.,  Henry  C.  Johnson,  superintendent 
of  schools,  Ogden,  Utah,  presiding. 

The  following  program  was  presented: 

"Leadership  in  Education": 

a)  "Leadership  as  Found  Today  in  Instruction  in  Interpreting  the  Curriculum": 

1.  "In  the  Superintendent" — Z.  C.  Thornburg,  superintendent  of  schools,  Des 
Moines,  Iowa. 

Discussion — Fred  M.  Hunter,  superintendent  of  schools,  Oakland,  Calif. 

2.  "In  Principals  and  Supervisors" — R.  0.  Stoops,  superintendent  of  schools, 
Joliet,  111. 

Discussion — J.  H.  Beveridge,  superintendent  of  schools,  Omaha,  Nebr. 

b)  "How  Leadership  in  Making  New  Adjustments  in  Education  Must  Be  Provided" 
— Ernest  Horn,  professor  of  education,  Iowa  State  University,  Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

Discussion — J.  W.  McClinton,  superintendent  of  schools,  Pueblo,  Colo. 

c)  "Direct  Instruction  in  Citizenship  in  the  High  School" — Milton  Bennion,  dean 
of  school  of  education,  University  of  Utah,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

Discussion — H.  B.  Wilson,  superintendent  of  schools,  Topeka,  Kans. 

d)  "Thrift  in  Relation  to  Public  Schools" — Laura  A.  Smith,  primary  supervisor, 
public  schools,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Discussion — Ernest  A.  Smith,  superintendent  of  schools,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 
Discussion  from  the  floor — five-minute  speeches. 


480  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  lAtlantic  City 

E.    CONFERENCE  OF  SUPERINTENDENTS  OF  CITIES  WITH  POPU- 
LATION BETWEEN  15,000  AND  25,000 

Thursday  Afternoon,  February  28,  1918 

The  Conference  of  Superintendents  from  Cities  with  Population  between  15,000  and 

25,000  met  in  the  High  School  Auditorium,  at  2:30  p.m.,  L.  H.  Minkel,  superintendent 

of  schools,  Fort  Dodge,  Iowa,  presiding. 
The  following  program  was  presented: 

"War  Problems": 

a)  "Economy  of  Time — A  Twelve  Months'  School,  Divided  into  Four  Quarters" — 
F.  E.  Palmer,  superintendent  of  grade  schools,  Mason  City,  Iowa. 

h)  "Conservation  of  Resources — Schools  Savings  Accounts  and  Thrift  Instruction" 
— Arvie  Eldred,  superintendent  of  schools,  Troy,  N.Y. 

c)  "Increast  Food  Production — Home  Gardening" — E.  C.  Sherman,  superintendent 
of  schools,  Englewood,  N.J. 

Discussion — J.  H.  Beveridge,  superintendent  of  schools,  Omaha,  Nebr. 

<i)  "A  Practical  Program  of  Patriotic  Instruction" — Francis  G.  Blair,  state  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  Springfield,  111. 

Discussion — A.  E.  Winship,  Editor,  Journal  of  Education,  Boston,  Mass. 

F.    CONFERENCE  ON  COMPULSORY  EDUCATION,  SCHOOL  CENSUS,  AND 

CHILD  WELFARE 

Thursday  Afternoon,  February  28,  19 18 

The  Conference  on  Compulsory  Education,  School  Census,  and  Child  Welfare  met 
in  the  Park  Avenue  Hall,  Marlborough-Blenheim  Hotel,  at  2:30  p.m.,  J,  M.  Gwinn, 
superintendent  of  schools.  New  Orleans,  La.,  presiding. 

The  following  program  was  presented: 

"Enforcement  of  the  United  States  Child  Labor  Law"— Grace  Abbott,  Child  Labor 
Division,  Children's  Bureau,  Department  of  Labor,  Washington,  D.C. 

"Child  Welfare  and  Child  Labor  Laws  of  Minnesota" — S.  A.  Challman,  State 
Inspector  of  Special   Classes  in  Public  Schools,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

"Child  Welfare  and  the  War" — Philander  P.  Claxton,  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 

"The  Need  of  a  Continuing  Census  of  Children  of  School  Age"— John  W.  Davis, 
director.  Bureau  of  Attendance,  Public  Schools,  New  York,  N.Y, 

"Causes  of  Absence  from  Rural  Schools" — Edward  N.  Clopper,  secretary  for 
Northern  States,  National  Child  Labor  Committee,  New  York,  N.Y. 

piscussion. 

"Part  Time  v.  the  Special  Teacher  as  the  Economic  Solution  of  the  Speech-Disorder 
Problem  in  Public  Schools" — Walter  B.  Swift,  medical  supervisor  of  speech  classes,  Fall 
River,  Mass. 

Discussion — Hector  L.  Belisle,  superintendent  of  schools.  Fall  River,  Mass.;  Wilnier 
Kinnan,  assistant  superintendent  of  schools,  Lynn,  Mass.;  John  Christopher,  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  District  2,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

G.     CONFERENCE  ON  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 
Thursday  Afternoon,  February  28,  19 18 
The  Conference  on  Physical  Training  met  in  the  High  School  Gymnasium,  at 
2:30  p.m.,  E.  H.  Arnold,  director  of  New  Haven  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  presiding. 

The  following  program  was  presented: 

"Physical  Welfare  Work  with  School  Children  in  War  Times": 

"Outline  of  Work  Planned  on  National  Scope"— Randall  D.  Warden,  director  of 
physical  training,  Newark,  N.J. 

"The  Vital  Necessity  of  Physical  Training  for  the  Country  Boy  and  Girl"— Dudley 
A.  Sargent,  director,  Hemenway  Gymnasium,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

"Minimum  Essentials  of  Exercises" — WilUam  Stecher,  supervisor  of  physical  train- 
ing, Philadelphia,  Pa. 


Superintendence)  ADDRESS  OF  WELCOME  48 1 

After  a  brief  talk  by  President  Finegan,  in  which  he  exprest  his  persona  appreciation 
to  the  people  of  Atlantic  City  for  their  entertainment,  to  the  officers  of  the  department 
and  allied  associations,  and  to  those  taking  part  on  the  program  for  the  success  of  the 
meeting,  the  meeting  adjourned. 

LiDA  Lee  Tall,  Secretary 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


ADDRESS  OF  WELCOME 

CALVIN  N.    KENDALL,    STATE   COMMISSIONER   OF   EDUCATION,   TRENTON,    N.J. 

I  suppose  no  one  would  think  for  a  moment  that  your  comfort  would 
be  any  greater  because  of  these  addresses  of  welcome.  If  they  were  omitted 
altogether  you  would  not  accuse  us  of  inhospitality.  You  would  not  think 
that  your  presence  here  was  undesirable. 

You,  of  course,  are  welcome.  Be  assured  and  be  comfortable.  Visitors 
are  always  welcome  here;  the  more  the  better.  I  have  attended  these 
conventions  for  twenty-five  years.  You  never  have  been  to  a  place  where 
you  were  so  welcome  as  here.  Where  would  this  city — so  unique  among 
American  cities — be  were  it  not  for  such  as  you  ?  It  would  not  be  here  at 
all.  I  did  not  mean  to  say  "such  as  you,"  because  there  are  none  such 
as  you. 

We  do  not  care  that  we  were  your  third  choice;  we  are  not  sensitive 
about  this.  You  would  come  some  time  anyway,  for  all  roads  lead  to 
Atlantic  City  and  all  roads  lead  across  New  Jersey  to  our  suburbs.  New 
York  and  Philadelphia.  You  from  the  West  have  done  well  to  emulate 
the  example  of  George  Washington  and  cross  the  Delaware,  coming,  as  did 
he,  toward  New  Jersey.  You  will  find  here  more  comfort  than  you  would 
have  found  in  the  sunny  South  at  this  time  of  the  year,  and  more  than  in 
cold  New  England.  The  fates  have  been  kind  to  you  to  send  you  to  New 
Jersey;  they  have  been  kind  to  me,  and  the  longer  you  stay  the  kinder  they 
will  be. 

You  will  find  no  mosquitoes  here — in  fact,  the  alleged  presence  of 
mosquitoes  in  New  Jersey  is  a  myth.  No  one  of  you  has  seen  a  mosquito 
since  he  came  to  New  Jersey.  The  explanation  of  the  legend  of  the  mos- 
quitoes in  New  Jersey  is  this:  Researches  have  shown  that  the  mosquito 
is  a  very  intelligent  animal;  it  has  great  power  of  discrimination;  this 
faculty  is  highly  developt.  The  mosquito  is  a  migratory  bird;  it  has 
traveled  much.  It  has  used  its  power  of  discrimination  to  such  good  pur- 
pose that  it  has  found  that  of  all  parts  of  this  country  New  Jersey  is  the 
most  favored,  the  most  beautiful,  and  the  most  attractive.  Such  is  its 
admiration  of  New  Jersey  that  it  always  registers  from  New  Jersey.    In 


482  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

this  way  has  arisen  the  myth  of  the  Jersey  mosquito.  When  you  get  back 
to  your  homes,  every  one  of  you  should  teach  his  pupils  that  New  Jersey, 
so  far  as  your  observation  goes,  is  absolutely  free  from  mosquitoes. 

It  is  good  for  us  to  have  you  here ;  good  for  the  educational  interests  of 
the  state.  The  state  feels  honored  because  you  are  here.  It  has  been 
honored  by  no  more  distinguisht  body  of  men  and  women  than  this. 
This  is  not  the  language  of  compliment  or  hospitality,  but  the  language 
of  fact.  This  midwinter  meeting  has  long  been  recognized  as  a  vital  force 
in  the  direction  of  education  in  the  United  States.  What  is  said  here, 
what  is  done  here,  affects  educational  policies  and  practices  in  every 
nook  and  corner  of  the  United  States.  This  convention,  with  the  meetings 
which  have  attacht  themselves  to  it,  is  a  great  clearing-house  for  educa- 
tion; so  we  of  New  Jersey  are  cordial  in  our  greetings. 

Considering  these  serious  and  unprecedented  times,  which  on  the  one 
hand  make  new  demands  upon  the  schools  and  on  the  other  demand  that 
we  should  make  efforts  to  prevent  the  curtailment  of  the  processes  of  educa- 
tion, this  is  the  most  important  educational  gathering  yet  held  in  this 
country.  Education  in  this  state  feels  the  strain  of  these  war  times — no 
more  than  anywhere  else,  perhaps,  but  enough  to  make  us  serious  minded 
as  never  before  as  to  the  present  and  the  future.  We  feel  therefore  that 
it  is  well  for  us  that  you  should  spend  the  week  with  us.  You  will  reanimate 
our  courage  and  give  us  new  faith  in  what  we  are  trying  to  do.  We  are 
indebted  to  you  for  coming  here.  Our  press  will  report  your  proceedings, 
and  large  numbers  of  Jersey  men  and  women  will  carry  from  Atlantic  City 
the  gospel  that  is  preacht  here.  The  people  in  this  state  believe  in  educa- 
tion and  practice  that  belief.  There  was  written  into  the  constitution  of 
this  state  this  far-reaching  and  splendid  provision:  "The  legislature  shall 
provide  for  the  maintenance  and  support  of  a  thoro  and  efficient  system 
of  free  public  schools  for  the  instruction  of  all  the  children  in  this  state 
between  the  ages  of  five  and  eighteen  years."  This  provision  has  been  the 
inspiration  of  many  New  Jersey  school  officials  for  many  years.  It  in  part 
accounts  for  whatever  excellencies  the  school  system  of  the  state  has. 

We  hope,  of  course,  that  your  stay  here  may  be  pleasant  and  that  you 
will  feel  that  it  is  a  valuable  use  of  your  time  to  be  here.  We  hope  you  will 
not  overlook  the  board  walk.  Lest  you  may  overlook  it  I  beg  you  to  see  it. 
The  board  walk  is  not  merely  an  Atlantic  City  institution,  not  merely  a 
state  institution,  it  is  a  national  institution,  and  in  itself  is  an  education, 
if  the  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man,  as  Pope  says,  and  the  study  of 
woman  too. 

You  are  in  a  state  where  there  are  nearly  600,000  pupils  in  the  public 
schools,  and  17,000  teachers;  whose  current  expense  for  education  aggre- 
gates about  $20,000,000  a  year;  in  a  state  which  has  an  investment  of 
more  than  $70,000,000  in  school  buildings  and  grounds,  which  appropri- 
ates more  than  $400,000  a  year  from  state  funds  for  industrial  and  vocational 


Superintendence]         RESPONSE  TO  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME  483 

education ;  in  a  state  conservative  and  yet  progressive ;  in  a  state  with  nearly 
40,000  pupils  in  its  kindergartens  and  with  a  high-school  enrolment  which 
has  practically  doubled  in  six  years;  in  a  state  where  an  unusual  number 
of  men  and  women  are  professional  in  their  practices  in  education;  in  a 
state  in  which  the  township  administration  law  was  establisht  a  quarter 
of  a  century  ago;  where  the  office  of  county  superintendent  is  absolutely 
removed  from  politics;  where  women  helping  teachers  are  employed  as 
assistants  to  county  superintendents,  who  also  are  appointed  strictly  upon 
merit.  These  helping  teachers  with  the  county  superintendents  make 
rural  schools  better.  We  have  a  considerable  number  of  rural  schools  in 
New  Jersey.  You  are  in  a  state  where  universal  physical  training  is 
establisht  by  law,  this  law  providing  that  two  and  a  half  hours  a  week  shall 
be  devoted  to  physical  training;  in  a  state  in  which'tenure  laws  have  been 
establisht  for  all  teachers,  who  share  the  benefits  in  a  state-wide  pension 
system  with  generous  provisions  for  retirement;  in  a  state  in  which  all  plans 
for  schoolhouses  must  be  of  certain  standards;  in  a  state  which  has  estab- 
lisht 160  schools  for  defective  children.  The  state  distributes  to  the  schools 
from  a  state  railroad  tax  and  other  sources  upward  of  $4,000,000  a  year, 
independent  of  local  taxation. 

We  hope  that  you  will  some  time  stay  long  enough  to  see  some  of  the 
productive  and  prosperous  farming  regions  of  New  Jersey,  to  see  something 
of  the  marvelous  beauties  of  the  hills  of  northern  New  Jersey,  to  visit  some 
of  the  numerous  historical  places  in  the  state,  to  visit  some  of  the  other 
seaside  resorts  which  stretch  all  the  way  from  Cape  May  to  Jersey  City 
along  the  Atlantic  coast — a  veritable  recreation  ground  of  all  America. 

You  are  in  a  state  which  is  hospitable  to  teachers  and  superintendents 
from  other  states.  In  common  with  you  we  have  our  problems  and  difficul- 
ties, but  for  this  week,  which  is  a  red-letter  week  for  us,  we  propose  to 
forget  largely  these  difficulties  in  the  inspiration  of  your  presence  here. 
May  you  have  so  comfortable  a  time  that  you  will  want  to  come  again 
and  soon. 


RESPONSE  TO  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME 

MARY  C.  C.  BRADFORD,  PRESIDENT,  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION,  AND 
STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,  DENVER,  COLO. 

The  Service  Flag  of  the  National  Education  Association,  whose  folds 
have  just  fallen  into  place  behind  me,  stands  for  the  glowing  devotion  of  the 
teaching  force  of  the  United  States.  Each  star  means  a  life  nobly  lived  and 
nobly  offered  at  the  country's  call  and  in  the  service  of  freedom  and  govern- 
mental justice.  Invisible  but  nevertheless  in  reality  there,  there  are  hun- 
dreds of  living  stars  gleaming  in  the  schools  of  America,  whose  rays  of  daily 


484  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  .    [Atlantic  City 

duty  well  performed  supplement  in  loyal  devotion  the  light — symbolized  by 
the  stars  on  this  flag — of  those  who  have  gone  "over  there." 

The  National  Education  Association  gives  to  those  who  have  welcomed 
it  to  Atlantic  City  a  deep  appreciation  of  their  words  and  deeds  of  hospi- 
taHty,  and  pledges  in  return  a  session  full  to  the  brim  of  patriotic  thinking 
and  doing. 

The  National  Education  Association  is  the  clearing-house  of  intellectual 
methods.  The  unification  of  educational  aims  is  the  purpose  of  this  colossal 
convention.  It  intends  to  compare  professional  aims  and  intensify  educa- 
tion. It  convened  to  study  professional  needs,  to  unify  professional  aims, 
and  to  intensify  professional  inspiration.  This  convention  witnesses  the 
creation  of  a  commission  on  the  reorganization  of  education  in  America  with 
particular  reference  to  conditions  during  the  war,  and  to  make  preparation 
to  meet  conditions  after  the  war.  This  commission  has  upon  it  representa- 
tives from  universities,  normal  schools,  state  departments  of  education, 
rural  schools,  and  elementary  schools.  Our  educational  methods  need 
changing.  The  pubhc  schools,  I  believe,  have  performed  their  duties  better 
than  any  other  department  of  pubHc  work.  The  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation is  the  color  guard  of  the  army  of  civilization.  It  must  become  more 
straight-thinking,  hard-working,  mighty-loving,  in  order  to  make  better 
citizens.  It  must  be  a  means  thru  which  the  government,  representing  the 
spirit  of  America,  can  make  its  appeals  to  the  people  thru  a  scientifically 
and  humanly  organized  school  system.  The  schools  exist  for  the  sake  of 
the  children.  The  nation  has  need  of  the  kind  of  children  that  only  the 
best  schools  can  train.  The  National  Education  Association  stands  for  the 
child,  for  the  home,  for  the  nation,  because  only  as  these  are  strong  and  free 
and  pure  can  the  world  hope  for  a  world-civilization  after  the  war. 

A  democracy  is  the  most  expensive  form  of  government  yet  devised  by 
mind  of  man  in  the  demands  it  makes  upon  the  intelligence,  devotion,  and 
integrity  of  all  its  citizens.  A  democracy,  unlike  a  machine,  must  be  the  ex- 
pression of  developt  vital  forces  if  it  is  to  live.  For  this  reason  there  should 
be  continuation  schools,  night  schools,  and  opportunity  schools  where  citi- 
zens of  adult  age  can  go,  not  only  to  learn  the  EngHsh  language,  but  to 
receive  instruction  in  all  vocations.  The  National  Education  Association 
promises  for  July,  in  Pittsburgh,  a  purely  patriotic  convention,  and  then 
education  in  its  international  relations  will  be  represented.  There  will  be 
representatives  from  Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  and  America.  If  a 
league  of  nations  is  to  be  estabUsht  after  the  war,  and  that  is  one  of  the 
things  for  which  we  are  fighting,  we  must  find  a  means  of  permanent  unifi- 
cation. This  link  can  be  forged  thru  education  better  than  in  any  other 
way,  and  so  the  National  Education  Association  is  preparing  to  confer  with 
leaders  of  educational  thought  in  all  countries  so  that  the  system  of  each 
nation  may  add  its  contribution  to  the  common  educational  treasure  of  the 
world.    Therefore  we  hope  that  the  national  commissions  for  reorganiza- 


Superintendence]  ADDRESS  485 

tion  may  eventuate  in  an  international  commission  for  the  study  of  the 
child,  not  only  as  a  citizen  of  this,  our  country,  but  as  a  citizen  of  the  world. 
This  will  bring  real  brotherhood  on  earth,  and  democracy  is  but  another 
name  for  brotherhood. 

Mr.  Chairman,  members  of  the  convention,  and  visiting  friends,  again 
I  thank  you  for  the  welcome  extended.  In  the  name  of  all  the  states,  from 
the  shores  of  the  golden  Pacific  to  the  gray  Atlantic,  from  the  shadow  of  the 
Rockies,  where  lies  my  home,  from  East  and  West,  and  North  and  South, 
I  bring  you  greeting  and  offer  the  service  of  this,  the  greatest  educational 
body  in  the  world,  in  the  mighty  task  of  making  America  ready  to  accept 
leadership  in  the  great  days  that  are  to  come — the  greatest  task  to  which 
the  God  of  Nations  has  as  yet  summoned  any  people — the  supreme  task 
of  laying  the  foundations  of  a  new  social  order  thru  a  trained  citizenry. 


ADDRESS 

CHARLES  S.  WHITMAN,  GOVERNOR  OF.  NEW  YORK 

It  is  a  distinction,  Mr.  President,  not  to  be  scorned,  to  be  presented  to 
this  audience  of  representative  educators  as  one  of  their  guild.  It  is  true, 
I  did  once  attempt  to  teach  school.  My  claim  to  brotherhood  in  this  great 
teaching  fraternity  is  slight  indeed;  but  my  respect  for  the  profession  which 
more  than  any  other,  perhaps,  "richly  exalts  human  life"  is  genuine.  I 
do  not  employ  mere  idle  words  when  I  declare  that  it  is  my  abiding 
conviction  that  the  teachers  of  America  and  the  schools  they  represent 
determine  in  large  measure  the  destiny  of  the  nation.  You  may  call  that 
statement  a  truism,  if  you  wish.  It  will  bear  repetition.  If  I  mistake  not, 
educational  systems  which  have  controlled  the  destinies  of  nations  are  on 
trial  before  the  world  today. 

But  I  have  no  thought  of  making  an  educational  address.  I  must  not 
forget  that  I  am  far  removed  from  the  guild.  When  the  Department  of 
Superintendence  met  in  Kansas  City  last  February  this  nation  was  still 
honestly  trying  to  preserve  the  hopeless  fiction  of  neutrality  in  the  greatest 
war  the  world  has  ever  seen.  I  thank  God,  with  you,  that  this  meeting 
of  your  Association  finds  the  American  people  lined  up — lined  up  where 
they  belong. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  it  took  the  average  man  in  the  street  as  well 
as  our  duly  appointed  agents  in  Washington  considerable  time  to  clear 
away  the  mirage  of  neutrality.  Before  the  now  historic  midsummer  of 
1 9 14,  thoughtful  men,  men  familiar  with  history  and  trained  in  the  science 
of  government,  widely  held  the  view  that  enduring  peace  was  appearing 
upon  the  world's  horizon,  and  that  the  sun  had  forever  set  upon  great 
physical  conflicts  among  nations.    The  two  Hague  Conferences,  tho  they 


486  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

did  not  accomplish  fully  their  announst  purposes,  did  much  to  promote 
this  view.  We  had  very  generally  and  agreeably  reasoned  ourselves  into 
the  behef  that  war,  with  all  its  attendant  horrors,  was  going  to  be  impossible 
among  civilized  peoples. 

There  was  ground  enough  for  this  painfully  mistaken  attitude.  A 
thousand  agencies  were  at  work  thruout  the  world  that  made  for  peace. 
The  twentieth  century  had  dawned  upon  man  in  possession  of  many  mar- 
velous new  secrets  of  nature.  This  freshly  acquired  knowledge  had  widely 
been  turned  to  practical  account  in  adding  to  the  creature  comforts  of  the 
individual  and  in  bettering  human  conditions  generally.  It  was  hardly  to 
be  supposed  that  men  and  nations  that  had  done  so  much  to  conqufer  the 
earth  and  sea  and  even  the  air  would  not  be  able  in  some  way  to  protect 
themselves  against  the  awful  ravages  and  wanton  wastes  of  war.  Men 
widely  cultivated  the  fiction  in  this  as  well  as  in  other  countries  that 
economic  interests,  vast  business  enterprises,  awakened  world-conscience, 
and  the  dictates  of  Christian  civilization  would  somehow  save  the  world 
from  future  wars. 

We  had  our  rude  awakening.  We  did  not  reckon  with  the  machinations 
of  the  Huns.  The  fundamental  causes  and  issues  of  the  war  have  been 
clearly  stated  many  times,  and  by  no  one  more  clearly  or  forcefully  than 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States.  I  shall  not  attempt  to  elaborate 
upon  them  here.  I  apprehend  that  you  superintendents  and  principals 
and  teachers  will  agree  with  me  that  no  war  between  civilized  nations  is 
without  great  underlying  cause,  that  the  destinies  of  mankind  have  been 
frequently  controlled  by  wars,  and  that  every  great  conflict  among  nations 
determines  whether  a  higher  or  a  lower  philosophy  of  life  shall  preside  over 
the  future  of  the  race.  We  are  reminded  from  time  to  time  that  the  names 
of  Marathon  and  Thermopylae  shine  like  the  stars  thru  all  the  ages  because 
on  those  fields  there  met  in  physical  combat  principles  of  eternal  signifi- 
cance. It  was  not  Greek  and  Persian  who  fought  those  battles;  it  was 
European  liberty  and  oriental  despotism.  It  was  not  simply  Greek  and 
Persian  that  met  in  those  long-ago  engagements,  but  the  theories  of  life 
for  which  they  stood.  This  war  is  nothing  more  than  the  ancient  conflict 
of  Greek  and  Persian  ideals  upon  a  broader  field.  It  is  a  struggle,  as  it 
seems  to  me,  to  the  death,  between  two  radically  different  and  inevitably 
hostile  philosophies  of  life  and  government. 

May  I  briefly  point  out  a  few  of  the  evidences  of  the  impassable  gulf 
which  Hes  between  our  Allies  and  ourselves  on  the  one  hand,  and  our 
enemies  on  the  other,  all  of  which  are  calculated  to  show  that  ours  is  the 
"will  to  serve,"  theirs  the  ''will  to  power"? 

Here  are  a  few  of  the  utterances  of  General  Bernhardi  in  his  book  on 
Germany  and  the  Next  War.  Events  have  proved  him  to  be  the  faithful, 
if  not  duly  appointed,  mouthpiece  of  what  Dr.  Henry  y^^n  Dyke  calls 
''the  Potsdam  gang." 


Superintendence!  .  ADDRESS  487 

It  is  a  persistent  struggle  for  possession,  power,  and  sovereignty,  which  primarily 
governs  the  relations  of  one  nation  to  another,  and  right  is  respected  so  far  only  as  it  is 
compatible  with  advantage  [p.  19]. 

An  intellectual  and  vigorous  nation  can  experience  no  worse  destiny  than  to  be  lulled 
into  a  Phaeacian  existence  by  the  undisputed  enjoyment  of  peace  [p.  28]. 

Our  people  must  learn  to  see  that  the  maintenance  of  peace  never  can  or  may  be  the 
goal  of  a  policy  [p.  37]. 

But  the  end-all  and  be-all  of  a  State  is  power  [p.  45]. 

Those  utterances  characterize  the  policy  and  practice  of  Prussian 
miUtarism  even  tho  they  may  now  be  disowned  by  the  power  that  authorized 
them. 

Now  listen  to  more  poisonous  utterances  by  the  mouthpiece  of  modern 
German  philosophy.  This  quotation  I  take  from  page  130  of  The  Will  to 
Power  by  Friedrich  Nietzsche : 

Christianity  is  a  degenerative  movement  consisting  of  all  kinds  of  decaying  and 
excremental  elements;  it  is  not  the  expression  of  the  downfall  of  a  race,  it  is,  from  the 
root,  an  agglomeration  of  all  the  morbid  elements  which  are  mutually  attractive  and  which 

gravitate  to  one  another It  is  therefore  not  a  national  religion,  not  determined  by 

race;  it  appeals  to  the  disinherited  everywhere;  it  consists  of  a  foundation  of  resentment 
against  all  that  is  successful  and  dominant.  It  is  opposed  to  every  form  of  intellectual 
movement,  to  all  philosophy;  it  takes  up  the  cudgels  for  idiots  and  utters  a  curse  upon 
ail  intellect,  resentment  against  those  who  are  gifted,  learned,  intellectually  independent: 
in  all  these  it  suspects  the  elements  of  success  and  donimation. 

That  is  the  utterance  of  one  of  the  chief  philosophers  of  the  people  who 
in  the  very  words  of  their  mad  Kaiser  have  entered  into  an  alliance,  offensive 
and  defensive,  with  Almighty  God.  And  if  that  is  not  enough,  listen  to 
this  further  exposition  by  Nietzsche: 

I  regard  Christianity  as  the  most  fatal  and  seductive  lie  that  has  ever  yet  existed — 
as  the  greatest  and  most  impious  lie;  I  can  discern  the  lost  sprouts  and  branches  of  its 
ideal  beneath  every  form  of  disguise,  I  decline  to  enter  into  any  compromise  or  false 
position  in  reference  to  it — I  urge  people  to  declare  open  war  with  it.  The  morality  of 
paltry  people  as  the  measure  of  all  things;  this  is  the  most  repugnant  kind  of  degeneracy 
that  civilization  has  ever  brought  into  existence  [pp.  153-54]. 

And  now,  ladies  and  gentlemen,  permit  me  to  present  a  few  quotations 
from  the  other  side.     And  the  first  is  this,  and  familiar  to  you  all : 

We  [the  American  people]  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident,  that  all  men  are  created 
equal,  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator,  with  certain  unalienable  rights,  that  among 
these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness. 

And  the  second  is  this,  from  Washington's  inaugural  speech  to  both 
houses  of  Congress  on  April,  30,  1789: 

I  dwell  on  this  prospect  with  every  satisfaction  which  an  ardent  love  for  my  country 
can  inspire;  since  there  is  no  truth  more  thoroly  established  than  that  there  exists  in  the 
economy  and  course  of  nature  an  indissoluble  union  between  virtues  and  happiness, 


488  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

between  duty  and  advantage,  between  the  genuine  maxims  of  an  honest  and  magnanimous 
policy  and  the  solid  rewards  of  public  prosperity  and  felicity;  since  we  ought  to  be  no 
less  persuaded  that  the  propitious  smiles  of  Heaven  can  never  be  expected  on  a  nation 
that  disregards  the  eternal  rules  of  order  and  right,  which  Heaven  itself  has  ordained;  and 
since  the  preservation  of  the  sacred  fire  of  liberty  and  the  destiny  of  the  republican  model 
of  government  are  justly  considered  as  deeply,  perhaps  as  finally,  staked  on  the  experiment 
intrusted  to  the  hands  of  the  American  people. 

One  more  familiar  quotation.  This  from  Lincoln's  second  inaugural 
address: 

The  Almighty  has  his  own  purposes.  "Woe  unto  the  world  because  of  ofifenses! 
for  it  must  needs  be  that  ofifenses  come;  but  woe  to  that  man  by  whom  the  ofifense  cometh ! " 
If  we  shall  suppose  that  American  slavery  is  one  of  those  ofifenses  which  in  the  Providence 
of  God  must  needs  come,  but  which,  having  continued  thru  his  appointed  time,  he  now 
wills  to  remove,  and  that  he  gives  to  both  the  North  and  South  this  terrible  war,  as  the 
woe  due  to  those  by  whom  the  offense  came,  shall  we  discern  therein  any  departure  from 
those  divine  attributes  which  the  believers  in  a  living  God  always  ascribe  to  him.  Fondly 
do  we  hope— fervently  do  we  pray — that  this  mighty  scourge  of  war  may  speedily  pass 
away.  Yet  if  God  wills  that  it  continue  until  all  the  wealth  piled  up  by  the  bondsman's 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  unrequited  toil  shall  be  sunk,  and  until  every  drop  of  blood 
drawn  with  the  lash  shall  be  paid  with  another  drawn  with  the  sword,  as  was  said  three 
thousand  years  ago,  so  still  it' must  be  said,  "The  judgments  of  the  Lord  are  true  and 
righteous    altogether." 

And  so,  ladies  and  gentlemen,  I  could  multiply  evidence  by  the  hour 
to  show  that  the  ways  of  the  Huns  are  not  our  ways.  Out  of  this  awful 
welter  of  war  which  has  drencht  the  world  in  blood  for  three  years  and  a 
half  there  seem  to  me  to  emerge  for  the  guidance  of  the  American  people 
certain  very  clear  fundamental  principles : 

1.  There  can  be  no  peace  by  adjudication.  There  can  be  no  peace 
except  by  the  sword. 

2.  We  are  not  at  war  simply  with  the  royal  family  of  Germany  and  its 
camp  followers.  We  are  at  war  with  the  whole  German  Empire.  It  is 
time  to  cease  trying  to  distinguish  between  the  leader  and  the  led.  The 
German  people  are  impregnated  with  the  false  philosophy  of  their  leaders, 
and  we  lose  precious  time  by  taking  any  other  view  of  the  grim  business 
ahead  of  us. 

3.  One  or  the  other  of  these  conflicting  world-forces  must  ultimately 
triumph. 

4.  There  can  be  no  peace  for  the  world  worth  the  having  until  the  forces 
of  absolutism  are  forever  subjugated. 

5.  Peace  for  us  at  the  price  of  overwhelming  victory  is  now  the  only 
means  for  the  preservation  of  civilization.  Lincoln  once  said  that  a  house 
divided  against  itself  could  not  stand,  and  that  this  country  could  not  exist 
half  free  and  half  slave.  The  very  spirit  of  that  great  disciple  of  human 
freedom  which  has  hovered  tenderly  over  the  American  people  for  the  last 
fifty-three  years  tells  us  in  unmistakable  terms  today  that  a  world  divided 


Superintendence]  ADDRESS  489 

against  itself  cannot  stand  and  that  there  can  be  no  enduring  peace  between 
the  alleged  "divine  right  of  kings"  and  the  theory  that  "governments 
derive  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed." 

Just  this  final  word.  The  hopes,  the  wishes,  the  absorbing  thoughts 
of  the  American  people,  are  now  centered  with  our  brave  boys  "somewhere 
in  France."  Unreservedly  we  are  giving  ourselves  to  the  cause  to  which 
we  are  committed.  I  wish  I  somehow  had  the  power  to  convince  you 
educators,  if  you  are  not  already  convinst,  that  you  may  best  serve  that 
cause  by  resolving  with  all  your  energy  and  with  all  your  well-known 
devotion  to  "carry  on"  where  you  are.  In  my  judgment  you  can  best 
serve  the  nation  by  keeping  the  schools  and  colleges  open.  Of  course, 
individual  members  of  the  guild  will  wish  to  take  sword  in  hand.  I  would 
not  restrain  them,  but  I  would  urge  that  the  continuity  of  our  school  and 
college  work  be  preserved  wherever  possible.  You,  you  the  leaders  in 
education,  must  not  only  train  the  rising  generation  how  best  to  fight  for 
peace,  but  also  train  the  citizenry  of  the  future  how  best  to  deserve  peace. 

Have  no  thought  that  you  are  not  nobly  serving  your  country.  Whether 
this  war  ends  tomorrow,  or  next  week,  or  next  month,  or  next  year,  or 
whether  the  victory  for  peace  and  humanity  and  civilization  shall  be 
deferred  for  five,  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  years,  no  matter  when  the  final 
issue  shall  be  declared,  the  flag  in  the  hands  of  teachers  will  be  held  proudly 
aloft.  Yours  is  a  never-ending  mobilization  process.  Enemies  are  always, 
and  never  more  than  now,  entrencht  against  you.  You  must  conduct  the 
maneuvers  at  home  in  the  fight  against  illiteracy,  moral  and  physical 
degeneracy,  race  prejudice,  crime,  avarice,  sordid  selfishness,  treason,  and 
the  poisonous  philosophy  which  would  justify  the  wanton  murder  of  women 
and  defenseless  children  to  secure  an  unearned  "place  in  the  sun." 

It  was  long  ago  said  by  one  of  the  teaching  guild  that  "there  can  be 
no  sound  mind  without  a  sound  body."  We  must  set  ourselves  as  we  never 
have  before  to  the  building  in  our  schools  of  strong  human  units,  strong 
bodies,  alert  minds,  receptive  spirits.  We  must  train  our  youth  in  prac- 
tical citizenship,  and  we  must  be  ready,  readier  than  we  have  ever  been 
before,  to  defend  that  citizenship.  We  must  look  out  for  a  higher  level  of 
education  in  this  country.  Of  course  you  want  to  be  on  the  firing  line.  I 
tell  you,  the  coming  years  will  bring  the  firing  line  all  around  you. 

May  I  tell  you  the  dream  of  your  future  in  which  I  venture  to  indulge  ? 
No,  I  will  not  call  it  a  dream,  because  you,  you  will  make  it  in  the  coming 
years  an  accomplisht  fact.  It  is  this:  Nowhere  in  all  this  land  a  single 
sane  man,  woman,  or  child  of  sufficient  years  unable  to  speak  and  read  and 
write  the  English  language;  universal  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  hand 
as  well  as  the  mind  can  think,  and  the  technical  education  of  hosts  of 
artisans  and  skilled  workmen  to  give  a  new  dignity  and  a  new  place  to  the 
thinking  hand  in  our  American  life;  no  dirty,  unduly  ragged,  hungry,  or 
physically  uncared  for  child  in  any  school  anywhere;  universal  recognition 


490  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

that  the  state  has  claim  upon  the  citizen,  and  the  systematic  mihtary  train- 
ing of  our  youth  so  as  to  give  world-highwaymen  reason  to  pause  before 
they  again  regard  a  solemn  covenant  as  a  mere  ''scrap  of  paper";  and 
finally,  the  constant  objective  of  the  school,  high  patriotic  ideals,  clean 
living,  fair  dealing,  disinterested  public  service,  economic  independence, 
and  faith  in  the  Lord  of  Hosts. 

Teachers  of  America!     Carry  on!     Carry  on! 


TOPIC:   CENTRALIZING  TENDENCIES  IN  EDUCATIONAL 
ADMINISTRATION 

A.     LIMITATIONS  OF  STATE  CONTROL  IN  EDUCATION 

PAYSON    SMITH,    STATE    COMMISSIONER    OF    EDUCATION,    BOSTON,    MASS. 

Educators  have  not  been  slow  to  paraphrase  the  recent  sentence  of 
President  Wilson,  and  to  say  that  popular  education  is  the  chief  reliance  of 
the  nation  for  making  democracy  safe  for  the  world.  Certainly  to  those 
charged  with  the  administration  of  American  education  the  challenge  of 
this  time  is  to  prepare  and  to  present  to  the  American  people  a  program  of 
popular  education  as  broad  and  comprehensive  as  are  the  needs  and  require- 
ments of  the  nation,  the  state  in  its  broadest  terms. 

Education  in  a  democracy  for  the  upbuilding  and  perfecting  of  democ- 
racy must  be  universal  and  efi&cient.  At  present,  in  America,  it  is  neither 
universal  nor  efficient.  This  is  so,  not  because  our  people  as  a  whole  want  it 
to  be  so,  but  because  it  cannot  be  otherwise  as  long  as  it  rests  upon  a 
parochial  or  neighborhood  conception  of  responsibility.  To  think  in  terms 
of  larger  units  and  to  widen  the  boundaries  of  our  responsibiHty,  these  are 
definitely  the  needs  of  the  hour.  The  state,  in  the  narrow  sense,  is  the 
responsible  creator  of  educational  opportunity.  The  state  representing 
corporate  democracy  can  and  must  enforce  the  means  by  which  it  is  to  be 
made  safe  and  efficient.  That  represents  the  theory  clearly  laid  down  by  the 
majority  of  states  in  their  constitutions.  Even  within  the  states  the  actual 
practice  still  harks  back  to  traditional  conceptions  of  responsibility,  indi- 
vidual and  local,  presenting  education  as  a  personal  privilege  and  not  as  a 
need  of  the  state. 

Time  was,  of  course,  when  a  child  was  held  to  be  entitled  to  so  much — 
and  only  so  much — of  an  education  as  his  parents  could  afford.  But  in  time 
this  was  seen  to  be  no  adequate  conception  of  a  community's  right  and 
interest  in  its  own  welfare.  Men  saw  that  local  democracy  would  not  be 
safe  on  any  such  basis.  Then  came  the  parish  and,  still  later,  the  district 
conception  of  educational  responsibility.  Under  this  conception  there  were 
— and  perhaps  even  are — neighboring  districts,  the  one  offering  a  longer 
school  year  and  a  better-paid  teacher  than  the  other  because  it  is  financially 
better  able  to  do  so.     We  are,  however,  now  accepting  a  little  wider  con- 


Superintendence)  STATE  CONTROL  IN  EDUCATION  491 

ception  of  our  responsibility  for  the  training  of  our  citizenship.  In  some 
states  the  county,  in  others  the  town,  is  required  to  look  upon  all  children  on 
the  basis  of  equality.  We  are  seeing  America's  children  as  America's 
children,  if  they  come  that  much  within  the  range  of  our  vision.  In  most 
states  the  constitutional  obligation  is  in  a  measure  being  fulfilled.  Thru 
state  aid,  modified  state  support,  and  a  measure  of  state  standardization 
a  certain  minimum  of  educational  opportunity  is  guaranteed.  But  this  is 
not  enough.  The  coming  of  the  war  to  America  has  not  been  altogether 
bad.  Among  other  things  we  have  had  to  take  account  of  stock.  America 
is  vastly  better  acquainted  with  herself  than  she  was  a  year  ago.  It 
may  be  no  harm  to  us  of  the  schools  to  inquire  where  we  stand  as  to  the 
accompHshments  of  education. 

Not  to  speak  in  detail,  it  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  today 
in  America,  the  richest  country  in  the  world,  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
children  sit  under  untrained  and  underpaid  teachers.  This  is  so  because  we 
cling  to  the  neighborhood  idea  of  initiative,  support,  and  control  of  education. 

Take  the  education  of  subnormal  children.  America  has  not  even  begun 
to  salvage  the  possibihties  that  He  within  those  of  the  one  talent.  Local 
initiative,  save  in  the  largest  cities,  will  not  do  it.  Take  the  education  of 
the  unschooled  immigrant;  it  is  hardly  toucht.  Local  initiative  and  local 
support  are  inadequate.  This  program  truthfully  impHes  that  the  education 
of  the  negro  is  of  intimate  concern,  not  alone  to  a  section-,  but  to  a  nation. 
Rural  education  is  still  calling  for  recognition  of  its  problems  and  of  the 
nation's  fundamental  interest  in  their  right  solution. 

If  anywhere  in  America  there  is  a  group  of  men  and  women  who  ought 
now  to  be  teaching  and  preaching  and  working  for  a  realization  in  very 
fact  of  an  American  system  of  education,  made  in  America  for  America, 
that  group  is  here,  in  this  room. 

In  the  broadest  sense  the  limitation  of  state  control  of  education  is 
determined  only  by  the  conception  of  the  people  of  the  meaning  and  worth 
of  democracy,  and  of  their  responsibility  for  its  safety,  its  security,  and  its 
success.  As  a  major  premise  I  submit  that  the  time  has  arrived  when  the 
resources  and  the  common  purpose  of  our  people  should  get  behind  our 
educational  program,  when  we  must  accept  the  principle  that  we  will  tax 
wealth  wherever  it  is  for  the  education  of  children,  wherever  they  live, 
for  the  solution  of  our  educational  problems,  wherever  they  are  found,  for 
the  production  of  that  equality  of  educational  opportunity  without  which 
democracy  can  never  realize  itself  to  the  full.  There  are  those  who  at  once 
say,  "But  that  means  sending  our  money  away  for  the  benefit  of  others." 
It  is  the  echo  of  the  original  individualist  protesting  the  education  of  his 
neighbor's  child  at  community  cost.  The  protest  stands  only  at  the  peril 
of  national  safety.  As  for  myself,  I  am  unable  to  think  of  the  children  of  a 
community  in  other  terms  than  as  potential  assets  or  liabilities  of  the  state 
or  the  nation.     If  there  are  those  of  vou  of  California  or  New  York  or 


492  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  city 

Massachusetts,  of  Chicago  or  Philadelphia  or  Boston,  who  say  you  do  not 
propose  to  see  your  money  thus  disposed — then  I  reply,  "Whence  comes 
that  money?"  Build  a  wall  about  your  boundaries,  check  the  flow  of 
industry  and  commerce,  and  speedily  you  will  discover  that  you  are  parts  of 
states  and  parts  of  a  nation  from  whose  fortunes — good  or  bad — you  are 
inseparable.  Let  us  understand,  once  for  all,,  that  education  does  not  break 
down  anywhere  without  causing  the  people  as  a  whole  to  share  the  loss. 
By  the  same  token,  education,  universal  and  efficient,  means  safety  and 
prosperity  common  to  us  all. 

Theoretically  there  are  no  limitations  to  state  control.  But  practically 
there  are  two  limitations.  First  is  the  consciousness  of  responsibility.  It 
is  not  safe  to  make  use  of  any  given  unit  of  government  unless,  for  the 
purpose  at  hand,  the  people  feel  themselves  in  control  of  that  unit.  State 
support  of  education  to  the  extent  that  it  is  regarded  as  coming  from  an  out- 
side source  may  be  demoralizing.  State  control,  when  lookt  upon  as  the 
ofl&cious  action  of  an  outside  body  not  answerable  to  the  people,  may  be 
mischievous.  Both  state  support  and  state  control,  when  consciously 
adopted  as  the  means  of  making  effective  what  the  state  as  a  large  com- 
munity desires,  is  defensible,  is  safe,  and  will  be  effective.  The  second 
limitation  is  one  of  administration.  Some  things  the  state  can  do  better  by 
using  a  state  agency,  others  a  state  can  do  better  by  using  a  local  agency. 

One  word  as  to  what  we  may  term  the  physical  contacts  of  local  and 
state  agencies.  There  can  be  no  question  that  the  acceptance  of  the 
principle  of  state  support  and  state  control  has  been  retarded  because  of 
the  clashing  of  these  two  kinds  of  machinery.  Traditions  of  local  self- 
government,  fear  of  bureaucracy,  distrust  of  officials  who  cannot  be  seen, 
having  led  the  people  to  dread  the  results  of  state  participation  in  the 
management  of  schools.  State  departments  may,  one  may  humbly 
acknowledge,  have  their  lessons  to  learn.  They  need  to  look  upon  them- 
selves, and  try  to  get  others  also  to  regard  them,  not  as  outside  agencies 
coming  in  to  determine  the  practice  and  procedure  of  education  as  with  a 
supernal  wisdom. 

A  state  office  of  education  is  an  agency  created  by  the  people  to  serve 
it  in  helping  to  interpret  and  make  effective  what  they,  the  people,  desire  for 
the  state  as  a  whole.  A  state  department  that  gets  much  beyond  that 
point  is  dangerous  to  itself  and  not  helpful  to  the  state.  Power,  authority, 
and  control,  these  are  dangerous  words  anywhere.  They  need  careful 
annotation  in  any  office  of  education,  be  it  local  or  state.  Many  of  the 
antagonisms  which  arise  between  local  and  state  offices  of  education  would 
disappear  if  both  would  accept  their  relationship  as  co-working  agencies, 
each  to  supplement  the  other,  created  to  make  effective  the  ideals  and  pur- 
poses of  the  people  in  education. 

As  to  the  state  in  its  broader  significance,  the  nation,  it  is  true  that  even 
the  state  neighborhood  cannot  carry  out  a  program  of  education  adequate 


Superintendence)         COUNTY  AS  A  UNIT  FOR  ADMINISTRATION  493 

for  the  nation,  then  there  will  arise  shortly  the  question  of  the  limitations 
of  that  wider  state  control.  Here  there  are  constitutional  limitations  which 
can,  of  course,  be  changed,  tho  with  difficulty.  There  are  traditions  which 
are  altered  even  less  easily  than  those  of  the  constitution.  But  this  much 
the  nation  can  do.  It  can  create  an  agency,  or  give  power  to  one,  to  study 
national  problems  of  education,  not  as  statistics,  but  for  definite  and  prac- 
tical programs.  It  can  place  before  the  nation  those  problems  which  the 
states  have  not  solved,  or  cannot  solve.  It  can  place  national  resources  at 
the  disposal  of  the  state,  that  they  may  solve  its,  that  is,  the  nation's, 
problems.  It  can  help  to  formulate,  and  give  expression,  as  with  a  common 
tongue,  to  those  common  ideals  and  standards  which  must  more  clearly  and 
definitely  stand  forth  as  marking  the  road  education  must  take  if  it  is  to 
lead  to  a  common  ground  of  thought  and  action  this  great  people  which  we 
now,  more  than  ever  before,  must  see  as  a  nation.  Finally,  what  I  want 
to  express  is  this,  that  our  whole  system  of  popular  education  is  predicated 
on  the  theory  that  it  is  created  for,  and  is  necessary  to,  making  our  demo- 
cratic experiment  a  success,  that  wherever  education  breaks  down,  whether 
by  reason  of  poverty,  neglect,  or  indifference,  there  democracy  is  in  danger; 
that  neither  the  nation  nor  the  states  may  disregard  the  social  and  industrial 
causes  creating  inequality  in  the  distribution  of  wealth  and  of  educational 
problems;  that  as  those  charged  with  a  responsibility  in  education  it  is  our 
privilege  to  face  this  situation,  not  only  as  it  involves  the  local  duty  immedi- 
ately at  hand,  but  as  it  involves  those  larger  relations  in  which  we  are 
so  inextricably  bound  together. 

Within  a  twelvemonth  there  have  past  before  our  eyes  things  of  which 
we  had  not  dreamed.  We  have  seen  a  nation's  money  poured  out  in  sums 
untold  to  save  a  nation's  name  and  a  nation's  ideals.  We  have  seen 
a  thousand  transportation  systems  gathered  into  one  unit  for  the  carrying 
of  a  nation's  goods,  we  have  seen  a  nation's  industries  drawing  into  a  com- 
mon current,  uniting  a  nation's  efforts. 

We  have  seen  a  nation's  sons  gathered  from  every  corner  of  the  land  to 
go  forth  under  one  common  flag  to  justify  anew  a  nation's  faith  in  democ- 
racy. Is  it  too  much  to  suggest  that  we  too,  charged  in  a  measure  with 
responsibility  for  what  lies  beyond,  in  the  days  of  reconstruction,  that  we 
lay  aside  the  point  of  view  of  a  place  and  think  in  terms  of  a  nation  and  its 
needs  ? 


B.     THE  COUNTY  AS  A  UNIT  FOR  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION 

ALBERT   S.    COOK,    SUPERINTENDENT   OF   BALTIMORE   COUNTY  PUBLIC 
SCHOOLS,   TOWSON,   MD. 

There  are  two  requirements  that  must  be  met  in  order  to  have  a  good 
system  of  schools — adequate  financial  support  and  effective  organization 
and  control. 


494  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

Sufficient  money  to  produce  a  good  school  system  can  be  made  available 
in  most  rural  communities  only  thru  large  state  subsidies  and  a  larger 
administrative  unit  than  either  the  school  district,  or  the  town  and  town- 
ship; since  the  county  is  a  common  political  unit  in  forty-one  states,  com- 
parable only  in  its  significance  for  education  to  the  state  itself,  the  county  is 
the  logical  administrative  unit.  It  is  now  the  unit  for  almost  all  other 
forms  of  public  business. 

It  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  American  education  that  the  wealth  of 
the  state  must  be  taxt  to  educate  the  children  of  the  state.  A  unit  of  the 
state  that  does  not  have  sufficient  wealth  to  educate  its  children  must  be 
helpt  by  the  wealthier  communities.  The  purpose  of  a  state  school  fund 
is  to  equalize  the  burdens  of  taxation  for  schools,  and  to  secure,  in  a  measure, 
equality  of  educational  opportunity  for  all  the  children  of  the  state.  This 
fundamental  principle  of  the  distribution  of  state  school  funds,  it  seems  to 
me,  applies  with  equal  force  to  the  distribution  of  money  available  for 
schools  in  a  county. 

A  county  that  is  uniformly  rich,  i.e.,  that  has  approximately  the  same 
amount  of  taxable  wealth  back  of  each  child  to  be  educated,  could  get  along 
as  well  without  the  county  unit  if  we  do  not  take  into  consideration  the 
necessity  for  an  administrative  and  supervisory  organization.  But  every 
state  in  the  Union  has  its  taxable  wealth  concentrated  more  or  less  in  spots, 
and  there  are  few  counties  not  so  situated.  A  county  uniformly  poor  can- 
not have  a  good  school  system  with  the  county  unit  unless  there  is  a  large 
amount  of  money  available  from  the  state  school  fund;  but  there  are  many 
school  districts  and  even  townships  in  most  counties  that  do  not  have  suffi- 
cient taxable  wealth  back  of  each  child  to  be  educated  to  have  good  schools, 
for,  in  the  final  analysis,  a  good  school  costs  money,  and  to  maintain  a 
good  school  money  must  be  available  to  secure  a  good  teacher,  competent 
supervision,  and  capable  administration. 

The  weakness  of  the  American  system  of  education,  in  my  judgment, 
lies  in  giving  too  little  opportunity  for  initiative  at  the  top,  with  too  much 
opportunity  for  initiative  at  the  bottom  almost  entirely  unexercised,  as  in 
many  of  our  weak  district-  and  township-unit  school  systems.  Does  any 
city-school  superintendent  argue  for  a  minute  that  a  city  ward  system  of 
education,  subdividing  the  city  into  from  ten  to  one  hundred  administra- 
tive units  with  only  a  nominal  administrative  head  for  the  entire 
system,  would  make  for  educational  progress  ?  Such  a  scheme  of  educa- 
tion for  a  city  is  almost  unthinkable— for  a  county  it  is  the  predominant 
plan. 

Any  city  in  this  country  of  10,000  inhabitants  and  over  is  rich  enough 
to  pay  the  cost  of  a  good  school  system  because  cities  represent  tlie  con- 
centrated taxable  wealth  of  the  nation.  After  all  these  centers  of  wealth 
have  set  up  for  themselves  educationally,  there  are  comparatively  few 
country  districts  left  in  the  same  fortunate  condition;   one  chief  reason  is 


Superintendence!         COUNTY  AS  A  UNIT  FOR  ADMINISTRATION  495 

that  the  country  district  must  compete  for  abiUty  in  the  teaching  force  with 
its  wealthier  city  neighbor.  The  county  unit  makes  it  possible  to  eliminate 
to  some  degree  this  competition. 

Baltimore  County,  for  example,  can,  as  a  whole,  afford  to  pay  as  high 
salaries  as  Baltimore  city.  Furthermore  our  salary  schedule  is  arranged 
so  that  a  teacher  in  a  one-teacher  rural  school  receives  during  the  first  six 
years  of  service  a  salary  from  $120  to  $200  higher  than  a  grade  teacher  in 
a  town  or  suburban  school.  If  she  is  transferred  to  a  grade  position  her 
salary  is  automatically  reduced  by  that  amount.  Needless  to  say,  trans- 
fers to  suburban  schools  are  less  frequently  askt  for  than  formerly.  Again, 
the  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  rural  schools  has  fewer  teachers 
to  supervise  and  receives  the  same  salary  as  other  assistant  superintendents, 
while  all  his  traveUng  expenses,  including  the  cost  and  upkeep  of  an  auto- 
mobile, are  paid  by  the  county,  the  state  sharing  one-half  of  the  cost  of  salary 
up  to  $2,000.  This  plan  is  mandatory  for  one  rural-school  supervisor  in 
every  county  in  Maryland  having  one  hundred  teachers  or  more,  and  is 
optional  in  counties  having  less  than  one  hundred  teachers.  Is  not  this 
merely  applying  the  fundamental  principle  of  attempting  to  furnish  equality 
of  educational  opportunity  to  all  the  children  of  the  county,  just  as  a  city 
does  for  all  of  its  children  ? 

Opportunity  for  professional  leadership  plus  a  commensurate  salary 
largely  determine  the  quality  of  leadership  a  school  system  can  hope  to 
obtain.  When  the  schools  of  a  community  must  depend  for  the  initiation 
of  progressive  school  policies  upon  the  average  rural  taxpayer  and  not  upon 
a  well- trained  schoolman,  there  will  be  mighty  little  progress.  Leadership 
of  the  highest  order  is  needed  to  arouse  and  inform  public  opinion  in  rural 
communities  concerning  the  needs  of  the  schools  and  how  these  needs  may 
be  met;  only  in  this  way  can  progress  be  made. 

What  is  the  status  of  the  county  superintendency  in  the  United  States 
with  respect  to  professional  leadership  and  a  commensurate  salary  as  com- 
pared with  the  city  superintendency?  There  are  about  three  thousand 
county  superintendents  in  the  United  States,  few  of  whom  have  charge  of 
less  than  fifty  teachers,  and  more  than  five  hundred  of  whom  have  some  sort 
of  supervisory  control  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  teachers  or  more.  There  are 
just  about  one  hundred  cities  in  the  United  States  that  have  a  population  of 
50,000,  or  over:  that  is  to  say,  there  are  only  one  hundred  city  superin- 
tendents who  have  charge  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  teachers  or  more.  If 
it  were  possible  to  centralize  authority  and  educational  responsibility  in  the 
office  of  the  county  board  of  education  and  the  county  superintendent  thru 
wisely  administered  state  school  laws,  thus  placing  the  county  superintend- 
ency on  a  professional  plane  similar  to  that  of  the  city  superintendency  in 
cities  of  equal  population,  what  a  wonderful  field  for  professional  progress 
there  would  be  in  the  position  of  county  superintendent  in  this  country! 
The  average  county  superintendent's  salary  is  61  per  cent  of  the  average  city 


496  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic City 

superintendent's  salary;  and  all  cities  of  a  population  of  2,500,  and  over 
are  included  in  these  statistics. 

Tenure  of  office  is  another  important  element  in  professional  oppor- 
tunity. There  are  no  better  reasons  for  electing  a  county  superintendent  of 
schools  by  direct  vote  of  the  people  than  there  are  for  electing  a  city  super- 
intendent of  schools  in  the  same  way;  and  yet,  in  1916,  twenty-nine  state 
laws  required  this  procedure.  In  eighteen  of  the  twenty-nine  states  he  is 
elected  for  two  years,  and  in  two  of  the  eighteen  he  is  made  ineligible  for 
more  than  four  years.  But  these  same  states  that  throw  such  a  careful 
safeguard  around  the  office  of  county  superintendent  require  very  meager 
qualifications  in  the  candidate,  give  him  very  little  authority  to  do  anything 
educationally  after  he  is  elected,  and  pay  him  very  little  for  doing  it. 
Instead  of  entering  the  work  as  a  professional  career,  he  is  regarded  merely 
as  a  political  officer  and  clerk,  and  the  old  political  principle  of  rotation  in 
office  is  applied  to  the  position.  It  is  only  natural,  therefore,  that  the 
country-bred  school  men  with  professional  aspirations  and  ability  should 
move  to  the  cities. 

To  show  the  flexibility  of  a  county-unit  system  of  education,  may  I 
sketch  briefly  the  administrative  and  supervisory  organization  in  a  county 
having  a  population  of  140,000,  rural,  suburban,  and  urban,  with  25,000 
pupils  enrolled  and  an  annual  school  budget  of  over  $750,000. 

There  are  in  this  county,  in  round  numbers,  eighty  one-teacher  schools, 
fifty-five  two-teacher  schools,  and  forty-five  schools  having  from  three  to 
fifty-nine  teachers — in  all  there  are  six  hundred  teachers.  The  county 
board  of  education  of  six  members  has  entire  control  of  the  school  affairs  of 
the  county.  For  all  purposes  of  school  administration  the  county  is  a 
municipality. 

The  superintendent  of  schools  is  the  executive  officer  of  the  board  of 
education.  As  secretary  of  the  board  he  attends  all  meetings  and  may  take 
part  in  the  discussion  of  school  policies  and  all  other  administrative  prob- 
lems, but  has  no  vote.  As  treasurer  of  the  board  he  is  the  custodian  of  all 
school  funds,  and  all  disbursements  for  school  purposes  are  made  over  his 
signature.  These  duties  and  many  others  of  a  strictly  professional  char- 
acter are  definitely  fixt  by  the  state  school  law.  He  nominates,  assigns, 
and  transfers  teachers,  recommends  textbooks  and  materials  of  instruction, 
and  takes  the  initiative  in  preparing  the  school  budget.  In  this  particular 
county  there  are  three  assistant  superintendents,  each  in  charge  of  a  definite 
part  of  supervision,  and  there  are  also  three  assistant  supervisors;  these 
officers,  together  with  four  stenographic  and  clerical  assistants — eleven  in 
all — have  entire  charge  of  the  administrative  and  supervisory  activities  of 
the  county  under  the  control  of  the  county  board  of  education.  All  the 
principals  of  schools  are  teaching  principals,  except  in  five  or  six  of  the  large 
schools,  where  the  principal  is  a  part-time  teaching  principal;  all  are 
responsible  for  the  administration  of  their  buildings.     But  the  very  impor- 


Superintendence]  TOWNSHIP  AS  A   UNIT  FOR  ADMINISTRATION  497 

tant  work  involved  in  the  details  of  classroom  supervision  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
highly  specialized  staff  of  six  assistants.  The  teachers  are  divided  into 
fifteen  supervisory  groups,  numbering  fifty  teachers  each,  or  less,  on  the 
basis  of  the  type  of  school  or  the  grade  or  grades  taught,  as,  e.g.,  one- 
teachei:  rural  group;  two-teacher  rural  school,  principals;  two- teacher 
rural  school,  assistants;  first-grade  group  in  suburban  schools,  and  so  on; 
particular  care  is  taken  to  group  the  teachers  so  that  each  supervisor 
has  a  special  field  to  cover,  either  in  number  of  grades  or  in  type  of 
school.  Proper  coordination  in  supervisory  work  is  secured  by  meetings 
of  supervisors  with  the  superintendent,  by  consultation  with  principals 
and  with  one  another,  and  by  a  supervisor  who  has  specialized  in  some  par- 
ticular field  assisting  in  meetings  with  groups  whose  members  he  does  not 
supervise.  Also  a  teacher  who  has  done  an  unusually  good  piece  of  con- 
structive work  of  interest  to  other  groups  presents  her' results  to  them  in 
person,  or  thru  a  signed  mimeographt  report;  the  entire  time  of  one  compe- 
tent stenographic  assistant  is  given  to  the  supervisors  for  this  and  other 
similar  work.  The  fundamental  conception  of  supervision  is  to  bring  to 
each  member  of  the  group  the  collective  strength  of  all  its  members,  and 
to  each  group,  thru  the  supervisors,  or  thru  individual  members  of  the  group, 
the  collective  strength  of  all  the  groups  so  far  as  thi^  may  apply  to  their  work. 
In  other  words,  cooperation  for  improving  the  quality  of  instruction  and 
for  professional  growth,  both  by  giving  and  by  receiving  on  the  part  of 
teachers  and  supervisors,  is  our  aim. 

Two  or  three  important  achievements  may  be  mentioned:  First,  a 
strongly  professionalized  group  of  men  and  women  are  working  intelli- 
gently for  a  unified  and  common  purpose.  Secondly,  the  teachers  in  our 
suburban  schools  and  their  supervisors,  have  now  an  elementary  course  of 
study  under  continuous  process  of  revision  that  competent  authorities 
rank  with  the  best,  and  our  rural  teachers  and  supervisors  are  engaged  on  a 
similar  project  to  meet  our  rural-school  needs.  Thirdly,  for  ten  years  a 
county  school  system  has  presented  a  professional  opportunity  sufficiently 
interesting  to  hold  together  a  group  of  supervisors  of  unusual  ability,  not- 
withstanding tempting  offers  to  many  of  them  from  other  school  systems. 


C.     THE  TOWNSHIP  AS  A  UNIT  FOR  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION 

R.   B.   TEITRICK,  DEPUTY  STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION, 

HARRISBURG,   PA. 

The  centralizing  tendencies  of  the  present  time  are  so  strong  that  a  fixt 
practice  to  concentrate  power  in  county,  state,  and  federal  authority  chal- 
lenges the  best  thought  of  every  student  of  poHtical  science.  In  principle, 
the  township  is  the  oldest  and  the  simplest  form  of  government  known. 
In  the  early  days  the  people  formed  themselves  into  bands  known  as 
"regulators"  for  the  purpose  of  securing  their  protection  and  rights.     In 


49^  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  city 

England  the  dwelling-place  of  the  clan  became  the  township,  and  the  home 
of  the  tribe  became  the  county.  Thomas  Jefferson  said,  "Those  wards, 
called  townships  in  New  England,  are  the  vital  principle  of  their  govern- 
ment and  have  proved  themselves  the  wisest  inventions  ever  devised  by 
the  wit  of  man  for  the  perfect  exercise  of  self-government  and  for  its 
preservation." 

With  the  organization  of  state  government  following  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  some  significant  changes  in  local  governments  were  made, 
tho  the  main  features  of  the  old  systems  were  adopted  in  the  different 
states.  In  the  southern  states  the  county  was  made  the  unit  in  civil 
administration,  and  it  was  also  made  the  unit  of  school  administration. 
In  the  states  of  the  North  and  largely  in  those  of  the  West  the  township 
is  the  civil  unit  of  local  administration  and  for  that  reason  has  been  made 
the  unit  for  school'  organization. 

We  should  have  two  sources  of  school  authority,  the  central  government 
— the  state  and  county,  with  adjustable  minimum  requirements — and  the 
local  government — the  township.  Both  of  these  should  cohere  in  one 
system.  A  great  problem  in  educational  administration  is  the  proper 
balance  between  central  authority  and  local  representation. 

The  foundation  of  a  good  system  of  schools  is  good  administration. 
The  education  and  training  of  children  is  the  object.  At  present  there  are 
three  types  of  school  organization:  (i)  the  district  system,  (2)  the  county- 
unit  system,  and  (3)  the  township  system. 

The  district  unit  is  the  smallest  division  of  administration,  embracing 
an  area  two  or  three  miles  square,  in  which  a  single  school  is  located.  Each 
district  has  its  own  board  of  directors,  which  selects  the  teacher,  furnishes 
supplies,  fixes  the  tax  rate,  determines  the  length  of  its  school  term,  and 
decides  what  improvements  shall  be  made.  As  a  unit  of  administration 
it  is  expensive,  inefficient,  and  unprogressive.  It  is  condemned  by  the 
entire  educational  force  of  the  country. 

The  county  unit  has  not  held  its  place  in  local  administration  partly 
because  it  is  too  large  for  a  primary  assembly  and  too  small  for  a  repre- 
sentative legislature.  A  central  government  alone  tends  to  become  a  mere 
shell  of  officialdom.  There  are  no  officials  who  can  do  more  or  do  less 
without  being  sent  to  prison  than  a  county  board  of  education. 

The  constitution  of  Illinois  provided  that  the  legislature  should 
enact  a  law  for  the  organization  of  townships  under  which  any  county 
having  the  county  unit  might  act  when  a  majority  of  its  voters  should  so 
determine.  The  two  systems  being  thus  brought  into  immediate  contact 
in  the  same  state  with  free  choice  between  them  left  to  the  people,  the 
township-unit  system  has  almost  completely  supplanted  the  county-unit 
system. 

Pennsylvania  tried  the  county-unit  plan  in  1834  and  changed  to  the 
township-unit  plan  in  1836.     A  sound  and  healthful  beginning  was  made 


Superintendence]  TOWNSHIP  AS  A  UNIT  FOR  ADMINISTRATION  499 

when  the  township  became  the  unit  of  administration.  We  have  state 
control,  so  far  as  minimum  length  of  term,  minimum  salary  of  teachers  and 
superintendents,  building  requirements,  and  qualifications  of  teachers  and 
superintendents  are  concerned.  We  have  the  county  unit  in  teachers' 
institutes  and  in  some  grades  of  teachers'  certificates. 

The  limitations  of  state  control  have  been  presented  and  the  essential 
features  of  .the  county  unit  defended.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  both 
the  county  and  the  township  are  under  absolute  control  of  the  state  legis- 
lature, which  may  regulate  the  minutest  detail  of  local  government. 

Township  officials  are  kept  accountable  to  the  people,  but  they  have 
large  privileges.  They  cannot  plead  that  they  have  failed  from  lack  of 
power,  for  they  have  almost  unlimited  authority  joined  with  complete 
responsibility.  Public  sentiment  in  favor  of  improved  schools  and  pride 
in  schools  develop  a  good  social  consciousness,  which  is  a  fundamental 
element  in  efficient  school  administration.  Then  too  a  large  part  of  the 
people  of  a  state  live  in  the  country,  and  interest  in  local  government 
becomes  a  vital  part  of  their  existence. 

The  township  as  the  local  unit  of  administration  means  that  all  the 
schools  of  the  township  are  under  the  control  and  management  of  the  school 
board  chosen  by  the  electors  of  the  township.  In  Pennsylvania  most  boards 
consist  of  five  members  chosen  for  a  term  of  six  years.  It  is  regarded  as  a 
high  honor  to  be  chosen  school  director,  and  the  majority  of  the  members 
of  any  school  board  represent  a  type  of  the  most  public-spirited,  thoughtful 
citizens  of  the  township  which  they  serve.  Can  school  administration  be 
handled  better  than  by  your  best  citizens  ?  A  township  system  of  schools 
can  have  anything  that  is  found  in  a  good  city  system  of  schools,  and  in 
Pennsylvania,  IlHnois,  Massachusetts,  and  many  other  states  there  are 
some  of  these  townships.  Out  of  sixty-seven  counties  in  Pennsylvania, 
we  have  sixteen  counties  in  which  there  are  completely  consolidated  town- 
ships, and  thirty-two  counties  that  have  partially  consolidated  townships. 

The  township  school  boards  levy  the  tax,  locate  and  build  the  school- 
houses,  employ  the  teachers,  and  fix  the  wages  above  the  minimum,  elect 
the  superintendents,  adopt  the  textbooks,  purchase  the  supplies  and 
apparatus,  fix  the  length  of  the  term  (above  the  required  minimum), 
consolidate  schools,  establish  high  schools,  adopt  courses  of  study,  enforce 
the  compulsory-attendance  law,  and  encourage  pupils  and  teachers  by 
personal  interest  and  support. 

While  the  financial  necessities  of  a  township  are  met  in  part  by  state 
appropriations,  the  township  does  not  depend  upon  the  state  alone  for  its 
resources.  The  school  board  has  authority  to  levy  and  assess  a  maximum 
school  tax.  This  strikes  at  the  very  root  of  the  matter.  A  sane  mother 
will  not  maim  her  own  child  nor  a  sane  school  board  cripple  the  youth  of 
its  township.  Can  you  withdraw  authority  and  responsibility  and  still 
retain  interest?    Lack  of  interest  means  a  low  tax  rate  and  inadequate 


500'  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic City 

support  for  the  schools.  The  township  unit  confers  the  powers  of  educa- 
tional control  upon  the  people  who  are  directly  affected.  Taxation  and 
representation  should  go  hand  in  hand. 

The  fine  schemes  which  provide  that  the  other  fellow  shall  pay  the  tax 
have  never  workt.  Dr.  Claxton,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, in  summarizing  a  survey  in  some  southern  states  where  the  county 
is  the  unit  of  administration,  says  that  in  many  counties  the.  cost  of  the 
courthouse  and  jail  is  greater  than  the  total  cost  of  all  the  schoolhouses 
in  the  entire  county,  and  the  average  annual  salary  of  the  teacher  is  less 
than  the  cost  of  feeding  a  prisoner  in  jail. 

In  the  county-unit  system  the  centers  of  population  will  always  control 
the  administration,  and  while  here  and  there  the  county  may  be  so  united 
industrially  and  socially  and  covered  by  a  good  system  of  transporta- 
tion that  good  results  may  be  obtained,  the  township  as  the  unit  of 
administration  offers  many  more  desirable  features. 

George  H.  Martin,  for  many  years  secretary  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education  of  Massachusetts,  said:  ''The  township  is  in  the  judgment  of 
the  people  of  this  state  the  only  system  under  which  public  schools  of  a 
satisfactory  character  can  be  maintained." 

The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  Michigan  says:  "The 
township  system  stands  for  economy,  economy  in  the  time  of  children,  in 
the  administration  of  the  schools,  and  the  expenses  connected  therewith." 

The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  West  Virginia  says: 
''This  state  has  had  a  township  system  of  administration  of  schools  for 
many  years.  It  has  proved  so  satisfactory  that  there  is  little  disposition 
to  change  it." 

Among  the  recognized  fundamental  merits  of  the  township  system  as 
the  unit  of  local  administration  are  the  following : 

1.  It  is  conducive  to  greater  local  interest  and  initiative  in  educational 
matters. 

2.  It  is  more  just  from  the  standpoint  of  taxation. 

3.  It  is  more  favorable  to  the  adaptation  of  education  to  local  needs. 

4.  The  people  are  brought  close  together  in  a  community  of  interests 
and  take  personal  interest  in  the  activities  of  the  schools. 

5.  It  is  the  best  medium  for  the  expression  of  the  instinct  and  desire 
for  local  self-government. 

The  township  unit  of  administration  gives  rural  people  a  great  oppor- 
tunity to  cultivate  leadership  and  to  work  out  the  ideals  of  a  repubHc  in 
the  most  powerful,  most  important,  and  most  useful  institution  within 
their  reach — their  public  schools. 

The  pro^t  derived  from  a  good  system  of  schools  cannot  be  assest  by 
arithmetic  or  proved  by  geometry,  but  we  are  realizing  today  more  than 
at  any  time  in  the  past  that  the  capital  of  a  country  consists  in  the  brains 
and  the  bodies  of  the  people,  especially  of  the  youth  of  the  nation. 


Superintendence]  STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION  501 

What  we  plant  in  the  schools  today  we  reap  in  the  nation  tomorrow. 
Bismarck  said,  "What  you  want  to  put  into  the  state  you  must  first  put 
into  the  schools."  He  matcht  his  words  with  action  and  made  the  school- 
rooms the  first  forts,  the  teachers  the  first  lieutenants,  and  the  textbooks 
the  ammunition.  For  forty  years  the  Germans  have  been  teaching  that 
might  makes  right  in  every  lesson  in  reading,  in  every  lesson  in  geography, 
in  every  lesson  in  history,  and  in  every  lesson  in  mathematics,  until  they 
are  blind  to  everything  but  the  god  of  might. 

Germany  has  imprest  this  lesson — that  children  must  be  saturated 
with  the  meaning  of  ideals.  I  indulge  the  hope  that  thru  our  schools 
America  may  lead  in  world-ideals — ideals  of  liberty,  of  justice,  and  of 
righteousness.  The  world  must  be  made  safe  for  democracy,  but  its  peace 
must  be  planted  upon  the  tested  foundation  of  political  equality. 


D.    HOW  A  STATE  DEPARTMENT  MAY  STIMULATE  LOCAL 
INITIATIVE  AND  INCREASE  EFFICIENCY 

GEORGE    D.    STRAYER,    PROFESSOR    OF    EDUCATIONAL    ADMINISTRATION, 
TEACHERS   COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY,    NEW   YORK,   N.Y. 

That  education  is  a  state  function  has  been  recognized  in  our  state 
constitutions  and  in  legislative  enactments.  Authority  with  respect  to  the 
certification  of  teachers,  the  choice  of  textbooks,  the  determination  of 
building  standards,  and  the  like  has  in  many  states  been  definitely  located 
in  the  state  department  of  education.  But  even  in  the  most  highly  central- 
ized administration  of  education  much  of  the  control  has  been  vested  in 
local  boards  of  education,  and  administrative  procedure  has  been  largely 
determined  by  local  administrative  officers.  There  has  been  a  markt 
tendency  in  recent  years  to  create  or  to  develop  a  more  efficient  state  depart- 
ment of  education  and  a  more  significant  control  of  schools  thru  this  office. 

The  present-day  conception  of  a  state  department  makes  it  responsible 
for  stimulating  local  administrative  officers  and  for  increasing  the  efficiency 
of  local  school  systems.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  inquire  concerning 
the  methods  of  work  most  commonly  employed  by  state  departments,  and 
to  suggest  the  way  in  which  their  practice  may  most  significantly  stimulate 
local  initiative  and  increase  efficiency. 

From  the  very  beginning  of  the  organization  of  state  departments  of 
education  they  have  required  statistical  reports  from  local  school  officials. 
At  first  these  reports  were  secured  in  order  that  funds  might  be  distributed 
or  apportionments  made  in  accordance  with  laws  which  provided  for  such 
distribution  or  apportionment  upon  the  basis  of  the  statistics  collected. 
There  are  many  states  even  yet  in  which  the  collection  of  statistics  seems 
to  be  undertaken  primarily  from  the  point  of  view  of  finding  out  how  many 
pupils  there  are,  how  many  teachers  are  employed,  or  how  much  money  is 


502  NA  TIONAL  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA TION  [Atlantic  City 

spent.  It  is  possible  to  assemble  in  annual  reports  statistics  which  have 
very  little  meaning,  either  for  the  state  office  or  for  the  local  administrative 
unit  from  which  they  are  collected. 

A  more  modern  conception  of  the  function  of  the  state  office  looks  upon 
the  preparation  and  reporting  of  statistics  to  the  central  office  as  of  impor- 
tance in  the  study  of  local  administrative  problems.  In  at  least  three 
states  during  the  past  three  years  fairly  adequate  methods  of  reporting 
fiscal  statistics  have  been  instituted.  Along  with  this  improvement  in  the 
method  of  reporting  there  has  gone  the  necessity  for  keeping  much  more 
adequate  accounts  than  were  formerly  recorded.  This  is  a  clear  case  of 
the  influence  of  the  state  office,  thru  its  right  to  demand  an  adequate  report, 
stimulating  the  local  community  to  a  significant  study  of  its  own  problems. 

In  like  manner,  in  some  of  the  states  significant  reports  with  respect 
to  the  attendance,  classification,  and  progress  of  children  are  being  required. 
This  type  of  report,  which  requires  an  assembling  of  data  from  the  local 
school  system  involving  a  study  of  over-ageness,  failures,  promotion  rates, 
elimination,  and  the  like,  requires  that  the  local  administrative  officer  at 
least  be  acquainted  with  facts  which  might  otherwise  have  escaped  him. 
It  is  conceivable  that  in  still  other  fields  the  force  of  a  state-required  report 
may  operate  to  stimulate  careful  inquiry  thru  the  assembling  of  precise 
information  by  the  local  educational  authority. 

It  has  been  customary  in  most  states  to  provide  some  sort  of  an  outline 
of  work  to  be  undertaken  in  the  elementary  schools.  These  courses  of 
study  have  varied  in  their  significance.  In  one  state  we  find  merely  an 
outline  of  topics  to  be  treated,  or  books  to  be  taught.  In  contrast  with  this 
form  of  control  there  are  in  certain  states  manuals  prepared  which  form  a 
most  adequate  basis  for  an  improvement  in  the  teaching  which  is  done, 
especially  by  the  less  well-trained  teachers.  In  one  state,  in  particular,  the 
state  office,  by  organizing  committees  of  the  most  capable  teachers  and 
supervisory  officers,  has  issued  a  series  of  manuals  for  each  of  the  more 
important  subjects.  They  have  in  this  state  covered  not  only  the  subjects 
commonly  taught  in  the  elementary  schools,  but  have  provided  most 
helpful  courses  of  study  for  the  usual  high-school  subjects.  In  these  mono- 
graphs there  is  presented,  not  only  the  outline  of  work  to  be  accomplisht, 
but  definite  plans  for  the  development  of  the  subject,  a  discussion  of  the 
purposes  or  aims  to  be  accomplisht,  and  suggestions  concerning  the  detail 
of  method  to  be  employed,  as  well  as  references  which  will  prove  helpful 
to  the  less  able  teachers.  There  is  in  this  case  an  appreciation  of  the  need 
for  assistance  by  the  local  authority  in  placing  before  its  teachers  a  summary 
of  the  most  successful  experience  available  in  the  state — an  attempt,  in  other 
words,  to  capitalize  the  work  of  the  more  successful  teachers  and  make  their 
practice  universally  available. 

State  departments  have  commonly  issued  an  annual  or  biennial  report. 
In  these  documents  there  have  been  brought  together  the  statistics  of 


Superintendence]  STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION  503 

education,  together  with  descriptive  material  relating  to  the  various  state 
educational  institutions  and  to  the  progress  or  development  of  the  public- 
school  system.  In  recent  years  a  number  of  the  state  departments  have 
issued  bulletins  at  more  or  less  regular  intervals.  These  documents  have 
varied  from  a  single  large  sheet  issued  weekly,  to  a  bulletin  of  from  twelve 
to  thirty-two  pages  issued  monthly.  In  these  occasional  reports  or  bulletins 
have  appeared  suggestions  as  to  the  type  of  successful  work  already  under 
way,  programs  for  experiments  or  new  enterprises  to  be  undertaken, 
together  with  educational  news  and  reports  of  varying  importance. 

Very  recently  in  some  of  the  states  special  reports  or  bulletins  having 
to  do  with  war  work  have  been  issued.  Indeed,  in  at  least  three  cases  the 
war  book  issued  by  the  state  department  has  contained  Hterary,  historical, 
and  other  materials  of  first-rate  importance  to  every  local  school  system. 
In  many  cases  the  mimeograph  or  multigraph  has  been  used  to  send  out 
letters  or  instructions  which  have  kept  the  state  department  in  touch  with 
the  local  school  systems.  In  this  manner  the  state  office  has  been  able,  not 
only  to  stimulate  the  local  authority  to  undertake  work  which  might  other- 
wise have  been  neglected,  but  also  to  provide  for  a  greatly  increast  efficiency 
in  the  local  administration  of  schools. 

The  obligation  of  the  state  office  for  the  instruction  of  local  adminis- 
trative officers  has  in  recent  years  come  to  be  recognized.  In  the  earher  of 
these  undertakings  meetings  in  which  the  general  problems  of  administration 
were  discust  were  the  rule.  Often  the  group  was  miscellaneous  in  its 
composition,  and  the  discussions  of  a  most  general  sort.  In  recent  years, 
in  the  more  progressive  states,  conferences  of  groups  with  common  experi- 
ence and  dealing  with  their  common  problems  of  administration  have  been 
organized.  A  conference  on  the  measurement  of  the  achievements  of 
children  has  been  held  in  one  state  both  for  a  group  of  normal-school 
teachers  and  for  a  group  of  city  superintendents.  In  another  state  a  city 
superintendents'  conference  has  been  held  for  some  years  for  a  period  of 
three  or  four  days,  and  the  most  significant  problems  under  discussion  among 
the  leaders  in  educational  administration  have  been  discust  by  speakers 
from  without  the  state  as  well  as  by  the  most  successful  men  in  the  local 
administrative  offices.  In  several  states  meetings  of  county  superintend- 
ents, with  a  discussion  of  the  highly  specialized  problems  of  rural  education, 
have  been  held.  The  obligation  of  the  state  department  to  bring  to  the 
local  administrative  officers  the  results  of  modern  scientific  study  and  of  the 
most  successful  administrative  practices  is  clearly  recognized. 

In  some  of  our  states  the  function  of  the  state  office  in  the  inspection 
of  schools  has  been  most  adequately  developt.  In  those  states  in  which  the 
central  authority  is  responsible  for  determining  the  standing  of  local  high 
schools,  the  work  of  inspection,  involving  as  it  does  the  distribution  of  funds 
in  support  of  these  schools,  has  assumed  a  position  of  great  importance. 
Even  where  inspection  has  been  undertaken  from   the   standpoint  of 


5o4  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  A SSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

determining  the  validity  of  the  claim  of  the  local  authority  for  state 
support,  many  of  the  more  capable  inspectors  have  conceived  their  work 
as  constructive  in  character,  rather  than  merely  inspectorial.  Supervision 
has  often  been  developt  under  the  name  of  inspection. 

We  may  confidently  look  forward  to  the  further  development  of  the 
work  of  the  state  office  along  supervisory  lines.  In  one  state  a  whole 
county  was  carefully  surveyed  by  the  state  office  in  cooperation  with  a 
university  department  of  education  to  the  end  that  the  local  school  system 
might  be  improved.  The  same  state  department  has  undertaken  thoro- 
going  surveys  in  several  of  its  cities.  It  seems  probable  that  state  ofiicers 
will  in  increasing  number  develop  a  type  of  supervisory  activity  which  will 
be  of  first-rate  importance  to  all  communities  unable  to  employ  an  adequate 
administrative  staff,  and  in  many  cases  to  supply  special  service,  even  in 
those  communities  whose  schools  are  most  adequately  staft. 

There  are  special  problems  of  administration  and  supervision  which 
may  be  more  adequately  dealt  with  by  a  highly  specialized  member  of  the 
state-department  staff  than  by  any  local  officer  having  a  general  responsi- 
bility. The  development  of  a  school-building  program,  the  reorganization 
of  local  school  records,  and  a  study  of  the  financing  of  education  in  the  local 
community  might,  it  seems  to  the  writer,  on  occasion  be  undertaken  by 
specialists  from  the  state  office,  with  the  expectation  of  enlightening  the 
local  community  and  stimulating  local  initiative  to  a  degree  that  would  not 
easily  be  possible  by  local  officers. 

One  of  the  most  significant  and  outstanding  features  of  the  development 
of  our  school  systems  is  the  tendency  to  centralize  administration.  Our 
state  departments  are  growing  more  and  more  important  in  the  develop- 
ment of  our  public-school  system.  This  development  in  education  will  be 
unfortunate  if  conceived  in  a  narrow  spirit  of  exercising  authority  and  of 
securing  control  to  the  end  that  a  dead  level  of  uniformity  may  be  main- 
tained. If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  state  officers  seek  to  capitalize  the  success 
of  their  most  adequately  administered  local  school  systems,  and  if  they  seek, 
thru  the  supervision  which  they  exercise,  to  stimulate  the  local  administra- 
tive authorities,  much  will  be  accomplisht  for  the  improvement  of  our 
schools.  The  evidence  which  the  writer  has  been  able  to  assemble  seems 
to  him  to  establish  the  fact  that  our  state  departments  are  conscious  of  the 
obligation  to  stimulate  local  initiative  as  a  means  for  increasing  efficiency. 


DISCUSSION 


C.  P.  Gary,  state  superintendent  of  schools,  Madison,  Wis. — The  general  topic  this 
morning  is  "Centralizing  Tendencies  in  Educational  Administration."  The  speakers 
have  discust  ably  and  well  the  township,  the  county,  and  the  state  as  units.  Nothing  has 
been  said,  however,  about  the  nation  as  the  unit.  It  would  seem  that  the  logic  of  the 
argument  for  larger  and  larger  units  and  greater  and  greater  centralization  would  point 
to  the  nation  as  the  final  unit.     So  far  as  finances  are  concerned,  some  school  districts 


Superintendence]  STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION  505 

in  the  county  are  poor,  some  rich;  some  counties  in  the  state  are  poor,  some  rich;  some 
states  are  poor,  some  rich.  Why  not  tax  the  nation  as  a  whole  for  school  purposes? 
Again,  some  communities  are  educationally  alive  and  progressive,  while  some  are  indif- 
ferent and  non-progressive.  The  same  may  be  said  of  some  states  as  compared  with 
others.  Then  why  not  have  power  in  Washington  to  compel  all  states  to  come  up  to  the 
standard  of  the  best,  and  to  give  them,  if  need  be,  the  money  to  do  it  ?  Why  not  have  a 
powerful  educational  organization  at  the  capital  of  the  nation,  with  a  minister  of  educa- 
tion, who  could  say,  as  the  French  minister  of  education  might  say:  At  this  particular 
moment,  thruout  the  whole  area  governed  by  eastern  time,  every  child  is  having  a  lesson 
in  civics,  while  in  the  central  division  every  child  is  having  a  lesson  in  geography,  and  every 
child  in  the  western  division  is  having  a  lesson  in  manual  training  or  domestic  science  ? 
Why  not  have  someone  to  organize  courses  and  see  to  it  that  they  are  adopted  and  carried 
out  ?  Yes,  police  the  states  to  see  that  the  educational  laws  are  obeyed.  Is  this  not  in 
the  interest  of  efficiency  ? 

Is  it  not  a  prerogative  of  government  to  say  what  its  citizens  shall  be  taught  in  their 
youth,  and  to  see  to  it  that  they  are  thus  taught  ?  Why  not  have  the  general  government 
say  what  the  teachers  shall  be  taught,  how  they  shall  be  taught,  and  who  shall  teach  them  ? 
Is  there  any  flaw  in  the  logic  ?  Are  we  not  swept  on,  whether  we  will  or  no,  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  framers  of  the  Constitution  made  a  blunder  in  not,  in  the  very  beginning, 
kaiserizing  the  schools  of  the  nation  ?  See  what  a  happy-go-lucky  educational  procedure 
we  have  been  following  all  these  years  as  a  consequence.  We  who  have  been  here  all  this 
week  have  heard  addresses  that  go,  in  their  logic  at  least,  straight  to  this  mark  and  are 
keyed  to  this  tune.  Do  I  hear  someone  say,  "This  nation  will  never  kaiserize  its  educa- 
tion; it's  all  nonsense  to  talk  about  it"?  I  am  not  so  sure  as  to  that.  There  is  danger 
here,  I  fully  believe,  and  there  is  also  danger  in  the  political  possibilities,  not  to  say  actual- 
ities, in  some  of  the  national  laws  that  have  already  been  enacted  by  Congress.  I  have 
great  faith,  however,  in  the  ultimate  common  sense  and  democratic  instincts  and  feelings 
of  our  citizens,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  some  of  us  are  today  giddy  or  dizzy  over  the 
nationalizing  idea,  and  unless  we  stop  to  consider  very  thoughtfully  what  can  be  properly 
nationalized  and  standardized,  and  possibly  even  crystallized,  we  shall  have  some  day  to 
retrace  painfully  our  path — that  is  to  say,  if  America  is  really  to  remain  a  democracy.  If 
we  are  to  have  democracy,  democracy  must  not  be  eliminated  from  the  schools.  Autoc- 
racy, if  it  were  eliminated  from  the  schools  of  Germany,  would  die,  and  democracy  if 
eliminated  from  our  schools  and  our  school  system  would  die,  for  death  would  then  be  at 
its  root. 

Nationalizing  education  means  for  us  red  tape,  politics,  compulsion,  loss  of  public 
interest;  it  means  a  handed-down-from-above  type  of  education.  The  adult  citizens 
would  then  be  called  upon  to  acquiesce,  to  obey  the  law,  to  take  what  is  given  them. 
Democracy  is  a  moving  affair,  a  going  concern,  a  growing  concern,  a  matter  of  personal 
interest  and  intelligence  on  the  part  of  the  citizen.  Democracy  in  itself  is  a  means  and 
an  opportunity  for  education.  We  are  today  in  all  progressive  states  trying  almost  as 
strenuously  to  educate  our  adults  as  to  educate  our  children,  but  if  we  were  to  enter  upon 
a  system  that  is  handed  down  from  those  who  are  remote — if  the  thinking  is  to  be  done  for 
the  people  by  their  officers — then  it  will  not  matter  much  whether  our  people  are  educated 
or  not,  except  in  such  ways  as  may  make  them  efficient  producers,  and  loyal  supporters 
of  the  government.  /  am  of  the  opinion  that  our  boasted  democracy  will  have  to  fight  for 
its  very  life  after  this  war  is  over.  The  world  has  had  a  tremendous  lesson  in  the  efficiency 
possible  in  an  autocracy.  Many  of  our  citizens  and  some  of  our  educators  before  we 
entered  the  war  were  saying,  "  Give  us  some  of  this  autocratic  efficiency."  They  would  be 
saying  it  now  if  it  were  not  taboo  for  the  moment.  There  were  even  members  of  this  body, 
arguing,  I  am  told,  for  the  elimination  of  the  schoolmaster  from  the  control  of  certain 
kinds  of  education.  It  was  asserted  that  the  commercial  interests  could  better  guide  in 
such  matters.     We  shall  have  a  revival  of  it  when  the  war  is  over.     The  man  who  is 


5o6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic City 

interested  merely  in  the  welfare  of  boys  and  girls  will  be  lookt  upon  as  a  narrow  visionary 
incapable  of  thinking  in  national  terms.  It  will  be  held  that  each  child  must  be  made  to 
fit  and  fill  his  niche  in  the  great  machine  called  "The  Great  State."  All  this  will  happen, 
I  am  prepared  to  assert,  unless  the  school  men  themselves  prevent  it. 

I,  for  one,  believe  that  the  efficiency  of  Germany  is  not  worth  what  it  costs;  let 
America  not  follow  in  her  footsteps,  at  least  not  in  the  spiritual  aspects  of  our  educational 
affairs.  This  is  not  to  be  construed  to  mean  that  the  national  government  may  not 
require  the  states  to  have  certain  minimum  standards  of  a  fundamental  sort.  Let  us 
preserve  democracy  by  keeping  the  schools  close  to  the  people  and  at  the  same  time 
educating  our  people  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  high  spiritual  ideals  that  we  love  and  strive 
to  live.  There  are  essentially  three  ways  in  which  people  may  be  nfluenst  to  act  in  educa- 
tional matters:  they  may  be  forst  to  do  so,  first,  by  stringent  laws  with  certain  penalties  for 
failure;  secondly,  by  dangling  the  dollar  before  their  noses  and  appealing  to  their  cupidity; 
that  motive  is  very  strong  and  I  have  heard  it  used  effectively  here  this  week.  The  third 
way  is  to  enlighten  the  people — convince  them  of  the  needs  of  their  children,  and  of  their 
duty  to  society.  This  last-mentioned  way  is  the  way  of  democracy,  the  safe  road,  tho  it  may 
be  longer  than  the  autocratic  way  or  the  appeal  to  ignorance  and  cupidity.  Let  us  spend 
millions,  if  need  be,  to  educate  our  adults,  let  us  aid  by  state  or  national  money  those  who 
cannot  help  themselves,  but  only  so  far  or  so  long  as  it  may  be  necessary,  and  let  us  not  be 
in  a  hurry  to  set  up  a  little  tin  educational  god  or  king  log  to  rule  over  us  from  Washington. 

J.  Y.  JoYNER,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Raleigh,  N.C. — Centralizing 
tendencies  in  educational  administration  are  the  logical  evolution  of  an  expanding  civiliza- 
tion and  an  enlarged  conception  of  democratic  obligation. 

The  district  or  community  unit  of  taxation  and  administration  for  education  recog- 
nizes education  as  an  obligation  only  of  the  community  to  the  community's  children,  and 
limits  educational  opportunity  to  the  ability  and  willingness  of  each  community  to  provide 
it.  The  township  unit  recognizes  education  as  an  obligation  only  of  the  township  to  the 
township's  children,  and  limits  educational  opportunity  to  the  ability  and  willingness  of 
each  township  to  provide  it.  The  county  unit  recognizes  education  as  an  obligation  only 
of  the  county  to  the  county's  children,  and  limits  educational  opportunity  to  the  ability 
and  willingness  of  each  county  to  provide  it.  The  state  unit  recognizes  education  as  an 
obligation  of  the  state  to  the  state's  children,  and  limits  educational  opportunity  to  the 
ability  and  willingness  of  each  state  to  provide  it.  The  national  unit  recognizes  education 
as  an  obligation  of  the  nation  to  the  nation's  children,  and  limits  educational  opportunity 
only  to  the  ability  and  willingness  of  the  nation  to  provide  it. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  as  the  conception  of  democratic  obligation  broadens  from 
community  to  nation  the  units  of  taxation  and  administration  for  education  must  be 
correspondingly  enlarged.  It  follows  also  that  if  there  is  to  be  equalization  of  educational 
opportunity  in  county,  state,  and  nation  according  to  the  educational  needs  of  each 
community  there  must  be  recognition  of  county,  state,  and  nation  as  units  of  taxation, 
distribution,  and  administration. 

Equality  of  opportunity  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  democracy.  Equality  of 
opportunity  is  an  impossibility  without  equality  of  educational  opportunity.  On  account 
of  inequality  of  distribution  of  wealth,  population,  and  intelligence,  equality  of  educa- 
tional opportunity  is  an  impossibility  without  these  larger  taxing  and  administrative  units 
making  it  possible  to  raise  and  apportion  school  funds  and  administer  school  systems 
according  to  the  educational  needs  of  each  community  rather  than  according  to  its  ability 
and  willingness  to  provide  them. 

Mutuality  of  obligation  growing  out  of  the  recognition  of  common  brotherhood  is  the 
bond  of  democracy.  The  chain  of  democracy  is  no  stronger  than  its  weakest  link.  The 
democratic  nation  is  no  stronger  than  its  weakest  state.  The  democratic  state  is  no 
stronger  than  its  weakest  county.  The  democratic  county  is  no  stronger  than  its  weakest 
neighborhood  or  school  district. 


Superintendence)  STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION  507 

Democracy  can  perform  its  task  only  thru  cooperation.  The  task  of  giving  equality 
of  educational  opportunity  to  all  the  children  of  all  the  people  is  too  big  to  be  adequately 
performed  by  any  part  of  the  people.  Therefore  the  proper  education  of  all  the  children 
of  all  the  people  is  an  obligation  of  the  nation,  of  the  state,  of  the  county,  and  of  the  com- 
munity, and  is  a  task  that  can  be  successfully  performed  only  thru  the  cooperation  of  all 
in  recognition  of  the  obligation  of  each  to  all  and  of  all  to  each. 

The  centralized  authority  must  be  exercised  for  equalization,  not  for  domination; 
for  supplement,  not  for  substitution;  for  stimulation,  not  for  suppression  of  local  county 
and  state  effort — pride  and  self-respect — exercised  as  a  democratic  obligation  and  not  as 
a  pauperizing  charity.    It  can  be  and  will  be  so  exercised. 

Edith  K.  0.  Clark,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Cheyenne,  Wyo. — 
I  am,  somewhat  at  a  loss  to  understand  the  exact  part  I  am  to  play  in  this  discussion. 
When  Dr.  Finegan  askt  me  to  accept  a  place  on  the  program  he  said  that  he  was  requesting 
every  speaker  upon  this  morning's  subject  to  send  me  a  copy  of  his  paper  or  an  outline  of 
its  principal  points  at  least  two  weeks  before  the  date  of  the  meeting.  Not  one  was 
received  by  me,  so  I  supposed  that  they  were  all  going  to  make  extemporaneous  addresses 
and  I  would  have  to  pick  up  my  points  as  they  happened  to  fall.  The  prospect  was  a  bit 
dismaying,  because  I  have  had  very  little  experience  in  appearing  before  audiences,  but 
I  thought  I  would  have  to  take  my  chance  with  the  others.  But  behold,  every  man  on 
the  program,  including  the  two  preceding  me  in  the  discussion,  had  a  carefully  prepared 
paper,  except  Dr.  Strayer,  and  he  had  forty-eight  of  them! 

The  general  subject  under  discussion  is  one  which  should  interest  us  all,  and  I  think 
that  it  does.  People  are  beginning  to  realize  that  it  is  time  to  break  away  from  the  old 
systems  of  school  administration  if  public  education  is  really  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  day. 
Mr.  Cook  has  presented  the  plan  of  operation  of  the  county  unit  very  clearly  and  force- 
fully. There  is  no  doubt  of  its  effectiveness  and  practicability  in  many  localities.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  report  Mr.  Teitrick  has  given  of  the  township  as  a  unit  for  school 
administration.  Both  men  believe  in  their  systems,  and  rightly  so.  As  we  listened  to 
each,  we  were  converted  absolutely  to  his  idea.  But  I  know  of  places  where  it  is  impos- 
sible as  yet  to  adopt  either  one  of  these  solutions  to  the  rural-school  problems  of  today — 
places  in  the  wide,  sparsely  settled  West  where  counties  embrace  areas  larger  than  some 
of  your  eastern  states,  and  where  whole  townships  have  no  other  inhabitants  than  a  few 
coyotes  and  prairie  dogs.  We  won't  match  their  intelligence  with  that  of  some  rural 
district  school  boards. 

You  see  we  must  consider  facts  as  they  are,  in  endorsing  for  adoption  any  plan  of 
reorganization.  One  thing  we  can  say,  that  the  old  district  system  is  wrong.  School 
standards  should  be  fixt  and  maintained  by  higher  authority  than  the  local  district  board. 
If  the  public  school  is  an  institution  of  the  state,  the  opportunities  which  it  offers  should  be 
uniform  thruout  the  state.  So  in  communities  where  the  county  is  too  large  and  the 
township  is  too  small,  supervisory  districts  under  efficient  directors  should  be  establisht, 
including  a  reasonable  amount  of  territory  and  a  reasonable  number  of  schools,  thereby 
assuring  the  maintenance  of  universally  high  standards  thruout  the  neglected  rural  districts. 

I  am  glad  that  Dr.  Strayer  reported  that  all  of  the  forty-eight  state  departments  of 
education  had  replied  to  his  inquiries.  That  is  a  fine  tribute  to  the  business-like  coopera- 
tion of  school  administrators. 

Some  of  the  facts  brought  out  concerning  the  ways  in  which  state  departments 
stimulate  local  initiative  and  increase  efficiency  deserve  special  commendation  and  emula- 
tion.    I  wish  he  had  named  the  states  in  which  these  things  are  practist. 

On  the  whole,  the  thoughts  are  typical  of  the  tone  of  this  whole  convention — that  we 
must  think  in  terms  of  the  new  needs  and  responsibilities  brought  about  by  the  war,  that 
school  people  must  reach  the  parents  thru  the  children  and  impress  upon  them,  one  and 
all,  that  everyone  here  at  home  has  a  duty  which  he  dare  not  shirk.  As  someone  put  it, 
"Everyone  who  cannot  go  across,  must  come  across." 


So8  NA  TIONA  L  ED UCA  TION  A SSOCIA  TION  (Atlantic  city 

TOPIC:  OPPORTUNITY  AND  LEADERSHIP  IN  AMERICAN 

EDUCATION 

A.     TEE  PLACE  OF  THE  STATE  SUPPORTED  AND 
MANAGED  INSTITUTION 

BENJAMIN  IDE  WHEELER,  PRESIDENT,  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 
BERKELEY,  CALIF. 

The  state  university  as  an  educational  product  is  a  crude  triple  blend. 
It  had  its  beginning  in  the  American  small  college.  From  that  it  drew  its 
ideas  of  schedules,  procedures,  and  courses.  There  was  nothing  else  to 
look  to.  Probably  that  was  fortunate.  The  small  college  was  a  unique 
American  creation,  and  the  acceptance  of  its  type  spared  us  a  sudden  and 
wholesale  adoption  of  a  foreign  system. 

The  second  element  was  involved  in  the  features  we  were  supposed  to 
have  borrowed  from  the  state  universities  of  Europe — such  things  as  the 
much  lecturing  whereof  betimes  the  flesh  grew  weary,  and  the  much  liberty 
in  attendance  which  too  often  degenerated  into  the  much  liberty  in  absence. 

The  third  element  is  most  important  of  all.  It  involves  the  pro- 
gressive adjustments  made  to  satisfy  the  needs  and  desires  of  the  people 
in  the  several  states.  This  was  a  people  who  did  not  hesitate  to  say  what 
they  wanted — who,  having  paid  for  the  support  of  the  university,  wanted 
their  money's  worth,  and  who,  being  relatively  free  from  slavish  regard  to 
the  academic  tradition,  would  not  easily  be  brought  to  believe  that  any- 
thing which  the  plain  use  and  need  of  everyday  humanity  had  once  proved 
sacred  was  ever  to  be  branded  common  or  unclean. 

But  whatever  the  ingredients  assembled  to  produce  the  type  and  what- 
ever their  proportions,  certain  it  is  that  the  American  state  university 
both  as  to  form  and  spirit,  is  a  type  distinct  and  separate  from  that  of  the 
French,  the  German,  or  the  British.  It  is  furthermore  the  last  three 
decades  which  have  established  our  separateness  by  cutting  free  from  con- 
tinued imitation  of  the  German  type  and  by  declaring  an  educational  inde- 
pendence based  upon  a  fundamental  difference  in  social  and  political  need. 
The  European  university  banishes  the  technical  schools  from  its  midst, 
but  the  American  definitely  encourages  the  vocational  type  of  instruction 
for  mature  students  approaching  the  realization  of  life-work,  and  it  wel- 
comes the  students  of  engineering,  business,  medicine,  agriculture,  and  the 
like  as  stirring  the  academic  blood  to  real  life  in  the  face  of  real  problems 
rather  than  making  the  university  a  mere  place  of  learned  rendezvous. 

As  regards  the  older  type  of  privately  endowed  universities,  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  they  also,  as  well  as  the  state  universities,  are  thoroly 
American.  These  institutions  have  had  indeed  their  roots  longer  in  Ameri- 
can soil.  They  have  shared  longer  the  vicissitudes  of  American  life  and 
history;  they  have  longer  memories.  Their  studies,  their  policy,  and  their 
methods  are  less  likely  to  correspond  to  the  temporary  enthusiasms  of  this 


Superintendence)         PLACE  OF  STATE  SUPPORTED  INSTITUTION  509 

or  that  recent  period  of  the  nation's  experience.  They  are  less  disturbed 
by  the  dust  whirls  of  fad.  It  is  presumable  that  the  two  types,  though  not 
approximating,  can  never  drift  widely  apart;  they  are  naturally  held 
together  by  the  fact  of  their  common  service  to  American  society;  they 
are  both  engaged  in  educating  young  Americans.  Should  it,  however,  at 
any  time  grow  to  be  the  usage  for  the  sons  of  the  wealthy  to  attend  pre- 
vailingly the  privately  endowed  universities^  and  to  receive  their  preparation 
therefor  prevailingly  in  expensive  private  schools,  then  the  gap  would  widen 
rapidly  and  the  privately  endowed  universities  would  render  a  great  and 
very  sad  contribution  to  the  development  of  a  caste  line  within  American 
society. 

The  conception  of  a  state  university  was  at  no  time  entirely  foreign 
to  the  thought  of  our  people.  From  the  very  beginning  Harvard,  Yale, 
Princeton,  King's  (Columbia),  William  and  Mary,  were  respectively  in 
some  sense  the  Colonial  colleges  of  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  and  Virginia.  Harvard's  board  of  overseers  was  made  up  of 
ex-officio  officials  and  magistrates  and  "teaching  elders"  of  the  colony. 
Princeton  was  called  the  college  of  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania.  All  of  them  were  given  their  existence  by  act  of  their 
Colonial  legislatures.  Harvard  and  Yale  received  constant  support  from 
their  legislatures.  Enough  at  any  rate  of  the  idea  of  state  relationship  was 
carried  over  from  Colonial  days  so  that  no  shock  of  novelty  was  involved 
in  1 81 9  when  a  University  of  Virginia  proclaimed  its  far-reaching  plan, 
and  the  states  fashioned  out  of  the  Northwest  Territory — Indiana,  Michi- 
gan, Ohio,  Wisconsin,  Illinois — early  provided  themselves  each  with  a  state 
university  as  calmly  as  if  the  very  notion  of  a  state  required  it. 

The  old  colleges  of  the  Atlantic  coast  had,  however,  no  real  mind  to 
the  state  university  idea.  They  were  ready  enough  to  accept  an  appro- 
priation or  a  building  or  to  welcome  the  governor  on  Commencement  Day, 
but  being  keenly  suspicious  of  any  control  or  exercise  of  the  visitatorial 
function  on  the  part  of  the  state,  they  preferred  to  relinquish  their  birth- 
right as  state  institutions  rather  than  to  tolerate  the  profane  foot  of 
popular  inspection  within  their  sacred  precincts.  Meanwhile,  in  the  early 
nineteenth  century  the  collegiate  distrust  of  the  public  was  coming  to  be 
reciprocated.  The  colleges  grew  little  if  at  all;  in  their  inner  life  they  were 
stagnant.  But  there  was  a  new  democracy  stirring  in  the  air,  and  there 
were  many  who  thought — and  said  it  too — that  an  institution  so  important 
to  the  community  as  a  university  could  not  well  be  maintained  as  a  close 
corporation,  a  public  institution  under  private  control.  The  crisis  came 
when  in  1 8 1 9  the  decision  of  the  fateful  Dartmouth  case  was  proclaimed  by  the 
voice  of  Chief  Justice  Marshall .  It  was  a  matter  of  the  legislature's  assuming 
to  amend  the  college  charter.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
decided  that  that  charter  was  a  contract  within  the  meaning  of  the  clause 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  which  declares  that  no  state  shall 


5IO  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  tAtkntic  City 

make  any  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts — furthermore  that 
under  its  charter  Dartmouth  College  was  a  private  and  not  a  public  cor- 
poration. This  decision  created  a  sharp  frontier  in  the  history  of  American 
higher  education.  As  Dr.  Elmer  E.  Brown,  in  his  Origin  of  American  State 
Universities,  aptly  says:  "It  put  an  end  to  efforts  directed  towards  govern- 
mental regulation  of  education  close  corporations;  but  in  so  doing  it  turned 
the  full  force  of  this  movement  into  that  other  possible  course  of  govern- 
mental agency,  namely,  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  colleges  and 
universities  under  full  state  control." 

This  had  been  indeed  from  the  beginning  the  real  significance  and  pur- 
pose involved  in  the  foundation  of  the  colleges.  If,  for  instance,  they 
seemed  in  their  origins  to  be  shaped  mainly  toward  an  ecclesiastical  purpose, 
that  was  readily  to  be  explained  from  the  fact  that  religion  and  the  church, 
particularly  in  the  form  of  the  state  church,  were  pre-eminently  pubhc 
interests;  Massachusetts  maintained  a  state  church  until  1811  and  Con- 
necticut until  18 1 8.  It  was  only  as  the  eastern  colleges  and  universities 
availed  themselves  of  such  protection  against  the  public  as  culminated 
in  the  Dartmouth  decision  that  they  shrank  back  and  assumed  the  status 
of  private  institutions — institutions  serving  in  the  main  the  public  and 
public  purposes,  but  still  legally  private  institutions. 

From  this  time  onward  one  after  another  the  frank  and  outright  state 
universities  came  into  existence.  From  the  beginning  they  had  existed 
by  the  inner  promptings  of  the  public  will  as  part  and  parcel  of  the  public 
schools  that  were  to  be.  All  three,  the  elementary,  the  secondary,  and  the 
higher  education  were  recognized  together  in  that  fundamental  Massa- 
chusetts Act  of  1647  which  appointed  its  orders  under  the  glowing  caption: 
"That  learning  may  not  be  buried  in  the  graves  of  our  fathers  in  church 
and  commonwealth,  the  Lord  assisting  our  endeavors — it  is  therefore 
ordered,"  etc. 

The  state  university  is  no  longer  to  be  considered  as  a  type  of  institution 
suited  to  pioneer  conditions  and  establisht  and  supported  by  the  state,  as 
it  were,  temporarily  and  in  the  lack  of  privately  supported  institutions. 
It  is  rather  to  be  recognized  that  the  privately  controlled  universities  repre- 
sent the  exceptional  and  the  temporary — an  indication  of  this  may  be  found 
in  the  strong  reaction  of  the  public  type  from  the  West  upon  the  East. 
The  state  university  is  no  peculair  form  of  institution  existing  for  itself  and 
for  its  own  convenience  and  aggrandizement.  It  is  simply  and  outright 
the  public-school  system  in  its  extension  to  the  higher  learning  and  research. 
The  act  of  1647  making  the  first  provision  for  a  mechanism  of  schools  and 
teachers  to  carry  out  the  plan  of  compulsory  education  had  its  face  set 
toward  the  university  and  actually  named  the  university  by  name  as  the 
head.  This  act  is  the  beginning  and  the  charter  of  our  pubHc-school 
system.  That  system,  therefore,  was  not  brought  into  the  world  as  a  mass 
of  ragged  schools  nor  as  a  device  for  sidetracking  the  children  of  the  poor. 


Superintendeiice]  PLACE  OF  INSTITUTION  FOR  WOMEN  511 

On  the  contrary,  it  opens  a  straight  path  from  the  elementary  school  to  the 
university  for  such  as  will,  and  its  fundamental  document  blesses  and  con- 
secrates it  with  that  noble  breath  of  prayer,  "that  learning  may  not  be 
buried  in  the  grave  of  our  fathers." 


B.    THE  PLACE  OF  THE  EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTION  FOR 

WOMEN 

KATHRYN  SISSON  MCLEAN,  DEAN  OF  WOMEN,  OHIO  WESLEYAN  UNIYERSITY, 

DELAWARE,    OHIO 

It  is  most  commonplace  to  say  that  we  are  living  in  a  day  fraught  with 
unusual  possibilities  and  opportunities,  and  yet  this  very  fact  is  borne  in 
upon  us  from  so  many  angles  that  we  cannot  but  continually  voice  our  joy 
that  it  has  been  vouchsafed  to  us  to  live  our  life  during  these  terrible  but 
history-making  days.  There  is  a  touch  of  irony  in  the  truth  that  war  brings 
greatest  suffering  to  the  womanhood  of  a  land,  and  yet,  as  if  to  atone  for 
this  unsought  sorrow,  the  reverse  of  the  shield  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  it 
always  carries  in  its  wake  great  opportunities  for  progress  and  opens  many 
doors  of  privilege — social,  economic,  political,  and  intellectual.  The 
Civil  War  proved  to  be  woman's  great  emancipation,  and  to  the  woman- 
hood of  America  this  war  is  a  mighty  stimulus  to  heart,  mind,  and  practical 
ability.  It  is  woman's  opportunity  as  well  as  man's  heritage.  The  con- 
centration of  thousands  of  young  men  in  the  nation's  training  camps,  the 
steady  silent  procession  Europeward  of  the  crowded  transports  and  stately 
ships  of  war,  the  suffering  of  the  worn- torn  nations  of  Europe,  these  have 
awakened  in  us  a  greater  love,  a  greater  capacity  for  sacrifice,  a  greater 
intellectual  activity,  and  a  wider  outreach  toward  efiicient  action  than  we 
have  known  since  the  dark  days  of  the  Civil  War. 

Ye  that  have  faith  to  look  with  fearless  eyes 

Beyond  the  tragedy  of  a  world  at  strife, 
And  know  that  out  of  death  and  night  shall  rise 

The  dawn  of  ampler  life, 
Rejoice,  whatever  anguish  rend  the  heart, 

That  God  has  given  you  a  priceless  dower, 
To  Uve  in  these  great  times  and  have  your  part 

In  Freedom's  crowning  hour; 
That  ye  may  tell  your  sons  who  see  the  light 

High  in  the  Heavens — their  heritage  to  take — 
"I  saw  the  powers  of  Darkness  put  to  flight 

I  saw  the  Morning  break." 

The  Civil  War  brought  home  to  a  country  hitherto  indifferent  to 
the  idea  of  higher  education  for  women  the  realization  that  intellectual 
training  must  be  given  its  women  if  they  were  to  be  prepared  for  the 
many  doors  then  opening  to  them.  Every  great  movement  reflects  the 
character  of  those  who  first  champion  its  cause,  and  to  a  large  degree 


512  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

these  pioneers  make  or  mar  its  advance.  The  great  success  of  the  educa- 
tional project  for  women  has  been  largely  due  to  the  nobleness  of  purpose, 
broad,  far-reaching  vision,  and  sane,  sober  judgment  of  the  men  and  women 
who  founded  our  great  colleges  for  women  and  advocated  their  admittance 
to  state  universities.  All  honor  to  the  memory  of  Mary  Lyon,  Mathew 
Vassar,  Emma  Willard,  Alice  Freeman  Palmer,  and  others  who  gave  their 
impress  to  women's  education.  They  sowed  the  seed,  we  are  today  reaping 
the  increase. 

As  we  look  at  the  subject  of  education  for  women  in  the  light  of  the 
present,  we  know  instinctively  that  the  great  opportunity  lies  in  the  opening 
of  the  many  doors  to  women.  This  is  the  first  hour  in  history  for  the  women 
of  the  world.  This  is  the  woman's  age!  At  last,  after  centuries  of  dis- 
abilities and  discriminations,  women  are  coming  into  the  labor  and  festival 
of  life  on  equal  terms  with  men.  To  meet  this  challenge  of  opportunity, 
to  train  women  to  go  up  and  possess  the  land,  is  the  great  heritage  of  our 
colleges.  When  history,  now  being  made,  is  written,  one  fact  which  the 
historians  will  dwell  upon,  if  we  mistake  not,  will  be  this  emancipation,  this 
seemingly  sudden  coming  of  women  into  their  own.  Men  are  today,  not 
only  turning  to  women  for  advice  along  practically  every  line,  but  saying, 
"This  is  your  work,  do  it."  Are  women  to  meet  this  opportunity  haphaz- 
ardly with  loss  of  effort  and  a  personal  loss  to  themselves  of  those  things 
which  are  a  woman's  greatest  possession,  or  are  they  to  bring  to  the  task 
trained  intellects,  calm,  tolerant  spirits,  and  a  broad  outlook  upon  life  with 
its  privileges  and  opportunities  ?  We  always  find  that  every  far-reaching 
event  or  epoch  imposes  a  great  responsibihty  upon  our  educational  forces. 
Obviously,  if  this  vision  is  to  be  even  glimpst,  our  colleges  must  stamp 
upon  those  who  enter  her  doors  a  personal  character  and  power  which  will 
set  into  action  currents  of  influence  as  boundless  as  life  itself. 

The  call  today  is  for  women  who  are  accurate  and  sincere  thinkers. 
Is  it  not  about  time  that  we  strike  down  that  arch-enemy  called  inaccuracy  ? 
Colleges  can  demand  and  insist  upon  an  accuracy  of  preparation  in  the 
classroom,  and  an  accuracy  of  speech  and  thinking.  Intuitions,  conclusions 
quickly  reacht  and  not  substantiated,  emotions  uncontrolled,  are  not 
our  only  birthright!  Sincere  thinking  will  strike  a  blow  to  the  theory  that 
a  college  education  for  women  is  measured  by  abiHty  to  make  a  Kving. 
Not  long  ago  we  heard  a  well-known  educator  give  this  as  the  desired  aim. 
What  a  sordid  aspect  to  give  a  thing  as  enobling  as  work!  But  rather  will 
not  the  question  be  askt  and  insisted  upon.  What  is  my  own  individual 
contribution,  what  can  I  bring  to  life  which  is  my  own,  what  is  my  method 
of  approach  and  the  line  of  attack  where  my  personality,  my  ambitions, 
can  be  best  exprest  ?  These  questions  answered  satisfactorily,  it  is  evident 
that  the  many  avenues  of  service  needing  women's  attention  in  and  out 
of  the  home  will  not  go  unanswered.  Community  and  civic  problems 
will  be  undertaken  willingly,  suffrage  will  be  assumed  as  a  matter  of  high 


Superintendence]  PLACE  OF  INSTITUTION  FOR  WOMEN  513 

privilege,  and  social  standards,  now  woefully  undefined,  Will  be  given  a 
status. 

Another  demand  which  the  present  open  door  intensifies  is  that  incen- 
tives be  moral  as  well  as  intellectual.  The  moral  situation  of  this  country 
is  not  assuring.  There  seems  to  be  an  increase  of  irreligion,  skepticism, 
tainted  social  status,  and  disorganization  quite  enough  to  distract  the 
nation  from  the  achievement  of  its  high  purpose.  What  will  avert  it? 
What  will  establish  the  faith  of  the  people  on  solid  ground?  What  will 
withstand  this  mass  of  irresponsibility  that  is  gathering  to  thwart  the  high 
purpose  of  the  Republic  ?  The  answer  is,  the  adoption  of  a  constructive, 
not  a  destructive,  policy.  What  is  the  strongest  constructive  force  today  ? 
Education.  Well  and  good.  Therefore  w^e  should  improve  our  educa- 
tion, giving  to  it  a  strain  of  spirituality  that  will  change  the  habits  and 
uplift  the  thought  of  the  coming  generation.  Knowledge,  science,  mathe- 
matics, skill,  will  not  answer.  We  shall  have  to  do  something  vital  and 
urgent  to  enoble  the  ideals  and  aspirations  of  men  and  women,  and  the 
burden — nay,  privilege — of  this  development  is  placed  at  the  door  of  our 
colleges.     Are  we  looking  well  to  our  spiritual  defenses  ? 

This  war,  terrible  and  costly  as  it  is,  spells  opportunity  to  our  educa- 
tional institutions  for  women.  As  a  result  of  this  holocaust  a  great  rest- 
lessness is  upon  our  college  women.  One  may  say  that  this  restlessness  is 
not  felt  by  the  women  as  by  the  men.  I  beg  to  differ.  Our  men  have,  to  a 
great  degree,  their  course  mapt  out  for  them.  They  have  either  volunteered - 
or  are  waiting  to  be  called,  while  our  women  are  facing  the  disappointment 
of  all  inherited  and  traditional  longings  and  plans.  What  do  they  do  ?  Sit 
down,  fold  their  hands,  and  cry  out  aganist  an  autocracy  that  makes  this 
condition  possible?  No!  Do  they  not  rather  accept  the  conditions  and 
rise  to  the  occasion  by  finding  an  expression  of  their  individuality  as  efficient 
contributors  to  the  work  of  the  world  ?  The  spirit  of  high  privilege  with 
which  our  young  women  are  meeting  this  issue  shows  their  innate  worth, 
intensifies  our  respect  for  them,  and  augers  much  for  the  future. 

The  war  has  given  all  students  a  new  attitude  toward  college  life.  Their 
seriousness  of  purpose  we  have  toucht  upon.  They  are  sensing  the  utter 
inconsistency  of  extravagance  and  easeful  living,  hence  a  wave  of  economy 
and  adopting  of  mottoes  such  as  "No  frills  and  fripperies."  Dances  are 
being  given  up  and  simple  entertainments,  calhng  for  initiative  and  an 
expenditure  of  time  and  thought,  are  supplemented. 

College  Red  Cross  auxiliaries  and  chapters  with  their  knitting  and 
surgical-dressing  departments  have  greatly  swelled  the  total  output  of 
articles  sent  across  to  our  armies.  Now  that  the  call  has  come  to  stop 
knitting  and  aid  in  tilling  and  harvesting  the  fruit  and  grain,  college  agri- 
cultural units  will  be  quite  generally  organized.  This  changed  and  broad- 
ened attitude  toward  work  will  do  much  to  remove  the  stigma  of  smugness 
and  self-sufficiency  which  has  been  brought — and  perhaps  justly — against 


514  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

college  women.  It  has  been  bought  with  a  terrible  price,  but  thru 
this  war  women  have  come  into  their  own  as  citizens  pledged  and 
consecrated  to  democracy  of  living,  democracy  of  work,  and  democracy 
of  ideals! 

The  college  war  course  now  being  offered  our  young  women  augurs  much 
for  woman's  future  training  vocationally.  That  she  must  of  necessity  go 
into  many  new  and  untried  vocations,  taking  her  place  industrially  and  eco- 
nomically as  a  wage-earner  and  contributing  agent,  no  one  will  deny.  The 
woman  of  today  needs,  as  never  before,  the  background  of  a  cultural  educa- 
tion and,  too,  she  needs  to  have  added  to  this  a  preparation  and  equipment 
fitting  her  to  do  a  special  piece  of  work  and  do  it  well.  In  short,  our  colleges 
will  have  to  increase,  not  decrease,  vocational  courses.  Colleges  offering 
such  courses  are  well  to  the  front  today,  and  colleges  not  offering  these 
courses  are,  because  of  the  war  exigency,  changing  their  policy.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  home  economics  and  business  courses  are  being  given 
in  schools  which  formerly  have  had  no  work  in  these  lines.  The  average 
war  courses  are  business,  hygiene,  social  science  in  war  times,  and  home 
economics.  A  list  of  typical  war  courses  in  and  outside  the  curriculum, 
taken  from  the  recent  reports  of  the  colleges,  is :  Land  line  telegraphy,  wire- 
less telegraphy,  automobile  mechanics,  nautical  astronomy,  navigation, 
elementary  nursing,  first  aid,  principles  of  war  relief,  draftsmanship,  medical 
laboratory  method,  map-drawing,  home  economics,  industrial  chemistry, 
farm  management,  surgical  dressings,  office  routine,  and  a  course  for 
teachers  of  occupational  therapeutics.  Women  are  being  trained  as  dental 
hygienists,  constructive  recreation  is  being  strest,  and  the  engineering 
department  in  several  universities  shows  enrolment  of  women.  In  what 
lines  colleges  are  yet  to  go  is  unknown.  History  is  being  made  too  rapidly 
even  to  venture  a  guess.  At  any  rate,  judging  from  the  great  stride  made 
in  coordinating  life  in  academic  walls  with  life  outside  and  "over  there," 
the  colleges  will  not  be  behind,  but  rather  in  the  vanguard  of  real 
initiativeness  and  usefulness. 

The  way  in  which  our  educational  institutions  for  women  have  built 
on  their  foundations  and  met  their  opportunities  for  development  and 
leadership  makes  us  sanguine  as  to  the  reconstruction  period  after  the  war. 
Then  our  educational  theories  and  systems  are  to  be  tested  as  they  have 
never  before  been  tested.  College  life  must  now  and  hereafter  be  a  satisfy- 
ing portion  to  our  young  men  and  women  and  must  wield  an  influence 
greater  than  ever  before,  because  we  shall  think  in  terms  of  world-democracy 
and  internationalism. 

May  we  not  count  it  as  one  of  life's  compensations  that  we  bear  the 
name  of  ''teachers"  and  have  a  share,  small  as  it  may  be,  in  shaping 
the  destiny  of  college  women,  who  are  the  potential  mothers  and 
leaders— economically,  industrially,  and  politically — in  our  day  and 
generation  ? 


Superintendence)  PLACE  OF  EDUCATIONAL  FOUNDATION  515 

C.    THE  PLACE  OF  THE  EDUCATIONAL  FOUNDATION 

CLYDE    FURST,    SECRETARY,    CARNEGIE    FOUNDATION,    NEW   YORK,    N.Y. 

The  educational  foundation  is  an  agency  of  democracy  which  finds  for 
its  work  in  each  country  means  growing  out  of  the  national  civilization  and 
adapted  to  the  national  environment.  These  foundations  are  the  product 
of  large  private  fortunes  which  in  other  countries  have  been  used  generally 
to  perpetuate  family  pride  and  power.  Their  extensive  use  for  philan- 
thropic purposes  is  characteristically  American  and  democratic.  The 
foundations  represent  a  distinctive  effort  of  our  people  and  our  time  to  deal 
with  problems  peculiar  to  our  civilization,  in  the  form  of  a  representative 
organization  completely  responsible  to  public  opinion. 

The  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  which  was 
incorporated  by  Congress  in  1906,  administers  the  income  of  two  endow- 
ments. The  one,  of  fifteen  million  dollars,  is  devoted  to  the  payment  of 
retiring  allowances  to  college  professors  and  of  pensions  to  their  widows  in 
the  United  States,  Canada,  and  Newfoundland.  The  other,  of  a  million 
and  a  quarter  dollars,  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  educational  problems 
thruout  the  United  States  and  Canada  and  to  publishing  the  results  of  such 
inquiries. 

The  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  foundations  along  the  Unes  of  pensioning 
teachers  and  studying  educational  problems  from  a  national  rather  than  a 
local  standpoint  have  been  more  than  welcomed  by  the  great  majority  of 
schools,  colleges,  universities,  and  educational  organizations.  For  example, 
the  Foundation  has  just  completed  its  fourth  report  to  the  Committee  on 
Pensions  of  the  National  Education  Association,  having  first  presented 
data  concerning  all  existing  systems  of  pensions  for  teachers,  then  a  study 
of  these  systems,  then  a  summary  of  pension  principles,  and  finally  a 
definite  plan  for  a  teachers'  pension  system  which  includes  all  of  the  fea- 
tures that  have  proved  to  be  desirable.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been 
suggested  occasionally  that  such  agencies  are  not  desirable,  that  they  inter- 
fere with  the  free  development  of  the  teaching  institutions,  that  their 
separation  from  local  interests  is  harmful  rather  than  helpful. 

Those  who  derive  their  information  concerning  the  studies  of  the 
Carnegie  Foundation  from  the  newspapers  only  naturally  desire  to  know 
more  about  it.  The  Foundation,  they  say,  is  an  endowed  agency  conducted 
by  a  self-perpetuating  board  of  twenty-five  trustees,  mostly  university  and 
college  presidents,  who  intrust  their  administration  largely  to  executive 
officers.  They  conduct  their  Foundation  under  a  charter  which  excludes 
from  participation  in  its  pensions  institutions  that  are  controlled  by  religious 
bodies.  Is  it  not  likely  that  denominational  colleges  may  be  tempted 
into  an  insincere  position  in  order  to  secure  the  benefit  of  these  pensions  ? 
Is  it  not  possible  that  the  college  professor's  expectation  of  a  pension  may 
restrict  the  freedom  and  independence  of  his  opinions  ?    Will  not  an  agency 


5l6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

separated  from  teaching  bodies  and  out  of  touch  with  local  needs  exercise 
an  undue  influence  upon  colleges  and  universities?  In  fact,  has  not  the 
Carnegie  Foundation  already  undertaken  a  somewhat  arbitrary  enforcement 
of  college  and  university  standards  ?  Finally,  if  there  is  to  be  an  educa- 
tional agency  which  scrutinizes  institutions  and  studies  conditions  thruout 
the  country  and  publishes  reports  concerning  them,  should  not  this  be  a 
governmental  agency,  not  one  conducted  by  a  self-perpetuating  board  of 
trustees,  which  is  the  holder  of  an  endowment  from  a  single  individual? 
These  are  thoughtful  questions  which  deserve  adequate  answers. 

The  articles  of  incorporation  and  all  the  reports  of  the  Foundation  show 
clearly  that  its  endowment  can  provide  pensions  for  only  a  small  minority 
of  the  college  teachers  of  the  country,  and  that  by  the  terms  of  the  gift  only 
such  colleges  can  be  askt  to  share  in  these  pensions  as  apply  no  test  of  a 
religious  character  in  the  choice  of  their  trustees,  officers,  or  teachers. 
Since  most  of  the  colleges  of  the  country  are  related  legally  to  religious 
denominations  in  one  way  or  another,  it  has  been  clear  from  the  beginning 
that  they  cannot  expect  to  share  in  the  financial  benefits  of  this  endowment. 
A  few  institutions — seven  of  the  seventy-four  associated  with  the  Foundation 
— have  changed  from  denominational  to  undenominational  charters.  Most 
of  these  changes  were  in  progress  when  the  Foundation  came  into  existence. 
The  form  of  the  Foundation's  charter  has  prevented  at  least  an  equal  num- 
ber of  colleges  from  making  such  changes,  thru  fear  of  being  considered 
insincere.  The  great  body  of  church  colleges,  both  Protestant  and  Catholic, 
and  the  various  denominational  bodies  have  expected  nothing  in  the  way 
of  pensions  and  have  shown,  on  the  other  hand,  the  greatest  readiness  to 
cooperate  with  the  Foundation  in  its  study  of  educational  problems  and 
in  its  efforts  for  the  improvement  of  educational  conditions.  The  Founda- 
tion, on  its  side,  has  made  every  effort  to  show  that  the  denominational 
restriction  in  its  charter  relates,  not  to  religious  belief,  but  simply  to  a  form 
of  college  government. 

The  apprehension  that  the  professor  might  be  influenst  in  his  attitude 
by  his  expectation  of  a  pension  rests  upon  two  misapprehensions:  First, 
as  to  the  method  of  administration,  the  teacher  in  the  associated  colleges 
does  not  deal  with  the  Foundation;  he  deals  entirely  with  his  college  and 
receives  his  retiring  allowance  from  the  college  precisely  as  he  receives  his 
salary.  The  second  misconception  concerns  the  character  of  the  American 
college  or  university  teacher.  Nothing  would  so  arouse,  and  so  justly 
arouse,  his  opposition  as  any  effort,  however  indirect,  to  control  his  opinions 
about  education,  college  administration,  or  any  other  subject.  The  sole 
opportunity  that  the  foundations  have  of  influencing  the  judgment  of 
teachers  is  thru  their  publications,  and  these  have  weight  only  as  they  are 
sound  and  prove  in  the  end  to  be  wise. 

When  the  foundations  accept  invitations  to  undertake  educational 
inquiries  they  associate  with  them  the  men  whose  experience  and  knowl- 


Superintendence]  PLACE  OF  EDUCATIONAL  FOUNDATION  517 

edge  are  believed  to  be  of  the  greatest  value  in  the  particular  field  of  study. 
Usually  these  are  teachers  who  are  granted  leave  of  absence  for  the  purpose 
by  their  universities  or  school  systems.  The  group  thus  formed,  after 
extensive  studies  in  the  field,  together  with  the  small  permanent  staff  of  the 
foundations,  sit  in  conference  with  college  and  normal-school  faculties, 
trustees,  superintendents  of  education,  state  and  city  officials,  denomina- 
tional boards,  professional  and  business  men — in  short,  with  all  who  can 
aid  in  the  solution  of  our  complex  educational  problems.  Out  of  this  con- 
tact, over  studies  made  on  the  ground,  there  come,  in  the  course  of  weeks 
or  months,  conclusions  which  may  not  be  final,  but  which  probably  repre- 
sent the  best  consensus  of  opinion  that  can  be  reacht  at  the  time.  The 
local  participant  in  such  conferences  is  aided  by  the  judgment  of  the  man 
who  is  free  from  local  traditions  and  local  interests.  The  man  from  a  dis- 
tance has  his  conceptions  modified  and  made  practical  by  his  intercourse 
with  the  man  on  the  ground.  In  their  patient,  sympathetic,  and  intelligent 
cooperation  lies  a  large  possibility  of  good. 

In  addition,  there  is  an  advantage  both  for  the  local  institution  and  for 
the  country  at  large  in  the  entrance  of  agencies  which,  while  they  seek  to  be 
sympathetic  and  fair,  need  not  be  afraid.  Some  of  the  conditions  in  educa- 
tion in  our  country  have  been  and  still  are  wretched.  Such  conditions  are 
often  suffered  in  silence  because  of  the  thoro  organization  of  alumni,  the 
rivalry  between  state  and  endowed  colleges,  and  the  fear  of  offending  local 
interests.  Many  of  the  actual  facts  concerning  education  will  never  be 
made  known  until  they  are  brought  to  light  by  intelligent,  sympathetic,  but 
courageous,  outside  agencies  which  have  the  money  to  make  studies,  with 
the  necessary  time  and  care,  and  which  do  not  fear  to  publish  the  results. 

It  would  seem  scarcely  necessary  to  speak  of  the  educational  founda- 
tions in  connection  with  political  influence,  but  this  question  also  has  been 
raised.  Those  who  are  famihar  with  political  activities  must  find  con- 
siderable humor  in  the  suggestion  that  a  legislature  or  other  representative 
body  may  be  over-influenst  by  the  ideas  of  a  corporation  bearing  the  name 
of  a  prominent  philanthropist.  The  studies  made  by  these  foundations 
can  achieve  their  results  only  by  a  slow  process  of  public  education. 

There  is  some  misapprehension  concerning  the  relation  of  the  Carnegie 
Foundation  to  college  and  university  standards — not  to  those  ideals  of  life 
and  conduct  that  colleges  seek  to  inspire,  but  to  those  objective  tests  that 
colleges  must  maintain  in  order  to  carry  on  their  work,  such,  for  example, 
as  the  standards  of  admission,  examination,  and  promotion.  With  the 
fixing  of  such  standards  the  Carnegie  Foundation  has  little  to  do.  They 
are  set  up  and  administered  by  college  faculties  and  by  various  boards. 
The  Foundation  has  never  attempted  to  dictate  to  any  college  what  its 
standards  should  be.  It  has,  however,  endeavored  by  bringing  such 
matters  into  public  discussion  to  urge  that  these  standards  be  reasonable 
and  be  honestly  administered,  and  it  has  not  hesitated  to  call  attention  to 


5 18  NA TIONAL  EDUCA TION  ASSOCIA TION  (Atlantic  city 

the  discrepancy  that  has  often  existed  between  the  standards  announst  by 
a  college  and  those  that  it  has  actually  used  in  practice. 

There  has  been  some  fear  lest  a  central  agency  dealing  with  education 
might  interfere  with  the  independent  life  of  other  institutions.  Such  an 
argument  rests  upon  a  failure  to  distinguish  between  independence  and  free- 
dom. Only  by  placing  itself  upon  an  isolated  island  could  an  institution 
like  a  university  have  absolute  independence;  in  an  American  common- 
wealth its  freedom  is  limited  by  the  rights  and  the  interests  of  other  insti- 
tutions. As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  college  and  the  university  have  interfered 
in  very  arbitrary  fashion  with  the  secondary  schools;  and  it  is  only  within 
recent  years  and  thru  the  pressure  of  public  opinion,  aided  to  a  considerable 
extent  by  the  foundations,  that  they  have  come  to  consider  seriously  their 
duties  toward  these  schools.  In  the  long  run  the  universities,  the  colleges, 
the  schools,  and  the  educational  foundations  will  find  their  true  relations, 
and  each  will  attain  the  full  measure  of  freedom  to  which  it  is  entitled.  It 
is  in  such  freedom,  not  in  complete  independence,  that  the  problems  of  a 
democracy  must  be  wrought  out. 

There  is  one  other  doubt  which  may  remain.  The  Carnegie  Foundation 
administers  at  the  same  time  a  Pension  Fund  and  a  Division  of  Educational 
Inquiry.  Will  it  not  use  the  Pension  Fund  to  help  out  an  educational 
propaganda  ?  Will  it  not  approach  the  needy  college  with  a  pension  in  one 
hand  and  an  educational  prescription  in  the  other  ?  It  is  perhaps  true  that 
an  exceedingly  brief  influence  might  be  gained  by  using  pensions  as  a  bolster 
for  an  educational  program.  How  small  a  role  such  a  program  could  play, 
however,  will  be  realized  by  recalling  that  there  are  a  thousand  colleges 
and  universities,  hundreds  of  normal  schools,  and  fifty  state  and  provincial 
systems  of  education  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  Carnegie 
Foundation  has  some  educational  relation  with  most  of  these.  It  can  pay 
pensions  in  a  very  small  minority.  For  the  great  number  of  colleges  and 
for  all  normal  schools-  and  state  and  provincial  systems  of  education  no 
question  of  granting  pensions  arises.  The  Foundation's  contribution  to 
the  great  army  of  teachers,  so  far  as  pensions  go,  is  in  the  development  of 
the  pension  idea.  Any  funds  that  the  foundations  may  have  to  distribute 
are  but  a  drop  when  compared  with  the  country's  annual  expenditure  for 
education.  There  is  an  even  more  conclusive  reason  why  the  Carnegie 
Foundation  has  not  coupled  its  pensions  with  educational  propaganda.  It 
has  no  educational  propaganda;  no  educational  system  to  propose;  no 
specific  to  recommend.  It  hopes  merely  to  help  in  the  illumination  of  the 
complicated  problems  upon  the  correct  solution  of  which  depends  our  future 
welfare  and  happiness. 

Finally,  it  may  be  askt,  if  there  are  to  exist  agencies  viewing  education 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  whole  nation,  dealing  with  education  as  one  thing 
and  not  as  a  chaos  of  divided  and  unrelated  things,  publishing  reports  which 
have  to  do  with  the  universities  and  colleges  and  school  systems  of  the 


Superintendence]        VIEW  OF  ENTIRE  SITUATION  FROM  OUTSIDE  519 

various  states — ought  not  such  an  agency  be  governmental  ?  Should  not 
such  a  function  be  exercised,  if  it  is  to  be  exercised  at  all,  by  the  office  of 
the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  ?  The  answer  is  clear.  No 
privately  endowed  institution  can  ever  take  the  place  of  a  national  bureau 
of  education.  Any  privately  endowed  foundation  which  conceived  of  its 
functions  in  such  terms  would  be  doomed  to  ignominious  failure.  Every- 
one knows,  however,  why  a  governmental  agency  cannot  at  this  time  report 
critically  on  universities  and  colleges  and  systems  of  public  education. 
The  support  and  control  of  all  of  our  governmental  bureaus,  including  the 
Bureau  of  Education,  is  political.  A  few  years  ago  that  Bureau  prepared 
a  report  making  comparisons  between  educational  institutions  of  certain 
classes.  The  moment  the  nature  of  this  report  became  known  the  local 
institutions  in  many  states  appealed  to  their  congressmen  and  senators, 
and  they  in  turn  to  the  President.  The  report  was  supprest.  No  such 
bureau  can  tell  fully  and  frankly  the  facts  about  education  in  the  various 
states  in  such  reports,  for  example,  as  the  Carnegie  Foundation's  studies 
on  medical  education  and  agricultural  education  recently  publisht,  or  those 
on  engineering  education,  legal  education,  and  the  training  of  teachers 
which  are  about  to  appear — all  of  them  undertaken  at  the  request  and 
carried  on  with  the  cooperation  of  representative  organizations.  It  is 
indeed  anomalous,  in  a  country  where  the  prestige  and  the  problems  of 
education  are  unparalleled,  that  education  has  no  seat  in  the  national 
cabinet,  as  it  has  in  England,  France,  and  Italy,  but  is  relegated  to  a 
severely  restricted  minor  bureau.  Yet  this  remains  the  situation  in  spite 
of  all  our  efforts  to  better  it. 

Entirely  apart  from  this,  however,  privately  endowed  foundations, 
whose  trustees  represent  the  whole  country,  will  always  be  able  to  perform, 
as  no  government  agency  ever  can,  an  important  and  indispensable  public 
service.  It  is  the  essence  of  democracy  that  there  should  be,  not  only 
governmental  action,  but  also  private  cooperation  and  initiative.  We 
need,  not  only  a  government  Bureau  of  Public  Information,  but  also  the 
Associated  Press,  not  only  state-supported,  but  also  endowed,  universities, 
not  only  the  Bureau  of  Education,  but  also  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation and  the  educational  foundations. 


D.     THE  VIEW  OF  THE  ENTIRE  SITUATION  FROM 
THE  OUTSIDE 

DON   C.    SEITZ,   EDITOR,    "tHE   WORLD,"    NEW   YORK,    N.Y. 

Your  chairman  gave  me  a  very  large  contract  when  he  assigned  me  to 
discuss  the  problems  of  the  educational  field  in  general.  It  seems  to  me 
tho  that  education,  like  business,  has  become  swampt  with  undue  over- 
heads of  cost  in  time  and  money — time  taken  away  from  children  and  money 
taken  away  from  the  taxpayers. 


5 20  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  A SSOCIA  TION  (Atlantic  city 

To  educate  thoroly  a  young  person  under  our  present  system  takes 
fifteen  years,  including  a  college  term.  A  period  of  eleven  years  for  primary 
and  high-school  instruction,  in  view  of  what  is  accomplisht,  seems  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  necessities  of  the  case.  I  would  remedy  this  by  a  radical 
change  in  our  system  of  instruction.  To  open  the  door  of  knowledge,  it  is 
first  needful  that  children  should  learn  to  read.  I  would  therefore  teach 
nothing  but  reading  until  every  child  in  the  class  had  acquired  an  ample 
vocabulary.  I  would  extend  the  lessons  to  all  forms  of  interest  as  rapidly 
as  the  vocabulary  acquisition  permitted.  I  should  be  very  catholic  in  my 
selections,  and  if  I  could  not  arrest  a  boy's  idle  mind  in  any  other  way  I 
would  feed  him  on  dime  novels — anything  to  get  a  vocabulary.  Having 
acquired  the  art  of  reading  and  an  interest  in  what  is  read,  I  should  next 
instruct  the  pupil  in  the  methods  of  communicating  knowledge,  to  wit, 
writing  and  spelling.  A  child  would  study  nothing  else  until  proficient. 
Every  pupil  would  recite  and  pass  in  separate  review  and  be  dealt  with 
according  to  his  needs.  Having  thus  acquired  the  means  of  understanding 
and  of  transmitting  it,  I  would  then  turn  to  mathematics  and  teach  nothing 
but  addition,  multiplication,  and  division  until  the  pupil  was  thoroly  pro- 
ficient. He  or  she  would  then  be  equipt  to  acquire  wider  knowledge.  Then 
I  would  give  a  thoro  course  in  history  and  geography  and  call  the  task  done, 
except  for  the  exceptional.  To  this  I  would  open  the  high  schools  for  their 
ready  entrance,  if  they  wished  to  go — I  would  push  no  one  in. 

I  think  that  one  of  the  reasons  why  education  meets  with  so  much 
resistance  and  is  treated  with  so  little  respect  is  because  it  comes  to  the 
pupil  in  the  form  of  a  task.  It  should  be  advertised  as  a  recreation,  as  a 
means  of  wider  enjoyment  in  the  good  things  of  life.  Because  people  are 
poor  or  engaged  in  humble  occupations  is  no  reason  why  they  should  be 
shut  out  from  the  Hght  of  the  world.  Why  should  not  a  mechanic  who 
runs  a  lathe  in  a  machine-shop  be  able  to  enjoy  Shakespeare  ?  Why  should 
a  servant  or  a  waitress  in  a  restaurant  be  debarred  from  the  great  romances  ? 
It  is  just  as  sane  as  that  poverty  should  be  akin  to  dirt  and  that  poor  cooking 
should  ruin  provisions  when  bought  by  the  poor.  It  is  a  popular  delusion 
somehow  that  the  enjoyments  of  life  are  only  for  the  well-to-do,  and  it  seems 
to  me  that  for  this  delusion  the  attitude  of  the  educator  is  largely  respon- 
sible. We  should  simplify  instruction,  enhance  its  entertaining  qualities, 
and  broaden  the  mind  of  the  average  so  that  it  can  enjoy  every  opportunity 
that  is  open  to  the  fortunate,  and  rest  the  backs  of  the  taxpayers. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  ECONOMY  OF  TIME  IN 
ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

Your  Committee  presents  its  third  report  of  progress  in  Part  I  of  the 
Seventeenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education. 
Previous  reports  were  presented  in  the  publications  of  this  Society,  the  same 
appearing  as  Part  I  of  the  fourteenth  and  sixteenth  yearbooks. 


Superintendence] 


COMMITTEE  ON  ECONOMY  OF  TIME 


521 


In  the  three  reports  attention  has  been  directed  mainly  to  formulating 
upon  the  basis  of  research  studies  the  minimal  essentials  in  the  various 
subjects  of  the  elementary  schools.  The  accompanying  table  summarizes 
both  the  subjects  of  study  which  have  been  discust  and  the  number  of  pages 
devoted  to  each.  From  the  table  it  will  be  observed  that  all  the  subjects  of 
the  elementary  curriculum  have  been  considered  from  the  standpoint  of 
minimal  essentials,  with  the  exception  of  music,  drawing  or  art,  elementary 
science  or  nature-study,  and  the  manual  and  household  arts.  An  investiga- 
tion pertaining  to  the  content  of  elementary  science  or  nature-study  has  been 
almost  ready  for  publication  for  two  years;  likewise  a  study  of  art  or  draw- 
ing is  almost  ready  for  publication.  Considerable  work  has  also  been  done 
toward  the  determination  of  the  minimal  essentials  in  music,  but  this  study 
is  not  so  near  completion.  No  investigation  of  the  minimal  content  in  the 
manual  or  household  arts  has  been  begun,  so  far  as  your  Committee's  work 
is  concerned. 


Subject 


Reading 

Handwriting 

Spelling 

Language,  composition,  and  grammar. 

Arithmetic 

Geography 

History 

Civics 

Literature 

Physical  education 


Parti 

I9I5 


Pages 
24 
17 
12 
26 
15 

6 


Parti 
1917 


Pages 
16 

13 
12 
26 
32 


30 


Part  I 
1018 


17 
20 

13 
32 

27 


Total 


Pages 
46 
30 
24 
69 
67 
19 
73 
27 

33 

20 


Judging  from  the  quantity  of  the  sales  on  each  of  the  Yearbooks  and  by 
the  investigations  modeled  on  those  printed  in  the  Yearbooks^  which  are 
under  way  in  the  departments  of  education  of  the  normal  schools  and 
universities  of  the  country,  and  by  the  effects  which  these  reports  have 
produced  in  modifying  courses  of  study,  your  Committee  regrets  that  it 
has  been  impossible  to  complete  formulations  on  the  subjects  which  have 
not  thus  far  been  investigated.  We  believe  that  as  early  as  possible,  either 
thru  this  Committee  or  some  other  agency,  this  department  should  further 
encourage  the  scientific  study  and  investigation  of  the  content  essential  in 
the  elementary  curriculum.  The  subjects  thus  far  investigated  should  be 
extended,  and  studies  should  be  arranged  for  immediately  in  those  subjects 
not  reported  upon  thus  far. 

In  closing  its  report  before  this  department  one  year  ago,  the  Committee 
promist  that  the  following  lines  of  work  would  be  pursued  with  all  earnest- 
ness during  the  year  which  closes  with  this  meeting: 

I.  Its  effort  to  state  the  minimum  content  in  the  elementary-school  subjects  will  be 
further  extended  by  including  geography,  music,  elementary  science,  and  drawing,  thus 


522  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic City 

completing,  as  far  as  is  possible,  the  work  on  the  reduced  content  in  the  elementary-school 
subjects,  interpreting  all  its  recommendations  regarding  content  finally  in  relation  to 
economy  of  time. 

2.  Arrangements  have  been  completed  for  starting  the  work  of  three  committees  in 
the  field  of  method.  One,  in  charge  of  W.  C.  Bagley,  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  will 
formulate  the  "Objectives  of  Elementary  Education  on  the  Basis  of  the  Minimum  Content 
of  the  Elementary-School  Subjects."  Coordinately,  another  committee,  in  charge  of 
Frank  E.  Thompson,  of  the  University  of  Colorado,  will  formulate  the  "Purpose  of  Educa- 
tion in  Terms  of  Activities."  Another  committee,  consisting  of  Messrs.  Bobbitt,  Charters, 
Cofifman,  Horn,  Kilpatrick,  Stone,  and  Wilson,  will  take  up  the  "Minimal  Essentials"  in 
each  subject  as  they  have  been  recommended  in  the  fourteenth  and  sixteenth  yearbooks 
and  as  they  may  be  recommended  in  later  publications,  and  endeavor  to  organize  this 
content  into  the  successive  problems  which  should  be  mastered  by  the  pupils  from  grade 
to  grade  in  each  of  the  subjects. 

3.  In  the  field  of  organization  we  propose  to  start  a  committee  to  work  at  once,  under 
the  direction  of  Dean  H.  L.  Smith,  of  the  University  of  Indiana,  making  a  survey  of  the 
efforts  being  made  above  the  sixth  grade  in  this  country  which  are  resulting  in  the  saving 
of  time  between  the  sixth  grade  and  graduation  from  high  school.  This  survey  will  be 
made  in  such  way  as  to  permit  a  quantitative  report  of  the  results  of  the  survey. 

4.  As  soon  as  the  report  of  the  Commission  on  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education 
is  available  in  printed  form,  we  shall  constitute  the  committee  necessary  to  review  the 
report  from  the  standpoint  of  the  organization  of  the  teaching  content  of  each  subject  as 
recommended,  in  such  way  as  to  determine  where  savings  may  be  made. 

5.  Arrangements  have  already  been  completed  whereby  a  study  will  be  made,  under 
the  direction  of  George  D.  Strayer,  of  Columbia  University,  of  the  extension  of  school 
time,  both  the  day  and  the  year,  in  relation  to  economy  of  time. 

The  progress  in  the  first  and  second  of  these  proposals  is  reported  in 
Part  I  of  the  Seventeenth  Yearbook,  One  hundred  and  fifteen  pages  are 
devoted  to  reporting  the  investigations.  Eighty-nine  pages  are  devoted  to 
minimal  essentials  and  26  to  the  purposes  of  historical  instruction  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades.  In  the  further  investigation  of  minimal 
essentials  two  studies  are  concerned  with  the  content  of  arithmetic,  one 
with  geography,  one  with  reading,  one  and  a  brief  summary  with  English, 
two  with  civics,  and  one  with  history.  The  initial  study  on  objectives  in 
elementary  education  is  a  symposium  on  history  organized  and  carried  to 
completion  under  the  leadership  of  Dr.  W.  C.  Bagley.  The  symposium 
occupies  26  pages  and  is  concerned  with  the  purposes  of  historical  instruction 
in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

All  of  the  studies  of  this  Yearbook  and  of  the  preceding  Yearbooks 
containing  our  reports  are  concerned  with  determining  the  materials  which 
should  be  incorporated  in  the  course  of  study  of  the  subject  under  investiga- 
tion by  finding  out  what  people  who  are  living  and  working  successfully 
outside  the  school  find  need  to  be  able  to  do,  and  by  determining  accurately 
just  what  information  and  skills  they  need  to  employ  in  doing  their  work 
successfully. 

In  his  study  of  "  Some  Social  Demands  of  the  Course  of  Study  in  Arith- 
metic" Mr.  Mitchell  gathers  data  from  four  sources — a  standard  cookbook, 
the  pay-rolls  of  a  number  of  factories,  marked-down-sales  advertisements, 


Superintendence!  COMMITTEE  ON  ECONOMY  OF  TIME  523 

and  a  general  hardware  catalog — by  which  he  proceeds  to  determine  what 
the  character  of  arithmetic  taught  in  the  schools  should  be  to  enable  persons 
to  solve  the  problems  which  would  arise  from  any  of  the  four  sources.  He 
finds  a  great  frequency  of  small  numbers,  especially  of  fractions  and  mixt 
numbers.  He  finds  that  the  dozen  as  a  unit  of  production  and  trade  should 
be  taught  and  in  connection  therewith,  that  the  aliquot  parts  of  12  should 
be  taught. 

In  her  study  on  "What  Should  Be  the  Minimal  Information  about 
Banking"  Miss  Cammerer  sought  to  learn  what  bank  employes  think  that 
the  citizens  of  their  community  ought  to  know  about  banking.  She  mailed 
an  inquiry  to  50  bank  employes  and  received  35  returns.  She  also  submitted 
the  same  inquiry  to  the  parents  of  the  children  in  the  University  of  Iowa 
Elementary  School.  There  were  55  items  in  the  inquiry,  and  the  study 
reports  the  order  of  importance  assigned  each  item  by  the  total  returns  from 
the  bank  employes  and  from  parents.  From  the  replies  received  as  to  what 
the  citizens  of  a  community  ought  to  know  about  each  item  a  composite 
statement  showing  what  ought  to  be  taught  about  each  item  was  prepared. 
The  study  closes  with  a  bibliography  containing  24  references. 

In  their  study  on  "The  Determination  and  Measurement  of  the  Minimal 
Essentials  of  Elementary-School  Geography"  Mr.  Branom  and  Mr.  Reavis 
summarized  previous  studies  to  determine  minimal  essentials  in  geography. 
EarHer  studies  have  placed  the  emphasis  almost  exclusively  on  place 
geography.  This  investigation  holds  that  any  list  of  minimal  essentials  in 
geography  that  does  not  emphasize  relational  facts  as  well  as  facts  of  place 
is  inadequate.  The  investigators  attempt  to  set  up  certain  standards  for 
the  selection  of  the  facts  which  should  be  learned  and  for  the  relations  which 
should  be  recognized  and  appreciated.  The  method  of  study  is  clearly  set 
forth  thruout.  The  study  closes  with  a  completion  test  for  the  measurement 
of  minimal  geographical  knowledge  of  elementary-school  children. 

In  his  study  of  the  vocabularies  of  ten  second-year  readers  Mr.  Housh 
determines  scientifically  the  vocabulary  of  ten  second  readers  in  common  use 
in  American  elementary  schools.  He  endeavors  to  find  a  basis  for  measuring 
the  quality  of  readers,  in  so  far  as  the  vocabulary  of  these  readers  is  a  factor 
in  determining  their  worth.  The  study  determines  the  entire  vocabulary 
of  each  of  the  ten  readers  and  their  common  vocabulary,  then  compares  the 
vocabulary  of  the  method  and  the  content  readers  and  shows  by  means  of 
the  vocabularies  the  relations  between  these  two  kinds  of  readers.  The 
readers  used  as  a  basis  for  the  study,  the  method  of  procedure,  and  the 
results  obtained  are  set  forth  in  detail. 

In  his  report  on  "Composition  Standards  in  the  Elementary  Schools" 
Mr.  Hosic  shows  the  sort  of  composition  scale  which  resulted  from  the 
selection  of  compositions  of  different  degrees  of  excellence  by  the  general- 
judgment  process  rather  than  by  exact,  scientific  procedure.  Compositions 
of  each  degree  of  excellence  are  printed  for  each  grade.     Following  this 


524  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  A SSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

study  Mr.  Hosic  also  summarizes  ten  recent  investigations  in  the  field  of 
English. 

Mr.  Bassett  reports  the  results  of  an  investigation  of  the  content  of  the 
course  of  study  in  civics,  his  object  being  to  determine  what  should  be  the 
content  of  the  course  of  study  in  this  subject.  He  sought  to  find  what  are 
the  most  significant  and  most  persistent  problems  of  the  American  people 
which  seek  solution  from  the  machinery  of  government.  As  a  basis  for 
answering  his  inquiry  the  investigator  analyzed  the  national  platforms  of  all 
political  parties  since  1832,  the  state  platforms  in  non-presidential  years 
since  1889  in  so  far  as  they  dealt  with  national  issues,  all  the  state  platforms 
of  the  major  parties  in  1910,  the  platforms  of  the  major  parties  in  California, 
Indiana,  and  New  York  since  1850,  all  the  platforms  of  the  parties  in  Iowa 
since  1889,  and  the  platforms  of  one  southern  state.  The  method  of 
analysis,  the  classification  of  topics,  and  the  results  found  are  set  forth  in 
detail.  The  conclusions  which  seem  justified  by  the  study  are  summarized 
in  two  concluding  pages. 

In  his  study  of  the  historical  information  essential  for  the  intelligent 
understanding  of  civic  problems  Mr.  Bassett  seeks  to  discover  what  history 
is  most  necessary  to  the  intelligent  understanding  of  modern  political 
problems,  conditions,  and  activities.  The  study  was  based  upon  the  same 
hypothesis  as  that  used  by  Dr.  Horn  in  his  study  reported  a  year  ago  in 
Part  I  of  the  Sixteenth  Yearbook,  on  "  Possible  Defects  in  the  Present  Content 
of  American  History  as  Taught  in  the  Schools."  The  study  is  directed 
along  the  same  lines  as  was  Dr.  Horn's  study.  The  basis  for  the  study 
and  the  method  of  procedure  are  set  forth  in  detail,  as  are  the  results, 
which  are  carefully  summarized  in  the  concluding  five  pages  of  the 
study. 

A  method  of  determining  misplacements  of  emphasis  in  seventh-  and 
eighth-grade  history  is  reported  by  Mr.  Marston,  Mr.  McKov/an,  and 
Dr.  Bagley.  The  study  is  an  addition  to  Dr.  Bagley's  "Study  on  History" 
reported  in  the  Sixteenth  Yearbook,  and  attempts  to  determine  some  mis- 
placements in  present-day  and  recent  elementary  history  teaching.  The 
criteria  by  which  to  measure  present  practices  are  clearly  set  forth.  While 
it  was  not  possible  to  investigate  all  the  materials  now  comprising  the 
content  of  elementary  history,  a  very  limited  area  of  the  field  was  explored 
for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  method  of  procedure.  Only  the  names  of 
persons  that  are  given  prominence  by  25  elementary  textbooks  in  American 
history  between  1765  and  1865  are  subjected  to  investigation.  The  method 
of  the  study  is  fully  set  forth,  and  the  results  and  interpretations  are  reported 
in  the  concluding  four  pages. 

The  symposium  on  the  ''Purposes  of  Historical  Instruction  in  the 
Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades"  carries  an  introduction  and  summary  by 
Dr.  Bagley  and  brief  papers  on  the  general  topic  by  Mr.  Dealy,  Mr.  Ellwood, 
Mr.  Green,  Mr.  Hart,  Mr.  Snedden,  Mr.  Mace,  and  an  anonymous  contrib- 


Superintendence]  COMMITTEE  ON  ECONOMY  OF  TIME  525 

utor.  The  effort  in  the  symposium  is  to  formulate  aims  or  objectives  for  the 
teaching  of  elementary  history  and  to  evaluate  current  aims  and  objectives. 
The  emphasis  is  upon  ''what  ought  to  be"  taught  from  the  point  of  view  of 
realizing  national  ideals.  In  the  summary  Dr.  Bagley  tersely  states  the 
conclusions  which  seem  justified  by  the  symposium. 

With  reference  to  the  progress  of  the  Committee  on  the  Problem  Organi- 
zation of  the  Course  of  Study,  Professor  William  H.  Kilpatrick,  of  Columbia 
University,  will  speak  a  few  minutes  later  on  this  program.  Likewise 
Professor  Ernest  Horn,  of  the  University  of  Iowa,  will  indicate  the  scope  and 
purposes  of  the  work  of  a  committee,  of  which  he  is  chairman,  having  in 
hand  the  formulation  of  a  report  on  "Economy  in  Learning." 

With  reference  to  further  proposals  of  a  year  ago  it  should  be  said  that 
Professor  Frank  E.  Thompson,  of  the  University  of  Colorado,  made  a  report 
of  progress  to  the  Committee  on  Economy  of  Time  and  Cooperating  Investi- 
gators at  their  meeting  in  Chicago  last  October,  but  he  has  not  yet  completed 
his  formulation  for  publication. 

With  reference  to  the  survey  by  Dean  H.  L.  Smith,  of  the  University  of 
Indiana,  of  the  efforts  to  save  time  in  the  schools  of  this  country  between 
the  sixth  grade  and  the  close  of  the  high  school,  I  wish  to  say  that  I  fully 
expected  it  would  be  possible  to  include  this  very  thoro  and  extended 
investigation  with  the  other  material  in  Part  I  of  the  Seventeenth  Yearbook. 
Unfortunately,  however,  the  study  could  not  be  completed  in  time  to  include 
it  with  the  other  copy.  Arrangements  are  now  pending  v/hereby  it  will 
probably  be  possible  to  issue  it  in  some  form  so  that  the  excellent  service  it 
should  render  may  be  had  immediately. 

Two  other  formulations  were  received  too  late  for  printing  in  Part  I  of 
the  Seventeenth  Yearbook.  One  is  entitled  "A  Critical  Summary  of  Courses 
in  Spelling,"  and  was  prepared  by  Assistant  Professor  Hugh  C.  Pryor,  of 
the  University  of  Colorado.  The  other  is  a  formulation  on  the  "Course  of 
Study  in  Agriculture  and  Nature  Work,"  prepared  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Myer,  of 
the  State  University  of  Iowa.  Both  of  these  studies  are  being  held  with 
the  thought  that  there  will  be  opportunity  at  an  early  date  to  provide  for 
their  pubhcation. 

From  the  addresses  to  be  made  later  by  Professor  Kilpatrick  and 
Professor  Horn  it  will  be  apparent  to  you  that  each  is  in  charge  of  a  piece 
of  work  which  within  the  next  year  will  result  in  a  publication  corresponding 
to  the  Yearbook  containing  the  present  report. 

The  various  meetings  of  the  Committee  and  considerable  correspondence 
have  brought  to  light  many  other  problems  of  great  significance  in  relation 
to  economy  and  efficiency  in  education.  Some  of  these  have  already  been 
assigned  for  study.  With  reference  to  others  negotiations  are  under  way. 
All  of  them  and  others  not  yet  definitely  defined  should  be  attempted  as 
quickly  as  persons  can  be  interested  who  will  attack  them  fundamentally 
and  scientificallv. 


526  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

Suggestions  from  members  of  the  department,  or  from  any  other  educa- 
tional source,  with  reference  to  problems  and  questions  the  Committee 
should  undertake  to  study  will  be  cordially  welcomed. 

H.  B.  Wilson,  Chairman 
F.  M.  Hunter 
F.  E.  Spaulding 
F.  E.  Thompson 

O.  I.  WOODLEY 


ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING  IN  RELATION  TO  ECONOMY  OF 

TIME 

ERNEST    HORN,    PROFESSOR    OF    EDUCATION,    STATE    UNIVERSITY    OF    IOWA, 

IOWA  CITY,  IOWA 

The  work  of  the  Committee  on  Economy  in  Learning  in  Relation  to 
Economy  of  Time  has  been  directed  toward  the  achievement  of  economy 
thru  a  better  selection  of  what  is  taught.  The  assumption  has  been  that 
as  far  as  the  practical  application  of  classroom  work  is  concerned  there  can 
be  no  economy  in  teaching  a  child  something  that  he  does  not  need  to  know, 
no  matter  how  skilfully  such  material  be  taught.  The  work  of  this  Com- 
mittee has  involved  two  things:  first,  the  thorogoing  acceptance  of  the 
point  of  view  of  social  utility  in  curriculum  making;  and  second,  the  sub- 
stitution of  scientific  method  for  mere  opinion  in  the  actual  selection  of  the 
content  of  the  course  of. study.  In  subjects  where  the  relation  to  life  is 
obvious  and  where  the  data  involved  are  relatively  simple  great  progress 
has  been  made.  Such  subjects  are  spelling,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  In 
other  subjects,  where  connection  in  life  outside  of  school  is  not  so  obvious 
and  where  the  data  involved  are  subtle  and  elusive,  progress,  while  gratify- 
ing, falls  far  short  of  a  completed  solution.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however, 
that  the  Yearbooks  in  which  these  studies  have  been  reported  have  had  a 
profound  influence  in  stimulating  superintendents  in  the  reconstruction  of 
their  course  of  study. 

After  one  has  solved  the  problem  of  economy  in  the  course  of  study  in  a 
given  subject,  however,  there  remains  the  further  problem  of  discovering 
the  most  economical  methods  of  teaching  it.  It  is  this  task  to  which  the 
Committee  of  Economy  has  been  assigned.  There  is  already  a  great  amount 
of  experimental  data  in  the  field  of  learning,  but  there  has  so  far  been  no 
clearing-house  for  these  data.  Much  of  the  material,  too  is  in  technical 
form,  so  that  it  must  be  workt  over  before  it  can  be  of  much  use  to  teachers. 
The  Committee  proposes  to  digest  this  material  and  to  formulate  from  it 
answers  to  practical  problems  which  arise  in  teaching  certain  prominent 
elementary-school  subjects.  The  problem  of  the  Committee  can  be  well 
illustrated  by  what  is  projected  for  economy  of  learning  in  spelling.     After 


Superintendence]       ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING  AND  ECONOMY  OF  TIME        527 

one  has  decided  precisely  what  words  should  be  taught  (apparently  there 
are  about  3500  of  them)  and  in  what  grades  these  subjects  should  be  taught, 
and  has  even  made  progress  in  the  development  of  a  scale  for  measuring 
efficiency  in  spelling,  there  is  still  left  the  problem  of  deciding  how  to  teach 
these  words  with  the  greatest  economy.  Many  factors  are  involved,  of 
which  I  shall  mention  but  a  few.  How  many  words  should  be  taught  per 
lesson  ?  Shall  we  teach  rules  in  spelling  ?  How  shall  drill  be  distributed  ? 
What  is  the  relative  emphasis  which  should  be  given  to  drill  on  recall  as 
compared  to  drill  on  impression?  How  shall  homonyms  be  taught? 
What  imagery  shall  be  used?  What  is  the  effect  of  calling  attention  to 
errors  in  spelling  ?  What  are  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  of  class  as 
compared  with  individual  instruction  ?  How  shall  extremely  poor  spellers 
be  dealt  with  ?  Should  syllabication  be  used  ?  Should  diacritical  marks  be 
used  in  spelling  ?  Should  words  related  in  spelling  difficulty  be  groupt  or 
kept  apart  ? 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  more  important  problems  which  must  be 
taken  into  account  in  developing  an  efficient  method  of  teaching  spelling. 
During  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years  there  has  been  a  very  great  amount  of 
investigation  of  these  and  similar  problems.  It  is  the  plan  of  this  Com- 
mittee to  gather  all  of  these  data,  digest  them  critically,  and  organize  them  in 
a  set  of  directions  for  teaching  this  subject.  The  investigations  which  sug- 
gest economy  in  learning  in  drawing,  music,  arithmetic,  beginning  algebra, 
reading,  and  writing  will  be  treated  in  a  similar  way.  The  Committee  has 
sent  an  inquiry  to  all  the  departments  of  education  in  this  country  asking 
for  publisht  and  unpublisht  studies  which  have  been  made  at  these  institu- 
tions. While  the  return  is  not  complete,  it  is  very  gratifying.  As  chair- 
man of  the  Committee,  I  wish  to  invite  anyone  who  is  interested  to  send 
in  original  studies  on  teaching  these  subjects.  If  any  worthy  study  is  not 
included  in  the  report  of  the  Committee,  it  will  be  due  to  the  fact  that  there 
has  been  a  failure  on  the  part  of  someone  to  cooperate. 

Responsibility  for  summarizing  these  studies  has  been  apportioned  as 
follows : 

Writing,  Professor  Freeman,  University  of  Chicago 

Arithmetic,  Professor  Courtis,  director,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research,  Detroit, 
Mich. 

Drawing,  Professor  Ayer,  University  of  Washington,  Seattle,  Wash. 
Music,  Professor  Seashore,  State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa 
Reading,  Professor  Gray,  University  of  Chicago 
Spelling,  Professor  Horn,  State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa 

The  Committee  realizes  the  stupendous  character  of  the  task  to  which 
it  has  been  assigned.  The  mere  labor  of  gathering  the  data  will  be  very 
great.  The  data  in  many  cases  are  not  conclusive.  The  Committee, 
however,  proposes  to  weigh  these  data  and  accept  even  partial  evidence  as 
better  than  nothing,  and  to  work  this  material  into  a  set  of  directions  so 


528  '  NA TIONAL  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

simple  that  they  can  be  followed  by  the  classroom  teacher.  In  other  words, 
each  member  of  the  Committee  proposes  to  come  to  bat  squarely  as  to  the 
solution  of  practical  problems  in  teaching  the  subject  to  which  he  has  been 
assigned.  Perhaps  no  more  than  a  tentative  formulation  can  be  expected 
in  the  report  of  this  Committee,  but  it  will  be  a  non-technical,  plain  state- 
ment of  directions.  It  is  hoped  that  this  formulation  will  be  immediately 
helpful.  It  certainly  should  do  much  to  encourage  interest  in  this  sort  of 
work. 

THE  PROBLEM-PROJECT  ATTACK  IN  ORGANIZATION, 
SUBJECT-MATTER,  AND  TEACHING 

WILLIAM  H.   KILPATRICK,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY,   NEW  YORK,  N.Y. 

The  Committee  on  Economy  of  Time  decided  to  bring  into  existence 
a  subordinate  committee  to  study  the  problem  of  so  modifying  school  prac- 
tice as  to  utilize  the  child  and  the  child's  resources  more  effectively  than 
had  been  done  in  our  customary  practice.  In  particular  this  subordinate 
committee,  for  which  I  now  speak,  was  charged  to  consider  the  proper  place 
in  school  procedure  of  the  act  characterized  by  definite  and  conscious 
purpose  on  the  part  of  the  child.  A  considerable  part  of  the  American 
teaching  body  had  already  become  familiar  with  the  use  of  the  problem  as  a 
unit  of  instruction  in  such  studies  as  geography,  and  practice  in  many 
localities  had  already  tended  to  justify  the  claims  made  in  advance  from 
theoretical  considerations  for  such  a  procedure.  The  Committee  took  this 
as  a  beginning  point,  and  sought  to  enlarge  the  conception  to  include  the 
wider  conception  of  the  purposeful  act  in  general  as  the  basis  for  its  study 
and  formal  report. 

A  number  of  considerations  support  the  choice  of  the  purposeful  act 
as  the  typical  unit  of  school  procedure.  In  the  first  place  the  purposeful  act 
is  the  typical  unit  of  the  worthy  life.  In  the  worthy  conduct  of  every  walk 
and  department  of  life  we  conceive  purposes,  we  weigh  them  in  the  light  of 
their  bearings,  and  we  approve  or  disapprove.  If  we  approve  and  will  these 
purposes,  we  proceed  to  plan  and  execute  them.  It  is  the  purpose  which 
gives  unity  and  character  to  what  we  do. 

If  then  the  purposeful  act  be  made  the  typical  unit  of  school  procedure 
we  are  at  one  and  the  same  time  giving  to  education  the  quality  of  life  and 
offering  therefore  the  best  preparation  for  after-school  life.  It  has  been 
increasingly  accepted  among  us  that  education  should  be  considered  as  life, 
but  our  practice  has  belied  our  words.  In  the  conception  here  advocated 
the  typical  unit  of  life  is  made  the  typical  unit  of  school,  the  two  are  thus 
made  identical.  Education,  then,  is  life.  One  difficulty  in  accepting 
practically  that  education  is  life  has  been  the  fear  that  we  should  not  also 
prepare  for  the  best  life  after  school.  If  the  suggestion  here  advocated  be 
adopted,  we  need  no  longer  entertain  this  fear;  the  child  who  has  learned  to 


Superintendence]  THE  PROBLEM-PROJECT  ATTACK  529 

purpose  rightly  and  to  execute  efficiently  the  purposes  so  made  is  the  child 
who  is  best  equipt  for  the  life  he  is  later  to  lead  in  a  democratic  society.  The 
purposeful  act  from  these  considerations  may  well  be  made  the  typical  unit 
of  the  school  procedure  which  we  seek. 

Still  more,  the  purposeful  act  exactly  utilizes  the  laws  of  learning.  The 
purpose,  acting  as  psychological  "set,"  makes  ready  the  appropriate 
responses,  defines  success,  and  accordingly  by  the  satisfaction  ensuing  fixes 
as  habit  in  the  nervous  organism  the  responses  that  brought  success.  In 
this  way  the  knowledge  and  skill  necessary  to  accompHsh  the  purpose  is 
rendered  available  as  impulse  and  is  fixt  as  habit.  Moreover,  being  directed 
by  conscious  purpose,  the  various  steps  are — in  proportion  to  the  child's 
development — intelligently  organized  to  the  end  in  view;  so  that  the 
learning  as  a  whole  is  pragmatically  organized  for  further  most  efficient 
action.  The  agent's  set  or  attitude  is  recognized  by  competent  psycholo- 
gists as  exactly  the  element  needed  to  push  the  action  thru  to  completion 
and  at  the  same  time  to  fix  the  responses  as  relatively  permanent  possessions 
of  the  individual's  character.  The  attitude  needed  for  both  these  ends  is 
exactly  provided  by  the  element  of  purpose  upon  which  we  are  here  insisting. 

But  I  can  almost  hear  some  of  you  protest  that  I  am  proposing  to  weaken 
the  moral  fiber  of  our  children,  that  child  purposing  means  following  the 
line  of  least  resistance.  If  time  allowed,  nothing  would  please  me  more  than 
to  enter  upon  the  argument,  in  spite  of  its  intricacies.  However,  I  recognize 
the  wide  difference  that  intervenes  between  the  worst  of  bad  purposes 
and  the  best  of  good  purposes,  and  have  no  notion  of  leaving  the  teacher 
impotent  before  childish  inclination.  Some  of  the  child's  purposes  are  good 
and  wholesome  and  educative,  others  just  the  reverse.  It  is  the  teacher's 
duty,  as  I  conceive  it,  on  the  one  hand  to  rule  out  the  bad  purposes — 
peaceably  if  he  can,  forcibly  if  he  must — and  on  the  other  to  start  those 
wholesome  purposes  which  we  altogether  approve.  But  I  am  not  content 
with  this  negative  defense.  I  dare  assert  that  no  other  type  of  school 
procedure  so  adequately  provides  the  conditions  for  good  character  growth 
as  does  procedure  based  on  purposeful  acts.  Our  ordinary  school,  so  far 
as  it  excludes  the  element  of  purpose  on  the  part  of  the  child,  exactly 
excludes  the  conditions  under  which  moral  character  is  best  developt.  It 
is  little  wonder  that  the  American  citizen  is  too  often  selfish  and  wrongly 
individualistic  in  his  attitude  and  conduct.  Our  schools  could  hardly  have 
been  arranged  more  effectively  to  produce  in  him  exactly  this  result.  To 
expect  a  child  to  gain  self-control  by  denying  to  him  the  opportunity  to 
exercise  responsibility  is  like  expecting  him  to  learn  to  swim  out  of  water. 
That  the  result  is  no  worse  is  probably  because  our  pupils  have  been  so  little 
affected  by  the  natural  tendencies  of  our  stupid  methods.  Nor  am  I 
speaking  merely  from  my  own  imagination.  Many  skilful  teachers  all  over 
this  country  are  able  to  testify  to  the  changed  moral  attitude  that  accom- 
panies the  wise  use  of  what  I  am  here  advocating.     Instead  of  being  a  weak 


530  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

point  in  the  program  we  propose,  the  moral-character  aspect  is  one  of  the 
strong  points.  The  purposeful  act  under  wise  guidance  amid  a  social 
environment  makes  for  the  building  of  exactly  that  strong  and  resourceful 
moral  character  which  democracy  so  much  needs. 

It  may  help  us  to  see  the  practical  workings  of  the  proposed  procedure 
if  the  various  types  of  possible  purposeful  acts  be  considered.  The  com- 
mittee distinguishes  four  types:  (i)  where  the  purpose  is  to  embody  in 
outward  form  some  projected  aim  or  end,  as  when  a  girl  purposes  to  make 
a  dress  or  to  write  a  letter,  or  a  group  of  children  purpose  to  present  a  play 
or  to  organize  a  debating  club;  (2)  where  the  purpose  is  to  enjoy  some 
(esthetic)  experience,  as  when  a  child  asks  for  a  story  or  purposes  to  read 
Robinson  Crusoe,  or  an  older  person  arranges  to  go  to  the  opera  or  to  see  a 
sunset;  (3)  where  the  purpose  is  to  straighten  out  some  intellectual  diffi- 
culty, to  solve  some  problem,  to  understand,  for  example,  how  an  electric 
bell  rings;  (4)  when  the  child  purposes  to  acquire  some  item  or  topic  of 
knowledge  or  skill,  or  to  attain  some  degree  of  proficiency  in  some  skill. 
In  a  measure  each  of  these  has  its  own  specific  procedure,  an  analysis  or 
scheme  of  its  typical  process. 

It  is  unnecessary  for  me  to  say  that  the  proposed  remaking  of  school 
procedure  on  the  basis  of  the  purposeful  act  involves  far-reaching  modifica- 
tion of  current  practice,  and  that  the  attendant  difficulties  are  indeed 
formidable.  It  is  of  course  true  that  the  better  kindergartens  and  graduate 
seminars  already  approximate  the  plan  here  proposed,  as  well  as  do  the 
fruitful  pre-school  period  of  childhood,  the  life-work  of  our  more  successful 
men,  and  the  general  out-of-school  life  of  young  people.  Probably  most 
of  my  hearers  would  admit  that  their  own  most  valued  achievements  fall 
also  in  line.  What  then  shall  we  do  ?  Shall  we  refuse  to  go  forward  because 
of  the  difficulties  that  confront  us  ?  The  Committee  has  no  mind  to  advo- 
cate any  hasty,  wholesale  abandonment  of  what  is  now  working.  On  the 
contrary,  it  feels  that  modifications  must  be  made  gradually.  The  very 
working  procedure  for  utilizing  the  purposeful  act  is  yet  in  large  measure 
to  be  devised,  altho  some  successful  beginnings  have  been  made.  It  is  here 
that  the  Committee's  work  enters. 

It  has  been  arranged  that  the  Committee,  in  connection  with  the 
National  Society  for  the  Scientific  Study  of  Education,  shall  publish  by  the 
next  meeting  of  this  body  a  yearbook  on  the  purposeful  act  and  its  practice. 
As  at  present  proposed,  the  yearbook  will  consist  of  three  parts:  (i)  A  small 
body  of  theory  stating  in  somewhat  greater  detail  the  ideas  I  have  tried  to 
sketch  above;  (2)  a  collection  of  actual  instances  of  schoolroom  activities 
which  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  illustrate  the  ideas  here  advocated;  and 
(3)  critical  comment  upon  the  reported  instances  so  as  to  disclose  wherein  the 
Committee  conceives  that  the  instances  do  and  do  not  illustrate  the  theories 
advocated.  It  is  hoped  in  this  way  to  get  before  the  American  public  for 
study  and  criticism  the  conception  of  the  purposeful  act  and  its  workings, 


Superintendence!         SCHOOL  PRACTICE  AND  ECONOMY  OF  TIME  53 1 

at  least  as  conceived  by  the  Committee.  The  enthusiasm  of  those  who 
have  tried  the  plan,  corroborating  as  it  does  the  theoretical  considerations 
involved,  leads  us  to  hope  that  the  purposeful  act  may  serve  to  utilize  more 
fully  than  has  our  practice  hitherto  the  almost  boundless  resources  of  the 
natures  committed  to  our  care. 


SCHOOL  PRACTICE  AS  AFFECTED  BY  TEE  REPORTS  OF  THE 
COMMITTEE  ON  ECONOMY  OF  TIME 

C.   N.   KENDALL,   COMMISSIONER   OF  EDUCATION,   TRENTON,   N.J. 

Why  is  economy  of  time  in  our  educational  processes  not  merely 
important,  but  of  growing  importance?  Why  should  our  efforts  in 
these  processes  be,  not  only  intelligent,  but  increasingly  so?  Here  are 
three  answers: 

1.  The  lessons  of  the  past  three  and  a  half  years  teach  us  that  democ- 
racy must  be  fit,  competent,  and  intelligent.  The  school  is  the  instrument 
to  bring  this  about. 

2.  The  responsibilities  of  education  have  increast  enormously  in  the 
past  generation.  If  anyone  does  not  believe  this  let  him  compare  the 
number  of  topics  on  the  program  of  this  meeting  with  the  topics  discust 
at  the  midwinter  meeting  in  1898  in  Chicago.  He  is  blind  to  the  signs  of 
the  times  who  does  not  see  this. 

3.  The  time  is  short  in  which  to  carry  out  this  greatly  enlarged  school 
program.  The  school  year  and  school  day  have  not  been  lengthened  in 
proportion  to  the  increast  activities  of  the  schools.  Children  are  actually 
in  school  not  more  than  one  hour  out  of  six  when  they  are  awake,  giving 
each  child  ten  hours  for  sleep.  These  facts  should  cause  us  all  to  welcome 
any  study  or  investigation  which  may  correct  our  practices. 

One  is  struck  in  reading  the  Yearbooks  with  the  modesty  of  their  claims. 
They  are,  not  final,  but  indicative.  To  them  an  ambitious  superintendent, 
or  principal,  or  teacher  may  resort  for  guidance.  The  number  of  such 
superintendents,  principals,  and  teachers  is  increasing. 

These  investigations  cover  a  wide  range.  They  point  the  way  to  the 
right  choice  of  material,  to  the  most  appropriate  age  when  children  should 
receive  certain  types  of  instruction,  to  right  methods  of  teaching,  to  plans 
for  measuring  the  efficiency  of  teachers,  and  to  the  relation  of  years  of 
experience  in  teaching  to  efficiency  in  teaching. 

The  Yearbooks  deal  chiefly  with  practical  questions.  Here  are  some  of 
them:  The  place  of  silent  reading.  Is  it  worth  while  to  practice  it  ?  If  so, 
when  and  how  much  ?  Or  shall  we  go  on  with  the  old  traditional  method 
of  universal  oral  reading?  This  question  of  silent  reading  has  received 
httle  attention  other  than  that  of  personal  opinion  or  guessing  about  it. 
What  means  may  be  employed  to  find  out  the  comparative  merits  of  the 
two  plans?    The  Yearbooks  attempt  to  give  us  an  answer  by  means  of 


532  NA  TIONA  L  EDUCA  TION  A SSOCIA  TION  (Atlantic  City 

investigation  and  testing.  The  facts  indicate  that  the  fourth,  fifth,  and 
sixth  grades  are  the  time  when  this  sort  of  teaching  should  be  strest.  Much 
depends,  of  course,  upon  method  and  material.  Here  then  is  a  contribu- 
tion to  the  solution  of  a  problem  which  is  found  in  practically  every  school- 
room in  America. 

One  way  of  teaching  penmanship  shows  as  good  results  in  fifty  minutes 
of  time  devoted  to  it  in  a  week'  as  another  in  a  hundred  minutes.  Why  ? 
Results  in  penmanship  in  Grade  V  in  one  system  are  shown  to  be  as  good 
as  results  in  Grade  VII  in  another  system.  The  same  amount  of  time, 
however,  is  used  in  each.  Why  this  difference  in  results  ?  Here  evidently 
is  waste — a  waste  which  may  be  eliminated  and  ought  to  be  eliminated  if 
economy  of  school  time  is  desirable. 

Investigations  of  the  words  to  be  taught  in  spelling  are  common  now 
thruout  the  country.  Progress  has  been  made  here.  We  need,  however,  to 
give  more  attention  to  methods  in  teaching  this  subject.  Testing  is  not 
teaching.    Thousands  of  teachers  have  not  learned  this  fact. 

The  Yearbooks  are  rich  in  suggestions  as  to  the  social  and  business 
needs  regarding  arithmetic.  As  in  spelling,  so  in  arithmetic  progress  has 
been  made  in  modernizing  the  nature  of  instruction. 

Yearbooks  have  helpt  in  improving  English  gramniar.  It  appears  that 
the  time  spent  on  infinitive  construction,  participial  phrases,  voice,  and 
mood,  is  largely  wasted  if  correct  usage  in  speaking  or  writing  is  our  aim. 

Here  then  are  contributions  made  by  these  Yearbooks  to  better  teach- 
ing in  five  of  the  so-called  fundamental  subjects  in  elementary  schools. 
These  subjects  consume  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  time  in  our  modern 
elementary  programs.  How  to  bring  about  economical  teaching  in  these 
fundamental  subjects  is  a  question  which  the  Yearbooks  attempt  to  answer 
but  they  do  not  pretend  to  answer  these  questions  in  full. 

All  these  investigations  may  be  carried  on  by  teachers  themselves  or  by 
their  aid.  They  promote  the  growth  of  teachers;  they  create  interest  where 
there  was,  perhaps,  little  interest  before;  they  cause  teachers  to  analyze 
their  own  work. 

A  body  of  teachers  is  fortunate  whose  superintendent  plans  for  teacher 
self-investigation.  The  effect  of  this  upon  schools  cannot  be  otherwise 
than  good.  Traditional  methods  of  teaching,  traditional  things  to  be 
taught — these  must  give  an  account  of  themselves  under  scrutiny. 

I  remember  well  the  interest  and  enthusiasm  of  a  group  of  teachers 
whom  I  happened  to  meet  by  chance  in  a  railway  station.  Some  of  these 
teachers  were  in  the  early  twenties.  A  new  superintendent  had  come  to 
the  town  who  had  begun  work  in  tests  and  measurements,  the  teachers 
cooperating.  The  enthusiasm  of  these  teachers  about  testing  their  own 
work  was  fine  to  see. 

An  observation  not  set  down  in  the  Yearbook  is  this:  The  more 
teachers  are  taught  to  measure  their  own  work  the  better;    the  more 


Superintendence!  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICITY  533 

they  can  take  part  in  these  tests  the  greater  their  personal  growth  and 
interest. 

One  other  observation.  There  is  a  danger  that  teachers— particularly- 
young  teachers — may  work  for  good  results  in  objective  measurements 
and  ignore  the  need  of  spiritual  results,  which  are  or  should  be  a  result  of 
all  teaching.     One  superintendent  voices  this  caution  in  the  Yearbooks. 

Perhaps  our  leading  psychologists  who  have  done  much  to  promote  a 
scientific  study  of  education,  and  some  of  whom  have  contributed  to  the 
Yearbooks,  may  in  the  future  evolve  methods  of  testing  these  large  values 
in  teaching. 

I  have  attempted  to  speak  of  only  a  few  of  the  large  number  of  sub- 
jects in  these  Yearbooks.  They  are  worth  while.  No  superintendent  of 
schools  who  becomes  familiar  with  their  contents  can  fail  to  be  more 
thoughtful  concerning  both  methods  of  teaching  and  school  administration. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICITY 

The  Committee  on  Publicity  was  created  at  the  last  meeting  of  this 
department  as  one  of  three  committees  to  carry  out  in  detail  the  recom- 
mendations of  a  report  which  dealt  with  certain  problems  of  school  admin- 
istration, especially  the  problem  of  the  relation  of  superintendents  and 
boards  of  education  to  one  another  and  to  the  communities  which  they 
serve.  Publicity  of  a  perfectly  definite  type,  therefore,  and  only  of  one 
type,  was  intrusted  to  this  Committee.  It  was  our  duty  under  the  action 
of  this  department  to  work  out  a  plan  designed  to  bring  together  and  dis- 
tribute information  on  the  administration  of  public  schools  with  special 
regard  to  the  performances  of  superintendents  and  boards  of  education. 

Your  Committee  set  up  a  plan  and  has  given  it  some  trial  during  the 
past  year.  It  now  begs  leave  to  report  the  plan,  to  ask  for  its  approval, 
and  to  recommend  that  provision  be  made  for  the  vigorous  prosecution  of 
the  activities  which  it  has  initiated. 

The  plan  provides  a  method,  first,  of  collecting  material  which  is  legiti- 
mate news  matter,  and  second,  of  distributing  this  material. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  collection  and  distribution  of  news  material, 
the  Committee  divided  the  United  States  into  ten  districts,  each  centering 
roughly  around  the  residence  of  one  of  the  members  of  the  Committee. 
Each  member  of  the  Committee  then  entered  into  correspondence  with 
superintendents  in  his  or  her  district.  This  correspondence  was  in  the  form 
of  letters,  all  of  which  included  the  following  general  introduction: 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  in  Kansas  City  provision  was 
made  for  a  Committee  on  Publicity.  It  is  the  duty  of  this  Committee  to  take  whatever 
steps  are  possible  to  bring  to  the  attention  of  communities  the  best  types  of  organization 
which  can  be  found  in  American  schools. 

The  Committee  is  making  an  effort  to  collect,  with  the  cooperation  of  school  superin- 
tendents and  others,  rules  adopted  by  boards  of  education,  school  charters,  and  state 


534  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

school  laws  which  deserve  general  recognition  as  examples  to  be  followed.  The  Committee 
also  aims  to  find  out  about  school  budget  systems  that  are  in  operation,  and  any  other 
forms  of  school  administration  that  ought  to  be  imitated.  When  material  of  this  sort 
comes  to  hand  the  Committee  will  see  that  it  is  put  into  the  form  of  news  items  and  dis- 
tributed. 

It  is  hoped  that  in  this  way  wide  publicity  may  be  secured  for  matters  of  school 
administration.  To  this  end  the  cooperation  of  the  leading  newspapers  of  the  country  is 
sought.  Very  frequently  a  superintendent  can  secure  the  cooperation  of  local  news- 
papers in  printing  news  items  of  the  type  described  above.  Sometimes  the  best  form  of 
cooperation  with  the  Committee  will  be  a  statement  of  the  need  for  publicity  of  this  type 
in  a  given  community,  even  where  there  is  no  possibility  of  a  preliminary  arrangement 
with  the  local  paper  for  the  publication  of  such  news  items.  The  Committee  will  send 
items  in  such  cases  and  aim  to  secure  their  publication. 

A  considerable  body  of  material  of  the  type  askt  for  in  this  general  state- 
ment has  been  collected.  The  distribution  of  the  material  to  newspapers 
and  educational  journals  has  been  started. 

The  Committee  has  conferred  with  officers  of  the  Bureau  of  Education 
of  the  United  States  and  finds  that  it  is  possible  to  set  up  very  advantageous 
relations  with  the  Bureau,  which  is  engaged  in  the  collection  of  similar 
material  and  has  facilities  for  the  distribution  of  this  material.  At  the 
present  meeting  the  Committee  has  had  an  opportunity  to  hold  a  formal 
conference  with  a  representative  of  the  Bureau,  and  plans  for  this  type  of 
cooperation  were  consummated. 

The  Committee  believes  that  the  fuller  development  of  its  plan  requires 
a  somewhat  larger  working  force  than  is  now  included  in  the  Committee. 
An  enlargement  of  the  membership  of  the  Committee  with  due  regard  to 
geographical  distribution  is  therefore  reported  as  desirable. 

The  Committee  begs  leave  to  submit  the  following  recommendations: 

1.  That  the  general  plan  which  is  herein  reported  be  carried  forward 
during  the  coming  year  by  this  Committee  or  by  a  similar  committee 
appointed  to  succeed  this  Committee. 

2.  That  the  Committee  be  authorized  to  increase  its  membership  to  such 
a  number  as  may  be  found  desirable  in  carrying  on  its  work. 

3.  That  the  officers  of  the  department  be  directed  to  request  of  the 
trustees  of  the  National  Education  Association  a  fund  to  be  used  for  postage, 
stationery,  and  such  clerical  service  as  may  be  necessary  in  collecting  and 
distributing  news  material  of  the  type  described. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted : 

Charles  H.  Judd,  Chairman 
I.  I.  Cammack 
Edith  K.  O.  Clark 

A.  E.  WiNSHIP 

E.  C.  Hartwell 
M.  C.  Potter 
J.  H.  Francis 
J.  H.  Phillips 
O.  M.  Plummer 
Charles  C.  Hughes 


Superintendence]       REPORT  ON  ADMINISTRATIVE  LEGISLATION  535 

REPORT  OF  COMMISSION  ON  ADMINISTRATIVE  LEGISLATION 

A  resolution  adopted  last  year  at  Kansas  City  recommended  that 
''a  commission  of  ten  be  created,  to  be  known  as  the  Commission  on 
Administrative  Legislation,  to  work  out  details  in  the  form  of  rules  suitable 
for  adoption  by  boards  of  education,  and  model  laws  to  be  recommended  to 
legislatures,  and  to  present  these  to  this  department  for  action  at  the  next 
annual  meeting."  In  the  performance  of  this  duty  the  Commission  on 
Administrative  Legislation  was  instructed  to  give  special  attention  to  board 
rules  and  laws  now  in  operation,  and  to  support  its  recommendations  by 
direct  reference  to  such  rules  or  by-laws.  In  compliance  with  these  instruc- 
tions the  following  tentative  report  is  submitted  for  your  consideration. 
The  adoption  of  the  resolution  recommending  the  creation  of  this  Com- 
mission resulted  from  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Relation  between 
Boards  of  Education  and  Superintendents,  which  submitted  to  the  depart- 
ment at  its  Kansas  City  meeting  a  report  including  certain  general  principles 
which  should  be  followed  in  the  organization  and  determination  of  the 
powers  of  boards  of  education,  and  which  should  govern  the  relation  between 
boards  of  education  and  superintendents.  The  following  statements  briefly 
summarize  these  principles,  which  were  adopted  by  the  Department  of 
Superintendence  and  which  governed  this  Commission  in  its  preparation 
of  this  report: 

1.  A  board  of  education  should  represent  the  school  district  as  a  whole  and  not  by 
districts  or  wards. 

2.  The  board  of  education  should  not  be  a  subordinate  body  to  any  other  branch  of 
local  government,  but  should  have  complete  autonomy, 

3.  Definite  and  large  responsibilities  should  be  placed  upon  the  executive  head  of  the 
schools — the  superintendent — if  possible  by  the  general  law  under  which  the  board  of 
education  is  organized,  and  where  such  definite  power  is  not  secured  by  the  law  itself 
such  powers  should  be  specifically  delegated  to  the  superintendent  by  the  by-laws  adopted 
by  the  board  of  education  for  the  organization  and  conduct  of  the  school  system.  Such 
laws  or  by-laws  ought  to  provide  for  the  superintendent  the  right  of  initiative  in  such 
matters  as  the  nomination  and  discharge  of  subordinates,  the  courses  of  study  and  the 
selection  of  textbooks,  and  a  determining  voice  in  matters  of  building  and  equipment  and 
in  the  preparation  of  the  budget  to  be  submitted  to  the  board  of  education  for  its 
consideration. 

In  the  consideration  of  the  question  as  to  the  material  to  be  presented 
to  the  department  in  this  report,  it  was  determined  to  follow,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  exact  suggestions  of  the  resolution  estabhshing  the  Commission, 
and  to  submit  to  the  department  certain  by-laws  which  seem  to  carry  out 
to  a  very  great  extent  the  principles  already  approved  by  the  department. 
The  members  of  the  Commission  were  asked  to  study  the  rules  and  by-laws 
of  boards  of  education  with  which  they  were  familiar,  and  to  endeavor  to 
determine  whether  fundamental  by-laws  needed  to  differ  materially  in 
their  form  and  content  when  designed  for  large  city  school  districts  or  for 


536  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

small  units.  Some  study  of  these  principles  and  a  study  of  certain  typical 
by-laws  seem  to  indicate  that  there  is  no  occasion  for  any  such  distinction. 

It  is  true  that  in  many  of  the  larger  school  districts  it  is  necessary  that 
a  department  of  business  be  estabUsht  with  administrative  officers  and  the 
other  paraphernalia  of  a  business  organization,  but  the  fundamental 
principles  governing  this  organization  are  the  same  even  when  the  amount 
of  this  special  business  is  not  so  great  as  to  prevent  the  superintendent  him- 
self from  directly  administering  it.  In  both  small  towns  and  large  cities 
the  relation  of  the  board  of  education  to  the  superintendent  should  be  the 
same.  The  same  general  powers  and  the  same  privilege  of  initiative  should 
exist  in  both  cases. 

Nor  need  there  be  any  special  difference  in  the  organization  of  the  board 
of  education  itseK.  The  abolition  of  permanent  committees  and  sub- 
committees of  the  board  of  education  is  equally  desirable  in  large  school 
units  and  in  small  school  systems.  Nor  is  there  any  occasion  for  changed 
methods  in  the  technical  operations  of  the  board  of  education  and  its 
business  department. 

The  following  by-laws  and  rules  of  certain  typical  cities  are  submitted 
as  embodying  the  approved  principles  of  organization.  It  is  easy  to  see 
that  a  large  school  system  needs  to  have  provision  in  its  by-laws  for  the 
appointment  of  assistant  superintendents,  various  supervisors,  business 
manager,  or  assistant  superintendents  in  charge  of  the  business,  subordinate 
in  either  case  to  the  superintendent,  special  officials,  such  as  chief  engineer, 
supervising  architects,  etc.,  which  might  not  be  necessary  at  all  in  the 
by-laws  of  a  small  system.  With  these  necessary  modifications  and  other 
modifications  in  phraseology  which  may  be  necessary  to  comply  technically 
with  general  or  special  school  laws  governing  the  organization  of  boards  of 
education  in  various  communities,  it  is  believed  that  these  typical  by-laws 
and  rules  may  be  safely  used  as  models  for  school  systems  whose  rules  need 
revision.  It  should  be  understood  that  this  Commission  is  not  submitting 
the  entire  rules  or  by-laws  of  these  boards  of  education,  but  only  such 
articles  as  have  direct  bearing  upon  the  question  of  organization.  Your 
Commission  feels  that  a  study  of  these  by-laws  indicates  that  widely  dif- 
ferent communities  are  at  the  present  time  operating  under  rules  essentially 
the  same,  and  is  therefore  encouraged  in  its  belief  that  there  need  be  little 
fundamental  difference  in  such  by-laws,  and  that,  in  many  cases,  cities  now 
operating  under  the  cumbersome  plan  of  highly  organized  committee 
government  with  the  necessarily  sharp  limitation  of  the  powers  and  initia- 
tive of  the  superintendent  may  be  placed  under  a  simpler  and  more  direct 
administration.  The  fact  that  this  tendency  toward  simplification  is  in 
such  absolute  harmony  with  general  tendencies  in  governmental  procedure 
encourages  us  in  our  belief  that  in  the  immediate  future  many  cites  may 
improve  their  school  organization  thru  a  study  of  the  principles  herewith 
enumerated  and  the  particular  rules  herewith  submitted. 


Superintendence!        REPORT  ON  ADMINISTRATIVE  LEGISLATION  537 

MINNEAPOLIS,  MINNESOTA 

BY-LAWS  OF  THE  BOARD 

I.    ORGANIZATION 

1.  The  meeting  of  the  board  for  organization  shall  be  held  on  the  first  Monday  after 
January  i  of  each  year  succeeding  the  biennial  election  of  directors.  It  shall  be  called  to 
order  by  the  secretary,  or  in  his  absence  by  a  senior  member  of  the  board,  and  a  president 
and  secretary  pro  tempore  shall  be  chosen.  The  board  shall  then  elect  a  president  and  a 
secretary  for  the  ensuing  two  years. 

2.  The  regular  meetings  of  the  board  shall  be  held  at  its  ofl&ce  on  the  second  and  last 
Tuesday  of  each  month  at  2 :  00  p.m. 

3.  The  order  of  business  shall  be  as  follows: 

a)  Calling  to  order 

h)  Approval  of  minutes 

c)  Report  of  superintendent 

d)  Report  of  business  superintendent 

e)  Report  of  committees 

/)   Petitions  and  communications 

g)  Unfinished  business 

h)  New  business 

i)   Claims  and  accounts 

4.  Roberts'  Rules  of  Order  shall  be  the  authority  unless  otherwise  provided. 

5.  The  president  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  board,  appoint  all  committees 
not  otherwise  ordered,  and  perform  such  duties  as  are  provided  by  law.  In  the  absence 
of  the  president  from  any  meeting,  a  president  pro  tempore  shall  be  elected. 

6.  The  secretary  shall  audit  all  claims,  approve  all  bills,  and  perform  such  duties 
'as  are  provided  by  law. 

7.  At  the  first  regular  meeting  in  February,  or  at  any  regular  meeting  when  there  is  a 
vacancy  in  the  superintendency,  the  board  shall  elect  a  superintendent  of  schools  for  a 
three-year  term,  which  shall  begin  on  August  first,  following  the  election,  or  on  such  other 
date  as  may  be  determined  by  the  board. 

8.  The  board  shall  employ  an  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs 
and  an  assistant  secretary,  who  shall  be  secretary  to  the  superintendent,  in  accordance 
with  the  rules  of  the  civil  service  commission,  all  of  whom  shall  be  and  act  under  the  general 
direction  of  the  superintendent. 

9.  Special  committees  of  the  board,  appointed  by  the  president  unless  otherwise 
ordered,  shall  investigate  and  act  for  the  board  in  such  ministerial  matters  as  may  be 
assigned  to  them  by  the  board  and  in  other  matters,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  board. 
Such  committees  shall  report  to  the  board  in  writing  in  such  manner  and  at  such  times  as 
called  upon  by  the  board. 

10.  Any  by-law  of  the  board  may  be  enacted,  amended,  repealed,  or  suspended  only 
at  a  regular  meeting  of  the  board  and  by  unanimous  vote  of  the  full  board  membership, 
except  that  where  notice  of  such  proposed  action  shall  have  been  given  in  writing  at  the 
regular  meeting  last  preceding,  such  enactment,  amendment,  repeal  or  suspension  may  be 
made  by  the  affirmative  vote  of  five  (5)  members  of  the  board. 

II.     SUPERINTENDENT 

The  superintendent  is  the  executive  officer  of  the  board  for  the  management  of  the 
schools. 

He  shall: 

I.  Attend  the  regular  and  special  meetings  of  the  board,  and  shall  cooperate  and 
advise  with  all  committees  of  the  board. 


538  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

2.  Prepare  and  submit  to  the  board  by-laws,  rules,  and  regulations  for  the  proper 
conduct  and  guidance  of  the  board  and  the  management  of  the  schools. 

3.  Arrange  and  change  the  boundaries  of  the  school  districts,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  board. 

4.  Investigate  the  need  of,  and  recommend  to  the  board,  provision  for  school  facilities 
in  the  various  districts. 

5.  When  called  upon,  give  written  opinions  to  the  board  or  its  committees  of  all 
matters  to  be  acted  upon,  and  make  written  monthly  reports  of  the  general  condition  of 
the  schools,  with  such  recommendations  for  their  improvement  as  require  action  of  the 
board;  at  the  second  regular  meeting  in  July  he  shall  submit  an  annual  report. 

6.  Recommend  to  the  board  from  time  to  time  administrative  ofl&cers,  principals 
supervisors,  and  teachers,  and,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission 
where  applicable,  physicians,  nurses,  stenographers,  clerks,  and  other  employes  as  there 
is  need  for  employment  during  the  year;  and  on  or  before  the  last  board  meeting  in  March 
each  year  recommend  principals  for  reappointment,  and  on  or  before  the  last  board 
meeting  in  April  of  each  year  recommend  teachers  for  reappointment,  with  salaries  in 
accordance  with  the  salary  schedules. 

7.  When  called  upon  by  the  board,  cause  to  meet  in  conference  with  the  board  any 
person  whom  he  may  wish  to  recommend  for  appointment;  and  submit  for  approval  of  the 
board  proposed  transfers  from  one  type  of  position  to  another. 

8.  Recommend  to  tlie  board  for  approval  courses  of  study  and  important  changes  in 
courses  of  study  and  all  textbooks  to  be  used  in  the  schools. 

9.  Prepare  in  conference  with  the  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business 
affairs  an  annual  budget,  showing  by  departments  appropriations  necessary  to  meet  the 
estimated  needs  of  the  ensuing  school  year,  and  submit  the  same  to  the  board  for  approval 
on  or  before  the  first  regular  meeting  in  May  each  year. 

10.  Immediately  after  the  school  tax  has  been  allowed  by  the  tax  levy  board  and  the 
same  has  been  levied  by  the  board,  prepare  and  submit  a  detailed  budget  of  estimated 
expenditures  for  each  department  of  the  school  system  during  the  then  current  fiscal  year. 

11.  Within  the  Hmits  of  the  detailed  budget  of  estimated  expenditures  for  the  year, 
duly  approved  by  the  board,  have  power  to  approve  and  direct  all  purchases  and  expendi- 
tures, making  to  the  board  at  any  time  such  report  of  expenditures,  in  addition  to  the 
monthly  report  of  the  auditor,  as  the  board  may  request. 

12.  Recommend  to  the  board  transfers  from  one  budget  to  another  as  conditions  may 
require. 

13.  In  the  interest  of  efficient  administration  have  power  to  decide  all  matters  of 
detail  purely  ministerial  and  administrative  in  character  that  may  arise  concerning  which 
no  specific  provision  is  made  in  these  by-laws,  rules,  and  regulations.  All  decisions  of  the 
superintendent  as  herein  authorized,  must  be  reported  by  him  to  the  board  not  later  than 
the  first  regular  meeting  of  the  board  following  such  decisions. 

III.    THE  ASSISTANT  SUPERINTENDENT  IN  CHARGE 
OF  BUSINESS  AFFAIRS 

The  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs  is  responsible  for  the 
construction,  operation,  and  maintenance  of  buildings  and  equipment,  maintenance  of 
grounds,  accounting  and  auditing,  purchase,  storage  and  distribution  of  stores,  insuring 
school  property,  supervision  of  all  building  by  contract,  safe-keeping  of  documents  and 
records,  and  shall: 

1.  Give  bond  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties. 

2.  When  required,  attend  meetings  of  the  board  and  advise  and  cooperate  with  the 
board's  committees. 

3.  Represent  the  board  under  its  direction  in  negotiations  relating  to  the  construction, 
repair,  and  maintenance  of  school  property. 


Supcrintcndencel         REPORT  ON  ADMINISTRATIVE  LEGISLATION  539 

4.  Purchase,  receipt  for,  store,  and  distribute  books,  supplies,  and  materials  as  author- 
ized by  the  board  and  as  directed  by  the  superintendent. 

5.  Recommend  to  the  board  thru  the  superintendent  from  time  to  time  such  assist- 
ants, stenographers,  clerks,  engineers,  janitors,  foremen,  and  mechanics  as  shall  be  needed 
for  continuous  employment  in  the  business  department;  and  have  authority,  with  the 
approval  of  the  superintendent,  to  employ  for  brief  periods  such  workmen  as  are  necessary 
for  the  execution  of  the  work  of  this  department,  and  to  discharge  the  same,  provided  that 
all  employment  herein  specified  shall  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  Civil 
Service  Commission. 

6.  Make  to  the  board  thru  the  superintendent  written  monthly  report  of  the  general 
condition  of  the  buildings  and  other  property  of  the  board  as  to  repairs,  construction,  and 
improvement,  including  such  requests  of  principals  as  require  action  of  the  board,  with 
recommendations  thereon. 

7.  Supervise  all  matters  of  repair  and  have  general  charge  of  all  buildings  belonging 
to  the  board. 

8.  Make  and  keep  accurate  and  reliable  real-  and  personal-property  records  which  shall 
give  the  cost,  time  of  purchase  or  acquisition,  present  value,  and  the  location  of  the  property. 

9.  Cause  the  property  of  the  board  to  be  insured  in  such  amounts  as  the  board  may 
from  time  to  time  direct,  and  keep  a  record  of  insurance  placed  on  school  property. 

10.  Examine  contracts  and  other  papers  in  which  the  board  is  a  party. 

1 1 .  Receive  tuition  fees,  money  from  the  sale  of  books  or  other  school  property,  the 
use  of  buildings  or  other  sources,  except  such  as  are  paid  to  the  city  treasurer  according  to 
law,  and  deposit  all  moneys  collected  by  him  with  the  city  treasurer. 

12.  Audit  all  claims,  approve  all  bills,  and  submit  the  same  to  the  secretary  of  the 
board  for  his  audit  and  approval. 

13.  Audit  and  control  all  cash  collections  received  by  agents  of  the  board  and  deter- 
mine the  kind  and  form  of  reports  to  be  required  of  such  collecting  agents. 

14.  Keep  the  revenue  and  expense,  asset  and  liability  accounts,  bugdet-allotment 
ledger,  registers  of  purchase  orders,  vouchers  and  warrants,  expenditure  distribution 
record  by  schools,  civil  service  and  pay-roll  rosters,  registers  of  leases,  rents,  personal 
bonds,  and  building  construction  contracts. 

15.  Draw  all  warrants  in  payment  of  claims  against  the  board. 

16.  Submit  to  the  board  a  monthly  report  of  receipts,  disbursements,  and  budget 
balances  at  the  first  meeting  each  month,  and  an  annual  report  at  the  second  regular 
meeting  in  July  each  year. 

17.  Act  as  custodian  of  all  contracts,  securities,  documents,  title  papers,  books  of 
record,  and  other  papers  belonging  to  the  board, 

18.  Perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  assigned  by  the  board  or  the  superintendent. 

IV.    THE  ASSISTANT  SECRETARY  OF  THE  BOARD  AND 
SECRETARY  TO  THE  SUPERINTENDENT 

The  assistant  secretary  of  the  board,  who  shall  be  the  secretary  to  the  superintendent, 
shall: 

1.  Have  immediate  charge  of  stenographers,  clerks,  and  other  employes  in  the 
educational  department  of  the  administrative  offices. 

2.  Keep  the  minutes  of  the  meetings  of  the  board  and  a  calendar  of  all  matters  referred 
to  committees  and  others,  and  report  action  or  non-action  on  the  same  at  each  regular 
meeting.  , 

3.  Within  three  days  after  the  meeting  send  a  copy  of  the  minutes  of  every  meeting 
to  every  member  of  the  board. 

4.  Forty-eight  hours  before  each  regular  meeting  send  to  every  member  of  the  board 
and  to  the  superintendent  written  notice  of  the  meeting,  with  calendar  of  all  matters  to 


540  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

be  brought  before  the  meeting  so  far  as  these  are  known  at  the  time  of  sending  the 
notice. 

5.  Receive  and  reply  to  all  communications  to  the  board  according  to  directions  of 
the  board. 

6.  Perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  directed  by  the  board,  the  secretary  of  the 
board,  or  the  superintendent. 

RULES  FOR  THE  USE  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  IN  THE 

GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  CITY  SCHOOLS,  HURON, 

SOUTH  DAKOTA 

1.  The  meeting  of  the  board  of  education  for  organization  will  be  held  the  last  Friday 
of  May  of  each  year.  It  shall  be  called  to  order  by  the  clerk.  The  board  shall  then  elect 
a  president,  a  vice-president,  and  a  clerk  for  the  ensuing  year. 

2.  The  regular  meetings  of  the  board  shall  be  held  at  the  office  of  the  superintendent 
on  the  last  Friday  of  each  month. 

3.  The  order  of  business  shall  be  as  follows: 

a)  Reading  and  approval  of  minutes 
h)  Claims  and  accounts 

c)  Communications 

d)  Reports  and  recommendations  of  the  superintendent 

e)  Unfinisht  business 
/)   New  business 

g)  Reports  of  special  committees 

4.  Robert's  Rules  of  Order  shall  be  used  in  conducting  the  business  of  the  board. 

5.  The  president  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  board,  appoint  all  special  com- 
mittees not  otherwise  ordered,  and  perform  such  other  duties  as  are  provided  by  law. 
In  the  absence  of  the  president  from  any  meeting,  the  vice-president  shall  preside. 

6.  Special  committees  of  the  board,  appointed  by  the  president,  unless  otherwise 
ordered,  shall  investigate  and  act  for  the  board  in  such  ministerial  matters  as  may  be 
assigned;  but  no  standing  committees  shall  be  appointed.  If  so  ordered,  such  special 
committees  shall  report  to  the  board  in  writing  in  such  manner  and  at  such  times  as  ordered 
by  the  board. 

7.  At  the  regular  meeting  in  January,  or  at  any  regular  meeting  when  there  is  a 
vacancy  in  the  superintendency,  the  board  shall  elect  a  superintendent  of  schools  for  a 
three-year  term,  which  shall  begin  on  August  first,  following  the  election,  or  on  such  other 
date  as  may  be  determined  by  the  board. 

8.  At  any  regular  meeting  of  the  board  any  rule  or  regulation  governing  the  schools 
may  be  enacted,  amended,  or  repealed  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  full  board  membership, 
provided  that  notice  of  such  action  shall  have  been  given  at  the  last  regular  meeting 
preceding. 

9.  The  superintendent  is  the  executive  officer  of  the  board  of  education  for  the  man- 
agement of  the  schools. 

10.  He  shall  attend  the  regular  and  special  meetings  of  the  board  and  shall  be  a 
member  of,  and  advise  with,  all  special  committees  of  the  board. 

11.  He  shall  prepare  and  submit  to  the  board  rules  and  regulations  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  schools. 

12.  He  shall  investigate  the  need  of,  and  recommend  to  the  board,  provision  for 
school  facilities  in  the  school  system.  , 

13.  He  shall,  when  called  upon,  give  written  opinions  to  the  board  or  its  special 
committees  of  all  matters  to  be  acted  upon,  and  make  written  reports  of  the  general 
condition  of  the  schools,  with  such  recommendations  for  their  improvement  as  require 
action  of  the  board.    At  the  regular  meeting  in  July  he  shall  submit  an  annual  report. 


Superintendencej         REPORT  ON  ADMINISTRATIVE  LEGISLATION  541 

14.  He  shall  recommend  to  the  board,  from  time  to  time,  principals,  supervisors, 
and  teachers,  and  the  other  employes  of  the  school  system  as  there  is  need  for  such  employ- 
ment during  the  year,  and  the  board  shall  elect  no  school  employe  not  recommended  by 
the  superintendent.  On  or  before  the  last  Friday  of  March  each  year  the  superintendent 
shall  submit  the  names  of  persons  recommended  to  be  appointed  or  reappointed  for  the 
ensuing  year. 

15.  He  shall  recommend  to  the  board  for  approval  important  changes  in  courses  of 
study  and  textbooks  to  be  used  by  the  schools. 

16.  He  shall  have  power  to  suspend  any  pupil  from  the  schools  whenever  in  his 
judgment  the  best  interests  of  the  school  demand  such  action,  such  suspension  to  be 
reported  to  the  board  at  its  next  regular  meeting. 

17.  He  shall  prepare  an  annual  budget  showing  by  departments  appropriations 
necessary  to  meet  the  estimated  needs  of  the  ensuing  school  year,  and  submit  the  same  to 
the  board  for  approval  on  or  before  the  regular  meeting  in  June  each  year. 

18.  He  shall  within  the  limits  of  the  detailed  annual  budget  for  the  year,  duly 
approved  by  the  board,  have  power  to  direct  expenditures  and  purchases,  the  board 
auditing  all  bills  and  accounts  at  each  regular  meeting,  and  at  the  close  of  each  semester 
in  January  and  June  checking  all  expenditures  in  terms  of  the  annual  budget. 

19.  He  shall  recommend  to  the  board  transfers  from  one  budget  item  to  another  as 
conditions  may  require, 

20.  In  the  interest  of  efficient  administration  he  shall  have  power  to  decide  all  matters 
of  detail  purely  ministerial  and  administrative  in  character  that  may  arise,  concerning 
which  no  specific  provision  is  made  in  these  rules  and  regulations.  All  important  decisions 
of  the  superintendent  as  herein  authorized  must  be  reported  by  him  to  the  board  not  later 
than  the  first  regular  meeting  of  the  board  following  such  decisions. 

BY-LAWS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  OF  THE 
CITY  OF  DETROIT 

I.    ORGANIZATION 

1.  The  annual  meeting  of  the  board  shall  be  held  at  twelve  noon  on  the  first  day  of 
July  of  each  year,  except  when  said  day  shall  be  Sunday,  in  which  case  it  shall  be  held  on 
the  day  following.  At  this  meeting  a  president  and  president  pro  tern  shall  be  elected  for 
the  ensuing  year  and,  unless  their  term  of  office  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  the  year,  until 
their  successors  are  elected  and  have  qualified.  This  meeting  shall  be  otherwise  a  regular 
meeting  of  the  board. 

2.  The  officers  of  the  board  shall  be  a  president  and  a  president  pro  tern.  The 
election  of  these  officers  shall  be  by  a  viva  voce  vote  in  each  case.  The  majority  of  the 
members  of  the  board  present  shall  be  necessary  in  such  case  to  elect. 

3.  The  president  shall  have  the  usual  powers  and  he  shall  be  charged  with  the  ordinary 
duties  pertaining  to  that  office.  He  shall  appoint  all  special  committees,  unless  otherwise 
ordered,  and  call  meetings  of  the  board  when  he  shall  deem  it  necessary. 

4.  The  president  pro  tern  shall  have  the  powers  and  perform  the  duties  of  the 
president  in  case  of  the  absence  from  the  city,  sickness,  disability,  or  death  of  that 
officer. 

5.  Regular  meetings  of  the  boar^  shall  be  held  on  the  second  and  fourth  Thursdays 
of  each  month,  at  8:00  o'clock  p.m.,  excepting  that  the  first  regular  meeting  of  July  in 
each  year  shall  be  held  on  the  day  prescribed  by  Rule  i. 

6.  Special  meetings  may  be  called  by  the  president,  or  by  not  less  than  three  members, 
but  no  business  shall  be  transacted  except  that  for  which  the  meeting  was  called,  and  which 
shall  be  stated  in  the  call.  Notice  shall  be  sent  by  mail  or  messenger  at  least  twenty-four 
hours  before  the  hour  of  meeting. 


542  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

7.  On  or  before  the  first  day  of  May  in  each  year  the  board  shall  appoint  suitable 
persons  to  take  the  school  census  as  prescribed  by  law,  at  a  compensation  to  be  fixt  by 
the  board,  and  approve  the  bills,  if  correct,  for  doing  this  work. 

8.  The  board  shall  appoint  the  following  officers:  superintendent  of  schools,  business 
manager,  secretary,  architect  (when  needed),  engineer  (when  needed),  and  such  other 
o£&cers  as  may  be  required  from  time  to  time. 

9.  Order  of  business: 

First — Reading  of  minutes  of  the  last  meeting  or  meetings 
Second — Communications  from  the  superintendent 
Third — Reports  of  special  committees 
Fourth — Unfinisht  business 
Fifth — New  business 

10.  The  rules  of  parliamentary  practice  comprised  in  Roberts'  Rules  of  Order  shall 
govern  the  board  in  all  cases  not  otherwise  herein  provided. 

II.    SUPERINTENDENT 

The  superintendent  of  schools  shall  be  the  executive  officer  of  the  board  of  education, 
and  under  its  direction  he  shall  attend  all  meetings  of  the  board  and  be  granted  the 
privilege  of  taking  part  in  its  deliberations. 

1.  He  shall  establish  and  change  the  boundaries  of  school  districts. 

2.  He  alone  shall  be  directly  responsible  to  the  board  of  education  for  the  efficient 
operation  of  all  school  functions  of  the  board  of  education. 

3.  He  shall  have  sole  power  to  nominate  and  to  assign,  transfer,  promote,  and  demote 
or  suspend  all  assistant  superintendents,  supervisors,  principals,  teachers,  and  other 
employes  of  the  board  of  education  as  hereinafter  provided.  All  nominations,  promotions, 
demotions,  suspensions,  assignments,  and  transfers  of  employes  of  the  board  of  education 
which  shall  be  made  by  the  superintendent  shall  be  reported  in  writing  to  the  board  at 
its  next  regular  meeting  and  shall  stand  confirmed  unless  disapproved  by  the  board  by  a 
vote  of  not  less  than  four  members  of  the  board.  He  shall  have  immediate  control  of  all 
assistant  superintendents,  supervisors,  principals,  and  teachers.  All  directions  and 
suggestions  to  them  with  reference  to  the  performance  of  their  respective  duties  shall 
come  thru  him. 

4.  He  shall  prepare  and  submit  to  the  board  for  approval  the  several  courses  of  study 
to  be  followed,  and  shall  select  and  recommend  to  the  board  for  adoption  all  textbooks 
used  in  the  schools.  In  the  preparation  of  such  courses  and  the  selection  of  such  text- 
books he  shall  have  the  cooperation  of  other  officers  of  instruction  and  of  such  special 
committees  of  teachers,  principals,  and  supervisors  as  he  may  from  time  to  time  appoint 
for  such  specific  purposes. 

5.  He  shall,  on  or  before  the  first  meeting  of  January,  submit  to  the  board  of  education 
an  estimate  of  expenditure  for  all  purposes  of  the  board  of  education  for  the  ensuing  year. 

III.    BUSINESS  MANAGER 

The  business  manager  shall  be  the  secretary  of  the  board  and  shall  be  directly  respon- 
sible to,  and  under  the  direction  of,  the  superintendent  of  schools  for  the  efficient  adminis- 
tration of  the  construction,  maintenance,  and  operation  of  buildings,  purchase,  storage, 
and  distribution  of  supplies,  accounting  and  auditing,  and  insuring  of  school  property. 

1.  He  shall  furnish  bond  to  the  amount  of  $io,ooo,  cost  to  be  assumed  by  the  board 
of  education. 

2.  He  shall  maintain  an  accounting  procedure  adequate  to  record  in  detail  all  trans- 
actions affecting  the  acquisition,  custodianship,  and  disposition  of  values,  including  cash 
receipts  and  disbursements. 

3.  He  shall  submit,  thru  the  superintendent  at  the  first  regular  monthly  meeting  of 
the  board  a  statement  showing  the  status  of  each  appropriation  item  and  such  other 


Superintendence)         REPORT  ON  ADMINISTRATIVE  LEGISLATION  543 

statements  as  may  from  time  to  time  be  deemed  advisable  to  show  the  financial  condition 
of  the  board. 

4.  He  shall  prepare  an  inventory  of  the  property  of  the  board  as  of  June  30  of  each 
year,  and  submit  the  same  thru  the  superintendent  to  the  board  not  later  than  August  i  of 
each  year. 

5.  He  shall  recommend,  thru  the  superintendent,  to  the  board,  the  employment  and 
dismissal  of  all  subordinates  under  his  jurisdiction. 

6.  He  shall  purchase  all  supplies  and  materials  approved  for  purchase  by  the  board, 
and  shall  store  and  distribute  the  same. 

7.  He  shall  have  general  control  of  all  persons  employed  in  the  department  of  the 
business  manager  and  shall  be  responsible  for  the  operation  of  all  buildings. 

8.  He  shall  have  general  supervision  of  all  the  repairs  to  buildings  authorized  by  the 
board,  and  of  the  maintenance  of  the  land  and  buildings  of  the  board. 

9.  He  shall  be  responsible  for  the  construction  and  alteration  of  buildings  in  accord- 
ance with  the  <plans  and  specifications  approved  by  the  board. 

10.  He  shall  be  the  custodian  of  all  property,  real  or  personal,  owned  or  borrowed  by 
the  board. 

IV.    SUPERVISOR 

The  supervisor  shall  inspect  construction  of  new  buildings  and  additions  to  buildings 
and  extensive  repairs  upon  buildings;  shall  keep  watch  of  expenditures  in  such  construction 
and  repair  work,  and  shall  perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  assigned  him  by  the 
business  manager. 

V.    CHIEF  ENGINEER 

The  chief  engineer  shall  be  directly  responsible  to  the  business  manager  of  this  board 
for  the  maintenance  and  operation  of  the  heating  and  ventilating  plants  in  the  various 
schools,  and  for  the  cleaning  of  the  various  buildings  by  the  janitor  force,  and  for  general 
repairs  and  supervision  of  school  property,  and  shall  be  responsible  for  the  requisitions 
and  specifications  of  materials  involved  in  said  maintenance  and  general  repairs. 

The  chief  engineer  shall  be  charged  with  the  responsibility  for  economy  and  efficiency 
in  his  department  and  to  that  end  shall  have  the  authority  to  hire  or  discharge  any  employe 
in  his  department. 

VI.    ASSISTANT  SECRETARY  OF  THE  BOARD 

The  business  manager  shall  designate  from  his  official  staflf,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  board,  some  person  as  assistant  secretary  of  the  board,  who  shall  keep  the  minutes 
of  the  meetings  of  the  board  and  a  calendar  of  all  minutes  referred  to  the  special  committees 
and  others,  and  report  action  or  non-action  on  same  at  each  regular  meeting.  Forty-eight 
hours  before  each  meeting  he  shall  send  each  member  of  the  board  and  superintendent  a 
written  notice  of  the  meeting  with  calendar  of  all  minutes  to  be  brought  before  the  meeting, 
so  far  as  these  are  known  at  the  time  of  sending  the  notice;  receive  and  reply  to  all  com- 
munications of  the  board  according  to  the  directions  of  the  board. 

The  assistant  secretary  shall,  in  case  of  the  absence,  sickness,  disability,  or  death  of 
the  secretary,  perform  the  duties  of  the  secretary  until  a  new  business  manager  is  elected 
by  the  board. 

VII.    TREx\SURER 

The  treasurer  of  the  city  of  Detroit  shall  be  the  treasurer  of  the  board  of  education 
(Act  No.  132,  Laws  of  1903). 

VIII.    LIBRARY  COMMISSIONERS 

A  member  of  the  board  of  commissioners  of  the  Public  Library  shall  be  elected  by  a 
viva  voce  vote  at  the  first  regular  meeting  in  December  of  each  year.  Elections  to  fill 
vacancies  in  the  board  of  commissioners  of  the  Public  Library  shall  be  by  viva  voce  vote 


544  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  lAtlantic  City 

IX.    EXPENDITURES 

1.  a)  All  purchases  of  furniture  and  supplies  and  of  all  material  needed  in  making 
repairs  and  in  doing  any  work  shall  be  made  by  the  business  manager,  under  direction  ol 
the  superintendent.  All  purchases  exceeding  $ioo  in  amount  shall  be  made  from  the 
lowest  responsible  bidder,  unless  the  board  otherwise  directs.  Purchases  shall  be  made 
upon  numbered  orders,  and  when  bills  are  rendered  for  such  goods,  said  bills  shall  give  the 
number  of  the  order  upon  which  goods  were  supplied. 

h)  In  case  of  urgent  necessity  the  business  manager  shall  be  authorized  to  incur  a 
liability  not  exceeding  two  hundred  dollars. 

2.  a)  Pay-rolls  for  salaries,  estimates  of  contractors,  and  bills  for  payment  of  all 
purchases  must  in  all  cases  be  properly  certified  and  attached  to  a  voucher  on  which  shall 
be  entered  the  name,  date,  amount,  etc.  When  so  certified  and  audited,  the  voucher  shall 
be  presented  to  the  board,  and  if  the  board  shall  approve  and  order  payment  of  same,  such 
action,  with  the  date  thereof,  shall  be  indorsed  thereon  by  the  business  manager.  No  bills 
shall  be  paid  unless  so  audited  and  approved. 

h)  All  teachers,  engineers,  janitors,  workmen,  and  other  employes  drawing  money 
from  the  board  of  education,  and  all  claims  duly  approved  as  provided  by  law  shall  be 
paid  by  the  city  treasurer  after  being  certified  by  the  city  controller. 

3.  Salaries  of  all  positions  shall  be  named  at  the  time  or  before  the  nomination  or 
appointment.  The  pay  or  workmen  shall  be  fixt  by  the  business  manager,  at  the  time  of 
employment,  and  be  at  a  rate  per  day. 

X.    FUNDS 

The  funds  of  the  board,  which  shall  be  kept  under  separate  accounts  in  conformity 
with  the  appropriations  allowed  by  the  common  council  and  board  of  estimates,  shall 
consist  of  the  following: 

1.  Building  Fund — To  which  shall  belong  all  moneys  levied  and  collected,  and  which 
are  to  be  expended  for  land,  buildings,  and  permanent  improvements,  as  provided  in 
Section  14  of  the  Amended  School  Act. 

2.  Maintenance  Fund — To  which  shall  belong  all  moneys  collected  for  the  payment 
of  salaries  of  janitors,  officers,  and  clerks,  for  the  payment  of  repairs,  both  general  and 
special,  and  all  other  moneys  collected,  not  specifically  provided  for. 

3.  Teachers'  Salary  Fund — To  which  shall  belong  all  moneys  appropriated  and  col- 
lected for  the  payment  of  salaries  of  teachers. 

4.  The  Contingent  Fund  is  a  sum  not  exceeding  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  (belong- 
ing to  the  Maintenance  Fund),  placed  in  the  custody  of  the  business  manager,  who  shall 
be  accountable  for  the  same. 

From  the  Contingent  Fund  the  business  manager  is  authorized  to  advance  or  pay 
incidental  or  petty  expenses,  also  items  of  urgently  needed  supplies,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  proper  committees,  and  reimbursement  thru  the  action  of  the  board. 

XI.    SCHOOL  CENSUS 

The  school  census  of  the  city  must  be  taken  according  to  law,  within  twenty  days 
next  preceding  the  first  day  in  June  of  each  year,  and  the  same,  with  the  affidavit  of  its 
correctnfess,  to  be  made  by  the  person  or  persons  taking  it,  shall  be  filed  with  the  business 
manager  on  or  before  the  last-named  day.  Said  school  census  shall  show  the  number  of 
children  between  five  and  (under)  twenty  years  of  age,  and  the  number  between  fourteen 
and  eighteen,  and  such  other  information  as  may  be  called  for. 

XII.    REMOVALS 

Any  officer  of  this  board,  whether  elected  or  appointed,  may  be  removed  for  cause  by 
a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  members-elect,  under  such  form  of  procedure  as  a  majority  of 
the  board  may  direct  for  the  particular  occasion. 


Superintendence)  REPORT  ON  ADMINISTRATIVE  LEGISLATION  545 

XIII.    AMENDMENTS 

These  rules  may  be  amended  at  any  regular  meeting  by  a  vote  of  not  less  than  four 
members  of  the  board,  said  amendment  having  been  proposed  at  a  previous  meeting. 

XIV.    RULES  MAY  BE  SUSPENDED 

The  by-laws  and  rules  of  the  board  of  education  may  be  suspended  at  any  regular 
meeting  of  the  board  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  members  present. 

BY-LAWS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  DIRECTORS,  SCHOOL  DISTRICT 

NUMBER  ONE,  CITY  AND  COUNTY  OF  DENVER 

ARTICLE  I. 

Section  i.  The  twentieth  amendment  of  the  constitution  of  the  state  of  Colorado, 
adopted  November,  1902,  and  declared  effective  by  the  governor,  December  i,  1902, 
declares  this  district  to  be  a  body  corporate,  by  the  name  and  style  of  "School  District 
Number  One  in  the  City  and  County  of  Denver,  and  State  of  Colorado." 

Section  2.  The  regular  election  for  filling  vacancies  in  the  board  of  directors  shall 
be  held  biennially,  according  to  law,  on  the  first  Monday  in  May. 

Section  3.  The  board  of  directors  shall  consist  of  five  (5)  members,  elected  in 
accordance  with  law,  for  a  term  of  six  (6)  years  each. 

Section  4.  The  certificate  of  election  or  appointment  of  members  of  the  board  of 
directors  and  oaths  of  oflSce  shall  be  kept  on  record  with  the  secretary,  and  on  file  with  the 
county  superintendent.  The  oath  of  ofl&ce  shall  be  made  before  a  notary  public  within 
ten  (10)  days  after  election. 

Section  5.  At  the  first  meeting  of  the  board  of  directors  after  the  annual  election, 
the  board  shall  proceed  to  organize  by  the  electing  of  a  president,  who  shall  be  a  member 
of  the  board,  a  secretary,  and  a  treasurer.  The  terms  of  office  of  these  ofl&cers  shall  be 
two  (2)  years. 

Section  6.  At  the  first  regular  meeting  in  January,  or  at  any  regular  meeting  when 
there  is  a  vacancy  in  the  superintendency,  the  board  shall  elect  a  superintendent  of 
schools  for  the  term  of  three  (3)  years,  which  shall  begin  July  first,  following  the  election, 
or  on  such  other  date  as  may  be  determined  by  the  board. 

Section  7.  At  the  January  meeting,  the  board  of  directors  shall  employ  an  assistant 
superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs  for  a  term  of  two  (2)  years,  who  shall  be  and 
act  under  the  general  direction  of  the  superintendent  of  schools,  and  at  this  meeting  the 
board  shall  also  employ  an  attorney  for  the  district  for  a  term  of  two  (2)  years. 

ARTICLE  II 

Section  i.  The  president,  when  present,  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  board 
and  the  district.  He  shall  sign  all  contracts,  bonds,  and  orders  for  the  payment  of 
money.  He  shall  appoint  all  committees,  unless  otherwise  ordered.  The  president  shall 
also  be  custodian  of  the  official  bond  of  the  secretary,  which  shall  be  recorded  in  the  records 
of  the  corporation,  and  kept  by  him  in  a  box  in  a  safe  deposit  company.  He  shall  exercise 
such  other  powers  as  properly  appertain  to  his  office,  or  which  may  be  conferred  upon  him 
by  the  board. 

Section.  2.  The  secretary  shall  have  charge  of  all  records  of  the  board  of  directors 
and  of  the  district.  He  shall  be  custodian,  and  shall  keep  in  a  fireproof  vault,  or  other 
safe  place,  all  contracts,  securities,  documents,  title  papers,  books  of  record,  insurance 
policies,  receipts,  bills,  canceled  bonds,  coupons,  and  warrants,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  his  own  bond,  other  papers  belonging  to  the  school  district. 

Section  3.  The  secretary  shall  have  charge  of  the  accounting  and  bookkeeping 
department  of  the  board  of  directors,  and  of  the  bookkeepers,  stenographers,  clerks,  and 
other  employes  in  this  department,  and,  with  the  approval  of  the  superintendent  of  schools 


546  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

he  shall  recommend  to  the  board,  from  time  to  time,  such  employes  as  shall  be  needed  for 
the  execution  of  his  work. 

Section  4,  The  secretary  shall  keep  the  minutes  of  the  meetings  of  the  board  of 
directors  and  a  calendar  of  all  matters  referred  to  committees  and  others,  and  report 
action,  or  non-action,  on  the  same  at  each  regular  meeting. 

Section  5.  The  secretary  shall  send  written  notices  of  both  special  and  regular 
meetings,  as  provided  by  these  by-laws,  and  he  shall,  within  three  (3)  days  after  each 
meeting,  send  a  copy  of  the  minutes  of  each  meeting  to  each  member  of  the  board  of 
directors,  to  the  attorney,  to  the  superintendent  of  schools,  and  to  the  assistant  super- 
intendent in  charge  of  business  affairs.  He  shall  receive  and  reply  to  all  communications 
to  the  board,  according  to  the  direction  of  the  board. 

Section  6.  The  secretary  shall  cause  the  property  of  the  board  to  be  insured  in  such 
amounts  and  with  such  agents  as  the  board  may,  from  time  to  time,  direct,  and  he  shall 
keep  a  record  of  the  insurance  on  all  school  property. 

Section  7.  The  secretary  shall  prepare  the  pay-roll  upon  information  given  him  by 
the  superintendent  and  his  assistants. 

Section  8.  The  secretary  shall  audit  all  bills  and  claims  against  the  district.  He 
shall  also  draw  all  warrants  in  payment  of  claims  against  the  district. 

Section  9.  The  secretary  shall  audit  all  cash  collections  received  by  the  agents  of 
the  board  and,  with  the  approval  of  the  superintendent  of  schools,  shall  determine  the 
kind  and  form  of  reports  to  be  required  of  such  collecting  agents.  He  shalj  receive  all 
moneys  collected  from  tuition,  fines,  sale  of  textbooks,  sale  of  school  property,  lunchroom 
sales,  supplies,  use  of  school  property,  etc.,  and  he  shall  deliver  the  same  to  the  treasurer 
of  the  district  at  least  once  a  month. 

Section  10.  The  secretary  shall  submit  to  the  board  of  directors  and  superintendent 
a  monthly  report  of  receipts,  disbursements,  and  budget  balances  at  the  regular  meeting 
of  the  board,  and  an  annual  report  at  the  July  meeting  each  year. 

Section  ii.  The  secretary  shall  perform  all  duties  imposed  upon  him  by  law,  and 
such  other  duties  as  may  be  directed  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Section  12.  The  treasurer  of  the  district  shall  receive  all  moneys  accruing  from  the 
sale  of  bonds,  and  shall  pay  out  the  same  upon  warrants  signed  by  the  president  and 
secretary  on  account  of  erection  and  furnishing  of  school  buildings  and  the  purchase  of 
school  grounds.     He  shall  countersign  all  warrants  drawn  upon  the  county  treasurer. 

Section  13.  The  treasurer  of  the  district  shall  keep  all  necessary  accounts  pertain- 
ing to  the  duties  of  his  office,  and  shall  render  a  semiannual  report  of  all  moneys  received 
and  disburst  by  him.    He  shall  furnish  such  bonds  as  shall  be  required  by  the  board. 

Section  14.  The  superintendent  of  schools  shall  be  the  executive  officer  of  the  board 
of  directors  for  the  management  of  schools.  He  shall  attend  all  meetings  of  the  board, 
unless  there  is  urgent  reason  for  his  absence,  and  he  shall  cooperate  and  advise  with  all 
committees  of  the  board.  He  shall  have  power  to  make  rules  not  in  conflict  with  law 
or  these  by-laws. 

Section  15.  The  superintendent  shall  investigate  the  need  of,  and  recommend  to  the 
board,  provision  for  school  facilities  in  the  various  districts.  When  called  upon,  he  shall 
give  opinions  to  the  board  or  its  committees  of  all  matters  to  be  acted  upon,  and  he  shall 
m^ke  monthly  reports  of  the  general  condition  of  the  schools,  with  such  recommendations 
as  he  thinks  best  for  their  improvement,  and  which  require  the  action  of  the  board. 

At  the  regular  meeting  in  July,  he  shall  submit  an  annual  report. 

Section  16.  The  superintendent  shall  recommend  to  the  board,  from  time  to  time, 
administrative  officers.  He  shall  also  recommend  attendance  officers,  principals,  super- 
visors, and  teachers,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  board,  physicians,  nurses,  stenog- 
raphers, clerks  and  other  employes  in  the  educational  department,  as  there  is  need  for 
employes  during  the  year,  and  before  the  first  day  of  May,  each  year,  submit  the  names 
of  all  persons  to  be  appointed  or  reappointed  for  the  ensuing  year,  with  salary. 


Superintendence]  REPORT  ON  ADMINISTRATIVE  LEGISLATION  547 

Section  17.  The  superintendent  shall  assign  all  teachers  to  their  positions  in  the 
schools,  and  shall  have  power  to  make  such  change  in  the  position  of  any  teacher  as  may 
be  necessary  for  the  interest  of  the  school.  He  shall  determine  the  time  and  place  for 
the  examinations  of  applicants  for  positions  as  teachers;  and  he  shall  conduct  or  cause 
to  be  conducted,  examinations  of  applicants  for  positions  as  teachers. 

Section  18.  The  superintendent  shall  have  power  to  suspend,  temporarily,  any 
teacher  or  other  employe  working  under  his  direction,  pending  the  action  of  the  board; 
and  he  shall  have  power  to  suspend  from  the  privileges  of  school  any  pupil  guilty  of  infrac- 
tion of  the  rules  of  the  school.    Pupils  suspended  may  be  reinstated  by  the  superintendent. 

Section  19.  The  superintendent  shall  reconunend  to  the  board,  for  approval, 
courses  of  study  and  improved  courses  of  study,  and  all  textbooks  to  be  used  in  the  schools. 
He  shall  prepare,  in  conference  with  the  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business 
affairs,  an  annual  budget  showing,  by  departments,  appropriations  necessary  to  meet 
estimated  needs  of  the  ensuing  year,  and  he  shall  submit  the  same  to  the  board  for  approval 
on  or  before  the  first  regular  meeting  in  May  of  each  year.  He  shall,  within  the  limits  of 
the  detailed  budget  of  estimated  expenses  for  the  year,  duly  approved  by  the  board,  have 
power  to  approve  and  direct  all  purchases  and  expenditures,  making  to  the  board  at  any 
time,  in  addition  to  the  monthly  report,  such  report  of  expenditures  as  the  board  may 
request.  He  shall  recommend  to  the  board  the  transfers  from  one  budget  to  another,  as 
conditions  may  require. 

Section  20.  In  the  interest  of  efficient  administration  he  shall  have  power  to  decide 
all  matters  of  detail,  purely  ministerial  and  administrative  in  character. 

Section  21.  The  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs  shall  have 
charge  of  the  construction,  operation,  and  maintenance  of  buildings  and  equipment,  the 
maintenance  of  grounds,  the  purchase,  storage,  and  distribution  of  supplies,  material, 
and  equipment,  as  authorized  and  directed  by  the  superintendent  of  schools.  And  the 
assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs  shall  have  the  supervision  of  the 
erection  of  all  buildings.  He  shall  make  such  reports  of  the  general  condition  of  school 
property  as  may  be  directed  by  the  superintendent  of  schools.  He  shall  make  an  annual 
report  to  the  board  and  to  the  superintendent  of  the  general  condition  of  the  buildings  and 
other  property  of  the  district  as  to  repairs,  construction,  and  improvement.  He  shall  super- 
vise all  matters  of  repairs,  and  have  general  charge  of  all  buildings  belonging  to  the  board. 

Section  22.  The  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs  shall  recom- 
mend to  the  board  thru  the  superintendent  from  time  to  time  such  assistants, 
stenographers,  clerks,  engineers,  janitors,  foremen,  and  mechanics  as  shall  be  needed  for 
continuous  employment  in  his  department;  and  he  shall  have  authority,  with  the  approval 
of  the  superintendent,  to  employ  such  workmen  or  other  employes  as  are  necessary  for  the 
execution  of  the  work  in  this  department,  and  to  discharge  the  same.  He  shall  attend  all 
meetings  of  the  board,  unless  there  is  urgent  reason  for  his  absence,  and  he  shall  give  bond 
for  such  amount  for  faithful  performance  of  his  duties  as  shall  be  required  by  the  board. 

Section  23.  The  attorney  shall  attend  all  meetings  of  the  board  unless  there  is 
urgent  reason  for  absence,  shall  represent  the  district  and  such  officers  and  employes  of 
the  district  as  the  board  shall  direct  in  all  proceedings  at  law  to  which  the  district,  the 
board,  or  any  such  employe  shall  be  a  party,  as  such,  shall  render  opinions  on  the  legality 
of  titles  of  property  of  the  district  and  of  contracts  entered  into  by  the  district,  when 
requested  so  to  do.  He  shall,  when  requested,  advise  the  board,  or  any  member  or  employe 
of  it,  on  matters  pertaining  to  the  business  or  conduct  of  the  district  or  its  schools. 

ARTICLE  III 

Section  i.  The  regular  meetings  of  the  board  of  directors  shall  be  held  on  the 
second  Wednesday  of  each  calendar  month,  and  on  the  last  Saturday  of  the  months  of 
March,  June,  September,  and  December  at  the  hour  of  8  p.m.  All  meetings  of  the  board 
shall  be  held  in  the  offices  of  the  board. 


548  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

Section  2,    The  order  of  business  at  all  regular  meetings  shall  be  as  follows: 

1.  Roll  call 

2.  Approval  of  minutes 

3.  Report  of  superintendent 

4.  Report  of  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  business  affairs 

5.  Report  of  committees 

6.  Petitions  and  communications 

7.  Report  of  secretary 

8.  Unfinisht  business 

9.  New  business 

10.  Claims  and  accounts 

Section  3.  Special  meetings  of  the  board  of  directors  shall  be  called  by  the  secretary, 
upon  the  written  request  of  three  (3)  members  of  the  board.  Written  notices  of  every 
meeting,  whether  special  or  regular,  shall  be  delivered  or  mailed  to  the  Denver  address  of 
each  member  of  the  board  at  least  twenty-four  (24)  hours  prior  to  the  time  designated  for 
such  meeting. 

Section  4.  The  majority  of  all  members  shall  be  necessary  to  constitute  a  quorum 
for  the  transaction  of  business. 

Section  5.  Upon  the  request  of  one  (i)  member,  the  "ayes"  and  "nays"  shall  be 
taken  upon  any  motion  before  the  board  of  directors.  Each  member  present  shall  vote 
"aye"  or  "no"  upon  all  questions,  unless  excused  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Section  6.  Except  as  herein  otherwise  specified,  the  proceedings  of  the  board  shall 
be  governed  by  the  rules  prescribed  in  Roberts^  Rules  of  Order. 

Section  7.  The  board  of  directors  shall  have  one  (i)  standing  committee,  designated 
as  the  committee  of  the  whole.  Preceding  each  board  meeting,  when  convenient,  there 
shall  be  a  meeting  of  the  committee  of  the  whole  for  the  consideration  of  all  matters 
pertaining  to  school  affairs. 

Section  8.  Special  committees  of  the  board  appointed  by  the  president,  unless 
otherwise  ordered,  shall  investigate  and  act  for  the  board  in  such  ministerial  matters 
as  may  be  assigned  to  them  by  the  board,  and  in  other  matters  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  board.  Such  committees  shall  report  to  the  board  in  writing,  in  such  manner  and 
at  such  times  as  called  upon  by  the  board. 

Section  9.  At  any  regular  meeting  of  the  board  any  by-law  of  the  board  may  be 
enacted  or  repealed  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  full  board  membership,  provided  that 
notice  of  the  proposed  action  shall  have  been  given  at  the  regular  meeting  last  preceding; 
any  by-law  may  be  suspended  at  any  meeting  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  the  full  board 
favoring  such  suspension. 

Your  Commission  has  given  some  consideration  to  the  question  of  a 
model  school  law,  but  has  not  been  able  to  complete  its  study,  and  asks 
that  it  be  continued  for  another  year  in  order  that  it  may  give  more  con- 
sideration to  this  problem  and  submit  a  special  report  concerning  the  subject. 
Respectfully  submitted 

C.  E.  Chadsey,  Chairman 

J.  D.  Shoop 

H.  S.  Weet 

Mary  C.  C.  Bradford 

Calvin  N.  Kendall 

Frank  E.  Spaulding 

William  M.  Davidson 

Ellis  U.  Graff 

E.  C.  Moore 

E.  a.  Easton 


Superintendence]  COOPERATION  OF  BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  549 

THE  REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  COOPERATION  OF  BOARDS 

OF  EDUCATION 

The  field  in  which  this  Committee  has  been  appointed  to  work  has  been 
practically  untilled  up  to  the  present  time.  In  many  localities  a  fine  spirit 
of  cooperation  between  the  official  representatives  of  the  people  and  the 
active  members  of  the  teaching  profession  has  always  existed,  but  there  has 
been  as  yet  no  national  movement  to  organize  the  lay  leadership  constituted 
by  the  .membership  of  boards  of  education  the  country  over  for  the  purpose 
of  studying  the  great  objectives  of  public  education  in  a  broad  way,  and  of 
cooperating  with  the  professional  forces  so  organized. 

Attempts  to  organize  associations  of  members  of  boards  of  education 
have  frequently  been  made  upon  a  state  basis;  in  fact,  some  dozen  or  more 
organizations  of  this  kind  are  now  in  existence  either  as  sections  of  the  state 
associations  or  as  separate  organizations.  The  states  having  such  organ- 
izations are  as  follows: 

Illinois:  Illinois  School  Board  Association 

Louisiana:  School  Board  Association 

Massachusetts:  School  Officers'  Conference 

Michigan:  Association  of  School  Boards 

Minnesota:  Minnesota  Associated  School  Boards  (Minnesota  Educational  Associa- 
tion) 

Nebraska:  Board  of  Education  Section  (Nebraska  State  Teachers'  Association) 

Ohio:  School  Board  Association 

Pennsylvania:  State  Association  of  School  Directors;  also  State  Association  of  School 
Board  Secretaries 

South  Dakota :  Associated  School  Boards  Section 

Tennessee:  Tennessee  Public  School  Officers'  Association 

Virginia:  School  Trustees'  Association  of  Virginia 

Utah:  Section  of  Department  of  Superintendence 

Washington:  Section  Washington  Educational  Association  ' 

The  history  of  these  organizations  shows  that  they  have  been  short- 
lived, that  they  have  been  animated  by  no  great,  common,  all-pervading 
purpose,  and  that  their  efforts  have  been  directed  along  the  lines  of  details 
of  school  administration.  This  Committee  does  not  minimize  in  the  least 
the  good  that  has  been  done  by  these  organizations,  nor  does  it  fail  to 
recognize  them  as  the  beginnings  of  a  movement  that  may  have  great  pos- 
sibiHties.  But  there  can  be  no  question  of  the  seriousness  of  the  crisis 
facing  the  public-education  system  of  the  country,  even  the  imminence  of 
revolution  in  its  general  aims  and  objectives,  and  its  relations  to  a  permanent 
victory  for  the  democracy  of  this  great  standard-making  nationality  of  ours. 
This  crisis,  this  revolution,  is  even  now  upon  us,  and  this  Committee  believes 
that  an  intelligent  lay  leadership  of  public  opinion  can  be  a  potent  factor 
in  reconstructing  the  public-school  system  of  the  country  to  meet  the  great 
needs  that  are  every  day  more  and  more  apparent  to  the  professional  forces 
engaged  in  education. 


5SO  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

An  organization  of  boards  of  education  upon  a  national  basis  with  such 
an  end  in  view,  animated  by  such  a  vision  of  usefulness  and  of  service,  and 
instituted  as  a  cooperative  parallel  with  the  reorganized  National  Education 
Association — as  proposed  by  the  Committee  on  Organization — could  be  of 
immeasurable  service  to  the  nation  and  to  civilization. 

It  is  the  function  of  this  Committee  to  analyze  the  problem  and  to  sug- 
gest a  course  of  action  thru  a  constructive  program.  The  problem  is  sug- 
gested by  the  following  questions,  .which  are  submitted  to  this  department 
for  consideration  and  action: 

1.  Do  boards  of  education  generally  understand  the  great  objectives  of  education 
in  the  democracy  ? 

Note. — This  Committee  believes  that  as  a  whole  they  do  not,  and  that  there  is  as  a 
whole  little  public  recognition  of  the  responsibility  of  the  school  system  as  the  chief  social 
agency  in  a  democracy. 

2.  Do  members  of  boards  of  education  generally  understand  their  responsibility  for 
leadership  of  the  people  of  their  communities  in  sound  thinking  upon  the  vital  problems 
of  education  and  its  relation  to  the  conservation  and  development  of  a  democratic  civiliza- 
tion ? 

Note. — The  Committee  is  of  the  opinion  that  they  do  not.  There  may  be  many 
noteworthy  and  outstanding  exceptions,  but  in  general  boards  of  education  are  concerned 
with  following  what  they  believe  to  be  public  sentiment  rather  than  with  creating  and 
leading  it. 

3.  Do  members  of  boards  of  education  understand  that  their  chief  function  is  legis- 
lative rather  than  executive  and  administrative,  and  that  their  greatest  service  is  to  be 
performed  thru  their  own  leadership  of  the  public  in  sound,  educational  policies,  while 
intrusting  the  details  of  administration  to  expert  employes  ? 

Note. — They  do  not.  Too  often  boards  of  education  insist  upon  supervising  details 
of  administration,  and  organize  their  committees  for  that  purpose.  Too  often  the  com- 
mittee organization  of  boards  of  education  conduces  very  definitely  to  the  development 
of  a  political  attitude  and  to  the  use  of  patronage  for  personal  reasons  as  well  as  to  the 
participation  in  the  details  of  administration  by  individual  members.  The  usual  com- 
mittees are :   (a)  finance  and  claims,  (6)  teachers,  (c)  salaries,  {d)  textbooks,  {e)  supplies. 

The  committee  organization  of  boards  of  education  should  be  upon  broad  policy- 
making basis  rather  than  along  lines  of  administrative  detail.  Such  committees  as  the 
following  should  have  a  prominent  place  in  such  organization  of  the  boards  of  education 
in  all  large  communities:  (a)  new-activities  committee,  {b)  building-program  committee, 
(c)  Americanization  committee,  {d)  junior  high  school  committee,  (e)  vocational- 
education  committee,  (/)  neighborhood  centers  and  wider  use  of  school-plant  committee, 
(g)  budget  making  and  finance  committee. 

Upon  these  subjects  there  is  great  need  for  intelligent  leadership  of  public  opinion. 
Markt  changes  developing  in  the  present  school  system  in  curriculum  making,  in  methods 
of  instruction,  and  in  type  of  organization  should  be  fostered  by  an  intelligently  educated 
public  sentiment  rather  than  by  irresponsible  and  erratic  propagandists  for  sordid  political 
purposes. 

4.  Is  it  safe  from  the  standpoint  of  the  present  critical  situation  and  the  new  demands 
upon  the  system  of  public  education  to  leave  the  problem  of  stimulating  boards  of  educa- 
tion to  take  a  professional  attitude  entirely  to  employes  whose  personal  interest  is  in  every 
case  involved? 

Note. — The  Committee  believes  that  it  is  not,  for  the  following  reasons:  First,  the 
temptation  of  the  superintendent  to  safeguard  personal  interest  and  to  promote  personal 
ends  by  playing  politics  in  a  situation  created  by  a  political  atmosphere  and  a  poUtical- 


Superintendence]  COOPERATION  OF  BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  551 

minded  board  is  too  great  to  guarantee  that  he  will  raise  the  thinking  of  his  board  of  educa- 
tion to  a  higher  level;  secondly,  the  political-minded  board  of  education  cannot  be  thus 
educated  to  an  attitude  of  professional  mindedness  because  it  measures  the  superintendent 
by  its  own  yardstick  and  insists  in  seeing  in  every  policy  a  motive  as  personal  and  political 
as  those  to  which  it  has  always  been  accustomed. 

5.  Is  it  desirable  and  vital  that  there  be  establisht  and  maintained  some  general 
policy  of  disseminating  directly  to  the  boards  of  education  information  upon  the  great 
movements  in  education  in  order  to  keep  these  leaders  of  public-education  policy  con- 
versant with  current  progress? 

Note. — A  publication  which  could  interpret  the  great  questions  of  policy  in  modern 
education  to  boards  of  education  in  non-technical  terms  and  in  a  form  to  be  presented  to 
the  public  would  be  of  great  value.  Such  a  publication  should  be  a  part  of  the  series  of 
the  National  Education  Association's  Bulletins,  and  it  should  localize  sufficiently  to  attract 
members  of  the  boards  of  education  upon  all  subjects.  Where  sectional  problems  arise 
these  should  be  discust  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  sections  most  interested,  and  in  the  light 
of  the  great  objectives  to  be  attained  by  the  public  schools. 

The  problem  of  developing  boards  of  education  as  leaders  of  public  sentiment  is  much 
more  important  than  to  continue  to  surfeit  the  professional  men  of  the  country  with 
information  which  most  of  them  already  possess  in  a  large  measure. 

6.  Is  it  possible  to  find  principles  of  general  interest  upon  which  to  unite  the  boards 
of  education  in  a  nation-wide  organization  ? 

Note. — This  Committee  believes  that  if  such  organization  is  brought  about  the 
stimulus  must  come  from  the  national  organizations  of  school  people,  but  that  such  organi- 
zations as  may  be  developt  for  boards  of  education  should  arise  spontaneously  and  upon 
their  initiative. 

This  Committee  therefore  recommends  the  adoption  of  the  following 
plan  of  action: 

1.  The  National  Education  Association  Bulletins  should  be  circulated 
to  all  members  of  boards  of  education  in  communities  where  these  Bulletins 
are  sent  to  superintendents  of  schools  and  other  school  officers. 

2.  If  the  plan  of  reorganization  is  adopted,  the  circulation  of  this  Bulletin 
should  be  extended  to  include  all  members  of  the  boards  of  education  in  the 
United  States. 

3.  Sections  for  the  discussion  of  problems  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
policy-making  and  legislative  functions  of  boards  of  education  should  be 
added  to  the  publications  of  the  National  Education  Association.  These 
discussions  should  treat  of  educational  problems  in  the  large,  and  should 
be  coucht  in  such  terms  that  they  may  constitute  ready  information  in 
developing  a  wholesome  public  sentiment  on  school  matters. 

4.  The  reorganized  National  Education  Association  should  invite 
cooperation  of  boards  of  education.  A  committee  for  the  purpose  of 
developing  the  machinery  of  cooperation  should  be  permanently  a  part  of 
the  working  organization  of  the  National  Education  Association.  The 
duty  of  such  a  committee  should  be  to  direct  the  policy  of  disseminating 
the  information  to  the  members  of  the  boards  of  education  and  to  stimulate 
the  present  organizations  of  boards  of  education  to  the  end  that  they  may 
become  cooperative  agents  with  the  organized  forces  of  education  thruout 
the  country. 


552  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [AUantic  City 

5.  The  Committee  recommends  that  an  appropriation  of  one  hundred 
dollars  in  addition  to  the  appropriation  made  for  the  past  year  be  given  this 
Committee  to  carry  on  its  work. 

Fred  M.  Hunter,  Chairman 
Nathan  C.  Schaeffer 
Wm.  C.  Bruce 
Josephine  Corliss  Preston 
J.  A.  C.  Chandler 
H.  C.  Johnson 
Z.  C.  Thornburg 
Wm.  McT.  Vance 


A  MESSAGE  FROM  FRANCE 

JOHN  HUSTON  FINLEY,   PRESIDENT   OF   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   THE   STATE   OF 
NEW  YORK,   ALBANY,   N.Y. 

There  are  two  armies  for  the  defense  of  our  civilization.  One  is  the 
Army  of  Present  Defense;  the  other  is  the  Army  of  Future  Defense. 

We  have  for  months  that  have  run  into  years  watcht  the  former,  mar- 
veling at  its  valors,  sympathizing  with  its  losses.  We  are  now  mobilizing 
and  training  our  own  forces  to  join  in  that  defense  on  the  crucial  line  which 
civilization  must  hold. 

But  on  this  side  of  that  line  is  the  other  army,  pictured  by  M.  Viviani, 
former  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in  France,  when  he  said,  "Unless  the 
military  authorities  forbid,  the  schools  must  everywhere  be  kept  open. 
Thus  it  may  be  said  that  our  'scholastic  front'  follows  everywhere  the  very 
line  of  the  trenches,  being  never  more  than  ten  kilometers  distant,  often 
less  than  two." 

From  the  mihtary  front  we  have  daily  report.  Hundreds  of  corre- 
spondents watch  its  every  movement.  The  whole  world,  whatever  its 
occupation,  turns  every  morning  to  see  what  is  happening  there.  But  of 
the  vast  other  army,  in  France  alone  twice  or  three  times  the  first  army  in 
size,  there  are  but  meager  reports.  It  is  only  when  its  teachers  and  pupils 
are  mobilized  into  the  first  that  we  are  likely  to  hear  of  them,  either  fighting 
in  the  trenches  or  helping  in  some  specific  way  to  give  material  aid  or  spirit 
to  those  who  are  exposing  their  lives  to  make  the  world  a  safe  place  for  free 
human  beings  to  live  in. 

It  was  this  second  army,  this  ''scholastic  front,"  representing  a 
portion  of  our  conscript  Army  of  Future  Defense — tens  of  thousands  of 
teachers  and  millions  of  children — that  I  went  to  France  to  see,  in  order 
that  we  might  have  some  advice  of  those  under  whose  tuitions  the  immortal 
valors  of  the  first  army  have  been  nourisht. 

Of  the  military  front  I  shall  not  speak,  for  hundreds  of  Americans,  per- 
mitted a  visit  to  that  trench  strip  (which  I  have  called '  'Everyman's  Land" 


Superintendence)  A  MESSAGE  FROM  FRANCE  553 

and  which  I  hope  is  to  give  foundation  for  many  international  institutions 
of  the  new  world-democracy)  have  seen  more  than  I  of  its  heroisms  and 
horrors,  tho  I  traveled  the  length  of  it  from  where  it  touches  the  English 
line,  near  St.  Quentin  (whose  spireless  cathedral  I  could  see),  to  St.  Die 
under  the  German  guns,  not  more  than  a  half-dozen  miles  from  the  "blue 
line  of  the  Vosges,"  which  marks  the  border  between  France  and  its  lost 
Alsace — St.  Die,  to  which  I  made  a  pilgrimage  (behind  camouflage  for  many 
miles  of  the  way)  because  it  was  there  that  the  name  "America"  is  said  first 
to  have  been  put  on  the  printed  page. 

Tens,  and  I  think  hundreds,  of  thousands  of  men  of  that  Army  of  Present 
Defense  I  saw  in  ceaseless  stream  of  blue  flowing  to  and  from  the  front  under 
skies  stained  by  the  enemy's  menace  and  over  fields  planted  with  danger, 
or  dotted  with  graves,  but  there  is  nothing  to  say  of  them  that  the  world 
does  not  and  will  not  know  as  long  as  history  tells  her  story.  My  one  envy 
in  life  is  of  those  who  are  permitted  to  take  their  places  in  that  line. 

I  must  quote  in  passing  from  it  to  the  other  front  the  letter  of  a  girl 
in  one  of  the  lycees  that  I  visited — the  lycee  where  General  Gallieni  had  his 
quarters  for  a  time  early  in  the  war — a  letter  which  in  one  paragraph 
graphically  depicts  the  distance  by  which  the  millions  on  either  side  of  that 
narrow,  trencht  strip  are  separated,  and  in  the  second  intimates  the  close- 
ness of  the  sympathy  between  France  and  America: 

Lyc£e  Victor  Duruy 
It  was  only  a  little  river,  almost  a  brook;  it  was  called  the  Yser.  One  could  talk 
from  one  side  to  the  other  without  raising  one's  voice,"  and  the  birds  could  fly  over  it  with 
one  sweep  of  their  wings.  And  on  the  two  banks  there  were  millions  of  men,  the  one 
turned  toward  the  other,  eye  to  eye.  But  the  distance  which  separated  them  was  greater 
than  that  of  the  stars  in  the  sky;  it  was  the  distance  which  separates  right  from  injustice. 
The  ocean  is  so  vast  that  the  sea  gulls  do  not  dare  to  cross  it.  During  seven  days 
and  seven  nights  the  great  steamships  of  America,  going  at  full  speed,  drive  thru  the  deep 
waters,  before  the  lighthouses  of  France  come  into  view;  but  from  one  side  to  the  other 
hearts  are  touching. 

Odette  Gastinel 
Classe:  3™«  Ann6e  Secondaire 

But  the  other  army,  whose  first  lines  are  within  sound  and  range  of  the 
guns!  One  covets  the  eloquence  of  a  Viviani  (such  as  that  with  which  I 
heard  him  speak  in  the  French  Senate  of  his  journey  to  America)  to  tell  of 
its  no  less  heroic  endurances  and  achievements  and  of  its  vital  importance 
to  the  future  of  France  which  the  present  valors  of  her  people  are  revealing 
to  the  world  and  defending  against  destruction. 

When  one  hears  that  more  than  four  thousand  teachers  of  those  in 
France  (thirty  thousand  men  were  called  from  the  elementary  schools  alone 
at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  and  of  course  many  thousands  later)  who  have 
been  called  from  the  Army  of  Future  Defense  to  the  Army  of  Present 
Defense  have  been  cited  for  military  valor,  one  can  beHeve  that  the  same 
heroic  spirit  pervades  the  entire  teaching  body  of  France,  and  that  the 


554  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

remark  of  the  Rector  of  the  University  of  Nancy  was  warranted.  I  had 
been  looking  at  the  broken  walls  of  an  elementary  school,  wreckt  by  a  shell 
which  fell  upon  it  in  the  midst  of  a  morning's  session.  The  master  of  the 
school,  when  the  shells  began  to  fall  near  the  school  building,  timed  the 
interval  between  the  first  shells,  got  his  children  in  line  for  marching,  and 
then  the  moment  a  third  or  fourth  shell  fell,  marcht  them  to  a  building 
seventy  paces  away  that  had  a  cellar  with  stout  walls.  The  next  shell 
penetrated  the  school  building  and  would  doubtless  have  killed  or  maimed 
all  the  children  had  they  remained.  I  said  to  the  Rector  that  this  teacher 
should  have  been  given  the  Croix  de  Guerre.  ''No,"  said  the  Rector,  "No, 
any  teacher  in  France  would  have  done  this" — which  recalls  a  sentence 
from  the  first  report  of  the  present  Director  of  Elementary  Education  after 
the  beginning  of  the  war,  to  the  effect  that  the  teachers  having  been  accus- 
tomed before  the  war  to  think  continuously  of  the  good  of  their  pupils  were 
kept  even  in  the  trenches  from  egotism  and  selfishness. 

And  I  find  better  figure  than  my  own  in  the  tribute  of  this  gentle  Direc- 
tor, whom  I  found  in  his  office  in  the  Rue  de  Crenelle,  but  in  daily  touch 
with  this  "scholastic  front": 

We  admire,  not  without  reason,  the  serenity  of  the  farmer  who,  two  steps  from  the 
battle  line,  is  sowing  for  the  future  his  grain  on  thfe  bloody  furrows.  [And  many  such 
farmers  or  farmers'  wives  I  saw  on  those  furrows,  while  the  little  puflfs  of  smoke  showed 
that  the  enemy  was  in  their  skies.]  Let  us  admire  none  the  less  these  teachers  who,  all 
along  the  line  of  fire,  hold  their  classes  within  the  sound  of  the  cannon;  they  also  are 
sowing  for  the  future. 

Again  and  again  in  my  journey  there  came  to  me  the  saying  of  Voltaire : 
"The  spirit  of  France  is  the  candle  of  Europe."  Voltaire  saw  it  glowing  in 
peasants'  huts,  and  he  would  see  it  now  in  the  trenches  were  he  in  France 
today;  but  I  saw  its  flame  too  in  the  dim-cloistered  places  of  learning,  in 
the  halls  of  the  lycees,  and  even  in  little  and  meagerly  furnisht  rooms  of  the 
schools  of  France,  which  except  for  its  light  would  have  seemed  sad  and 
somber  places.  And  one  could  but  recall  too  (one  must  add  in  this  con- 
nection) what  Voltaire  said  further  in  speaking  of  this  candle  of  Europe, 
as  if  in  divination  of  what  has  come  to  pass.     "You  English,"  he  said,  "(nor 

all  others)  can  blow  it  out And  you  English  will  be  its  screen  against 

the  blowing  out,  tho  in  spasms  of  stupidity  you  flaunt  the  extinguisher." 

The  winds,  savage  in  temper  and  fury  beyond  any  that  have  ever  blown 
over  the  earth,  have  been  driving  across  France  from  the  northeast,  winds 
that  have  razed  villages  to  dust,  that  have  felled  trees  by  thousands  in  the 
fields,  that  have  poisoned  waters  with  their  breath,  that  have  shown  no 
respect  for  schools  or  hospitals  or  churches,  that  have  not  only  denuded 
the  fertile  earth  in  their  path,  but  torn  it  so  that  it  will  not  for  years,  if 
ever,  be  able  to  support  life.  But  despite  all  this  the  spirit  of  France,  the 
candle  of  Europe,  is  unquencht. 


Superintendence)  THE  NATION  AND  NEGRO  EDUCATION  555 

France  has  restricted  the  use  of  food,  fuel,  and  light;  she  has  discour- 
aged travel  except  for  reasons  of  necessity;  she  has  mobilized  every  able- 
bodied  man  for  present  defense;  but  she  has  not  for  one  moment  forgotten 
her  future  defense.  She  has  even  opened  schools  in  caves  and  occasionally 
provided  teachers  and  pupils  with  gas  masks;  she  has  put  women  by 
thousands  in  the  places  of  men  teachers  called  to  the  front;  she  has  received 
back  into  service  many  men  with  marks  of  honor  upon  their  breasts,  who 
have  been  incapacitated  by  wounds,  to  teach  again  in  the  schools  they  had 
left.  Indeed  I  have  seen  many  hundreds  of  children  from  the  occupied  ter- 
ritory being  taught  in  casernes  (barracks)  by  their  women  teachers  who  had 
fled  with  them.  But  she  has  not  except  under  compulsion  of  cannon  and 
bombs  taken  from  any  child  that  heritage  in  which  alone  is  the  prophecy 
of  an  enduring  nation. 

The  able-bodied  men  of  France  are  fighting  in  the  first  army  to  preserve 
the  candle  that  holds  the  flame,  but  the  teachers  are  fighting  as  valiantly  in 
the  other  to  make  the  candle  worth  the  grim  game — this  candle  of  Europe 
which  has  become  the  candle  of  civilization. 

The  advice  which  France,  out  of  her  physical  anguish  but  unabated 
aspiration  of  spirit,  sends  to  us  from  her  ''scholastic  front"  is  this: 

Do  not  let  the  needs  of  the  hour,  however  demanding,  or  its  burdens  however  heavy, 
or  its  perils  however  threatening,  or  its  sorrows  however  heart-breaking,  make  you 
unmindful  of  the  defense  of  tomorrow,  of  those  disciplines  thru  which  the  individual  may- 
have  freedom,  thru  which  an  efficient  democracy  is  possible,  thru  which  the  institutions 
of  civilization  can  be  perpetuated  and  strengthened.  Conserve,  endure  taxation  and 
privation,  suffer  and  sacrifice,  to  assure  to  those  whom  you  have  brought  into  the  world 
that  it  shall  be,  not  only  a  safe,  but  also  a  happy,  place  for  them'. 

Not  that  France  has  put  this  advice  into  words.     She  would  consider  that 
presuming.    It  is  the  advice  of  her  doing  that  I  have  attempted  to  translate. 


TOPIC:  NATIONAL  RESPONSIBILITY  FOR  EDUCATION 
OF  THE  COLORED  PEOPLE 

A.     THE  STATUS  OF  NEGRO  EDUCATION 

KELLY  MILLER,  DEAN  OF  HOWARD  UNIVERSITY,  WASHINGTON,  D.C. 

The  Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  made  the  Negro  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States.  By  fiat  of  law  the  status  of  the  chattel  was 
suddenly  transformed  into  that  of  the  citizen.  The  national  government  was 
wholly  responsible  for  the  creation  of  Negro  citizenship,  a  responsibiHty 
which  involved  the  obligation  to  prepare  him  for  his  new  function  in  the 
government.  But  his  education  was  left  to  the  afflicted  states,  which  had 
recently  been  disrupted  and  disorganized  by  the  ruinous  ravages  of  war. 
Consequently,  for  the  most  part  the  freedman  was  left  to  shift  for  himself 
in  his  upward  struggle  from  ignorance  to  enlightenment.     It  was  hoped 


556  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

that  his  enfranchisement  might  enable  him  to  exert  the  requisite  influence 
on  the  poHcy  of  the  several  states,  leading  to  the  establishment  of  adequate 
educational  provision.  Amidst  all  the  imperfections  and  misdeeds  of 
reconstruction,  actual  or  alleged,  there  stands  out  in  bold  reHef  one  clear 
redeeming  feature.  Actuated  by  the  purpose  of  qualifying  the  Negro  for 
proper  exercise  of  his  citizenship  function,  the  reconstruction  goverimients 
establisht  the  public-school  system  in  the  several  Southern  States. 

But  actual  experience  soon  demonstrated  what  prudent  prevision 
should  have  foreseen,  namely,  that  the  recently  impoverisht  and  distracted 
Southern  States  were  not,  of  themselves,  able  to  maintain  adequate  school 
systems  for  the  efficient  education  of  both  races.  Their  heroic  effort  must 
be  supplemented  by  national  provision,  or  else  the  South  for  many  genera- 
tions must  lag  behind  other  sections  of  the  nation,  and  the  efficiency  of  the 
nation  as  a  whole  will  be  seriously  impaired. 

We  are  likely  to  be  misled  by  statistics  of  illiteracy  showing  the  remark- 
able rapidity  with  which  the  Negro  is  acquiring  the  use  of  letters.  Begin- 
ning practically  at  the  zero  point  of  Hteracy,  at  the  time  of  his  emancipation, 
the  rate  of  literacy  had  arisen  to  70 .6  per  cent  in  1910.  The  rapidity  with 
which  the  Negro  race  has  progrest  in  literacy  has  been  considered  the  most 
marvelous  attainment  of  the  past  century.  In  the  period  of  fifty  years  a 
considerable  majority  of  its  members  has  learned  the  use  of  letters.  This 
is  a  much  larger  percentage  than  is  shown  by  many  of  the  historic  races  of 
the  Old  World. 

Altho  70  per  cent  of  the  Negro  race  can  read  and  write,  comparatively 
a  small  fraction  of  that  number  actually  make  an  efficient  use  of  their 
attainments.  In  the  states  which  require  a  literacy  test  for  the  exercise 
of  franchise  the  great  majority  of  Negroes  are  excluded  because  of  their 
inability  to  meet  this  simple  test,  albeit  the  statistics  of  such  states  show 
a  high  average  of  Negro  literacy.  Statistics  of  illiteracy  are  misleading 
because  the  individual  pride  which  indisposes  him  to  have  his  ignorance 
acknowledged  and  recorded  often  leads  the  Negro  to  render  misleading 
answer  to  the  query  of  the  enumerator. 

At  Camp  Dodge,  where  there  were  3600  Negro  conscripts  from  Alabama, 
no  one  of  whom,  under  the  terms  of  conscription  was  over  thirty-one  year 
of  age,  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  found  that  over  50  per  cent 
of  them  were  unable  to  read  or  write,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
rate  of  Negro  illiteracy  in  Alabama,  according  to  the  federal  statistics  is 
only  40 . 1  per  cent.  There  is  one  conspicuous  outstanding  fact,  that  the 
great  majority  of  the  Negro  race  are  not  able  to  make  use  of  literary  knowl- 
edge to  improve  their  efficiency,  or  measure  up  to  the  standard  of  an 
enlightened  citizenship. 

When  we  consider  the  woeful  inadequacy  of  provision  made  for  Negro 
education  there  is  left  no  room  to  marvel  because  of  this  alarming  result. 
According  to  reports  just  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Education,  the  state  of 


Superintendence]  THE  NATION  AND  NEGRO  EDUCATION  557 

Alabama  expends  $i .  78  per  capita  for  each  Negro  child,  the  state  of  Georgia 
$1.76,  and  Louisiana  $1.31.  These  states  expend  from  five  to  six  times 
this  amount  per  capita  for  the  schooling  of  white  children.  It  is  conceded 
that  even  the  provision  for  the  education  of  the  white  children  of  the  South 
is  scarcely  more  than  one-third  of  that  for  the  education  of  a  child  in  the 
North  and  West.  If  it  requires  $25  per  capita  to  prepare  for  the  duties  of 
citizenship  in  the  North,  a  white  child  whose  powers  are  reinforced  by  racial 
and  social  heredity,  by  what  law  of  logic  or  common  sense  can  it  be  expected 
that  $1.31  will  prepare  a  Negro  child  in  Louisiana,  who  misses  such  rein- 
forcement, for  the  exercise  of  like  functions  ? 

Without  national  aid  to  Negro  education  the  Southern  States  must 
continue  for  generations  under  the  heavy  handicap  of  a  comparatively 
ignorant  and  ill-equipt  citizenship. 

It  is  a  fatal  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  efficient  education  of  the  Negro 
can  be  conducted  on  a  cheaper  scale  than  that  of  the  whites.  The  fact  that 
his  home  environment  and  his  general  grade  of  life  are  lower,  makes  adequate 
educational  facilities  all  the  more  expensive. 

Philanthropy,  to  a  commendable  degree,  has  served  to  supplement  the 
deficiencies  of  the  Southern  States  for  Negro  education.  But  neither  the 
individual  state  nor  the  United  States  has  the  moral  right  to  depend  upon 
voluntary  philanthropy  to  prepare  its  citizens  for  the  responsible  duties 
and  obligations  of  citizenship.  At  best,  philanthropy  is  only  a  temporary 
and  inadequate  makeshift.  As  high  as  philanthropic  contribution  seems 
to  be  in  the  aggregate,  it  amounts  to  little  more  than  one  dose  of  medicine 
in  the  hospital,  when  compared  to  the  magnitude  of  the  task  to  which  it  is 
apphed. 

It  was  unfair  to  the  Southern  States  to  require  them,  unaided,  to  prepare 
the  Negro  for  duties  of  citizenship  at  the  time  of  his  enfranchisement.  The 
nation  as  a  whole  was  responsible  for  the  condition  of  the  Negro.  The 
fact  that  slavery  became  a  localized  institution  was  not  due  to  the  inherent 
deviltry  of  the  South  nor  to  the  innate  goodness  of  the  North.  Slavery 
was  a  national  institution  and  became  localized  under  the  operation  of 
climatic  and  economic  law.  It  is  equally  unfair  today  to  require  the  South 
to  bear  the  heavy  burden  alone.  The  Negro  problem  is  the  nation's  prob- 
lem; the  remedy  should  be  as  comprehensive  as  the  need. 

So  far  I  have  dealt  with  the  demands  for  federal  assistance  to  primary 
and  elementary  education,  which  imparts  to  each  citizen  a  more  or  less 
well-understood  minimum  of  necessary  knowledge  and  standard  of  efficiency. 
But  there  is  a  higher  sense  in  which  the  nation  is  obligated  to  the  cause  of 
Negro  education.  At  the  time  of  his  emancipation  the  Negro  was  left 
wholly  without  wise  guidance  and  direction.  The  sudden  severance  of  the 
personal  relation  which  had  existed  complacently  under  the  regime  of 
slavery  left  the  Negro  dependent  upon  his  own  internal  resources  for  the 
leadership  of  his  higher  and  better  life.    The  discipline  of  slavery  had  illy 


558  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

fitted  him  for  this  function.  It  had  imparted  to  him  the  process  without 
the  principle,  the  knack  without  the  knowledge,  the  rule  without  the  reason, 
the  formula  without  the  philosophy.  If  the  bhnd  lead  the  blind  they  will 
both  fall  into  the  ditch.  For  want  of  vision  people  perish.  The  profes- 
sional class  constitutes  the  higher  light  of  the  race,  and  if  that  light  within 
this  race  be  darkness,  how  great  is  that  darkness. 

The  federal  government  should  make  some  provision  for  those  who  are 
to  stand  in  the  high  places  of  intellectual  and  moral  authority.  In  the 
Western  States,  where  philanthropical  millionaires  are  scarce  and  where 
the  average  citizen  is  not  able  to  support  the  system  of  education  on  the 
higher  level,  the  state  undertakes  the  task  of  maintaining  higher  institu- 
tions of  learning  for  the  leaders  in  the  various  walks  of  life.  The  Negro  is 
unable  at  present  to  maintain  such  institutions  for  his  own  race;  he  is 
dependent  upon  a  remote  and  vicarious  philanthropy. 

Already  thru  land-grant  and  other  federal  funds,  the  government,  in 
cooperation  with  the  several  states,  is  supporting  agricultural  and  mechanical 
colleges  for  white  youth.  Some  provision  is  also  made  for  the  Negroes  in 
the  states  where  there  is  scholastic  separation  of  the  races.  But  these 
agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges  are  essentially  schools  of  secondary 
grade  and  cannot  be  maintained  on  a  high  level  of  collegiate  basis.  It  is 
easy  for  the  federal  government  to  extend  the  appHcation  by  establishing 
and  ma,intaining  at  least  one  institution  of  technical  character  and  collegiate 
grade  which  might  serve  as  a  finishing  school  for  the  work  done  in  the  several 
states.  The  Negro  needs  to  be  rooted  and  grounded  in  the  principles  of 
knowledge  on  the  highest  collegiate  basis.  The  federal  government  has 
already  acknowledged  this  responsibiUty  in  the  moderate  support  which  it 
gives  to  Howard  University  as  the  national  institution  of  the  Negro  race. 
This  acknowledgment  of  a  national  responsibiUty,  let  us  hope,  augurs  early 
ample  provision  for  the  education  of  a  race  in  its  upward  struggle  to  the 
stature  of  American  citizenship. 


B.     THE    NATION'S   RESPONSIBILITY    TO    THE  SOUTH   FOR 
NEGRO  EDUCATION 

W.  T.   B.   WILLIAMS,  PIELD  AGENT  FOR  THE  JEANES  FUND  AND  THE  SLATER 
FUND,   HAMPTON  INSTITUTE,   HAMPTON,   VA. 

Now  that  we  are  engaged  in  positively  championing  the  cause  of 
democracy  for  the  world  it  may  not  be  amiss  for  us  to  take  a  look  into  our 
own  household.  Our  government  has  its  only  secure  basis  in  the  education 
of  its  citizens.  And  our  remarkable  prosperity  has  long  been  attributed 
to  the  high  average  intelligence  and  the  resulting  efficiency  of  our  workers. 
The  nation  then  should  see  to  it  that  such  arch  enemies  of  democracy  and 


Superintendence)  THE  NATION  AND  NEGRO  EDUCATION  559 

national  efficiency  as  ignorance  and  incompetence  are  driven,  as  far  as 
possible,  from  our  midst.  "One  illiterate  citizen  is  a  menace,  and  his 
participation  in  our  government  is  fraught  with  grave  consequences."  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  too  that  mere  disfranchisement  does  not  remove 
the  peril  of  such  a  citizen.  He  remains  to  harm  and  burden  the  state  in 
many  fundamental  ways. 

Any  section  of  the  country  that  fails  to  prepare  its  citizens  adequately 
for  effective  living  thereby  lessens  the  strength  of  the  nation.  It  is  the 
part  of  wisdom  for  the  nation  to  fortify  itself  at  that  point.  In  the  vital 
matters  of  education  and  training  for  industrial  efficiency  the  South  lags 
behind  other  sections  of  the  country  and  particularly  so  in  the  case  of  the 
colored  people.  The  failure  is  of  such  magnitude  in  the  latter  case  as  to 
warrant  national  concern. 

About  3,000,000,  or  40 .4  per  cent,  of  all  persons  engaged  in  agricultural 
pursuits  in  the  southern  states  are  Negroes.  As  farmers,  renting  and  own- 
ing land,  they  cultivate  41,500,000  acres.  As  farm  laborers  they  undoubt- 
edly cultivate  a  much  larger  area.  Tho  the  United  States  census  shows  a 
decrease  in  illiteracy,  there  are  still  about  2,225,000  Negro  illiterates  in 
the  South,  or  over  t^t,  per  cent  of  the  Negro  population  ten  years  of  age  and 
over.  Certainly  it  is  of  national  importance  that  cultivators  of  41,500,000 
acres  of  land  in  the  favored  section  of  the  country  should  be  properly 
educated  and  trained  for  their  serviceable  labors.  The  demands  that  the 
nation  is  making  upon  the  South  for  food  emphasize  the  potential  value 
of  these  3,000,000  agricultural  workers.  The  nation  is  also  calling  upon  thcf 
South  for  her  quota  of  soldiers.  The  figures  show  that  no  one  is  crowding 
the  Negro  out  of  his  opportunity  to  supply  his  full  share.  It  is  giving  the 
nation  no  little  concern,  however,  that  the  first  draft  for  the  present  war 
brought  in  about  forty  thousand  ilHterate  men,  most  of  whom,  in  all  pro- 
ability,  came  from  the  South. 

The  South  lacks  the  means  to  give  her  children  proper  education.  This 
works  a  special  hardship  upon  the  colored  children,  the  less  favored  portion 
of  the  population.  No  one  pretends  that  the  Negro  gets  an  equal  share  of 
even  the  slender  elementary-school  fund.  The  South  is  poor  and  her 
property  would  yield  a  relatively  small  income  even  if  it  were  properly 
assest  for  taxation,  which  admittedly  it  is  not.  The  South  is  not  only  not 
so  wealthy  as  other  sections  of  the  country,  but  owing  to  the  lack  of  educa- 
tion and  training  among  the  masses  of  her  citizens  she  has  apparently  less 
power  to  create  wealth.  Not  only  are  the  great  manufacturing  industries 
largely  wanting,  but  in  her  special  field  of  agriculture  the  South  also  suffers 
in  comparison.  The  casual  visitor  is  at  once  struck  with  the  poor  methods 
of  farming,  the  inadequate  equipment,  and  the  general  run-down  conditions. 

But  despite  such  handicaps  the  expenditures  for  schools  for  each  $100 
of  wealth  in  the  southern  states  compare  favorably  with  those  of  other 
sections  of  the  country,  as  Table  I  will  show. 


56o  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

The  differences  in  the  amounts  of  money  available  for  the  education  of 
each  child  in  the  two  groups  of  states  not  only  show  that  the  South  cannot 
give  the  amount  of  education  offered  in  the  other  sections,  but  raise  the 
question  as  to  whether  the  South  can  give  a  safe  amount  of  education  with 
the  means  at  her  disposal.    If  the  money  were  divided  impartially  among 

TABLE  I 

Amount  Expended  for  Schools  for  Each  $ioo  of  Wealth* 

Alabama $o.  23  Connecticut $0.31 

Arkansas o. 29  Pennsylvania o. 27 

Florida o. 33  New  York o .  29 

Georgia o. 29  Massachusetts 0.34 

Louisiana 0.31  Indiana 0.39 

Mississippi 0.31  Illinois o. 29 

North  Carolina 0.28  Wisconsin 0.31 

South  Carolina 0.27  Iowa 0.25 

Tennessee 0.33  Kansas o. 36 

Virginia o. 28  CaHfornia 0.33 

*A  Comparative  Study  of  Public  School  Systems  in  Forty-eight  Slates.  Russell  Sage  Foundation, 
igi2,  p.  16. 

Total  Amounts  Expended  Per  Child* 

Alabama $4           Connecticut $22 

Arkansas : 6           Pennsylvania 16 

Florida 8           New  York 25 

Georgia 4           Massachusetts 34 

Louisiana 7           Indiana 19 

Mississippi 4           Illinois 23 

North  Carolina 4           Wisconsin 15 

South  Carolina ; 3           Iowa 20 

Tennessee 6           Kansas 16 

Virginia 6           California 27 

*A  Comparative  Study  of  Public  School  Systems  in  Forty-eight  States.  Russell  Sage  Foundation, 
1912,  p.  9. 

the  white  and  colored  children  it  seems  quite  clear  that  no  such  training 
as  our  times  require  could  possibly  be  given.  All  the  more  is  it  impossible 
to  do  anything  but  keep  up  appearances  with  the  much  smaller  amounts 
that  fall  to  the  colored  children  in  the  division  that  is  made.  The  division 
is  now  made  as  shown  in  Table  II. 

Very  little  change  may  be  expected  soon  from  within  the  South.  A 
white  lawyer  writing  recently  in  the  Atlanta  Constitution  says  that  the 
questionnaire  required  under  the  military  draft  "will  carry  intelligence  to 
Washington  that  is  alarming  and  a  disgrace  to  the  state."  The  Constitution 
says:  "The  questionnaire  will  show  that  a  tremendous  percentage  of  the 
young  men  of  Georgia,  and  especially  those  of  the  rural  sections,  are  woe- 


Superintendence) 


THE  NATION  AND  NEGRO  EDUCATION 


561 


fully  illiterate;  that  they  have  been  and  are  being  denied  opportunities — 
to  say  nothing  of  incentives — for  the  acquiring  of  education,  and  that  the 
state  is  deplorably  remiss  in  failing  to  provide  them  with  proper  and 
adequate  educational  facilities."  If  this  is  the  condition  of  the  young  men 
in  general  in  Georgia  it  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  the  state  of  the  Negro. 

TABLE  II 
Teachers'  Salaries  per  Child  six  to  Fourteen  Years  of  Age* 


State 

White 

Negro 

State 

White 

Negro 

Alabama 

$9.41 
12.95 
11.50 

958 
13-73 
10.50 

$1.78 
459 
2.64 
1.76 

I-3I 
2.26 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina.... 

Tennessee 

Texas. 

$5.27 
10.00 

8.27 
10.08 

9.64 

Arkansas 

1.44 
4.83 
5-74 
2.74 

Florida 

Georgia 

Louisiana 

Virginia 

Mississippi 

*  Negro  Education,  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1916,  No.  39.    Vol.  II,  passim. 


The  South  needs  to  be  led  to  a  deeper  appreciation  of  the  value  of 
education  for  all  the  people  and  especially  to  recognize  the  importance  to 
itself  as  well  as  to  the  nation  of  Negro  education.  In  most  cases  where 
there  is  any  activity  out  of  the  ordinary  in  Negro  education  in  the  South 
today  it  can  usually  be  traced  to  some  influence  of  the  Jeanes  Fund,  the 
Slater  Fund,  the  Rosenwald  Fund,  the  General  Education  Board,  or  to 
private  schools  like  Hampton  Institute,  Tuskegee  Institute,  and  Spelman 
Seminary,  or  to  the  local  colored  people. 

All  of  these  agencies  have  clearly  demonstrated  the  helpfulness  of  out- 
side aid  in  Negro  education  in  the  South.  The  South  has  shown  no  inclina- 
tion to  do  less  on  account  of  such  aid.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  mainly  in 
cooperation  with  these  agencies  that  it  has  come  to  do  more  than  usual  for 
colored  schools.  These  funds  are  now  inadequate  to  meet  the  demands 
the  South  is  making  upon  them  for  cooperation  in  Negro  education.  Only 
the  national  government  is  equal  to  that.  Private  means  have  shown  an 
effective  and  acceptable  way  of  relieving  the  South  of  its  main  burden  of 
ignorance  and  weakness.  The  nation  owes  it  to  the  South  to  help  in  carry- 
ing forward  this  work. 

The  nation  is  already  giving  aid  to  certain  phases  of  education  in  the 
South.  It  has  helpt  to  support  agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges  here 
as  elsewhere.  And  by  the  means  provided  by  the  Smith-Lever  bill  and  the 
Smith-Hughes  bill  it  has  gone  a  long  step  farther.  It  is  now  doing  educa- 
tional work  in  agriculture  directly  with  the  farmers  and  is  giving  agricultural 
and  mechanical  training  to  boys  and  girls  in  the  pubhc  schools.  The  county 
training  schools  already  mentioned  are  to  be  used  for  the  latter  work  among 
colored  youth.  It  is  difficult  to  see  why  the  national  government  should 
not  help  to  meet  an  equally  pressing  need  in  general  education  for  Negroes 


562  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

in  the  same  section.  Such  aid  would  doubtless  meet  with  the  same  response 
given  to  private  funds.  If  the  national  aid  were  conditioned  upon  increast 
pubKc  appropriations  for  colored  schools  it  would  prove  stimulating  and 
helpful,  as  has  been  true  with  the  private  funds  and  in  the  case  of  the  govern- 
ment money  in  agricultural  training.  It  is  remarkable  what  efforts  a  com- 
munity will  make  in  order  to  get  assistance  from  outside.  The  nation 
might  with  advantage  set  a  definite  date  for  withdrawing  aid  altogether, 
after  allowing  sufficient  time  for  development  and  permanent  growth. 
The  Slater  Fund  has  done  this  with  success  in  a  number  of  cases.  At 
Richmond,  Va.,  for  instance,  it  finanst  the  industrial  work  in  the  colored 
high  school.  This  resulted  in  similar  work  in  the  new  white  high  school. 
In  Charleston,  S.C,  the  Fund  helpt  the  city  estabhsh  an  industrial  school 
for  colored  youth.  Neither  work  would  have  been  done  but  for  this  out- 
side aid.  Both  have  gone  steadily  forward  since  the  aid  has  been  with- 
drawn. 

The  South  needs  the  help  and  stimulation  which  outside  aid  and  coopera- 
tion in  its  consequent  direction  give.  National  means  alone  are  adequate 
to  this  task.  The  nation  has  the  opportunity  to  render  the  South  a  pe- 
culiarly helpful  service  in  making  her  citizens  more  intelligent  and  efficient 
and  so  more  valuable  both  to  the  South  and  to  the  nation.  I  think  its 
responsibility  is  clear. 


C.     THE  NATION'S  RESPONSIBILITY  TO  ITSELF  FOR  NEGRO 

EDUCATION  AND  ITS  CONSTITUTIONAL  POWER 

TO  RENDER  AID  THERETO 

ISAAC   FISHER,    UNIVERSITY   EDITOR,    FISK   UNIVERSITY,    NASHVILLE,    TENN. 

The  brief  herewith  presented  is  not  for  the  Negro  alone,  but  for  the 
American  Commonwealth. 

Waiving  all  questions  of  equity  to  the  Negro,  the  American  government 
has  a  direct  and  immediate  responsibility  to  all  the  people  of  the  United 
States  for  the  education  of  the  American  Negro.  To  show  that  the  nation 
is  responsible  to  itself  for  the  education  of  her  colored  people  and  that  it 
can  give  aid  in  this  direction,  three  propositions  must  be  supported  and 
proved:  (I)  that  there  is  substantial  relation  between  Negro  education 
and  the  purposes  for  which  the  Union  was  formed;  (II)  that  this  relation 
creates  a  moral  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  government  to  all  of  the 
people,  to  promote  Negro  education;  and  (III)  that  there  is  ample  consti- 
tutional power  in  Congress  to  give  aid  to  Negro  education. 

I.  There  is  substantial  relation  between  Negro  education  and  the  purposes 
for  which  the  Union  was  formed. — The  purposes  in  the  hearts  of  the  men  who 
founded  this  nation  were,  as  they  themselves  wrote  them  into  the  Constitu- 


Superintendence!  THE  NATION  AND  NEGRO  EDUCATION  563 

tion,  (i)  to  form  a  more  perfect  union,  (2)  to  establish  justice,  (3)  to  insure 
domestic  tranquillity,  (4)  to  provide  for  the  common  defense,  (5)  to  pro- 
mote the  general  welfare,  and  (6)  to  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  them- 
selves and  their  posterity.  Is  there  substantial  relation  between  Negro 
education  or  lack  of  it  and  the  general  welfare  as  embraced  under  these 
topics  ?    The  relation  is  substantial  and  direct. 

The  establishment  of  justice :  Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  world- 
war  the  United  States  has  called  upon  her  citizens  to  offer  their  money, 
their  comfort,  their  happiness,  and  their  lives  in  defense  of  their  govern- 
ment. No  discrimination  in  their  favor  has  been  askt  by  the  Negroes. 
None  would  have  been  granted  by  the  government,  had  it  been 
askt. 

Whether  it  is  so  intended  or  not,  the  present  inequality  of  opportunity 
and  equality  of  duties  imposed  upon  the  Negro  both  by  state  and  federal 
governments  are  injustices  which  in  tiftie  will  be  set  up  as  precedents  to 
breed  and  justify  further  injustice  to  other  race  or  social  groups  thruout 
the  nation.  The  education  of  the  Negro,  therefore,  is  urged,  not  simply 
for  his  good,  but  because  it  will  be  a  step  toward  the  establishment  of  justice 
for  all  the  people  by  the  doing  of  justice  to  one  of  the  weaker  groups  of  the 
people. 

The  insuring  of  domestic  tranquillity:  The  census  reports  of  Negro 
criminality  for  the  years  1870,  1880,  1890,  and  1904  bear  testimony  that 
our  government  has  taken  "judicial  notice"  of  the  fact  that  there  is  too 
much  crime  in  the  race.  As  to  the  remedy  for  this  evil,  the  answer  by 
a  southern  judge,  Gilbert  T.  Stephenson,  of  Winston-Salem,  N.C.,  is 
unequivocal,  for  he  says:  "All  the  available  statistics  and  the  unanimous 
opinion  of  men  in  position  to  know  the  facts  would  seem  to  prove  that 
education — elementary  or  advanst,  industrial  or  literary — diminishes 
crime  among  Negroes."^ 

.  Providing  for  the  common  defense :  Whether  or  not  the  whole  people 
have  any  interest  in  the  future  of  the  American  Negro,  the  whole  people 
are  concerned  to  know  whether  always  in  time  of  stress  and  storm  a  race 
group  now  numbering  practically  twelve  million  will  be  whole-heartedly 
for  our  government  or  against  it.  To  help  educate  the  Negro  will  help 
provide  for  the  common  defense  by  increasing  the  love  of  those  who  must 
bear  arms  for  the  nation. 

Promoting  for  the  general  welfare:  In  addition  to  all  that  has  gone 
before  it  must  be  said  that  all  the  fruits  of  ignorance,  i.e.,  crime,  pauperism, 
high  death-rate,  low  standard  of  living,  etc.,  affect  the  general  weffare  of 
all  the  people.  The  steady  and  unexpected  migration  of  Negroes  from  the 
South  to  all  parts  of  the  country  suddenly  reminded  the  nation  that  in  our 
scrupulous  care  to  preserve  the  rights  of  the  individual  states  we  had 
neglected  to  provide  for  that  general  welfare  of  all  the  people  which  is 

•  Review  of  Reviews,  LV  (1917),  318. 


564  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

intrusted  by  the  Constitution,  not  to  the  states,  but  to  the  general  govern- 
ment. 

Our  logic  had  made  no  allowance  for  the  fact  that  while  under  our  system 
of  government  one  state  has  the  perfect  right  to  spend  $10.00  for  the 
education  of  a  white  child  and  but  $1 .44  for  that  of  a  Negro  child  she  and 
her  sister-states  have  no  right  to  permit  Negroes  thru  ignorance  to  have  so 
low  a  standard  of  living  that  when  they  began  moving  into  northern  and 
eastern  states  labor  all  over  the  country  should  fear  that  the  coming  of 
350,000  and  possibly  more  Negroes  would  be  a  menace  to  the  northern 
workingman  with  his  generally  higher  standard  of  living;  and  that  labor 
would  express  that  fear  in  the  awful  terms  of  the  massacres  of  East  St.  Louis. 

It  was  rendered  forever  impossible  by  the  inhibitions  of  the  Thirteenth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  forbidding  slavery 
in  the  Union,  for  one  state  to  prevent  the  migration  of  Negroes  to  another 
state;  and  whether  they  will  or  n(5t  all  the  states  of  the  American  Union 
have  a  very  special  interest  in  the  education  of  every  Negro  in  the  country. 

Securing  the  blessings  of  liberty:  The  nation  must  grant  full  measure  of 
liberty,  compatible  with  safety,  to  all  of  her  citizens  or  she  must  deteriorate. 
Full  liberty  to  the  Negro  to  prepare  himself  for  citizenship  thru  education 
is  a  principle  which  must  be  applied  if  the  nation  is  not  to  adopt  a  counter- 
principle  of  restraint  upon  that  race;  and  every  arbitrary  restraint  of  liberty 
not  equally  imposed  on  all  the  citizens  similarly  required  to  bear  the  burdens 
of  citizenship  leads  to  ultimate  tyranny  and  to  a  loss  of  national  liberty. 

II.  The  relation  subsisting  between  Negro  education  and  the  purposes  for 
which  the  Union  was  formed  create  a  moral  responsibility  in  the  government 
to  promote  Negro  education. — The  several  ends  for  which  the  nation  was 
founded,  embracing  the  general  welfare  of  all  the  people  of  the  Union,  was 
intrusted  in  terms  to  the  care  of  the  federal  government.  The  moral 
obligation  of  the  Union  to  protect  all  of  its  people  arises  from  this  fact. 
If,  as  has  been  shown,  the  promotion  of  Negro  education  is  a  factor  in  the 
promotion  of  the  general  welfare  the  nation  is  under  moral  obligation  to 
advance  the  cause  of  Negro  education.  The  nation's  ethical  obUgation 
to  advance  the  cause  of  Negro  education  being  conceded,  nothing  remains 
but  to  affirm  that — 

III.  There  is  full  constitutional  power  in  Congress  to  give  aid  to  Negro 
education. 

There  are  three  grants  of  power  to  Congress  under  which  federal  aid 
may  be  given  to  Negro  education,  i.e.,  the  power  (i)  to  regulate  commerce, 
(2)  to  provide  for  the  common  defense,  and  (3)  to  provide  for  the  general 
welfare. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  Negro  ilHteracy  is  productive  of  crime 
and  a  low  standard  of  living.  Without  looking  farther  we  have  here  the 
following  harmful  fruits  of  Negro  ilHteracy:  (i)  crime,  immorahty; 
(2)  health  menace;    (3)  lower  relative  standard  of  living,  menacing  the 


Superintendence!  THE  NATION  AND  NEGRO  EDUCATION  565 

public  peace;  and  (4)  poverty  and  dependence.  And  it  will  be  admitted 
without  argument  that  these  bear  vital  relation  to  the  public  health,  the 
public  morals,  the  public  peace,  and  the  public  safety;  and  that  these  are 
undisputed  subjects  of  the  poHce  power  to  be  regulated  thereunder. 

While  fully  conceding  that  any  and  all  of  the  states  of  the  Union  have 
police  power  many  deny  that  the  general  government  has  any  such  power; 
and  this  denial  has  been  urged  to  justify  the  exclusion  of  the  United  States 
from  participation  in  such  law  enforcements  as  have  to  do  with  subjects 
ordinarily  legislated  upon  by  the  several  states. 

Under  its  commerce  power  Congress  has  legislated  (i)  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  disease  from  state  to  state  (act  of  March  27,  1890),  (2)  to 
cooperate  with  municipahties  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease  (act  of 
February  15,  1893),  (3)  to  regulate  railway  sanitation,  (4)  to  collect  and 
collate  sanitary  information,  (5)  to  investigate  contagious  and  infectious 
diseases  (act  of  March  3, 1901),  and  (6)  to  study  and  investigate  the  diseases 
of  man  (act  of  August  14,  191 2).  The  power  to  pass  quarantine  laws  to 
protect  the  public  health  has  been  upheld  by  the  Supreme  Court  in  numerous 
cases.  From  these  cases  it  is  clear  that  Congress  may  legislate  to  destroy 
conditions  injurious  to  the  public  health,  morals,  and  welfare  under  its 
power  to  regulate  commerce.  And  it  is  not  perceived  that  it  has  not  the 
power  to  reduce  illiteracy  which  is  a  cause  of  disease  and  its  spread  from 
state  to  state. 

On  the  aflBirmative  side  it  may  be  said  that  Negro  education  will  result 
in  national  benefits.  Under  dangerous  aspects  of  Negro  illiteracy  it  will 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  federal  Bureau  of  Education  indicated,  not  only 
that  the  masses  of  Negroes  should  be  educated,  but  that ''  the  race  must  have 
physicians  with  real  skill  and  the  spirit  of  service  to  lead  against  the  unsani- 
tary conditions  that  are  threatening  not  only  the  colored  people,  but  also 
their  white  neighbors."^  Here  it  is  shown  that  both  elementary  and  higher 
education  of  Negroes  will  be  safeguards  of  the  public  health. 

On  the  economic  side  it  may  be  said  further  that  according  to  our  last 
census  there  were  5,192,535  Negro  bread-winners.  Three  millions,  or 
55  per  cent,  of  these  are  farmers  and  farm  laborers;  and  practically  not 
more  than  5  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  Negroes  are  in  the  skilled  or 
professional  groups.  These  colored  people  till  41,500,000  acres  of  land  and 
comprise  40 . 4  per  cent  of  all  southern  farmers  in  the  nation,  producing 
commodities  which  are  of  the  highest  value  in  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States.  The  lack  of  skill  and  scientific  training  which  these  workers 
exhibit  and  the  lack  of  education  of  which  these  are  the  fruits  point  the  way 
to  the  better  promotion  of  commerce  thru  the  better  education  of  this  great 
group  of  producers. 

It  has  been  shown  (i)  that  Negro  illiteracy — any  illiteracy — is  a  menace 
to  the  public  peace,  health,  morals,  and  safety  of  all  the  people;   (2)  that 

'  Bulletin  No.  38  (1916),  p.  55. 


566  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

Congress  has  police  power  for  the  protection  of  the  general  welfare;  (3)  that 
Congress  has  employed  this  police  power  under  its  commercial  power  to 
protect  the  public  peace,  health,  morals,  and  welfare  of  all  the  people  in 
cases  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  individual  states;  (4)  that  Negro  laborers 
are  for  the  most  part  untrained;  (5)  that  vocational  education  in  particular 
and  general  education  as  a  whole  will  give  such  training  to  these  workers 
as  will  help  to  promote  the  growth  of  American  commerce;  and  (6)  that 
Congress  is  specifically  authorized  by  the  Constitution  to  adopt  measures 
to  promote  the  growth  of  such  commerce. 

From  all  of  these  arguments  may  be  deduced  the  simple  conclusion  that 
Congress  has  ample  power  under  the  Constitution  to  give  aid  to  Negro 
education  in  order  to  equalize  the  opportunities  of  education  given  in  the 
several  states;  and  in  giving  such  aid,  it  need  not  examine  the  causes  of  the 
inequalities  to  be  cured.  If  they  spring  from  poverty  in  the  states  Congress 
must  help  the  states  for  the  general  welfare;  if  from  poverty  of  Negroes 
Congress  may  encourage  them  by  providing  educational  facilities  for  them 
further  to  provide  for  the  common  defense;  or  if  from  race  discriminations 
Congress  is  morally  bound  to  legislate  in  such  a  way  that  however  desirable 
these  discriminations  may  be  they  cannot  jeopardize  the  national  defense, 
retard  the  growth  of  commerce,  and  menace  the  public  peace,  public  health, 
public  morals,  and  the  general  welfare  of  all  the  people  of  the  Union. 


DISCUSSION 

James  H.  Dillard,  president  of  Slater  and  Jeanes  Boards,  Charlottesville,  Va. — 
This  very  important  and  far-reaching  proposition  has  been  much  discust  in  past  years. 
Many  arguments  pro  and  con  have  been  put  forth.  There  are  differences  of  opinion  on 
the  subject.  I  confess  myself  to  have  been  at  different  times  on  different  sides;  but  for  a 
number  of  years  I  have  thought  that  the  reasons  for  national  aid  to  Negro  education  far 
outweigh  all  possible  objections.  I  say  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  I  am  an  ultra  believer 
in  states'  rights  and  duties  as  opposed  to  federal  rights  and  duties. 

In  facing  the  problem  I  find  myself  confronted  with  the  following  thoughts: 

1.  Justice,  both  to  the  Negro  and  to  the  South. — When  the  Negro  was  freed  he  had 
practically  nothing  to  start  with  but  the  false  discipline  of  slavery.  He  was  not  helpt 
as  he  should  have  been  and  the  efforts  that  were  made  were  utterly  inadequate.  The 
whole  nation  should  have  felt  the  obligation  to  afford  means  of  education  to  the  freedmen, 
for  the  presence  of  the  Negro  on  our  continent  and  his  use  as  a  slave  were  due,  not  to  the 
South  alone,  but  to  the  whole  country.  The  country  as  a  whole  consented  and  abetted. 
Justice  therefore  demanded  that  when  the  change  of  status  came  the  whole  country  should 
share  the  consequent  obligation  of  education.  This  obligation  has  never  been  met  and 
the  demand  for  meeting  it  still  calls  as  a  matter  of  simple  justice  to  the  Negro.  It  is  also 
a  matter  of  justice  to  the  South.  The  South,  chief  promoter  of  slavery  and  also  chief 
sufferer,  should  not  have  been  expected  to  have  the  whole  burden  of  the  public  education 
of  the  freedmen.  The  beginning  and  the  end  of  slavery  affected,  involved,  and  concerned 
the  country  as  a  whole.  I  would  base  national  aid  to  Negro  education  on  simple  justice — 
justice  to  the  Negro  and  justice  to  the  South. 

2.  The  tremendous  benefit  to  the  Negro  and  to  the  whole  country. — There  is  no  need  of 
going  over  the  old  arguments.  The  prosperity,  the  safety,  the  health  of  the  nation  depend 
upon  the  spread  of  knowledge,  intelligence,  efficiency,  and  enlightened  purposes  among 
all  citizens  of  every  race  and  calling,  and  the  only  practical  governmental  way  of  effecting 
this  extension  of  good  is  thru  the  public  schools. 


I 


Superintendence]  THE  NATION  AND  NEGRO  EDUCATION  567 

3.  The  spending  of  money. — How  better  can  all  the  people's  money  be  spent  than  in 
providing  education  for  all  the  people  ?  There  may  come  times  when  it  seems  necessary 
to  spend  the  last  dollar  on  army  and  navy,  but  we  never  actually  spend  the  last  dollar 
in  this  way  and  the  ordinary  expenses  go  on.  The  necessary  addition  to  ordinary  expenses 
which  would  come  on  account  of  an  amount  of  aid  sufficient  to  cause  very  great  improve- 
ment in  Negro  education  would  be  relatively  a  small  item  in  the  country's  budget. 

4.  The  need. — The  facts  speak  for  themselves.  While  much  has  been  done  by  states 
and  counties,  as  the  great  reduction  in  illiteracy  well  shows,  it  is  still  true  that  in  most 
parts  of  the  South  the  terms  of  Negro  public  schools  are  too  short  and  the  pay  and  con- 
sequent fitness  of  the  teachers  too  low.  Longer  terms  and  better  teachers  are  the  two 
outstanding  needs.  Mr.  Williams  has  given  in  his  address  many  statistics  which  deserve 
careful  consideration.  Improvement  is  going  on,  but  why  should  it  be  so  slow  if  it  can  be 
wisely  hastened  ? 

5.  The  constitutionality  of  the  proposition. — This  aspect  of  the  case  has  been  con- 
sidered in  detail  in  Mr.  Fisher's  address.  I  have  always  believed  that  when  a  good  step 
had  to  be  taken  the  way  could  somehow  be  found  thru  the  mazes  of  the  commas,  clauses, 
and  phrases  of  any  constitution  that  ever  could  be  written. 

Now  permit  me  to  say  that  in  spite  of  the  five  thoughts  just  considered,  namely,  the 
justice,  the  benefit,  the  wisdom  of  the  expenditure,  the  need,  and  the  constitutional 
permissibility,  it  seems  to  me  that  national  aid  should  be  withheld  unless  it  could  be  given 
without  two  drawbacks: 

1.  Such  aid  must  not  diminish  state  or  local  appropriations.  However  there  appears 
to  be  no  danger  of  this  kind.  The  fact  is  that  the  cooperation  of  the  various  private 
foundations  has  led  invariably  to  larger  appropriations  from  public  funds. 

2.  The  money  given  in  aid  must  not  be  wasted.  I  believe  that  methods  can  be  found 
whereby  the  proper  spending  of  the  money  can  be  safeguarded. 

I  shall  now  venture  to  state  in  brief  outline  the  policy  and  plan  which  I  should  like 
to  see  adopted: 

1.  Let  the  aid  be  offered  in  fifteen  states,  as  follows:  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana, 
Texas,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky.  Two  other  states,  West  Virginia 
and  Missouri,  might  be  added  if  the  addition  be  thought  advisable. 

2.  Let  the  aid  be  given  for  salary  of  teachers  in  public  schools  of  all  grades.  With 
increase  of  salary  the  question  of  length  of  term  would  take  care  of  itself. 

3.  Let  the  administration  of  the  funds  be  in  the  hands  of  a  committee  of  three  con- 
sisting of  the  state  superintendent,  the  state  agent  of  Negro  rural  schools,  and  the  president 
or  principal  of  the  leading  state  institution  for  Negroes.  Eleven  of  the  fifteen  states 
already  have  state  agents  of  Negro  rural  schools  and  the  remaining  four  should  have  and 
probably  soon  will  have  such  an  official.  All  of  the  states  except  two  have  one  outstanding 
Negro  institution  supported  by  the  state.  In  North  Carolina  with  three  and  Alabama 
with  two  the  selection  of  the  member  of  the  committee  might  be  left  to  the  state  superin- 
tendent. 

4.  Let  the  amount  be  for  fifteen  years  one-third,  for  ten  years  one-fourth,  and  for 
five  years  one-fifth  of  the  amount  expended  each  preceding  year  for  all  purposes  of  Negro 
education  from  public  funds  in  each  county  and  city  and  for  each  state  institution  of 
higher  grade. 

In  order  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  amount  needed  to  carry  out  this  plan  I  have 
taken  the  figures  available.  Not  all  are  of  the  same  year  and  so  the  amount  makes  no 
pretense  of  absolute  present  accuracy.  According  to  such  figures  as  I  have  the  amount 
spent  in  a  year  in  counties  and  cities  for  Negro  public  schools  in  the  fifteen  states  was 
in  round  numbers  $5,125,000.  The  amount  spent  for  the  state  schools  was  $275,000. 
These  together  made  $5,400,000,  so  that  under  these  figures  the  amount  of  national  aid 
would  be  $1,800,000.  Suppose  it  were  two  millions,  or  two  and  a  half  millions,  or  even 
three  millions  a  year  for  fifteen  years  and  then  a  diminishing  amount;  this  seems  a  small 
sum  for  the  whole  nation  to  pay  in  performing  a  high  duty  and  achieving  a  widespread 
benefit.  For  tho  the  amount  is  not  large  when  distributed  over  fifteen  states  it  would 
do  much  in  each  state  to  further  of  itself  the  needed  improvement,  and  I  confidently 
believe  that  the  aid  given  would  tend  to  increase  the  state  and  county  appropriations. 


S68  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

STANDARDIZATION  OF  SCHOOLHOUSE  PLANNING 
AND  CONSTRUCTION 

PRANK  IRVING  COOPER,   ARCHITECT,   BOSTON,   MASS. 

All  this  week  we  have  listened  with  intense  interest  to  the  speeches 
which  have  been  made  to  us,  and  one  reason  for  our  interest  has  been  that 
they  all  had  some  intimate  connection  with  that  one  enormous  subject 
which  engrosses  us  all,  "The  War."  It  has  thrown  a  powerful  searchlight 
upon  every  kind  of  activity  and  we  are  looking  at  affairs  from  a  new  point 
of  view. 

According  to  reputable  authorities  we  have  been  the  world's  spend- 
thrift, and  we  must  now  try  to  learn  where  waste  may  be  curtailed  in  every 
possible  way,  not  only  in  the  use  of  food,  but  in  the  use  of  materials,  and 
under  the  latter  heading  in  the  use  of  building-material.  I  do  not  mean 
that  we  must  stop  using  building-materials,  but  I  do  mean  that  we  must 
be  sure  that  the  materials  are  being  put  to  the  best  use  in  the  most  eco- 
nomical way.  In  the  development  of  our  present  complicated  building 
with  laboratories,  gymnasium,  libraries,  executive  departments,  etc.,  there 
has  crept  in  an  element  of  waste  space  and  inefficient  layout  which  almost 
always  results  in  a  waste  of  public  money,  and  it  is  this  waste  which  we 
hope  in  some  way  to  abolish. 

We  have  nothing  that  could  be  called  standards  of  schoolhouse  build- 
ing. It  is  true  that  our  state  regulation  has  had  a  great  growth  during 
the  past  five  years  as  shown  in  comparative  charts  for  1910  and  19 15. 

Chart  I,  of  19 10,  shows  that  but  23  states  had  laws  or  regulations 
dealing  with  school  buildings.  These  laws  and  regulations  dealt  with  26 
phases  of  the  buildings.  The  agitation  during  the  five  years  following  the 
publishing  of  this  chart  resulted  in  the  passing  of  regulations  in  10  additional 
states  as  well  as  the  reviewing  of  the  laws  in  many  of  the  states  having  laws 
in  1910. 

A  redrafting  of  the  chart  in  1915,  Chart  II,  showed  that  33  states  had 
regulations  dealing  with  63  phases  of  the  building.  We  are  now  at  work 
on  a  revision  of  this  chart  to  show  the  amount  of  regulations  as  it  stood 
in  1917. 

If  there  were  more  uniformity  in  these  laws  they  would  be  more  valuable. 
As  it  is  there  is  such  a  great  variation  that  a  building  in  one  state  would 
often  be  condemned  if  it  were  moved  half  a  mile  across  the  border  into 
another  state. 

To  show  how  vitally  this  affects  our  pocketbooks,  states  having  similar 
regulations,  as  Vermont,  New  Jersey,  and  Minnesota,  require  50  per  cent 
more  area  in  classrooms  per  pupil  than  some  of  the  other  states  and  their 
taxpayers  must  pay  $1.50  for  every  dollar  that  it  costs  their  neighbors. 
This  is  simply  one  instance  out  of  many,  but  it  is  obvious  (without  con- 
sidering which  is  right)  that  there  should  be  one  best  standard  and  that  all 
states  would  be  benefited  by  adopting  it. 


Superintendence]     STANDARDIZATION  OF  SCHOOLHOUSE  PLANNING         569 

To  assist  in  determining  what  is  the  best  practice  in  school  buildings 
is  the  object  of  our  work.  Our  Committee  has  had  no  standards  of  planning 
to  go  by.    But  what  we  did  have  was  an  enormous  number  and  variety  of 

CHAUT  JtlOWINC  JTATUJ  Of  COMPUUORY     &EGUIATION    Of 
JCHGDLHOUJL  CDNJieUCTION  IN  W.  UNITED  JTATEJ   IN    I3IO. 


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Indicates  law 


III  Indicates  regulation 

Chart  I 


school  buildings  now  in  active  use  which  were  ready  for  investigation  with 
a  view  to  determining  what  was  most  desirable  in  each  and  what  was  the 
best  practice  in  division  of  space.  I  should  premise  any  discussion  of  our 
school-building  tabulation  with  the  statement  that  we  have  not  tabulated  a 


570 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


[Atlantic  City 


QiART  SHOWING    STATUS    Of  RfGULATION  OF  SCHOOLHOUSL   CONSTRUCTION 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  THE  YEAH  1915 


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INDICATES     REGULMIO/M 
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Chart  II 


Superintendence]    STANDARDIZATION  OF  SCHOOLHOUSE  PLANNING  571 

sufficient  number  of  school  buildings  to  warrant  us  in  advancing  final 
conclusions. 

We  have  received  plans  of  buildings  from  architects  and  superintendents 
in  cities  and  towns  of  eighteen  widely  separated  states.  Some  of  these 
plans  have  been  selected  because  the  building  was  of  a  representative  type, 
some  because  the  architect  was  a  leader  in  school  planning,  and  some 
because  they  were  highly  recommended  by  school  authorities. 

The  buildings  were  classed  according  to  the  school  activity  into  six 
types,  three  under  grade  schools  and  three  under  high  schools: 

1.  Grade  schools  of  one  story  with  auditorium,  but  having  no  basement  and  no 
gymnasium. 

2.  Grade  schools  of  two  stories  with  auditorium,  but  having  no  basement  and  no 
gymnasium. 

3.  Grade  schools  of  two  stories  with  basement,  but  having  no  auditorium  and  no 
gymnasium. 

4.  Junior  high  schools  of  two  stories  with  auditorium  and  basement,  but  having  no 
gymnasium. 

5.  High  schools  of  two  stories  with  auditorium,  gymnasium,  and  basement. 

6.  High  schools  of  three  stories  with  auditorium,  gymnasium,  and  basement. 

Our  method  of  tabulation  has  been,  first,  find  the  entire  area  of  the 
building  to  be  measured,  the  area  of  the  basement  and  of  all  the  floors; 
secondly,  to  measure  the  cross-area  of  each  wall,  flue,  room,  closet,  corridor 
— that  is,  of  every  part  of  the  building  that  had  area.  If  our  tabulation 
showed  an  error  of  one-half  of  i  per  cent  from  the  total  area  it  was  gone 
over  until  the  error  was  found. 

Our  next  step  was  to  decide  on  an  arrangement  of  the  main  divisions 
of  the  school  building.  Our  divisions  were:  walls  and  partitions,  flues, 
stairs  and  corridors,  accessories,  instruction  and  administration. 

Walls,  partitions,  flues,  stairs,  and  corridors  need  no  explanation. 
Accessories  included  unmarked  spaces  and  spaces  marked  ''playrooms," 
"storage,"  "closets,"  etc.,  that  did  not  seem  to  have  any  connection  with 
any  of  the  main  divisions.  Instruction  included  all  those  areas  used 
directly  for  some  activity  that  goes  to  educate  the  pupil.  The  gymnasium 
and  auditorium  were  included  in  this  division.  Administration  included 
all  areas  connected  with  the  government  and  maintenance  of  the  school, 
the  heating  and  ventilating  plant,  the  sanitary  provisions,  and  the  ward- 
robes. 

In  preparing  the  tabulation  of  each  building  for  study  we  used  equal 
strips  of  cardboard  one  inch  wide  and  twenty-two  inches  long,  one  for  each 
building.  Each  strip  represented  100  per  cent  and  upon  each  were  laid 
out  spaces  for  the  main  divisions  into  which  we  divided  the  floor  area. 
Upon  the  back  of  each  strip  was  laid  out  the  main  subdivisions.  These 
strips,  which  look  like  candles,  could  easily  be  arranged  to  show  comparisons 
between  the  several  divisions  of  the  building  without  having  in  each  case 


572 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


[Atlantic  City 


to  lay  out  again  a  complete  draft.     Each  chart  has  been  made  by  bringing 
together  "candles"  representing  the  buildings  we  were  to  compare. 

Without  attempting  any  lengthy  discussion  of  findings,  I  wish  at 
present  simply  to  make  clear  two  points: 

1.  Unless  later  findings  change  present  results  both  grade  and  high 
schools  are  comparable  and  any  regulations  as  to  minimum  standards  may 
cover  both  without  any  differentiation. 

2.  By  means  of  charts  covering  a  sufficient  number  of  school  build- 
ings the  best  standards  may  be  determined. 

Chart  III  shows  a  comparison  of  the  percentages  of  seventeen  grade 
and  seventeen  high  schools  taken  without  any  selection  other  than  sequence 

NATIONAL    LDUCATION     ASSOCIATION 

DLPARTMENT  Of  SCHOOL  ADMINICTHATION 
COMMITTEE  ON  5TANDAKJ)I2ATION  6CHOaJ10Y5E  PLANNING  AND  C0N5TBYCT10N 

PtiOTtTOGEAPH  or   17  GRADC  ^  tflOH  .5CttC©L5  AERA/JCrD  TO  ^OF  G^MPAGlcSOJtS 
or  THE  ^IX  MAl/t  DIYI^IQNlS  Ct.VSSH  AREA^. 


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Chart  III 


and  arranged  under  our  six  headings,  walls  and  partitions,  flues,  stairs  and 
corridors,  accessories,  instruction,  and  administration. 

The  grade  schools  are  on  the  left,  the  high  schools  on  the  right,  of  a 
vertical  line  which  represents  zero  in  the  graphs  of  walls  and  partitions, 
flues,  stairs  and  corridors,  accessories,  and  administration,  but  which 
represents  35  per  cent  in  the  graph  of  instruction.  Each  horizontal  section 
represents  the  percentage  area  occupied  by  a  division  in  one  school.  A 
glance  is  sufficient  to  show  that  in  high  and  grade  schools  percentage  areas 
for  each  division  are  approximately  symmetrical. 

In  Chart  IV  each  light  line  represents  the  percentage  area  of  a  single 
school — the  heavy  black  line  represents  a  school  building  that  had  50  per 
cent  of  the  area  for  instruction.  A  similar  chart,  with  a  line  for  each  school 
tabulated,  showed  that  the  average  space  for  instruction  was  50  per  cent. 
We  establish  the  50  per  cent  line  as  the  norm  in  instruction. 

By  taking  the  candle  charts  representing  grade  schools  charts  of  grade 
schools  were  prepared  showing  percentage  areas  in  each  division.     Schools 


Superintendence)    STANDARDIZATION  OF  SCHOOLHOUSE  PLANNING 


573 


showing  high  percentage  area  for  instruction  are  low  in  accessories,  stairs 
and  corridors,  and  administration  and  indicate  that  the  school  officers  and 
the  architect  had  given  proper  study  to  all  parts  of  the  plan.  Flues  and 
construction  being  usually  subject  to  definite  regulations  fall  into  groups 
of  similar  percentages  and  do  not  vary  with  relative  values. 

A  chart  constructed  on  the  same  principle  as  the  chart  for  grade  schools, 
but  based  on  the  investigation  of  high  schools  instead  of  grade  schools, 
makes  it  evident  that  high  schools  and  grade  schools  are  comparable.  The 
only  reason  for  separating  them  has  been  the  often-repeated  argument  that 


nmoMi  wucmon  association! 

DrPAraCTiT  or  OTOOL  ADM17^13TRAT]0?i 

(mmjTLa\5mmmon  cr  yttooLfiovjc  Mmm  km  co?i5racTio/i 


AOMIN  I:TBATI0N  IN5TBUCTION  ACCt550Clti  C0RB.ID0115 

Chapter  IV 


grade-  and  high-school  buildings  could  not  be  covered  by  the  same  regula- 
tions. If  the  large  number  of  high  and  grade  schools  investigated  so  far 
agree  so  closely  there  is  no  reason  to  think  that  further  investigation  will 
do  other  than  confirm  these  results. 

Now  the  most  important  part  of  these  school  buildings  is  that  devoted 
to  instruction.  If  the  space  devoted  to  instruction  falls  below  the  50  per 
cent  line  it  is  evident  that  there  are  some  unusual  conditions  or  that  the 
plan  has  not  received  adequate  study. 

Chart  V  shows  five  Massachusetts  high  schools  selected  by  agents  of 
the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education  for  tabulation  by  this  Committee. 
These  five  schools  are  in  different  cities  of  the  state  and  range  in  size  from 
40,000  square  feet  to  over  200,000  square  feet  in  area.  It  was  supposed 
that  there  would  be  little  comparison.  But  these  five  high  schools  offer 
an  interesting  example  of  the  close  comparison  that  may  be  expected  where 
superintendents  and  architects  are  working  with  a  definite  goal  in  view. 


574 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


(Atlahtic  City 


Chart  VI  shows  a  study  of  three  types  of  grade  schools  and  three  types 
of  high  schools.  The  chart  is  constructed  on  the  principle  used  for  the 
preceding  charts.  Some  schools  in  all  the  groups  have  space  for  instruction 
above  the  50  per  cent  line  except  grade  schools  of  the  old  type.  Of  all  the 
buildings  examined  those  of  two  classes  stand  out  as  preeminently  the  best 
— the  one-story  grade  school  and  the  so-called  junior  high  school. 

Why  is  this  so  ? 

It  is  because  these  two  types  have  been  most  carefully  studied  by  our 
leading  superintendents  and  our  best  schoolhouse  architects.    It  is  because 


MASSACm/SETTS    bOARD    OF  EDUCATION 

OFFICt       or    rtiS.     BUSINESS     ACENT 

GRAPHIC   COMPARISON    OF  AREAS  IN  RECENT   MASSACHUSETTS    HIGH   SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 

iiiioosa  n 


iTum  eoom 
maTATioM  goom 

Utr  IXPAHTMEHT 
lABOMTOItlCa 
LCCTURL  KOOU 
OaMESTIC  SOEKCi 
MMUAl    THAISING 


AiUMBLY  »Ai.L 
LIBKAirY 

:,X/i»UINQ  POOL 


N^^ 


^^^ 


^° 


51S51 


58X't 


Chart  V 


they  are  a  new  type  of  school  building  and  there  are  no  bad  habits  of  plan- 
ning these  buildings  to  be  overcome.  The  superintendent  and  the  com- 
mittee have  an  open  mind  with  regard  to  them,  and  the  architect  is  allowed 
to  carry  out  a  building  not  planned  on  conventional  lines  with  the  usual 
extravagances.  The  possibility  for  improvement  in  the  other  types  sug- 
gests that  the  time  has  arrived  for  getting  together  over  the  problems 
involved. 

Here  in  general  is  the  field  to  be  covered. 

1.  The  determination  of  best  percentages  and  the  adoption  of  minimum 
standards. 

2.  The  unification  of  state  regulations. 

3.  The  investigation  of  building  materials  with  special  regard  to  the 
substitutes. 


Superinteadencel    STANDARDIZATION  OF  SCHOOLHOUSE  PLANNING 


575 


4.  The  problem  of  obtaining  the  greatest  possible  use  from  each  part 
of  the  building.  This  fourth  problem  obviously  depends  upon  the  super- 
intendent for  its  solution,  being  a  problem  of  administration  to  be  solved 
after  the  architect  has  done  his  share  by  providing  the  good  school  building 
for  the  good  school. 

To  us  this  seems  a  fitting  opportunity  to  lay  out  a  national  system  to 
take  up  this  work  and  make  it  of  practical  use  for  all  parts  of  the  country. 
We  suggest  the  desirabihty  of  a  general  committee  acting  under  the  Depart- 
ment of  Administration,  a  consulting  body  which  should  oversee  the  work, 
and  a  subcommittee  in  each  state  to  supply  information  to  every  town  or 
city  which  is  about  to  build  a  school  and  to  help  them  with  advice  as  to  the 

NATIONAL    LDUCATION     ASSOCIATION 

DLPARTMENT  Of  SCHOOL  ADMlNIiSTRATlON 
COMMITTEL  ON  5TANDAm)IZATI0N  6CHOOLHOV5E  PLANNING  AND  OONSTBVaiON 

PEBCC/^IOGEAPH  or  5IX  TYPC5  Cf  5CnGDL    bVlLDmG5  5H0Wl/<0  lii^TBUCTlO^  ARTA 
Above  AND  DCLOV  §0%    LMC 
@®@     ®®©®     ®@@    @     0    @®®     @®@®     @@® 


Chart  VI 


plans  of  school  buildings.  We  suggest  that  there  should  be  an  inspection 
of  school  buildings  and  school-building  plans  under  a  definite  questionnaire 
and  schedule  to  be  prepared  by  the  general  committee,  and  that  the  results 
of  these  inspections  should  be  tabulated  and  published. 

Now  the  duty  before  the  National  Education  Association  is  to  educate 
the  country  so  that  it  will  demand  better-planned  and  more  economical 
schoolhouses.  We  must  consider  how  we  may  apply  the  standards  of  the 
National  Education  Association  to  future  buildings.  We  must  continue 
to  build  schoolhouses  and  they  must  not  be  overcrowded.  We  must  have 
minimum  standards  which  architect  and  superintendent  will  strive  to  raise 
and  improve.  This  work  should  be  carried  on  in  a  spirit  of  mutual  help- 
fulness; any  superintendent,  committee,  or  architect  should  be  able  to  turn 
to  the  committee  of  the  National  Education  Association  and  obtain  proper 
information  and  proper  data,  the  best  obtainable  from  any  source. 


576  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic city 

WORK  AND  SCOPE  OF  THE  JUNIOR  RED  CROSS 

HENRY  NOBLE  MAC  CRACKEN,  PRESIDENT  OF  VASSAR  COLLEGE, 
POUGHKEEPSIE,  N.Y. 

The  Red  Crescent  still  flaps  defiantly  over  Samaria,  but  along  the  road 
the  Good  Samaritan  once  traveled  your  Red  Cross  flag  goes  winding  down 
today  toward  ancient  Jericho.  The  Red  Cross  is  a  living  embodiment  of 
the  spirit  of  the  Good  Samaritan  of  old.  It  is  the  note  of  mutuality  in  the 
story  of  the  Good  Samaritan  which  set  his  act  off  from  other  good  deeds. 
Being  human  was  his  regular  business.  He  asked  no  questions,  he  uttered 
no  criticisms,  he  sought  out  no  causes;  he  did  "what  any  man  would  do — 
what  you  would  have  done  if  you  were  in  his  place."  The  stranger  wounded 
and  robbed  had  afforded  him  an  opportunity  to  show  his  humanity — that 
opportunity  he  instantly  claimed  as  his  human  right.  This  is  the  spirit 
of  mutual  aid  which  has  made  your  Red  Cross  of  today. 

Of  the  strength  of  such  a  spirit  I  need  hardly  speak.  It  was  not  merely 
a  triumph  of  organization  nor  a  recognition  of  business-like  methods  nor 
only  a  patriotic  expression  that  led  twenty-three  and  one-half  millions  of 
people  at  Christmas  time  to  stand  up  and  be  counted  at  a  dollar  each  for  the 
Red  Cross  membership.  As  Dr.  Finley  has  said,  this  enrolment  is  more 
significant  than  the  ancient  one  when  the  whole  Roman  world  went  forth 
to  be  counted  on  the  first  Christmas.  For  the  tribute  which  our  citizens 
paid  then  was,  not  the  tribute  to  Caesar,  but  a  tribute  of  the  spirit  and  a 
homage  to  eternal  values  inherent  in  the  Red  Cross  idea. 

This  Red  Cross  idea  appears  under  two  aspects  to  one  who  has  watcht 
it  grow  thru  the  past  months  at  Washington.  It  is  first  of  all  the  response 
by  the  community  as  a  single  social  group  which  thru  collective  altruism 
helps  individuals  to  freedom  from  calamities  where  self-help  is  not  adequate. 
It  is  secondly  an  expression  of  citizenship  such  as  Paul  claimed  when  he 
compared  himself  with  the  chief  captain  who  obtained  with  a  great  sum  his 
citizenship — while  Paul  was  free-born.  The  Red  Cross  expression  of 
citizenship  measures  the  innate  power  of  free  American-born  communities 
to  assume  as  by  nature  the  general  human  tasks.  Our  people  in  many 
instances  have  for  the  first  time  been  united  by  the  Red  Cross  in  common 
effort,  and  now  they  cannot  wait  for  edict  and  proclamation  to  tell  them 
how  they  may  serve.  The  Red  Cross  is  the  economy  of  free  will,  of  the 
volunteer  spirit,  and  because  it  is  so  much  an  affair  of  the  spirit  it  is  one  of 
the  greatest  forces  today,  as  General  Pershing  cabled  on  last  Monday.  It 
maintains  the  morale  of  the  troops  in  the  trenches,  the  sailors  on  the 
sea,  and  also  the  folks  young  and  old  at  home. 

It  has  been  often  repeated — not  too  often,  I  think — that  this  is  a  war 
of  nations;  and  the  nation  with  the  best  morale  will  win,  and  morale  means 
happiness.  President  Wilson  said  to  me  not  long  ago  that  one  of  his  earliest 
memories  as  a  boy  was  of  knitting  under  his  mother's  watchful  eyes  for  the 


I 


Superintendence]     WORK  AND  SCOPE  OF  THE  JUNIOR  RED  CROSS  577 

Confederate  soldiers.  The  little  boy  learned  to  knit  socks  and  could  finish 
the  toes,  but  not  the  heels — his  mother  always  had  to  finish  the  heels  for 
him.  Today  it  is  a  question  not  of  thousands  but  of  milHons  of  socks,  and 
when  the  Army  needs  wool  from  the  Red  Cross  storehouses  the  entire  wool 
market  is  for  a  time  absorbed.  It  was  President  Wilson's  memory  of  those 
boyhood  days  when  he  felt  that  he  was  helping  the  cause  for  which  his 
family  was  fighting  that  led  him  to  approve  the  idea  of  a  Junior  Red  Cross, 
and  in  a  personal  letter  to  me  he  said  that  he  was  sure  that  in  future  days 
school  children  would  look  back  to  the  work  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross  as  a 
happy  circumstance  of  their  school  days.  Happiness — this  is  the  feature 
of  the  Junior  Red  Cross  that  I  wish  to  emphasize  in  my  few  words  today. 
The  Junior  Red  Cross  does  not  seek  to  bring  to  the  school  tales  of  pain  and 
suffering  and  horror,  feelings  of  war  hate  and  of  revenge,  the  encouragement 
of  settling  quarrels  by  might  rather  than  by  right;  it  offers  instead  a  pleasant 
channel  for  the  pent-up  emotions  of  youth  to  pass  out  into  useful  fields  of 
service.  It  hopes  to  divert  the  rising  tide  of  juvenile  delinquency,  which  is 
estimated  by  President  Bodine,  of  the  National  League  of  Compulsory 
Education  Officials,  to  have  arisen  30  per  cent  in  America  since  1916,  so 
that  it  shall  not  endanger  our  civic  life.  Believing  that,  as  President  Wilson 
said  in  his  proclamation  of  September,  the  school  is  the  natural  center  of 
their  life  the  Junior  Red  Cross  offers  to  young  people  a  vitalizing  power  of 
purposeful  activity  within  the  school  and  under  the  control  of  school 
officials. 

I  wish  to  make  this  particularly  clear  because  in  the  vast  project  as  it  is 
developt  simultaneously  in  all  parts  of  the  country  there  has  been  misunder- 
standing here  and  there  for  which  the  Red  Cross  is  probably  most  to  blame 
because  the  organizers  did  not  sufficiently  keep  this  principle  in  mind — tho 
it  has  been  stated  again  and  again  from  the  first.  As  our  organization 
expands  from  day  to  day  and  our  workers  and  officials  understand  its  plan 
more  clearly  these  misunderstandings  vanish,  and  the  justifiable  suspicions 
of  school  authorities  will  fade  away  as  they  appreciate  that  the  Red  Cross 
seeks  only  to  be  their  servant  in  maintaining  for  them  a  contact  with  world- 
activity  which  will  bring  the  happiness  of  service  to  young  hearts. 

If  it  were  possible  within  the  limit  assigned  to  me  I  should  like  to  pay  a 
personal  tribute  to  the  many  school  officials  thruout  the  United  States  who 
have  made  the  Junior  Red  Cross  what  it  is  today.  They  have  taken  its 
organization  thru  the  schools,  adapted  it  to  suit  their  needs,  and  have 
by  the  power  of  the  symbol  and  the  definiteness  and  concreteness  of  the 
work  broken  down  many  barriers  which  have  hitherto  shut  out  the  thoughts 
of  many  children  from  real  unity  with  the  purpose  of  American  education — 
complete  and  comprehending  citizenship.  On  Monday  of  this  week  a 
superintendent  of  city  schools  in  my  office  told  me  of  a  woman  who  rejoist 
in  the  Junior  Red  Cross  because  her  girl,  formerly  excited  by  the  constant 
sight  of  soldiers  in  the  town,  now  no  longer  spent  the  night  upon  the  street. 


578  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

but  workt  at  home.  She  told  also  of  children's  work  in  the  schools  the  very 
perfection  of  which  had  stirred  the  idle  hands  of  well-to-do  women  in  the 
city  to  activity  and  set  their  fingers  to  work  in  emulation  of  the  children.  I 
could  multiply  such  instances  by  thousands  as  the  records  have  come  in 
from  among  our  four  or  five  millions  of  Junior  members,  but  many  of  you 
must  know  these  cases  better  and  more  intimately  than  I. 

The  Junior  Red  Cross  organization  plan  is,  I  think,  so  well  known  that 
I  need  not  describe  it  here.  You  are  probably  aware  of  the  divisional 
organization  by  which  Red  Cross  authorities  decentralize  at  centers  in  the 
great  cities  of  the  country.  You  know  too,  I  think,  of  the  Chapter  School 
Committee  in  each  Red  Cross  chapter  composed  of  school  people  and  sub- 
dividing among  its  members  the  Red  Cross  city  or  country  district  into 
zones  which  again  subdivide  with  chairman  and  committee  into  individual 
schools  or  school  districts.  It  is  a  simple  and  workable  plan,  as  experience 
shows,  following  and  imitating  the  method  of  school  organization  already 
perfected.  The  strength  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross  lies  in  the  vigor  of  this 
organization  and  in  the  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  which  animates  the  teachers 
whose  strength  of  heart  and  body  have  fitted  them  to  become  officers  in 
this  organization.  It  lies  in  the  principle  of  school  membership,  making 
pupils  feel  that  what  they  do  for  the  Red  Cross  they  do  for  their  school.  It 
lies  also  in  the  accuracy  with  which  school  accounts  and  records  of  produc- 
tion are  kept  and  in  the  fidelity  of  the  divisional  officials  in  handling  the 
vast  amount  of  production  which  is  today  sending  from  our  sewing-classes 
garments  which  will  clothe  children  and  babies  in  Belgium,  France,  and 
Italy.  It  is  the  aim  of  the  Red  Cross  to  make  its  organization  flexible  yet 
strong,  efiicient  yet  responsive,  loyal  and  obedient,  yet  always  seeking  new 
and  better  methods  and  instruments  to  accomplish  the  vast  work  which  the 
government  has  assigned  to  it. 

What  is  the  scope  of  that  work  ?  The  Red  Cross  today  has  a  program  of 
rescue  and  relief.  It  recruits  doctors  and  nurses  for  the  medical  and  nursing 
corps,  it  supplies  the  thousands  of  hospitals  in  France  with  their  surgical 
materials,  it  maintains  among  our  Allies  the  canteens  and  other  services 
which  count  immeasurably  for  international  good  feeling,  and  for  the 
morale  both  at  home  and  abroad.  It  rescues  with  pitying  hands  the  victims 
of  our  enemies'  rapacity  as  they  return  from  across  the  border  broken 
in  spirit  and  in  body.  It  relieves  the  physical  want  and  necessities  of  the 
army  and  navy  depots  by  supplementing  the  regular  equipment.  It  main- 
tains communication  with  the  families  at  home  when  the  lad  on  sea  or  land 
is  ill  or  wounded,  or  has  won  a  victor's  death.  It  supplies  camps  in  this 
country  with  great  quantities  of  comforts  of  different  kinds  and  adds  to 
the  hospital  care  of  the  doctors  and  nurses.  Among  the  homes  from  which 
the  soldiers  and  sailors  are  gone  it  carries  on  a  work  complementary  to  the 
government  grants  of  money  in  seeing  to  it  that  the  social  standards  of  the 
families  do  not  suffer  because  their  sons  have  answered  their  country's  call. 


I 


Superiiitcndcncel  SCOUTING  EDUCATION  FOR  GIRLS  579 

And  all  the  while  in  Halifax,  in  China,  or  in  Guatemala  the  Civilian 
Relief  of  the  American  Red  Cross  goes  quietly  on  its  way  without  advertise- 
ment, turning  every  hill  of  difficulty,  every  path  of  distress  and  hardship 
into  a  Jericho  road  of  helpfulness  and  sympathy. 

And  what  of  the  future?  Is  war  alone  to  call  out  such  magnificent 
manifestations  of  the  spirit  as  your  American  Red  Cross?  One  cannot 
believe  it  possible.  There  will  remain,  when  the  last  war  note  has  sounded 
and  the  battle  flags  are  furled,  the  way  of  reconstruction — reconstruction 
for  other  lands  for  a  period  not  now  possible  to  estimate,  as  the  stricken 
soils  of  Belgium,  Armenia,  Servia,  Italy,  and  France  are  restored  and  smile 
once  more  with  the  fruits  of  free  citizens'  labor.  It  means  work,  but  we 
must  help. 

And  reconstruction  for  America  no  less.  Even  if  dreaded  war  eagles 
never  hover  over  our  rich  cities  there  will  be  much  to  do  in  the  way  of 
reconstruction.  To  bring  up  the  submerged  groups  out  of  poverty  into 
seK-support,  to  prevent  by  common  control  the  return  in  successive  genera- 
tions and  spread  of  the  great  plagues  of  mankind:  feeblemindness,  under- 
nourishment, starvation,  crimes  of  ignorance,  crimes  of  disease,  preventable 
mortality.  The  imagination  falters  in  trying  to  measure  the  possibilities 
of  such  volunteer  power  as  exists  in  the  Red  Cross  of  today. 

Leaders  of  American  education!  The  preparation  for  all  this  great 
program  of  betterment  of  which  many  men  and  women  are  dreaming  must 
be  of  but  one  kind — beginning  thru  activities  by  education  to  prepare 
future  citizens  to  undertake  such  work.  This,  I  take  it,  will  be  the  field 
of  the  Junior  Red  Cross  of  the  future.  May  we  all  live  to  see  the  day  when 
the  Red  Cross  spirit  has  become  a  vitalizing  force  in  the  American  educa- 
tional program.  

SCOUTING  EDUCATION  FOR  GIRLS 

ABBY  PORTER  LELAND,  DIRECTOR,  NATIONAL  GIRL  SCOUTS,  NEW  YORK,  N.Y. 

In  this  world-wide  crisis  of  stress,  storm,  and  suffering  the  educator 
of  vision  and  wisdom  thruout  the  land  is  weighing  in  the  balance  the  school 
curriculum  and  asking  himself.  Does  this  curriculum  which  I  am  advocating 
train  for  citizenship  ?  What  kind  of  citizenship  ?  Is  the  child,  because  he 
has  been  thru  our  schools,  more  capable,  honest,  and  reliable  ?  As  wiUing 
to  accept  responsibility  as  he  is  to  recognize  his  rights  ? 

The  Girl  Scout  organization,  which  it  is  my  privilege  to  represent  here 
today,  recognizes  keenly  that  the  girlhood  of  America  stands  in  urgent 
need  of  training  for  vigorous  responsible  womanhood  and  loyal,  intelli- 
gent citizenship.  This  organization  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  Girl  Guides  of 
England.  When  Sir  Robert  Baden-Powell  organized  the  Boy  Scouts  he 
found,  besides  the  thousands  of  boys  clamoring  to  be  enroled,  no  less  than 
six  thousand  girls.  Wisely  deciding  against  a  single  organization  for  both 
sexes,  Sir  Robert  called  on  his  sister,  Miss  Agues  Baden-Pgwell,  to  enrol 


58o  •  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

the  girls  as  Girl  Guides  after  a  plan  identical  in  fundamental  aims  and 
principles  with  the  Boy  Scouts,  but  entirely  distinct  in  organization.  The 
differences  in  detail  in  the  application  of  the  principles  underlying  scouting 
education  are  due  to  the  differences,  psychological  and  social,  existing 
between  girls  and  boys. 

Working  with  Miss  Baden-Powell  was  Mrs.  Juliette  Low,  an  American 
woman  long  resident  in  England.  When  in  191 2  Mrs.  Low  returned  to 
her  native  city  of  Savannah  she  was  urged  by  Miss  Baden-Powell  and  Sir 
Robert  to  organize  Girl  Guides  in  this  country.  She  did  so,  forming  the 
first  troops  in  Savannah.  But  the  girls,  secure  in  the  knowledge  of  the 
origin  of  the  movement  and  reflecting  the  spirit  of  America,  insisted  upon 
being  known  as  Girl  Scouts  and  thus  they  were  incorporated  in  Washington 
in  1915. 

Girl  Scouts  are  now  organized  in  510  cities  and  towns  in  the  United 
States  in  cooperation  with  schools  and  parishes  and  as  lone  troops.  Only 
four  states  are  without  troops.  The  growth  of  the  movement  has  been  as 
sound  as  it  has  been  rapid.  Its  principles  and  methods  have  the  indorse- 
ment and  cooperation  of  leaders  in  education  and  human  affairs  all  over  the 
country;  for  example,  the  Department  of  Education  of  the  state  of  New 
York  accepts  the  Girl  Scout  work  in  lieu  of  three  of  the  four  hours  required 
per  week  in  physical  training  and  recreation. 

The  scout  movement  does  not  contemplate  the  establishment  of  a  new 
coordinate  organization  for  the  development  of  childhood  alongside  of 
the  home,  the  church,  the  school,  and  the  place  of  business.  It  is  rather 
an  enterprise  calculated  to  combine  all  of  these  institutions  upon  the  basis 
of  the  girl  or  the  boy  who  lives  in  the  home,  the  church,  the  school,  and  the 
workshop,  and  who  in  each  of  these  places  could  be  a  better  son  or  daughter, 
a  better  church  member,  a  better  pupil,  a  better  employe,  because  he  or 
she  has  embraced  the  principles  of  scouting  and  is  working  according  to 
its  program — a  program  that  is  real,  flexible,  and  vigorous,  that  gives  con- 
crete expression  to  a  high  code  of  honor. 

Dean  Russell,  of  Teachers  College,  from  his  first-hand  experience  as 
chairman  of  the  National  Executive  Board  of  Girl  Scouts  writes  of  the 
program  as  follows: 

Scouting  differs  from  all  other  work  for  girls  that  I  know  about  in  that  its  primary 
aim  is  good  citizenship.  It  seeks  to  develop  physical  strength,  right  posture,  and  grace 
of  movement  because  these  are  essential  to  good  health,  to  dignify  the  daily  duties  of  the 
household  because  the  home  is  made  by  woman,  to  care  for  the  sick  and  protect  young 
children  because  these  are  women's  rights,  to  do  good  unto  others  whenever  occasion  offers 
because  this  is  the  law  of  love,  and  to  train  its  members  to  keep  mentally  awake  and 
morally  straight  because  this  is  the  way  to  grow.  Other  organizations,  however,  may 
claim  as  much.  But  the  glory  of  scouting  is  that  it  makes  these  aims  merely  means  to 
ends.    The  supreme  end  is  service  to  God  and  Country. 

Dr.  WiUiam  L.  Rabenort,  in  whose  large  junior  high  school  there  are 
Girl  Scout  and  Boy  Scout  troops,  believes  in  the  scout  movement  as  one 


Superintendence!  SCOUTING  EDUCATION  FOR  GIRLS  581 

of  the  great  educational  discoveries  of  our  time.  He  suggests  that  since  the 
school  aims  at  the  employment  of  existing  agencies  for  education  thru  their 
vitalization  and  modernization  rather  than  at  the  introduction  of  new 
activities  or  new  agencies  thoughtful  school  leaders  may  well  pause  to  con- 
sider scouting  for  girls.  To  use  Dr.  Rabenort's  educational  terminology, 
"  Scouting  is  the  modern,  spontaneous  curriculum  which  children  voluntarily 
embrace." 

In  the  schools  the  curriculum  has  been  selected  for  the  children,  who 
have  to  take  what  the  schools  prefer  to  give.  Is  it  not  a  well-known  fact 
that  many  children,  while  present  in  the  classroom  in  body,  are  decidedly 
absent  in  spirit?  Who  can  estimate  the  number  of  our  grammar-school 
children  who,  because  of  no  choice  of  what  they  shall  study,  have  elected 
not  to  study  at  all?  Furthermore  are  there  not  many  supervisors  and 
teachers,  especially  now  when  we  are  being  forst  back  upon  real  things, 
discouraged  at  times  because  they  feel  that  many  plodding,  faithful  pupils 
under  their  care  are  acquiring  merely  words — a,  vocabulary  sediment  as  it 
were? 

Girl  Scout  education  leads;  it  does  not  coerce.  Hence  its  program  is 
always  such  as  will  appeal  to  the  instincts  for  play,  for  life  in  the  open,  for 
companionship,  for  altruistic  service  and  novel  experience,  so  as  to  attract, 
win,  and  hold  its  followers.  Contrast  the  opportunities  of  scouting,  there- 
fore, with  those  of  the  school  to  develop  initiative,  responsibility,  and  leader- 
ship! 

Scouting  succeeds  because  girls  like  it.  While  for  the  girl  the  first 
interests  are  largely  recreational,  as  opposed  to  the  worklike  routine  of  home 
and  school,  and  social,  as  giving  opportunity  for  companionship  and  for 
doing  together  real  things,  the  deeper  aim,  as  understood  by  the  troop 
captains  and  other  leaders  and  eventually  appreciated  by  the  girl  herself,  is 
"to  promote,  thru  organization  and  cooperation  with  other  agencies,  the 
virtues  of  womanhood  by  training  girls  to  recognize  their  obligations  to 
God  and  Country,  to  prepare  for  the  duties  devolving  upon  women  in  the 
home,  in  society  and  the  state,  and  to  guide  others  in  ways  conducive  to 
personal  honor  and  public  good."^  In  other  words,  scouting  opens  to  girls 
pleasures  which  satisfy  their  natural  healthy  impulses  and  imagination  and 
at  the  same  time  affords  them  a  stimulating  share  in  the  interests  and 
pursuits  of  adults.  It  is  this,  motivated  by  a  high  code  of  personal  ethics 
developt  thru  the  Scout  laws  that  retains  the  interest  of  girls  and  gives 
final  worth  to  the  movement. 

Every  activity  of  the  program  of  Girl  Scouts,  from  the  simple  tests  of 
the  initiate  to  the  standardized  requirements  of  the  first-class  scout,  con- 
nects directly  with  that  same  activity  in  adult  life.  It  is  a  woman's  job 
cut  down  to  a  girl's  size,  its  diflSiculties  so  graduated  as  to  put  the  rewards 
of  achievement  within  the  capacity  of  youth.    These  activities,  covering 

'  Constitution,  Article  II. 


582  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

the  wide  range  of  health,  home,  vocation,  avocation,  and  citizenship,  have 
been  judged  fundamentally  sound  by  practical  educators;  their  appeal  to 
girls'  interests  and  their  reactions  on  girls'  characters  have  been  tested  by 
trained  workers  in  experimentation  on  widely  differing  groups.  They 
consistently  stress,  not  the  rights  of  the  girl,  but  her  responsibihties. 

The  Girl  Scout  plan  utilizes  thruout  the  group-spirit.  At  no  time  does 
it  emphasize  the  individual  girl.  Every  activity  tends  to  train  her  as  a 
member  of  a  group,  responsible  to  a  larger  group,  to  the  home,  to  the  com- 
munity, and  to  the  nation.  We  find  the  troop  the  unit  of  organization 
doing  the  community  a  good  turn.  The  troop  undertakes  certain  sustained 
duties  and  executes  them  as  a  troop.  It  is  the  troop  that  volunteers  to 
sweep  the  Red  Cross  workroom  every  day;  consequently  the  individual 
scout  whose  turn  it  is  to  do  the  work  has  the  honor  of  her  whole  troop 
behind  her  broom.  It  is  the  troop  flag  that  is  decorated  with  the  war 
badge  when  the  troop  has  achieved  satisfactory  results  judged  quahtatively 
and  quantitatively  in  accordance  with  specified  standards.  Thru  such 
special  war  activities  as  well  as  thru  the  more  normal  civic  activities  scouting 
teaches  the  young  girl  the  law  of  service  thru  working  in  cooperation  with 
others  for  the  welfare  of  the  community  and  the  nation. 

Civic  consciousness,  the  sine  qua  non  of  intelligent  citizenship,  is  gained 
by  constant  cooperation  with  civic  organizations.  Girl  Scouts  gain  an 
understanding  of  the  working  of  civic  and  social  institutions  from  service 
to  them.  The  product  of  their  troop  garden  is  sent  to  the  community 
kitchen;  the  result  of  their  canning  work  is  given  to  the  school  lunch  com- 
mittee; the  jams  which  they  make  from  berries  pickt  in  the  woods  last 
summer  are  intrusted  to  the  district  nurse  for  distribution.  Every  contri- 
bution either  of  service  or  of  kind  establishes  a  point  of  contact  between 
these  agencies  and  the  individual  girl.  These  points  of  contact  increase 
and  strengthen  steadily  during  the  girl's  entire  scouting  experience,  and 
their  influence  inevitably  carries  over  into  adult  life.  The  active  Girl 
Scout  of  today  is  the  vigorous,  clear- visioned,  well-informed  civic  leader  of 
tomorrow. 

The  nationalism  of  the  Girl  Scout  organization  is,  it  seems  to  me,  one 
of  its  most  urgent  claims  to  attention.  The  unification  of  individuals  and 
groups  on  a  nation-wide  scale  for  a  great  common  purpose  is  an  enormously 
valuable  influence  in  the  lives  of  young  girls.  It  has  been  a  great  inspira- 
tion to  the  leaders  in  this  work  to  observe  how  the  national  sense  of  these 
young  girls  has  grown  thru  their  participation  as  a  national  organization 
in  the  activities  of  our  national  life.  The  pride  the  widely  separated  units 
feel  in  the  recognition  Girl  Scouts  have  received  from  the  Department  of 
Education,  the  Food  Administration,  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  the 
America  First  Committee,  and  the  Women's  Liberty  Loan  Committee 
has  had  an  immediate  and  definite  reaction  on  the  troops  and  on  the  girls. 
Their  purposes  have  steadied,  their  outlook  has  widened — they  see  beyoncj 


Superintendence)  THE  WAR  AND  THE  SCHOOLS  583 

themselves  and  their  communities.  When  a  troop  plans  a  patriotic  enter- 
tainment and  invites  the  foreign-born  women  of  the  community  as  honored 
guests  it  senses  in  its  undertaking  a  deeper  significance  than  the  surface 
manifestation. 

National  Headquarters,  Girl  Scouts,  believes  genuinely  in  training  girls 
for  citizenship  thru  scouting,  i.e.,  thru  apprenticeship,  thru  the  actual 
participation  of  the  girl  in  the  real  work  of  the  community  and  nation.  It 
offers  to  you,  our  educational  leaders,  its  best  facilities  of  cooperation  in 
the  preparation  of  the  girls  of  America  for  the  opportunities  and  responsi- 
bilities that  lie  ahead  of  them,  in  the  preparation  of  the  coming  generation 
of  women  to  take  its  part  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  world. 


I 


COUNCIL  OF  STATE  DEPARTMENTS  OF  EDUCATION 


A.     CONFERENCE  OF  STATE  SUPERINTENDENTS 


THE  NEW  RESPONSIBILITIES  AND  OPPORTUNITIES  WHICH 

THE  WAR  SITUATION  HAS  BROUGHT  TO  THE  STATE 

DEPARTMENT  AND  THE  SCHOOLS 

FRED  L.   KEELER,   STATE   SUPERINTENDENT   OF  PUBLIC   INSTRUCTION, 
LANSING,   MICH. 

I  shall  dispose  of  the  first  part  of  this  topic  by  stating  that  the  schools 
have  no  new  responsibilities.  Bankers  and  business  men  having  under 
way  some  project  in  connection  with  the  winning  of  the  war  often  approach 
school  teachers  and  school  superintendents  with  an  apology  something 
like  this:  ''We  realize  that  we  are  putting  you  to  a  good  deal  of  trouble. 
This  business  will  take  a  good  deal  of  time  from  your  regular  work."  I 
believe,  therefore,  that  it  would  be  wise  to  make  plain  what  our  regular 
work  is. 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  advice  given  annually  to  the  graduates  of 
our  pubhc  schools  when  they  receive  their  diplomas.  The  boys  and  girls 
are  always  askt  to  consider  the  great  expenditure  the  community  has  made 
in  order  that  they  may  have  an  education.  They  are  askt  to  go  out  and 
demonstrate  to  the  world  that  the  expenditure  has  been  wise.  It  is  well 
that  boys  and  girls  be  imprest  with  the  fact  that  the  community  has  done 
well  by  them.  At  the  same  time  the  patrons  and  taxpayers  should  under- 
stand clearly  that  not  one  cent  of  school  tax  was  ever  paid  primarily  for 
the  education  of  these  young  people  in  order  to  equip  them  for  personal 
success.  The  story  is  told  of  the  Connecticut  farmer  who  when  askt  by 
the  collector  to  pay  his  school  tax  replied,  "I  will  not  pay  the  tax.  You 
have  no  more  right  to  ask  me  to  pay  fpr  the  education  of  my  neighbor's 


5^4  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

boy  than  you  would  have  to  take  my  plow  to  plow  my  neighbor's  field." 
The  Connecticut  farmer  was  right.  No  one  can  be  compelled  to  pay  a 
tax  for  the  education  of  his  neighbor's  child;  not  even  can  he  be  compelled 
to  pay  a  tax  for  the  education  of  his  own  child.  But  the  fact  of  the  matter 
is  that  everybody  does  pay  the  school  tax  and  the  state  compels  every- 
body's child  to  attend  school.     Upon  what  grounds  is  it  done  ? 

Some  of  you  are  graduates  of  the  University  of  Michigan.  Others  have 
visited  that  institution.  You  may  recall  that  in  the  old  University  Hall 
there  is  over  the  rostrum  this  inscription:  "Religion,  morality,  and  knowl- 
edge being  necessary  for  good  government  and  the  happiness  of  mankind, 
schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall  forever  be  encouraged."  That 
sentence  is  taken  from  the  Ordinance  of  1787  which  laid  the  foundation  for 
the  government  of  the  Northwest  Territory.  The  principle  here  laid  down 
underlies  our  whole  system  of  public  education.  Because  knowledge  is 
necessary  to  good  government  schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall 
forever  be  encouraged.  Why  was  the  Connecticut  farmer  compelled  to 
pay  the  tax  ?  Why  are  young  people  given  the  advantages  of  our  public 
schools  ?  It  is  not  in  order  that  the  neighbor's  boy  or  Tom,  Dick,  Harry, 
or  Susan  may  have  a  good  education.  It  is  because  the  most  expensive 
and  the  most  dangerous  thing  we  can  have  is  an  ignorant  neighbor.  The 
tax  is  paid  as  an  investment  in  good  government — in  intelligent  citizenship. 
Incidentally  of  course  the  boy  and  girl  is  benefited  personally,  but  no  tax 
could  be  collected  to  advance  the  individual  interests  of  the  boys  and  girls. 

I  dwell  on  the  point  because  I  believe  we  should  everywhere  give 
teachers  the  correct  point  of  view.  Teachers  should  understand  that  they 
are  not  paid  to  teach  reading  and  writing  and  arithmetic  primarily;  they 
are  paid  to  train  young  people  for  citizenship  in  a  democracy.  In  so  far 
as  reading  and  writing  and  arithmetic  are  helpful  to  that  end  we  are  justified 
in  teaching  them,  and  instruction  in  the  common  branches  may  then  prop- 
erly be  the  regular  school  work.  However,  the  world  war  has  forst  upon  us 
matters  which  are  of  immediate  and  vital  consequence.  In  so  far  as  the 
public  schools  can  aid  in  the  solution  and  execution  of  these  problems  it  is 
their  duty  to  do  so,  but  not  as  a  new  responsibility  to  which  the  school  owes 
its  existence.  There  is  nothing  in  this  situation  which  need  give  teachers 
uneasiness  as  far  as  the  regular  school  work  is  concerned. 

On  the  other  hand  the  new  situation  forces  upon  us  activities  which  are 
most  vital  in  their  educational  content.  In  the  last  few  years  we  have 
heard  much  of  motivation.  We  regret  that  the  thing  we  have  been  seeking 
should  come  to  us  thru  a  world-tragedy,  but,  that  fact  aside,  we  have  from 
an  educational  standpoint  an  opportunity  to  motivate  our  school  work 
which  we  should  grasp  eagerly. 

During  the  past  year  the  public  schools  have  taken  an  active  part  in 
work  incident  to  the  war.  Not  all  of  the  things  attempted  have  been 
profitable.     Many  of  the  things  which  the  schools  have  been  askt  to  do 


Superintendence]  THE  WAR  AND  THE  SCHOOLS  $8$ 

have  resulted  only  in  dissipation  of  energy.  We  have  felt  obliged  to  respond 
to  the  solicitation  of  numerous  organizations  each  having  its  peculiar 
project  to  advance.  I  hope  we  have  seen  the  last  of  this.  As  far  as  Michi- 
gan is  concerned  agencies  wishing  to  use  the  public  schools  as  a  medium 
will  hereafter  approach  them  thru  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion. That  arrangement  will  give  him  opportunity  to  ascertain  the  merits 
of  the  enterprises  that  are  proposed.  He  will  often  be  obliged  flatly  to 
refuse  indorsement  of  schemes  submitted.  He  has  already  done  so  in 
several  instances. 

Among  the  most  ill-advised  enterprises  are  those  that  have  originated 
with  some  of  the  federal  bureaus.  A  public  ofl&cial  feels  of  course  that  it 
is  his  duty  to  support  everything  that  the  government  proposes.  However, 
some  of  the  things  proposed  are  so  ill-considered  that  a  man  jeopardizes, 
what  little  reputation  he  may  have  for  sanity  by  indorsing  them. 

I  say  I  hope  that  we  have  seen  the  last  of  these  hysterical  projects. 
Before  a  thing  is  foisted  upon  the  public  schools  of  the  nation  it  should 
receive  the  most  thoro  consideration  from  persons  who  are  by  training 
and  experience  endowed  with  good  school  sense.  I  understand  that  it 
has  now  been  arranged  at  Washington  that  enterprises  which  are  to  be 
carried  out  thru  the  public  schools  will  hereafter  be  submitted  to  the 
Bureau  of  Education  or  to  the  Director  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational 
Education.  That  is  as  it  should  be.  When  millions  of  school  children 
are  askt  to  do  a  certain  thing  it  should  be  well  calculated  that  the  thing 
is  first  of  all  worth  the  effort,  and  furthermore  that  its  execution  is  possible 
and  profitable.  As  a  rule  the  thing  undertaken  should  have  some  educa- 
tional value.  If  it  cannot  be  justified  on  educational  grounds  I  believe  we 
may  well  hesitate  to  promote  it. 

I  shall  name  four  general  lines  of  work  which  I  believe  schools  may 
undertake  with  profit: 

1.  The  Liberty  Loan  and  Thrift  Stamp  campaigns. 

2.  Junior  Red  Cross  work. 

3.  Education  for  fuel  and  food  conservation. 

4.  Mold  public  opinion  to  produce  intelligent  and  sustained  patriotism. 
Our  schools  have  taken  a  very  active  part  in  the  Liberty  Loan  drives. 

No  more  effective  lesson  in  civics  has  ever  been  taught  in  our  schools,  nor 
is  there  a  more  effective  agency  to  promote  the  Liberty  Loan  drives  than 
the  public  schools.  I  have  seen  school  children  in  the  grammar  and  high- 
school  grades  organize  in  mass  meeting  to  put  the  thing  across.  The 
procedure  was  carried  thru  with  a  finish  that  would  do  credit  to  most  experi- 
enst  politicians.  From  all  standpoints  I  believe  that  it  is  proper  for  the 
public  schools  to  push  these  drives,  and  I  shall  continue  to  stimulate  effort 
in  this  direction. 

The  public  schools  should  take  up  the  work  promoted  by  the  Junior 
Red  Cross.     It  is  not  the  money  raised  by  getting  a  large  membership 


586  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

that  should  be  emphasized,  but  rather  the  work  that  is  carried  on  under  the 
direction  of  the  Red  Cross  organization.  Here  is  very  concrete  material 
for  instruction  in  the  manual  arts.  Every  child  from  the  first  grade  to  the 
last  may  do  something  which  will  be  useful  in  a  material  way.  Incidentally 
we  are  teaching  a  great  lesson  in  civics.  The  Junior  Red  Cross  work  is 
being  pusht  vigorously  in  Michigan.     I  indorse  it  heartily. 

There  are  rational  things  that  can  be  done  in  connection  with  the  food 
and  fuel  conservation.  In  the  teaching  of  elementary  science  and  domestic 
art  we  have  now  a  very  real  object  in  studying  the  comparative  values  of 
foods.  Agriculture  and  related  sciences  are  now  more  meaningful.  The 
production  of  food  has  assumed  the  position  of  first  importance.  Every 
child  whether  in  the  city  or  in  the  country  is  concerned  in  the  matter.  It 
is  not  necessary  that  new  subjects  be  introduced  along  these  lines.  It 
will  usually  be  sufficient  that  the  old  subjects  be  studied  from  a  new  point 
of  view.  In  this  connection  the  lessons  publisht  by  the  Bureau  of  Education 
prove  very  helpful  in  directing  the  work  of  the  teachers  along  practical  lines. 

Finally  let  me  say  that  just  as  certain  as  man  does  not  live  on  bread 
alone  this  war  is  not  going  to  be  won  by  food  alone.  This  war  is  going  to 
be  won  by  the  side  that  has  the  deepest  convictions.  I  therefore  hold 
that  the  most  fundamental  thing  our  schools  have  to  do  is  to  cultivate  in 
our  pupils  and  in  our  people  a  true  understanding  of  what  the  issues  are. 
I  believe  that  the  main  strength  of  the  Kaiser  today  is  forty  years  of  false 
education — education  by  autocracy  for  autocracy.  It  must  be  met  and 
destroyed  by  generations  of  true  education — education  by  democracy  for 
democracy.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  recite  patriotic  selections  and  sing 
national  songs.  The  schools  should  study  in  thoro  fashion  the  causes 
which  set  the  world  ablaze.  The  world-war  had  been  in  progress  nearly 
three  years  when  the  United  States  entered.  The  world  at  large  did  not 
know  what  the  trouble  was  about  until  the  President  of  the  United  States 
in  his  message  last  April  crystaUized  the  whole  situation.  That  message 
has  been  printed  by  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction  and  has  been 
furnisht  to  all  the  high  schools  of  the  state.  All  candidates  for  teachers' 
certificates  in  Michigan  this  year  will  be  examined  on  the  war  message. 

In  his  message  of  last  December  the  President  stated  the  aims  and 
aspirations  of  the  American  people  with  a  sincerity  and  lucidity  that  made 
a  profound  impression  on  the  civilized  world.  The  language  of  the  message 
is  so  simple  and  clear  that  it  may  be  read  and  understood  by  the  children 
of  the  grammar  grades  as  well  as  of  the  high  school.  The  Department  of 
Public  Instruction  has  edited  this  speech  for  the  use  of  the  public  schools 
of  Michigan  and  a  first  edition  of  75,000  has  been  printed.  The  state 
examination  in  reading  for  graduates  of  the  elementary  schools  will  be 
based  upon  this  pubHcation.  I  believe  that  an  intensive  study  of  this 
message  by  75,000  eighth-grade  children  in  Michigan  is  bound  to  make  for 
an  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  crisis  in  which  we  are  involved. 


I 


Superintendence]  THE  WAR  AND  THE  SCHOOLS  587 

The  Committee  on  Public  Information  at  Washington  is  doing  com- 
mendable work  in  enlightening  public  opinion.  There  are  at  hand  also 
multitudes  of  publications  from  other  sources  relating  to  the  war.  Most 
of  these,  however,  have  been  put  together  hurriedly.  They  are  frag- 
mentary in  character.  None  of  them  tells  the  story  of  the  war  in  a  compre- 
hensive way  and  in  language  that  the  man  of  the  street  can  comprehend. 
We  have  therefore  undertaken  to  put  within  the  compass  of  150  pages  a 
bird's-eye  perspective  of  the  world-war,  a  brief  sketch  of  the  component 
forces  that  have  resulted  in  the  catastrophe.  This  publication  will  be  a 
dispassionate  discussion  of  unquestioned  data.  It  will  aim  simply  to  tell 
the  truth.  It  is  planned  primarily  as  a  brief  course  that  may  be  taken  up 
by  classes  in  the  pubHc  schools  while  they  lay  aside  for  two  or  three  weeks 
the  routine  textbook  work.  It  will  present  nothing  new,  but  will  place 
old  material  in  a  new  focus.  The  work  will  be  the  product  of  reliable 
scholarship.  We  shall  supply  this  pubHcation  free  in  quantities  on  request 
to  the  public  schools  of  the  state.  I  am  determined  that  every  boy  and 
girl  in  Michigan  shall  know  why  it  is  that  the  young  men  of  their  neighbor- 
hood are  crossing  the  water.  And  if  these  young  men  never  return,  I  am 
determined  that  our  people  shall  know  why  they  made  the  sacrifice. 

On  the  shield  of  the  great  seal  of  the  state  of  Michigan  is  the  Latin  word 
Tuebor  which  translated  means,  "I  will  defend."  At  the  opening  of 
school  last  fall  we  made  Tuebor  the  watchword  for  the  year  and  every  year 
until  the  war  shall  end.  Let  me  read  to  you  the  platform  upon  which  the 
boys  and  girls  of  Michigan  stand. 

Tuebor 

On  the  Fourth  of  September  Uncle  Sam  will  call  an  army  which  surpasses  all  the 
armed  hosts  of  Europe.  More  than  twenty  million  boys  and  girls  will  report  at  the 
Public  School,  the  training  camp  of  American  Democracy. 

And  here  are  the  orders  of  the  Commander  in  Chief: 

Boys  and  Girls  of  America: 

I  have  always  need  of  you.  You  are  my  Grand  Army  of  Preparedness.  I  summon 
you  to  your  task  for  the  safety  of  the  Republic.  The  worst  enemy  in  our  land  is  the 
ignorant  man  or  woman.  You  are  to  be  intelligent  men  and  women.  Every  time  you 
get  a  lesson  well  you  strike  a  blow  at  ignorance. 

But  today  I  am  much  in  need  of  you.  I  am  distrest  by  enemies  across  the  sea.  I 
depend  upon  you,  Boys  and  Girls,  to  help  destroy  their  power,  for  they  would  rob  us  of 
the  liberty  we  enjoy. 

How  can  you  do  this  ? 

Every  boy  and  girl  that  breathes  deep,  sleeps  well,  and  eats  right,  serves  our  country. 

Every  boy  that  pulls  a  weed  and  plants  a  seed  feeds  an  American  boy  in  the  trenches 
and,  besides,  puts  food  in  the  pantry  while  father  is  at  the  front. 

Every  girl  that  makes  a  bandage  soothes  a  soldier's  pain;  and  when  she  sweeps  and 
dusts  a  room  gives  mother  added  strength  to  meet  the  care  and  grief  that  mothers  always 
bear  in  cruel  war. 


5 88  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  (Atlantic  city 

Boys  and  Girls,  be  strong,  work  hard.    Do  the  dishes  and  keep  the  woodbox  full! 
On  every  home  put  up  the  sign : 

The  Boys  and  Girls  of  This  House 

Do  Their  Part 

They  Obey  Orders 


DISCUSSION 

A.  N.  Farmer,  superintendent  of  schools,  Evanston,  111. — Superintendent  Keeler 
has  indicated  vividly  and  constructively  the  present  situation  and  its  demands  on  the 
schools.  He  has  pointed  out  that  it  is  absolutely  vital  to  effective  training  for  citizen- 
ship that  we  instil  a  spirit  of  service  in  every  boy  and  girl,  and  that  this  spirit  can  come 
only  thru  service. 

Participation  by  the  children  in  Junior  Red  Cross  work,  the  buying  of  Thrift  Stamps 
and  the  selling  of  Liberty  Bonds,  the  cooperation  of  each  one  in  saving  foods  needed  by 
our  Allies  and  substituting  others  in  their  place,  offer  opportunities  for  children  to  carry 
their  part  of  the  tremendous  load  the  nation  must  bear.  This  is  not  only  training  for 
citizenship,  but  it  is  citizenship,  and  citizenship  of  the  highest  type.  ■ 

In  addition  the  schools  may  render  a  service  of  inestimable  value  to  the  government 
as  a  publicity  agency.  Think  of  the  possibilities  in  training  an  army  of  our  twenty 
million  children  to  carry  the  messages  and  appeals  of  the  President  and  of  executive- 
department  heads  to  the  homes  from  which  they  come.  Who  can  estimate  the  good 
that  may  come  from  teaching  children  the  fundamental  facts  and  issues  involved  in  the 
war  so  that  they  can  take  them  into  homes  where  they  may  not  be  understood  and  where 
prejudices  that  threaten  the  welfare  of  the  nation  may  exist? 

The  suggestion  is  wise  that  teachers  need  instruction  to  enable  them  effectively 
to  meet  the  new  demands  imposed  upon  the  schools  as  a  result  of  the  war.  Requiring 
teachers  to  study  and  master  the  essential  facts  and  arguments  in  the  presidential  messages 
and  other  state  papers  so  that  they  will  be  able  to  interpret  them  to  pupils  will  help  to 
accomplish  this  result.  But  this,  it  seems  to  me,  is  not  enough.  Teachers  cannot  teach 
what  they  do  not  understand,  nor  train  in  activities  which  they  themselves  cannot  per- 
form. Experience  has  demonstrated  that  without  definite  instruction  supplemented 
by  special  training  when  needed  the  time  of  thousands  of  teachers  and  millions  of  children 
will  be  wasted. 

There  is  one  other  fact  which  I  think  should  be  considered  in  connection  with  the 
discussion  of  this  subject.  The  reconstruction  period  following  the  war  will  bring  many 
changes.  The  world  can  never  be  what  it  was  before  the  war.  The  changes  ahead  will 
affect  every  department  of  our  lives,  public  and  private;  every  individual,  every  institu- 
tion, will  feel  the  pressure  of  new  duties  and  obligations. 

That  the  schools  will  readjust  curricula  and  methods  of  instruction  is  inevitable. 
There  has  been  much  dissatisfaction  with  school  organization  and  the  results  which  have 
been  accomplisht.  No  one  has  felt  the  need  for  readjustment  more  than  school  people 
themselves.  Some  adjustments  have  been  made,  but  greater  and  more  fundamental 
changes  are  ahead  of  us.  The  conditions  growing  out  of  the  war  will  force  the  issue. 
Changes  that  would  have  taken  a  generation  may  come  within  a  brief  space  of  time. 

The  schools  of  our  country  must  prepare  to  give  training  to  the  soldiers  who  are 
returned  crippled,  maimed,  blinded,  or  otherwise  unfitted  to  carry  on  pre-war  occupations. 
Within  a  few  months  we  may  have  many  thousands  of  these.  To  make  their  lives  endur- 
able and  to  fit  them  for  useful  service  is  an  educational  problem  that  should  be  dealt  with 
by  the  public  schools. 

Then  again,  at  the  close  of  the  war  the  colleges  and  universities  must  take  care  of  the 
men  who  cut  short  their  training  to  enlist  for  military  service.     During  the  past  month 


Superintendence!  THE  THRIFT  CAMPAIGN  589 

I  have  heard  the  problem  discust  by  some  of  the  leading  university  presidents  and  college 
professors.  All  agreed  that  present  courses  of  study  and  the  usual  methods  of  instruction 
would  fail  to  satisfy  these  men.  They  will  come  back  from  the  war  with  a  vastly  different 
outlook  upon  life  and  its  meaning  and  responsibilities.  They  are  likely  to  have  little 
sympathy  or  patience  with  much  of  present  college  work  or  with  the  men  giving  it. 

It  seems  to  me  that  it  is  particularly  the  duty  of  the  state  departments  of  public 
instruction  to  exercise  leadership  in  the  study  and  solution  of  these  and  many  other 
educational  problems  that  will  be  forst  upon  us.  I  would  urge  that  this  body  authorize 
the  appointment  of  a  committee  composed  of  the  ablest  school  men  in  America  repre- 
senting the  various  divisions  of  our  educational  system,  to  study  the  whole  situation,  to 
formulate  the  principles  that  should  be  kept  in  mind  when  considering  proposed  changes, 
and  to  outline  a  program  for  nation-wide  adoption. 

If  something  effective  is  not  done  there  is  danger  that  individuals  will  make  serious 
blunders  in  dealing  with  the  situation.  As  the  government  has  been  swampt  by  war 
requirements,  so  the  schools  will  soon  find  themselves  faced  with  problems  which  must 
be  solved  and  which  should  have  been  studied.  The  result  is  likely  to  be  a  chaotic, 
disorganized,  and  ineffective  series  of  local  attempts  to  deal  with  a  national  situation. 

The  relation  of  the  state  department  of  public  instruction  to  the  various  war  activities 
for  the  schools  is,  it  seems  to  me,  very  clear.  The  war  is  a  world-emergency.  The 
situation  must  be  met  as  an  emergency.  Some  things  we  have  been  accustomed  to  do 
must  give  way;  subject-matter  must  be  changed  and  adapted;  methods  of  procedure 
must  be  modified.  We  must,  of  course,  safeguard  the  interests  of  the  children;  they 
must  not  be  exploited,  but  the  war  must  be  won.  Daily  it  is  becoming  more  apparent 
that  it  cannot  be  won  without  intelligent  and  loyal  cooperation  to  the  utmost  on  the  part 
of  every  institution,  every  man,  woman,  and  child.  Never  has  there  been  greater  need 
of  wise  and  far-seeing  leadership.  The  state  departments  of  public  instruction  occupy 
a  strategic  position  to  provide  this  leadership,  if  they  have  the  vision,  the  wisdom,  and 
the  organization. 


HOW  SHALL  WE  CONDUCT  THE  THRIFT  CAMPAIGN  SO  AS 
TO  CAUSE  IT  TO  ATTAIN  ITS  MAXIMUM 
EFFECTIVENESS? 

M.    P.    SHAWKEY,    STATE   SUPERINTENDENT   OF   FREE    SCHOOLS, 
CHARLESTON,    W.VA. 

Reading  has  been  called  the  art  preservative  of  arts.  In  like  manner 
thrift  may  be  declared  to  be  the  virtue  preservative  of  virtues,  for  habits 
of  thrift  are  conducive  to  practically  all  other  good  habits,  A  thrifty  man 
is  necessarily  sober,  industrious,  thoughtful,  ambitious,  persistent,  and 
optimistic.  Amid  such  a  throng  of  virtues  it  is  almost  if  not  entirely 
impossible  for  vices  of  any  sort  to  thrive.  At  the  present  time,  moreover, 
thrift  has  the  patriotic  quahty  to  a  high  degree. 

To  substitute  corn  bread  for  wheat  may  be  some  slight  sacrifice,  to 
contribute  to  the  Y.M.CA.  or  Red  Cross  army  work  is  generosity,  to  invest 
in  Liberty  Bonds  may  be  taken  as  a  declaration  of  faith  in  the  government 
but  to  inaugurate  habits  of  thrift  and  invest  in  the  War  Savings  Stamps 
at  once  kills  a  horde  of  vices,  plants  a  garden  of  virtues,  and  at  the  same 
time  insures  the  future  prosperity  of  the  people.  Little  wonder  then  that 
the  W.S.S.  campaign  has  taken  hold  of  the  schools  of  the  nation  with  a  more 


590  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

pulling  appeal  than  any  other  of  the  numerous  great  war-service  drives. 
The  fact  is  that  this  campaign  spells  opportunity  for  our  schools  as  no  other 
movement  of  the  times  has  done.  It  is  an  opportunity  for  moral  training 
of  a  definite  and  substantial  character  reinforst  by  a  patriotic  appeal  that 
is  irresistible.  It  holds  out  the  hope  of  a  more  earnest,  efficient,  and  unself- 
ish citizenship  for  tomorrow  than  could  possibly  have  been  but  for  this 
great  opening  for  the  schools  to  mold  a  character  of  rugged  nobility  while 
the  heel  of  the  war  god  rests  on  the  prostrate  neck  of  common  vices. 

This  is  one  of  the  campaigns  that  must  eventually  find  its  way  into  the 
home  and  heart  of  every  man  and  woman  wearing  the  honored  title  of 
American.  It  cannot  stop  in  the  newspapers  or  even  in  the  offices  of  the 
great  bankers  or  captains  of  industry.  It  must  spread  out  into  the  distant 
places  and  make  its  path  clear  up  to  the  prairie  shanty  and  the  mountain- 
side cabin,  a  friend  ahke  to  the  resorts  of  aristocracy  and  the  haunts  of 
poverty.  It  must  reach  the  consciousness  of  twenty  million  children  and 
four  times  as  many  adults  spread  over  a  domain  twice  as  large  as  the 
European  area  of  the  Central  Empire  and  the  Triple  Entente  combined. 
To  bring  about  such  a  magnificent  result  will  require  wise,  clear-headed, 
and  inspiring  leadership,  and  a  prodigious  amount  of  patient,  painstaking 
labor.  Without  the  aid  of  our  thoroly  organized  school  system  such  a 
result  would  be  impossible.  With  the  aid  of  the  school  system,  which  is 
to  be  given  unstintedly,  its  accomplishment  requires  only  adequate  leader- 
ship and  unrelenting  industry. 

The  schools  should  not  be  expected  to  do  all  the  work.  They  have 
duties  so  sacred  and  so  necessary  that  they  may  not  be  sacrificed.  Besides 
the  schools  must  not  give  all  their  of  help  to  this  movement  no  matter  how 
important  it  may  be.  There  are  numerous  other  campaigns  that  will  ask 
for  assistance  from  them  and  they  ought  to  get  it. 

There  are  two  ways  of  bringing  about  thrift:  first,  by  spending  or  con- 
suming less,  and  secondly,  by  increasing  our  earnings  or  producing  more. 
I  can  perhaps  make  no  better  use  of  the  time  allotted  to  this  paper  than  to 
present  some  ways  of  doing  these  two  things  which  are  especially  appli- 
cable to  boys  and  girls  of  school  age. 

The  Department  of  Schools  of  West  Virginia  made  the  teaching  of 
thrift  a  slogan  during  the  year  1916,  and  in  a  bulletin  issued  for  the  purpose 
of  emphasizing  the  teaching  it  suggested  among  others  the  following  means 
of  saving  applicable  to  pupils: 

1.  Cut  out  the  little,  worthless  extravagances  such  as  the  use  of  chewing 
gum.  The  year  before  our  war  began  we  spent  $13,000,000  for  chewing 
gum,  of  which  the  larger  part  was  paid  out  by  boys  and  girls  of  school  age. 

2.  Buy  less  candy.  Our  national  candy  account  amounts  to  $360,000,- 
000  a  year.  We  average  one  cent  per  capita  a  day  on  candy  and  sweet 
drinks.  That  amount  in  sweets  saved  would  easily  supply  our  Allies  with 
all  the  sugar  needed. 


Superintendence!  THE  THRIFT  CAMPAIGN  59 1 

3.  Omit  the  expensive  gowns  and  fine  stationery  commonly  used  at 
Commencement.  It  ought  to  be  a  happier  graduation  for  any  American 
boy  or  girl  who  has  given  up  some  luxury  for  the  sake  of  his  country  in  its 
time  of  stress. 

4.  Get  along  without  the  lavish  annual  usually  publisht  by  the  Senior 
high-school  class  necessitating  both  costly  printing  and  a  great  deal  of 
extra  photographing. 

5.  Manage  to  get  all  possible  use  out  of  books,  paper,  pencils,  and  pens. 
The  cost  of  all  these  things  is  much  higher  now  than  in  times  of  peace. 

6.  Take  care  of  clothing,  boots,  and  shoes,  and  all  articles  of  dress  so 
as  to  get  the  maximum  of  wear  out  of  them. 

There  are  larger  possibilities  in  these  and  other  similar  economies  espe- 
cially affecting  children  than  the  average  person  would  dream  of  without 
careful  investigation. 

The  opportunities  for  earning  or  saving  something  are  even  greater. 
Our  bulletin  called  attention  to  such  as  the  following: 

1.  Gather  nuts  and  sell  them.  Chestnuts,  hickory  nuts,  and  walnuts 
grow  "wild"  in  most  of  the  eastern  states,  so  that  almost  any  child  can  find 
some  of  them,  and  any  of  them  will  bring  a  fair  price. 

2.  Pick  up  and  sell  old  iron,  copper,  rubber,  rags,  and  leather.  The 
market  is  the  best  in  history.  I  know  of  a  graduate  of  a  great  college  who 
turned  to  picking  rags  and  died  worth  a  small  fortune  five  years  ago. 

3.  Nothing  appears  to  be  quite  so  abundant  in  this  country  just  now 
as  waste  paper.     It  may  be  saved  and  sold  at  a  good  price. 

4.  The  Curtis  Publishing  Company  and  other  similar  publishers  offer 
fine  inducements  to  boys  to  turn  their  spare  moments  into  cash. 

5.  In  some  sections  of  the  country  wild  blackberries,  raspberries,  or 
huckleberries  may  be  pickt  and  marketed  so  as  to  yield  a  considerable 
income  for  a  boy. 

6.  The  greatest  opportunity  of  all  is  in  the  garden.  Every  boy  whether 
in  town  or  country  can  have  a  garden  plot  these  days  and  be  assured  of  a 
ready  sale  for  his  products  at  profitable  prices.  Ten  million  of  the  boys 
and  girls  of  this  country  ought  to  have  gardens  this  coming  season.  The 
possibilities  of  such  a  scheme  nation-wide  are  staggering.  If  every  one  of 
these  ten  miUion  young  Americans  should  garden  to  his  maximum  of  ability, 
together  they  could  feed  our  entire  army  abroad  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
coming  year. 

If  the  army  of  boys  and  girls  of  the  public  schools  will  save,  earn,  and 
produce  as  much  as  possible  they  will  insure  the  success  of  the  War  Savings 
campaign.  For  the  most  part  I  have  found  the  youngsters  ready  and 
anxious  to  do  their  part,  but  naturally  they  need  instruction,  guidance,  and 
stimulation.  With  us  the  most  popular  and  successful  device  has  been  the 
offer  of  a  premium — a  Thrift  Stamp  to  every  school  child  who  buys  one 
and  takes  a  pledge  to  purchase  stamps  enough  to  fill  a  $5  .00  book.  The 
funds  for  this  subsidy  have  been  contributed  mostly  by  the  commercial 


592  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

organizations,  and  the  campaign  is  swiftly  spreading  over  the  state.  Our 
Agricultural  Extension  Department  has  taken  it  up,  and  Mr.  Kendrick, 
state  club  agent,  has  sent  out  a  letter  to  his  host  of  club  workers  so  unique 
that  I  think  it  worth  reproducing  here.  Writing  to  these  farm  boys  and 
girls  about  how  they  can  save  $5 .00  and  at  the  same  time  loan  it  to  Uncle 
Sam  he  says: 

How  to  get  the  ist  stamp:      Join  the  local  boys'  and  girls'  agricultural  club  and  send  to 

the  Extension  Department  for  your  first  Thrift  Stamp  and 

card. 
How  to  get  the  2d  stamp:      Catch  some  fur  and  sell  it. 
How  to  get  the  3d  stamp:       Some  bank  or  trust  company  in  your  county  is  giving  a 

stamp  to  any  boy  or  girl  who  already  has  bought  one. 

Look  them  up. 
How  to  get  the  4th  stamp:     Gather  up  and  sell  some  old  rubber  or  scrap  iron. 
How  to  get  the  5th  stamp:     Sell  a  rabbit,  some  pop  corn,  or  nuts. 
How  to  get  the  6th  stamp:      Sell  some  cottage  cheese  or  rye  hominy. 
How  to  get  the  7th  stamp:     Sell  a  dozen  eggs  or  ears  of  corn. 
How  to  get  the  8th  stamp:     Be  agent  for  a  farm  paper. 
How  to  get  the  9th  stamp:     Test  seed  corn  (i  cent  per  ear). 
How  to  get  the  loth  stamp:    Cut  wood  or  get  in  wood  for  fires. 
How  to  get  the  nth  stamp:   Build  fires  at  church  or  schoolhouse. 
How  to  get  the  12th  stamp:   Make  some  maple  syrup. 
How  to  get- the  13th  stamp:    Get  25  cents  for  killing  six  rats  at  home. 
How  to  get  the  14th  stamp:   Work  for  a  storekeeper  on  Saturday. 
How  to  get  the  15th  stamp:   Save  some  grease  and  make  homemade  soap. 
How  to  get  the  i6th  stamp:   Sell  a  basket  of  greens. 

This  is  first  rate  for  making  the  start.  Final  success  in  the  whole 
scheme  will  require  thoro  organization  and  careful,  patient  management. 
But  we  must  do  it.  There  should  be  neither  halt  nor  hesitation.  We 
haven't  yet  begun  to  do  what  we  can  do.  Lloyd  George  declared  two  years 
ago  to  his  English  compatriots  that  "extravagance  costs  blood — the  blood 
of  heroes."  There  is  yet  a  tremendous  amount  of  extravagance  in  this 
country,  if  we  count  as  extravagance  most  of  the  things  that  are  unnecessary. 

Mr.  Vanderlip  in  a  recent  appeal  says: 

The  nation  must  save.  Every  individual  must  learn  and  practice  the  lesson  of 
economy,  of  self-denial,  of  saving  to  the  point  of  sacrifice.     Thrift  will  mean  triumph. 

Every  individual  should  realize  that  saving  money  means  saving  lives. 

The  school  teachers  of  America  must  teach  the  nation  this  imperative  way  to  vic- 
tory— this  preeminent  way  to  maintain  a  national  strength  which  will  safeguard  posterity 
and  advance  civilization. 

The  school  teacher  is  the  pioneer  outpost  of  the  government,  standing  at  the  threshold 
of  the  nation's  homes.  The  schools  of  America  are  the  single  units  where  a  national 
resolution  can  form  and  spread  overnight  into  every  household. 

To  the  teachers  belongs  the  splendid  privilege,  the  solemn  duty,  of  rallying  them  round 
the  flag  and  then  implanting  in  their  hearts  and  sending  into  the  homes  of  America,  the 
message  which  will  keep  that  flag  flying  high. 

We  must  save  money  that  we  may  save  lives.  The  educators  of  America  enjoy  no 
greater  privilege  than  that  of  being  able  to  teach  this  lesson  to  the  nation;  and  for  the 
sake  of  the  lives  of  millions  of  its  finest  boys  the  educators  of  America  may  be  depended 
upon  to  teach  it  quickly  and  well. 


Superintendence)       PROBLEM  OF  COUNTY  SUP  ERIN  TENDENCY  593 

B.    CONFERENCE  OF  COUNTY  SUPERINTENDENTS 


THE  COUNTY  SUPERINTENDENCY  AND  ITS  PROBLEM 

p.    C.   FAIR,   PRINCIPAL  OF   SCHOOLS,   MANSFIELD,   LA. 

It  is  needless  for  me  to  say  that  I  am  indeed  glad  to  be  with  the  National 
Education  Association  in  this  the  greatest  of  all  educational  meetings. 
I  am  glad  first,  because,  having  dedicated  my  life  to  the  school  children 
of  Louisiana,  being  with  you  will  enable  me  to  do  greater  things  for  them. 
Again  I  am  glad  to  be  here  for  it  affords  me  an  opportunity  to  bring  you 
tidings  of  the  great  work  we  are  doing  for  the  coming  manhood  and  woman- 
hood of  Louisiana  thru  our  schools.  We  feel  that  Louisiana  has  one  of  the 
best  and  soundest  public  school  systems  in  the  country. 

The  superintendents  as  well  as  the  other  members  of  the  teaching  force 
are  summoned  to  serve  anew  in  the  great  world-crisis  that  is  now  at  hand. 
This  great  crisis  has  made  over  anew  many,  many  problems  of  the  county 
superin tendency,  one  of  which  is  selecting  teachers.  Only  a  short  while 
ago  a  superintendent  could  secure  efficient  teachers  with  but  Httle  difficulty, 
and  now  no  superintendent  in  Louisiana  has  his  quota.  He  has  no  more 
perplexing  question  than  that  of  securing  teachers.  In  our  parish,  and  I 
believe  DeSoto  is  typical  of  other  parishes  of  Louisiana,  many  schools  are 
now  facing  the  fact  that  they  must  open  up  next  fall  far  short  of  the  required 
teaching  force. 

We  as  teachers  fully  realize  that  the  war  for  democracy  and  human 
freedom  can  never  be  won  unless  the  teaching  force  is  willing  to  pay  the 
price  and  make  the  supreme  sacrifice  of  service  which  they  only  can  do. 
If  we  are  to  realize  the  fairer  civilization  which  is  to  come  from  winning 
this  the  greatest  world-struggle,  the  superintendency  must  summon  to  the 
colors  its  soldiers,  who  must  answer  the  call  no  matter  what  the  price.  But 
we  do  not  feel  that  the  teaching  force  will  answer  this  summons  unless  the 
superintendents  accept  their  places  as  captains  in  this  great  army  and 
martial  their  forces  to  the  front  and  "over  the  top."  Here  we  feel  it  is 
necessary  for  the  superintendent,  as  well  as  for  every  teacher,  to  rededicate 
himself  and  his  services  to  the  school  children  of  the  country.  Children 
are  only  undevelopt  citizens  and  must  have  in  the  new  experiences  which 
every  child  of  today  is  having  such  guidance  as  will  make  of  him  a  citizen 
who  will  function  for  his  Repubhc  as  a  true  citizen  should. 

While  every  true  teacher  is  willing  to  make  the  proper  and  necessary 
sacrifice,  he  must  receive  sufficient  pay  to  maintain  self-respect.  But 
the  superintendent  is  unable  to  offer  the  teachers  the  necessary  salaries 
unless  the  funds  are  available  and  adequate  enough  to  justify  it.  There 
must  be  something  done  along  these  lines,  or  superintendents  are  going  to 
be  forst  to  employ  such  teachers  as  they  can  get  with  the  funds  at  hand. 
In  many  cases  there  will  be  inefficient  teachers,  which  will  result  in  lowering 


594  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

the  standard  of  the  teaching  force,  which  condition  means  a  defeat  of  the 
efforts  which  our  pubHc-school  authorities  have  been  making  to  bring  the 
schools  to  the  present  splendid  standard  of  excellence.  Now  we  must  do 
one  of  the  three  following:  go  without  teachers,  and  close  the  schools; 
lower  the  standard  of  teaching  and  teachers,  thereby  injuring  the  future 
citizenship;  or  raise  the  salaries  commensurate  with  other  professions. 
This  will  hold  the  competent  and  efficient  teachers.  In  so  doing  we  shall 
be  able  to  develop  a  new  and  fairer  civilization  that  will  reach  the  highest 
ideals  of  humanity. 

The  problems  now  facing  the  superintendency  are  the  results  of  new 
conditions,  and  to  solve  them  without  injury  to  the  children  is  going  to 
require  the  soundest  and  sanest  of  judgment  and  good  common  sense. 
In  the  adjustment  of  these  problems  the  county  superintendent  is  going  to 
be  the  directing  influence.  He  should  first  ask  himself,  "How  can  I  go 
about  this  matter  for  the  preservation  of  my  schools  ?  "  For  it  is  no  longer 
a  question  of  justice  to  the  teachers,  but  simply  one  of  running  his  schools. 
Therefore  we  would  say  that  it  is  now  time  for  extreme  measures  to  be  taken 
for  the  sake  of  the  school  children  and  also  for  the  sake  of  democracy. 

To  make  clear  the  statements  we  have  made  with  respect  to  some  of 
the  problems  of  the  superintendency  we  would  like  to  give  you  data  col- 
lected with  regard  to  what  teachers  are  doing  on  their  meager  salaries.  We 
give  this  for  the  express  purpose  of  showing  what  is  expected,  or  we  might 
say  demanded,  of  teachers.  In  Kansas  City  during  one  year  123  teachers 
at  a  salary  of  $1,000  each  per  year  spent  $16,537  on  war  and  local  charities 
and  Liberty  Bonds,  while  the  same  teachers  spent  each  about  forty-five 
dollars  for  recreation  during  the  same  time.  Now  we  do  not  feel  that  a 
teacher  is  getting  much  recreation  out  of  forty-five  dollars  spread  out  over 
a  period  of  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days,  not  to  the  extent  that  she 
can  bring  fresh  life,  vim,  human  interest,  and  companionship  into  her 
work  with  children. 

We  say  to  you  frankly  that  this  problem  of  teachers  is  one  of  most  vital 
importance  to  us,  and  of  all  problems  of  the  superintendency  the  one  that 
should  be  lookt  into  first.  Some  states  have  hundreds  of  schools  without 
teachers,  and  the  slogan  of  many,  many  teachers  is,  "Anything  but  teach- 
ing." 

Almost  daily  we  hear  some  teacher  say,  "Why,  the  superintendent  does 
not  appreciate  my  efforts.  I  have  been  teaching  for  him  two,  three,  five, 
or  more  years,"  as  the  case  may  be,  "and  the  board  has  never  offered  to 
raise  my  salary,  not  so  much  as  offered  a  small  bonus,  when  even  the  men 
who  drill  oil  wells  get  a  substantial  raise  of  salary  and  a  nice  bonus  also." 
And  too,  after  such  statements  we  hear  this  question,  "What  can  you  do  ?" 
The  answer  is  echoed  back  very  quickly,  "Most  any  thing  is  better  than 
teaching.  One  of  my  students  of  last  year  now  in  a  local  bank  is  drawing 
more  annual  salary  than  I,  and  does  not  work  nearly  so  hard.     Besides, 


Superintendence]     STANDARDIZING  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  595 

the  bank  appreciates  her  at  Christmas  with  a  neat  httle  bonus,  with  a  nice 
little  card,  'A  merry,  merry  Xmas  and  a  happy  New  Year.'  Why,  who 
ever  heard  of  a  superintendent  being  authorized  by  a  school  board  to  do 
such  a  thing!" 

We  think  that  the  time  has  come  when  teachers  should  let  it  be  known 
that  teaching  is  a  profession  and  must  be  lookt  upon  as  such  by  those  who 
are  recipients  of  their  conscientious  efforts. 

Now  is  the  time  for  the  county  superintendency  to  show  its  colors. 
It  can  well  afford  further  increases  in  salaries.  The  conditions  are  ripe  for 
it.  The  time  of  pale,  whispering  pussy-foot  arguments  for  higher  salaries 
no  longer  "goes. "  No,  no  longer  should  we  as  the  teaching  profession  put 
up  with  such,  for  ultimatums  unmistakable  -are  being  thundered  and  flasht 
by  the  most  obvious  conditions  on  every  hand.  A  nation-wide  drive  among 
the  county  superintendency  is  needed.  No  other  work  is  so  necessary  for 
them.  Not  to  do  this  aggressively  and  conscientiously  is  to  give  comfort 
and  aid  to  both  the  child's  and  democracy's  worst,  enemies,  ignorance  and 
incompetence. 

With  one  more  thought,  for  which  I  am  indebted  to  Mrs.  Mary  C.  C. 
Bradford,  president  of  the  National  Education  Association,  I  shall  close. 
Superintendents,  you  are  called  to  the  colors  by  the  Spirit  of  America,  by 
the  needs  of  children,  by  the  Soul  of  Civilization.  Will  you  not  heed  this 
call  ?  Will  you  not  be  up  and  doing  ?  Will  you  not  save  our  schools  by 
holding  the  competent  and  efficient  teachers  in  the  profession  ? 


STANDARDIZING  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

J.  H.   BINFORD,   SECOND  ASSISTANT  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS, 
RICHMOND,  VA. 

Nearly  five  million  country  boys  and  girls  attend  the  one-teacher  schools 
of  the  United  States.  Does  this  statement  seem  exaggerated  ?  Listen  to  the 
roll  call  of  some  of  the  states.  Illinois  has  more  than  10,000  of  these  little 
schools,  Minnesota  7000,  Nebraska  6000,  Virginia  5000,  North  Dakota  4000. 
The  rest  of  the  states  make  a  similar  showing.  Massachusetts  boasts  that 
it  has  only  500  one- teacher  schools;  but  when  we  remember  that  the  Bay 
State  has  90  per  cent  of  its  population  classified  as  urban,  we  see  that  even 
the  state  of  Horace  Mann  still  retains  in  its  rural  sections  the  small  country 
school. 

What  shall  we  do  for  the  vast  army  of  country  children  who  now  get  a 
totally  inadequate  training  in  the  small  country  schools  which  abound  in 
all  rural  sections?  These  children  are  to  be  the  country  dwellers  of  the 
next  generation.  Most  of  the  graduates  of  rural  high  schools  will  leave  the 
farm,  but  these  boys  and  girls  of  the  one-  and  two-teacher  schools  will 
remain  to  practice  a  system  of  farming  of  a  much  more  complicated  and 
scientific  type  than  has  characterized  the  farming  of  the  past.    Will  they 


596  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

gradually  sink  to  the  level  of  the  European  peasant  or  will  they,  while 
maintaining  the  best  American  traditions,  practice  scientific  agriculture? 

To  the  average  student  of  rural  education  there  is  only  one  solution  of 
rural  education — consolidation.  As  an  ideal  proposition  we  agree  with 
Dr.  Joyner,  of  North  Carolina,  that  the  smallest  country  school  which  can 
really  train  for  social  efficiency  is  the  three-teacher  type.  With  the  increas- 
ing density  of  population  and  the  improvement  of  rural  transportation  the 
country  community  will  each  year  include  a  wider  area.  Gradually  the  large 
school  will  become  the  prevailing  type. 

In  the  meantime,  however,  we  have  five  million  cotintry  children  in  one- 
teacher  schools.  The  practical  problem  is,  not  to  give  these  children  a  high- 
school  education,  but  to  give  them  in  the  schools  they  now  attend  a  loo 
per  cent  better  training  than  they  are  now  receiving.  If  we  accomplish  this 
improvement  we  bring  about  two  important  results:  first,  we  give  the 
country  child  a  far  better  education  than  he  now  receives;  secondly,  we 
hasten  the  coming  of  the  consolidated  school. 

But  how  shall  we  improve  the  one-teacher  school  ?  We  first  think  of 
compulsion  thru  legislative  enactments  administered  by  a  highly  centralized 
state  department  of  education.  Write  into  our  school  laws  statutes  requir- 
ing the  county  system  of  administration,  minimum  school  terms  and 
teachers'  salaries,  trained  teachers  and  closer  supervision,  and  you  solve 
the  small-school  problem. 

But  it  is  difficult  to  get  rural  communities  to  live  up  to  rigid  state  school 
regulations.  The  farmer  is  conservative  and  the  rural  school  is  supported 
either  by  local  revenues  or  by  state  funds  appropriated  on  the  per  capita 
basis.  The  country-school  teacher  and  trustee  and  more  especially  the 
average  farmer  do  not  know  what  constitutes  a  good  school.  The  first  step, 
therefore,  is  to  raise  the  educational  ideals  of  the  rural  community,  to  carry 
on  a  campaign  of  persuasion  and  education  to  the  end  that  local  pride  may 
be  aroused  and  the  rural  community  may  strive  to  measure  up  to  the  require- 
ments of  a  good  school  as  set  by  the  state. 

The  burden  of  my  remarks  up  to  this  point  is  that  we  must  improve  the 
small  country  school  and  that  the  first  step  and  the  most  effective  is  stand- 
ardization. Like  all  other  movements  the  standard-school  movement  is 
open  to  criticism.  But  I  beg  that  you  do  not  condemn  the  movement 
because  of  any  defect  or  inconsistency  in  the  plan  which  excites  your  atten- 
tion. You  can  be  a  disciple  of  consoUdation  and  still  adhere  to  standardi- 
zation. You  need  not  reject  the  plan  because  of  the  difficulties  in  its 
administration. 

What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  standardization  scheme  ? 

I.  The  requirements  to  be  met  by  the  rural  community  must  be  definite. 
To  illustrate,  it  will  not  do  to  say  that  the  schoolhouse  must  be  "  well 
lighted."  One  state  uses  this  expression  and  even  adds,  "The  light  must 
come  from  the  left  and  the  windows  must  have  adjustable  shades."    The 


Superintendence]     STANDARDIZING  THE  SMALL  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  597 

important  matter,  however,  of  the  ratio  of  window  space  to  floor  space  is 
omitted.  Again  the  expression  "attractive  interior  decorations"  is  quite 
prevalent  in  standardization  plans,  but  what  does  this  expression  mean? 
Many  states  say,  "The  attendance  must  be  good."  This  requirement 
should  be  made  still  more  definite  by  designating  what  percentage  consti- 
tutes good  attendance.  To  show  what  a  stimulating  effect  standardization 
may  have  upon  rural  teachers,  let  us  note  a  few  of  the  definite  require- 
ments laid  down  by  some  of  the  states.  One  state  requires  that  a 
standard  school  must  have  a  well-cataloged  school  library  containing  not 
less  than  100  volumes  and  including  juvenile  books.  Another  state 
makes  supplementary  readers  and  drill  cards  required  items.  Wisconsin 
requires  at  least  four  pieces  of  play  apparatus,  while  Colorado  requires  a 
phonograph. 

2.  The  requirements  must  be  in  reach  of  at  least  the  more  progressive 
rural  communities  of  the  state.  Colorado  rightly  gives  a  credit  of  eight 
points  for  a  teachers'  residence,  but  this  feature  would  be  impossible  of 
attainment  in  other  states.  Kansas  requires  the  teacher  of  a  standard 
school  to  be  a  four-year  high-school  graduate.  In  Pennsylvania,  where  con- 
ditions are  different,  only  two  years  of  high-school  education  is  obligatory. 
There  are  some  requirements,  however,  such  as  instruction  in  domestic 
science,  membership  in  agricultural  clubs,  and  the  teaching  of  agriculture 
which  should  appear  in  every  plan,  not  as  essential,  but  as  entitled  to 
considerable  credit.  It  is  our  duty  to  spread  in  the  country  schools  these 
new  and  essential  things  in  modern  education. 

3.  Every  standard-school  plan  must  provide  for  a  well-organized 
propaganda  for  the  spreading  of  the  movement.  Not  only  breakfast  foods 
and  chewing  gum,  but  new  movements  in  education  must  be  advertized. 
Most  of  the  states  issue  attractive  score  cards  to  be  prominently  displayed 
on  the  school  walls.  Handsome  diplomas  and  door  plates  are  awarded 
schools  placed  on  the  standard  hsts.  A  number  of  the  most  beautifully 
illustrated  pamphlets  issued  by  state  departments  deal  with  the  standardi- 
zation of  country  schools.  This  attractive  literature,  mailed  to  the  remot- 
est sections  of  the  state,  arouses  great  interest  and  is  essential  to  the  success 
of  any  plan  of  standardization. 

4.  There  must  be  an  effective  plan  for  the  inspection  of  schools  applying 
for  standardization,  and  accurate  records  must  be  kept  of  all  such  schools. 
The  failure  to  provide  for  these  two  things  constitutes  one  of  the  main 
objections  to  standardization.  No  standardization  plan  can  be  a  success 
without  adequate  of&ce  force  to  keep  the  records  and  sufficient  field  force 
to  see  that  the  schools  measure  up  to  requirements  while  on  the  standard 
list.  While  the  state  supervisor  of  rural  schools  should  do  considerable 
field  work,  the  burden  of  inspection  must  fall  upon  the  local  superintendents 
and  supervisors.  All  records  should  be  kept  by  the  state  department  of 
education. 


598  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic City 

5.  While  not  essential,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  there  should  be  a 
special  state  appropriation  to  every  standard  school.  In  Virginia  every  one- 
teacher  standard  school  receives  an  extra  appropriation  of  $50  out  of  the 
one-  and  two-room  special  appropriation  and  every  two-teacher  school  meets 
ing  the  standards  receives  $100.  Wisconsin's  plan  rests  upon  an  appro- 
priation giving  special  aid  to  schools  which  meet  statutory  requirements. 
No  rural  school  in  Texas  can  share  in  the  annual  appropriation  of  one  milHon 
dollars  without  meeting  the  requirements  laid  down  by  the  state,  and  the 
462  schools  which  in  1916-17  met  these  requirements  received  each  the 
handsome  bonus  of  $300  from  the  state.  The  hope  of  sharing  in  a  special 
state  fund  is  undoubtedly  a  powerful  stimulus  to  the  country  community. 

In  conclusion  I  submit  that  this  plan  of  improving  the  small  country 
school  has  past  the  experimental  stage.  It  is  employed  by  a  large  majority 
of  the  states,  and  a  composite  score  card  compiled  from  the  several  states 
will  give  you  the  standards  which  the  ablest  rural  school  experts  in  the 
country  have  set  up  for  country  schools.  It  has  been  impossible  up  to  this 
time  to  standardize  the  instruction  in  these  small  schools,  and  herein  is  a 
serious  defect  of  the  standardization  plan.  But  the  standards  for  the  physi- 
cal part  of  the  school,  length  of  term,  salary  and  training  of  teachers,  enrol- 
ment and  attendance  of  pupils,  and  the  curriculum  have  been  made  very 
definite.  These  things  constitute  the  foundation  upon  which  thoro  instruc- 
tion must  rest,  and  if  we  can  attain  these  ideals  we  can  well  leave  to  our 
successors  the  standardizing  of  the  instruction. 


THE  COUNTY  AS  A  UNIT  OF  ORGANIZATION 

MAURICE   S.   H.   UNGER,   SUPERmTENDENT  OF   CARROLL  COUNTY 
SCHOOLS,   WESTMINSTER,   MD. 

Probably  the  most  difficult  problem  for  a  democracy  to  solve  is  that  of 
finding  the  machinery  necessary  to  administer  its  affairs  adequately  and 
efficiently.  As  a  democracy  cannot  continue  to  exist  as  such  unless  it  grows 
constantly,  it  follows  that  its  governmental  methods  cannot  remain  dormant 
and  yet  continue  to  serve  the  purposes  for  which  they  were  contrived.  Thu- 
thruout  the  history  of  the  growth  of  democracy  we  find  a  constant  evolution 
of  new  methods  and  practices  developt  in  order  to  serve  the  needs  of  the 
body  pohtic. 

In  the  United  States  schools  and  the  means  of  education  arose  as  dis- 
tinctly community  undertakings  and  not  as  state  systems.  The  develop- 
ment has  been  from  the  community  outward,  and  the  organization  of 
county  and  state  school  systems  has  come  by  a  gradual  grouping  together 
of  these  commimity  efforts.  As  the  several  states  have  gradually  formu- 
lated their  school  laws  and  systems  it  has  naturally  followed  that  markt 
differences  obtain  in  methods  of  organization,  support,  and  administration, 
as  between  the  different  states,  and  that  as  the  result  of  this  long  popular 


Superintendence!     THE  COUNTY  AS  A  UNIT  OF  ORGANIZATION  599 

evolution,  influenst  so  materially  by  the  individualistic  thinking  of  our 
people,  conditions  of  organization  and  administration  that  are  by  no  means 
ideal  obtain|in  various  states. 

Briefly  stated  there  are  in  existence  three  distinct  types  of  organization: 
(i)  the  district,  (2)  the  town  or  township,  and  (3)  the  county.  As  this  paper 
claims  the  county  system  to  be  far  superior  for  administrative  purposes,  it 
will  first  undertake  to  sketch  briefly  the  main  outlines  of  the  other  two  and 
attempt  to  show  that  both  are  out  of  touch  with  the  drift  of  administrative 
practice  in  the  domain  of  education. 

I  believe  that  the  school  district  is  today  the  greatest  anomaly  in  Ameri- 
can public  education.  It  had  its  place  and  its  use  historically  considered 
in  American  growth  and  a  great  purpose  in  the  evolutionary  processes  of 
the  upbuilding  of  this  great  nation,  but  today  "it  is  a  democracy  gone  to 
seed,  a  worthless  inheritance  from  Massachusetts,"  long  discarded  by  her 
and,  as  one  of  her  most  distinguisht  sons  has  said,  "  the  greatest  blunder  in 
the  whole  history  of  educational  legislation."  Superintendent  Cassidy 
speaks  of  the  system  as  follows: 

Because  of  the  absence  of  a  central  controlling  body,  such  as  a  county  board  of  edu- 
cation, and  the  responsibility  consequent  to  such  a  body  the  schoolhouses  are  the  merest 
sheds;  equipments  are  makeshifts  or  are  wholly  lacking;  there  are  perhaps  six  months 
of  learning  and  certainly  six  of  forgetting;  the  selection  of  teachers  is  in  the  hands  of  men 
who  have  little  or  no  conception  of  what  a  teacher  should  be;  competency  and  teaching 
ability  do  not  assure  stability  of  position;  and  supplementary  aid  is  regarded  as  extortion. 

The  second  or  township  system  is  an  improved  modification  of  the 
former.  It  insures  centralization  of  management,  consolidation  of  equip- 
ment, resources,  and  facilities,  less  expense,  and  more  efficiency.  Its  chief 
result  is  to  better  the  conditions  of  education  for  the  community.  Under 
this  system,  when  carried  to  its  ultimate  conclusion,  the  township  will  con- 
stitute one  district  with  one  board  of  education,  a  central  high  school,  and 
as  many  primary  or  ward  schools  as  are  needed  at  properly  located  points 
in  the  township  and  all  under  expert  supervision  both  pedagogically  and 
financially.  This  system  also  guarantees  the  services  of  a  higher  order  of 
school  trustees,  since  the  increast  responsibility  under  the  township  plan 
leads  the  people  themselves  to  be  more  particular  with  respect  to  the  pro- 
fessional interest  and  intelligence  of  the  men  selected  for  these  positions. 

The  third  or  county  system  of  school  organization  had  its  origin  in  the 
states  south  of  the  Mason  and  Dixon  line.  Here  the  district  system  could 
not  thrive  in  the  early  days,  since  plantations  were  large  and  homes  far 
apart;  the  colored  population  was  not  an  educational  factor,  and  the  chil- 
dren of  the  whites  could  afford  tutors  or  private  schools.  The  county 
therefore  became  the  civil  unit  and  the  county  seat  the  center  of  the  poUtical 
life  of  the  people.  When  the  pubHc  school  became  a  necessity  its  control 
in  view  of  the  absence  of  districts,  in  part  at  least,  was  placed  under  the 
care  of  a  central  board  with  more  or  less  general  power  to  administer 


6oo  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

thruout  the  county.  This  system  has  developt  variously  in  the  several 
southern  states. 

In  recent  years  Maryland  has  been  one  of  the  foremost  in  the  passage 
of  social  and  industrial  laws,  and  it  has  been  the  crowning  act  of  this  state 
to  place  on  its  statute  books  the  most  comprehensive  and  ideal  educational 
administrative  law  in  the  United  States  without  compromise  or  limitation. 
This  educational  code  adopts  the  county  as  the  unit  of  organization,  but 
subjects  the  county  organization  to  the  control  of  the  state  board  of  edu- 
cation, whose  executive  officer  is  the  state  superintendent  of  schools. 

Maryland  has  always  had  a  county  organization  of  its  school  system, 
but  the  system  failed  to  secure  the  full  benefits  of  such  an  adaptation  because 
there  was  not  complete  coordination  between  the  working  parts. 

After  a  survey  of  the  state  by  the  general  education  board  and  a  report 
of  its  findings,  the  legislature  in  1 916  past  a  law  correcting  the  abuses  of  the 
system,  consolidated  great  power  in  the  hands  of  the  state  superintendent, 
and  only  a  little  less  in  that  of  the  county  superintendent,  at  the  same  time 
freeing  them  from  the  dictation  and  interference  of  local  politics,  making 
the  boards  of  education  non-partisan  and  consolidating  the  power  of  school 
administration  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  superintendent  and  the  board 
of  education,  thus  removing  the  last  remnant  of  the  old  district  system  from 
the  state  of  Maryland. 

Ideally  the  general  purpose  to  be  served  by  a  county  board  of  education 
is  to  assist  the  county  superintendent  in  carrying  out  his  educational 
policies  and  in  the  performance  of  the  work  necessary  to  operate  the  general 
educational  system  of  the  state.  It  can  approve  or  disapprove  rather  than 
initiate  legislation.  This  thorogoing  county  organization  of  the  school 
system  of  Maryland  is  all  but  unique,  and  offers  splendid  possibiHties  to 
the  educational  leader.  It  is  common  in  all  sections  of  this  country  for  the 
urban  communities  to  have  separate  school  systems,  each  under  its  own 
administrative  and  supervising  officers.  As  a  result  of  this  the  county 
superintendent  is  usually  little  more  than  an  executive  clerk  with  merely 
nominal  supervision  over  a  few  small  districts,  or  he  is  perhaps  in  charge  of 
a  purely  rural  community  which  is  unable  to  do  much  for  itself.  It  is  easy 
to  see  then  why  relative  feebleness  and  inefficiency  should  exist  in  a  large 
proportion  of  school  systems  outside  of  cities  of  at  least  moderate  size,  and 
why  ordinarily  the  drift  of  the  more  efficient  professional  people  is  toward 
the  cities.  Yet  the  education  of  these  village  and  rural  communities  is  a 
matter  of  vital  importance  from  every  point  of  view,  a  prime  factor  in  the 
much  discust  problem  of  rural  life. 

Now  in  Maryland  the  county-unit  system  of  organization  provides  the 
strength  of  union.  By  uniting  in  one  system  all  the  rural  and  urban  com- 
munities of  a  large  county  ranging  from  rural  districts  and  small  villages 
to  cities  of  10,000  to  40,000  inhabitants,  public  education  rests  upon  a 
vastly  stronger  basis  financially  and  socially.    It  becomes  possible  to  provide 


Superintendence]     THE  COUNTY  AS  A  UNIT  OF  ORGANIZATION  60 1 

for  each  of  these  communities  expert  professional  service  much  beyond 
what  it  could  pay  for  alone.  Thus  it  becomes  possible  to  extend  to  the 
country  child  the  exceptional  opportunities  enjoyed  by  the  city  child,  to 
develop  urban  organization  and  efficiency  in  rural  districts,  and  to  give 
assistance  where  assistance  is  most  needed.  The  flexibility  and  elasticity 
of  a  city  organization  becomes  readily  adaptable  to  the  rural  communities 
when  the  county  is  the  unit  of  organization.  In  the  distribution  of  funds 
no  regard  need  be  paid  to  the  amount  raised  by  any  district  or  ward,  but 
the  total  fund  in  hand  is  distributed  according  to  the  necessities  of  the  com- 
munity determined  by  the  number  of  children  to  be  educated.  The  same 
salary  schedule,  the  same  degree  of  efficiency  in  supervision,  the  same  expert 
assistance,  the  same  courses  of  professional  reading,  the  same  course  of 
study,  textbooks,  and  supplies,  the  same  length  of  school  terms,  are  pro- 
vided for  the  country  as  for  the  town  or  city  schools. 

In  all  lines  of  human  effort  the  tendency  is  strongly  toward  combination 
and  centraHzation  to  the  end  that  more  effective  work  may  be  done  and 
details  more  definitely  planned  and  executed.  In  the  county  superintend- 
ency  we  have  the  beginnings  of  a  complete  and  effective  system  of  organiza- 
tion. The  county  division  existing  in  all  states  lends  itself  to  the  eUmination 
of  pontics,  to  efficiency,  to  equal  opportunity  for  all,  to  expert  supervision 
and  control,  to  eUmination  of  petty  neighborhood  dissensions,  and  to  a  far 
more  efficienct  means  of  directing  public  sentiment  to  better  ends.  This 
ideal  system  has  been  adopted  by  the  state  of  Maryland,  and  is  now  in 
process  of  inauguration.    Prominent  features  of  the  law  are: 

1.  A  distribution  of  the  state  school  fund  to  each  county  based  upon  the  average 
attendance. 

2.  The  power  of  the  board  of  education  to  compel  the  county  authorities  to  levy  for 
school  purposes  up  to  a  maximum  rate  on  each  hundred  dollars  of  taxable  property. 

3.  A  compulsory  attendance  for  all  children  from  seven  to  sixteen. 

4.  Certification  of  teachers  by  uniform  state  examination  and  certificates  issued  by 
state  superintendent. 

5.  A  school  census. 

6.  Provision  for  adequate  school  supervising  forces, 

7.  Minimum  qualification  for  teachers,  and  minimum  salary  schedule  for  all  grades. 

8.  A  minimum  length  of  school  term  of  nine  months. 

9.  State  regulation  of  courses  of  study,  of  approved  high  schools,  and  of  plans  and 
construction  of  buildings  and  improvements. 

10.  A  county  budget. 

The  qualifications,  duties,  and  powers  of  the  county  superintendent  are 
interesting  under  this  law.  He  must  be  especially  trained  for  the  work; 
he  must  be  a  college  graduate  with  postgraduate  preparation  in  administra- 
tion and  supervision  in  a  recognized  university,  and  he  can  be  eligible  to 
the  appointment  then  only  after  he  receives  a  certificate  from  the  state 
superintendent  of  schools.  He  must  devote  his  full  tiiiie  exclusively  to  the 
duties  of  his  office  and  see  that  the  school  laws,  the  by-laws  and  policies  of 


6o2  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  city 

the  state  board  of  education,  and  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  county 
board  are  carried  into  effect. 

He  must  also  visit  all  schools  several  times  a  year  and  supervise  and 
direct  the  work  in  the  schools  either  directly  or  thru  the  supervisors.  He 
must  organize  and  direct  teachers'  training  classes  and  conferences,  local 
institutes  for  teachers  and  citizens,  reading  centers,  and  take  a  leading 
interest  in  the  educational  uplift  movements  of  his  county. 

The  superintendent  also  has  direct  control  over  the  whole  system,  issues 
all  certificates  to  teach  and  supervise,  passes  on  all  building  plans,  interprets 
the  school  law,  and  is  the  final  court  of  appeal  in  disputed  cases  that  arise 
in  administration. 

This  law  has  now  been  in  effect  nearly  two  years,  and  while  there  is  more 
or  less  agreement  that  a  few  minor  changes  might  be  advantageously  made 
there  is  a  nearly  universal  unanimity  thruout  the  state  of  Maryland  that 
the  new  law  has  past  thru  its  experimental  stage  and  the  possibilities  of  a 
county-unit  system  have  been  recognized  and  utiUzed  to  their  full  capacity, 
and  the  public  generally  has  come  to  feel  that  this  state  has  taken  a  step 
forward  in  the  educational  field.  The  adaptations  of  the  county  unit  in 
Maryland  to  educational  administration  is  an  upward  step  in  the  evolution 
of  a  democracy  in  its  attempt  to  adjust  itself  to  proper  growth  and  progress. 


RURAL  SCHOOL  AS  A  SOCIAL  CENTER 

MRS.   THOMAS  W.  HAYES,   COUNTY  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS, 
ROSWELL,  N.M, 

For  several  years  there  has  been  a  growing  conviction  among  the  citizens 
of  our  great  country  that  the  general  welfare  of  its  citizenship  bears  a  direct 
ratio  to  its  educational  progress.  The  increase  in  general  interest  in  every 
phase  of  public  education  for  the  past  ten  years  especially  has  been  marvel- 
ous and  the  substantial  progress  in  all  phases  of  educational  endeavor  has 
been  phenomenal. 

While  the  advancement  being  made  is  very  encouraging  the  ideal  has 
not  been  attained,  and  will  not  or  cannot  be  attained  until  the  pubhc  school 
is  so  developt,  organized,  and  administered  that  it  will  be  able  to  train  all 
the  children  and  all  the  people  of  the  community.  Here  we  probably  find 
the  beginning  of  the  important  movement  in  American  education — the 
effort  to  continue  school  instruction  thruout  the  entire  life  of  the  citizen. 

To  make  the  educational  system  more  efi&cient  has  been  a  stupendous 
task.  The  Department  of  the  Interior  thru  its  Bureau  of  Education  is 
waging  a  nation-wide  campaign  for  better  rural  schools  and  for  the  improve- 
ment of  rural  life.  There  seems  to  be  a  unanimity  of  opinion  that  something 
should  be  done  to  solve  this  rural  problem.  Observant  students  of  educa- 
tion have  differed  as  to  the  policies  or  solutions  suggested,  but  wholly  agree 


Superintendence] 


RURAL  SCHOOL  AS  A  SOCIAL  CENTER 


603 


upon  the  essentials.  All  are  agreed  that  one  urgent  need  in  developing  an 
efficient  system  is  increast  financial  support;  while  many  believe  that 
trained  teachers,  standards  and  requirements  with  reference  to  school 
buildings,  grounds  and  equipment,  attendance  of  pupils,  medical  inspection, 
longer  terms,  consoUdation,  good  roads,  and  many  other  matters  which  time 
forbids  mentioning,  are  necessary. 

This  brings  me  to  that  phase  of  my  subject  of  rural  community  advance- 
ment which  deals  with  the  rural  school  as  a  social  center. 

Within  the  twenty  minutes  allotted  each  speaker  I  cannot  hope  to  do 
more  than  barely  refer  to  the  many  excellent  results  brought  about  by  the 
community-center  movement  and  shall  have  to  confine  myself  to  the  edu- 
cational and  social  phases  of  this  vital  educational  movement  of  the  present- 
day  rural  school.  This  movement  must  concern  itself  with  translating  the 
work  of  the  school  into  the  language  of  the  home  and  the  community  thru 
the  agency  of  the  rural  school.  The  twentieth-century  rural  school  must 
be  properly  organized  as  an  efficient  unit  in  the  economic  plan  for  rural 
betterment  so  that  its  effect  shall  be  emphatically  exprest  in  terms  of  better- 
prepared  and  happier  citizens  in  the  country  with  an  education  which  they 
can  use,  not  alone  for  profit,  but  for  pleasure. 

Along  with  the  home,  church,  and  state — the  primary  social  and  eco- 
nomic elements — the  school  has  taken  its  place  as  the  most  potent  factor, 
and  the  rural  school  is  one  of  the  most  promising  fields  in  which  to  make 
social  and  economic  work  effective.  It  has  the  vantage-ground  on  account 
of  being  the  common  meeting-place  of  the  community  where  all  are  con- 
sidered upon  an  equal  basis  from  the  standpoint  of  democratic  principles, 
right,  and  justice. 

American  people  demand  social  life,  and  you  know  the  conditions  of  our 
rural  life  in  many  cases.  Hard  work  and  the  struggle  for  existence  crowd 
out  social  life.  The  young  people  have  few,  if  any,  social  relations.  They 
leave  the  farm  because  they  believe  that  the  conception  which  lies  behind 
it  is  forever  opposed  and  uncongenial  to  the  spirit  of  youth,  for  to  that  spirit 
life  is  the  ever-paramount  feature.  The  people  are  not  brought  together 
frequently  enough  to  estabhsh  that  sympathy  and  love  so  necessary  to 
overcome  those  petty  jealousies  which  creep  into  the  community  Kfe. 
Farmers  have  abandoned  their  farms  and  agricultural  progress  has  failed 
to  keep  pace  with  growth  in  population  and  with  progress  in  other  indus- 
tries because  the  rural  school  has  heretofore  failed  to  determine  and  meet 
the  educational  and  social  needs  of  the  rural  people.  But  we  hail  with  great 
pleasure  the  dawning  of  the  new  day  in  the  Hfe  of  the  rural  school  and  the 
rural  community;  and  today  we  are  realizing  as  never  before  that  the  time 
is  past  when  the  schoolhouse  was  intended  merely  for  children,  and  we  see 
it  fast  becoming  the  most  important  center  in  the  entire  community. 
Truly  the  school  has  become  the  social  opportunity  of  the  centuries,  and 
we  seize  the  occasion  to  transform  this  work  which  makes  one  of  the  big 


6o4  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

units  of  the  greatest  of  all  works,  the  uplifting  of  humanity  and  the  better- 
ment of  mankind. 

The  rural  school  should  and  is  making  determined  efforts  to  have  the 
entire  community  look  to  it  for  the  source  of  all  community  entertainment. 
The  schoolhouse  should  countenance  every  reputable  form  of  entertainment 
that  will  give  a  great  uplift  to  its  people.  Citizens  will  not  tolerate  in  a 
schoolhouse  what  they  would  allow  without  protest  in  another  place.  This 
coming  together,  this  decidedly  modern  tendency  is  undoubtedly  causing 
profound  changes  in  the  society  of  our  rural  American  people;  this  coming 
together  at  evening  entertainments  of  an  educational  as  well  as  of  a  social 
nature  induces  the  young  people  to  expend  their  surplus  energy  in  a  becom- 
ing manner,  makes  society  more  democratic,  and  deals  a  deathblow  to  many 
secret  dens  of  vice. 

Social  unity  is  the  prerequisite  of  social  regeneration,  and  the  surest 
way  to  effect  a  social  transformation  is  to  realize  the  actual  cooperation 
between  the  home  and  the  school.  In  my  opinion  the  Parent-Teachers 
Association  has  marvelously  contributed  to  the  educational  and  social  uni- 
fication of  community  spirit  and  welfare  in  the  great  and  varied  avenues  of 
its  service.  It  has  brought  about  a  closer  relation  between  the  home  and 
school  and  has  embraced  different  types  of  activities — educational,  social, 
and  civic. 

The  "  teacherage"  has  contributed  largely  toward  the  expansion  of  com- 
munity social  and  educational  life  in  the  rural  school.  The  ''teacherage" 
exerts  that  inviting  and  welcoming  influence  over  the  community  that  the 
old  fashioned  hard-fast-by-the-church  manse  did  in  days  past.  The  very 
presence  of  the  teacher's  home  on  the  school  grounds  invites  and  creates  a 
community  spirit  for  advanst  social  and  economic  measures,  and  incites  and 
stimulates  the  desire  for  better  schools. 

We  could  not  pass  without  giving  due  praise  to  the  moving-picture 
machine  for  its  generous  share  in  the  enlargement  of  the  social-center  move- 
ment of  our  rural  schools.  It  has  been  truly  said  that  the  moving  picture 
gives  to  all  the  opportunity  to  witness  great  events  and  to  be  conversant 
with  all  countries  and  all  occupations.  It  is  the  most  effective  way  of 
teaching  geography,  industry,  history,  much  of  literature,  and  much  of 
science,  and  proves  an  educational  institution  to  parent  and  child  alike. 

The  opportunities  and  demands  for  service  which  these  times  of  world- 
war  bring  to  the  door  of  the  schools  of  our  country  constitute  a  burning 
challenge  which  must  be  met.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  men,  women,  and 
children  have  been  converted  to  a  beUef  in  service.  War  has  taught  us  to 
cooperate.  We  have  workt  together  zealously  in  conserving  food  and  fuel, 
knitting  socks  for  the  sailors,  knitting  sweaters  and  packing  kits  for  soldiers, 
buying  Liberty  Bonds  for  humanity's  sake.  Indeed  we  see  stampt  upon  the 
heart  of  every  true  American  citizen  the  great,  wonderful  Red  Cross.  Those 
of  us  behind  the  lines  must  cooperate  to  the  point  of  sacrifice  to  reclaim  the 


Superintendence!  FINANCING  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  605 

wounded  and  fallen,  care  for  those  who  continue  in  service,  and  prepare 
those  in  our  keeping  for  an  enlightened  intellectual  reconstruction  when  this 
world-conflict  has  ended.  Indeed  we  are  just  learning  our  first  wonderful 
lesson  in  community  interest.  While  I  supervise  schools,  attend  office 
duties,  consolidate  districts,  erect  new  schoolhouses,  repair  old  schoolhouses, 
urge  better  school  and  playground  equipment,  yet  I  believe  the  most  truly 
uplifting,  elevating,  and  far-reaching  work  is  the  community-center  work 
for  the  rural  schools. 

Permit  me  to  leave  with  you  this:  We  have  never  before  enjoyed  so 
splendid  an  opportunity  to  perform  a  lasting  service  as  the  one  now  present- 
ing itself  to  us  and  that  is  the  social-center  work  of  the  rural  schools,  which 
are  the  greatest  socializing  and  Americanizing  agency  in  the  country  today. 


C.     CONFERENCE  OF  SUPERINTENDENTS  OF  CITIES  WITH 
POPULATION  OVER  250,000 


FINANCING  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

E.    C.   HARTWELL,   SUPERINTENDENT  'OF   SCHOOLS,   ST.   PAUL,   MINN. 

Someone  has  said  that  there  are  three  essentials  to  carrying  on  war. 
The  first  is  money,  the  second  is  money,  and  the  third  is  still  more  money. 
However  widely  the  problems  of  our  respective  school  systems  may  differ, 
we  all  have  one  common  problem  which  at  this  time  is  especially  difficult, 
namely,  that  of  adequately  meeting  our  current  needs  and  making  pro- 
vision for  the  expansion  which  the  growth  of  our  cities  makes  imperative. 
The  American  people  have  too  long  prided  themselves  on  an  imaginary 
generosity  toward  education.  Education  has  been  largely  a  local  matter, 
and  there  is  scarcely  a  city  in  the  United  States  today  where  the  school- 
houses  are  able  adequately  to  accommodate  the  enrolment.  In  those 
states  where  funds  for  the  encouragement  of  education  are  administered  thru 
state  agencies  there  is  a  constant  conflict  being  waged  to  keep  the  school 
funds  intact  and  free  from  the  greedy  clutches  of  political  agencies  which 
desire  to  use  the  money  for  other  purposes.  The  national  government  has 
spent  little  money  in  the  encouragement  of  education.  The  Smith-Hughes 
bill  is  the  first  act  of  our  national  government  under  which  financial  assist- 
ance is  given  to  the  cause  of  education,  and  while  I  say  "Three  cheers  for  the 
bill,  and  all  honor  to  the  men  who  persuaded  Congress  to  take  this  first 
magnificent  forward  step,"  the  money  which  will  ultimately  be  spent  under 
the  provisions  of  the  bill  is  pitifully  small  compared  with  the  sums  spent 
by  the  federal  government  for  other  and  less  important  purposes.  A 
nation  that  pays  its  school  teachers  an  average  wage  less  than  that  paid  the 


6o6  NA  TIONA  L  EDUCA  TlON  A SSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

Street  sweepers  of  New  York  City  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  an  exaggerated 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  the  teachers'  services. 

Nearly  every  one  of  us  here  today  is  faced  with  the  problem  of  securing 
sufficient  money  to  operate  efficiently  those  activities  which  already  have 
been  undertaken.  But  our  systems  must  expand — our  cities  are  growing 
and  we  are  constantly  askt  to  enlarge  the  scope  of  the  school's  activities. 
This  war  has  clearly  demonstrated  that  in  certain  particulars  our  school 
systems  are  lamentably  inadequate.  It  has  shown,  for  instance,  how  much 
needs  to  be  done  for  physical  education.  It  has  demonstrated  that  the 
education  of  the  foreigner  must  have  in  the  future  a  much  larger  share  of 
our  attention.  It  has  proved  beyond  the  peradventure  of  a  doubt  that 
vocational  education  must  be  undertaken  in  our  cities,  not  as  a  basement 
annex  or  side-show  addition,  but  as  an  integral  part  of  our  educational 
policy.  Most  of  us  undoubtedly  appreciate  the  necessity  of  meeting  these 
and  other  responsibiUties,  but  when  the  cost  of  operating  our  school  systems 
as  they  now  stand  shows  a  percentage  of  increase  more  than  twice  as  large 
as  the  increase  in  the  source  of  revenue  it  may  well  give  pause  to  all  those 
who  have  charge,  either  professionally  or  financially,  of  American  public 
schools.  Personally  I  believe  that  inasmuch  as  education  has  clearly  come 
to  be  vested  with  a  national  interest  the  federal  government  should  liberally 
subsidize  our  local  communities  in  meeting  some  of  these  educational  prob- 
lems. It  is  my  profound  conviction  that  if  the  federal  government  had 
spent  on  physical  and  vocational  education  in  the  last  ten  years  only  a  small 
percentage  of  what  it  has  wasted  on  useless  river  and  harbor  improvements 
we  should  not  now  be  in  the  situation  in  which  we  find  ourselves.  If  the 
federal  government  twenty-five  years  ago  had  begun  to  spend  on  the  educa- 
tion of  the  adult  foreigner  only  i  per  cent  of  the  money  which  it  has  spent 
in  superfluous  and  extravagant  post-office  buildings  we  should  never  have 
been  faced  with  the  problem  of  the  "Hun  within  our  gates."  I  beheve  it  is 
unfair  to  ask  local  communities  to  bear  the  entire  burden  of  a  problem  which 
is  state  and  national.  Be  that  as  it  may,  as  Grover  Cleveland  said,  "We 
are  confronted  with  a  condition,  and  not  a  theory."  The  problem  with 
which  we  are  faced  is  that  of  adequately  financing,  out  of  local  taxation, 
the  operation  of  the  public  schools.  The  public  schools  in  any  community 
constitute  a  large  business  corporation  in  which  the  people  are  the  stock- 
holders. It  is  our  duty  as  superintendents  to  explain  to  these  stockholders 
why  the  cost  of  public  education  is  constantly  increasing.  And  the  dis- 
charge of  this  very  duty  constitutes  a  large  problem  in  itself.  The  printing 
of  annual  reports  has  practically  no  effect  on  pubHc  sentiment.  Educating 
the  pubHc  to  the  financial  needs  of  the  school  is  a  herculean  task.  It  is  a 
task  which  ought  to  be  undertaken  only  when  we  can  accompany  a  state- 
ment of  our  needs  with  a  constructive,  definite  program  of  how  we  propose 
to  spend  the  additional  money  which  the  public  is  askt  to  contribute. 


Superintendence!  COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  607 

This  program  has  been  prepared  with  the  idea  of  discussing  these  various 
problems  in  a  series  of  short  addresses.  It  is  hoped  that  the  meeting  may 
become  a  clearing-house  of  helpful  and  constructive  suggestions  so  that  we 
may  all  take"  back  to  our  respective  cities  something  which  will  assist  us  in 
meeting  our  local  problems. 


WHY  THE  COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IS   CONSTANTLY 

INCREASING 

JOHN  D.    SHOOP,   SUPERINTENDENT  OF   SCHOOLS,   CHICAGO,   ILL. 

In  a  brief  discussion  of  the  question  of  public-school  revenues  as  they 
affect  the  educational  interests  of  the  larger  cities  we  can  touch  upon  only  one 
or  two  phases  of  current  conditions  which  may  indicate  the  trend  and  scope 
of  the  movements  that  are  in  advance  of  adequate  financial  provisions. 

The  added  expense  incident  to  a  richer  and  more  comprehensive 
curriculum,  the  shifting  of  phases  of  training  from  the  home  to  the  school, 
the  larger  equipment  which  the  principles  and  methods  of  modern  realistic 
education  demand,  the  improved  physical  conditions  which  are  necessary 
for  the  conservation  of  the  health  of  the  children,  and  the  maintenance 
of  supplementary,  corrective,  and  special  schools  combine  to  augment  the 
outlay  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  a  modern  educational  system. 

Again  we  have  not  yet  compast  the  field  which  public  judgment  is 
including  within  the  domain  of  education.  There  are  earnest  and  persistent 
calls  for  a  wider  range  of  the  activities  of  public  instruction.  The  flocking 
of  our  immigrant  population  into  neighborhoods  so  defined  and  isolated 
that  the  language,  customs,  and  traditions  of  the  parent  country  are  pre- 
served for  at  least  a  generation,  creates  a  condition  that  must  enlarge  the 
mission  of  education,  and  calls  for  remedial  agencies  that  will  keep  the 
fires  burning  beneath  the  melting-pot  until  our  motto,  "E  Pluribus  Unum," 
which  had  its  origin  in  a  necessity  for  political  union,  shall  be  alike  appU- 
cable  in  the  discovery  of  the  social  common  denominator  that  will  make 
possible  a  closer  and  more  complete  blending  of  all  social  elements  now 
characterized  by  racial  distinctions. 

Adult  schools  must  lend  their  influence  and  opportunities  to  the  task. 
The  end  must  be  a  common  language — the  forerunner  and  basal  factor  of 
a  homogeneous  citizenship.  We  turn  to  biblical  lore  for  the  time-honored 
illustration  of  the  helplessness  of  the  builders  when  there  was  confusion 
among  the  workmen.  The  same  results  must  follow  with  greater  certainty 
when  the  structure  is  that  of  the  state  instead  of  the  tower  whose 
materials  are  the  baser  elements.  American  security  is  conditioned  upon 
the  solidarity  of  American  citizenship,  which  in  turn  must  look  to  the  field 
of  education  for  the  development  of  the  social  process  that  is  to  assemble 
the  whole  in  ideal  and  balanst  relations.    This  end  will  not  be  attained 


6o8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

until  the  intelligence,  the  hopes,  the  aspirations,  and  the  emotions  of  the 
people  find  expression  in  a  language  common  to  all,  the  language  of 
the  American  court,  which,  interpreted  in  terms  of  democracy,  means  the 
common  people. 

The  educational  responsibihty  of  the  centers  of  population  of  our  coun- 
try is  increasing  with  a  rapidity  that  challenges  the  genius  of  those  whose 
mission  it  is  to  maintain  the  economic  poise  of  the  social  order.  The  neces- 
sity for  the  modification  of  the  ratio  of  urban  to  rural  population  must 
appeal  in  seriousness  and  in  significance  to  the  educator  as  well  as  to  the 
economist.  The  cry  of  "Back  to  the  soil"  is  born  of  necessity  rather  than 
of  sentiment.  The  test  of  the  extraordinary  conditions  into  which  the 
war  of  the  nations  has  carried  us  indicates  only  too  plainly  the  inadequacy 
of  the  reserve  in  our  supply  of  common  necessities.  The  unbalanst  con- 
dition is  not  to  be  explained  alone  by  the  demands  of  war.  The  full  dinner 
pail  is  no  longer  a  political  slogan.  Cold,  stubborn  facts  which  indicate 
in  statistical  columns  a  disturbance  of  the  equihbrium  of  production  and 
consumption  speak  eloquently  and  convincingly  of  our  economic  situation. 
The  remedy  is  not  to  be  found  in  legislation.  The  diagnosis  must  be  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  educator,  whose  business  it  is  to  provide  the  remedy. 
The  problem  is  no  longer  peculiar  to  rural  schools.  The  city  must  shoulder 
its  responsibility.  The  antidote  for  the  gregarious  instinct  out  of  which  has 
grown  the  over-population  of  the  urban  center  is  the  inoculation  of  the  city 
boy  with  the  agricultural  germ.  Our  departments  of  vocational  guidance, 
when  intelligently  organized,  will  discover  among  the  throngs  of  those  who 
are  seeking  advice  as  to  a  life-calling  thousands  who  by  natural  inclination 
would  find  their  happiest  employment  in  the  activities  of  rural  life.  The 
coming  years  will  witness  the  introduction  of  agricultural  courses  in  our 
city  schools,  and  the  public  will  not  fail  to  provide  for  their  support. 

The  advent  of  international  strife  and  the  entering  of  the  American 
nation  into  this  world-wide  controversy  are  reacting  forcibly  on  educational 
thought,  and  today  we  are  scanning  the  horizon  for  the  first  gleam  of  intelli- 
gence that  will  throw  its  light  upon  the  path  of  duty.  To  those  whose 
keener  vision  penetrates  the  cloud  of  battle  a  subsequent  field  of  conflict  is 
revealed.  When  the  dove  of  peace  once  more  hovers  over  the  ensigns  of  the 
miHtant  forces  of  the  world  it  will  witness  again  the  alignment  of  nations  in 
battles  for  supremacy  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  The  future  of  our 
country  as  it  relates  to  her  industrial  and  commercial  interests  will  be  cast 
in  the  balance  whose  poise  and  counterpoise  will  be  determined  by  the  con- 
tribution which  education  may  offer  to  the  process  of  preparation.  Lack  of 
preparedness  for  that  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  world  would  indeed  be  a 
national  calamity. 

It  is  the  business  of  education  to  map  out  the  roadway  for  training 
toward  that  technical  skill  and  higher  constructive  efficiency  that  will  arm 
our  human  power  for  future  service.     It  is  the  business  of  eduon  toatic 


Superin  tendence] 


EDUCATING  THE  PUBLIC 


609 


herald  the  dawn  of  the  new  era  of  commercial  and  industrial  reconstruction 
and  to  prepare  the  drawings  from  which  structures  commensurate  with 
future  needs  are  to  be  reared.  It  is  the  business  of  education  to  proclaim 
to  the  people  that  the  abihty,  the  poise,  the  virility,  and  the  efficient 
human  power  necessary  to  master  the  education  problems  of  this  new  era 
can  be  secured  only  by  paying  the  price  thereof  in  the  brawn  and  brain 
markets  of  the  world. 

With  an  ever-increasing  hope  I  have  lookt  longingly  forward  to  the 
day  when  our  public  schools  and  the  profession  of  teaching  shall,  in  their 
management  and  in  their  financial  policies,  be  guided  by  the  rules  and 
principles  of  legitimate  business  enterprise;  to  the  day  when  sane  ambitions 
for  achievement  need  not  turn  aside  from  the  field  of  education  to  realize 
on  the  ideals  which  have  appeared  for  them  above  the  horizon  of  Ufe;  to 
the  day  when  the  vocation,  the  calling,  of  teaching  shall  rise  in  the  scale  of 
values  to  a  point  where  it  will  be  overshadowed  by  no  imposing  position  in 
trade,  industry,  or  profession;  to  the  day  when  the  molding  of  life  shall  rise 
in  public  recognition  and  in  material  compensation  at  least  to  the  level 
of  the  importance  and  dignity  of  skill  in  the  practical  arts. 

To  attain  this  end-there  must  be  inaugurated  a  campaign  of  ''education 
in  education" — a  creative  and  reconstructive  policy  that  will  level  the  walls 
of  tradition,  unloose  the  bands  of  outgrown  and  antiquated  custom,  and 
face  confidently  the  public  with  a  service  that  has  marketable  value  second 
to  none  in  the  competitive  marts  of  the  world. 

With  a  progressive  educational  scheme  that  would  relate  the  schools 
vitally  to  the  activities  of  life,  with  coordination  and  cooperation  with  the 
supplemental  agencies  in  commerce  and  industry  that  are  lending  their 
aid  to  the  process  of  readjustment  of  the  educational  program  in  the  interest 
of  economy  and  efficiency,  we  are  confidently  assured  that  the  purse  strings 
of  an  appreciative  pubHc  will  be  loosened  and  that  pubhc  education  will 
gather  its  reward  from  a  grateful  and  an  appreciative  people. 


EDUCATING  THE  PUBLIC  TO  THE  FINANCIAL  NEEDS 
OF  THE  SCHOOL 

GEORGE  DRAYTON  STRAYER,  PROFESSOR  OP  EDUCATIONAL  ADMINISTRATION, 
TEACHERS   COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY,    NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

There  are  two  problems  involved  in  educating  the  public  to  the  financial 
needs  of  the  school  system.  The  first  has  to  do  with  convincing  the  voters 
that  the  schools  are  not  able,  with  their  present  measure  of  financial  support, 
to  provide  the  facilities  which  are  necessary  for  the  adequate  education  of 
the  children  of  the  community.  The  second  involves  an  analysis  of  the 
fiscal  problem  in  such  a  way  as  to  persuade  the  voters  that  they  have  the 
abiUty  to  pay  for  the  improvements  which  are  contemplated.* 


6lO  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

In  any  attempt  to  convince  the  public  that  schools  must  be  improved 
it  is  necessary  to  describe  with  as  great  precision  as  possible  the  present 
inadequacies  of  the  school  system  and  to  suggest  a  definite  program  for  its 
improvement.  During  the  past  year  the  writer  had  an  opportunity  to 
inquire  concerning  the  school  facilities  available  in  two  cities  of  consider- 
able size — St.  Paul  and  Omaha.  In  each  of  these  communities  there  were 
those  who  knew  something  of  the  inadequacy  of  the  school  plant.  When 
the  whole  situation  was  presented,  with  an  analysis  which  made  clear  the 
relative  degree  of  efficiency  of  the  plant  as  it  existed,  many  people  were 
interested  and  were  willing  to  vote  in  support  of  a  program  for  improving 
the  situation  who  had  on  previous  occasions  been  unwilling  to  support 
such  a  movement.  When  it  is  shown,  for  example,  by  a  careful  scoring  of 
school  buildings  that  more  than  half  of  them  are  less  than  25  per  cent 
efficient  in  fire  protection,  all  citizens  who  have  children  in  the  schools 
become  interested  in  the  necessity  for  improvement.  If  it  can  be  shown 
as  was  the  case  in  two  of  the  cities,  that  approximately  half  of  the  school 
buildings  have  less  than  a  50  per  cent  efficient  heating  and  ventilating 
system,  one  may  even  argue,  with  some  hope  of  carrying  conviction,  for 
the  abandonment  of  some  of  the  poorer  buildings. 

In  each  of  the  school-building  surveys  which  I  have  undertaken  build- 
ings have  been  found  which,  on  the  basis  of  ranking  a  perfect  building  one 
thousand  points,  fall  below  five  hundred,  and  certain  buildings  have  been 
found  which  rated  between  three  and  five  hundred  points  on  the  thousand- 
point  scale.  This  rating,  together  with  an  analysis  of  the  many  deficiencies 
which  bring  about  so  low  a  percentage  of  efficiency,  seemingly  carries 
conviction  concerning  the  needs  of  the  school  system  which  is  not  always  the 
case  when  one  speaks  of  poor  or  inadequate  buildings  which  should  be 
replaced. 

In  like  manner  an  analysis  of  the  opportunities  offered  in  schools,  or 
rather  the  lack  of  opportunities,  may  help  to  convince  the  public  of  the  need 
of  more  money  for  the  support  of  public  education.  It  can  be  shown,  for 
example,  that  the  only  satisfactory  method  of  meeting  the  demand  for 
differentiated  courses  of  study  for  the  children  of  the  upper  grades  of  the 
elementary  school  is  thru  the  establishment  of  intermediate  schools  or  six- 
year  high  schools.  It  can  be  made  clear  that  to  provide  in  all  elementary 
schools  the  equipment  in  the  household  and  industrial  arts  which  would 
give  the  sort  of  prevocational  training  which  children  want  and  need  would 
be  very  much  more  expensive  than  to  establish  a  system  of  intermediate 
schools.  It  is  obvious,  when  the  facts  are  presented,  that  children  are 
retarded  in  our  school  systems  in  large  numbers,  and  that  they  cannot  be 
expected  to  profit  largely  by  the  courses  of  study  which  are  provided  in  the 
traditional  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school.  It  can  be  estabhsht 
just  as  clearly  that  there  are  children  who,  on  account  of  their  superior 
ability,  may  do  in  five  years  instead  of  six  work  now  commonly  assigned 


Superintendence)  EDUCATING  THE  PUBLIC  6ll 

to  the  last  two  grades  of  the  elementary  school  and  the  high  school.  When 
these  facts  are  made  available  and  the  program  for  the  establishment  of  the 
intermediate  school  is  presented  in  connection  with  them,  it  has  been 
found  possible  in  many  communities  to  secure  support  for  the  establishment 
of  the  new  type  of  school. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  show  by  careful  examination  of  the  attendance 
service  the  degree  of  efficiency  that  is  achieved  by  this  part  of  the  school 
administration.  When  inefficiency  is  discovered  it  is  almost  always  accom- 
panied by  a  lack  of  support  and  an  inadequate  staff  in  the  attendance 
department.  Most  people  will  accept  the  fact  that  the  enforcement  of  the 
compulsory-education  law  is  essential  in  any  attempt  to  provide  an  adequate 
scheme  of  public  education.  When  it  is  shown  clearly  that  the  attendance 
department  lacks  the  staff  and  equipment  necessary  for  making  it  effective, 
a  long  step  has  been  made  in  the  direction  of  securing  adequate  support. 

An  examination  of  the  health  service  provided  for  public  schools  will 
show  in  one  case  a  recording  of  defects  with  little  or  no  action  for  their 
removal  or  for  the  improvement  of  the  health  of  school  children.  An 
analysis  of  the  situation  in  another  city  will  discover  the  fact  that  health 
service  of  the  sort  that  remedies  defects  and  gets  results  costs  many  times 
more  than  the  medical  inspection  provided  in  the  other  city.  When  one 
has  available  facts  concerning  the  type  of  service  rendered  it  is  not  difficult 
to  argue  for  a  support  which  may  cost,  instead  of  fifteen  or  twenty  cents,  a 
dollar  per  pupil.  Departments  of  educational  research  can  be  justified 
and  financial  support  sought  for  them  to  best  advantage  by  pointing  out 
the  need  for  such  careful  analyses  of  the  work  of  the  school  system 
as  have  been  made  by  these  bureaus  in  the  cities  which  have  already 
estabhsht  them. 

In  like  manner  the  relative  amount  of  money  invested  in  supervision  by 
other  school  systems  or  by  commercial  or  industrial  enterprises  may  serve, 
not  only  to  establish  the  need,  but  to  justify  as  well  the  expenditure  which 
will  be  involved  in  providing  adequate  supervision.  The  public  is  not 
greatly  imprest  with  the  demand  for  more  money  for  the  schools.  It  can 
be  induced  to  see  specific  needs  when  they  are  made  as  clear  and  definite 
as  possible.  The  particular  needs  of  the  school  system  and  the  benefits 
which  may  be  expected  to  accrue  to  the  children  form  the  only  adequate 
basis  for  asking  for  increast  support  for  pubHc  education. 

The  second  question  concerning  the  ability  of  the  community  to  pay 
involves  a  consideration  of  the  wealth  of  the  community,  of  its  rate  of 
taxation  based  upon  real  wealth,  of  the  investment  which  has  been  made 
over  a  period  of  years  for  buildings  and  equipment,  and  the  like.  In  the 
surveys  which  I  have  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  demonstrating  the 
necessity  of  providing  funds  for  the  development  of  a  more  adequate 
school  plant  it  has  seemed  wise  to  compare  cities  of  approximately  the 
same  size  with  respect  to  their  support  of  public  education  and  to  suggest 


6 12  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  city 

the  possibility  of  more  generous  support  in  the  Hght  of  the  amount  of  money 
spent  in  other  communities. 

In  the  St.  Paul  survey  it  appeared  that  this  city,  as  compared  with  those 
nearest  to  it  in  size,  had  the  lowest  tax  rate  per  thousand  dollars  of  estimated 
real  value  of  property  and  that  there  were  cities  that  were  paying  from  two 
to  three  times  as  much  on  a  thousand  dollars.  It  appeared  as  well  that 
while  other  cities  had  spent,  from  1899  to  191 5,  in  the  development  of  their 
school  plants  as  much  as  from  twenty  to  thirty-five  dollars  per  capita, 
St.  Paul  had  spent  only  seven  dollars  and  nine  cents  per  capita.  It  was  also 
shown  that  the  percentage  of  the  total  money  spent  for  city  maintenance 
which  was  expended  for  schools  was  lower  in  this  community  than  in  many 
others  comparable  to  it.  Contrasts  of  this  sort  can  be  made  in  support  of 
the  plea  for  more  liberal  J&nancial  support  of  schools  in  those  communities 
which  have  given  less  adequate  support.  The  argument  in  favor  of  more 
generous  support  in  the  communities  which  lead  will,  of  course,  have  to  be 
based  upon  the  wilUngness  of  the  community  to  pay  more  money  for 
superior  education. 

At  the  present  moment  one  of  the  greatest  needs  in  all  our  school  systems 
is  for  more  adequate  salaries  for  teachers.  Thruout  the  country  young  men 
and  women  are  hesitating  to  enter  normal  schools  or  teacher-training  classes. 
The  enrolment  in  these  institutions  has  dropt  anywhere  from  10  to  40  per 
cent.  Those  already  at  work  in  the  schools  have,  in  large  numbers,  left  the 
profession  on  account  of  the  more  adequate  opportunity  ofifered  in  industrial 
or  commercial  life.  The  very  salvation  of  our  public  school  system  depends 
upon  the  paying  of  salaries  adequate  to  attract  and  to  retain  in  the  teaching 
profession  our  best  young  men  and  women — those  who  are  most  competent 
to  hand  on  to  the  children  the  ideals  in  which  we  believe  and  to  teach  them 
to  appreciate  the  institutions  which  are  peculiar  to  our  democratic  society. 
In  this  case,  as  in  the  others  which  have  been  mentioned,  the  community 
can  be  made  to  recognize  its  obligation  only  when  all  the  facts  are  presented. 
Here  too  there  is  a  distinct  advantage  in  holding  up  for  consideration  those 
communities  which  pay  more  adequate  salaries  and  which  are  able  to  main- 
tain a  higher  standard  of  preparation  for  those  who  would  teach  in  their 
schools. 

Those  who  are  responsible  for  voting  support  for  our  schools  will  grant 
increast  support  only  when  they  are  convinst  that  the  investment  which 
they  are  askt  to  make  is  a  good  one.  The  process  of  educating  the  public 
to  the  needs  of  the  school  system  is  not  unlike  the  process  of  education  in 
any  other  field.  The  more  facts  we  can  present,  the  more  definite  and 
precise  we  can  be  with  respect  to  the  needs  of  the  school  system,  the  more 
weight  we  shall  have  with  our  pubHc.  We  shall  be  wise  if  we  add  to  our 
statement  of  needs  an  analysis  of  the  fiscal  problem  which  will  make  it  clear 
that  the  community  can,  without  unduly  burdening  itself,  afford  to  pay 
for  the  improvements  which  are  necessary. 


Superintendence]        EFFICIENT  FINANCE  FOR  CITY  SCHOOLS  613 

EFFICIENT  FINANCE  FOR  THE  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

FRANK  W.    BALLOU,   ASSISTANT   SUPERINTENDENT   OF   SCHOOLS, 
BOSTON,   MASS. 

Recently  in  a  small  gathering  of  educators  the  subject  of  financing 
education  was  under  consideration.  One  of  those  present,  whose  position 
and  professional  standing  command  respect  for  his  views,  exprest  himself  as 
believing  that  the  subject  of  financial  economy  in  education  was  not  worthy 
of  the  consideration  of  educators.  He  argued  that  it  is  the  business  of 
educators  to  get  and  to  spend  as  much  money  as  possible  for  education. 
He  defended  his  position  on  the  ground  that  it  is  impossible  to  spend  too 
much  money  for  educational  purposes. 

I  believe  that  this  is  both  an  indefensible  and  a  dangerous  theory.  It 
is  a  dangerous  theory  since  it  implies  that,  because  of  the  nature  of  the 
undertaking,  an  educator  should  not  be  held  responsible  for  an  economic 
expenditure  of  the  funds  provided  for  educational  purposes.  Men  in  the 
educational  profession  have  always  been  peculiarly  free  from  any  imputa- 
tions of  profiting  dishonestly  by  reason  of  the  educational  positions  which 
they  hold.  However,  their  responsibiUty  for  a  judicious  and  economic 
expenditure  of  school  funds  is  as  great  as  their  moral  responsibility  for 
spending  school  money  honestly.  Every  public  official  is  morally  bound  to 
expend  money  so  that  it  will  best  serve  the  purpose  for  which  the  public  pro- 
vided it.     To  this  principle  the  educator  should  be  no  exception. 

Efficient  finance  in  a  city  school  system  depends  (i)  on  the  appropria- 
tion of  a  reasonable  amount  of  money  for  the  needs  of  the  schools,  and 
(2)  on  a  rational  plan  for  its  distribution  to  serve  those  needs.  A  reasonable 
amount  of  money  can  best  be  secured  thru  a  fixt  tax  rate,  with  the  board 
of  education  possessing,  within  limitations,  the  tax-levying  power.  A 
rational  distribution  of  money  depends  on  an  effective  system  of  budget- 
making. 

I .  The  appropriation  of  a  reasonable  amount  of  money  for  the  schools. — 
The  constitutions  of  the  several  states  of  the  Union  charge  their  respective 
state  legislatures  with  the  responsibiUty  of  maintaining  systems  of  public 
education.  Public  education  is  a  state  function.  The  administration  of 
.education  by  a  local  school  committee  or  board  of  education  does  not  alter 
that  fact.  The  board  of  education  acts  as  an  agent  of  the  state  as  well  as  a 
local  agent.  Logically  and  legally,  therefore,  the  state  legislature  may  fix 
the  tax  rate  and  thereby  determine  the  amount  of  money  to  be  provided  for 
school  purposes  for  any  city.  Not  only  should  the  legislature  fix  the 
minimum  and  maximum  limits  of  the  tax  rate,  but  the  board  of  education 
should  also  be  given  the  authority  to  appropriate  and  levy  within  those 
limits  the  amount  of  money  necessary  for  educational  purposes.  The 
board  of  education,  rather  than  any  department  of  the  city  government, 
should  possess  the  tax-levying  authority  for  school  purposes,  because  the 


6i4  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

board  is  organized  for  the  purpose  of  providing  public  education  and  is 
more  cognizant  of  the  needs  of  the  schools  than  is  any  city  department. 
The  administrative  agency  which  controls  the  appropriations  in  the  school 
budget  also  by  that  fact  determines  the  educational  possibiUties  of  the 
school  system.  That  agency  should  be  the  board  of  education.  There 
are  three  advantages  in  this  arrangement:  (i)  it  keeps  school  finances 
out  of  politics;  (2)  it  increases  annually  the  amount  of  money  appropriated 
for  school  purposes  as  the  assest  valuation  increases;  and  (3)  it  makes 
possible  the  carrying  out  of  a  systematic  educational  poUcy  over  a  period 
of  years. 

2.  A  rational  plan  for  the  distribution  of  money  for  the  schools. — ^Having 
discust  the  need  of  a  fixt  tax  rate  as  a  means  of  securing  a  reasonable 
amount  of  money  for  educational  purposes  in  a  city  school  system,  let  us  now 
turn  our  attention  to  the  other  aspect  of  efficient  financing,  viz.,  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  school  budget  according  to  which  the  available  money  is  to  be 
spent.  I  shall  discuss  what  appear  to  me  to  be  five  conditions  of  efficient 
budget-making. 

a)  The  first  condition  of  successful  budget-making  is  knowledge  on  the 
part  of  those  who  make  the  budget  of  the  amount  of  money  available  for 
school  purposes  during  the  financial  year  for  which  the  budget  is  to  be 
made.  In  conducting  one's  personal  business  successfully  one  decides  on  his 
expenditures  in  relation  to  his  income.  So  in  making  a  school  budget 
the  amount  of  money  which  can  or  should  legitimately  be  spent  for  the 
several  activities  of  a  school  system  depends  directly  on  the  amount  of 
money  available.  With  a  fixt  tax  rate  this  condition  of  successful  budget- 
making  is  satisfied. 

h)  The  second  condition  of  effective  budget-making  is  the  general 
recognition  that  making  a  school  budget  is  prunarily  an  educational  func- 
tion and  as  such  should  be  supervised  and  directed  by  educators.  It  is 
relatively  immaterial  who  actually  compiles  the  budget,  or  who  makes 
the  original  estimates.  It  is,  however,  of  fundamental  importance  that  the 
estimates  should  be  prepared  according  to  the  educational  policies  of  the 
superintendent's  office,  and  that  the  eliminations  and  reductions  should  not 
be  made  by  those  who  may  or  may  not  be  famihar  with  the  effect  which 
such  eliminations  and  reductions  may  have  on  the  educational  activities  of 
the  school  system. 

c)  The  third  condition  of  successful  budget-making  is  an  amount  of 
time  for  making  the  estimates  commensurate  with  the  difficulty  of  the 
problem  and  the  importance  of  pubUc  education.  In  Boston  the  Depart- 
ment of  Educational  Investigation  and  Measurement  was  askt  to  make 
a  study  of  the  system  of  budget-making.  It  proposed  that  more  tune  be 
secured  for  making  a  school  budget  by  estimating  in  advance  the  amount 
of  money  likely  to  be  available  from  taxation,  from  income,  and  from 
unexpended  balances,  and  proceeding  at  once  with  the  preparation  of  a 


Superintendence!        EFFICIENT  FINANCE  FOR  CITY  SCHOOLS  615 

tentative  budget.  This  is  not  the  proper  occasion  for  discussing  in  detail 
the  statistical  methods  by  which  the  department  showed  that  such  estimates 
could  be  made.  It  is  important,  however,  to  describe  briefly  the  problem 
involved  and  to  indicate  the  results  secured  by  applying  the  statistical 
method. 

In  Boston,  while  the  money  available  for  school  purposes  comes  from 
taxation,  from  income,  and  from  unexpended  balances,  more  than  96 
per  cent  of  the  total  amount  available  comes  from  taxation.  A  statistical 
method  of  making  estimates  of  money  available  from  taxation  was  workt 
out  and  applied  to  the  twelve  years  from  1905  to  1916.  In  each  case  the 
estimate  of  the  amount  of  money  available  from  taxation  was  within  $10,000 
of  the  actual  amount.  In  three  cases  it  was  within  $1000  of  the  actual  sum 
available.  In  the  nearest  case  there  was  a  difference  of  only  $228 .  21  in  the 
amount  of  money  actually  available  and  the  estimate  of  the  money  that 
would  be  available.  In  eight  out  of  the  twelve  years,  or  in  75  per  cent  of 
the  cases,  the  estimate  was  within  $3000  of  the  actual  figures.  When  one 
considers  how  relatively  small  these  differences  are  in  the  budget  of  over 
$6,000,000,  it  is  clear  that  the  results  from  the  application  of  this  statistical 
method  are  sufficiently  close  to  the  actual  amounts  available  to  make  the 
method  reliable  for  this  purpose.  Because  the  estimates  of  gross  income 
can  be  made  in  advance,  Boston  now  begins  the  preparation  of  a  tentative 
budget  on  December  i.  When  the  actual  amounts  of  money  are  later 
known  the  preliminary  estimates  are  corrected. 

d)  The  fourth  condition  of  successful  budget-making  is  a  clear  defini- 
tion of  the  authority  and  responsibility  of  those  who  make  budgetary 
estimates.  Under  favorable  conditions  the  absence  of  clearly  defined 
authority  may  not  cause  trouble.  On  the  other  hand,  during  times  of 
stress  the  absence  of  such  well-defined  duties  and  responsibihties  may 
prove  a  calamity. 

e)  The  fifth  condition  of  successful  budget-making  is  knowledge  on 
the  part  of  those  who  make  the  budget  of  the  annual  costs  of  the  several 
school  activities  over  a  period  of  years.  In  order  that  knowledge  of  the 
amount  of  money  expended  in  previous  years  may  be  utilized  in  budget- 
making,  there  must  be  (i)  a  detailed  system  of  accounting  intimately  related 
to  the  appropriation  items  in  the  budget,  and  (2)  an  adequate  plan  for 
disseminating  this  financial  information  by  the  business  office  among  those 
who  make  budget  estimates. 

Differentiation  of  functions  in  order  to  fix  official  responsibihty  and 
to  increase  efficiency  is  undoubtedly  sound  administrative  practice.  Never- 
theless the  centralization  in  one  office  of  all  business  matters  relating  to 
education  has  undoubtedly  tended  to  promote  the  feeling  that  educators 
should  not  concern  themselves  with  educational  finances.  More  important 
than  this,  it  has  also  tended  to  make  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  for  anyone 
in  the  school  service  to  keep  himself  adequately  informed  on  educational 


6i6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

costs.  In  most  cities  the  only  participation  one  has  in  financial  matters 
is  to  write  his  requisition  and  to  forward  it  to  the  business  or  purchasing 
agent.  He  never  knows  how  much 'expenditure  his  requisition  entailed,  for 
he  never  sees  the  bill.  To  be  sure,  at  the  end  of  the  financial  year  a  report 
is  issued,  but  the  expenditures  of  a  school  or  department,  or  of  any  activity, 
are  so  generalized  and  summarized  that  for  the  most  part  the  report 
furnishes  inadequate  information  concerning  detailed  costs.  By  segre- 
gating the  business  matters  into  one  office  or  department  financial  informa- 
tion necessary  to  the  educational  offices  has  been  taken  away.  For 
effective  administration  of  the  superintendent's  office  this  knowledge 
must  be  restored. 

When  the  school  budget  reaches  the  school  committee  it  should  be  a 
well-balanst,  detailed,  statistical  analysis  of  the  estimated  expenditures  for 
the  next  financial  year.  Such  a  budget  can  only  be  prepared  in  relation  to 
the  annual  expenditures  of  preceding  years  and  in  consideration  of  the 
extensions  contemplated  in  the  general  educational  policy  of  the  school 
system.  When  considering  budget  estimates  the  superintendent  needs  to 
have  before  him  a  statement  of  annual  expenditures  for  various  educational 
activities  over  a  period  of  years,  in  order  that  he  may  distinguish  among 
the  estimates  furnisht  him  those  that  are  necessary,  those  that  are  desirable, 
and  those  that  are  clearly  for  extension  of  activities.  Appropriations  would 
naturally  be  made  to  satisfy  these  estimates,  in  order  named,  and  the 
appropriations  for  extensions  of  activities  should  not  be  made  until  the 
necessary  and  desirable  expenditures  for  all  present  activities  have  been 
largely,  if  not  wholly,  provided  for.  With  a  detailed  statement  of  expendi- 
tures before  him  the  superintendent  has  a  comparatively  reliable  fact  basis 
on  which  to  judge  the  trustworthiness  and  justification  of  the  estimates  of  his 
subordinates,  and  also  has  a  fair  basis  for  approving,  reducing,  eliminating, 
or  increasing  those  estimates. 

If  budget  estimates  are  to  represent  adequately  the  amount  of  money 
needed  they  must  be  based  on  facts  and  not  on  fancies.  The  most  reliable 
fact  basis  is  that  furnisht  in  an  adequate  system  of  accounting.  If  the 
information  contained  in  the  accounts  is  to  be  available  it  must  be  made 
accessible  thru  some  plan  which  shall  be  recognized  as  an  integral  part  of  the 
system  of  making  a  school  budget. 


DISCUSSION 

Albert  Shiels,  superintendent  of  schools,  Los  Angeles,  Cal, — Concerning  Mr. 
Ballou's  decision  on  the  advisability  of  a  uniform  source  of  revenue  unaffected  by  the 
vicissitudes  of  political  interest  there  can  be  no  dissent.  His  five  principles  in  budget- 
making  permit  neither  question  nor  criticism.  Therefore  I  shall  endeavor  only  to  supple- 
ment his  contribution  by  reference  to  other  aspects  of  city  financing  which  the  time  at 
his  disposal  did  not  permit  him  to  consider. 

School  expenditures  may  be  considered  in  a  variety  of  ways.  There  are,  however, 
two  principal  accounts  from  which  all  others  are  derived:  (i)  expenditures  for  permanency 


p 


Superintendence!  DISCUSSION  617 

which  include  provision  for  site  for  buildings  and  for  permanent  equipment;  and  (2)  ex- 
penditures for  annual  outlays,  which  include  provisions  for  supervision,  instruction,  sup- 
plies, and  repairs. 

1.  Expenditures  for  permanency. — If  we  could  determine  and  apportion  these  expendi- 
tures annually,  then  sites  could  be  purchast  and  buildings  erected  and  equipt  out  of  each 
year's  income  precisely  as  salaries  or  supplies  are  now  provided  for.  The  annual  income 
from  taxes,  however,  is  rarely  used  to  cover  cost  of  sites  and  buildings.  This  is  logical, 
inasmuch  as  neither  a  building  nor  a  site  is  "consumed"  in  a  single  year,  but  thru  a  long 
series  of  years.  Therefore  the  cost  should  be  extended  over  a  series  of  years.  Moreover, 
the  usual  annual  tax  yields  could  scarcely  provide  for  these  things,  so  recourse  is  had  to 
bond  issues. 

When  the  accumulated  bond  debt  is  not  heavy  there  is  a  great  temptation  toward  care- 
less expenditures.  It  is  so  fascinating,  this  method  of  getting  money  just  by  voting  for  it! 
But  easy  voting  sometimes  means  hard  paying.  Bond  issues  have  an  uncanny  way  of 
growing  while  we  sleep.  When  the  awakening  comes,  it  is  very  sudden.  The  public 
discovers  that  the  interest  itself  has  become  too  heavy,  heavy  enough  to  make  a  respectable 
income  for  sites  and  buildings  of  itself;  or  the  last  voted  issue  can  be  marketed  only  at  a 
high  rate  of  interest  because  there  have  been  too  many  others;  or  the  city  is  near  its  debt 
limit.  Then  comes  the  unreasoning  panic.  The  public  will  vote  for  nothing,  and  there 
is  a  new  kind  of  waste  even  worse  than  that  of  extravagance.  The  same  public  that  was 
so  quick  to  vote  bonds  and  the  same  newspapers  that  had  always  supported  favorable 
action  join  the  great  chorus  of  protest.  A  city  that  but  a  little  time  before  was  building 
palatial  structures  now  refuses  to  provide  even  meager  school  accommodations.  Part 
time,  crowded  classes,  frame  additions,  and  the  other  long  train  of  school  troubles  follow 
thick  upon  one  another.  In  all  the  tiresome  and  fruitless  game  of  criticism  and  recrimina- 
tion the  bond  interest  charges  go  silently  but  remorselessly  on,  yielding  nothing  to  sites 
nor  buildings,  piling  up  the  tax  rate,  and  making  affairs  yet  worse  confounded  year  by  year. 

Whether  there  is  an  abundance  of  bond  money  in  reserve  or  whether  the  time  of  panic 
has  come,  there  are  three  things  which  sooner  or  later  must  be  done:  one  is  to  fix  a  policy 
the  second  is  to  provide  a  means  of  carrying  it  out,  and  the  third  is  to  tell  the  public  the 
facts.  The  policy  should  be:  that  sites  should  be  selected,  not  as  sudden  necessities 
require,  but  on  a  definite  extension  of  a  period  of  years;  that  some  buildings  should  not  be 
so  extravagantly  constructed  as  to  prevent  decent  accommodations  in  other  and  usually 
less  fortunate  parts  of  the  city;  that  the  administration  should  utilize  existing  conditions 
by  insistence  upon  small  classes,  but  should  ameliorate  these  conditions  by  having  such 
transfers  and  reorganizations  made  as  will  get  the  most  out  of  the  existing  facilities. 

American  cities  today  are  suffering  because  when  land  was  cheap  educational  author- 
ities had  no  conception  of  the  standard  site.  They  bought  small  plots,  or  poorly  placed 
plots,  sometimes  as  bargains  and  sometimes  because  there  was  no  vision. 

2.  Expenditures  for  annual  outlays. — Among  all  the  things  that  may  be  said  concern- 
ing the  important  problem  of  annual  expenditures  three  things  deserve  consideration. 
The  first  is  the  need  of  standardizing  equipment,  supplies,  and  the  total  ratio  of  teachers 
to  the  whole  school  attendance,  tho  this  of  course  involves  a  departure  from  the  standard 
ratio  in  each  individual  case. 

The  second  thing  is  to  observe  the  comparative  costs  thru  a  series  of  years.  If,  for 
example,  it  is  shown  that  for  almost  no  greater  number  of  pupils  there  is  a  considerable 
increase  in  per  capita  cost  the  school  administration  must  be  prepared  to  show  that  there 
is  a  good  reason  for  this  condition.     Nothing  should  be  left  to  luck. 

The  third  thing  is  a  correct  notion  of  the  meaning  of  school  experimentation  in  educa- 
tion. Education  is  improving  constantly,  but  that  does  not  relieve  supervising  authorities 
from  trying  out  what  they  propose  to  introduce  in  a  reasonable  way.  Before  an  experi- 
ment is  establisht  it  should  be  the  duty  of  an  administrator  (a)  to  state  precisely  the  object 
in  mind;  {h)  to  state  the  method  by  which  he  proposes  to  carry  it  on;  {c)  to  show  how  he 


6i8         ^  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

proposes  to  check  the  experiment  by  indicating  his  method  of  discovering  whether  the 
values  expected  will  be  yielded;  {d)  to  indicate  precisely  what  the  cost  of  the  experiment 
will  be;  {e)  in  case  the  experiment  should  prove  successful,  to  indicate  what  it  ought  to 
cost  when  generally  extended  thruout  the  city.  Too  many  American  cities  have  sur- 
viving types  of  organization  started  doubtless  for  some  good  reason  not  now  apparent, 
without  any  history  of  their  successes  or  failures.  They  continue  only  as  traditions  or 
thru  inertia.  • 

The  real  object  of  an  experiment  is,  not  economy  only,  but  a  discovery  of  values 
before  extensions.  This  ought  reasonably  to  be  expected  of  any  competent  person.  I 
do  not  believe  that  it  is  the  business  of  the  school  superintendent  to  find  how  cheaply  an 
educational  system  can  be  administered.  But  it  is  his  business  to  abolish  waste  and  to 
get  a  maximum  dividend  for  every  cent  he  expends.  It  is  not  evidence  that  educational 
dividends  are  being  obtained  merely  by  affirming  that  they  are  obtained.  We  must 
remember  that  in  education  as  in  every  other  phase  of  human  effort  responsibility  lies 
upon  us,  not  merely  to  affirm  excellence,  but  to  give  some  evidence  that  excellence  has 
been  attained. 


D.     CONFERENCE  OF  SUPERINTENDENTS  OF  CITIES  WITH 
POPULATION  BETWEEN  25,000  AND  250,000 


TOPIC:    LEADERSHIP  IN  EDUCATION 

A.    LEADERSHIP  AS   FOUND   TODAY  IN  INSTRUCTION  IN 
INTERPRETING  THE  CURRICULUM 

I.    IN  THE  SUPERINTENDENT 

Z.   C.   THORNBURG,   SUPERINTENDENT  OF   SCHOOLS,   DES  MOINES,  IOWA 

One  of  my  first  professional  texts  clearly  emphasized  the  point  that  the 
main  business  of  the  school  was  instruction  and  not  government.  Order 
was  not  to  take  the  place  of  industry,  nor  disciphne  the  place  of  instruction. 

Aside  from  the  teacher  and  the  pupil  the  course  of  study  is  the  niost 
important  adjunct  in  the  school.  Teaching  is  worth  while  only  in  so  far 
as  it  arouses  thought  regarding  those  things  that  are  worth  thinlung  about. 
Pages,  chapters,  topics,  and  subtopics  are  not  a  curriculum.  Material, 
places,  conditions,  and  their  relationship  to  the  pupil,  present  or  future, 
when  properly  organized,  not  by  the  superintendent  at  his  desk,  but  by 
teachers,  principals,  supervisors,  and  superintendents,  after  survey  trial 
and  application,  might  form  a  fair  basis  for  the  curriculum. 

The  public  school  develops  chiefly  habits,  ideas,  and  attitudes.  Current  educational 
literature  is  stressing  the  development  of  the  intellect  thru  the  grouping  of  curricula 
material  in  terms  of  social  problems  or  projects.  If  the  curriculum  is  to  be  interpreted 
so  as  to  modify  the  pupils'  behavior,  both  the  method  and  the  content  must  be  taken  into 
consideration. 

The  teachers  should  not  only  be  led  in  building  the  course  of  study, 
but  likewise  be  directed  in  its  application;  the  training  of  leaders  in  an 
educational  system  is  of  equal  importance  to  the  selection  of  those  capable 


Superintendence)  LEADERSHIP  IN  INSTRUCTION  619 

of  leading.  Numerous  teachers  can  be  found  in  every  system  who  have 
initiative,  scholarship,  teaching  skill,  personality,  social  aptitude,  health, 
and  surplus  vitality  to  develop  and  carry  forward  the  important  lines  of 
present-day  school  activities.  It  is  the  business  of  the  superintendent  to 
find  and  use  these  valuable  individuals. 

A  superintendent  in  a  western  city  needed  a  teacher  for  an  open-air 
school.  A  year  prior  to  opening  he  suggested  to  a  certain  teacher  that 
she  begin  preparation  in  this  particular  field.  Another  helper  was  needed 
to  take  charge  of  atypical  children,  and  a  grade  teacher  who  had  not  been 
especially  trained,  but  who  had  the  elements  of  leadership,  was  discovered 
for  this  department. 

The  successful  superintendent  must  also  be  able  to  detect  leadership  in 
the  light  of  the  curriculum  in  those  who  are  about  to  enter  the  force  of  the 
city  over  which  he  presides.  This  ability  must  be  analyzed  and  located  in 
the  school  or  territory  most  needed.  The  reorganization  of  schools,  junior 
high  schools,  departmental  teaching,  the  platoon  system,  make  it  easy  to 
utilize  special  ability;  these  plans,  for  instance,  permit  the  entire  time  of  the 
strong  teacher  in  English  to  be  used  in  teaching  her  specialty  instead  of 
requiring  her,  as  under  the  old  system,  to  teach  all  subjects  with  the 
probability  of  the  teaching  in  the  other  subjects  being  poorly  done.  The 
curriculum  should  be  so  organized  that  the  teacher  may  have  periods  for 
relaxation.  More  and  more  we  are  learning  the  importance  of  conserving 
the  physical  strength  of  the  teachers.  It  requires  more  than  ordinary  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  keep  to  the  maximum  mental  capacity  when 
working  with  children.  Eight  hours  of  work  are  by  no  means  equal  to 
seven  hours  of  work  plus  one  hour  of  play.  Someone  has  said  that  the 
spiritual  fails  when  the  physical  and  mental  begin  to  ebb.  Leadership 
is  weak  indeed  if  it  in  any  manner  overlooks  the  first;  it  must  ever  be 
humble,  bearing  in  mind  that  sympathy  may  not  be  in  the  printed  outline, 
nor  love  always  written  into  the  teacher's  contract. 

Some  years  ago  a  superintendent  who  had  just  been  elected  in  a  well- 
known  city  announst  in  the  first  plank  of  his  platform  that  he  had  purchast 
an  automobile  and  proposed  to  visit  every  school  in  the  city.  There  is 
value  in  such  visits,  but  the  average  city  needs  definite  standards  of  teaching 
and  study  more  than  schoolroom  visits  from  the  head  of  the  school  system. 
There  must  be  a  rather  clear  notion  of  why  geography  is  worth  while  and 
the  method  used.  What  should  the  children  do  in  penmanship  in  the  sixth 
grade  ?    How  much  progress  should  they  make  in  any  particular  grade  ? 

Measurement  is  a  most  vital  link  in  the  chain  used  to  interpret  instruc- 
tion; therefore  measurement  and  standards  must  be  clearly  understood, 
not  only  by  the  pupils  and  the  teachers,  but  by  the  public  as  well.  If 
Latin,  modern  languages,  and  algebra  have  a  value  for  the  average  boy  or 
girl  in  the  high-school  grades,  the  public  has  a  right  to  understand  that 
value  in  reasonably  definite  terms  and  appHcations. 


620  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

A  democracy  is  secure  only  so  long  as  the  children  have  access  to  free 
schools  whose  function  has  been  correctly  understood.  It  is  then  very 
important  for  every  good  citizen  in  the  democracy  to  know  the  purpose  of 
the  public  schools. 

In  the  beginning  of  our  educational  history  in  this  country  the  scheme 
provided  for  a  triumvirate.  The  home  was  to  train  the  child  in  the  indus- 
tries, the  church  was  to  care  for  the  spiritual  training,  and  the  school  for 
the  mental  training.  Long  since  have  we  realized  that  this  classification 
is  an  impossibility,  and  more  and  more  is  the  work  of  the  home,  and  to  some 
extent  of  the  church,  being  turned  over  to  the  schools.  It  is  impossible 
exactly  to  define  the  field  of  each,  but  all  three  institutions,  each  using  the 
same  positive  constructive  method,  must  be  utilized  if  the  child  is  ever  to 
have  the  chance  to  which  he  is  fully  entitled. 

The  public  must  be  instructed,  and  the  very  best  way  is  thru  semi- 
public  organizations,  such  as  the  chamber  of  commerce,  the  press,  mothers* 
councils,  trades  assemblies,  rotary  clubs,  improvement  leagues,  and  any 
other  avenue  thru  which  the  superintendent  may  speak  of  the  school  plans. 
In  all  of  these  there  are  leaders  who  must  be  reacht  and  trained  largely  by 
the  heads  of  the  educational  system.  There  is  a  leader  who  will  be  invalu- 
able in  the  ItaHan  group.  There  is  another  in  the  locaHty  where  the  Greeks 
live.  Mothers'  councils,  misguided,  are  a  greater  abomination  to  the 
superintendent  and  the  school  system  than  the  war-charged  church  choir  is 
to  the  preacher;  but  properly  directed,  given  something  to  do,  they  are  the 
most  potent  factor  of  the  day  in  interpreting  the  programs  of  the  American 
public  schools.  Thru  any  or  all  of  these  organizations  and  institutions  the 
superintendent  may  plead  for  intermediate  schools,  more  open-air  schools, 
more  opportunity  rooms,  added  rooms  for  the  deaf,  relief  for  the  crippled 
children,  new  high-school  buildings,  additional  equipment,  better  salaries, 
higher  taxes,  or  any  other  items  needed  in  the  system. 

Some  pedagogical  cynic,  or  an  overcritical  layman,  who  thinks  of  the 
modern  school  superintendent  in  the  light  of  the  old-time  schoolmaster 
with  his  long  hair  and  extended  coat  tail,  who  knew  everything  that  was 
not  worth  knowing  and  could  do  nothing  worth  while  but  teach  children, 
might  not  agree  that  some  of  these  undertakings  are  within  the  proper  field 
of  the  superintendent.  Some  may  charge  that  I  have  outhned  a  program 
for  a  poHtician.  I  am  not  concerned  much  about  that,  but  firmly  beheve 
that  we  need  educational  statesmanship  in  our  schools  if  the  teachers  are 
to  be  led  in  the  training  of  leaders  thru  a  proper  understanding  of  the  school 
program. 

DISCUSSION 

Fred  M.  Hunter,  superintendent  of  schools,  Oakland,  Calif. — School  superin- 
tendency  is  coming  to  stand  out  as  a  profession.  As  an  administrator  the  superintendent's 
function  is  large  and  responsible.     He  must  be  a  business  man,  a  man  of  afifairs,  able  to 


Superintendence)  DISCUSSION  62 1 

take  his  place  along  with  other  men  who  do  things  in  his  community.  But  this  function 
is  not  distinctive.  He  does  not  differ  in  this  respect  from  the  executive  officers  of  dozens 
of  large  business  institutions  each  carrying  on  a  business  differing  widely  from  that  of  the 
other  and  from  the  work  of  the  superintendent. 

The  superintendent  is  professional  in  his  supervisory  relationship;  that  is,  it  is  in  his 
supervision  of  the  fundamental  activities  of  the  school  rather  than  in  his  efforts  as  general 
manager  to  surround  the  work  of  the  schools  with  proper  conditions  for  development 
that  the  professional  character  of  the  superintendent  of  schools  lies,  I  do  not  mean  that 
the  superintendent  must  make  his  major  function  the  supervision  of  classroom  instruction 
by  direct  personal  contact,  but  I  do  mean  that  he  must  be  something  more  than  a 
mere  manager  and  diplomat,  that  he  has  a  greater  service  to  perform  than  merely  to  sur- 
round actual  school  work  with  proper  conditions,  and  that  is,  to  shape  the  development 
of  this  thing  we  call  the  curriculum  by  leading  the  forces  which  actually  make  it,  and  to 
interpret  it  to  at  least  three  groups  of  people — to  the  teachers,  to  the  board  of  education, 
and  to  the  public. 

This  conception  of  the  superintendent  as  a  professional  leader  and  as  an  interpreter 
of  the  curriculum  makes  him  a  student  of  curriculum-making;  not  the  kind  of  curriculum- 
making  which  consists  in  conforming  to  tradition,  but  rather  of  the  type  which  seeks  (i)  the 
great  national  purposes  in  education,  (2)  the  defects  of  our  present  school  organization 
and  the  machinery  in  obtaining  them,  and  (3)  the  assistance  of  the  whole  teaching  force 
in  the  active  work  of  scientific  investigation  and  experimentation. 

The  multitude  of  activities  introduced  into  the  schools  as  war  measures  has  increast 
almost  beyond  conception  this  responsibility  of  the  superintendent.  These  activities 
have  emphasized  in  bold  terms  the  national  ideals.  Every  superintendent  has  seen  in 
flaming  letters  against  the  black  storm  of  Prussianism  the  national  motto,  "The  Nation 
for  the  Individual,"  and  he  has  read  with  almost  equal  clearness  the  secondary  lines, 
"Individual  Service  and  Responsibility  to  the  Nation."  As  a  curriculum-maker  he  is 
constrained  by  his  own  professional  ideals  and  by  the  pressure  of  national  necessity  to 
reconstruct  machinery,  content,  and  method  until  these  great  national,  yes  international, 
purposes  shape  every  activity  and  inspire  the  work  of  every  classroom. 

No  less  plainly  has  our  great  national  crisis  shown  us  the  defects  in  our  system  of 
education  as  it  has  brought  us  into  realization  of  the  tremendously  responsible  relation 
between  public  education  and  nationality.  Everybody  knows  that  we  have  no  thorogoing 
machinery  for  Americanization.  The  patriotic  spirit  of  every  community  has  revolted 
at  the  un-American  sentiment  that  has  been  evident  whenever  patriotic  pressure  has 
become  intense.  The  terrible  danger  that  lurks  in  our  large  unamalgamated  elements 
is  no  longer  apparent  only  to  students  of  sociology.  It  is  now  a  part  of  the  public  con- 
sciousness. That  13  per  cent  of  our  population  are  foreign  born  or  children  of  the  first 
generation  of  foreign  parentage,  and  that  30  per  cent  of  these  are  illiterate  is  not 
conducive  to  smug  satisfaction  either  on  the  part  of  the  public  or  on  the  part  of  those 
responsible  for  our  educational  machinery.  So  the  first  great  defect  in  the  work  of  our 
schools  and  its  relation  to  national  life  is  shown  by  the  lack  of  a  well-developt  system  for 
Americanization. 

The  second  great  defect  is  the  failure  of  our  schools  to  cover  thoroly  their  field, 
that  is,  their  failure  to  provide  for  all  American  youth  up  to  an  age  nearing  maturity  a 
fairly  adequate  training  for  citizenship.  The  experiments  made  in  the  states  that  have 
begun  a  system  of  industrial  education  have  brought  us  the  conclusion  that  such  training 
should  extend  to  the  age  of  eighteen  for  all  youth  in  our  land.  The  Massachusetts  registra- 
tion of  minors,  the  Wisconsin  continuation  law,  and  similar  steps  taken  by  various  cities 
and  communities  place  the  legislative  stamp  of  approval  upon  this  conception.  Yet  how 
lamentable  is  the  situation  when  we  view  the  record  of  the  high  schools  of  the  country. 
A  recent  survey  of  the  elimination  from  the  high  schools  of  the  country  by  Frank  G. 
Pickell  and  B.  F.  Mickelblech  shows  that  the  high  schools  of  the  various  sections  of  the 


622  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

United  States  are  able  to  retain  to  the  Senior  year  the  following  percentages  of  those  enter- 
ing as  Freshmen: 


Percentage 

. 

First  Year 

Fourth  Year 

Section: 

North  Atlantic  states 

North  Central  states 

South  Atlantic  states 

South  Central  states 

lOO 
lOO 
lOO 
ICO 
lOO 

I  GO 
I  GO 

39 
43 

28 

28 

Western  states 

37 

54 
21 

Cities: 
Boston  (highest) 

New  York  City  (lowest) 

The  superintendent  then,  as  a  leader  in  curriculum-making,  must  himself  see  clearly, 
first,  the  great  national  purposes  and  their  demands  upon  public  school  activities,  and 
secondly,  the  great  shortcomings  of  which  our  school  system  in  the  past  has  been  guilty. 
He  is  called  upon  to  be  a  keen  discriminator  in  values  and  to  select  and  organize  the 
demands  to  which  he  and  his  followers  shall  accede. 

The  first  demand  growing  out  of  our  recognition  of  national  purposes  and  school 
defects  is  this:  The  curriculum  shall  be  an  organized  series  of  practices  and  activities 
rather  than  a  body  of  knowledge  based  upon  the  principle  that  action  alone  is  educative. 
The  government  has  been  remaking  our  curriculum  for  us  before  our  very  eyes.  It  has 
been  forcing  into  our  classrooms  activities  which  have  done  more  in  the  past  six  months 
in  training  for  real  citizenship  than  all  our  laboriously  devised  schedules  of  social  studies 
have  done  in  the  past  five  years. 

The  second  principle  involved  in  the  new  demands  is  that  of  variation.  This  principle 
of  variation  as  opposed  to  uniformity  will  guide  the  curriculum-making  of  the  future 
upon  two  different  planes:  first,  curriculums  will  vary  in  accordance  with  the  individual 
needs,  or,  in  more  practical  terms,  with  the  group  needs  of  boys  and  girls  as  determined 
by  social  inheritance,  economic  environment,  and  natural  tendencies;  secondly,  curricu- 
lums will  vary  in  the  organizational  units  in  which  these  organizations  are  located,  and  the 
respective  needs  of  these  communities. 

The  third  principle  in  curriculum-making  under  the  new  demands  will  be  this:  Cur- 
riculums will  be  made  by  two  groups  of  people:  first,  by  classroom  teachers,  or  their 
respective  comrnittees,  who  are  studying  the  needs  of  children  by  first-hand  contact; 
and,  secondly,  by  special  groups  of  experimenters  employed  by  communities  to  study 
individual  and  group  differences  in  children  and  to  survey  community  needs. 

The  fourth  principle  under  our  new  demands  is  the  principle  of  extension.  Class- 
room and  laboratory  practices  must  not  cease  abruptly  with  the  graduation  of  the  pupil 
or  his  elimination  from  school.  The  superintendent  as  a  maker  and  interpreter  of  the 
curriculum  must  have  a  conception  of  the  development  of  such  courses  as  will  extend  the 
usefulness  of  the  schools  far  past  the  present  idea  of  school  age  and  far  out  of  the  geo- 
graphical limits  of  our  school  plants. 

To  the  board  of  education  the  superintendent  should  be  a  leader  in  establishing  an 
attitude  of  professional-mindedness.  Upon  the  superintendent,  to  a  large  degree,  falls 
the  responsibility  of  so  handling  his  relationship  with  the  board  of  education  and  so 
organizing  the  avenues  thru  which  professional  information  may  be  kept  constantly  before 
them  that  the  temptation  to  play  politics  is  lessened  and  the  main  purposes  of  the  schools 
are  always  held  before  them.  His  method  of  attack  should  lead  to  the  point  of  view  that 
the  greatest  service  which  boards  of  education  can  perform  is  thru  their  leadership  of 


Superintendence]  LEADERSHIP  IN  INSTRUCTION  623 

public  opinion  in  forming  sound  educational  policies,  and  thru  a  conception  of  their  func- 
tion as  being  legislative  rather  than  executive  and  administrative.  The  superintendent 
should  lead  in  bringing  about  an  organization  of  his  board  upon  a  broad  policy-making 
basis  rather  than  along  the  lines  of  administrative  detail. 

Because  the  attitude  of  boards  toward  education  and  the  sentiment  which  the  public 
in  general  has  regarding  education  are  retroactive  upon  each  other  the  superintendent 
cannot  neglect  any  means  of  direct  appeal  to  the  public  itself.  The  superintendent's 
ofl&ce  should  use  the  public  press,  the  rostrum  of  organizations  affiliated  with  the  public 
schools,  such  as  parent- teacher  associations,  civic-center  organizations,  women's  clubs, 
and  improvement  clubs,  and  in  fact  every  legitimate  avenue  of  approach  to  the  public 
to  build  in  the  mind  of  the  public  the  foundations  of  sound  educational  doctrine. 

The  superintendent's  leadership  in  interpreting  the  purposes  of  the  curriculum  to  his 
teachers  and  in  making  the  accomplishment  of  those  purposes  a  fact  is  dependent  upon  his 
ability  to  lead  his  board  of  education  to  a  proper  conception  of  its  responsibiUty  and  largest 
functions,  and  his  hold  upon  public  sentiment  is  dependent  upon  his  abiUty  to  control 
the  avenues  of  public  information  on  school  development  and  school  policies.  He  is 
authoritatively  a  leader  of  his  professional  co-workers,  but  he  must  make  himself  a  leader 
of  those,  who  have  political  authority  over  him  and  of  the  public  which  maintains  the 
institution  in  which  he  works.  In  this  sense,  he  is  without  question  the  most  significant 
public  servant  in  his  community.  He  should  regard  his  responsibility  with  a  spirit  of 
service  and  devotion  and  should  make  it  his  Hfe-purpose  to  capitalize  his  time  and  knowl- 
edge, his  professional  training,  and  missionary  zeal  in  the  largest  way  possible. 


//.    IN  PRINCIPALS  AND  SUPERVISORS 

R.    O.    STOOPS,    SUPERINTENDENT   OF   SCHOOLS,   JOLIET,   ILL. 

The  wording  of  this  subject  at  once  suggests  to  me  the  personality  of 
the  supervisor  of  classroom  instruction  and  the  high  type  of  professional 
service  which  he  should  render  to  the  teachers  under  his  immediate  direction. 

The  historical  development  of  the  position  of  principal  or  supervisor 
came  from  the  discovery  and  recognition  of  those  personal  traits  of  leader- 
ship which  made  one  teacher  in  a  building  or  group  stand  out  as  the  "head 
teacher."  In  Uke  manner,  when  buildings  multiplied  as  the  village  grew 
into  a  city,  the  principal  who  had  shown  markt  initiative  and  administrative 
abihty  became  general  director  of  the  work  in  a  number  of  buildings  and  the 
position  of  supervisor  was  developt.  In  both  cases  the  position  was  a 
recognition  of  the  qualities  of  personal  leadership.  It  is  understood  that 
the  term  "supervisor"  in  this  discussion  refers  to  the  supervisory  prin- 
cipal, or  general  supervisor,  of  a  definite  group  of  teachers. 

The  personality  of  a  supervisor  contributes  largely  to  his  success.  He 
must  be  a  man  among  men,  a  kindred  spirit  of  the  men  who  do  things  in  the 
community.  A  woman  supervisor  should  be  identified  with  the  agressive 
women's  organizations  and  her  cooperation  should  be  sought  in  all  lines 
of  social  service.  The  human  element  in  education  demands  that  the 
supervisor  identify  himself  with  the  lay  interests  of  the  community  so  that 
from  personal  touch  he  may  interpret  community  needs  in  terms  of  educa- 
tional activity.     In  no  other  way  can  he  hope  to  relate  his  work  to  the 


624  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

concrete  thought  and  practical  application  of  everyday  civic,  commercial, 
and  industrial  life. 

An  honest  attitude  toward  his  work  is  the  most  essential  quality  in  a 
supervisor.  Positive  traits  of  character,  such  as  loyalty,  fairness,  and 
courage,  must  Stand  out  in  all  he  does.  He  must  have  the  perseverance  and 
patience  to  labor  long  with  apparent  failure  until  he  can  turn  it  to  success. 
His  optimism  must  inspire  hope  in  others;  his  technical  knowledge  and 
skill  must  command  their  respect.  These  qualities  in  a  supervisor  not 
only  inspire  a  teacher  to  bring  the  fulness  of  any  subject  or  teaching  to  the 
pupils,  but  insures  such  confidence  that  she  will  feel  free  to  invite  her  superior 
to  pass  upon  a  definite  piece  of  work. 

Constructive  leadership  in  education  must  be  based  upon  a  balanst 
conception  of  the  entire  nature  of  the  child.  The  percentage  of  selected 
men  rejected  by  the  various  exemption  boards  thruout  the  country  suggest 
that  we  have  failed  to  send  the  entire  boy  to  school.  Those  respon^ble  for 
the  program  of  studies  should  hold  before  the  classroom  teachers  the  im- 
portance of  constructive  recreation  and  robust  health  and  should  point  the 
way  to  definite  standards  of  physical  hardihood.  Personal  hygiene  and 
household  sanitation  offer  a  field  for  habit  formation  which  makes  for 
moral  safety,  civic  efficiency,  and  personal  success  later  on  in  life. 

Next  to  the  physical  basis  as  an  underlying  factor  in  education  comes 
the  emotional  nature  of  the  child.  This  determines  to  a  large  extent  his 
attitude  toward  his  companions,  his  interest  in  nature  about  him,  in  art,  and 
in  music.  The  utilization  by  the  teacher  of  these  social  and  aesthetic 
values  means  a  citizenship  later  on  which  will  recognize  community  inter- 
ests, organize  community  activities,  and  continually  seek  an  improved 
environment.  So  basic  are  the  physical  and  emotional  natures  of  the  child 
as  a  foundation  upon  which  all  teaching  must  rest  that  the  supervisor  must 
make  their  full  appreciation  by  the  teacher  his  first  concern. 

It  is  then  the  province  of  the  supervisor  to  see  that  the  fundamental 
academic  subjects  are  properly  related  to  these  two  aspects  of  child  life. 
From  them  must  come  the  energy  and  interest  to  enable  the  pupil  to  com- 
plete the  academic  work  with  the  minimum  of  time  and  effort.  Training 
of  the  hands  in  certain  basic  processes  of  a  prevocational  nature  should 
supplement  the  academic  work.  The  mental  processes  in  handwork  are 
much  more  valuable  to  the  child  than  the  concrete  results.  Here  again 
the  supervisor  must  be  sure  that  the  teacher  considers,  in  her  plans  and 
practice,  industrial  and  cultural  education  as  supplementary  rather  than 
competitive. 

Not  only  must  the  validity  of  the  teacher's  theory  be  checkt  by  the 
supervisor,  as  I  have  indicated,  but  the  curriculum  must  be  interpreted  to 
her  in  terms  of  social  need.  No  matter  how  carefully  the  curriculum  may 
have  been  prepared,  further  interpretation  to  most  teachers  will  be  neces- 
sary.    Outhnes  upon  the  various  subjects  must  be  prepared  from  time  to 


Superintendence]  LEADERSHIP  IN  INSTRUCTION  625 

time  to  bring  out  the  fulness  of  the  course  of  study  and  to  set  forth  the  best 
methods  of  teaching.  All  along  the  line  practice  must  be  measured  in 
terms  of  social  validity.  Life  must  be  significant  at  every  level.  The 
school  comes  in  between  the  child  and  the  world  at  large,  while  the  primi- 
tive child  had  no  such  restrictions.  Nature-study  must  be  a  study  of 
things,  not  about  things.  Literature  should  contribute  to  an  interpre- 
tation of  life.  Art  should  develop  appreciation  and  common  skill.  Moral 
education  must  be  concrete  in  form.  Social  ethics  and  social  conditions 
are  supplementary;  one  is  the  building,  the  other  is  the  foundation.  All 
school  values  should  reflect  the  fighting  values  of  the  world  outside.  In 
fact,  the  unconscious  method  of  great  teaching  comes  from  the  proper  social 
point  of  view. 

Few  teachers,  unaided,  will  give  sufficient  emphasis  to  matters  of 
present-day  interest.  Just  now  history  is  so  vitally  in  the  making  that 
current  events  have  a  compelling  power  hitherto  unknown.  The  vital 
significance  of  citizenship — its  privileges  and  its  responsibiUties — stands 
out  as  never  before.  Just  now  material  such  as  the  "Teachers'  Patriotic 
Leaflets,"  issued  by  the  National  Security  League,  might  well  replace  much 
of  our  prescribed  work  in  civics.  Our  interdependence  upon  each  other  and 
specific  phases  of  international  commerce  set  forth  in  some  such  form  as 
the  government  bulletins  on  community  and  national  life  should  supple- 
ment the  general  curriculum  or  be  substituted  for  certain  parts  of  it.  In 
like  manner  the  supervisor  must  clarify  the  importance  and  determine 
the  place  of  thrift  campaigns,  of  Junior  Red  Cross  work,  and  of  education 
in  the  conservation  of  food  and  fuel  as  a  part  of  the  school  program.  All 
of  these  activities  have  educational  possibilities  in  civic  and  social  service 
which  must  not  be  overlookt.  Undertaken  without  definite  and  positive 
direction,  however,  they  would  tend  toward  confusion,  loss  of  time,  and 
indefinite  results. 

The  greatest  task  of  the  supervisor  will  always  be  the  improvement  of 
classroom  instruction.  Efforts  toward  this  end  must  be  based  upon  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  conditions  gained  from  personal  visits.  This  takes  time. 
All  criticism  should  be  constructive  and  definite.  To  say  that  work  is 
"good,"  "fair,"  or  "unsatisfactory,"  without  stating  the  particular  reason 
for  such  a  judgment  requires  no  abiUty  and  will  probably  arouse  curiosity 
or  provoke  resentment.  On  the  other  hand,  a  constructive  criticism  points 
out  a  definite  deficiency  and  proposes  a  definite  remedy. 

Much  may  be  accomplisht  thru  demonstration  lessons  and  thru  directed 
visits  by  teachers.  The  demonstration  lesson  should  be  given  under 
normal  classroom  conditions  by  the  supervisor,  or  by  some  teacher  selected 
by  him,  before  a  group  of  teachers  of  the  same  grade  or  subject.  After 
the  exercise  is  concluded  and  the  pupils  have  been  dismist,  a  free  and  full 
discussion  of  the  plan  and  method  involved  will  invariably  bring  out  con- 
structive suggestions  and  concrete  practices  exceedingly  valuable  to  all 


626  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

concerned.  Such  discussions  will  clarify  aims  and  single  out  the  proper 
points  of  attack.  Visiting  by  teachers  may  result  in  similar  benefits  if 
properly  directed  and  afterward  discust. 

The  supervisor  must  also  lead  in  devising  and  setting  up  definite 
standards  of  achievement.  There  must  be  a  clear  understanding  as  to 
specific  accomplishments  in  every  phase  of  the  work.  This  involves  a 
testing  and  measuring  of  results  by  some  definite  scale  in  the  appHcation 
of  which  the  teacher  must  have  an  intelligent  and  sympathetic  interest. 
Teacher  and  supervisor  can  then  have  a  common  basis  for  comparing 
results,  in  which  there  is  unity  of  aim  and  honesty  of  purpose.  This 
will  insure  that  the  individual  needs  of  pupils  will  be  met  and  the  strength 
or  weakness  of  the  teacher  be  revealed  in  a  helpful  manner. 

Both  the  supervisory  principal  and  the  general  supervisor  will  always 
have  certain  administrative  details  to  look  after.  The  experienst  expert 
in  educational  theory  and  practice  is  too  valuable  a  man,  however,  to  be 
tied  down  by  mere  matters  of  routine.  If  he  is  to  furnish  real  leadership 
he  will  not  permit  any  combination  of  circumstances  to  dissipate  his  time 
and  energy  from  the  aggressive  constructive  work  before  him. 

In  this  brief  discussion  I  have  attempted  to  show  that  successful 
leadership  by  a  supervisor  must  be  founded  upon  sterUng  traits  of  char- 
acter and  recognized  technical  training  and  skill.  He  must  then  assure 
himself  that  his  teachers  have  a  sound  educational  theory  based  upon  a 
full  appreciation  of  the  interdependence  of  the  physical,  emotional,  and 
mental  activities  of  the  child.  He  must  interpret  the  curriculum  in  terms 
of  social  need,  measuring  all  school  activities  by  the  fighting  values  of  the 
world  outside,  and  utilizing  matters  of  present-day  interest  to  teach  civic 
responsibihty  and  social  service.  He  must  adapt  new  ideas  to  his  school 
and  anticipate  and  organize  his  teachers'  needs.  He  must  lead  the  way  to 
better  classroom  instruction  by  definite  constructive  criticisms,  by  demon- 
stration lessons,  by  directed  visits,  and  by  devising  and  stabilizing  standards 
of  achievement.  His  spirit  must  permeate  the  entire  school  from  positive 
personal  contact,  and  not  indirectly  from  an  ofiice  desk. 


DISCUSSION 
J.  H.  BEVERrocE,  superintendent  of  schools,  Omaha,  Nebr. — The  address  you  have 
just  listened  to  is  to  be  commended  for  the  emphasis  it  places  upon  strong  personality  and 
the  need  of  technical  training  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  principal;  for  the  evident  appreci- 
ation of  constructive  criticism,  demonstration  lessons,  and  well-directed  visits;  for  the 
use  of  objective  standards  in  measuring  the  efficiency  of  pupils;  and  for  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  curriculum  in  terms  of  social  needs  thru  present-day  activities. 

The  functions  of  the  principal  may  be  roughly  classified  under  three  heads:  (i)  clerical, 
(2)  managerial,  and  (3)  supervisory.  Observation  and  experience  coupled  with  careful 
investigation  indicate  that  the  principal  is  likely  to  spend  too  much  time  in  the  first 
and  second  functions  and  too  little  in  the  third  and  more  important. 

The  reason  for  such  a  distribution  of  time  is  not  always  the  fault  of  the  principal. 
The  requirements  of  the  school  system  in  which  he  works  may  be  such  as  to  entail  a 


Superintendence!  DISCUSSION  627 

undue  amount  of  clerical  work.  If  this  is  the  case  it  then  becomes  incumbent  upon  the 
administrator  of  the  system  to  make  some  provision  for  clerical  assistance  to  the  principal. 

•  This  may  be  done  thru  the  use  of  pupils  in  the  normal-training  department  of  the  high 
schools,  or  thru  part-time  service  of  pupils  in  the  business  department  of  such  schools. 
Some  systems  are  doing  eflfective  work  in  this  way.  The  simplification  of  records  is 
often  an  aid  in  lessoning  the  clerical  work  of  the  principal.  Not  infrequently  we  find  a 
principal  who  enjoys  the  managerial  work  to  such  an  extent  that  he  fails  to  realize  the 
facihty  with  which  this  work  may  be  accomplisht  and  hence  wastes  time.  He  may  possess 
the  qualifications  of  a  good  visitor  to  such  an  extent  that  he  gives  to  this  department  of  his 
work  much  of  the  time  that  could  be  well  devoted  to  supervision  of  classroom  instruction. 
The  work  of  managing  the  school  may  often  be  facilitated  thru  brevity  of  conferences  and 
by  developing  initiative  on  the  part  of  pupils  thru  student  councils.  Specific  hours  for 
conferences  will  aid  the  principal  in  economizing  his  time. 

If  we  were  to  ask  why  classroom  supervision  does  not  receive  more  attention  on  the 
part  of  the  principal  no  doubt  we  would  find  the  answer,  in  many  cases,  to  be  the  lack  of 
training  and  skill  in  the  technique  of  instruction,  a  lack  of  ability  in  supervision,  and  a 
belief  that  teachers  do  not  care  to  be  supervised.  No  one  has  a  right  to  occupy  the 
responsible  position  of  supervising  principal  who  does  not  possess  skill  in  instruction, 
who  does  not  know  the  art  of  supervising,  who  is  not  willing  to  study  modern  methods  and 
grow  in  service.  It  is  our  belief  that  teachers  are  willing  to  be  supervised,  that  they  want 
to  improve,  that  they  desire  to  grow,  and  that  they  will  cheerfully  respond  when  approacht 
in  the  right  way.  The  secret  is  in  getting  them  to  work  and  letting  them  know  that  they 
are  a  part  of  the  system,  that  they  have  contributions  to  make  and  responsibilities  to 
assume. 

The  need  of  more  careful  supervision  is  made  evident  (i)  thru  many  observations  such 
as  that  quoted  by  the  previous  speaker  from  Murray's  Elementary  Standards;  (2)  by 
noting  the  kind  of  questions  askt  by  the  teachers  and  the  kind  of  answers  they  accept 
from  their  pupils,  as  indicated  by  Miss  Stevens  in  her  thesis,  in  which  she  tells  us  that  in  a 
series  of  recitations  the  teachers  used  18,933  words  and  all  the  pupils  of  those  teachers  used 
only  5,675  words.  This  is  certainly  an  example  of  where  the  teachers  had  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  growth  in  English,  but  how  about  the  pupils?  (3)  Thru  differences 
observed  in  the  efficiency  of  schools  and  classrooms  under  careful  supervision  and  those 
lacking  in  this  particular.  (The  experience  of  Rice,  Stone,  and  Courtis  all  suggest,  as 
stated  in  the  Supervision  of  Arithmetic  byjessup  and  Coffman,  that  the  most  important 
single  factor  in  effective  arithmetical  instruction  is  that  of  effective  supervision.) 

What  are  some  of  the  objects  to  be  secured  by  the  principal  thru  supervision? 
(i)  changing  conditions  from  what  they  are  to  what  they  ought  to  be;  (2)  making  the 
superior  points  of  one  teacher  the  practice  of  as  many  as  possible  in  the  classes;  (3)  making 
the  office  of  the  principal  a  clearing-house  thru  which  good  ideas  and  good  methods  may 
be  promoted  and  poorer  methods  be  eliminated;  (4)  measuring  the  progress  and  efficiency 
of  pupils  thru  the  use  of  standards  and  scales;   (5)  determining  thru  the  grades  retarda- 

■  tion  and  acceleration  of  pupils  and  making  such  provision  as  is  necessary  to  lessen  retarda- 
tion and  aid  acceleration  (too  frequently  bright  pupils  in  classes  receive  less  attention 
than  they  should  and  thus  inculcate  habits  of  laziness) ;   (6)  interpreting  the  curriculum 
^^^  so  that  the  pupil  may  be  given  the  opportunity  to  discover  himself  his  elements  of  strength, 
^^Khis  tendencies,  and  thus  be  fitted  into  the  work  in  society  where  he  will  render  most 
1^^ service;    (7)  discovering  and  developing  initiative  and  resourcefulness  in  such  pupils  as 
have  the  germ,  and  making  this  contagious  in  the  school  as  far  as  possible. 

To  attain  these  aims  the  supervising  principal  must  know  what  good  teaching  is,  he 
must  be  a  student  of  education,  and  as  such  he  must  have  that  discriminating  judgment 

I  which  will  separate  the  wheat  from  the  chaff.    He  must  be  a  teacher  of  teachers  and  have 
that  inspiration  and  leadership  which  commands  respect  and  wins  esteem  because  of 


628  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  Cit y 

He  may  have  many  types  of  teachers  to  supervise.  He  will  always  have  two:  (i)  the 
new,  those  fresh  from  normal  school  and  college;  and  (2)  those  older  in  the  service.  For 
the  former  he  must  interpret  the  curriculum  so  that  they  may  see  their  theory  realized 
in  practice — some  of  which  may  not  carry  over.  He  should  cooperate  with  the  institutions 
from  which  they  come  so  that  the  institutions  may  know  of  their  success  or  failure  in  the 
field.  They  must  be  imbued  with  that  spirit  of  enthusiasm  that  makes  them  continue 
to  grow.  For  the  latter  he  must  give  a  new  vision.  Some  will  be  the  most  helpful  and 
efficient  in  the  corps;  others  must  drink  from  educational  fountains  of  youth,  must  be 
sprinkled  with  the  perfume  of  modern  theory  and  practice,  yea,  even  be  born  again.  All 
this  is  possible  thru  the  leadership  and  inspiration  of  many  in  the  field.  Are  we  equal  to 
the  task  of  reconstruction  in  education  which  is  now  upon  us  ?  Let  us  here  pledge  our- 
selves to  this  service.  A.  B.  Hinsdale  once  said,  "Few  spectacles  are  more  pitiful  than 
a  little  man  at  the  head  of  one  of  the  big  school  systems  of  the  country.  He  is  about  as 
competent  to  vitalize  and  energize  the  school  as  a  pocket  dynamo  would  be  to  drive  a  city 
electric  railway  system." 

B.    HOW  LEADERSHIP  IN  MAKING  NEW  ADJUSTMENTS  IN 
EDUCATION  MUST  BE  PROVIDED 

ERNEST  HORN,  PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION,  IOWA  STATE  UNIVERSITY, 
IOWA  CITY,  IOWA 

There  has  probably  never  been  a  period  in  which  the  reconstruction  of 
school  practice  has  proceeded  more  rapidly  than  at  the  present.  And  yet 
we  are  only  at  the  beginning  of  reconstruction.  The  demands  which  the 
government  is  now  making  on  the  schools  involve  immediate  reconstruction, 
widespread  in  its  effect,  and  all  signs  point  to  even  more  elaborate  changes 
within  the  next  ten  years. 

On  the  other  hand  there  probably  has  never  been  a  time  in  which  the 
country  has  been  so  well  prepared  to  make  adjustments  as  at  the  present. 
There  is  more  professional  spirit  abroad.  The  number  of  trained  teachers 
and  administrators  is  greatly  increasing.  Courses  in  our  teachers'  colleges 
and  normal  schools  are  generally  more  practical.  Moreover  we  are  using 
scientific  methods  which  up  to  the  last  few  years  have  not  been  used  in  the 
service  of  educational  progress. 

What  I  have  to  say  deals  with  the  problem  of  providing  leadership  that 
will  open  the  eyes  of  classroom  teachers  to  modern  progress  in  education, 
help  them  to  understand  their  course  of  study,  and  show  them  how  to  teach 
more  effectively.  Perhaps  the  problem  should  have  been  stated:  Where 
can  the  classroom  teacher  look  for  leadership  and  direction  in  the  various 
reconstructions  which  confront  her  ?  What  are  to  be  the  connecting  links 
between  leaders,  whoever  they  may  be,  and  their  classrooms  ?  The  prob- 
lem is,  in  other  words,  how  to  improve  classroom  teaching. 

Last  year  the  use  of  a  detailed  syllabus  was  recommended  to  this  section 
as  one  effective  method  for  guaranteeing  that  the  teacher  be  led  into  better 
ways  of  teaching.  It  seems  certain  that  a  highly  detailed  syllabus  of  the 
course  of  study  is  absolutely  essential  to  any  plan  of  leadership  in  systems 
with  a  population  of  25,000  or  more. 


I 


Superintendence]        LEADERSHIP  IN  MAKING  ADJUSTMENTS  629 

There  is  another  agency  much  akin  to  this  that  has  been  greatly  neg- 
lected. Every  ward  school  should  contain  a  minimum  teachers'  profes- 
sional library.  Such  a  library  should  contain,  not  only  the  most  helpful 
books  in  education,  but  also  such  books  as  will  enlarge  a  teacher's  grasp  of 
the  subjects  which  she  is  teaching.  If  either  of  these  two  classes  of  books 
is  to  be  sHghted,  let  it  be  the  first.  Thorogoing  grasp  of  the  subject  and 
life  outside  the  school  are  the  primary  prerequisites  to  all  good  teaching. 

The  need  for  reference  material  cannot  be  too  much  strest  at  a  time, 
such  as  the  present,  when  rapid  reconstruction  is  going  on  in  all  our  courses 
of  study.  The  reaction  from  supervision,  by  means  of  these  books,  is 
probably  quicker  than  from  any  other  sort  of  supervision  whatever.  Sup- 
pose, for  example,  the  teacher  of  geography  of  the  United  States  is  taking 
up  the  problem  of  food  production  in  this  country.  Suppose  the  supervisor 
puts  on  the  teacher's  desk  such  books  as  the  Statistical  Atlas  of  the  United 
States  Census,  calling  attention  to  the  product  maps  in  it  and  offering  a 
few  suggestions  as  to  how  they  may  be  used.  Teachers  who  take  offense 
at  even  constructive  criticisms  of  teaching  methods  will  accept  such  service 
without  any  irritation  whatever.     It  is  a  highly  impersonal  thing. 

Let  us  turn  now  to  the  personal  agencies  in  maintaining  leadership  in  a 
school  system.  The  time  of  the  superintendent  will  not  allow  him  to  do 
much  of  this  work  in  person.  All  general  policies  must  be  directed,  of 
course,  from  the  superintendent's  office;  but  who  are  to  be  the  captains  and 
lieutenants,  who  are  to  see  that  the  superintendent's  poHcies  are  carried 
out  in  practice  ?  There  are  several  possibilities.  One  is  to  attempt  to  do 
this  work  thru  an  assistant  superintendent.  But  while  this  is  a  step  in  the 
right  direction,  it  seems  apparent  from  experience  in  the  past  that  for  cities 
of  the  size  mentioned  sufficient  supervision  cannot  be  maintained  in  this  way. 

Consider  the  possibility  of  solving  the  problem  of  immediate  leadership 
thru  establishing  special  supervisors,  such  as  primary  supervisors,  inter- 
mediate supervisors,  and  handwriting  supervisors.  The  mere  problem  of 
going  from  school  to  school,  even  in  a  city  of  25,000,  makes  it  very  difficult 
for  a  supervisor  to  give  close  supervision  to  many  teachers.  Moreover,  even 
in  towns  of  100,000  or  more,  it  is  very  difficult  to  secure  money  to  attract 
the  right  sort  of  people  for  these  positions. 

A  third  possibility  is  to  put  the  responsibihty  of  this  work  upon  the  ward 
principal.  In  the  opinion  of  the  speaker  this  is  the  strategic  thing  to  do. 
The  ward  principal  we  have  always  with  us.  Thru  him  we  can  supervise 
with  less  administrative  waste.  In  every  school  system  in  which  the  speaker 
has  had  an  opportunity  to  visit  a  large  number  of  schools  it  can  be  truthfully 
said,  as  is  the  principal,  so  is  the  ward  school. 

Of  course  a  wholesale  change  of  principals  cannot  be  brought  about  in 
a  day  or  in  a  year.  But  there  can  be  a  pohcy  of  insisting  upon  training 
for  principals.  Let  them  be  found  anywhere  in  the  country.  St.  Louis 
has  done  it,  with  clearly  favorable  results.    Other  cities  have  done  it. 


630  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

Certainly  we  can  stop  the  quite  common  practice  of  using  the  principal- 
ship  as  a  form  of  teacher  pension. 

There  will,  of  course,  be  difficulties.  No  change  in  school  machinery  is 
without  its  administrative  puzzles.  Such  a  change,  however,  is  not  an 
experiment.  No  case  has  come  to  the  speaker's  notice  where  a  change  in 
the  direction  of  trained  principals  has  been  regretted. 

These  statements  are  not  by  any  means  intended  to  imply  that  no 
principal  can  be  a  valuable  leader  without  a  college  education.  We  have 
all  seen  teachers  as  well  as  supervisors  who  have  succeeded  in  spite  of  the 
handicap  of  insufficient  college  preparation.  Such  success  has  involved  a 
disproportionate  amount  of  labor,  however,  and  comes  to  very  few.  On 
the  other  hand  a  college  education  is  no  guaranty  of  efficiency  and  leader- 
ship. After  allowances  have  been  made  for  native  quahties  much  depends 
upon  the  sort  of  training  received  in  the  process  of  getting  the  Bachelor's 
degree  or  higher  degree. 

But  no  matter  what  supervising  arrangement  is  chosen — whether  it  be 
an  assistant  superintendent,  special  supervisor,  or  principal — the  men  or 
women  who  are  to  furnish  the  leadership  must  be  trained.  From  such  evi- 
dence as  I  have  been  able  to  gather  it  seems  clear  that  the  superintendents 
in  cities  of  the  size  of  those  represented  in  this  audience  have  to  depend  for 
assistance  in  providing  leadership  upon  supervisors  and  principals  who  have 
no  more  professional  training,  and  in  many  cases  actually  less  training, 
than  the  teachers  who  are  to  be  led.  For  example,  in  a  certain  large  city 
74  per  cent  of  the  principals  had  normal  training  or  better,  while  83  per 
cent  of  the  teachers  had  normal  training  or  better.  In  the  same  city  3  per 
cent  of  the  principals  were  college  graduates,  while  7  per  cent  of  the  teachers 
were  college  graduates.  In  another  city  the  average  years  of  professional 
training  on  the  part  of  the  men  teachers  is  2  .88,  while  that  on  the  part  of 
men  principals  is  2.6.  In  a  recent  survey  of  thirty-eight  principals,  but 
one  was  a  college  graduate  and  but  three  had  been  to  college.  In  the  five 
cities  studied  in  the  report  of  teachers'  salaries  and  the  cost  of  living,  the 
supervisory  ofiicials  had  an  average  training  of  2  . 6  years,  while  the  grade 
teachers  had  a  training  of  i .  8  years.  In  the  same  system  the  average  train- 
ing of  high-school  teachers  was  3 . 6  years. 

Of  what  should  the  supervisor's  training  consist?  Suppose  that  a 
teacher  or  principal  now  in  service  should  desire  to  undertake  a  university 
course  in  order  to  fit  himself  more  properly  for  supervisory  work.  Should 
he  not  be  expected  above  everything  else  to  pursue,  first,  those  courses  in 
education  which  deal  in  a  practical  and  scientific  way  with  the  problems 
which  arise  in  organizing  and  teaching  common  elementary-school  subjects, 
and  secondly,  those  courses  in  academic  subjects  which  contribute  most 
directly  to  scholarship  in  these  school  subjects  ? 

In  a  certain  university  last  summer  seventy  principals  and  superintend- 
ents elected  a  course  which  had  for  its  problem  the  bringing  about  of 


Superintendence)  DISCUSSION  6^  I 

economy  of  time  in  the  case  of  common  school  subjects.  In  each  case  a 
fairly  exhaustive  study  was  made  of  the  data  bearing  on  the  teaching  of  the 
subject  and  these  data  were  organized  to  throw  Hght  on  such  practical 
problems  as  confront  the  classroom  teacher.  The  University  Elementary 
School  was  used  as  a  laboratory  and  demonstration  school.  At  the  end  of 
the  course  each  member  was  askt  what  he  had  obtained  from  the  course 
which  could  be  used  to  improve  the  teaching  under  his  supervision.  Is  it 
not  suggestive  that  no  student  mentioned  any  reading  or  discussion,  but 
that  each  one  named  some  problem  which  he  had  seen  actually  workt  out 
under  classroom  conditions  in  the  University  Elementary  School? 

There  is  one  more  factor  in  providing  leadership  in  a  school  system  and 
that  is  the  special  survey.  Special  surveys  have  great  advantages,  par- 
ticularly where  the  surveyor  is  employed  to  institute  a  constructive  program 
in  the  course  of  study  and  in  the  method  of  teaching  this  course  of  study. 
The  surveyor  should  be  required  to  show  precisely  what  should  be  taught 
and  how  it  should  be  taught.  It  would  be  valuable  too  to  have  as  a  part 
of  his  contract  a  follow-up  after  a  few  months  have  elapst. 


I 

■ 


DISCUSSION 

J.  W.  McClinton,  superintendent  of  schools,  Pueblo,  Colo. — We  are  subject  to 
spasms.  We  are  at  times  spasmodic  in  our  teaching,  spasmodic  in  our  preparation,  and 
spasmodic  in  our  results.  We  take  a  course  with  some  specialist  in  education  and  he  is 
enthusiastic  in  his  field,  necessarily  so.  Under  his  spell  we  become  charged  with  his 
enthusiasm  and  return  to  carry  those  particular  principles  to  extremes.  Here  is  where  we 
need  the  balance  of  power  and  here  is  where  we  need  the  guiding  hand.  Here  is  where 
we  need  the  trained  individual  to  treat  our  spasmodic  condition. 

There  is  too  much  difference  between  the  salaries  paid  to  superintendents,  principals, 
and  supervisors,  and  those  paid  to  teachers.  Find  a  vacancy  in  your  school  system  in  a 
supervisory  position  and  immediately  you  will  have  a  dozen  applicants  from  your  teaching 
force.  Examine  into  the  motives  of  these  applicants  and  it  will  readily  be  found  that 
they  were  led  to  make  application  mostly  because  of  the  higher  salary  and  the  consequent 
influence  that  the  position  commands,  and  not  because  of  any  special  adaptability  on  their 
part  for  this  field  of  work.  It  requires  more  than  salary  and  p(Tsition  of  influence  to  pro- 
duce a  supervisor  of  worth.  Dr.  Horn  has  in  mind  an  excellent  plan  for  a  special  course 
for  supervisors,  a  training  for  teachers  of  experience  who  on  account  of  their  experience 
have  found  that  they  are  adapted  for  this  important  field  of  assemblage.  This  course  as 
I  understand  it  would  attempt  to  develop  course  of  study  interpretation,  course  of  study 
making,  direction  as  to  plans  and  methods  for  presenting  various  kinds  of  subject-matter, 
and  the  development  of  traits  necessary  in  handling  a  teaching  force. 

I  feel  that  as  fine  as  all  of  this  will  prove  there  is  still  an  additional  phase  that  must 
enter  into  our  consideration  of  a  supervisor  as  leader.  Leadership  is  an  inherent  trait  not 
to  be  ignored.  Show  me  a  group  of  a  hundred  students  and  I  will  find  in  them  a  leader. 
Break  this  group  into  two  of  fifty  and  replace  the  one  leader  with  another  student  and 
I  will  find  for  you  a  leader  in  each  group.  Take  this  hundred  and  divide  them  into  groups 
of  ten  each  and  I  will  again  find  a  leader  in  each  of  these  ten  divisions.  Take  the  hundred 
and  divide  them  into  groups  of  two  each  and  in  each  of  the  fifty  divisions  I  will  find  you 
one  of  the  two  a  leader.  What  is  true  in  general  is  true  of  teachers,  and  that  supervisor 
who  is  going  to  prove  the  greatest  leader  is  the  one  who  is  going  to  recognize  that  leader- 
ship in  the  teaching  force  in  varying  degrees. 


632  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

A  series  of  questions  present  themselves  with  regard  to  the  relation  of  teacher  and 
supervisor.  How  much  must  the  teacher  accept  blindly,  or  shall  we  put  more  emphasis 
on  routine  thinking  than  on  original  thinking  ?  When  must  the  teacher  lead  and  when 
follow  in  working  out  plans  for  vitalizing  school  work  ?  Is  there  any  room  for  initiative 
or  independence  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  her  relation  to  the  supervisor  ?  Shall  we 
have  a  machine-run  system  of  schools  or  a  personally  supervised?  Shall  the  work  be 
personally  directed  or  presented  by  untried  or  too  oft-tried  regulations  ?  How  must  these 
questions  be  answered  if  we  are  to  have  the  leadership  desired  in  supervision  ? 

There  is  no  place  in  the  field  of  activity  for  blind  following,  and  the  person  who  is 
content  to  submit  to  this  condition  must  necessarily,  in  the  words  of  one  of  our  leading 
educators,  think  potter's  field  thoughts  and  therefore  find  a  potter's  field  resting-place  in 
the  science  of  teaching.  The  teacher  becomes  the  leader  when  presenting  something  new 
and  worth  while,  and  the  supervisor  becomes  an  added  leader  when  putting  this  con- 
tribution into  the  working  system  of  the  school.  Independence  is  essential  in  school  work 
when  it  is  interpreted  according  to  a  more  recent  definition  of  independence  as  the  choosing 
of  whom  to  follow  and  not  the  selection  of  one's  own  devices.  The  original  individual  is 
the  person  who  draws  his  own  conclusions  from  varied  propositions  and  discussions  of 
others.  It  resolves  itself  to  the  philosophy  of  the  superman,  which,  based  on  brute  force, 
must  go  down,  while  that  based  on  humanity  and  opportunity  for  service  must  come  up. 

Leadership  such  as  we  want  for  supervision  must  then  be  inherent  and  subject  to  a 
special  cause  of  instruction  for  development.  It  cannot  be  effective  as  an  office  leader- 
ship, but  must  be  active.  It  must  show  itself  in  classroom  teaching  by  way  of  demon- 
stration and  conference  with  teachers  for  cultivation  of  ideas,  plans,  and  purposes.  It  is 
not  a  glad-hand  leadership,  but  a  working,  cooperating,  investigating  leadership  based  on 
scientific  methods- of  instruction  and  subject-matter  with  its  relation  to  new  applications 
fitting  the  reconstruction  period. 

The  supervisor  to  furnish  the  desired  leadership  must  be  an  economist  in  human 
experiences.  This  is  an  age  of  conservation  in  financial,  physical,  and  moral  living.  The 
principles  of  the  new  economics  will  apply  to  all.  The  same  application  must  likewise 
be  made  to  our  educational  methods  and  practices.  In  the  schools  we  must  have  the 
principles  of  life  tried  out  and  tested.  The  supervisor  must  make  the  selection  of  essen- 
tials. The  test  for  finding  the  supervisor  with  this  ability  as  a  leader  will  be  in  the  people 
with  whom  that  supervisor  will  work.  If  the  members  of  the  teaching  force  have  been  great 
in  following,  it  is  inevitable  that  they  have  been  subjected  to  the  great  in  leadership.  In 
short,  leadership  in  the  new  adjustment  in  education  must  be  provided  by  the  application 
of  the  principle  of  the  superman  as  applied  to  the  economics  of  experiences  in  our  selection 
of  supervisors.  

C.    DIRECT  INSTRUCTION  IN  CITIZENSHIP  IN  THE 
HIGH  SCHOOL 

MILTON  BENNION,  DEAN  OF  SCHOOL  OF  EDUCATION,   UNIVERSITY  OF  UTAH, 
SALT  LAKE  CITY,   UTAH 

The  American  public  school  systems  were  founded  and  have  been  main- 
tained largely  on  the  theory  that  they  are  necessary  to  the  production  of 
good  American  citizens.  During  the  first  few  decades  of  our  national  life 
this  effort  toward  citizen-making  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  public  elemen- 
tary school.  It  consisted  in  training  in  the  tools  of  knowledge  with  the 
expectation  that  the  prospective  citizen  would  acquire  also  a  rudimentary 
knowledge  of  American  history  and  government.  This  rudimentary  knowl- 
edge of  American  history  and  government  was  presumed  to  stimulate 


r 


Superintendence]  INSTRUCTION  IN  CITIZENSHIP  633 

patriotic  action  and  to  lead  to  emulation  of  the  examples  of  national  heroes. 
Thru  ability  to  read  it  was  assumed  that  the  citizen  might  acquire  knowledge 
of  current  political  problems  and  exercise  the  franchise  intelligently. 

Secondary  schools,  under  privalte  control  and  supported,  at  least  in  some 
measure,  by  tuition,  were  serving  the  favored  few  by  preparing  them  for 
college  rather  than  for  citizenship.  The  college,  in  turn,  prepared  for  the 
professions.  It  is  true  that  the  ideals  of  the  academy  were  more  democratic. 
It  is  also  true  that  these  democratic  ideals  failed  of  realization.  Even  in  the 
Philadelphia  Academy  FrankUn's  cherisht  plans  miscarried  and  his  new 
English  school  was  forst  into  an  insignificant  position. 

The  state's  assumption  of  responsibihty  for  secondary  education, 
together  with  nearly  two  centuries  of  educational  endeavor,  has  made  the 
English  school,  with  its  emphasis  upon  study  of  the  mother-tongue,  history, 
science,  and  modern  languages,  the  chief  concern  of  public  high  schools 
today.  An  examination  of  these  courses,  however,  readily  reveals  how 
little  they  contribute  directly  to  understanding  of  problems  of  public 
concern. 

The  high-school  graduate  with  his  commencement  prize  essay  is  com- 
monly an  object  of  indulgence  or  pity  on  the  part  of  experienst  men,  largely 
because  his  notions  of  pubhc  affairs  are  too  ideal,  in  the  ethereal  sense  of 
that  term.  This  of  course  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  whole  course  of  his 
education  tends  to  estrange  him  from  the  concrete  problems  of  citizenship 
as  they  are.  Furthermore  the  young  citizen 's  failure  to  understand  these 
problems  and  to  harmonize  his  ethereal  idealism  with  practical  success  often 
causes  him  to  throw  overboard  all  ideahsm  and  to  set  about  the  attainment 
of  practical  success  with  Httle  regard  for  principle. 

The  reading  of  EngHsh  classics  designated  for  college-entrance  require- 
ments, the  study  of  our  own  colonial  and  national  history,  and  the  history 
and  anatomy  of  our  government  are  more  Hkely  to  impress  the  youthful 
mind  with  a  democratic  individuaUsm  impossible  in  the  twentieth  century 
than  to  lead  to  intelligent  action  in  a  social  democracy. 

Knowledge  of  what  has  been  may  be  very  helpful  in  facing  new  situa- 
tions; mere  knowledge  of  past  events  is  not,  however,  sufficient  to  enable 
the  citizen  to  grapple  successfully  with  new  situations;  he  must  be  master 
of  fundamental  principles  and  must  have  practice  in  applying  these  prin- 
ciples in  concrete  cases  as  they  arise.  In  this  respect,  however,  our  schools 
have  been  lamentably  weak — a  weakness  that  can  be  overcome  only  by 
more  direct  instruction  in  citizenship. 

The  formula  of  the  pohtical  philosophers  of  the  eighteenth  and  early 
and  middle  nineteenth  centuries,  including  Herbert  Spencer,  are  in  large 
measure  unworkable  now.  This  is  also  true  of  many  of  the  practices  of  the 
American  government  prior  to  the  Civil  War.  Thus  it  happens  that  that 
part  of  the  high-school  curriculum  which  is  supposed  to  contribute  most 
directly  to  preparation  for  citizenship  must  be  reconstructed  or  fail  in  its 


634  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

purpose.  This  is  also  true  in  some  measure  of  standardized  courses  in 
economics  and  sociology.  They  fall  short  in  direct  appHcation  to  current 
problems.  These  defects  are,  however,  being  remedied  in  some  of  the  latest 
textbooks  in  social  science.  In  civics  emphasis  is  being  transferred  from 
the  structure  of  government  to  its  present-day  functions;  in  economics  the 
older  theories  are  being  revised  to  fit  the  ideals  and  the  necessary  practices 
of  a  social  democracy;  in  sociology  speculations  concerning  the  origin  of 
social  institutions  and  customs  are  giving  place  to  discussion  of  present-day 
social  problems.  In  so  far  as  these  social-science  courses  are  thus  trans- 
formed they  may  be  regarded  as  contributing  toward  a  plan  of  direct  instruc- 
tion in  citizenship. 

In  past  generations  ideas  of  individual  rights  have  been  more  imprest 
upon  American  minds  than  have  considerations  of  social  obligations;  but 
a  youth  does  not  fully  sense  his  larger  social  obligations  without  systematic 
effort  to  develop  the  foundations  of  this  sense.  These  foundations  are  laid 
in  an  intelHgent  understanding  of  the  communal  nature  of  civilization,  of 
the  benefits  that  come  to  each  thru  the  efforts  of  all,  and  the  corresponding 
obligations  of  each  to  all.  This,  from  a  purely  humanitarian  standpoint, 
is  the  basis  of  universal  brotherhood  and  of  the  internationalism  that  is 
already  a  partly  realized  fact.  America  as  a  nation  has  transcended 
nationahsm  in  the  narrower  sense  in  that  it  has  harmonized  purely  national 
aims  with  the  larger  purposes  of  humanity.  Before  the  youth  leaves  high 
school  he  should  have  a  clear  comprehension  of  the  meaning  of  these  facts, 
of  the  principles  upon  which  they  are  based,  and  of  the  goal  toward  which 
they  point.  He  should  know  how  to  be  a  consistent,  loyal  American  with- 
out being  disloyal  to  humanity,  and  to  be  loyal  to  humanity  without  being 
disloyal  to  America. 

In  matters  of  domestic  poUcy  he  should  know  what  great  national  prob- 
lems have  to  be  solved.  He  should  know  the  principles  involved  in  such 
pubHc  questions  as:  the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources  and  the 
equitable  distribution  of  the  benefits  of  these  resources;  the  pubhc  owner- 
ship or  public  control  of  railroads  and  other  means  of  communication  and 
commerce;  the  regulation  of  the  prices  of  commodities  necessary  to  the 
pubhc  welfare;  regulation  of  the  conditions  of  labor  and  safeguarding  the 
standards  of  living  among  workingmen;  protecting  the  rights  of  children; 
and  providing,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  equal  opportunity  of  development  to 
all.  This  type  of  study  should  be  part  of  the  education  of  every  American 
youth.  It  may  be  made  a  course  of  study  in  every  high  school,  a  part  of  the 
training  for  citizenship  under  the  Smith-Hughes  bill,  and  a  part  of  the  con- 
tinuation-school work  for  youths  between  sixteen  and  twenty  years  of  age. 

The  carrying  out  of  such  a  program  of  universal  secondary  education 
requires  large  pubhc  expenditures.  This  in  turn  calls  for  increast  taxation 
or  raising  of  larger  revenues  thru  rental  of  natural  resources  or  operation 
of  pubhc  utihties.     It  means  to  make  more  extensive  public  use  of  natural 


Superintendence)  -INSTRUCTION  IN  CITIZENSHIP  635 

resources — the  common  heritage  of  the  nation — and  to  tax  more  heavily 
the  great  private  fortunes  that  have  aheady  been  made  from  the  use  of 
these  resources  and  from  private  ownership  of  socially  made  values.  The 
necessity  and  the  justice  of  taxing  incomes  and  inheritances  and  the  prac- 
tical Umitations  of  the  taxing  power  are  problems  that,  in  principle  at  least, 
should  be  clear  to  every  graduate  of  our  high  schools.  The  high-school 
graduate  should  not  be  fooled  by  the  cheap  cry  of  a  candidate  for  office  that, 
if  elected,  he  will  reduce  taxes.  He  should  be  able  to  see  clearly  the  relation 
between  taxation  and  the  benefits  of  public  expenditures,  and  to  know  that 
the  greatest  economy  sometimes  involves  increasing  pubHc  expenditures, 
and  that  the  opportunities  of  the  many  are  extended  thru  providing  greater 
pubhc  benefits  with  diminisht  private  expense. 

Every  restatement  of  economic  and  social  theory  and  every  change  in 
poUtical  practice  must  be  judged  in  the  fight  of  principles  more  comprehen- 
sive than  those  of  any  one  science  now  commonly  taught  in  high  schools. 
There  must  be  developt  in  the  mind  of  the  youth  a  grasp  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  social  ethics  by  which  he  may  coordinate  and  regulate  his 
varied,  complex  obfigations — his  duties  to  family,  to  the  state,  and  to 
humanity  at  large.  He  must  know  the  Umitations  of  the  rights  of  property 
and  the  relation  of  property  rights  to  the  rights  of  persons.  He  must  be 
able  to  see  how  a  policy  appUed  in  a  new  country  with  scant  population  and 
boundless  resources  cannot  be  applied  in  twentieth-century  America  without 
violence  to  the  fundamental  rights  of  man  and  without  retardation  of  social 
progress. 

By  suggesting  a  plan  of  instruction  in  citizenship  we  do  not  mean  to 
neglect  any  other  agency  in  citizen-making,  e.g.,  cultivating  the  feefings, 
training  in  social  habits,  etc.,  but  these  alone  are  inadequate.  Feefing  must 
be  guided  by  understanding  and  habits  adjusted  to  new  conditions  in  agree- 
ment with  fundamental  principles. 

In  order  that  every  high-school  student  may  be  properly  introduced  to 
the  current  problems  of  citizenship  it  has  been  suggested  that  a  course  be 
offered  introductory  to  the  social  sciences — a  course  that  shall  disregard  the 
traditional  boundaries  between  civics,  economics,  and  sociology.  As  in  the 
field  of  natural  science  courses  are  now  offered  under  the  name  of  general 
or  introductory  science,  so  in  the  field  of  social  science  practical  needs  and 
future  development  can  best  be  served  by  direct  attack  upon  problems  of 
greatest  interest  and  practical  value.  These  varied  problems  in  the  field 
of  social  science  can  well  be  coordinated  and  unified  thru  the  ethical  prin- 
ciples by  which  all  social  problems  must  be  solved  and  social  practices 
approved  or  disapproved. 

Social  ethics  must,  of  necessity,  draw  upon  the  whole  field  of  the  social 
sciences  for  its  facts  and  illustrations  of  principles;  it  is  therefore  eminently 
adapted  to  the  purpose  here  sought.  Furthermore  it  will  provide  American 
youth  in  the  schools  in  a  systematic  way  with  a  standard  of  judging  values 
other  than  that  of  that  of  the  American  dollar. 


636  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  city 

DISCUSSION 

H.  B.  Wilson,  superintendent  of  schools,  Topeka,  Kans. — As  I  expected  from  an 
acquaintanceship  with  his  textbook  on  citizenship  I  find  myself  in  substantial  agreement 
with  Dean  Bennion's  paper  thruout.  Even  in  normal  routine  times  there  are  many  duties 
and  responsibilities  which  students  in  the  cities  represented  here  may  and  should  carry. 
Some  provision  should  be  made  for  enlisting  their  aggressive  cooperation  with  the  sanitary 
measures  instituted  by  the  city  commission  or  its  health  department.  In  many  cities 
the  burden  of  the  periodic  clean-up-week  campaign  is  carried  by  students  of  the  public 
schools.  Provision  is  also  made  for  following  up  such  work  thru  the  organization  of  the 
students  into  a  sanitary  commission.  Many  cities  have  permanent  plans  for  the  promo- 
tion of  paper  saving.  It  is  quite  common  for  the  burden  of  work  in  e£forts  to  beautify 
and  render  attractive  the  city  to  be  carried  on  by  students  in  the  city  schools.  In  a  num- 
ber of  schools  the  students  in  the  civics  and  chemistry  classes  have  cooperated  with  the 
city  health  department  in  the  inspection  of  the  city  milk  supply.  Likewise  the  chemistry 
students  in  many  high  schools  test  the  fuel  value  of  the  coal  purchast  for  the  city  and  the 
schools.  All  these  experiences  afford  excellent  training  for  the  students  in  the  responsi- 
bilities of  citizenship.  The  number  of  things  they  may  do  is  almost  countless,  particularly 
in  these  strenuous  days  of  war,  and  no  commercial  club  or  society  clique  should  be  allowed 
to  withhold  such  opportunities  for  service  from  our  students  without  suffering  the  imposi- 
tion of  a  severe  penalty.  In  order  that  the  great  world-crisis,  with  all  that  it  means,  may 
be  brought  home  to  our  students  in  conduct-influencing  ways  it  is  essential  that  they  have 
actual  experiences  in  doing  war  work.  It  has  been  found  that  high-school  students  are 
just  as  capable  of  taking  signatures  in  the  Food  Conservation  registration  as  are  other 
people.  They  can  do  certain  types  of  Red  Cross  work  just  as  accurately  and  reliably  as 
older  people.  They  were  just  as  effective  in  securing  memberships  during  the  Red  Cross 
membership  campaign.  They  have  done  more  in  selling  Thrift  Stamps  and  baby  bonds 
than  the  mature  citizens  have  in  most  communities.  No  more  fundamental  way  of  bring- 
ing actual  training  in  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  citizenship  could  be  found  than  these 
activities  in  helping  to  win  the  war. 

That  there  may  be  developt  in  students  the  requisite  ability  for  exercising  wisely  the 
freedom  and  initiative  which  is  every  citizen's  right  in  a  democracy,  and  that  there  may 
be  a  larger  basis  for  appreciating  the  responsibilities  of  citizenship  in  our  democracy,  I 
feel  that  we  must  make  more  definite  provision  than  in  the  past  for  insuring  that  our 
students  shall  come  to  appreciate  thru  their  study  of  history  and  civics  the  genius  of  Ameri- 
can democracy  and  the  rights,  privileges,  and  opportunities  which  every  citizen  is  guaran- 
teed thereunder.  What  we  must  bear  in  mind  is  that  in  a  democracy  the  sovereign  will 
is  the  will  of  the  people.  Decisions  may  be  made  by  our  executives  and  legislators  and 
programs  may  be  put  into  effect  only  if  these  decisions  and  programs  represent  the  con- 
sensus of  opinion  and  judgment  of  the  people  whom  they  represent  and  for  whom  they 
act.  Since  the  setting  up  of  policies  and  the  discharge  of  these  policies  are  dependent 
upon  the  thinking  and  cooperation  of  all  the  people,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  school 
must  plan  its  program  of  work  so  as  to  educate  all  the  people  according  to  the  requirements 
of  truth  and  fairness  and  a  proper  sense  of  values.  If  these  ends  are  to  be  accomplisht, 
recent  events  and  investigations  seem  to  indicate  strongly  that  our  histories  must  be 
rewritten  in  the  interest  of  presenting  adequately  and  fairly  the  truth  regarding  all  ques- 
tions and  issues  discust.  The  account  at  all  points  must  be  as  fair,  so  far  as  is  possible 
with  present  knowledge,  to  other  nations  involved  as  to  our  own.  The  creation  of  unjusti- 
fiable prejudices  in  favor  of,  or  against,  England,  France,  Mexico,  Spain,  or  other  nations 
must  be  avoided.  The  story  of  the  Civil  War  must  be  so  presented  as  to  represent  truly 
and  fairly  the  objects  and  motives  as  well  as  the  successes  and  failures  of  both  sides  to  the 
conflict. 

In  the  second  place,  the  emphasis  both  in  our  texts  and  in  our  teaching  must  be  such 
as  to  support  as  strongly  as  possible  the  maintenance,  improvement,  and  perpetuation  of 


r 
I 


Superintendence]  DISCUSSION  637 

our  American  ideals  and  institutions.  Mere  traditions,  interesting  incidents,  or  even 
battles  and  military  heroes  must  not  be  presented  on  a  par  with  situations  causing  struggles 
and  the  victories  and  advances  resulting  from  successful  struggles.  From  this  time  for- 
ward we  shall  certainly  modify  our  attack  in  the  matter  of  emphasis  in  such  fashion  as 
to  teach  more  adequately  and  thoroly  than  in  the  past  the  peculiar  and  characteristic 
genius  of  American  institutions  and  the  permanent  and  outstanding  assets  of  our  democ- 
racy. Not  only  must  we  present  these  matters  positively  as  in  the  past,  showing  what 
democracy's  assets  are  and  how  we  came  by  them,  but  also  negatively,  that  the  advantages 
of  democracy's  institutions  may  be  imprest  more  forcibly  when  studied  in  contrast  with 
autocracy's  governmental  institutions  and  with  the  limited  privileges  and  rights  of  people 
living  under  them. 

Even  our  positive  attack  needs  to  be  enlivened  and  vitalized.  It  has  lackt  enthusiasm 
and  has  had  little  efifect  upon  our  students  except  to  equip  them  with  a  certain  body  of 
academic  information  in  which  they  have  had  merely  a  passive  interest.  Our  students 
have  not  gone  from  their  study  of  the  growth  and  development  of  American  institutions 
tingling  with  enthusiasm  over  our  priceless  heritage  and,  by  reason  of  their  growing 
appreciation,  spurred  on  with  high  ambitions  for  the  advancement  and  perpetuation  of  our 
democratic  institutions.  Rather  they  have  gone  from  their  study  with  an  attitude  sug- 
gesting that  they  felt  that  the  fine  freedom  and  privileges  under  our  democracy  were 
forever  guaranteed — that  since  they  were  enjoying  them  without  themselves  having  had 
to  sacrifice  for  them  they  had  always  existed  so  and  would  continue  so  forever.  Our 
positive  attack  must  be  so  improved  and  enricht  as  to  change  this  passive,  indifferent 
attitude  into  a  virile,  aggressive  appreciation  of  our  great  heritage  and  into  a  positive 
determination  not  only  not  to  countenance  or  tolerate  any  encroachment  upon  our 
democratic  institutions,  but  to  lose  no  opportunity  to  work  for  their  constant  strengthen- 
ing and  improvement. 

Nor  must  we  be  satisfied  with  this  improved  positive  attack.  We  must  enrich  the 
effects  it  may  be  expected  to  produce  by  showing  the  disadvantages,  the  hampering 
effects  of  autocratic  governments.  In  teaching  the  causes  of  America's  entrance  into  the 
Great  War  our  students  must  understand  clearly  that  we  became  a  participant,  not 
merely  to  protect  our  property  and  our  lives  and  to  preserve  our  honor,  but  also  to  prevent 
the  substitution  by  German  force  of  autocratic  forms  of  government  for  our  free  demo- 
cratic institutions.  In  this  connection  our  students  must  understand  concretely  such 
matters  as  Germany's  mock  system  of  representative  government,  her  unequal  franchise 
system  in  which  the  influence  a  citizen's  ballot  exercises  is  based  upon  his  financial  stand- 
ing, her  social  caste  system,  with  particular  emphasis  upon  the  haughty  arrogance  and 
insulting  cruelty  of  the  military  class,  and  especially  her  teachings,  ideals,  and  philosophy, 
which  foster  and  fasten  upon  her  citizens  the  mediaeval  governmental  system  under  which 
they  live. 

Only  by  this  double  attack  may  we  expect  to  succeed  in  equipping  the  American 
people  so  that  they  may  know  and  feel  in  their  inmost  souls  that  our  democracy  is  a  pearl 
without  price.  Such  a  basis  for  decision  and  action  should  in  any  time  of  danger  cause 
our  citizens  to  rise  as  one  man  to  defend  with  their  backs  to  the  wall  any  encroachment 
upon  our  free  institutions  and  the  rights  guaranteed  thereby.  Such  a  response  in  a  democ- 
racy, not  being  the  result  of  blind,  automatic  obedience  to  duty,  as  in  an  autocracy, 
but  a  response  based  upon  well-founded  appreciations  with  reference  to  American 
institutions  and  deep-seated  prejudices  against  the  hampering  effects  of  autocratic  govern- 
ments, would  launch  a  defense  with  such  speed  and  momentum  and  it  would  be  supported 
thruout  by  such  lofty  humanitarian  motives  as  to  render  our  efforts  irresistible. 

As  has  been  pointed  out  above,  our  need  is  such  texts  and  teaching  as  will  guarantee 
greater  and  truer  intelligence  as  a  basis  for  action.  We  must  teach  the  American  youth 
the  foundations  of  their  liberty,  acquaint  them  with  the  storms  which  for  centuries  raged 
around  the  building  of  those  foundations,  and  familiarize  them  with  the  sacrifice  and 


638  NA  TIONA  L  ED UCA  TION  A SSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

suffering  incident  to  their  establishment.  With  such  a  background  of  information  our 
citizens  would  appreciate  more  fully  the  stirring  words  of  Washington  when  he  said, 
"American  freedom  is  at  stake;  it  seems  highly  necessary  that  something  should  be  done 
to  avert  the  stroke  and  maintain  the  liberty  which  we  derived  from  our  ancestors." 

Our  citizens  must  genuinely  realize  that  by  the  winning  of  our  independence  and  by 
succeeding  struggles  the  thirteen  colonies  were  made  safe  for  democracy;  and  that  by 
the  promulgation  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  in  1823  and  its  successful  defense  since  the 
American  continents  were  made  safe  for  democracy.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  Great  War 
we  confidently  expect  to  be  able  to  say  that,  by  reason  of  the  united  efforts  of  the  democ- 
racies of  the  world  against  the  combined  forces  of  the  autocratic  governments  of  the  world, 
the  entire  world  has  been  made  safe  for  democracy. 


D.    THRIFT  IN  RELATION  TO  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

LAURA  M.   SMITH,   SUPERVISOR   OF   ELEMENTARY   GRADES,   ATLANTA,   GA. 

I  have  been  askt  to  speak  to  you  on  the  National  War  Savings  campaign 
in  its  relation  to  the  public  schools,  and  more  especially  of  the  plans  we  are 
using  in  the  Atlanta  schools  in  cooperating  with  the  National  War  Savings 
Committee.  I  feel  some  hesitancy  in  describing  a  plan  which  as  yet  has  had 
a  trial  of  only  four  weeks.  However,  I  shall  try  to  assume  the  attitude  of 
mind  shown  by  the  negro  soldier  on  the  eve  of  his  departure  for  France,  who, 
when  askt  by  a  civilian  friend,  "Whar  is  you-all  gwine?"  replied,  "Hush, 
nigger,  I  ain't  gwine  no  whar,  'Ise  bein'  sent.  Ain't  no  time  to  talk  about 
gwine  when  de  government's  got  yer!" 

Some  months  ago  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  made  the  statement  that 
the  greatest  immediate  service  the  American  people  can  render  in  this  war 
for  world-liberty  is  to  furnish  the  means  for  its  vigorous  prosecution. 
More  than  eight  billions  have  already  been  raised  for  this  purpose. 
Recently,  as  you  know,  the  Treasury  Department  has  undertaken  to  raise 
an  additional  two  biUions  thru  the  sale  of  War  Savings  Stamps,  and  to  this 
end  a  National  War  Savings  Committee  has  been  appointed  with  Mr. 
Frank  Vanderlip  as  chairman  and  a  director  of  war-savings  work  selected 
for  each  state.  Within  less  than  three  months  the  "Thrift"  campaign  has 
been  launcht  in  every  state  in  the  Union. 

What  is  the  mea^aing  of  this  movement  to  you  ?  Viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  dollars  and  cents  it  means  merely  a  successful  plan  on  the  part  of 
the  goverjiment  to  raise  money  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war.  But  to  those 
who  study  it  from  the  standpoint  of  education  the  thrift  campaign  means 
infinitely  more  than  this.  If  it  did  not  it  would  scarcely  deserve  the  atten- 
tion of  a  body  like  this.  It  is  meaning  more  to  the  Atlanta  schools  than  the 
raising  of  money.  It  is  meaning  education  in  patriotism,  service,  forethought, 
and  self-control  for  the  children  of  Atlanta.  This  war-savings  plan  has 
given  each  child  in  the  schools  a  chance  to  help  the  government,  and 
because  of  this  fact  the  war  has  become  "our  war"  and  each  of  us  feels 
personally  responsible  "for  making  the  world  safe  for  democracy."  There 
is  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  the  children  of  Atlanta  as  to  the  final  outcome 


Superintendence!  THRIFT  AND  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  639 

of  this  war.  Now  that  they  have  enlisted  in  the  ''Thrift  Army"  there  can 
be  but  one  result — the  triumph  of  right  over  wrong.  If  there  is  any  among 
you  with  misgivings  on  this  point,  listen  to  the  following  composition  by  a 
second-grade  child:  ''I  want  Uncle  Same  to  win  the  war,  so  I  am  buying 
Thrift  Stamps.  I  have  been  working  hard  to  feed  the  soldiers.  I  like  to 
help  my  Country,  don't  you  ?" 

When  the  children  of  a  nation  begin  to  learn  team  work,  when  sacrifice 
and  hard  work  are  accepted  by  them  as  merely  one's  part  in  a  great  cause, 
the  first  decisive  blow  for  liberty  has  been  dealt.  You  may  be  sure  then 
that  our  boys  and  girls  are  getting  in  the  schools  the  sort  of  training  which 
will  fit  them  for  efficient  future  citizenship. 

Incidentally  the  school  children  are  teaching  the  grown-ups  of  the  com- 
munity some  things  which  government  pubhcations  and  patriotic  speeches 
could  never  teach  them.  Armed  with  associate  membership  pledge  cards 
for  War  Savings  Societies  they  are  visiting  the  homes  and  office  buildings 
and  telling  men  and  women  the  reasons  why  they  should  invest  in  Thrift 
Stamps.  ''Don't  be  a  slacker.  Mister,"  a  young  street  urchin  said  recently 
to  a  man  who  refused  to  sign  the  pledge.  "This  here  country's  at  war  and 
everybody's  got  to  help." 

In  addition  to  the  great  lessons  of  thrift,  patriotism,  and  unselfishness 
which  the  Thrift  campaign  is  teaching  our  boys  and  girls,  the  movement 
is  proving  itself  a  blessing  to  the  schools  in  other  ways.  It  has  motivated 
the  daily  lesson  in  arithmetic.  It  has  given  new  meaning  to  the  lessons  in 
history  and  current  events.  It  has  shown  the  children  a  practical  reason 
for  having  a  home  garden,  and  each  pupil  in  the  upper  grades  has  a  space 
provided  in  his  garden  record  book  for  keeping  up  with  his  monthly  earnings, 
savings,  and  investments  in  Thrift  Stamps.  It  has  added  interest  to  the 
handwork  done  at  school,  especially  to  the  making  of  things  which  have 
some  practical  use.  It  has  given  new  meaning  to  the  daily  lesson  in  geog- 
raphy, for  a  study  of  the  resources  of  the  community  or  country  made  from 
the  standpoint  of  conservation  is  far  more  interesting  than  the  usual  text- 
book presentation.  It  has  furnisht  abundant  material  for  oral  and  written 
English.  Classes  vie  with  one  another  in  writing  thrift  plays,  rhymes, 
stories,  acrostics,  and  essays  on  subjects  suggested  by  the  campaign,  and 
the  teachers  no  longer  complain  of  lack  of  interest  in  the  subject.  "How 
I  Earned  My  Quarter"  is  a  more  interesting  topic  than  most  of  those 
prescribed  by  the  average  textbook  on  English,  and  a  three-minute  speech 
setting  forth  to  an  imaginary  purchaser  the  reasons  for  buying  Thrift 
Stamps  is  a  better  exercise  in  argument  or  exposition  than  most  of  those 
found  in  the  book. 

From  this  hurried  sketch  of  the  Thrift  campaign  in  its  relation  to  the 
curriculum  of  one  public  school  system  the  educator  will  readily  see  that 
out  of  this  movement  will  come  the  greatest  piece  of  constructive  work 
produced  by  the  present  crisis.     The  statesman  will  recognize  it  as  definite 


640  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  A SSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

preparation  for  the  time  of  stress  which  will  come  after  peace  has  been  made 
— the  period  of  readjustment  to  changed  conditions. 

In  planning  the  Thrift  campaign  for  the  Atlanta  schools  our  first  step 
was  to  organize  the  teaching  force  for  a  study  of  the  movement  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  regular  subjects  of  the  curriculum.  A  committee  on  reading 
was  appointed  and  askt  to  make  a  collection  of  thrift  quotations,  stories, 
references,  etc.,  suitable  for  use  in  the  classroom.  A  geography  committee 
was  appointed  to  make  a  study  of  the  resources  of  our  own  community 
and  later  of  the  state,  and  to  outline  lessons  suitable  for  older  children, 
pointing  out  the  evidence  of  our  lack  of  thrift  in  the  use  of  natural  resources. 
A  committee  on  civics  is  at  present  making  a  study  of  the  city  from  the  same 
standpoint.  The  arithmetic  committee  has  made  "thrift  problems" 
suitable  for  the  different  grades,  and  is  at  present  working  out  plans  for 
teaching  children  the  use  of  money,  the  keeping  of  accounts,  etc.  A  com- 
mittee on  gardening  is  cooperating  with  the  school  director  of  this  subject 
in  an  effort  to  show  the  relation  between  the  Thrift  campaign  and  back- 
yard gardens.  The  art  and  handwork  committee  has  made  thrift  posters, 
bulletin  boards,  pennants,  etc.,  and  has  furnisht  plans  for  constructing 
individual  savings  banks.  The  committee  on  EngHsh  has  charge  of  all 
written  work  done  in  the  campaign,  the  writing  of  original  stories,  thrift 
plays,  jingles,  essays,  etc.  The  best  of  these  are  collected  once  a  month 
from  the  schools  and  saved  for  use  later  in  the  School  Bulletin  or  in  the 
"Thrift  Column"  of  the  daily  papers.  An  advisory  committee  consisting 
of  three  grammar-school  principals  assists  in  making  general  plans  for  the 
work  and  in  editing  the  monthly  bulletins. 

Some  of  the  ways  in  which  we  have  brought  this  movement  before  the 
public  are  as  follows:  thru  a  "Thrift  Column"  in  the  daily  papers;  by  use 
of  posters  made  by  teachers  or  pupils  who  show  special  talent  for  such  work; 
by  means  of  a  "Patriotic  Corner"  in  our  public  library,  where  we  exhibit 
the  best  work  of  the  schools  done  in  connection  with  the  Thrift  campaign; 
thru  a  monthly  School  Bulletin  on  thrift  in  which  are  publisht  outlines  for 
lessons  on  thrift,  suggestive  programs,  etc. ;  thru  community  rallies,  thrift 
parades,  etc. 

In  conclusion  allow  me  to  offer  the  following  suggestions  for  your  con- 
sideration : 

1.  That  thrift  study  and  the  teaching  of  patriotism  be  made  a  part  of 
our  national  education  program,  not  for  the  duration  of  the  war  only,  but 
for  all  time  to  come. 

2.  That  in  order  to  make  such  teaching  effective  the  underlying  prin- 
ciples of  thrift,  patriotism,  and  service  be  woven  into  the  curriculum  of  our 
pubUc  schools,  not  grafted  on  temporarily  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  the 
present  crisis. 

3.  That  the  teachers  of  the  country  be  askt  to  study  the  curriculum 
with  a  view  to  eliminating  such  phases  of  our  school  work  as  have  been 


Superintendence!  ECONOMY  OF  TIME  64 1 

shown  by  the  present  crisis  to  be  nonessential,  and  to  give  greater  emphasis 
to  those  things  which  the  war  has  shown  us  are  necessary  if  we  are  to  remain 
a  free  people.  For  example,  that  school  banking  systems,  similar  to  those 
instituted  in  the  schools  of  Belgium,  England,  and  France  in  the  early 
seventies  be  indorsed  by  the  educators  of  this  country,  and  plans  be  made 
by  which  each  public  school  can  ofifer  to  its  pupils  practical  training  in  the 
use  of  money. 

4.  That  in  order  to  help  mobiUze  quickly  the  resources  of  our  country 
to  meet  the  present  need  we  make  of  this  Thrift  campaign  a  dramatic  and 
important  feature  of  our  school  work  during  the  present  year,  remembering 
that  school  parades,  tag  days,  patriotic  raUies,  thrift  evenings,  the  making 
of  posters,  etc.,  are  a  legitimate  part  of  our  school  work  if  they  help  to 
educate  the  community  and  further  a  great  cause. 

In  working  out  a  program  by  which  thrift  is  made  a  part  of  our  national 
education  scheme  let  us  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  "America's  essential 
purpose  in  entering  the  war  is  to  safeguard  the  future  of  her  children," 
and  that  the  teaching  of  thrift  in  the  schools  will  make  for  "the  ultimate 
freedom  of  the  American  people  as  surely  as  will  the  triumph  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  democracy  on  the  battlefields  of  Europe." 


E.     CONFERENCE  OF  SUPERINTENDENTS  OF  CITIES  WITH 
POPULATION  BETWEEN  15,000  AND  25,000 


TOPIC:    WAR  PROBLEMS 

A.    ECONOMY  OF  TIME— A  TWELVE  MONTHS'  SCHOOL, 
DIVIDED  INTO  FOUR  QUARTERS 

F.  E.  PALMER,  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  GRADE  SCHOOLS,  MASON  CITY,  IOWA 

Perhaps  a  brief  statement  of  one  or  two  of  the  reasons  that  finally  led 
to  the  adoption  of  the  plan  of  the  all-year-round  school  in  Mason  City 
will  serve  as  well  as  anything  else  that  I  might  say  to  show  the  close  con- 
nection there  is  between  a  continuous  school  thruout  the  entire  twelve 
months  of  the  year  and  economy  of  time  in  the  process  of  education. 

Some  time  before  the  beginning  of  the  long  vacation,  following  my  first 
year  as  superintendent  of  the  grade  schools  of  Mason  City,  I  caused  to  be 
establisht  in  my  ofiice  an  employment  bureau.  The  main  object  of  this 
bureau  was  to  help  those  boys  and  girls  of  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth 
grades  who  were  unable  thru  their  own  efforts  to  find  some  wholesome  and 
remunerative  employment  during  the  summer  season.  I  knew  something 
of  their  great  need;  I  knew  that  some  of  these  boys  and  girls  were  from 
homes  where  the  struggle  for  the  necessities  of  fife  was  keen  and  exacting. 
In  their  desire  to  help  their  parents,  in  their  desire  to  be  redeemed  from  the 


642  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

curse  of  idleness,  I  deeply  sympathized  with  them,  and  I  felt  that  all  the 
resources  at  the  command  of  the  office  of  the  superintendent  of  schools  for 
getting  in  touch  with  remunerative  and  wholesome  employment  should  be 
used  to  their  advantage.  And  so  a  thoro  canvass  was  inaugurated  to  sup- 
plement their  efforts.  Letters  were  sent  to  all  the  farmers  within  a  radius 
of  five  or  more  miles.  Practically  every  business  man  was  importuned  in 
their  behalf.  The  homes  were  invaded  in  search  of  employment.  The 
daily  newspapers  and  the  telephones  were  used  to  advertise  their  needs 
and  the  desires  of  the  boys  and  girls.  Their  right  to  work  was  argued; 
school  attendance  in  the  future  was  given  as  a  reason  for  the  community's 
interest  in  them.  But  on  the  whole  the  results  of  this  campaign  were 
disappointing  and  disheartening.  The  farmers  refused  to  employ  them  on 
the  ground  that  city  boys  and  girls  would  be  useless  in  farm  work  and  that 
they  did  not  care  to  undertake  to  teach  them  during  the  season  of  the  year 
when  planting  and  harvesting  demanded  undivided  attention  and  energy. 
The  merchants  admitted  the  justice  of  the  claim  of  these  boys  and  girls, 
but  told  us  that  the  request  for  employment  came  at  the  very  dullest  season 
of  the  year,  and  that  instead  of  more  help  they  actually  needed  less.  The 
mothers  in  the  homes  answered  by  saying  that  the  girls  were  too  young  and 
too  immature  to  undertake  the  arduous  duties  that  often  fall  to  the  lot  of 
the  servant  in  the  house.  So  here  they  were,  nearly  a  thousand  strong, 
standing  on  the  threshold  of  a  three  months'  vacation,  without  hope  of 
joining  the  army  of  toilers  and  wage-earners,  facing  a  long  season  of  idleness 
and  comparative  inactivity.  Some  of  them  came  from  homes  so  miserable 
that  the  average  schoolroom  would  be  regarded  as  a  place  of  luxury  in 
comparison.  Many  of  them  were  Hving  in  the  midst  of  surroundings  that 
afforded  no  opportunity  for  recreation,  and  where  there  was  no  hope  of 
either  social  upUft  or  moral  health  or  spiritual  inspiration.  Some  of  them 
were  dominated  by  the  influence  of  men  and  women  compared  to  whom  the 
average  teacher  would  appear  as  an  angel  of  light.  Here  was  this  fruitful 
field  of  youth  without  educational  opportunity  during  the  most  fruitful 
season  of  the  year. 

Before  the  summer  was  over  some  of  these  same  boys  and  girls,  who  had 
lookt  out  upon  the  coming  vacation  with  hearts  hungering  and  thirsting 
for  a  chance,  had  received  the  attention  of  the  juvenile  court,  not  because 
they  were  criminal,  but  because  they  were  without  the  opportunities  of 
satisfying  in  a  wholesome  way  that  hunger  and  thirst  for  life.  Before  the 
vacation  had  past  many  of  them  had  become  a  burden  to  their  own  homes, 
not  because  of  lack  of  fihal  affection,  but  because  both  father  and  mother, 
compelled  to  join  the  ranks  of  factory  toilers,  were  helpless  in  their  efforts 
to  discharge  the  usual  parental  obligations  to  their  children  in  a  vital  and 
wholesome  way.  Idleness  and  inactivity  had  entered  to  compromise  their 
efforts.  For  the  most  part  all  of  them  had  lost  a  step  or  two  in  the  educa- 
tional progress  of  which  they  were  capable,  and  when  September  called 


Superintendence]  ECONOMY  OF  TIME  643 

them  again  to  enter  upon  the  activities  of  school  life  they  returned  poorer 
physically,  intellectually,  spiritually  than  when  they  had  left  in  June. 
Three  months  in  their  lives  had  been  largely  wasted,  and  while  the  husband- 
man slept  (he  enemy  had  sown  tares  during  the  summer  time. 

Since  then  the  doors  of  the  schools  of  Mason  City  have  been  kept  open 
twelve  months  in  the  year;  for  thru  the  open  door  of  the  school  we  hope  to 
save  the  educational  waste  that  results  from  three  months  of  idleness  and 
inactivity.  In  this  way  we  hope  to  express  more  fully  our  beUef  in  the 
childhood  to  which  we  are  responsible.  The  plan  was  inaugurated  because 
we  beUeve  that  it  is  the  great  mission  of  the  school  to  promote  the  completest 
and  richest  development  of  youth,  whatever  the  season  of  the  year  or  the  hour 
of  the  day.  The  year  was  lengthened  because  we  beHeve  that  the  school  in 
its  organization  and  community  support  is  the  most  vital  agent  in  minister- 
ing to  the  welfare  of  youth,  and  because  we  believe  that  the  ministering 
processes  are  as  important  one  season  as  another. 

There  was  a  time  not  far  distant  when  every  boy  and  girl,  practically 
speaking,  could  find  within  reach  the  opportunities,  either  thru  work  or 
play,  for  educational  advancement  during  the  summer  time  without  the 
help  of  the  school.  The  varied  activities  of  farm  and  fireside,  of  field  and 
forest,  of  village  green  where  healthful  sports  called  loud  and  long,  supple- 
mented the  work  of  the  schoolroom,  and  in  them  all  and  thru  them  all  there 
was  ever  maintained  for  the  child  a  well-balanst  educational  program,  not 
only  during  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  but  during  all  the  seasons  of  the 
year.  There  was  an  all-year-round  educational  process  going  on  that  tended 
to  promote  wholesome  physical,  intellectual,  and  spiritual  development. 

But  for  millions  of  children  those  days  are  no  more;  into  their  lives  no 
such  blessings  fall.  The  all-year-round  school  is  Mason  City's  attempt 
to  solve  that  problem.  It  has  come,  we  believe,  to  discharge  an  obligation 
to  the  boys  and  girls — and  there  are  many  of  them  in  Mason  City — whose 
fathers  and  mothers  have  neither  the  time  nor  the  talent  to  supply  whole- 
some conditions  of  growth,  whose  environments  and  opportunities  do  not 
make  for  adequate  activity  either  thru  work  or  play. 

In  this  brief  statement  I  do  not  suggest  any  particular  form  of  school 
activity.  That  should  be  dependent  upon  need.  Any  form  of  school  activ- 
ity that  will  help  boys  and  girls  to  reaUze  in  fullness  the  possibilities  of 
childhood  and  youth  is  the  ideal  which  we  should  set  for  ourselves.  The 
needs  of  the  child  should  and  must  determine  all  the  activities  of  the  school 
and  must  be  the  paramount  issue  in  determining  the  type  of  either  work  or 
play.  In  this  effort  to  supply  all  the  vital  needs  of  the  child  play  may  be 
the  dominant  factor  in  the  organized  activities  of  the  school;  industrial 
training  may  find  the  most  important  place;  a  study  of  community  hfe 
may  be  the  vital  issue;  nature  and  communion  with  her  varied  forms  may 
be  the  point  of  emphasis.  All  these — and  perhaps  more — must  have  con- 
sideration.   The  need  is  the  determining  factor. 


644  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

Believing  that  the  summer  months  present  special  needs  and  offer  new 
opportunities,  we  in  Mason  City  have  endeavored  to  build  a  school  program 
on  somewhat  different  Unes  from  those  which  obtain  during  the  other 
months  of  the  year.  We  may  have  come  far  short  of  reaching  the  ideal  that 
we  have  set  for  ourselves,  but  at  least  we  are  trying  to  find  a  solution  for 
the  problem  that  confronted  us  when  we  undertook  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
child  thru  the  summer  season.  Perhaps  experience  will  teach  us  wisdom, 
and  perhaps  the  program  of  the  future  will  be  wholly  unlike  the  ones  of  the 
past  two  years.  However,  it  may  be  of  some  interest  to  know  something 
of  our  plans  durihg  the  time  that  the  all-year-round  school  has  been  in  our 
program  of  educational  activities. 

The  forenoon  session,  which  began  at  eight  o'clock  and  continued  until 
noon  was  devoted  to  the  activities  that  are  connected  with  a  pursuance  of 
the  ordinary  academic  subjects,  together  with  a  liberal  amount  of  super- 
vised play.  The  afternoon  was  devoted  to  supervised  play,  field  sports, 
folk  games,  nature  excursions,  geography  excursions,  gardening,  manual 
training,  household  and  applied  arts,  hikes,  picnics,  etc.  Each  teacher, 
with  a  few  possible  exceptions,  guided  both  the  forenoon  and  the  afternoon 
activities,  for  which  she  received  the  same  remuneration  as  during  previous 
months.  The  school  year  was  divided  into  four  quarters  of  twelve  weeks 
each,  the  work  of  these  quarters  being  necessary  for  promotion  from  one 
grade  to  another.  Pupils  were  admitted  to  every  grade  including  the  kinder- 
garten and  the  high  school,  and  they  came  from  the  homes  of  the  rich  as 
well  as  the  poor.  The  first  year  about  33  per  cent  of  the  number  who  had 
enroled  during  the  previous  nine  months  of  the  year  enroled  for  the  summer 
session;  last  year  about  40  per  cent  of  the  previous  enrolment  was  registered. 
The  average  attendance  was  not  as  satisfactory  as  during  September  and 
May,  but  was  better  than  the  attendance  during  the  months  of  December, 
January,  and  February.  The  average  cost  for  teaching  was  greater,  altho 
the  contingent  expenses  were  very  much  reduced.  Counting  every  phase 
of  the  cost,  including  interest  on  otherwise  unused  school  property,  the 
average  cost  per  pupil  was  less  during  the  summer  session  than  during  other 
months  of  the  year.  From  many  standpoints  the  summer  session  was  the 
most  delightful  of  all  the  quarters  of  the  year.  It  is  at  the  season  for  wide- 
open  windows  and  doors,  for  outdoor  play  activities.  For  most  of  the 
children  the  schoolhouses  were  more  comfortable  by  far  than  their  own 
homes.  There  was  no  problem  of  contagious  diseases.  The  heat  was  no 
more  distressing  than  the  cold  of  winter.  At  first  the  summer  session  was 
objected  to  on  account  of  health  considerations.  Many  parents  thought 
that  it  was  placing  too  great  a  burden  upon  the  child  to  attend  school  during 
the  entire  twelve  months  of  the  year,  but  experience  has  shown  the  fallacy 
of  that  objection.  Instead  of  being  injurious  to  health  there  were  many 
instances  where  the  opposite  was  true.  Besides,  no  school  can  justify 
itself  whose  requirements  and  operation  ever  place  the  health  of  the  child 


Superintendence]  CONSERVATION  OF  RESOURCES  645 

in  jeopardy.  I  am  old-fashioned  enough  to  beheve  that  natural  growth  and 
development  are  not  burdensome,  nor  are  the  forces  that  contribute  to 
that  end.  Growth  is  not  a  burdensome  process;  nature  does  not  require 
long  vacations. 

In  closing,  permit  me  to  say  that  there  are  perplexing  problems  in  the 
administration  of  the  all-year-round  school,  three  groups  for  each  grade 
in  the  smaller  schools  being  one  of  the  most  perplexing.  Yet  there  have  been 
many  happy  surprises,  and  in  the  light  of  two  years'  experience  I  am  glad 
to  say  that  I  believe  that  it  is  worthy  of  any  thoughtful  superintendent's 
most  serious  consideration.  The  open  schoolroom  door  during  twelve 
months  of  the  year  has  been  a  big  thing  for  hundreds  of  Mason  City  children. 


B.    CONSERVATION  OF  RESOURCES—SCHOOL  SAVINGS 
BANKS  AND  THRIFT  EDUCATION 

ARVIE  ELDRED,  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  TROY,  N.Y. 

People  in  the  United  States  are  just  beginning  to  reaUze  the  old  saying 
that "  a  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned."  The  world-war  with  all  its  horrors 
is  teaching  us  the  value  of  thrift.  The  United  States  has  the  highest  wage 
scale  and  the  least  number  of  savings-bank  depositors  in  proportion  to 
population  of  any  civiHzed  nation.  As  a  nation  we  have  been  a  profligate 
lot.  The  boundless  wealth  and  natural  resources  of  the  country  have  led 
the  people  to  be  great  spenders  and  wasters.  We  have  been  content  with 
the  necessities  of  the  present  and  have  given  little  thought  to  the  future. 
This  war  is  bringing  us  to  our  senses.  We  are  now  being  made  to  realize 
that  we  are  poor.  We  have  not  laid  up  anything  for  a  rainy  day  and  we 
feel  the  pinch. 

We  were  brought  face  to  face  with  a  real  serious  condition  when  the 
Fuel  Administrator,  on  January  i6,  ordered  a  general  closing  of  industry 
for  five  days.  Immediately  a  cry  of  despair  went  up.  What  were  people 
to  do  ?  How  could  they  live  if  their  incomes  were  to  be  cut  off  for  five  days  ? 
All  our  lives  we  had  gone  along  living  extravagantly,  spending  every  cent, 
and  giving  no  thought  to  the  future.  It  was  a  terrible  shock  and  we  were 
not  ready  for  it.  I  venture  to  say  that  we  shall  get  a  far  worse  shock 
before  this  war  is  over,  unless  it  ends  very  soon.  But  this  first  shock  alone 
should  be  enough  to  make  us  all  realize  that  calamities  and  disasters  will 
happen.  We  have  had  business  depressions  in  the  past,  but  they  have  come 
and  gone  gradually  and  we  have  not  felt  their  force.  Tho  it  is  freely  pre- 
dicted that  we  shall  never  have  another  great  financial  panic,  yet  we  are 
bound  to  have  dull  times  and  long  periods  of  scanty  production,  and  we 
must  be  prepared  to  meet  such  times. 

We  can  do  little  perhaps  toward  teaching  the  wage-earner  of  this  genera- 
tion to  save,  but  we  can  teach  the  wage-earner  of  the  next  generation  to 
save. 


646  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

After  this  war  no  doubt  will  come  a  period  of  great  prosperity.  If  we 
are  not  careful  we  shall  do  as  we  have  done  in  the  past — spend  every  cent 
and  lay  nothing  by  for  the  future.  I  beUeve  that  this  can  be  prevented  if 
our  children  are  taught  in  the  schools  how  to  save  and  to  acquire  the 
''saving  habit." 

In  1914  there  were  in  the  United  States  about  eleven  million  depositors 
in  savings  banks,  with  deposits  of  about  five  billion  dollars.  In  191 2 
Great  Britain  had  fourteen  milUon  depositors  and  about  one  billion  deposits. 
France  had  fourteen  and  one-half  million  depositors  and  about  one  and  one- 
hah  bilHon  deposits.  Germany  had  twenty-three  million  depositors  and 
four  and  one-half  billions  in  deposits. 

When  the  population  of  the  United  States  is  compared  with  the  popula- 
tion of  Great  Britain,  France,  or  Germany  the  showing  of  savings-bank 
depositors  in  the  United  States  becomes  very  poor.  Within  the  United 
States  the  ratio  of  depositors  to  population  varies.  In  New  England"  the 
ratio  is  large,  while  in  the  West  it  is  very  small.  These  differences  are  no 
doubt  due  to  the  characteristics  of  the  people.  The  "Yankee"  of  New 
England  has  been  noted  for  his  thrift. 

Reports  show  that  80  per  cent  of  the  people  in  this  country  die  leaving 
no  income-producing  assets.  Furthermore  there  are  at  the  present  time 
one  and  one-half  million  former  wage-earners  who  did  not  provide  for  the 
future  being  supported  at  public  expense.  | 

It  is  readily  demonstrated  then  that  the  people  of  the  United  States  have 
not  learned  the  habit  of  saving.  There  is  no  doubt  that  economy  and  thrift 
are  habits.  Inasmuch  as  habit  can  best  be  taught  in  youth,  therefore 
national  economy  and  thrift  should  have  a  place  in  our  school  program. 
The  simplest  kind  of  thrift  for  schools  is  the  school  bank.  Here  the  stray 
penny  or  nickel  can  be  deposited  by  the  child  before  it  can  be  spent  on  some 
useless  trash. 

There  are  many  systems  of  school  banks,  all  of  which  have  their  good 
features.  The  simpler  the  system  the  better,  if  its  machinery  will  reach 
the  children.  The  system  in  use  in  our  city  is  similar  to  the  one  in  use  in 
several  other  places.  Our  laws  require  that  a  savings  bank,  if  there  be  one 
in  the  city,  be  the  depository  of  the  school  bank  money.  We  have  a  savings 
bank  in  our  city  and  it  is  giving  the  schools  the  heartiest  cooperation.  It 
provides  all  forms  and  the  books  needed  and  helps  us  in  every  way  it  can. 

A  certain  day  is  known  thruout  the  schools  as  "Banking  Day."  It 
is  Monday  as  a  rule.  During  a  regular  class-period,  preferably  the  arith- 
metic period,  the  children  deposit  the  money.  Each  teacher  keeps  the 
record  of  deposits  of  her  own  class.  She  is  assisted  by  two  or  more  pupils, 
as  she  elects— a  teller  and  a  bookkeeper,  at  least.  The  pupils  in  turn  come 
to  the  desk  and  make  their  deposits.  When  the  deposits  are  all  in  and  the 
money  counted  and  verified  the  classroom  teacher  sends  them  to  the  prin- 
cipal, who  is  the  trustee  for  the  school.    Here  the  total  entries  are  made, 


Superintendence!  CONSERVATION  OF  RESOURCES  647 

children  assisting  with  the  task.  The  books  are  balanst,  and  the  principal 
deposits  the  money  in  the  savings  bank  in  his  name  as  trustee.  As  soon  as 
a  child  has  one  dollar  deposited  in  the  school  bank  he  is  given  a  "thrift 
bond,"  similar  to  a  "bank  draft,"  by  the  principal.  He  takes  this  bond 
to  the  savings  bank  and  opens  an  account  in  the  bank  in  his  own  name. 
His  account  begins  to  draw  interest  as  soon  as  he  has  five  dollars  in  the 
bank.  Our  experience  has  been  that  a  child's  first  thrill  comes  when  he 
gets  his  school  bank  book,  his  second  when  he  gets  the  savings  bank  book, 
and  his  third  and  greatest  when  he  sees  in  red  ink  his  credited  interest  in 
this  savings  bank  book. 

The  system  requires  quite  a  lot  of  clerical  work,  but  it  is  so  simple  that 
children  can  do  it,  and  the  fact  that  children  can  do  the  work  is  an  excellent 
point,  because  it  not  only  creates  more  interest  on  the  part  of  the  children 
to  save,  but  gives  them  training  in  accuracy  and  business  practices. 

As  a  rule,  teachers  are  conservative;  they  do  not  want  a  lot  of  burdens 
added  to  their  already  overloaded  school  day.  Our  teachers  felt  the  same 
way  at  first  with  regard  to  our  school  banks,  but  it  was  not  long  before 
they  saw  the  great  good  that  was  resulting  from  the  thrift  habit:  less  gum, 
less  candy,  etc.,  was  in  evidence  about  the  school.  Altho  we  did  not  care 
to  have  a  spirit  of  rivalry  fostered,  it  sprang  up  nevertheless.  The  parents 
soon  saw  the  value  of  such  a  plan,  and  I  had  several  parents  tell  me  that  it 
was  the  first  time  that  any  of  the  family  had  ever  saved  money.  Now  they 
are  saving  it  thru  the  children's  deposits  in  the  school  bank.  The  idea 
spread  and  we  have  on  our  books  the  names  of  several  children  who  are  too 
young  to  enter  school.  The  parents  are  making  deposits  for  them  regularly. 
Many  teachers  also  are  regular  depositors  in  the  school  bank. 

The  trustees  of  the  savings  bank  were  rather  skeptical  at  first  about  the 
success  of  the  school  bank.  But  the  number  of  depositors  in  our  school 
bank  has  steadily  grown,  altho  during  the  past  year  the  amount  of  money 
deposited  each  month  has  remained  about  the  same.  This  is  due,  no  doubt, 
to  the  rapid  increase  in  the  cost  of  living,  and  to  the  fact  also  of  the  great 
number  of  persons  subscribing  to  the  first  and  second  Liberty  Loans  on 
the  weekly  payment  plan.  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection  the 
fact  that  in  the  second  Liberty  Loan  campaign  more  than  $40,000  was 
subscribed  thru  our  school  bank.  Many  children  had  saved  enough  to 
pay  for  their  bonds  outright;  the  rest  are  buying  them  now  with  their 
weekly  savings  going  thru  our  school  bank.  In  this  way  our  children  were 
able  to  do  their  bit  and  show  their  patriotism,  and  I  know  that  it  was  a 
source  of  gratification  to  every  youngster  to  know  that  the  money  that  he 
had  saved  could  be  lent  to  the  government  in  this  time  of  peril. 

At  this  point  I  wish  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  money  can  be  deposited 
only  in  our  school  bank.  We  allow  no  one  to  draw  money  out.  That  must 
be  done  thru  the  savings  bank.  You  see  we  make  it  easy  for  children  to  save 
and  deposit  money,  but  rather  difficult  for  them  to  draw  out  and  spend. 


648  National  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic city 

Thus  far  I  have  dealt  mainly  with  the  first  part  of  my  topic.  I  wish 
to  say  something  now  about  thrift  education  as  it  applies  to  savings  other 
than  money.  One  of  the  best  lessons  in  thrift  is  to  teach  children  how  to 
eliminate  waste,  not  only  at  home,  but  in  the  classroom.  Some  children 
are  naturally  thrifty,  others  are  naturally  wasteful.  The  teacher  should  be 
a  living  example  before  the  child.  He  should  see  to  it  that  supplies  and 
materials  are  not  wasted,  regardless  of  whether  the  child  or  the  education 
department  buys  them.  Children  can  be  taught  to  be  thrifty  by  gathering 
waste  material  about  the  home  and  the  school,  and  turning  it  into  money. 
Children  should  be  made  to  realize  that  our  most  successful  business  corpora- 
tions are  making  big  profit  by  properly  disposing  of  their  waste  material. 
If  it  is  profitable  for  a  corporation,  it  is  also  profitable  for  the  individual,  to 
give  attention  to  waste  material. 

One  of  the  biggest  lessons  to  be  learned  today  is  "food  production"  and 
"food  consumption."  We  are  told  that  "food  will  win  the  war,"  and  with 
our  wheatless,  meatless,  porkless,  and  sugarless  days  we  are  beginning  to 
reahze  the  importance  of  food.  But  only  a  year  ago  how  many  thought 
much  about  these  things  ?  We  have  been  in  the  habit  of  eating  what  we 
wanted,  as  much  as  we  wanted,  and  when  we  wanted,  and  never  expected 
in  this  great  land  of  ours  that  there  would  be  a  "food  shortage."  But 
what  can  our  schools  do  to  aid  in  the  production  of  food  ?  Just  the  thing 
that  was  done  in  many  places  this  past  year — give  attention  to  vacant  lots 
and  hack  yards,  heretofore  thought  of  as  so  much  waste  land  fit  for  nothing 
productive.  One  of  the  best  lessons  in  thrift  can  be  to  teach  the  children 
how  to  make  these  lots  productive.  In  our  city  we  had  over  2,000  such 
lots  under  cultivation  last  summer,  and  I  am  sure  that  we  will  have  more 
this  summer.  Boys  and  girls  are  not  only  taught  thrift  here  by  using  waste 
land,  but  they  become  interested  and  the  long  vacation  is  used  for  some 
profitable  end.  The  child  is  kept  out  of  mischief  and  the  family  is  supplied 
with  good,  fresh  vegetables  all  season  long.  One  of  the  best  places  to  teach 
thrift  in  school  is  in  the  domestic  science  departments.  The  old  adage 
"A  woman  can  throw  out  more  with  a  spoon  than  a  man  can  bring  in  in  a 
shovel"  is  still  true.  Mr.  Hoover  tells  us  that  $700,000,000  worth  of  food 
is  wasted  every  year  in  our  kitchens.  Much  of  this  waste  can  be  eliminated 
now  if  the  proper  instruction  is  given  to  the  girls  of  today  along  the  fines  of 
buying  and  preparing  foods. 

In  the  matter  of  clothing  our  girls  can  be  taught  how  to  economize  and 
avoid  waste.  This  war  is  teaching  us  to  get  greater  use  of  clothing.  Many 
an  article  has  been  brought  from  the  attic,  where  it  was  only  food  for  moths 
or  merchandise  for  the  "rag  man,"  and  made  over  for  wear.  Much  of  the 
war  work  in  the  schools  in  our  city  has  been  devoted  to  this  line,  and  it  is 
gratifying  to  see  how  eagerly  the  girls  have  taken  it  up. 

The  Red  Cross  and  Junior  Red  Cross  are  not  only  doing  a  splendid 
work  for  today,  but  they  are  doing  a  work  that  will  have  infinite  results  for 


Superintendence)  INCREAST  FOOD  PRODUCTION  649 

the  future.  Our  women  had  lost  the  art  of  using  their  hands — they  had 
never  learned  how  to  use  the  needle.  They  have  learned  now.  Our  chil- 
dren are  learning  now,  and  I  hope  that  every  child  in  America  will  join  this 
Junior  Red  Cross,  not  only  for  what  the  organization  can  do  now,  but  for 
what  it  will  mean  for  the  future.  I  am  glad,  that  we  have  loo  per  cent 
membership  in  the  schools  of  our  city. 

I  might  mention  other  ways  and  other  means  of  teaching  thrift,  for 
there  are  many  others.  The  ones  I  have  mentioned  are  important  and  also 
successful.  The  important  thing  is  to  teach  thrift  in  its  broad  sense  in  the 
schools.  We  cannot  have  too  much  of  it.  We  should  try  constantly  to 
have  our  children  practice  the  habit  of  self-denial.  The  feehng  that  they 
have  something  in  reserve  will  take  away  much  of  the  nerve  strain  that 
is  common  to  the  ''high-strung"  American  people.  This  reserve  can  be 
obtained  only  by  systematic  saving  and  strict  economy.  We  should  keep 
these  ideas  before  our  children  if  we  want  to  bring  up  a  nation  of  strong  and 
independent  individuals. 


C.  INCREAST  FOOD  PRODUCTION— HOME  GARDENING 

ELMER  C.  SHERMAN,  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  ENGLEWOOD,  N.J. 

A  great  war,  a  great  national  emergency,  has  served  to  discover  to  us 
that  some  things  urged  as  war  measures  have  an  educational  value  of  which 
we  are  not  aware  or  of  which  we  have  not  made  use.  It  can  hardly  happen 
that  after  the  war  we  shall  not  profit  by  the  lessons  we  are  now  learning. 
I  find  myself  unable  to  consider  gardening  as  a  war  problem  except  as  the 
war  has  emphasized  its  importance  and  has  revealed  it  to  us  as  an  economic 
and  educational  problem  worthy  of  serious  consideration  among  the  perma- 
nent phases  of  school  work. 

The  first  of  the  many  activities  in  which  the  schools  were  askt  to  aid  in 
the  conduct  of  the  war  was  that  of  increasing  the  food  supply  of  the  country. 
With  no  experience  to  guide  them  and  with  little  time  to  formulate  plans, 
educational  administrators,  with  the  hearty  cooperation  of  teachers  and 
pupils,  attackt  the  problem  with  earnestness  and  with  no  small  measure  of 
success.  Boys  and  girls  in  many  states  were  excused  from  school  and  set 
to  work  to  aid  the  farmers  and  the  market  gardeners;  here  and  there  patri- 
otic cities  and  towns  undertook  community  gardening  in  which  the  labor 
of  children  unable  to  leave  home  was  utilized;  the  cultivation  of  back  yards 
and  vacant  lots  was  increast  manyfold,  partly  by  adults,  but  in  very  large 
degree  by  children;  and  canning,  the  necessary  corollary  of  this  back-yard 
gardening,  was  revived  or  learned  for  the  first  time  by  many  thousands  of 
housewives  and  their  children  helpers,  and  became  an  important  household 
industry  everywhere.  Of  all  the  ways  in  which  the  schools  aided  in  increas- 
ing the  food  supply  of  the  nation,  the  two  last-named — home  gardening  and 


650  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

canning — bid  fair  to  increase  greatly  while  the  war  lasts  and  to  become  a 
permanent  and  valuable  phase  of  school  training. 

If  gardening  as  a  school  subject  is  to  be  a  success,  whether  from  an  eco- 
nomic or  an  educational  standpoint,  it  must  be  organized  as  other  school 
work  is  organized;  it  must  be  recognized  as  a  legitimate  and  desirable  sub- 
ject of  the  school  curriculum.  Garden  clubs  have  their  places  in  arousing 
interest  and  enthusiasm,  in  demonstrating  what  can  be  done  by  boys  and 
girls,  in  giving  this  new  field  of  school  effort  a  start.  But  they  reach  as  a 
rule  only  those  who  have  a  natural  interest  in  the  matter — those  who  have 
the  greatest  amount  of  enthusiasm,  of  perseverance,  and  of  imagination. 
They  will  not  serve  to  make  a  practical  knowledge  of  gardening  the  posses- 
sion of  all  boys  and  girls  any  more  than  geography  clubs  would  give  to  all 
school  children  an  adequate  knowledge  of  the  earth  on  which  we  live.  Suc- 
cessful gardening  means  something  more  than  the  possession  of  a  plot  of 
ground  and  some  seeds.  The  assumption  that  anyone  can  raise  a  garden 
is  a  mistake.  The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  both  a  science  and  an  art.  It 
requires  knowledge  and  skill  based  upon  the  appHcation  of  that  knowledge. 

In  the  organization  of  gardening  there  is  needed  first  a  supervisor. 
This  should  be  a  man  or  a  woman  with  practical  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
with  initiative,  with  contagious  enthusiasm,  with  teaching  power.  Such  a 
person  should  be  employed  for  the  entire  school  year  with  a  vacation  of  a 
month  or  two  in  midwinter  instead  of  in  midsummer  as  in  the  case  of  other 
teachers.  Any  town  of  ten  thousand  people  or  upward,  and  even  some 
smaller  cities,  can  profitably  employ  a  garden  supervisor  on  such  a  basis. 
No  other  teacher  will  be  able  to  show  such  direct  results  of  his  work  in 
dollars  and  cents. 

Three  very  distinct  phases  of  the  training  of  pupils  in  gardening  must 
be  distinguisht.  These  are  instruction,  demonstration,  and  supervision  of 
the  home  garden.    Each  of  these  is  an  essential  part  of  an  efficient  plan. 

I.  Instruction. — Classroom  instruction  should  be  given  thruout  the 
school  year  to  all  pupils  of  Grades  V  to  VIII  with  one  lesson,  or  better  two 
lessons,  per  week.  A  course  in  gardening  should  be  offered  in  the  high 
school  as  a  part  of  the  science  course.  In  smaller  places  most  of  this  instruc- 
tion will  be  given  by  the  supervisor;  in  larger  places  it  must  be  given  wholly 
or  in  part  by  class  teachers  or  assistants,  but  under  the  direction  of  the 
supervisor,  who  will  plan  most  carefully  the  course  in  respect  to  both  con- 
tent and  method.  This  course  will  consider  plant  Ufe,  soil,  fertiUzers,  rain- 
fall and  irrigation,  birds  and  insects,  in  their  relation  to  the  farm  and  garden. 
The  course  will  correlate  with  drawing  in  laying  out  the  garden  and  drawing 
to  scale  a  diagram;  with  arithmetic  when  children  are  taught  to  keep  their 
garden  accounts  neatly  and  accurately  and  to  estimate  profit  and  loss;  and 
with  shopwork  in  the  construction  of  hotbeds,  cold  frames,  and  germination 
beds.  Thus  classroom  instruction  carefully  and  wisely  planned,  laying  the 
foundation  for  the  actual  out-of-doors  work  and  linkt  closely  to  other 


Superintendence)  INCREAST   FOOD   PRODUCTION  65 1 

subjects  of  the  curriculum,  is  essential  to  any  permanent  success  in  making 
gardening  a  worth-while  school  subject. 

2.  Demonstration. — There  should  be  attacht  to  each  school  a  plot  of 
ground  to  be  cultivated  as  a  demonstration  garden.  If  possible  it  should 
be  on  the  school  grounds  or  adjacent  to  them.  If  not,  a  vacant  lot  should 
be  obtained  for  the  purpose  as  near  as  may  be  to  the  school.  When  the 
time  for  making  gardens  comes  many  of  the  indoor  lessons  will  be  transferred 
to  this  garden  where  the  children  will  be  shown  how  to  prepare  the  soil,  how 
to  plant  the  seeds,  and  how  to  care  for  the  young  plants.  All  this  will  have 
for  its  ultimate  purpose,  not  the  demonstration  garden  itself,  but  the  hun- 
dreds of  back-yard  gardens  scattered  about  the  community,  which  the  chil- 
dren are  about  to  cultivate  for  themselves. 

In  addition  to  the  demonstration  garden  and  for  a  similar  purpose  other 
equipment  is  needed  for  the  winter  when  out-of-door  work  cannot  be  done. 
Hotbeds  and  cold  frames  should  be  constructed.  Wherever  possible  a  room 
should  be  set  aside  as  a  sort  of  garden  laboratory — a  workroom  where  winter 
planting  could  be  done  in  connection  with  the  hotbeds,  where  germination 
could  be  studied,  where  experiments  with  soils  and  with  fertiUzers  could  be 
conducted.  Such  work,  even  of  the  most  elementary  character,  would  be 
of  the  greatest  value  as  a  part  of  the  instruction  in  this  subject.  A  green- 
house would  of  course  be  the  ideal  equipment  for  this  course. 

3.  Supervision  of  the  home  garden. — We  must  not  assume  that  after  the 
child  has  received  instruction  at  school  he  will  proceed  to  cultivate  a  suc- 
cessful garden  without  further  oversight,  advice,  and  encouragement.  We 
ought  to  know  children  too  well  to  believe  anything  of  the  kind.  The  seeds 
will  not  come  up,  the  weeds  will  get  ahead  of  him,  his  dog  or  his  neighbor's 
chickens  will  scratch  up  a  part  of  the  garden.  He  doesn't  know  what  to  do 
when  something  unexpected  happens.  He  gets  discouraged  and  quits.  All 
the  effort  that  has  been  made  to  teach  him  is  thus  lost.  He  suffers  morally 
too  from  the  fact  that  he  has  failed  to  persevere  and  has  abandoned  a  pro- 
ject undertaken  perhaps  with  much  enthusiasm.  His  garden,  therefore, 
should  be  regularly  visited  by  a  sympathetic,  helpful  inspector  who  will 
encourage  him  when  he  is  getting  discouraged,  spur  him  on  when  he  is  get- 
ting careless,  help  him  when  he  is  in  difficulty.  Such  visits  should  be  made 
once  a  week  until  the  garden  is  well  under  way.  As  gardening  is  assumed 
to  be  a  school  subject  for  which  regular  school  credit  is  to  be  given,  the 
inspector  will  at  each  visit  give  a  mark  to  indicate  the  faithfulness  of  the 
work  done  and  the  appearance  of  the  garden. 

The  matter  of  inspection  furnishes  the  most  difficult  problem  in  carrying 
out  our  plan.  The  difficulty  is  of  two  kinds:  (i)  Where  shall  we  find  the 
inspectors  and  (2)  can  we  afford  the  cost?  The  most  valuable  persons  to 
employ  would  be  the  teachers  who  know  the  children  and  know  how  to  deal 
with  them.  It  seems  probable  that  teachers  could  be  found  in  almost  every 
school  who  would  undertake  this  work  with  enthusiasm.    There  are  in  every 


652  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

community  people  of  comparative  leisure  who  are  ready  to  help  in  a  project 
promising  so  much  of  value  as  this,  and  who  might  therefore  be  used  for 
inspectional  work. 

The  cost  of  properly  organizing  the  work  in  gardening  so  that  it  may 
produce  the  maximum  amount  of  food  and  have  the  maximum  educational 
value  is  considerable.  But  it  will  pay.  If  we  are  to  help  the  nation  to  the 
fullest  extent  of  our  abihty  in  increasing  the  food  supply,  if  we  are  to  train 
our  children  in  a  valuable  way  thru  this  work,  and  if  we  are  to  make  a 
knowledge  of  gardening  function  in  a  useful  way  in  their  lives  as  men  and 
women,  we  must  adopt  a  serious  plan,  we  must  organize  it  thoroly,  we  must, 
in  short,  devote  as  much  thought,  as  much  care,  and  relatively  as  much 
money  to  it  as  we  do  in  the  case  of  the  older  and  better-recognized  subjects 
of  instruction. 


D.    A  PRACTICAL  PROGRAM  OF  PATRIOTIC  INSTRUCTION 

FRANCIS  G.  BLAIR,  STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION, 

SPRINGFIELD,  ILL. 

It  is  as  impossible  to  define  patriotism  as  it  is  to  paint  a  picture  of  your 
mother.  In  a  sense  patriotism  is  an  atmosphere.  It  is  an  emotion,  a  habit 
of  thought,  an  attitude  of  mind.  We  may,  by  pedagogic  device,  create  the 
atmosphere,  but  the  thing  itself  must  spring  from  within.  In  this  war 
crisis  there  are  some  well-meaning  persons  who,  impatient  with  the  slow 
processes  of  education,  seem  to  think  that  patriotism  can  be  called  forth  by 
command,  by  fiat — that  our  emotions  and  spiritual  attitudes  can  be  com- 
mandeered like  our  physical  properties.  They  seem  to  think  that  patriotism 
of  the  right  brand  can  be  manufactured  by  some  special  plan  or  method  of 
instruction.  To  be  sure,  a  right  attitude  toward  it  and  a  proper  apprecia- 
tion of  it  can  be  aroused,  but  it  can  hardly  be  compelled.  One  may  be 
encouraged  to  see  and  think  and  feel  and  act  patriotically,  but  it  can  hardly 
be  thrust  upon  him. 

Fortunately,  in  a  time  like  this,  when  the  very  air  we  breathe  quivers 
with  national  emotion  and  national  spirit,  we  have  our  best  motive  and  our 
best  condition  for  creating  thru  education  the  atmosphere  of  patriotism  in 
the  home  and  the  school.  How  may  we  use  the  mighty  impulse  of  this 
great  hour  in  our  national  life  to  beget  in  our  children  a  deeper  and  sounder 
love  for  our  own  country  without  engendering  a  hatred  for  other  countries  ? 
How  may  we  arouse  an  appreciation  of,  and  a  faith  in,  the  ideals  and  pur- 
poses of  our  own  institutions  without  firing  them  with  a  bigoted  zeal  to 
thrust  these  institutions  upon  other  peoples  ? 

The  purpose  of  such  work  is  a  noble  one  and  the  prospect  is  full  of  hope, 
altho  hardly  free  from  difiiculties  and  dangers.  What  educational  devices 
may  we  use  to  arouse  patriotic  emotions  and  translate  these  emotions  into 


Superintendence]  PATRIOTIC  INSTRUCTION  653 

habits  of  thought  and  deeds  ?  Flag  raisings  and  salutes,  flag  drills,  patri- 
otic music  and  songs,  addresses  and  readings  presenting  national  ideals  in 
an  appealing  form,  all  these  have  been  tried  and  have  proved  their  power 
to  stir  deeply  the  emotions  of  children.  Too  often,  however,  we  have  filled 
them  with  feeling  without  furnishing  them  with  practical  means  for  express- 
ing it  in  thought  and  deeds. 

The  flag  drills  and  salutes  and  the  singing  by  the  children  offer  agreeable 
and  worth-while  expressions  of  their  emotions.  The  committing  to  memory 
of  good  selections  and  reciting  them  has  distinct  values.  A  high-school  girl 
at  the  opening  exercises  tells  the  story  of  Alan  Seeger,  the  English  poet  who, 
as  a  volunteer  soldier,  gave  his  life  on  the  battle  front.  In  conclusion  she 
refers  to  the  poem  he  wrote  while  in  the  trenches  entitled,  "I  Have  a  Ren- 
dezvous with  Death."  When  she  concludes  a  high-school  boy  dressed  in 
khaki  stands  forth  and  recites  those  lines: 

I  have  a  rendezvous  with  Death 

At  some  disputed  barricade, 

When  Spring  comes  back  with  rustling  shade 

And  apple-blossoms  fill  the  air — 

I  have  a  rendezvous  with  Death 

When  Spring  brings  back  blue  days  and  fair. 

It  may  be  he  shall  take  my  hand 

And  lead  me  into  his  dark  land 

And  close  my  eyes  and  quench  my  breath — 

It  may  be  I  shall  pass  him  still. 

But  I've  a  rendezvous  with  Death 

On  some  scarred  slope  of  battered  hill, 

When  Spring  comes  round  again  this  year 

And  the  first  meadow  flowers  appear. 

God  knows  'twere  better  to  be  deep 
Pillowed  in  silk  and  scented  down, 
Where  Love  throbs  out  in  blissful  sleep. 
Pulse  nigh  to  pulse,  and  breath  to  breath, 
Where  hushed  awakenings  are  dear  .... 
But  I've  a  rendezvous  with  Death, 
At  midnight  in  some  flaming  town. 
When  Spring  trips  north  again  this  year. 
And  I  to  my  pledged  word  am  true, 
I  shall  not  fail  that  rendezvous. 

An  eighth-grade  boy,  after  teUing  how  he  thought  this  war  was  going 
to  reunite  the  North  and  South  and  stating  that  the  grandson  of  General 
Grant  and  the  grandson  of  General  Lee  were  both  fighting  side  by  side  on 
the  battle  front  in  France,  recites  the  following  lines: 

Here's  to  the  blue  of  the  wind-swept  North, 

As  they  meet  on  the  fields  of  France! 
May  the  spirit  of  Grant  be  over  them  all 

As  the  sons  of  the  North  advance! 


654  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic City 

Here's  to  the  gray  of  the  sun-kissed  South,. 

As  they  meet  on  the  fields  of  France! 
May  the  spirit  of  Lee  be  over  them  all 

As  the  sons  of  the  South  advance! 

Here's  to  the  blue  and  the  gray  as  one, 

As  they  meet  on  the  fields  of  France! 
May  the  spirit  of  God  be  over  them  all 

As  the  sons  of  the  flag  advance! 

Letters  written  to  soldiers  in  the  field  and  to  children  in  the  allied  coun- 
tries offer  a  good  way  for  giving  shape  and  expression  to  the  children's 
aroused  patriotism.  I  doubt  whether  anyone  has  come  nearer  to  phrasing 
the  real  meaning  of  this  war  than  a  sixteen-year-old  girl  in  a  French  sec- 
ondary school  in  Paris.  Mr.  John  H.  Finley,  commissioner  of  New  York 
state,  brought  it  back  with  him  from  his  recent  visit.     Being  translated  it  is : 

It  was  only  a  little  river,  almost  a  brook;  it  was  called  the  Yser.  One  could  talk 
from  one  side  to  the  other  without  raising  one's  voice,  and  the  birds  could  fly  over  it  with 
one  sweep  of  their  wings.  And  on  the  two  banks  there  were  millions  of  men  the  one 
turned  toward  the  other,  eye  to  eye.  But  the  distance  which  separated  them  was  greater 
than  the  stars  in  the  sky;  it  was  the  distance  which  separates  right  from  injustice. 

The  ocean  is  so  vast  that  the  seagulls  do  not  dare  to  cross  it.  During  seven  days 
and  nights  the  great  steamships  of  America,  going  full  speed,  drive  through  the  deep 
waters  before  the  lighthouses  of  France  come  into  view;  but  from  one  side  to  another 
the  hearts  are  touching. 

The  drawing  of  pictures  and  posters  has  furnisht  effective  modes  of 
expression. 

But  it  is  thru  three  organizations  that  some  of  the  most  practical  patri- 
otic instruction  is  being  carried  on: 

The  Boy  Scouts  is  an  organization  antedating  this  war,  but  the  coming 
of  the  war  has  put  a  new  spirit  and  a  new  character  into  it.  These  lads  in 
the  khaki  uniform  find  ready  and  fruitful  ways  for  translating  their  fine 
ideals  into  deeds.  How  willingly  their  hands  and  feet  carry  a  thousand 
messages  a  day  to  Garcia!  How  keenly  they  feel  the  spirit  of  the  hour,  how 
gladly  they  accept  responsibihty,  and  how  nobly  they  perform  their  duties! 

The  United  States  Boys'  Working  Reserve  is  an  organization  born  out 
of  the  strain  of  this  war.  It  is  shot  thru  and  thru  with  the  most  patriotic 
purposes  and  possibilities.  It  lacks  the  uniform  and  the  dress-parade  fea- 
tures of  the  Boy  Scouts.  It  is  practical  in  every  way.  Its  members  are 
parts  of  an  army,  to  be  sure,  but  they  are  a  working,  shirt-sleeve,  sweating, 
hungry,  toiUng,  whistling  sort  of  an  army.  There  may  not  be  much  glamor 
or  glory  in  milking  a  cow,  in  driving  a  cultivator,  in  greasing  the  harness, 
in  slopping  the  pigs,  but  it  may  be  the  most  direct  way  of  serving  one's 
country  and  carrying  aid  to  our  Allies  and  distress  to  our  enemies. 

The  Junior  Red  Cross  offers  perhaps  the  best  of  all  forms  of  organiza- 
tion for  practical,  worth-while  patriotic  activity  for  all  our  children.  It 
includes  boys  and  girls  alike.     It  enters  the  private  as  well  as  the  public 


Superintendence]  DISCUSSION  6$$ 

schools.  Every  grade  in  every  school  may  become  a  Junior  Red  Cross  chap- 
ter. It  offers  the  best  means  for  coordinating  and  consolidating  all  the 
war  demands  made  upon  our  schools.  Would  you  sell  War  Saving  Stamps  ? 
Let  the  Junior  Red  Cross  chapter  do  it.  Would  you  float  Liberty  Bonds, 
carry  coal  and  food  tags,  hang  posters,  get  up  a  parade,  or  give  a  patriotic 
program?  The  Junior  Red  Cross  stands  ready  to  carry  out  every  one. 
Would  you  send  a  sweet  remembrance  to  a  mother  whose  son  is  on  the 
firing-Hne  ?  A  committee  of  girls  from  the  Junior  Red  Cross  chapter  of  the 
third  grade  carries  a  bouquet  of  flowers  with  the  simple  statement  that 
the  members  are  giving  a  little  to  her  who  has  given  so  much  for  them. 
Does  a  yard  need  mowing  because  the  hands  which  did  it  last  summer  are 
now  carrying  a  musket  in  France  ?  Two  boys  from  the  eighth  grade  rattle 
down  the  street  with  a  lawn  mower  and  somewhat  abruptly  announce  to 
the  soldier's  wife  or  mother  that  they  have  come  to  mow  down  the  grass 
while  the  soldier  is  away  mowing  down  the  enemies  of  our  country. 

In  some  such  ways  as  these  we  may  create  the  atmosphere  of  patriot- 
ism, arouse  the  emotions,  and  translate  the  patriotism  into  habits  of  thought 
and  attitudes  of  mind  and  heart. 


DISCUSSION 

A.  E.  WiNSHip,  editor,  Journal  of  Education,  Boston,  Mass. — The  American  schools 
have  never  appreciated  the  necessity  of  patriotic  instruction.  It  has  been  assumed  that 
it  was  all-sufficient  that  children  come  to  school,  get  assigned  lessons,  behave  themselves, 
and  salute  the  flag  appropriately.  We  have  called  the  public  school  the  melting-pot  of 
all  nationalities.  Mary  Antin's  "Promised  Land"  has  been  the  culminating  testimony  to 
the  efficiency  of  the  schools  patriotically.  But  the  moment  America  entered  the  world- war 
it  became  evident  that  some  of  the  children  who  had  been  in  the  melting-pot  had  not  been 
adequately  melted,  that  patriotism  had  not  always  been  developt.  Practically  all  close 
observers  of  children  in  school  and  out  agree  that  something  is  lacking  in  the  patriotic 
instruction  of  the  public  schools.  Whatever  else  the  world-war  has  done,  or  left  undone, 
it  has  already  taught  us  that  we  cannot  longer  be  an  isolated  nation,  that  we  can  no  longer 
live  to  ourselves  alone,  that  the  famous  Monroe  Doctrine  would  have  no  more  significance 
than  a  sheet  of  paper  unless  we  had  some  power  other  than  the  pen  that  wrote  it. 

It  was  the  greatest  shock  the  New  World  ever  received  when  it  was  known  that  Kaiser 
William  proposed  to  divide  up  a  large  slice  of  the  United  States  between  Mexico  and  Japan, 
and  that  he  dehberately  told  us  that  our  ships  could  not  sail  the  sea  except  by  going  where 
he  chose  to  allow  them  to  go.  No  pig  in  a  pen  or  hen  in  a  coop  was  ever  more  insolently 
treated  than  was  the  United  States  by  the  Kaiser.  For  nearly  three  years  there  was  not 
patriotism  enough  anywhere  in  America  to  resent  insults,  to  check  treachery,  to  help  the 
only  red-blooded  nations  who  cared  or  dared  to  challenge  the  treachery,  butchery,  and 
debauchery  of  the  Huns.  The  moment  there  was  adequate  patriotism  officially  there  was 
discovered  unanticipated  disloyalty  even  in  schools  and  colleges,  much  of  it  bordering  on 
treason.  There  were  Ethan  Aliens  and  Israel  Putnams.  There  were  Paul  Reveres  and 
Mad  Anthony  Waynes,  but,  alas,  there  were  Benedict  Arnolds.  Now  we  know  that  the 
public  schools  must  teach  patriotism  effectively  just  as  we  know  that  we  must  win  this 
war,  whatever  the  sacrifice  of  life  and  treasure.     The  only  question  is.  How  ? 

The  first  element  in  patriotism  is  the  absolute  unity  of  sentiment  among  all  the  nations 
that  are  fighting  side  by  side.  This  is  a  principle  as  old  as  man.  Loyalty  to  each  other 
is  the  first  law  of  patriotism.    Whoever  helps  us  win  this  war  is,  to  all  intents  and 


6s6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

purposes,  American.  Briton,  Italian,  Frenchman,  is  in  this  struggle  American,  and  no  man 
is  a  loyal  American  who  is  not  now  a  loyal  Briton,  Italian,  Frenchman.  This  means  that 
we  must  take  out  of  all  school  history  every  paragraph  that  would  revive  the  prejudices 
of  the  Revolutionary  War.  We  must  not  teach  our  children  to  glory  in  the  evacuation 
of  Boston  or  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis. 

There  can  be  no  patriotism  that  does  not  cement  in  closest  bonds  all  sections  of  the 
United  States.  Whoever  goes  to  Camp  Robert  E.  Lee  in  Virginia,  and  Camp  John  B. 
Gordon  in  Georgia,  to  Camp  Phil  Sheridan  in  Alabama,  and  John  A.  Logan  in  Texas,  who 
sees  southern  boys  at  Camp  Devens  in  Massachusetts,  and  at  Camp  Grant  in  Illinois, 
who  realizes  that  the  late  congressman  Gardner  of  Massachusetts  insisted  upon  being  an 
officer  in  a  Georgia  regiment,  can  but  see  that  the  last  year  has  done  much  toward  unifying 
patriotic  American  sentiment.  Let  all  teachers  in  the  North  put  the  soft  pedal  on  Gettys- 
burg and  Appomattox  and  all  teachers  of  the  South  couple  the  names  of  Grant  and  Lee 
a  little  more  sympathetically. 

When  the  Mormon  University  students  at  Provo,  Utah,  contribute  $2300  to  the 
Y.M.C.A.  work  in  France  we  can  but  feel  disgusted  at  any  attempt  to  arouse  commercial 
prejudice  against  Utahans.  Whoever  does  so  is  disloyal  to  every  patriotic  requirement  of 
the  hour.  Patriotism  is  all-Americanism,  and  all  disloyalty  is  traitorous.  Patriotism 
means  that  we  are  members  one  of  another.  There  is  no  other  nation  where  this  is  required 
as  it  is  in  the  United  States,  and  never  here  as  now.  Patriotism  means  an  absolute  blend- 
ing of  pride  locally  and  pride  nationally,  in  devotion  locally  and  devotion  nationally. 
There  is  no  patriotism  that  ends  with  state  or  sectional  pride  or  devotion,  and  there  is  no 
patriotism  that  does  not  begin  with  local  and  sectional  pride  and  devotion. 

The  United  States  is  an  arch.  We  shout  about  the  keystone  of  an  arch  as  that  which 
binds  the  stones  into  an  arch,  but  remove  every  other  stone  from  the  arch  and  you  have 
no  arch.  Each  block  is  made  for  its  place  and  is  indispensable  in  its  place,  Georgia  is 
the  Empire  State  of  the  South  as  New  York  is  the  Empire  State  of  the  North.  If 
Georgians  whined  because  they  were  not  New  Yorkers  and  New  Yorkers  because  they 
were  not  Georgians,  neither  of  them  would  be  American.  No  man  is  an  American  who 
is  not  a  loyal  Carolinian,  Oregonian,  or  Utahan.  Nothing  but  federal  loyalty  is  the  end 
of  real  patriotism.  Look  at  Mexico,  a  pretended  republic,  at  Russia,  a  would-be  republic, 
and  you  see  what  America  would  be  if  local  loyalty  were  not  merged  in  federal  loyalty. 

Patriotic  instruction  must  be  concrete  rather  than  abstract.  It  must  be  patriotism 
in  action  rather  than  merely  in  words.  Patrotism  is  not  lip  service.  Patriotism  in  school 
must  begin  with  school  spirit,  broadening  into  community  spirit,  into  state  spirit,  into 
sectional  spirit,  and  then,  with  intensity  heightened  and  thereto  glorified,  into  American 
spirit.  There  is  no  place  for  individualism  in  patriotism.  There  is  no  loyalty,  no  patri- 
otism in  an  individualist  any  more  than  there  is  in  a  slacker  or  a  deserter.  The  student 
who  is  a  slacker  in  athletic  loyalty  because  there  is  something  or  somebody  he  does  not 
like  is  training  for  disloyalty,  if  not  treason,  nationally.  The  student  who  sulks  because 
there  is  something  he  does  not  like  is  a  slacker  in  training  for  a  traitor.  Individualism  in 
action  is  on  the  road  to  disloyalty  if  not  to  the  rank  of  traitor.  There  can  be  no  govern- 
ment built  up  by  individualists.  Traitors,  like  patriots,  are  often  made  in  school.  In 
every  school  every  day  there  should  be  definite,  explicit,  emphatic  teaching  of  the  things 
worth  stressing  in  American  life.  Industrially,  commercially,  financially,  educationally, 
there  are  numerous  things  that  should  be  ardently  taught  in  every  school.  But  over  and 
above  everything  else  every  child  should  be  taught  the  inherent  difference  between  abso- 
lutism and  democracy,  and  between  democracy  and  anarchism.  Unfortunately  socialism 
means  so  many  different  things  that  it  cannot  be  used  as  a  school  term,  but  anarchy  is  so 
distinctly  vicious  that  every  child  in  America  should  know  that  it  is  not  democracy. 
Democracy  is  the  only  form  of  government  that  is  representative  of  the  will  of  the  majority. 
Autocracy  and  anarchy  are  alike  in  their  refusal  to  allow  the  people  to  rule.  American 
patriotism  can  only  mean  the  genuine  triumph  of  real  democracy. 


Superintendence)  ENFORCEMENT  OF  CHILD  LABOR  LAW  657 

F.     CONFERENCE  ON  COMPULSORY  EDUCATION,  SCHOOL 
CENSUS,  AND  CHILD  WELFARE 


I 
I 
I 


ENFORCEMENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  CHILD 
LABOR  LAW 

GRACE    ABBOTT,    DIRECTOR,    CHILD    LABOR    DIVISION,    CHILDREN'S    BUREAU, 
U.S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  LABOR,   WASHINGTON,   D.C. 

In  order  to  make  the  best  use  of  this  opportunity  of  presenting  to  the 
Department  of  Superintendence  the  problems  which  the  Child  Labor 
Division  is  meeting  in  the  enforcement  of  the  federal  Child  Labor  law,  I 
should  like  to  divide  the  time  allotted  to  me  into  the  discussion  of  (i)  some 
administrative  problems  on  which  your  help  is  needed,  and  (2)  some  general 
considerations  as  to  the  enforcement  of  child-labor  and  compulsory- 
education  laws  at  this  time. 

With  reference  to  the  administrative  problems  the  United  States 
Child  Labor  act,  which  is  the  first  step  in  national  legislation  affecting  social 
and  industrial  conditions,  fixes  a  minimum  standard  below  which  the 
nation  has  said  it  cannot  afford  to  have  local  standards  go. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  a  good  child-labor  law  should  establish  an 
educational  minimum,  a  physical  minimum,  and  an  age  minimum  which  a 
child  must  reach  before  he  is  graduated  from  the  training  period  of  his  life 
into  the  wage-earning  period.  The  United  States  Child  Labor  law,  as  you 
know,  does  not  fix  any  educational  or  physical  standards.  The  age  and 
hour  standards  which  it  lays  down  are  not  as  high  as  the  standards  which  the 
statutes  of  a  number  of  states  require,  are  practically  identical  with  a  larger 
number,  and  are  higher  than  the  standards  of  some  states.  It  is  assumed 
by  many  that  only  the  southern  textile  states  belong  to  this  last  group,  but 
as  a  matter  of  fact  the  children  of  other  states  will  prosper  by  the  law.  In 
the  great  industrial  states  of  Illinois,  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
and  Ohio  the  standards  are  as  high  or  higher  than  the  federal.  In  Connecti- 
cut and  Rhode  Island  the  children  between  fourteen  and  sixteen  who  are 
employed  in  industries  shipping  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  have  had 
their  work  day  in  effect  reduced  from  ten  to  eight  hours  as  a  result  of  the 
law;  in  Maine  and  Pennsylvania  the  nine-hour  day  for  little  children  in 
factories  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  The  canneries  in  which  so  many  thousands 
of  children  are  employed  have  been  exempted  under  the  state  child-labor 
laws  in  such  important  canning  states  as  Delaware,  Indiana,  Maryland, 
Michigan,  and  Virginia.  Instead  of  being  exempt,  canneries  are  specifically 
included  under  the  terms  of  the  federal  act. 

A  number  of  states  which  have  nominally  a  fourteen-year  standard 
allow  children  to  work  on  poverty-exemption  permits  granted  usually  by 
a  county  or  juvenile  court.  The  United  States  Child  Labor  act  provides 
for  no  such  exemptions.  Vacation  permits  for  children  under  fourteen 
years  of  age  are  also  not  recognized  by  the  federal  law. 


658  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Atlantic  City 

The  federal  act  contemplates  administrative  cooperation  between 
federal  and  state  officers.  Section  4  of  the  act  makes  it  the  duty  of  the 
United  States  District  Attorney  to  prosecute  on  any  violations  of  the  act 
reported  by  state  factory,  mining,  and  medical  inspectors  and  local  school- 
attendance  officers.  Section  5  and  Regulation  3,  provide  for  the  accept- 
ance of  work  permits  or  certificates  issued  by  local  authorities  in  states 
designated  by  the  United  States  Child  Labor  Board;  such  designation 
is  to  be  made  only  if  the  requirements  of  the  act  and  of  Regulation  2  with 
reference  to  evidence  of  age  are  substantially  complied  with  by  the  local 
certificating  authorities. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  stated  that  the  federal  certificate  is  not 
a  work  permit  as  is  the  state  certificate.  It  constitutes  under  Section  5  of 
the  federal  act  a  protection  against  prosecution  to  the  employer  who  has 
procured  it  in  good  faith  and  employed  the  child  in  the  belief  that  he  was 
of  the  age  given  in  the  certificate. 

-  I  do  not  need  to  say  to  you  that  a  double  certificating  system — by  both 
state  and  federal  authorities — is  undesirable.  It  is  not  only  wasteful  in 
the  expenditure  of  public  funds,  but  entails  additional  expejise  and  incon- 
venience for  both  children  and  employers.  On  the  other  hand,  for  a  satis- 
factory administration  of  the  United  States  Child  Labor  law,  certain 
minimum  standards  must  be  uniformly  observed. 

As  the  designation  is  by  states  it  is  necessary  that  there  be  a  state 
standard  in  certificate  issuing.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  in  most  of  the  states 
the  issuance  of  certificates  is  locally  controlled,  there  is  in  most  states  no 
such  thing  as  a  state  standard.  I  do  not  need  to  tell  you  that  in  such  states 
our  inspectors  find  that  in  one  city  the  issuance  of  certificates  is  carefully 
and  thoroly  done,  while  in  the  next  town  the  law  is  sometimes  flagrantly 
violated  by  an  issuing  officer  who  does  not  believe  in  records,  or  evidence, 
or  any  system  of  checking  up  the  children.  It  is  perhaps  not  to  be  expected 
or  even  desired  that  there  shall  be  absolute  uniformity  in  these  matters 
inside  a  state,  but  certainly  the  state  should  make  sure  that  no  community 
drops  below  a  certain  level.  This  can  be  accomplisht  only  by  some  measure 
of  state  supervision  and  state  control.  Inasmuch  as  the  issuance  of  certifi- 
cates is  in  the  hands  of  the  school  authorities  in  thirty-four  states,  this 
means  that  some  state  supervision  and  control  of  the  issuance  of  certificates 
by  the  local  school  authorities  and  of  the  local  enforcement  of  compulsory- 
education  laws  are  essential. 

I  cannot  exaggerate  the  importance  of  this  matter  of  the  careful  and 
thoro  issuing  of  certificates,  which  is  in  most  places  under  your  control. 
It  is  thru  the  issuing  of  certificates  that  an  opportunity  is  given  to  ascertain 
for  every  child  before  his  employment  whether  or  not  he  should  be  employed 
under  the  law.  So  far  as  the  enforcement  of  the  child-labor  law  is  concerned, 
inspection  is  little  more  than  a  check-up  on  the  effectiveness  of  the  issuing 
system  and  a  reenforcement  of  the  community's  respect  for  the  law. 


Superintendence!  ENFORCEMENT  OF  CHILD  LABOR  LAW  659 

Probably  you  are  quite  thoroly  aware  that  officers  who  are  charged  with 
the  enforcement  of  child-labor  laws  often  complain  of  the  lack  of  coopera- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  school  authorities.  They  contend  that  school  prin- 
cipals are  sometimes  willing  to  violate  the  law  by  issuing  certificates  which 
they  know  should  not  be  issued  because  they  find  that  the  children  are  not 
making  progress  in  the  schools,  or  because  they  think  that  their  earnings 
are  needed  at  home  and  they  want  to  do  what  they  can  to  help  out  the  child. 
There  has,  of  course,  been  in  the  past  all  too  little  appreciation  on  the  part 
of  teachers  of  the  problems  of  industry.  In  the  absence  of  vocational  schools 
they  have  sometimes  felt  that  industrial  education  could  be  acquired  thru 
a  job.  They  have  not  appreciated  the  fact  that  the  mill  or  factory  is 
organized,  not  for  training,  but  for  profit,  and  that  the  child  who  is  allowed 
to  enter  because  he  did  not  make  his  grade  in  arithmetic  or  grammar  does 
so  at  great  physical  and  educational  sacrifices.  Some  teachers  have  been 
too  ready  to  accept  child  labor  as  a  cure  for  dependency,  and  yet  it  is  gen- 
erally agreed  that  child  labor  merely  perpetuates  poverty  and  must  go  if 
the  father  is  going  to  be  able  to  get  wages  which  will  enable  him  to  support 
his  family.  We  all  know  that  the  community  cannot  afford  to  rely  upon 
children  to  support  the  widows  or  the  injured  or  unemployed  fathers.  On 
the  other  hand,  school  officers  frequently  complain  of  the  cooperation  they 
receive  from  factory  inspectors.  They  say  that  the  respect  for  the  certifi- 
cating depends  upon  a  check-up  by  someone  who  inspects  the  factory  or 
manufacturing  estabHshment,  and  that  too  often  the  inspector  is  altogether 
indifferent  as  to  whether  a  manufacturer  has  on  file  certificates  issued  for 
him  or  for  some  other  concern,  and  refuses  to  prosecute  for  failure  on  the 
part  of  the  employer  to  live  up  strictly  to  the  requirements  of  the  certifi- 
cating law. 

It  seems  necessary  at  this  time  to  say  something  as  to  the  vigilance  which 
is  necessary  in  the  enforcement  of  child-labor  and  compulsory-education 
laws  in  view  of  the  demands  which  the  prosecution  of  the  war  is  making 
upon  our  resources.  When  the  declaration  of  war  was  made  by  the  United 
States  some  Americans  tried  to  urge  as  a  new  war  measure  their  old  demand 
that  all  limitations  of  the  hours  of  work  for  men  and  women  must  be  aboHsht 
and  that  the  minimum  age  at  which  children  can  be  employed  must  be 
lowered.  These  were  the  same  people  who  had  opposed  the  enactment  of 
this  legislation  in  peace  times.  In  the  confusion  which  came  during  the 
first  months  of  the  war  the  source  of  this  demand  was,  however,  not  generally 
understood,  and  some  superintendents  and  boards  of  education  lent  their 
support  to  it  on  patriotic  grounds.  The  statements  made  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
as  well  as  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  have  since  made  it  very  clear  to  the  pubUc 
that  there  is  no  demand  on  the  part  of  the  government  for  a  relaxation  of 
child-labor  standards,  that  on  the  contrary  in  the  interest  of  efficiency  in 
the  emergency  expansion  of  production  which  is  now  necessary,  as  well  of  as 


66o  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic Cit> 

the  future  welfare  of  the  nation,  it  is  necessary  to  maintain  child-labor  laws 
and  prevent  the  employment  of  women  for  an  excessive  number  of  hours. 

In  both  England  and  France  during  the  first  demoraUzed  and  terrible 
year  of  the  war  enormous  expansion  of  certain  lines  of  production  followed 
the  very  serious  unemployment  which  came  with  the  beginning  of  the  war. 
Administrative  officers  wh(i  were  charged  with  the  power  to  grant  exemp- 
tions under  the  factory  acts  of  those  countries  granted  certain  exemptions 
in  the  belief  that  they  were  aiding  production.  This  was  largely  because 
in  both  of  these  countries  the  careful,  scientific  study  of  the  organization 
of  the  labor  element  in  production  which  the  situation  demanded  was  not 
made  at  the  outset,  and  in  consequence  these  countries  drifted  into  excessive 
and  unprofitable  overtime  work  and  increast  employment  of  young  chil- 
dren and  of  the  mothers  of  young  children.  Official  reports  now  testify  to 
the  error  of  this  policy.  The  Minister  of  Labor  of  France  in  the  Bulletin 
for  July  and  August,  191 6,  quotes  from  an  address  of  the  Undersecretary 
of  State  the  statement:  "The  experience  of  war  time  has  only  demonstrated 
the  necessity — technical,  economic,  and  even  physiological — of  the  labor 
laws  enacted  before  the  war.  It  is  in  our  legislation  in  the  time  of  peace 
that  we  shall  find  the  conditions  for  a  better  and  more  intense  production 
during -the  war."^ 

The  report  of  the  British  Health  of  the  Munitions  Workers  Committee, 
an  investigating  committee  appointed  by  the  British  Ministry  of  Muni- 
tions, shows  that,  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  efficiency  in  production, 
the  breakdown  of  labor  standards  has  been  a  great  mistake.  In  this  con- 
nection it  should  be  remembered  that  prior  to  19 14,  American  standards  of 
compulsory  education  and  child  protection  were  in  general  higher  than 
English  and  French  standards.  The  United  States,  like  Canada  and  New 
Zealand,  can  report  some  slight  raising  of  standards  since  our  entry  into 
the  war.  States  as  widely  separated  as  Arkansas,  Kansas,  IlHnois,  North 
Carolina,  Oklahoma,  South  CaroHna,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Vermont,  and 
Wisconsin  strengthened  their  compulsory-education  or  child-labor  laws 
during  the  legislative  session  of  191 7. 

But  the  advances  which  have  been  made  in  recent  years  are  going  to 
be  found  altogether  inadequate  in  the  future.  It  is  expected  that  in  every 
European  country,  and  in  the  United  States  as  well,  great  social  and  indus- 
trial changes  are  sure  to  follow  the  war.  Programs  which  European  edu- 
cators offered  before  the  war  are  now  found  to  be  timid  and  lacking  in  vision. 
Plans  are  being  projected  in  both  England  and  France  for  an  extension  of 
the  compulsory  school-attendance  laws  and  the  expenditure  of  greatly 
increast  amounts  on  elementary  education. 

Mr.  Fisher's  Education  bill  for  England  raises  the  leaving  age  to  four- 
teen and  provides  for  compulsory  continuation-school  attendance  up  to 
eighteen  years.     It  is  receiving  wide  support  in  England  from  conservative 

»Page  123.    Quoted  in  Children  in  Warring  Countries,  Children's  Bureau  Publication  No.  27,  p.  34. 


Superintendence]  ENFORCEMENT  OF  CHILD  LABOR  LAW  •  66 1 

sections  and  is  being  criticized  as  not  asking  enough  by  the  labor  groups. 
Commenting  on  the  bill  the  London  Times  says:  "If  educational  reform 
was  clearly  a  necessity  in  19 14,  the  necessity  will  come  to  our  very  doors 

when  demobilization  takes  place  on  a  great  scale The  inexorable 

pressure  of  economic  forces  have  come  to  the  aid  of  those  who  demanded  the 
bill  as  the  Children's  Charter." 

Proposals  similar  to  those  made  by  Mr.  Fisher  have  been  discust  in  the 
French  Chamber  of  Deputies,  where  M.  Viviani  has  sponsored  the  most 
important  measure.  The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in  France  has 
said  that  "as  compulsory  primary  instruction  was  born  of  the  war  of  1870, 
there  must  come  from  the  present  conflict  obligatory  continuation-school 
instruction."^ 

The  United  States  has  the  same  kind  of  economic  problems  to  face  in 
the  demobihzation  of  its  army  as  that  which  England  and  France  are  now 
planning  to  meet.  We  too  have  overwhelming  evidence  that  our  past  and 
present  educational  and  school-attendance  provisions  have  been  sending 
to  the  "economic  scrap  heap  of  unskilled  labor"  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
children  each  year.  We  have  known  for  years  that  much  more  far-reaching 
reforms  were  needed  than  those  we  have  formulated  in  legislative  pro- 
grams. Now,  when  we  can  see  that  the  withdrawal  of  children  from 
industry  will  become  an  important  factor  in  stabilizing  economic  condi- 
tions when  the  demobilization  of  the  army  takes  place,  is  the  time  to  secure 
the  enactment  of  an  after-the-war  program.  Whatever  the  program  is  to 
be,  the  new  national  consciousness  which  has  come  with  war  will  demand 
the  estabhshment  of  a  national  minimum  below  which  we  shall  not  allow  the 
provision  for  education  and  child  welfare  in  general  to  sink  in  any  state. 
The  United  States  Child  Labor  law  constitutes  a  precedent  which  should 
not  be  neglected. 

This  is  no  time  for  modest  or  timid  demands.  There  never  was  a  time 
in  the  history  of  the  world  when  the  training  and  protection  of  children 
was  as  important  as  it  is  today.  We  are  leaving  them  to  bear  a  burden  of 
national  indebtedness  of  an  amount  which  we  have  not  yet  dared  even  to 
estimate;  we  are  leaving  them  to  solve  those  social  and  economic  problems 
whose  solutions  we  have  postponed  with  increasing  difficulty  each  year; 
we  are  expecting  them  to  live  down  a  new  set  of  national  hatreds  and 
reorganize  our  international  relationships  on  the  basis  of  our  common 
interests.  Whether  or  not  the  children  of  the  world  are  prepared  for  this 
task  depends  on  whether  the  leaders  in  education  are  going  to  be  able  to 
put  forward  and  secure  public  support  for  the  educational  program  which 
the  times  demand. 

^  Revue  philanthropique  (June,  iqi6),  p.  320.  Quoted  in  Child  Labor  in  Warring  Countries,  Children's 
Bureau  Publication  No.  27. 


662'  •  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

CHILD  WELFARE  LAWS  OF  MINNESOTA 

S.   A.   CHALLMAN,   STATE  INSPECTOR   OF   SPECIAL  CLASSES  IN  PUBLIC 
SCHOOLS,   ST.   PAUL,   MINN. 

Prior  to  191 7  Minnesota  had  a  loose,  disjointed,  incoordinate  medley 
of  laws  relating  to  children.  These  had  been  past  at  various  sessions  of  the 
legislature  without  any  serious  bearing  upon  the  whole  problem  of  child 
welfare,  and  were  largely  the  result  of  efforts  to  overcome  some  particular 
evils  which  happened  to  be  strikingly  apparent  at  the  time  the  laws  were 
past.  In  this  respect,  however,  they  were  not  much  unlike  the  laws  of 
most  of  the  other  states  of  the  Union,  and,  in  reality,  prior  to  the  time  when 
the  Minnesota  laws  were  revised  and  systematized  Massachusetts  and 
Ohio  were  the  only  states  that  had  succeeded  in  securing  a  body  of  laws 
which  were  at  all  comprehensive  in  scope  and  uniform  in  purpose. 

In  191 6  the  governor  appointed  a  commission  of  sixteen  members  to 
consider  the  whole  question  of  adequate  legislation  bearing  upon  this  sub- 
ject. The  commission,  under  the  able  leadership  of  Judge  Edward  F. 
Waite,  of  the  juvenile  court  of  Minneapolis,  made  an  exhaustive  study  of 
the  laws  upon  the  statute  books.  Before  revising  any  part  of  the  law  or 
drafting  new  laws  Judge  Waite  outlined  carefully  the  objects  to  be  met  by 
any  further  legislation  upon  this  subject.  He  laid  down  as  fundamental 
propositions  upon  which  adequate  legislation  must  be  based  these  four 
requirements: 

1.  Every  child  should  have  a  fair  chance  to  be  born  sound  in  brain  and 
body. 

2.  Every  child  should  have  a  fair  chance  for  normal  development  in 
body,  mind,  and  morals. 

3.  Every  child  should  be  given  the  greatest  practical  relief  from  per- 
manent consequences  of  his  own  inexperience  and  wrongdoing,  and  reforma- 
tive restraint  from  antisocial  conduct. 

4.  Every  child  should  be  accorded  adequate  protection  against  the 
wrongdoing  of  others. 

With  this  program  before  them  the  conunission  set  about  its  task  of 
eliminating  unessential  and  incongruous  provisions,  reorganizing  essential 
parts  of  existing  laws,  and  framing  new  measures  by  means  of  which  this 
body  of  laws  might  become  harmonious  and  effective.  The  result  of  the 
work  was  forty-one  bills  which  were  presented  to  the  legislature  of  191 7, 
out  of  which  number  thirty-five  were  enacted  into  laws.  The  far-reaching 
effect  of  these  laws  can  to  some  extent  be  measured  by  the  fact  that  one 
hundred  and  fourteen  sections  of  the  old  statutes  were  repealed,  sixty 
sections  were  amended,  and  a  well-defined  and  superior  administrative 
method  of  procedure  was  secured. 

Under  the  provisions  of  these  laws  the  state  board  of  control  is  given 
legal  guardianship  over  all  children  committed  to  it  by  courts  of  competent 


Superintendence]  CHILD  WELFARE  LAWS  OF  MINNESOTA  663 

jurisdiction.  It  is  also  made  the  duty  of  this  board  to  promote  the  enforce- 
ment of  all  laws  for  the  protection  of  defective,  illegitimate,  dependent, 
neglected,  and  dehnquent  childi*en,  and  to  take  the  initiative  in  all  matters 
involving  the  interests  of  such  children  when  adequate  provision  therefor 
has  not  already  been  made.  The  means  for  carrying  out  these  powers  and 
duties  are  also  provided  by  granting  the  board  the  right  to  appoint  and  fix 
salaries  of  such  agents  as  it  deems  necessary  to  employ.  Maternity  hos- 
pitals and  infants'  homes  are  placed  under  supervision,  and  Hcenses  for 
their  operation  must  now  be  secured  from  the  state  board  of  control. 
Careful  records  must  be  kept,  but  these  are  open  to  inspection  only  by 
authorized  persons  or  by  proper  legal  tribunals.  The  placing  of  children 
in  homes  and  private  institutions  is  safe-guarded,  and  such  homes  and 
institutions  are  subject  to  inspection  at  any  time  by  the  board  of  control 
or  its  authorized  agents.  The  right  to  determine  the  character  of  the  home 
is  vested  in  the  board,  and  whenever  it  is  satisfied  that  a  child  has  been 
placed  in  an  unsuitable  home  it  may  order  its  transfer  and  compel  obedience 
to  such  order. 

By  virtue  of  these  laws  the  state  school  for  the  deaf,  the  state  school 
for  the  bHnd,  the  state  pubhc  school  for  dependent  children,  the  state 
hospital  for  indigent,  crippled,  and  deformed  children,  and  the  home  school 
for  girls  are  placed  under  the  exclusive  control  of  the  board.  The  state 
training  school  for  boys  and  other  correctional  and  charitable  institutions 
had  previously  been  placed  under  the  management  of  this  board.  Com- 
plete control  of  the  various  institutions  affecting  the  welfare  of  children  has 
consequently  been  placed  in  one  board,  which  is  certainly  an  achievement 
of  no  small  moment.  * 

The  safeguarding  of  health  is  naturally  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  state 
board  of  health,  and  the  revision  of  the  laws  extends  the  powers  of  this 
board  to  control  by  appropriate  means  the  treatment  of  all  manner  of 
venereal  diseases  and  infection,  the  prevention  of  infant  bUndness  and  infec- 
tion of  the  eyes  of  the  newly  born,  by  the  designation  of  a  prophylactic 
to  be  used  in  such  cases  and  in  such  manner  as  the  board  may  direct,  unless 
specifically  objected  to  by  the  parents  or  a  parent  of  such  infant. 

The  chapter  of  the  old  laws  relating  to  illegitimate  children  has  been 
entirely  rewritten.  This  chapter  in  the  Minnesota  laws  was  devoid  of 
any  sympathy  or  pity  for  the  unwelcome  little  babe  who  was  designated 
in  the  statutes  by  the  cruel  name  of  ''bastard."  Judge  Waite  aptly  char- 
acterized this  chapter  as  "a  disgrace  to  an  enHghtened  and  Christian  state.'* 
It  may  happen  that  this  same  chapter  may  still  be  on  the  statutes  of  iliore 
than  one  state  in  the  Union.  As  for  Minnesota,  the  curse  upon  the  un- 
offending Httle  life  brought  into  being  is  removed,  and  the  facts  with  regard 
to  its  birth,  while  made  a  matter  of  record,  may  not  be  disclosed  except 
upon  an  order  by  a  court  of  competent  jurisdiction. 

Another  chapter  safeguards  in  a  comprehensive  manner  the  adoption  of 
a  child  into  a  home,  simplifies  the  methods  of  procedure  for  securing  such 


664  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

adoption,  and  provides  as  well  a  means  of  annulment  of  such  adoption 
for  just  cause. 

The  most  important  part  of  this  work  of  revision  and  constructive 
legislation  is  without  doubt  the  compact  and  carefully  organized  code  for 
the  juvenile  court  in  every  county  of  the  state  without  necessarily  increasing 
the  number  of  judges  or  court  officers.  For  Minnesota  it  has  seemed  best 
to  divide  certain  powers  so  that  in  counties  of  less  than  33,000  population 
the  probate  court  is  given  partial  jurisdiction  and  in  counties  of  more  than 
33,000  inhabitants  the  district  court  is  vested  with  original  and  exclusive 
jurisdiction.  The  law  applies  only  to  children  under  the  age  of  eighteen 
years,  and  carefully  defines  the  meaning  of  the  words  ''dependent," 
"neglected,"  and  "dehnquent,"  as  relating  to  children  who  come  under  the 
provisions  of  the  code.  It  outHnes  definitely  the  duties  of  the  officers 
of  the  court  and  the  means  for  carrying  out  the  directions  of  the  court. 
Its  final  provision  is  one  especially  to  be  commended,  as  it  embodies  the 
principles  which  evidently  actuated  the  commission  during  most  of  its 
dehberations  and  must  have  imprest  with  its  sincerity  of  purpose  those  to 
whom  it  was  presented.     It  reads  as  follows: 

This  act  shall  be  liberally  construed  to  the  end  that  its  purposes  may  be  carried  out, 
to  wit:  That  in  all  proceedings  arising  under  its  provisions  the  court  shall  act  upon  the 
principle  that  to  the  child  concerned  there  is  due  from  the  state  the  protection  and  cor- 
rection which  he  needs  under  the  circumstances  disclosed  in  the  case;  and  that  whenever 
it  is  necessary  to  provide  for  elsewhere  than  with  his  parents,  his  care,  custody,  and 
discipline  shall  approximate  as  nearly  as  may  be  that  which  ought  to  be  given  by  his 
parents;  and  that  in  all  cases  where  it  can  properly  be  done  he  shall  be  placed  in  an 
approved  family  home  and  become  a  member  of  the  family  by  legal  adoption  or  otherwise. 

The  chapter  providing  for  county  aid  to  responsible  mothers  of  de- 
pendent children  has  also  been  rewritten  so  as  to  facihtate  its  apphcation 
to  worthy  homes  where  it  was  evident  to  the  court  that  the  interests  of  the 
state  and  the  children  could  best  be  served  by  keeping  the  home  intact 
during  the  tender  years  of  childhood.  At  the  same  time  abuses  of  allow- 
ance made  have  been  guarded  against  by  making  it  the  duty  of  the  state 
board  of  control  to  supervise  and  inspect  homes  to  which  such  allowances 
have  been  made. 

Until  the  revised  laws  were  past  Minnesota  was  one  of  the  states  which 
lackt  a  commitment  act  that  would  make  it  possible  to  send  a  feeble- 
minded person  to  the  state  school  without  his  own  or  his  parents'  consent, 
unless  he  had  been  guilty  of  some  delinquency.  The  revised  code  very 
properly  makes  provision  for  such  commitment  upon  the  petition  of  any 
relative,  guardian,  or  representative  citizen  of  the  country. 

With  this  brief  resume  of  the  laws  of  our  state  I  have  endeavored  to 
place  before'  you  some  of  the  more  notable  provisions.  To  those  of  you 
who  may  be  interested  in  the  laws  for  any  particular  purpose  I  would  sug- 
gest that  you  secure  from  the  Children's  Bureau  of  the  State  Board  of  Con- 
trol a  compilation  of  the  laws  recently  made  by  the  director  of  this  Bureau. 


Superintendence]  NEED  OF  A  CENSUS  OF  CHILDREN  665 

THE  NEED  OF  A  CONTINUING  CENSUS  OF  CHILDREN 
OF  SCHOOL  AGE 

JOHN  W.   DAVIS,   DIRECTOR,   BUREAU  OF  ATTENDANCE,  PUBLIC   SCHOOLS, 
NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

If  what  we  read  of  the  application  of  business  methods  to  the  winning 
of  the  war  may  be  even  measurably  accepted  as  true,  we  have  an  example 
on  the  largest  scale  known  to  history  of  the  systematic  use  of  cumulative 
records  of  individual  human  beings  as  an  indispensable  means  of  complete 
adaptation  of  means  to  ends.  No  effort  is  spared  to  ehminate  waste,  to 
utilize  to  the  last  degree,  not  only  all  material  things,  but  the  energy  of 
every  human  unit,  and  so  far  as  the  precautions  devised  by  men  can  be 
made  effective  no  man  or  woman  available  for  the  purpose  of  the  war  remains 
unknown  or  unused.  In  the  later  movements  of  industry,  especially  since 
the  shortage  of  labor  began  to  be  apparent — that  is,  since  the  cessation  of 
immigration  cut  us  off  from  the  old  sources  of  supply — there  has  been  a 
reiterated  recognition  of  the  importance  of  industry,  not  of  having  access 
to  new  sources  of  labor,  but  of  not  losing  sight  of  the  labor  already  at  hand. 
Every  member  of  the  working  force  is  henceforth  to  be  regarded  as  the 
most  valuable  of  its  potential  assets,  that  cannot  be  lost  and  replaced  except 
to  the  detriment  of  the  man  and  the  plant. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  school  man  always  advances  with  halting  foot 
because  he  never  actually  faces  the  consequences  of  his  mistakes  as  does  the 
business  man.  And  can  it  be  said  that  the  schools  have  ever  accepted  the 
principle  of  accountability  for  results  in  the  sense  in  which  the  man  in 
the  street  is  constantly  forst  to  do  ?  Where  is  the  plan  to  be  found  in  opera- 
tion which  seeks  systematically  to  determine  how  the  product  of  the  schools 
meets  the  tests  of  use,  and  to  fix  responsibility  for  removable  defects  ? 
Who  has  announst  his  adherence  to  the  doctrine  that  the  machinery  of 
registration  should  be  so  perfected  that  no  child  in  the  community  can 
escape  the  processes  of  education?  The  manufacturer  may  be  pardoned 
if  he  has  just  begun  to  realize  that  his  most  valuable  asset  is  the  potentiahties 
of  the  men  who  do  his  work,  and  that  in  losing  the  services  of  a  seasoned 
workman  he  is  throwing  away  money,  for  he,  professedly,  is  concerned  only 
with  material  results  and  adjudged  competent  only  so  long  as  he  remains 
successful.  But  the  school  man  has  proclaimed  in  unmistakable  terms  his 
duty  to  develop  the  mental,  spiritual,  and  physical  man;  caij  it  be  said  that 
he  has  definitely  tried  to  assure  himself  of  the  result  or  to  ascertain  whether 
all  the  children  of  the  community  have  received  the  benefit  of  his  endeavors  ? 
The  spur  of  industry  brings  about  the  introduction  of  labor-saving  machin- 
ery, the  installation  of  detailed  record  keeping,  the  follow-up  of  the  value 
of  the  human  element.  The  absence  of  an  equally  compelling  pace  has 
enabled  the  schools  to  ignore  the  most  obvious  duty  of  checking  up  results, 
to  disregard  the  wastes  to  the  community  of  the  children  who  have  been 
overlookt. 


666  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

What  the  conception  of  the  school  man  of  the  part  he  is  to  play  in  the 
upbuilding  of  the  community  should  be  has  been  obvious  enough  in  these 
years  of  war — nothing  less  than  the  development  of  every  future  citizen, 
not  some  of  them,  nor  most  of  them,  but  all  of  them — a  register  of  the  raw 
material,  a  testing  of  the  product  to  determine  whether  the  results  have 
been  achieved.  And  not  because  of  the  community  alone,  but  because 
democracy  means,  if  it  means  anything,  that  until  the  individual  has  reacht 
the  stature  of  manhood  and  can  be  charged  with  full  responsibility  for  his 
actions  he  may  not  be  permitted  either  to  waste  or  to  lose  his  own  oppor- 
tunities. 

The  school  man  of  today  in  every  phase  of  administration  and  pedagogy 
is  confronted,  not  with  the  relatively  simple  life  that  characterized  the  rural 
and  even  urban  communities  of  a  half-century  ago,  but  with  the  complex 
demands  and  connections  of  the  varied  and  rapidly  changing  existence  which 
affects,  not  only  the  great  aggregate  of  population  gathered  together  in  our 
cities,  but  the  remotest  hamlets  as  well.  Never  were  the  home  ties  more 
easily  loosened,  and  almost  alone  among  the  great  nations  of  the  earth  have 
we  failed  to  provide  a  means  of  preserving  the  identity  of  the  individual 
carried  on  by  the  stream  of  movement.  At  no  time  has  it  been  so  easily 
possible  for  the  individual  man  or  child  to  become  so  wholly  lost  to  view 
as  now,  whether  thru  accident  or  one's  own  will,  and  never  was  the  search 
less  likely  to  be  successful. 

The  necessity  for  a  permanent  school  census  as  the  only  adequate  means 
by  which  the  identity  of  each  future  member  of  the  community  can  be 
establisht  and  maintained  is  slowly  coming  to  be  recognized.  New  York 
state  has  been  the  pioneer  in  this  line,  and  in  every  city  of  the  state  a  per- 
manent school  census  has  been  installed.  Over  two  years  ago  Massa- 
chusetts also  adopted  a  system  of  registration  for  minors,  setting  an  example 
for  the  other  commonwealths  to  follow,  and  I  urge  upon  you  the  need  of 
exercising  your  influence  to  secure  the  adoption  of  an  adequate  measure 
for  the  registration  of  minors  in  your  own  state.  There  is,  however,  a  most 
important  phase  of  this  follow-up  work  of  continuing  identification  of  the 
individual  which  cannot  be  accomplisht  by  legislation  alone,  namely,  the 
notification  of  the  removal  of  children  from  one  state  to  another,  and  from 
one  community  of  a  state  to  another  community  within  the  same  state. 
In  our  present  circumstances  there  is  a  transfer  of  population  going  on, 
without  precedent  in  amount,  the  circumstances  of  which  are  peculiarly 
favorable  to  the  loss  of  children  in  great  numbers  from  the  processes  of 
education.  I  advocate  the  adoption  of  a  universal  system  of  transfer 
between  the  different  states  of  the  Union,  and  the  different  communities 
of  the  individual  states,  without  delay,  and  the  indorsement  of  this  proposal 
by  this  Department  of  Superintendence  now  in  convention  assembled. 

I  also  urge  upon  your  attention  the  importance  of  continuous  follow-up 
records  of  the  employments  and  occupations  of  children  thru  minority  as  the 


I 


Superintendence]  NEED  OF  A   CENSUS  OF  CHILDREN  667 

fundamental  basis  for  testing  the  results  of  instruction  with  the  character 
and  amount  of  instruction  given  the  same  child  while  at  school.  We  meet 
from  the  business  man  the  charge  that  the  children  of  our  schools  are 
inefficient  and  unable  to  meet  even  the  modest  requirements  of  those  who 
first  employ  them.  We  have  no  answer  ready  except  the  assertion  of  con- 
trary opinion.  When  such  complaints  are  made,  and  they  will  be  made 
again,  we  should  know  from  whom  they  come  and  how  representative  they 
are  of  employers  as  a  whole;  whether  there  are  certain  groups,  unrepre- 
sented, who  demand  other  traits,  obtain  them  and  consequently  have 
naught  to  say,  since  they  are  satisfied.  We  should  know  whether  the  labor 
opportunities  exist  in  sufficient  numbers  to  justify  training,  or  whether 
disappointment  is  bound  to  overtake  any  significant  proportion  of  our  chil- 
dren in  spite  of  preparation.  The  study  of  the  specific  defects  of  particular 
courses  and  particular  methods  might  very  properly  start  from  the  data 
derived  thru  the  automatic  follow-up  of  all  the  children  in  the  community 
during  minority.  These  and  many  other  collateral  advantages  will  readily 
suggest  themselves  and  furnish  abundant  and  convincing  argument  to  all 
those  candid  minds  who  rejoice  in  the  opportunity  to  test  new  achievements 
against  the  requirements  of  reality. 

There  are  many  other  direct  applications  of  the  permanent  school  census 
or  permanent  registration  of  minors  to  the  general  purposes  of  public 
education.  They  have  been  pointed  out  many  times  and  will  require 
repeated  restatement  until  they  become  part  of  the  regularly  accepted 
principles  of  competent  school  administration.  The  most  important  are 
as  follows : 

1.  A  permanent  school  census  is  the  only  adequate  basis  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  compulsory-education  law.  It  identifies  each  child,  keeps 
track  of  him,  and  locates  him  at  all  times. 

2.  It  provides  an  accurate  forecast  of  the  number  of  children  for  whom 
instruction  must  be  furnisht  each  year  and  each  term. 

3.  It  minimizes  late  entrance  to  school  and  consequent  retardation. 

4.  It  takes  note  of  the  shifting  of  population  as  well  as  of  its  in- 
crease, and  this  indicates  in  advance  the  need  for  new  school  accommo- 
dations. 

5.  If  any  given  area  is  affected  by  immigration,  increase  or  decrease, 
it  registers  the  fact  and  the  amount. 

6.  It  provides  a  follow-up  of  employed  children,  and  thus  enables  school 
authorities  to  list  and  compare  the  occupations  of  pupils  with  the  character 
of  instruction  given  them. 

7.  By  the  organization  of  its  information  concerning  occupations  and 
employments  it  provides  the  facts  necessary  to  the  development  of  industrial 
and  vocational  courses. 

8.  Enforcement  of  compulsory  attendance  at  continuation  schools 
and  evening  schools  is  peculiarly  dependent  upon  the  permanent  census. 


668  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic City 

9.  Its  child-population  statistics  are  necessary  for  the  development  of 
recreational  facihties. 

10.  It  affords  a  true  and  accurate  basis  for  conscription  of  minors  and 
registration  of  new  voters. 

The  corollary:  Intercity  and  interstate  transfer  system. 


CAUSES  OF  ABSENCE  FROM  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

EDWARD  N.   CLOPPER,   SECRETARY  FOR  NORTHERN  STATES,  NATIONAL  CHILD 
LABOR  COMMITTEE,   NEW  YORK,   N.Y. 

Child  labor  in  agriculture  has  hitherto  not  received  pubHc  attention 
because  it  has  been  generally  assumed  that  the  child  on  the  farm  is  in 
every  way  more  fortunate  than  the  child  employed  in  manufacturing,  min- 
ing, and  trade  and  consequently  has  relatively  little  or  no  need  of  protection 
other  than  that  afforded  by  his  parents.  Indeed,  in  states  whose  child- 
labor  laws  have  a  blanket  provision  forbidding  the  employment  of  children 
under  a  certain  age  in  all  gainful  occupations,  agricultural  work  is  specifically 
exempted.  As  such  exemptions  are  based  merely  upon  this  general  assump- 
tion it  is  opportune  to  inquire  whether  this  kind  of  labor  is  altogether 
advantageous  to  the  child,  or  whether  there  are  conditions  connected  with 
it  which  endanger  his  welfare  and  interfere  with  his  proper  development. 

Every  decade  the  report  of  the  United  States  Census  on  occupations 
shows  that  nearly  three-fourths  of  our  child  laborers  are  employed  in  agri- 
cultural pursuits,  yet  the  widespread  and  determined  movement  for  child- 
labor  reform  has  not  even  toucht  this  greatest  field  of  all.  It  has  resulted 
in  protective  legislation  concerning  employment  in  mines,  factories,  mills, 
and  mercantile  establishments,  but  the  only  legislation  which  in  any  way 
protects  children  from  premature  or  excessive  work  on  farms  is  the  com- 
pulsory-education law,  and  this  is  effective  only  during  certain  hours  of 
certain  days  for  the  school  term  from  five  to  nine  months  of  the  year. 
Moreover,  the  greatest  agricultural  activity  comes  usually  in  the  school 
vacation  period  when  there  are  no  restrictions  whatever  upon  the  labor  of 
children  on  farms. 

Of  the  total  number  of  children  from  ten  to  fifteen  years  of  age  reported 
in  1910  as  engaged  in  agricultural  work,  1,157,464,  or  80.8  per  cent,  were 
farm  laborers  on  the  home  farm,  and  260,  195,  or  18 .  i  per  cent,  were  "farm 
laborers  working  out."  That  many  of  the  laborers  on  the  home  farm  also 
are  daily  required  to  do  fatiguing  work  thru  long  periods  of  seasonal  activity 
and  are  at  the  same  time  deprived  of  schoohng  is  beyond  question.  Of  the 
total  number  of  farm  laborers  from  ten  to  fifteen  years  of  age,  on  the  home 
farm  and  working  out,  81  8  per  cent  were  found  in  thirteen  southern  states. 

For  the  purpose  of  making  a  study  of  this  subject  in  Colorado,  thirty- 
three  typical  school  districts  in  representative  counties  were  selected  in  the 


Superintendence]     CAUSES  OF  ABSENCE  FROM  RURAL  SCHOOLS  669 

South  Platte  River  and  Arkansas  River  valleys  with  a  view  to  showing  con- 
ditions as  they  exist  thruout  the  sugar-beet  sections.  The  records  showed 
that  the  beet  workers  mist  more  than  three  and  one-half  times  as  many 
days  as  the  other  children.  In  addition  to  the  preponderance  of  absence, 
excessive  retardation  on  the  part  of  the  beet  workers  was  also  found;  this 
was  in  all  probability  due  entirely  to  their  prolonged  absence,  for  teachers 
declare  that  the  beet  workers  would  do  fully  as  well  in  school  as  the  others 
if  they  attended  as  regularly. 

A  second  study  was  conducted  in  Kentucky  in  order  to  determine 
approximately  to  what  extent  farm  work  in  that  state  interferes  with  the 
attendance  of  children  at  the  rural  schools.  The  records  show  that  the 
greatest  number  of  absences  of  both  white  and  negro  children  in  the  first 
few  months  of  the  school  term  are  due  to  farm  work.  It  is  also  interesting 
to  note  that  housework  ranks  third  in  responsibility  for  failure  to  attend 
regularly.  In  the  case  of  the  white  children  farm  work  and  housework 
occasioned  almost  as  many  days  of  absence  as  all  the  other  causes  combined; 
in  the  case  of  the  negro  children  they  caused  more. 

It  is  striking  that  the  farm-work  absentees  are  more  retarded,  both  in 
actual  numbers  and  in  proportion,  than  the  other  absentees.  This  is  the 
logical  result  of  the  fact  that  farm  work  is  responsible  for  more  days  of 
absence  than  any  other  cause.  One  might  at  first  be  inclined  to  think  that 
illness  as  a  cause  of  absence  would  be  just  as  great  a  menace  to  the  standing 
of  the  child  in  school  as  farm  work,  but  this  is  not  the  case.  Farm  workers 
are  more  retarded  than  children  who  are  absent  on  account  of  illness, 
because  farm  work  is  steady,  while  illness  is  occasional;  moreover,  farm 
work  occurs  year  after  year,  while  illness  may  occur  only  once.  The  out- 
standing fact  in  all  these  figures  is  that  farm  work  interferes  with 
the  education  of  rural  children  more  than  any  other  factor.  The 
compulsory-attendance  law  is  commonly  ignored.  The  consequences  in 
retardation  are  disastrous  alike  to  the  child,  to  the  school,  and  to  the 
community. 

Oklahoma,  still  predominately  a  rural  state,  also  presents  conditions  of 
interest.  From  the  viewpoint  of  numbers  at  least,  the  rural  school  is  the 
most  important  element  of  the  state's  educational  system,  and  yet  it  makes 
the  worst  showing.  In  order  to  study  this  question  the  records  of  6389  chil- 
dren were  obtained  for  the  past  school  year;  these  were  about  equally 
divided  between  the  two  sexes,  3255  being  boys  and  3134  girls.  These  were 
all  white,  but  include  a  few  Indians,  as  children  of  this  race  attend  the  white 
schools  and  negroes  are  segregated  in  others.  So  far  as  possible  information 
was  gathered  concerning  land  tenure,  and  the  children  were  divided  into 
groups  according  to  whether  their  parents  owned  or  rented  their  places  of 
residence.  It  was  found  that  of  the  total  number,  3488  were  the  children 
of  tenants  (1812  boys  and  1676  girls)  and  2499  of  home  owners  (1232  boys 
and  1 217  girls).     It  is  significant  that  in  nearly  every  county  studied 


670  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TlON  ASSOCiA  TtON  [Atlantic  City 

tenants'  children  outnumber  owners'  children,  while  for  all  the  counties  the 
ratio  is  nearly  3  to  2. 

Many  of  the  children  who  mist  school  on  account  of  farm  work  or  house- 
work were,  of  course,  absent  for  other  reasons  also,  such  as  illness,  bad 
weather,  etc.,  but  as  73  per  cent  of  the  absences  of  the  "farm  workers"  was 
due  to  farm  work  only,  and  62  per  cent  of  those  of  the  "house  workers"  to 
housework  only,  these  causes  predominate  sufficiently  in  each  case  to  justify 
the  application  of  these  terms.  In  the  totals  for  all  the  counties  the  farm 
workers  and  house  workers  together  exceed  the  figures  for  all  the  other 
groups  of  children  combined,  and  here  one  begins  to  appreciate  the  extent 
to  which  labor  interferes  with  the  educational  opportunities  in  rural  dis- 
tricts. Of  the  1 152  boys  and  girls  of  migrants,  859  were  the  children  of 
tenants  and  only  195  of  owners,  the  land  tenure  of  81  being  unknown.  This 
reveals  the  comparative  extent  of  moving  about  among  tenants  and  the 
consequent  interference  with  education. 

Of  all  the  children  the  farm  workers  are  most  retarded,  51 .1  per  cent 
of  their  number  being  below  normal  grade  on  the  three-year  basis.  They 
are  followed  by  the  migrants  with  41 .  i  per  cent,  and  then  by  the  house 
workers  with  36 . 7  per  cent.  Fewer  than  a  quarter  of  the  other  absentees 
are  retarded,  while  for  the  daily  attendants  the  percentage  is  only  12.6. 
The  daily  attendants  and  the  "other  absentees"  alsojnake  the  best  showing 
with  regard  to  the  numbers  ahead  and  in  normal  grades,  while  the  farm 
workers  and  the  migrants  are  again  at  the  bottom  of  the  list;  95 .5  per  cent 
of  the  daily  attendants  pass  to  the  higher  grades,  the  other  absentees,  house 
workers,  farm  workers,  and  migrants,  following  in  the  order  named. 

In  comparing  the  percentages  for  the  tenants'  children  with  those  for  the 
owners'  children  we  find  that  in  every  group  the  latter  excel  the  former  in 
progress  thru  the  grades.  They  have  higher  percentages  ahead,  and  normal 
and  lower  percentages  retarded,  in  all  the  groups  of  workers,  other  absentees, 
migrants,  and  daily  attendants.  Here  the  advantage  of  the  owner's  child 
over  the  tenant's  child  in  the  struggle  to  secure  an  elementary  education 
stands  sharply  revealed.  The  workers  and  migrants  are  shown  to  be  the 
chief  sufferers  and,  assuming  that  they  are  approximately  as  well  endowed 
mentally  as  the  other  absentees  and  the  daily  attendants,  we  observe  the 
disastrous  results  of  tolerating  carelessness  and  indifference  and  permitting 
parents  to  sacrifice  the  educational  interests  of  their  children  to  immediate 
gain. 

The  simple  fact  brought  out  by  the  study  in  Oklahoma  and  other  states 
is  that  in  rural  districts  the  compulsory  school-attendance  law  is  commonly 
ignored.  The  people  acquire  land,  build  and  equip  schoolhouses,  and  pay 
teachers'  salaries  so  that  their  children  may  get  an  elementary  education, 
but  this  worthy  object  is  largely  defeated  when  the  children  go  to  school 
but  little  more  than  half  of  the  brief  period  during  which  they  are  in  session. 
If  the  people  could  be  made  to  understand  that  they  are  suffering  great 


I 

I 


Superintendence)  THE  SPEECH-DISORDER  PROBLEM  671 

financial  loss  thru  this  carelessness,  to  say  nothing  of  the  moral  and  educa- 
tional loss  their  children  sustain,  they  would  doubtless  remedy  the  situation 
at  once.  And  the  first  necessary  step  is  to  make  the  compulsory-attendance 
law  apply  thruout  the  school  term.  The  second  necessary  step,  the  enfor- 
cing of  the  law,  is  not  less  important,  but  cannot  be  properly  taken  until  the' 
basis  for  the  organization  of  rural  schools  is  changed  from  the  district  to  the 
county.  The  members  of  district  school  boards  are  closely  acquainted  with 
the  few  famiHes  living  within  their  jusridiction  and  will  not  prosecute  their 
friends  and  neighbors  who  do  not  send  their  children  to  school  regularly. 
There  should  be  a  county  board  employing  a  county  truancy  officer  who 
would  not  be  embarrast  in  the  performance  of  his  duty  by  personal  relations 
with  negligent  parents.  The  state  should  then  require  each  county  to 
enforce  the  law,  and  in  the  event  of  any  county's  failure  to  do  so  it  should 
be  deprived  of  all  state  funds  for  school  purposes. 


PART-TIME  V.  THE  SPECIAL  TEACHER  AS  THE  ECONOMIC 
SOLUTION  OF  THE  SPEECH-DISORDER  PROBLEM 
IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

WALTER  B.   SWIFT,  MEDICAL  SUPERVISOR  OF  SPEECH  CLASSES, 
FALL  RIVER,  MASS. 


We  are  everywhere  met,  in  the  effort  to  introduce  speech  correction  in 
public  schools,  with  the  idea  that  only  special  teachers  can  do  the  work. 
It  is  easy  to  see  how  school  boards  come  by  this  mistaken  idea.  Some  five 
or  ten  years  ago  a  craze  for  special  teachers  swept  thru  the  schools  of  the 
entire  country.  These  teachers  were  given  the  sort  of  work  which  could 
not  be  accomphsht  by  the  ordinary  grade  teacher  unless  she  was  taken  from 
her  grade  work  and  given  long  training  in  a  definite  and  prescribed  subject. 
When  the  problem  of  speech  correction  came  before  the  school  board, 
therefore,  the  most  natural  thing  for  it  to  do  was  to  turn  to  the  special 
teacher.  We  in  Boston  do  not  approve  of  this,  and  the  reasons  for  our 
disapproval  will  be  stated  in  this  paper. 

By  the  phrase  "special  teacher"  is  meant  one  who  gives  all  her  time  to 
a  single  restricted  phase  of  school  work.  As  a  specialist  she  is  of  course 
more  expert  than  the  part-time  teacher  is  expected  to  be.  She  is  entirely 
removed  from  grade  work,  as  are  also,  for  the  time  being,  the  children  who 
come  to  her.  Because  of  her  specialized  training  and  ability  she  commands 
a  higher  salary  than  the  ordinary  grad^  teacher.  The  ''part-time  teacher," 
on  the  other  hand,  is  one  who,  while  continuing  with  her  grade  teaching,  does 
other  work  of  a  specialized  nature  in  addition.  She  remains  a  member  of 
the  regular  teaching  staff  of  the  grades.  Her  remuneration  for  her  special 
work  is  less  than  that  which  must  be  paid  to  the  full-time  specialist,  but 
yet  she  is  not  underpaid,  since  she  draws  the  ordinary  salary  of  a  grade 


672  NA  TIONA  L  EDUCA  TION  A SSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

teacher  in  addition.     More  important  than  this,  the  children  whom  she 
teaches  in  her  special  classes  are  not  removed  from  the  grades. 

It  seems  to  me  that  these  advantages,  even  if  they  were  all,  are  sufficient 
to  attract  the  attention  of  pubHc-school  officials.  But  this  is  by  no  means 
all  that  can  be  said  in  favor  of  the  part-time  teacher.  Besides  eliminating 
or  alleviating  speech  disorders,  the  work  in  vocal  and  oral  drill  has  a  most 
salutary  effect  upon  the  whole  range  of  school  work,  especially  in  those 
cases  in  which  such  drill  is  given  by  the  grade  teacher  herself  to  pupils 
engaged  at  the  same  time  in  grade  work.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the 
children  are  taken  from  the  grades  during  the  period  of  their  speech  training 
this  general  improvement  is  not  found.  Indeed  their  grade  work  is  likely 
to  suffer  from  the  interruption  and  from  the  distraction  of  energy  and 
attention. 

In  addition  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  special  teacher  who  spends 
five  hours  a  day  on  speech  correction  alone  is  doing  very  hard  and  monoto- 
nous work.  It  is  hard  because  it  is  monotonous.  Wherever  I  meet  these 
special  teachers  I  find  them  complaining  that  they  are  overburdened  with 
work.  Variety  of  effort  has  obvious  advantages  for  teacher  and  pupils  alike. 
They  do  all  their  work  far  better  because  of  the  change  introduced  by  two 
or  three  hours  a  day  of  vocal  drill.  Shifting  from  one  brain  area  to  another 
keeps  them  alert,  prevents  fatigue. 

The  mere  fact  that  she  remains  in  grade  work  keeps  a  teacher's  standard 
of  mental  reaction  at  a  pitch  that  is  of  great  value  to  her  speech  class.  The 
special  teacher,  in  giving  up  her  grade  work,  loses  contact  with  the  normal 
mentalities  of  the  grades.  Instinctive  knowledge  of  the  grade  standard, 
a  very  important  and  necessary  thing  in  all  teaching,  she  either  has  not 
acquired  or  does  not  retain. 

There  is  another  consideration  in  favor  of  the  part-time  teacher.  We 
shall  not  always  have  such  a  large  number  of  speech-defect  cases  in  the 
grades.  In  a  few  years  our  methods  will  have  weeded  them  out  to  such 
an  extent  that  there  will  be  none  left  by  the  time  pupils  reach  the  eighth 
grade.  Then  we  shall  go  to  work  on  purely  preventive  methods.  There- 
fore our  field  is  a  gradually  diminishing  one.  We  shall  not  always  need  the 
large  number  of  speech  teachers  required  now.  The  question  will  then 
arise.  What  shall  be  done  with  those  left  over  ?  The  special  teacher  cannot 
readily  be  put  back  into  the  grades.  A  part-time  teacher,  however,  can  be 
easily  withdrawn  at  any  time,  of  she  can  broaden  out  into  othei*  fields  if  the^ 
situation  demands. 

The  special  teacher's  work  is  done  exclusively  with  those  sent  to  her 
for  a  definite  and  specific  purpose.  Naturally  these  are  the  "lame  ducks," 
children  whose  speech  is  intolerably  bad.  She  gets  only  the  extreme,  the 
desperate,  cases.  But  nearly  all  children  in  the  lower  grades  are  suscep- 
tible of  improvement  in  speech.  Shall  we  do  nothing  for  these  ?  Who  is 
to  train  those  whose  speech  is  moderately  good,  but  not  good  enough,  not 


Superintendence]  THE  SPEECH-DISORDER  PROBLEM  673 

excellent  ?  The  special  teacher  never  sees  these  cases,  has  no  time  for  them. 
Anyone  can  see  the  immense  advantage  there  is  in  having  at  least  one 
teacher  in  every  school  building  who  has  been  sensitized  by  training  to  the 
excellencies  and  defects  of  speech — one  trained  to  detect  minor  faults  and 
to  eradicate  them.  The  part-time  speech  teacher  exerts  in  her  own  school- 
room an  influence  for  speech  improvement  which,  as  her  classes  come  and 
go  year  after  year,  puts  its  mark  upon  the  speech  standards,  and  therefore 
on  the  intellectual  standards,  of  the  entire  school. 

In  discussing  the  pros  and  cons  of  this  question  we  must  keep  in  mind 
the  status  of  speech  correction  in  the  years  to  come.  It  is  growing  so 
important  that  before  long  this  sort  of  work  will  be  considered  part  of  every 
pubHc-school  teacher's  normal  function.  The  question  arises  then.  Does 
the  special  teacher  or  the  part-time  tea,cher  play  better  into  the  conditions 
which  we  may  foresee  in  the  future  ?  Clearly  the  scale  tips  in  favor  of  the 
latter.  The  special  teacher  can  remain  only  in  her  separate  capacity.  Her 
functions  cannot  be  readily  absorbed  or  transformed  when  no  longer  neces- 
sary. The  part-time  teacher,  on  the  contrary,  has  her  grade  work  as  her 
mainstay.  The  speech-correction  work  which  she  does  on  the  outside  is 
done  merely  in  response  to  a  great  but  temporary  demand.  When  this 
abnormal  demand  ceases  she  will  return  to  her  grade  work  again  and  there 
maintain  her  high  speech  standards.  She  is  therefore  the  natural  link  in 
the  evolution  of  events  leading  to  the  time  when  all  teachers  will  be  more 
or  less  engaged  in  speech  correction. 

There  are  many  superintendents  who  hesitate  to  instal  departments  of 
speech  correction  merely  on  account  of  the  expense.  A  few  figures  will 
suggest  an  easy  solution.  Two  years  ago  in  the  city  of  Lynn  two  part- 
time  speech  teachers  were  set  to  work,  with  a  total  increase  in  salary  of 
about  $500.  If  a  special  teacher  had  been  engaged,  her  salary  would  have 
been  about  $1200  a  year.  Last  year  in  Fall  River  three  teachers  were  set 
to  work  on  speech-defect  cases  with  an  increase  of  $100  each  in  salary. 
This  meant  a  saving,  as  compared  with  the  cost  to  the  city  of  a  single 
special  teacher,  of  about  $900.  I  consider  that  no  group  of  schools  is  too 
poor  to  instal  speech  correction  where  it  is  needed,  provided  the  problem 
is  approacht  in  the  proper  manner. 

There  is  real  need,  of  course,  for  special  teachers  in  fields  more  isolated 
from  ordinary  school  work  than  this  of  speech  correction,  such  as  the  work 
with  the  feeble-minded  and  that  in  physical  culture,  neither  of  which  can 
ever  be  taken  into  the  regular  grade  work  and  maintained  there  as  the 
higher  ideals  of  grade  work  demand.  The  case  with  speech  correction  is 
quite  different.  The  training  is  different,  the  application  of  it  is  different, 
and  these  differences  require  a  different  approach. 

In  summary  I  may  say  then  that  the  nature  of  this  work  itself,  the  tend- 
ency of  speech-defect  cases  to  diminish  in  number  under  treatment  as  the 
years  go  by,  the  self-evident  fact  that  this  work  should  percolate  thru  all 


674  NATIONAL  EDUCATIOI^  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

the  grades — all  these  considerations  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  speech  cor- 
rection is  not  the  special  teacher's  function.  The  advantages  of  the  part- 
time  teacher  solution  are  that  the  pupils  are  retained  in  their  regular  grade 
work,  the  teacher  and  her  pupils  have  the  great  advantage  of  variety  in 
their  work,  and  the  speech  standards  of  entire  schools  are  slowly  but  cer- 
tainly raised.  Finally  the  part-time  teacher  is  immensely  more  economical 
even  in  terms  of  dollars  and  cents. 


DISCUSSION 


Hector  L.  Belisle,  superintendent  of  schools,  Fall  River,  Mass. — Assuming  that 
the  correction  of  speech  defects  is  a  work  which  should  be  undertaken  in  the  public  schools 
the  superintendent  has  to  bear  in  mind  two  things :  the  best  way  in  which  to  secure  results 
and  the  lowest  cost  for  results  that  are  adequate.  If  a  community  offers  so  little  work  in 
this  line  that  one  teacher  cannot  be  kept  busy  all  the  time,  logically  the  part-time  teacher 
becomes  inevitable.  On  the  other  hand,  if  there  is  work  enough  for  a  regular  teacher  the 
case  must  be  considered  further  before  deciding  whether  to  employ  one  teacher  on  full 
time  or  a  number  of  teachers  on  part  time.  The  choice  between  the  two  should  be  con- 
sidered in  its  relation  to  the  teacher  and  to  the  pupil. 

Many  types  of  special  pupils  are  naturally  segregated,  as  mental  defectives,  non- 
English-speaking  immigrants,  and  pupils  much  over-age,  these  being  kept  in  separate 
groups  because  their  whole  schooling  must  be  of  a  character  distinct  from  that  of  the 
regular  graded  children  of  their  own  ages.  Their  educational  shortcomings  are  fundamen- 
tal and  cannot  be  overcome  by  any  treatment  short  of  full-time  special  instruction.  The 
pupil  suffering  from  speech  defects,  however,  in  a  large  proportion  of  cases  does  reasonably 
good  or  even  excellent  school  work.  Tho  in  many  cases  it  does  hinder  progress,  speech 
defect  is  usually  an  accidental  hindrance  to  a  pupil  which  does  not  necessarily  interfere 
with  his  advancement  in  school.  As  a  general  problem,  however,  the  correction  of  speech 
defect  is  a  side  issue  in  the  education  of  the  pupil  and  should  be  carried  on  incidentally  as 
a  piece  of  work  parallel  to  his  regular  schooling.  A  limited  amount  of  instruction  in  school 
with  considerable  drill  and  practice  at  home  will  secure  the  results  aimed  at  without  inter- 
fering with  his  instruction  in  the  grades.  It  seems  clear,  therefore,  that  the  pupil  should 
be  expected  to  work  under  a  special  teacher  for  a  very  brief  period  during  the  week,  one 
hour  or  two  at  the  most. 

As  between  the  full-time  and  the  part-time  teacher  the  argument  seems  to  be  strongly 
in  favor  of  the  latter.  The  strongest  argument  in  favor  of  the  full-time  teacher  is  that, 
being  a  specialist,  she  is  a  better  master  of  her  subject.  In  this  field,  however,  which  has 
been  so  little  developt  the  accumulated  knowledge  and  experience  does  not  require  years 
of  study;  what  is  definitely  known  and  the  theories  which  underlie  instruction  in  this  sub- 
ject constitute  a  limited  body  of  knowledge  which  can  be  acquired  within  a  reasonable 
time  by  such  a  grade  teacher  as  a  superintendent  would  be  likely  to  select  to  undertake 
the  work.  The  teacher  who  is  only  a  speech-defect  specialist  might,  therefore,  have  very 
little  advantage  over  one  who  takes  up  the  work  on  the  part-time  basis. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  teacher  regularly  engaged  in  grade  work  who  devotes  a  limited 
number  of  hours  a  week  to  correcting  the  speech  defects  of  pupils  in  her  own  and  neighbor- 
ing schools  has  several  advantages  over  the  full-time  specialist  in  that  subject.  She  is 
likely  to  bring  to  this  work  an  energy  and  a  zest  which  spring  from  the  natural  interest  one 
takes  in  a  new  piece  of  work;  the  variety  in  her  work  will  add  to  its  excellence  on  both 
sides.  As  a  grade  teacher  she  has  a  broad  interest  in  school  work  generally.  She  watches 
children  from  all  points  of  view  and  necessarily  has  a  broader  sympathy  because  she  looks 
at  them  from  more  than  one  side.  The  specialist  may  in  the  course  of  time  come  to  have 
chiefly  ^  professional  interest  in  the  pupils,  having  a  tendency  to  consider  them  merely 
as  cases.  The  grade  teacher,  on  the  other  hand,  giving  part-time  instruction  in  speech 
defects  is  more  likely  to  have  a  personal  relation  to  the  pupil.  From  her  association  with 
children  in  the  school  and  the  neighborhood  and  the  pupils'  acquaintance  with  her  as  a 
teacher  in  the  district  the  mutual  interest  will  be  greater  and  the  reaction  on  the  pupils 
more  beneficial. 


I 


Superintendence)  DISCUSSION  675 

In  a  word,  the  problem  may  be  said  to  resolve  itself  into  one  of  teaching  as  against 
doctoring;  the  part-time  teacher  never  losing  her  stand  as  a  teacher  or  being  lookt  on  by 
her  pupils  as  anything  but  as  a  teacher,  with  all  the  advantages  that  that  relation  implies, 
as  against  the  full-time  specialist  coming  periodically  on  what  may  be  likened  to  a  doctor's 
mission,  valuable  of  course,  but  different  from  the  teacher's  in  its  influence  on  the  pupil. 

WiLMER  KiNNAN,  assistant  superintendent  of  schools,  Lynn,  Mass. — The  speakers 
preceding  on  the  program  of  this  section  have  stated  with  admirable  clearness  and  con- 
ciseness the  various  points  in  favor  of  the  part-time  speech  teacher,  basing  their  arguments 
upon  economic,  administrative,  and  educational  grounds.  In  Lynn,  not  having  had  expe- 
rience with  the  special  teacher,  we  are  not  in  position  to  compare  or  to  contrast  the  results 
obtained  in  the  case  of  the  part-tim^ teacher  with  those  obtained  in  the  case  of  the  special 
teacher.  The  results  obtained,  however,  are  the  test  of  any  theory.  We  can  say  with 
confidence  that  such  good  results  may  be  obtained  with  the  part-time  teacher  that  it  is 
doubtful  if  a  special  teacher  could  do  much  better. 

The  time  is  surely  and  swiftly  coming  when  corrective  speech  work  will  be  taken  up 
and  done  systematically  in  all  of  our  best  school  systems.  School  boards,  teachers,  and 
the  public,  if  possible,  should  be  brought  to  realize  that  it  is  economic  at  any  cost  to  take 
care  of  the  large  group  of  pupils  having  speech  defect.  It  is  both  the  moral  duty  and  the 
legitimate  function  of  the  schools  to  do  so.  The  presence  of  speech  defect  is  a  markt 
cause  of  retardation  and  elimination.  Its  cure  or  improvement  involves  mental  training. 
It  is  both  pedagogical  and  psychological  and  thei'efore  an  educational  problem. 

From  2  per  cent  to  25  per  cent  of  the  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools  are  seriously 
handicapt  by  speech  defect.  In  Lynn,  out  of  an  elementary-school  population  of  approxi- 
mately fourteen  thousand,  359  children  had  some  markt  form  of  speech  defect.  Of  these, 
58  were  mentally  deficient.  Only  45  were  improving  slowly  without  instruction.  We  had 
265  pupils,  perfectly  normal  mentally,  who  were  seriously  handicapt  by  defective  speech. 
Of  the  foregoing,  21  were  six  years  of  age  or  under  and  not  as  yet  to  be  classified  as 
retardates.  Of  the  remainder  all  but  50  were  retarded  one  or  more  years  in  school  work. 
Only  three  had  reacht  the  eighth  grade. 

We  need  to  emphasize  the  following  points:  first,  the  children  having  speech  defect 
constitute  a  large  group  when  taken  together;  secondly,  they  are  largely  normal  children; 
thirdly,  they  are  greatly  retarded  as  a  result  of  this  defect;  fourthly,  from  70  to  80  per 
cent  can  be  cured  or  so  improved  as  to  have  the  defect  cease  to  act  as  a  direct  handicap. 
It  will  then  be  found  that  no  community  will  feel  too  poor  to  secure  a  teacher  for  them. 
In  Lynn  we  secured  two  who  volunteered  to  train  for  the  work.  These  teachers  were 
handling  one-session  classes  of  retardates  which  ciosed  at  1 130  p.m.  On  four  afternoons 
a  week  each  teacher  gave  an  hour  and  a  half  to  corrective  speech  work.  Of  the  pupils 
having  the  most  markt  defects,  275  were  examined  and  103  were  selected  because  of 
grouping  well  for  treatment.  The  pupils  were  divided  for  class  instruction  into  eight 
groups,  allowing  about  ten  pupils  to  a  group.  Each  group  reported  at  a  central  building 
in  the  district  twice  a  week  for  a  period  of  forty  minutes  during  school  time.  The  speech 
teacher  workt  both  individually  and  collectively  with  them  during  this  period.  No  more 
serious,  earnest,  energetic,  and  ambitious  groups  could  be  found  than  these  classes.  Their 
greatest  needs  other  than  corrective  exercises  seemed  to  be  inspiration,  encouragement, 
and  a  restoration  of  self-reliance.  Much,  very  much,  of  the  success  of  the  work  depends 
upon  the  kind  of  teacher  selected.  She  must  be  one  of  our  best  as  a  regular  teacher,  the 
kind  who  constantly  looks  for  and  secures  definite  acquirement.  She  must  be  vigorous, 
sjmipathetic,  patient,  and  optimistic.    These  four  qualities  are  essential. 

Our  results  in  twenty-eight  weeks  with  two  part-time  teachers,  who  gave  a  total 
of  twelve  hours  a  week  to  the  work,  were  as  follows: 

Out  of  a  total  of  275  cases  examined,  103  which  groupt  well  for  treatment  were 
selected.  Of  the  53  stutterers,  35  have  been  practically  cured,  12  have  shown  markt 
improvement,  and  only  have  shown  little  or  no  improvement.    Of  the  43  severe  cases  ^ 


676  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic  City 

of  lispers  and  phonetics,  14  have  been  sufficiently  improved  to  be  discharged,  19  show 
markt  improvement,  but  need  additional  treatment.  All  of  the  lispers  and  phonetics 
showed  some  improvement.  Seven  cases  of  other  defects  were  also  somewhat  improved. 
A  goodly  number  of  the  pupils  were  reported  as  advancing  more  rapidly  in  school 
work  after  receiving  treatment.  Many  letters  of  appreciation  were  received  from  their 
parents  and  teachers.  Any  superintendent  who  will  make  a  careful  investigation  of  the 
problem  in  his  schools  will  be  imprest  with  the  need  and  the  advisability  of  providing 
instruction  for  the  children  having  speech  defect. 

John  Christopher,  district  superintendent  of  schools,  Philadelphia,  Pa. — In  its  essen- 
tials Dr.  Swift's  paper  is  a  brief  for  a  special  system  to  be  administered  along  special  lines. 
The  matter  for  discussion,  I  take  it,  concerns  only  the  special  method  of  administration 
as  laid  down  by  the  speaker.  Despite  its  seeming  narrowness  the  plan  proposed  is  of  uni- 
versal application.  It  is  suitable  for  any  other  system  for  the  correction  of  speech  defects. 
It  could  be  easily  adapted  to  plans  radically  different  from  the  one  that  has  been  organized 
by  Dr.  Swift. 

Theoretically  at  least,  the  speaker,  it  seems  to  me,  has  made  hispoint.  So  well  has 
he  marshaled  his  facts  that  we  cannot  but  feel  that  the  balance  swings  decisively  in  favor 
of  the  part-time  teacher  plan.  As  a  measure  of  economy  alone,  in  these  war  times,  it 
has  its  justification.  Particularly,  however,  would  I  stress  the  advantage  that  is  bound 
to  result  both  to  class  and  to  teacher  from  the  happy  union  in  one  person  of  speech  special- 
ist and  grade  teacher, 

A  suggestion  that  should  be  considered  with  regard  to  the  administration  of  the 
proposed  plan  concerns  the  hour  of  the  special  lesson.  As  indicated  by  the  speaker, 
this  would  fall  at  the  close  of  the  afternoon  session,  not  thru  choice,  however,  but 
as  a  consequence  of  the  inflexible  nature  of  the  ordinary  school  program.  This  is  the 
time  when  the  fatigue  curve  is  highest  for  both  pupils  and  teacher.  The  way  out  of  this 
difficulty  seems  comparatively  easy.  Without  attempting  to  open  a  discussion  as  to  the 
merits  of  the  Gary  system,  it  would  seem  obvious  that  under  a  duplicate-school  plan 
modified  to  suit  local  conditions,  or  under  a  departmental  schedule,  or  under  any  scheme 
that  carries  with  it  the  possibility  of  individual  rosters,  both  pupils  and  teacher  could  be 
releast  for  this  work  at  more  fortuitous  periods  of  the  day. 

These  are  particular  details  and  probably  will  be  easy  of  adjustment.  A  real  difli- 
culty  lies,  however,  in  the  method  of  introduction  of  the  special  system.  Under  Dr. 
Swift's  plan  there  is  to  be  a  medical  director,  a  supervisor  of  speech-defect  classes,  and 
specially  trained  teachers.  The  last  named  will  be  selected  from  the  local  corps,  as  will 
possibly  the  supervisor,  but  for  the  present  the  medical  director  must  come  from  outside 
the  local  system.  As  we  all  know,  these  systems  in  some  instances  may  be  ingrown  with 
local  prejudices,  and  the  stranger,  be  he  sage  or  prophet,  not  to  say  physician,  may  not 
be  welcome  within  the  city  gates.  Where  such  is  the  case,  perhaps  the  answer  may  be 
found  in  the  fable  of  Mohammed  and  the  mountain. 

Be  the  pitfalls  what  they  may,  we  must  all  agree  that  some  relief  should  be 
afforded  this  unfortunate  class  of  pupils.  If  you  have  not  surveyed  your  schools  in  this 
matter,  or  delved  into  the  statistics  on  the  subject,  you  will  probably  be  surprised  at  the 
percentage  of  speech  delinquents  in  a  given  school  population.  A  crude  and  extremely 
limited  investigation  in  Philadelphia  places  our  number  approximately  at  2000,  or  i  per 
cent  of  our  total  enrolment.  Boston  in  1900  discovered  o.  77  per  cent;  Chicago  in  1910, 
1300  cases.  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall  cites  German  investigations  showing  1.12  per  cent  and 
Russian  i  .57  per  cent.  That  we  are  facing  a  live  question  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  at 
least  fifteen  of  our  American  cities  have  special  classes  for  this  type  of  child. 

Where  there  are  no  special  classes  the  treatment  of  pupils  so  handicapt  is,  to  say  the 
least,  a  matter  of  haphazardness.  A  sympathetic  teacher  takes  them  under  her  wing  and 
for  the  time  makes  them  feel  that  they  are  not  total  life-failures.    The  school  physician, 


Superintendence]         PHYSICAL  TRAINING  IN  THE  COUNTRY  677 

or  the  nurse,  or  the  principal,  or  the  teacher  may  recommend  extra-mural  treatment. 
This  will  probably  mean  intermittent  visits  for  the  pupil  at  some  special  hospital  or  psy- 
chological clinic,  with  the  possible  stigma  of  charity,  and,  because  the  attendance  is 
voluntary,  with  uncertainty  of  persistent  effort  and  permanent  result;  or  it  may  mean  the 
attendance  at  some  private  institution,  not  under  public  supervision;  or  treatment  by 
some  physician  specialist  very  often  at  too  great  a  cost  for  the  family  to  afford. 

Of  course  these  things  should  not  be.  Outside  of  our  moral  obligation,  the 
compulsory-attendance  laws  demand  the  attendance  of  all  children  all  the  time.  While 
we  cannot  re-create  all  children  to  be  equal,  we  can  and  should  give  equal  opportunities 
to  all  our  pupils.  In  these  days  of  special  classes  for  the  aenemic,  for  the  tubercular,  for 
the  backward,  for  the  lame  and  the  halt,  for  the  "longs  and  the  shorts,"  that  our  progres- 
sive cities  have  provided,  it  seems  passing  strange  indeed  that  the  movement  for  the 
adequate  care  of  the  speech  defective  is  not  more  widely  spread.  Let  us  sense  our  duty 
in  this  matter,  and  in  this  sensing  let  us,  if  possible,  get  some  measure  of  Dr.  Swift's 
missionary  spirit. 

Here  is  one  class  of  atypicals  that  can  be  made  to  approach  normality  with  but  a 
slight  deviation  on  our  part  from  regular  procedure  and  at  a  small  expenditure.  Granted 
it  may  be  that  they  do  form  a  relatively  small  percentage  of  our  total  school  population, 
yet  such  lets  and  hindrances  are  they  to  themselves  and  of  such  detrimental  influence  to 
their  associates  that  some  remedy  becomes  a  pressing  necessity.  The  measures  for  relief 
are  so  near  at  hand  and  so  comparatively  easy  of  administration  that  we  can  hardly  offer 
any  excuse  for  neglecting  the  problem.  And  finally,  nowhere  will  a  teacher  find  a  greater 
reward  in  the  consciousness  of  duty  well  done  than  in  helping  these  iy^ts  of  pupils.  Their 
gratitude  becomes  a  cup  of  joy  filled  to  the  brim  and  overflowing. 


G.    CONFERENCE  ON  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


TOPIC:    PHYSICAL  WELFARE  WORK  WITH  SCHOOL 
CHILDREN  IN  WAR  TIMES 

A.    THE  VITAL  NECESSITY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING  FOR 
THE  COUNTRY  BOY  AND  GIRL 

DUDLEY  A.    SARGENT,   DIRECTOR,   HEMENWAY  GYMNASIUM,   HARVARD 
UNIVERSITY,   CAMBRIDGE,   MASS. 

Anyone  who  has  read  Provost  Marshal  General  Crowder's  recent  report 
and  noted  that  from  25  to  75  per  cent  of  our  young  men  were  exempted 
from  military  service  on  account  of  physical  disability  and  preventable 
disease  cannot  help  having  some  misgivings  as  to  the  future  of  our  country. 
If  the  object  of  education  is  to  prepare  one  for  life — and  I  think  I  may  say 
in  all  seriousness  for  the  "battle  of  life" — what  an  awftd  commentary 
upon  our  methods  of  preparation  and  our  habits  of  working  and  living  is  this 
large  percentage  of  physically  incapacitated  men!  One  naturally  asks. 
What  are  some  of  the  causes  of  this  stupendous  waste  and  wreckage  of 
American  manhood  ? 

The  limited  space  that  can  be  allowed  will  admit  of  only  a  brief  summary 
of  a  few  of  the  causes  that  have  in  the  writer's  opinion  told  so  disastrously 
upon  our  national  physique.    These  are: 

I.  A  feeble  inheritance  on  the  part  of  many,  and  constitutional  inabihty 
to  meet  climatic  conditions  and  the  changes  due  to  immediate  environment. 


678  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Atlantic City 

■» 
Scientists  have  long  maintained  that  no  race  of  human  kind  has  yet 

obtained  a  permanent  foothold  upon  this  continent,  the  main  reasons 

being  that  our  climate  is  so  stimulating  and  exhilarating  that  most  people 

wear  themselves  out  simply  by  the  speed  at  which  they  are  driven  in  their 

efforts  to  live. 

2.  Inability  of  many  to  meet  the  pecuUar  demands  pf  their  chosen 
occupation  with  its  restrictions  as  to  general  activity,  bodily  posture,  bad 
air,  and  poor  sanitary  environment.  During  the  Civil  War  the  fewest 
exemptions  from  physical  debiUty  and  disease  occurred  among  sailors, 
boatmen,  firemen,  miners,  previous  soldiers,  and  the  heavy  iron  workers. 
This  indicates  the  direct  influence  of  the  use  of  the  large  muscles  in  main- 
taining health. 

3.  Contrast  with  this  effect  the  influence  upon  the  physique  of  new 
inventions  and  the  minute  division  of  labor  which  now  prevails.  While 
dividing  the  field  of  man's  efforts  and  encouraging  specig-lization  have  greatly 
increast  the  total  output  of  labor  and  made  it  possible  for  the  individual  to 
earn  a  livelihood  by  the  employment  of  a  few  muscles  and  faculties,  it  has 
greatly  lessened  the  health-giving  value  of  occupations. 

4.  Many  of  the  new  discoveries  and  inventions  have  had  an  equally 
deleterious  effect  upon  health.  The  telegraph,  telephone,  typewriting, 
printing,  and  other  machines,  with  steam,  electricity,  and  inexhaustible 
motor  forces  behind  them,  have  greatly  quickened  the  pulses  of  human  life. 
While  they  are  saving  labor  in  many  ways  they  are  narrowing  and  intensi- 
fying human  activity  to  a  high  degree  and  are  greatly  increasing  the  nervous 
tension  and  consequent  exhaustion.  In  many  occupations  men  are  now 
brought  into  competition,  not  only  with  each  other,  but  with  tireless 
machinery  that  pushes  them  to  the  limit.  Under  such  a  strain  many  are 
breaking  down  with  heart  disease,  kidney  trouble,  nervous  exhaustion,  and 
other  organic  disturbances.  A  man  can  no  longer  rely  upon  his  occupation 
to  keep  him  in  health  or  good  physical  condition.  He  now  must  give  what 
health  he  has  to  his  occupation  and  trust  to  other  agencies  to  keep  himself 
physically  fit  to  meet  the  strain  of  labor  conditions. 

5.  All  the  evils  I  have  enumerated  have  been  greatly  intensified  during 
the  past  fifty  years  by  the  increase  of  city  life.  At  the  time  of  the  Revolu- 
tion only  3  per  cent  of  our  population  lived  in  cities  of  more  than  eight 
thousand  inhabitants.  Now  New  York  City  alone  has  more  people  than 
were  in  the  whole  country  at  that  time  and  nearly  50  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  United  States  are  now  city  dwellers.  Altho  the  best  blood  of 
the  country  is  continually  flowing  into  our  great  cities  in  the  shape  of  stal- 
wart youth  and  vigorous  maidens,  the  stress  and  strain  of  living  and  working 
is  so  intense  and  exhausting  that  few  survivors  can  be  found  in  the  third 
generation. 

6.  But  notwithstanding  the  intense  activity  and  wear  and  tear  of  city 
life  with  its  crowded  streets  and  working  quarters,  so  much  has  been  done 


Superintendence)        PHYSICAL  TRAINING  IN  THE  COUNTRY  679 

during  the  past  thirty  years  to  improve  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  city 
that  the  amount  of  sickness  and  annual  death-rate  are  continually 
lessening. 

It  is  largely  due  to  the  recent  improvement  in  the  sanitary  arrangements 
of  the  city,  the  hygienic  instruction  in  the  schools,  and  the  developmental 
value  of  the  gymnasium,  athletic  fields,  and  recreative  centers  and  play- 
grounds that  the  great  cities  like  London,  New  York,  and  Chicago  have 
often  had  a  lower  death-rate  than  many  of  the  smaller  towns  surrounding 
them.  The  country  towns  and  villages  have  not  begun  to  awaken  to  their 
possibilities  in  the  prevention  of  disease,  or  to  their  responsibility  for  the 
health  education  and  physical  development  of  their  children. 

7.  Hence  another  cause  of  the  poor  physical  condition  of  such  a  large 
number  of  American  youths  is  the  wretched  health  conditions  surrounding 
the  home  and  school  life  of  a  large  percentage  of  the  children  living  in  the 
country.  Let  me  quote  from  the  admirable  report  of  the  Joint  Committee 
on  Health  Problems  in  Education  of  the  National  Council  of  the  National 
Education  Association  and  of  the  Council  on  Health  and  Public  Instruction 
of  the  American  Medical  Association  prepared  by  the  chairman,  Dr. 
Thomas  D.  Wood,  of  Columbia  University:  "More  than  half  (about 
12,000,000  or  three-fifths)  of  the  school  children  in  the  United  States  are 
attending  rural  schools.  Country  children  attending  rural  schools  are, 
on  the  average,  less  healthy  and  are  handicapt  by  more  physical  defects 
than  the  children  of  the  cities,  including  all  the  children  of  the  slums. 
And  this  is  true  in  general  of  all  parts  of  the  United  States."  This  com- 
mittee further  states  that  "the  present  deplorable  conditions  may  be 
attributed  to  lack  of  architectural  and  sanitary  ideals  and  standards  in 
rural  regions,  false  economy  of  local  school  boards  in  failure  to  vote  enough 
money  to  build  and  maintain  suitable  school  buildings,  and  lack  of  health 
supervision  or  assistance  by  the  state,  which  is  usually  necessary  to  main- 
tain desirable  standards  of  physical  and  mental  efficiency." 

Since  this  report  was  written  the  great  state  of  New  York  has  passed 
the  "Welch  Bill,"  which  has  provided  for  the  city  and  country  schools  of 
the  state  physical  training  and  health  teaching  as  a  part  of  the  regular 
curriculum.  Now  just  as  other  states  in  the  Union  are  looking  to  New 
York  for  light  and  leading  in  this  important  educational  movement,  and 
the  experiment  is  yet  to  be  thoroly  tried  out,  another  bill  is  introduced 
into  the  Legislature  termed  the  "Lord  Bill,"  the  object  of  which,  as  I 
understand  it,  is  to  exempt  all  rural  schools  from  physical  training.  If 
in  the  light  of  our  present-day  knowledge  of  the  physical  unfitness  of  a 
large  percentage  of  our  young  men,  and  of  the  woeful  physical  defects  and 
imperfections  of  a  large  number  of  our  country  as  well  as  our  city  youths, 
this  bill  is  allowed  to  pass,  it  seems  to  me  it  will  be  an  awful  step  backward 
for  the  state  of  New  York  and  thru  her  a  wretched  example  for  the  country 
at  large.     Some  of  the  wise  men  of  New  York  state  have  seen  this  crying 


68o  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

need  of  the  children  of  the  people  and  have  made  efforts  to  supply  it  by 
making  physical  training  an  integral  part  of  the  regular  school  program. 
England  and  France  have  come  to  the  same  conclusion  in  their  hour  of 
need  for  men,  and  the  Minister  of  Education  in  England  now  pathetically 
declares  that  it  shall  never  again  be  said  that  it  is  not  until  they  are  needed 
for  the  terrible  uses  of  war  that  any  care  is  taken  of  the  mass  of  the  youth  of 
the  country.  Yet  this  is  the  condition  of  the  United  States  today,  where, 
as  we  have  seen,  over  50  per  cent  of  our  young  men  have  been  rejected  as 
unfit  for  military  service,  while  the  country  is  spending  millions  upon  mil- 
lions at  the  training  camps  in  trying  to  get  those  who  have  been  accepted 
in  fit  condition  to  perform  the  duties  of  a  soldier.  I  have  no  hesitation  in 
saying  that  three-fourths  of  all  that  is  now  being  done  to  fit  our  young  men 
for  service  at  the  cantonments  could  have  been  done  and  should  have  been 
done  at  school  during  the  growing  and  developing  period  as  a  matter  of 
daily  routine  in  preparation  for  life.  Aside  from  the  technical  require- 
ments of  the  soldier,  which  the  best  military  authorities  tell  us  may  be 
attained  in  from  three  to  six  months,  all  the  mental  and  physical  ability 
a  man  can  carry  into  the  service  is  that  which  he  has  acquired  thru  inherit- 
ance, or  from  years  of  schooling  and  training.  To  imagine  that  this  ability 
can  be  acquired,  with  all  of  the  courage  and  fighting  spirit  that  should 
accompany  it,  by  attending  school  and  reading  about  what  someone  else 
has  done,  or  sitting  on  a  bench  and  seeing  some  other  fellow  run,  jump,  or 
play  ball,  is  an  awful  mistake — a  mistake  from  an  educational  point  of  view 
from  which  we  shall  have  a  rude  awakening  before  the  war  is  over. 

Most  of  us  have  opened  our  hearts  and  our  pocketbooks  in  aid  of  the 
many  charitable  organizations  which  are  now  seeking  to  make  life  more  com- 
fortable and  enduring  for  those  who  are  going  over  to  the  other  side  to  meet 
the  hardships  of  war.  While  we  should  all  rejoice  to  be  able  to  make  the 
soldier's  life  as  ''safe,  soft,  and  easy"  as  possible,  those  of  us  whose  business 
it  has  been  to  prepare  men  for  athletic  contests  know  that  the  first  essen- 
tials are  vital  power,  strength,  hardihood,  and  endurance.  These  are  the 
quahties  that  are  going  to  enable  a  man  to  stand  on  his  feet,  bear  his  burdens, 
endure  discomfiture,  and  finally  "go  over  the  top."  Moreover,  if  a  man  is 
stricken  with  disease  or  wounded  in  battle,  it  is  not  "cake,  candy,  or 
cigarettes,"  or  even  skilled  medical  attendance  or  tender  nursing  alone  that 
are  going  to  pull  him  thru;  these  luxuries  and  kindly  aids  are  indeed  com- 
forting and  greatly  assist  nature,  but  the  most  potent  factors  that  are  going 
to  bring  back  his  health  and  strength  and  enable  him  to  keep  up  the  fight 
are  the  good  rich  blood  in  his  veins  and  the  vitality  of  his  tissues  that  have 
been  acquired  by  correct  habits  of  living  and  vigorous  physical  training. 


Superintendence)  MINIMUM   ESSENTIALS   OF   EXERCISES  68 1 

\  B.    PRINCIPLES  UNDERLYING  MINIMUM  ESSENTIALS  OF 

EXERCISES 

WILLIAM  A.  STECHER,  DIRECTOR  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION,  PUBLIC   SCHOOLS, 

PHILADELPHIA,   PA. 

There  should  be  no  objection  to  the  statement  that  education  must  be 
a  conscious  process,  an  undertaking  with  a  purpose.  Since  physical  edu- 
cation is  a  part  of  education  it  also  must  have  a  definite  purpose.  To  teach 
anything  we  must  therefore  know  what  purpose  is  to  be  served  by  the  thing 
to  be  taught. 

Obviously  bodily  health  is  the  first  essential,  the  first  purpose,  in  physi- 
cal education.  No  one  can  be  completely  eJfficient  in  any  walk  of  life  unless 
he  is  in  good  physical  condition.  No  less  important  than  bodily  health  is 
an  active  mentality  and  the  habit  of  having  due  regard  for  the  rights  of 
others.    These  then  we  may  regard  as  the  aims  of  physical  education. 

After  the  purpose  of  physical  education  has  been  stated  it  next  is  neces- 
sary to  choose  from  the  vast  number  of  possible  bodily  activities  those  few 
that  are  indispensable  to  accomplish  the  purposes  indicated.  When  we  have 
done  this  we  must  select  from  the  many  ways  of  doing  these  things  those 
few  methods  of  doing  them  that  are  likely  to  lead  to  valuable  results  in  the 
shortest  time.  In  selecting  such  activities  we  must  never  lose  sight  of 
the  fact  that  the  various  forms  of  bodily  exercise  exist  for  man's  sake,  not 
he  for  them.  In  deciding  upon  the  value  of  any  specific  activity  the  ques- 
tion always  should  be.  Of  what  significance  is  it  to  man?  How  can  he 
apply  it  ?  What  purpose  can  it  serve  ?  An  activity  should  not  be  its  own 
end.     It  must  help  perform  some  work;  it  must  serve  some  human  purpose. 

A  further  reason  for  selecting  any  physical-education  activity  should 
be  the  fact  that  we  cannot  get  along  without  it,  that  it  is  necessary  for  life 
and  health.  It  should  be  an  indispensable  and  direct  aid  to  us  in  doing  our 
work.  In  efiicient  teaching  of  any  type  the  time  has  past  when  a  subject 
is  taught  because  of  its  value  as  general  training.  In  efficient  physical 
education  the  time  also  has  past  for  teaching"  tactics,  free  exercises,  steps, 
etc.,  because  of  their  value  in  adding  to  one's  general  efficiency. 

Modern  psychology  has  demonstrated  that  there  is  no  great  amount  of 
transfer  of  any  ability  or  acquired  skill  from  one  field  of  endeavor  to  an 
entirely  different  field.  As  soon  as  the  conditions  differ  the  ability  acquired 
in  one  line  does  not  appear  to  affect  the  performance  in  an  entirely  different 
line  to  any  appreciable  degree.  Since  we  cannot  expect  a  large  amount 
of  all-around  benefit  in  the  way  of  general  bodily  efficiency  from  many  of 
the  gymnastic  activities  found  in  most  of  the  older  courses  in  physical 
training,  it  is  very  important,  therefore,  that  we  select  and  emphasize  only 
such  activities  as  have  definite  utihty.  A  rational  course  in  physical  educa- 
tion should  build  up  in  the  pupil  habits  that  will  go  on  functioning  in  his 
later  life  and  ideals  which  will  predispose  him  to  truly  useful  social  behavior. 

The  habits  to  be  developt  by  physical  education  might  be  groupt  under 
three  heads:  (i)  habits  of  useful  muscular  activity,  (2)  hygienic  habits,  and 


682  NA  TIONA L  EDUCA  TION  ASSOCIA  TION  [Atlantic  City 

(3)  social  habits.  In  developing  these  habits  we  must  first  of  all  teach  the 
pupil  certain  vigorous  muscular  exercises  essential  for  physical  develop- 
ment and  general  health,  e.g.,  running,  jumping,  climbing,  vaulting,  skating, 
swimming,  and  playing  various  games. 

Secondly,  we  must  develop  other  habits  that  are  less  purely  physiologi- 
cal, habits  that  are  more  conscious.  Among  these  are  the  habit  of  taking 
frequent  exercise  out  of  doors,  the  habit  of  doing  corrective  exercises,  the 
habit  of  keeping  clean  (in  person  and  surroundings),  the  habit  of  living 
hygienically.  It  is  in  relation  to  this  second  set  of  habits  that  the  truth 
appears  with  regard  to  the  lack  of  transfer  of  habits  from  one  environment 
to  another.  Consider  the  sanatorium  patient  who  returns  to  his  own  house. 
He  very  soon  falls  back  into  his  unhygienic  habits  unless  during  his  stay  at 
the  sanatorium  he  has  formed  very  strong  ideals  of  right  living  and  has  in 
mind  very  definite  rules  for  carrying  out  these  ideals.  The  proper  kind 
of  physical  education  should  then  contain  instruction  in  such  matters  as 
will  produce  conscious  practice  of  hygienic  habits. 

Thirdly,  we  must  in  physical  education  take  into  account  the  develop- 
ment of  what  might  almost  be  called  moral  habits — self-control,  order- 
liness, punctuality,  cooperation,  fair  play.  These  habits  above  all  depend 
upon  the  raising  to  consciousness  of  an  ideal — a  standard  of  action.  Who 
has  not  seen  a  boy  who  would  scorn  to  cheat  at  baseball,  nevertheless  cheat 
in  school?  He  had  the  "be  square  at  ball"  habit,  not  the  "be  square  all 
the  time"  habit.  It  is  the  task  of  physical  education  as  of  all  education 
to  teach  proper  ideals  as  well  as  proper  habits. 

The  number  of  activities  indispensable  for  securing  both  results — 
proper  ideals  and  proper  habits — is  not  large.  If  then  the  selected  activities 
are  taught  with  due  regard  to  the  formation  of  ideals,  physical  education 
will  have  provided  activities  and  knowledge  that  will  be  really  useful  in  the 
after-school  Hf e  of  the  pupil. 

For  teaching  purposes  the  essential  activities  might  be  group t  as  follows : 
Forms  of  bodily  exercise  and  games  leading  to: 

1.  The  ability  to  control  one's  body  on  the  earth  and  in  the  water. 
This  would  include  exercises  like  running,  jumping,  tramping,  dancing, 
swimming. 

2.  The  abiHty  to  control  one's  body  in  many  of  the  unusual  accidental 
situations  that  modern  life  imposes  upon  us.  This  would  include  exercises 
on  apparatus  that  permits  climbing,  vaulting,  swingmg,  stemming,  hanging, 
supporting. 

3.  The  ability  to  move  other  objects  with  accuracy  and  dispatch. 
This  would  include  exercises  like  throwing,  striking  (including  boxing), 
wrestling,  rowing. 

The  minimum  essentials  here  would  be  a  well-prepared  teacher,  sufiicient 
outdoor  space,  and  sufficient  time. 

Under  hygienic  habits  we  would  first  of  all  place  cleanliness  of  person  and 
of  clothing,  also  a  disposition  to  be  dissatisfied  with  unclean  surroundings. 


Superintendence]  MINIMUM  ESSENTIALS  OF  EXERCISES  683 

There  should  be  instruction  in  the  laws  of  health.     This  training  to  produce 
hygienic  habits  might  be  classed  as: 

1.  Health  instruction,  health  knowledge,  leading  to  correct  habits 
based  upon  an  understanding  of  what  is  good  or  bad  for  the  individual. 

2.  Corrective  exercises  based  ujjion  individual  needs  as  disclosed  by  a 
personal  examination,  leading  to  a  habit  of  exercising  to  attain  a  well- 
proportioned  body. 

3.  Cleanliness  of  person,  of  gymnasium,  of  building.  Cleanliness  should 
begin  with  the  individual,  then  take  in  the  gymnasium,  locker,  and  bath- 
rooms, and  eventually  embrace  the  building  and  its  surroundings.  It 
should  lead  to  the  habit  of  civic  helpfulness  and  cooperation  in  health 
matters. 

If  these  activities  are  taught  correctly,  and  if  the  teacher,  especially 
thru  the  correct  use  of  team  games,  incessantly  strives  to  bring  into  con- 
sciousness the  ideals  of  cooperation,  of  fair  play,  of  helpfulness,  of  always 
being  square,  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  many  good  social  habits  will 
be  formed.  The  hygienic  habits  formed  by  a  desire  to  live  according  to 
the  knowledge  acquired  by  the  health  instruction  would  be  reinforst  by 
good  habits  of  muscular  activity.  Sane  muscular  activity  and  the  desire 
to  reach  high  standards  of  hygiene  would  in  time  be  reinforst  by  useful 
social  habits.  And  the  result  of  this  threefold  striving  should  be  a  more 
useful  and  effective  social  being. 

MINIMUM  ESSENTIALS 

1.  Teachers. — The  regular  classroom  teachers  should  be  able  to  teach 
the  standard  physical  activities  spoken  of  above.  They  should  have  had 
a  training  in  applied  hygiene  and  in  sociology. 

2.  Space. — A  playground  is  better  than  a  gymnasium.  If,  however, 
both  can  be  had,  they  both  could  be  used  profitably.  The  playground 
should  be  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  pupils  of  a  school.  For  a 
school  having  less  than  200  children  there  should  be  a  free,  undivided  play 
space  of  not  less  than  2000  square  feet  plus  an  addition  of  20  square  feet 
for  each  enrolled  pupil.  For  a  school  having  more  than  200  children  there 
should  be  a  free  undivided  play  space  of  not  less  than  2000  square  feet  plus 
an  addition  of  30  square  feet  for  each  enrolled  pupil.  In  addition  to  the 
playground,  according  to  the  size  of  the  school,  there  should  be  one  or  more 
playrooms  for  use  during  bad  weather.  These  rooms  should  be  not  less 
than  30X75  feet  each. 

3.  Equipment. — Balls  are  the  most  necessary  pieces  of  apparatus  in  a 
playground,  a  playroom,  or  a  gymnasium.  A  minimum  equipment  for  a 
year  for  less  than  200  children  would  be  two  outer-seam  small-sized  basket- 
balls, often  called  soccer-balls,  to  be  used  for  most  games  (including  soccer 
football),  one  volley-ball,  three  indoor  baseballs,  and  one  bat.  Next  in 
order  come  simple  pieces  of  apparatus:  one  giant  stride,  two  low  hori- 
zontal bars,  one  ten-foot  frame  with  four  swings,  and  a  jumping-pit. 


1 


r 


iRecroloQS 

From  December  31,  1917,  to  December  31,  1918 

BY   C.    W.   BARDEEN,    SYRACUSE,   N.Y.,    CHAIRMAN   OF    COMMITTEE 


I 


No  one  in  the  audience  at  the  Pittsburgh  meeting,  when  Mrs.  Ella  Flagg  Young 
(January  15,  1845 — October  26,  1918),  seventy-three  years  old  but  alert  and  vigorous, 
said,  looking  down  at  her  gown,  "Why,  since  the  war  began  I  haven't  even  thought  of 
clothes,"  imagined  that  in  a  little  more  than  three  months  she  would  add  her  life  to  the 
sacrifices  she  was  making.  In  traveling  for  the  Liberty  Loan  Committee  in  Wyoming 
she  contracted  the  influenza  but  refused  to  yield  and  continued  her  trip.  Pneumonia 
developt  and  she  died  in  Washington. 

She  was  the  most  noted  woman  ever  known  in  public-school  work.  She  was  graduated 
from  the  Chicago  Normal  School  and  taught  in  that  city  from  1862  to  1915,  beginning  at 
seventeen  as  teacher  in  a  primary  grade.  She  became  principal  of  the  Skinner  School, 
and  in  1887  was  appointed  district  superintendent,  but  in  1899  resigned,  not  approving 
the  policies  of  the  superintendent.  President  Harper  appointed  her  professor  of  educa- 
tion in  the  University  of  Chicago,  and  she  remained  there  until  1905,  when  she  refused 
to  stay  after  John  Dewey  went  to  New  York.  She  was  then  made  principal  of  the  Chicago 
Normal  School,  and  in  1909  was  elected  superintendent  of  schools.  Her  principal  efiforts 
were  to  secure  the  enlargement  of  the  kindergarten  course,  an  increase  in  the  scope  of 
vocational  training,  and  the  simplification  of  the  curriculum  of  the  primary  grades. 
When  in  1913  there  was  a  movement  to  dismiss  her  she  resigned,  declining  to  return 
unless  her  enemies  on  the  board  were  removed.  Five  of  them  resigned,  and  she  was 
reelected  but  finally  withdrew  two  years  later  and  lived  in  retirement  in  California  until 
19 1 7,  when  Secretary  McAdoo  appointed  her  a  member  of  the  Woman's  Liberty  Loan 
Committee,  to  which  she  devoted  herself  until  her  death. 

She  was  a  member  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  from  1888  to  191 2,  president  of 
the  State  Teachers'  Association  in  1910,  and  for  her  the  organization  of  Chicago  elementary 
principals  is  named  the  Ella  Flagg  Young  Club.  She  was  editor  of  the  Educational 
Bi-Monthly  from  1906  to  1909.  She  was  author  of  Isolation  in  the  School  (1909),  Ethics 
in  the  School  (1902),  and  Some  Types  of  Modern  Educational  Theories  (1902),  all  in  the 
series  of  "Contributions  to  Education,"  University  of  Chicago;  she  was  also  the  author 
of  other  monographs  and  collaborated  in  the  Young  and  Field  Literary  Readers.  She 
was  especially  alert  and  keen  in  debate,  and  in  discussion  seldom  failed  to  convince  her 
audience.  Jane  Addams  said  of  her,  "She  had  more  general  intelligence  and  character 
than  any  othe»  woman  I  knew." 

She  became  a  life  director  of  the  National  Education  Association  in  1900  and  pre- 
sented papers  in  1887,  1893,  1896,  1901, 1903, 1906,  1907, 1908, 191 1, 1916, 1917,  and  1918. 
In  1910  she  was  elected  president,  the  first  woman  to  hold  that  office. 

Even  more  sudden  was  the  death  of  her  successor  as  superintendent  of  the  Chicago 
schools,  John  Daniel  Shoop  (March  3,  1857 — August  9,  1918).  He  had  spoken  the  night 
before  on  "The  Life-Element  in  Education"  and  was  awaiting  his  call  to  appear  before 
the  Parke  County  Teachers'  Institute  at  Rockville,  Ind.,  when  he  died  suddenly  of  heart 
failure  while  reading  a  newspaper. 

He  was  educated  at  the  Indiana  Normal  University,  Cook  County  Normal  School, 
ake  Forest  College,  and  the  University  of  Chicago.    He  was  superintendent  of  schools 

68s 


686  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Necrology 

in  Bloomingburg,  Ohio,  1886-88;  in  Saybrook,  HI.,  1889-90;  in  Gibson  City,  111.,  1891- 
96;  in  Paris,  111.,  1897-1901;  and  had  since  then  been  connected  with  the  schools  of 
Chicago,  becoming, assistant  superintendent  in  1909  and  superintendent  in  1915.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  able  to  call  by  name  every  one  of  the  7,000  teachers,  and  his  success  in 
holding  boys  in  school  was  from  the  first  unusual.  He  had  been  a  member  of  the  National 
Education  Association  since  1900. 

Two  former  presidents  of  the  department  of  superintendence  ended  long  lives  in 
peaceful  retirement.  Henry  Sabin  (October  23,  1829 — March  22,  1918)  was  graduated 
from  Amherst  in  1852;  taught  in  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Illinois,  and  Iowa,  where 
he  was  superintendent  of  public  instruction  during  the  periods  1888-92  and  1894-98.  He 
was  president  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  in  1878. 

He  became  a  member  of  the  National  Education  Association  in  1889,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  National  Education  Association,  Department  of  Superintendence  in  1903. 
He  was  made  chairman  of  the  National  Education  Association  Committee  on  Rural 
Schools  in  1895,  his  report,  mostly  written  by  himself,  being  his  most  notable  contribution 
to  education.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Education.  He  presented  papers  and 
reports  and  took  part  in  discussions  at  nearly  every  meeting  from  1887  to  1900,  for  the 
last  time  in  191 2.  He  stood  for  what  was  old  and  establisht  in  education,  and  his  Talks 
to  Young  People  (1899)  and  Common  Sense  Didactics  (1903)  had  large  sale.  He  was 
popular  as  a  lecturer,  and  his  last  years  were,  as  his  friend  President  Seerley  has  said, 
full  of  high  aims  and  noble  realizations.  Mr.  Sabin  had  lived  since  1913  with  his  sons  in 
California. 

David  Pritchard  Kiehle  (February  7,  1837 — April  7,  1918)  had  also  spent  his  last 
seven  years  on  the  Pacific  Coast  at  Portland,  Ore.  He  was  graduated  from  the  Albany 
Normal  School  in  1856,  from  Hamilton  College  in  1861,  and  from  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary  in  1865.  He  was  pastor  at  Preston,  Minn.,  1865-73;  county  superintendent 
of  schools,  1869-75;  principal  of  the  St..  Cloud  Normal  School,  1875-81;  state  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction,  1881-93;  and  professor  of  pedagogy  in  the  University  of 
Minnesota  1893-1902  and  since  then  professor  emeritus;  and  once  more  pastor  at  Preston, 
1905-10.  As  superintendent  he  secured  a  one-mill  school  tax,  the  state  library  law, 
and  reorganization  of  the  high  schools,  and  he  establisht  a  college  of  agriculture  at  the 
University.  He  was  president  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  in  1895.  He  was, 
as  the  American  School  says,  a  man  of  high  ideals  with  markt  qualities  of  leadership,  a 
forcible  public  speaker,  a  congenial  companion,  and  a  good  friend. 

Forty  years  ago  there  were  no  more  constant  or  interesting  attendants  at  our  meetings 
than  Mrs.  Marie  Kraus-Boelte  (November  8,  1836 — November  i,  1918)  and  her  peppery 
but  lovable  husband,  who  was  always  getting  into  diflSculties  in  discussion,  from  which  his 
delightful  wife  extricated  him.  She  was  born  in  Mecklenburg,  the  daughter  of  a  promin- 
ent lawyer  and  magistrate.  She  studied  kindergarten  methods  with  Froebel's  widow  and 
Dr.  Lange..  and  began  teaching  in  London  in  i860  under  Frau  Bertha  Ronge.  In  1868 
she  establisht  a  kindergarten  in  Liibeck.  In  1872  she  came  to  America  and  establisht  a 
model  kindergarten.  In  1873  she  married  John  Kraus,  a  disciple  of  Pestalozzi-Diesterweg- 
Froebel  methods,  and  they  establisht  a  training  school  for  kindergartners  in  New  York 
City,  which  Mrs.  Kraus-Boelte  continued  after  her  husband's  death  in  1896.  The  school 
graduated  more  than  seven  hundred  kindergartners,  and  it  represented  with  remarkable 
fidelity  the  principles  of  Froebel.  Mrs.  Kraus-Boelte  herself  proved  an  inspiration  to  all 
that  is  true  and  womanly.  She  was  invited  to  unite  her  work  with  Columbia  and  New 
York  universities  but  preferred  to  retain  her  freedom  in  private  training.  She  lectured 
in  New  York  University  and  in  Hunter  college. 

Another  constant  attendant  was  Betty  A.  Button  (August  12,  1840 — January  30, 
1918)  for  fifty-eight  years  a  teacher  in  the  Kentucky  Street  School  in  Cleveland,  and  for 
forty-six  years  principal,  retiring  in  191 7.  She  became  a  member  of  the  National  Educa-^ 
tion  Association  in  1880,  and  was  a  life  director  and  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Education. 
She  was  a  speaker  in  1889,  1895,  1898,  and  1899.         y 


Necrology]  NECROLOGY  687 

With  her  was  for  many  years  to  be  seen  her  close  friend  Ellen  G.  Reveley  (died 
April  7,  1918),  who  became  a  member  of  the  National  Education  Association  in  1891  and 
took  part  in  the  proceedings  in  1891,  1904,  and  1905.  She  was  born  in  Verona,  N.Y., 
taught  for  a  time  in  Rome,  and  then  went  to  Cleveland  as  grade  teacher.  She  rose 
rapidly,  becoming  principal  of  a  grade  school,  principal  of  the  normal  school,  and  finally, 
under  Superintendent  Draper,  supervisor  of  primary  grades  for  the  entire  city.  Dr. 
William  T.  Harris  called  her  one  of  the  real  educational  thinkers  of  her  day.  She  retired 
in  1903  and  had  since  lived  in  Syracuse.  She  was  a  power  in  the  schools,  always  loyal, 
farsighted,  and  effective. 

Another  familiar  face  was  that  of  Henry  Romaine  Pattengill  (January  4,  1852 — 
November  26,  19 18).  He  was  graduated  in  1874  from  the  University  of  Michigan,  and 
was  superintendent  for  two  years  at  St.  Louis,  Mich.,  and  for  eight  years  at  Ithaca,  Mich. 
In  1884  he  became  associate  editor  of  the  Michigan  School  Moderator,  and  after  a  year  at 
Grand  Rapids  removed  to  Lansing.  He  was  assistant  professor  of  English  at  the  Michi- 
gan Agricultural  College,  1885-89,  resigning  because  of  popularity  as  an  institute  worker. 
In  1892  he  was  elected  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  was  reelected  in 
1894.  He  had  served  on  the  state  board  of  library  commissioners  since  1902,  had  been 
president  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association,  and  in  1914  was  candidate  of  the  Progressive 
party  for  governor.<  He  was  the  first  to  advocate  the  township  system,  did  much  to  make 
education  compulsory,  aroused  interest  in  the  teaching  of  current  events,  and  made 
physical  training  an  issue.  His  great  work,  however,  was  in  training  teachers.  His 
motto  was,  "Inspire  or  expire."  He  was  frank,  sincere,  fearless,  human.  He  liked  to 
be  called  "Pat,"  named  one  of  his  song  books  Pat's  Pick,  and  when  he  took  a  party  to 
the  National  Education  Association  there  were  songs  and  laughter  all  the  way.  He  had 
been  a  member  since  1892. 

Among  those  who  have  been  frequent  speakers  in  late  years  was  Luther  Halsey 
Gulick  (December  4,  1865 — August  13,  1918),  who  was  bom  in  Honolulu.  He  was 
educated  at  Oberlin  and  the  Sargent  School,  Harvard,  and  was  graduated  in  1889  from 
the  medical  college  of  New  York  University.  He  was  physical  director  in  Y.M.C.A. 
work,  1886-1903;  principal,  Pratt  Institute  High  School,  1900-1903;  director  of  physical 
training.  New  York  City,  1903-8,  and  since  then  director  of  the  department  of  child 
hygiene,  Russell  Sage  foundation;  editor  of  the  Physical  Education  Review;  president  of 
the  American  Physical  Education  Association  of  America,  in  the  founding  of  which  he 
played  a  leading  part;  secretary  of  the  PubHc  Schools  Athletic  League  of  New  York;  and 
a  member  of  the  Olympic  Games  Committee  at  Athens  in  1906.  His  name  is  especially 
linkt  with  the  Camp  Fire  Girls,  whose  organization  he  had  headed  since  19 13.  He  joined 
the  National  Education  Association  in  1903  and  spoke  at  the  meetings  in  1908,  1909,  1910, 
1912,  1914,  and  1915. 

Another  recent  speaker  was  President  Charles  Richard  Van  Hise  (May  29,  1857 — 
November  19,  1918),  graduated  from  the  University  of  Wisconsin  in  1879,  and  since  then 
a  member  of  the  faculty,  and  president  since  1904.  In  his  inaugural  address  he  exprest 
an  ideal  which  he  steadily  maintained,  "I  shall  never  be  content  until  the  beneficent 
influence  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  reaches  every  family  in  the  state."  He  held  first 
rank  as  a  geologist  and  had  been  a  member  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  since 
1883.  He  joined  the  National  Education  Association  in  1908  and  took  part  in  the  meet- 
ings of  1908,  191 2,  and  191 7- 

Another  college  president  who  spoke  in  1904  and  1906  was  Elisha  Benjamin  Andrews 
(January  10,  1844 — October  30,  1918).  He  fought  in  the  Civil  War  where  he  sustained 
wounds  which  resulted  in  the  loss  of  an  eye.  He  was  graduated  from  Brown  University  in 
1870,  and  studied  at  Newton  and  in  Germany.  He  was  ordained  in  1874;  was  president 
of  Denison  University,  1875-79;  professor  of  political  economy  in  Cornell  University, 
1888-89;  a^iid  president  of  Brown  University,  1889-98,  resigning  when  his  silver-dollar 
views  wei3  unacceptable.    He  was  superintendent  of  schools  in  Chicago,   1898-1900, 


688  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Necrology 

the  third  in  that  office  who  died  during  the  year.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska  from  1900  until  1909,  when  he  removed  to  Florida,  broken  in  health. 
He  had  been  a  member  of  the  National  Education  Association  since  1899. 

Another  man,  twice  a  college  president  in  his  diversified  career,  was  Colonel 
Homer  Baxter  Sprague  (October  19,  1929 — March  23,  1918).  He  was  valedictorian  at 
Yale  University  in  1852,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1854,  and  practiced  at  Worcester, 
and  was  principal  of  the  high  school  there  from  1865  to  1869.  He  then  went  to  New 
Haven  to  practice  and  was  a  member  of  the  board  of  education,  but  when  the  Civil  War 
broke  out  he  raised  two  military  companies  and  became  colonel.  He  was  wounded  and  a 
prisoner.  He  was  educational  superintendent  of  freedmen's  courts,  1865-66.  In  1866  he 
became  principal  of  the  Connecticut  State  Normal  School.  It  was  closed  and  he  became 
principal  of  the  West  Meriden  High  School.  He  was  elected  to  the  legislature  to  reopen  the 
normal  school,  which  he  succeeded  in  doing.  He  was  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, 1868-70;  principal  of  the  Adelphi  Academy,  1870-75;  headmaster  of  the  Girls' 
High  School,  Boston,  1876-85;  founder  and  first  president  of  the  Martha's  Vineyard  Sum- 
mer School,  1879-82;  president  of  Mills  College,  1885-86;  president  of  the  University  of 
North  Dakota,  1887-91;  and  professor  in  Drew  Theological  Seminary,  1896-1900.  He 
was  president  of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  1883-85;  member  of  the  Council 
of  Education,  1887-88;  and  for  many  years  a  noted  lecturer  and  frequent  contributor  to 
the  press.  He  was  a  speaker  at  the  National  Education  Association  in  1887,  1888,  and 
1890  and  had  been  a  member  since  1903. 

Andrew  Dickson  White  (November  7,  1833 — November  4,  1918)  was  an  earlier 
speaker,  appearing  twice  in  1874.  He  was  one  of  the  country's  great  men,  not  only  as 
founder  and  president  of  Cornell  University,  but  as  a  statesman  and  a  diplomatist,  with 
record  too  long  and  too  well  known  to  be  repeated  here. 

Of  advocates  of  special  causes  before  the  National  Education  Association  Archbishop 
John  Ireland  (September  11,  1838 — September  25,  1918)  came  to  this  country  as  a  boy, 
reacht  St.  Paul  in  1852,  entered  the  Cathedral  School  there,  studied  theology  in  France, 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1861,  and  served  for  a  year  as  a  chaplain  in  the  5th  Minnesota. 
He  became  rector  of  the  cathedral  at  St.  Paul,  in  1875  was  consecrated  bishop,  in  1884  suc- 
ceeded to  the  see  of  St.  Paul,  and  in  i888  was  named  archbishop.  He  was  the  author  of 
The  Church  and  Modern  Society.  In  1869  he  organized  a  temperance  movement  with  such 
zeal  that  he  was  referred  to  as  "a  consecrated  blizzard."  He  at  one  time  conceived  the 
idea  of  consolidating  the  Catholic  parochial  schools  and  the  public  schools.  The  plan 
was  tried  at  Fairibault  and  Stillwater,  Minn.,  but  friction  which  the  Archbishop  could  not 
relieve  arose,  and  the  scheme  was  dropt.  He  was  founder  of  the  Hill  Seminary  on  the 
Minnesota  side  of  the  Mississippi  River.  To  this  he  gave  his  highly  prized  private  library, 
one  of  the  most  comprehensive  in  the  Northwest.  One  of  his  early  works  was  the  found- 
ing of  a  colony  of  900  Catholic  farmers  in  western  Minnesota  in  1876. 

He  delivered  addresses  before  the  National  Education  Association  in  1890  on  "State 
Schools  and  Parish  Schools — Is  Union  between  Them  Impossible?"  and  in  1902  on  "Devo- 
tion to  Truth:  the  Chief  Virtue  of  the  Teacher."  He  also  spoke  in  1902  before  the 
I^epartment  of  Indian  education. 

The  question  of  parochial  schools  was  also  discust  in  1889  by  Bishop  John  Joseph 
Keane  (September  12,  1839 — June  22,  1918),  former  rector  of  the  Catholic  University  of 
America,  who  resigned  in  1897  to  go  to  Rome  as  member  of  the  papal  household.  He  had 
been  a  life  director  of  the  National  Education  Association  since  1889  and  spoke  also 
twice  in  1898. 

The  subject  of  Indian  education  was  discust  in  1907  by  Francis  E.  Leupp  (January  2, 
1849 — November  19,  1918).  He  was  graduated  from  Williams  College  in  1870,  and  was 
editor  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post  and  Syracuse  Herald  from  1878  to  1885,  and 
member  of  the  United  States  Board  of  Indian  Commissioners  from  1905  to  1909.  He  was 
a  leader  in  civil-service  reform. 


Necrology] 


NECROLOGY 


689 


Others  who  will  be  remembered  are  William  Lucas  Steele  (died  May  5,  1918),  for 
thirty-three  years  superintendent  at  Galesburg,  111,,  a  member  since  1890,  reading  a  paper 
in  1899  on  the  elective  system  in  high  schools;  Henry  O.  Wheeler  (born  in  1841,  died 
July  17,  1918),  a  first  lieutenant  in  the  Civil  War,  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Vermont  in  1867,  a  lawyer  in  Burlington,  1871-80,  and  superintendent  of  schools  there, 
1880-1913,  a  member  since  1905;  Warren  E.  Knapp  (January  22, 1850— October  14,  1918), 
educated  at  Cornell,  who  went  to  Fort  Collins,  Colo.,  in  1882,  as  a  banker,  and  two  years 
later  to  Denver  as  principal  of  Franklin  School,  becoming  in  1885  superintendent  of 
Arapahoe  County,  and  after  two  terms  in  1902  principal  of  Cheltenham  School,  Denver,  a 
member  since  1907;  Theodore  C.  Mitchill  (fifty-two  years  old,  died  December  27,  1918), 
graduated  from  Columbia  in  1886,  and  since  1910  principal  of  the  Jamaica  High  School, 
member  since  1905;  and  William  A.  Campbell  (June  6,  1852— November  23,  1918), 
district  superintendent  in  New  York  City,  a  member  since  1905. 


STANDARD  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  AND 

EQUIPMENT  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

OF  DIFFERENT  SIZES 

REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION 
AND   EQUIPMENT 


C.  C.  CERTAIN,  Chairman 
Cass  Technical  High  School,  Detroit,  Mich. 


COLLABORATORS 


» 


ARY  E.  Hall 

Librarian,  Girls'  High  School 
Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

Frank  Irving  Cooper 

Chairman,  N.E.A.  Committee  on  School- 
house  Planning  and   Construction 
Boston,  Mass. 

Martha  Wilson 

State  Supervisor  of  Libraries,  Depart- 
ment of  Education 
St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Emma  J.  Breck 

Head  of  Department  of  English,  Univer- 
,         sity  High  School 
I  Oakland,  Cal. 

'Lucy  E.  Fay 

Librarian,  University  of  Tennessee 
Knoxville,  Tenn. 

Edna  Pratt 
Librarian,  Public  Library 
Passaic,  N.J. 

Elizabeth  Knapp 
Head  of  Children's  Department,  Public 
Library 

Detroit,  Mich. 

Mary  Sullivan 

Department  of  English,  Schenley  High 
School 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Jesse  B.  Davis 
Principal,  Central  High  School 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

Hannah  Logasa 
Librarian,  School  of  Education,  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago 
Chicago,  lU. 

Walter  G.  Hood 
Principal,  Gilbert  High  School 
Winsted,  Conn. 


R.  T.  Hargreaves 
Principal,  North  Central  High  School 
Spokane,  Wash. 

H.  A.  HOLLISTER 

State  High-School  Visitor 
University  of  Illinois 
Urbana,  111. 

Florence  Hopkins 
Librarian,  Central  High  School 
Detroit,  Mich. 

W.W.  Bishop 
Librarian,  University  of  Michigan 
Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

H.  0.  Severance 
Librarian,  University  of  Missouri 
Columbia,  Mo. 

Clarence  Kingsley 
State  High-School  Inspector 
Boston,  Mass. 

James  Fleming  Hosic 

Editor  of  the  English  Journal 
Chicago,  111. 

Bessie  Sargeant  Smith 

Supervisor  of  High-School  Libraries 
Cleveland,  Ohio 

Wlllis  Kerr 

Librarian,  Kansas  State  Normal  School 
Emporia,  Kans. 

Harriet  Wood  ^ 

Supervisor  of  School  Library 
Public  Library 
Portland,  Ore. 

Frank  K.  Walter 
Vice-Director,  New  York  State  Library 
School 
Albany,  N.Y. 

Ella  Morgan 
Librarian,  Lincoln  High  School 
Los  Angeles,  Cal. 


69X 


692  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

FOREWORD 

C.   C.   CERTAIN,   CHAIRMAN 

The  Library  Committee  of  the  Department  of  Secondary  Education 
of  the  National  Education  Association  was  organized  in  191 5  at  the  annual 
meeting  in  Oakland,  Calif.  The  members  of  the  Committee  at  that  time 
decided  that  two  purposes  should  be  carried  out  during  the  year:  first,  to 
investigate  actual  conditions  in  high-school  libraries  throughout  the  United 
States;  and  second,  to  make  these  conditions  known  to  school  adminis- 
trators and  to  secure  their  aid  in  bettering  existing  conditions.  The  first 
purpose  was  accomphsht  thru  a  series  of  surveys,  including  the  states  of  the 
South,  of  the  Middle  West,  of  the  West,  and  of  the  East.  A  report  based 
upon  these  surveys  was  presented  to  the  Secondary  Department  at  the 
New  York  City  meeting  in  1916  and  publisht  in  the  Proceedings  of  that  year. 
Gathered  together  at  that  meeting  were  high-school  principals,  teachers, 
librarians,  and  state  and  city  superintendents,  who,  in  discussing  the  prob- 
lems relating  to  high-school  libraries,  gave  a  new  conception  of  the  status 
of  the  library  in  the  high  school.  It  was  thru  this  program  that  the  Com- 
mittee accomphsht  its  second  purpose.  Taking  part  in  the  discussions  at 
the  meeting  were  such  men  as  Dr.  Davidson,  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.;  Mr. 
Jesse  B.  Davis,  of  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  and  Professor  Charles  Hughes 
Johnston,  of  Urbana,  111.  A  full  account  of  the  meeting,  with  papers 
contributed  by  the  speakers,  is  publisht  in  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion Proceedings  for  1916. 

It  was  the  sense  of  the  department  at  that  time  that  the  Library  Com- 
mittee should  be  continued  and  that  it  should  work  out  a  constructive 
program  of  hbrary  development  acceptable  to  the  Secondary  Department. 
Professor  Johnston  consented  to  take  the  leadership  in  this  movement. 
He  was  also  chairman  of  the  Commission  on  Unit  Courses  and  Curricula 
of  the  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools.  As 
chairman  of  this  Commission  he  organized  a  hbrary  committee  with  the 
purpose  of  preparing,  under  the  guidance  of  the  members  of  the  Commission, 
a  much  more  detailed  report  than  seemed  possible  in  the  National  Education 
Association.  It  was  my  great  pleasure  to  act  as  chairman  of  this  Library 
Committee  of  the  Commission  and  to  work  under  the  leadership  of  Professor 
Johnston.  He  planned  to  secure  the  adoption  of  the  projected  report  by 
the  North  Central  Association  and  then  to  present  it  to  the  Secondary 
Department  of  the  National  Education  Association  for  similar  action. 

Professor  Johnston's  untimely  death  in  the  early  stages  of  these  plans 
brought  irreparable  loss  to  the  teaching  profession;  but  his  plans,  which 
were  projected  with  characteristic  clearness  and  vigor,  have  survived  and 
have  been  given  expression  in  the  following  report  prepared  by  the  Library 
Committee  of  the  Commission.  I  was  askt  to  accept  the  chairmanship 
of  the  Library  Committee  of  the  Secondary  Department  and  hence  have 


Report]  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  693 

had  the  privilege  of  carrying  out  the  program  planned  by  Professor  Johnston. 
According  to  his  plans  I  have  presented  the  report  of  the  Library  Com- 
mittee both  to  the  North  Central  Association  and  to  the  Secondary  Depart- 
ment of  the  National  Education  Association.  The  report  has  been  adopted 
by  both  organizations.  The  action  of  these  organizations  has  thus  given 
school  administrators  a  national  standard  for  high-school  library  develop- 
ment. 

The  Library  Committee  has  been  instructed  to  prepare  a  report  on 
"Methods  of  Using  the  Library  in  Teaching  the  High-School  Subjects,"  to 
be  presented  at  the  next  annual  meeting  of  the  Secondary  Department. 

THE  NEED  FOR  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  STANDARDIZATION 

JESSE   NEWLON,    SUPERINTENDENT   OF   SCHOOLS,    LINCOLN,   NEBR. 

In  the  building  of  high  schools  in  the  past  twenty-five  years  it  has  been 
the  custom  to  provide  adequately,  or  approximately  so,  for  science  and  a 
little  less  generously  for  household  arts  and  manual  arts.  I  do  not  wish  to 
say  anything  whatever  in  disparagement  of  the  provision  made  for  science. 
We  have  not  provided  more  than  adequately;  we  have  invested  no  more 
money  in  science  than  we  should.  In  fact,  the  war  is  teaching  us  that  we 
must  spend  more  money  in  every  line  than  we  have  ever  spent  before.  But 
in  planning  our  high  schools  we  have  overlookt,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
the  high-school  library. 

What  is  true  of  high  schools  in  general  is  true  of  junior  high  schools  in 
particular.  The  library  in  the  junior  high  school  is  just  as  important  as 
the  library  in  the  senior  high  school;  indeed,  far  more  so  in  many  respects. 
Most  boys  and  girls  leave  school  before  they  reach  the  senior  high  school, 
in  fact  before  they  reach  the  tenth  grade  of  the  public  schools.  If  we  are 
really  to  teach  them  to  use  the  library,  if  we  are  really  to  create  in  them  an 
interest  in  good  books,  an  interest  in  stu^y,  it  must  be  done  in  the  junior 
high  school.  In  my  mind  the  need  of  library  development  applies  in  par- 
ticular to  the  junior  high  school. 

There  are  few  well-planned  high-school  hbraries  in  the  United  States. 
Sometimes  there  is  a  large  study-hall  for  the  Hbrary — generally  just  one 
room  with  no  workroom  or  conveniences  of  any  kind  for  the  library  staff. 
The  reason  for  this  has  been  that  in  the  science  department  we  have  had 
definite  standards  by  which  to  design.  These  standards  have  been  workt 
out  during  many  years  in  the  colleges  and  in  the  secondary  schools.  We 
have  appreciated  the  importance  of  science  in  the  high-school  curriculum. 
We  have  had  standards  in  the  university  laboratories.  In  the  laboratories 
in  the  high  schools  we  have  laboratory  equipment.  It  has  been  easy, 
therefore,  to  convince  boards  of  education  that  it  is  necessary  to  provide 
these — and  so  for  the  chemistry  department,  the  physics  department,  or 
for  science  of  whatever  kind  common  to  the  curriculum.    We  have  been 


694  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

able  to  take  boards  of  education  to  neighboring  cities  and  show  them  what 
has  been  done,  but  we  have  been  unable  to  do  that  in  the  library  field. 

Herein  lies  the  importance  of  the  report  on  Standard  Library  Organiza- 
tion and  Equipment  for  Secondary  Schools  of  Different  Sizes.  For  the  first 
time  administrators  see  that  the  library  is  the  very  heart  of  the  high  school. 
It  will  be  possible  now  for  those  of  us  who  believe  in  the  importance  of  the 
library  to  talk  in  definite  terms  to  boards  of  education  when  we  are  planning 
junior  and  senior  high  schools.  I  have  had  that  pleasure  within  the  last 
four  months.  In  drawing  up  my  plans  I  have  been  able  to  refer  to  this 
recent  report  setting  forth  library  standards,  and  I  am  happy  to  say  that 
in  these  two  schools  we  are  going  to  provide  as  adequately  for  the  library 
as  for  the  science  and  manual-arts  departments. 

Those  of  us  who  deal  with  boards  of  education  know  that  we  are  likely 
to  get  what  we  want  if  we  know  what  we  want.  The  person  who  approaches 
the  board  of  education  with  a  definite  program  in  mind,  knowing  exactly 
what  he  wants,  with  recommendations  and  reasons  for  it,  is  likely  to  get 
what  he  wants,  and  that  is  true  of  the  community.  School  superintendents 
and  boards  of  education  who  have  a  constructive  program  to  put  before 
the  community  with  good  reasons  for  it  will  win,  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  and 
so  this  hbrary  report  will  make  it  possible  to  get  good  libraries — a  thing  we 
have  not  had  in  the  past.  Of  course  there  are  a  few  exceptions,  but  in 
general  we  do  not  have  adequate  arrangements  in  our  high  schools,  either 
in  room,  in  equipment,  or  in  staff  for  libraries. 

I  am  very  happy  to  say  that  at  the  meeting  of  the  North  Central 
Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  in  March  we  adopted  this 
report  as  one  of  the  recommendations  of  the  Commission  on  Unit  Courses 
and  Curricula,  and  that  similar  associations  of  colleges  and  secondary 
schools  in  the  South  and  Northwest  and  in  various  other  parts  of  the 
country  are  likely  to  take  similar  action.  We  can  now  offer  boards  of 
education  a  report  that  is  official — really  official.  This  report  represents 
the  best  thought  of  those  who  have  studied  libraries  thruout  the  country 
Great  good  will  come  from  that. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  STATE  HIGH-SCHOOL  INSPECTORS 

It  is  suggested  that  a  committee  be  organized  in  each  state  to  make  a 
survey  of  library  conditions  in  high  schools.  To  begin  the  work  of  standard- 
izing libraries,  actual  conditions  should  be  studied  in  relation  to  the  stand- 
ards given  in  this  report. 

A  complete  survey  should  be  made  including  such  items  as:  (i)  appro- 
priate   housing    and    equipment;     (2)    professionally    trained    librarians; 

(3)  scientific  service  in  the  selection  and  care  of  books  and  other  printed 
material,  and  in  the  proper  classification  and  cataloging  of  this  material; 

(4)  instruction  in  the  use  of  books  and  libraries;    (5)  adequate  annual 
appropriations  for  salaries  and  for  the  maintenance  of  the  library,  for  the 


Report]  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  695 

purchase  of  books,  for  supplies,  and  for  general  upkeep;  (6)  a  trained 
librarian  as  state  supervisor  of  all  the  school  libraries  of  the  state. 

Based  upon  this  survey,  a  schedule  of  systematic  library  development 
should  be  outlined,  with  definite  annual  goals  to  be  attained,  until  all 
standards  have  been  achieved. 

It  is  estimated  that  not  more  than  five  years  should  be  required  for  the 
complete  achievement  of  standards  as  given  in  this  report. 

Representatives  of  the  state  educational  department  and  of  the  state 
library  commission  should  be  members  of  the  surveying  committee. 

A  statement  of  library  conditions  should  be  contained  in  the  annual 
reports  of  state  departments  of  education  and  in  the  reports  of  high-school 
inspectors. 

STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  AND 
ADMINISTRATION 
This  report  endeavors  to  suggest  a  practical  working  standard  for  the 
following  types  of  high  schools: 

I,  Junior  high  schools.     Page  17. 
II.  High  schools  with  enrolment  below  200.     Page  18. 

III.  Four-year    high  schools  or  senior  high  schools  with  enrolment 
between  200  and  500.     Page  20. 

IV.  Four-year  high  schools  or  senior  high  schools  with  enrolment  between 
500  and  1000.    Page  22. 

V.  Four-year  high  schools  or  senior  high  schools  with  enrolment 
between  1000  and  3000.    Page  2;^. 
Appendix: 

I.  Acknowledgments.    Page  25. 
II.  References.    Page  25. 
Appraisal  by  Educational  Leaders.^ 

REQUISITES  OF  A  STANDARD  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION 

The  requisites  of  a  standard  library  organization  are:  (I)  appropriate 
housing  and  equipment  of  the  high-school  library;  (II)  professionally 
trained  librarians;  (III)  scientific  selection  and  care  of  books  and  other 
printed  matter,  and  the  proper  classification  and  cataloging  of  this  material; 
(IV)  instruction  in  the  use  of  books  and  libraries  as  a  unit  course  in  high- 
school  curricula;  (V)  adequate  annual  appropriations  for  salaries  and  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  Hbrary,  for  the  purchase  of  books  and  other  printed 
matter,  for  the  rebinding  of  books,  for  suppUes,  and  for  general  upkeep; 
(VI)  a  trained  librarian  as  state  supervisor  to  be  appointed  as  a  member 
of  the  state  education  department,  as  in  Minnesota,  or  under  the  library 
commission  in  co-operation  with  the  state  education  department,  as  in 
New  Jersey. 

«  See  supplement  accompanying  this  report. 


696  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

ATTAINABLE  STANDARDS 

The  following  standards  are  recommended  as  attainable  in  the  high 
schools  of  the  United  States  within  the  next  five  years.  In  general  these 
standards  apply  to  all  high  schools. 

I.    HOUSING  AND  EQUIPMENT^ 

A.      SCIENTIFIC  PLANNING 

In  estabHshing  a  new  high  school  or  a  new  Hbrary  in  a  high  school,  the 
librarian  should  be  secured  in  ample  time  to  aid  in  planning  the  library  room 
and  in  selecting  the  equipment  and  books.  No  school  superintendent  or 
high-school  principal  should  undertake  to  plan  a  new  library  without  the 
expert  assistance  of  a  trained  librarian.  Crudely  designed  libraries  are 
wasteful  of  funds,  of  space,  of  time,  and  of  educational  force. 

B.      INTEGRAL  PART  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION 

The  hbrary  must  be  an  integral  part  of  the  high  school,  housed  in  the 
school  building,  and  should  not  as  a  rule  be  open  to  the  general  public.^ 

1.  The  Room  and  its  appointments. — The  library  reading-room  must  be 
centrally  located,  well  lighted,  and  planned  appropriately  with  reference  to 
general  reading,  reference,  and  supplementary  study.  It  must  be  emphati- 
cally a  place  of  refinement,  comfort,  and  inspiration.  The  room  in  all  its 
appointments  should  be  a  place  essentially  attractive  to  high-school  students 
and  should  be  made  as  free  of  access  to  them  as  is  possible. 

2.  Freedom  of  access. — Freedom  of  access  to  the  library  must  imply,  not 
only  freedom  to  consult  books  for  reference  and  for  supplementary  and 
collateral  study,  but  also  freedom  to  read  books  for  recreation  and  pleasure. 
The  pupils  should  have  direct  access  to  the  bookshelves. 

C.      THE  READING-ROOM 

1.  Location. — A  central  location  on  the  second  floor  is  usually  found 
most  satisfactory  for  the  reading-room.  It  should  have  an  exposure 
admitting  plenty  of  light  and  sunshine.  It  should  be  separate  from  the 
study  hall  and  should  not  be  used  for  recitation  purposes. 

It  should  be  near  the  study  hall.  The  library  should  be  connected  with 
the  study  hall  by  a  door  or  special  passageway  so  that  students  may  go 
from  the  study  hall  to  the  hbrary  without  the  necessity  of  securing  passes 
to  the  library.  Where  this  is  not  feasible  the  library  should  be  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  study  hall. 

2.  Seating  capacity  and  area. — The  reading-room  should  be  provided 
with  facihties  to  accommodate  at  one  full  period  readers  numbering  from 
5  per  cent  to  10  per  cent  of  the  total  daily  attendance  of  the  school.  In 
high  schools  enroUing  500  pupils  the  reading-room  should  have  a  seating 
capacity  of  from  40  to  50;  and  those  enrolling  1000  should  have  a  seating 

'  Architects  and  school  superintendents  planning  high-school  buildings  should  have  on  hand  for  refer- 
ence the  standards  for  high-school  library  rooms  set  forth  in  the  pamphlets  and  books  marked  with  an 
arterisk.    Appendix  2,  Housing  and  Equipment. 

»  Local  developments  in  small  towns  in  some  instances  may  make  it  desirable  to*  open  the  library  to  the 
public. 


Report]  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  697 

capacity  of  from  75  to  100.  An  area  of  at  least  25  square  feet  per  reader 
is  required  for  complete  accommodations  and  service.  The  minimum  seat- 
ing capacity  in  the  small  high  school  should  be  that  of  an  average  classroom. 
Tables  3  by  5  feet  and  seating  6  persons  are  the  standard  size  recom- 
mended. The  width  of  the  room  should  be  ample  to  accommodate  from 
2  to  3  rows  of  tables  placed  with  sides  parallel  to  the  short  walls  of  the 
room  if  the  room  is  rectangular  in  form.  A  space  of  5  feet  should  be  allowed 
between  the  rows  of  tables  and  between  the  tables  and  the  adjacent  walls. 
Two  rows  of  tables  should  be  provided  in  small  high  schools  and  3  rows  in 
large  schools. 

3.  Lighting. — The  artificial  lighting  should  be  by  means  of  electric 
ceiling  fixtures  of  either  the  indirect  or  semi-indirect  type. 

4.  Finishes. — White  ceilings  and  light  buff  walls  give  the  best  lighting 
effects.     Dark  colors  should  be  avoided  in  woodwork  and  trim. 

5.  Wall  space. — All  possible  surface  downward  from  a  point  7  feet  above 
the  floor  should  be  utiHzed  for  shelving.  Chair  railing,  wainscoting,  and 
baseboards  should  be  omitted,  and  the  walls  plastered  to  the  floor.  Any 
necessary  baseboards  should  be  added  after  the  shelving  is  in  place. 

6.  Floor  covering. — The  floor  should  be  covered  with  linoleum  or  cork 
carpet  to  deaden  sound. 

D.      EQUIPMENT 

I.  Indispensable  equipment. — 

a)  Built-in  furniture:  Low,  open  wall  shelving  to  accommodate  about 
eight  volumes  to  the  running  foot. 

The  shelving  should  be  placed  against  the  wall  spaces  of  the  room.  The 
cases  should  be  made  with  adjustable  shelves,  should  not  be  over  seven 
feet  high,  and  should  accommodate  six  or  seven  shelves.  The  stationary 
shelf  should  be  three  or  four  inches  above  the  floor,  so  that  it  will  not  catch 
all  the  dust.  The  shelves  should  be  3  feet  long  and  9  inches  wide.  These 
should  be  made  of  wood  by  the  local  carpenter,  or  steel  cases  should  be 
purchast.  The  bottom  shelves  should  be  1 2  inches  wide  to  take  the  folio 
books.  In  estimating  the  capacity  of  shelving,  eight  books  to  the  foot 
should  be  used  as  a  basis.  There  should  be  shelving  enough  to  provide  for 
the  present  collection  of  books  and  for  the  probable  additions  for  the  next 
five  years.  If  the  wall  spaces  are  not  sufficient  for  the  shelving,  free- 
standing stacks  should  be  installed.  The  passageway  between  the  stack 
and  the  wall  should  be  at  least  three  feet. 

The  current  periodicals  should  be  laid  on  their  sides  on  the  shelves  in 
one  section  devoted  to  periodical  literature,  or  a  few  pigeonholes  should  be 
made  for  them.  These  should  be  12  inches 'high,  10  inches  wide,  and  12 
inches  deep  for  the  average-sized  periodical.  A  few  larger  ones  should  be 
made  for  folios  like  the  Scientific  American.  Better  stiff,  these  spaces 
should  be  reserved  for  files  of  back  numbers  and   for  a  rack'   simply 

'  Racks  can  be  secured  from  reliable  makers  of  library  furniture. 


698  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

constructed  to  hold  current  magazines  in  a  vertical  position  for  display. 
This  should  be  placed  on  a  side  wall  of  the  hbrary.  If  the  school  has 
sufficient  funds,  a  standard  periodical  case^  for  the  better  display  of 
periodicals  should  be  purchast. 

h)  Closets:  Ample  provision  should  be  made  for  closet  space  for  storing 
back  numbers  of  magazines,  new  books,  books  for  binder,  stores  of  supplies, 
etc.,  unless  this  storage  space  is  provided  in  a  librarian's  workroom. 

c)  Furniture:  Reading  tables,  each  to  accommodate  not  more  than 
six  or  eight  readers,  comfortable  chairs,  charging  desk  and  desk  for  refer- 
ence work,  card-catalog  case,  pamphlet  cases,  magazine  stand,  newspaper 
rack,  vertical  file,  book  truck,  lockers  for  librarians. 

d)  Apparatus:  Accession  book,^  Library  of  Congress  catalog  cards, 
blank  catalog  cards,  guide  cards,  book  cards,  book  pockets,  dating  slips 
with  dater,  hbrary  stamp,  book  supports,  shelf  markers,  typewriter,  bulle- 
tin boards  of  corticine,  circulating  pictures,  clippings,  cards,  and  pamphlets. 

2.  Additional  equipment  needed  for  the  most  elective  work. —    « 

a)  Stack  shelving  when  needed,  display  case  for  illustrated  editions  of 
books,  celluloid  holders  for  handling  pictures,  files  for  lantern  slides,  post 
cards,  victrola  records,  a  globe,  a  cutting  machine,  pictures  and  mottoes  on 
walls,  casts,  and  plants. 

h)  Ample  accommodations  should  be  provided  for  assembling  in  the 
library  all  illustrative  materials  used  in  the  high  school,  such  as  maps, 
pictures,  lantern  slides,  and  victrola  records.  In  the  library  these  can  be 
made  available  to  all  departments  thru  proper  classifications,  cataloging, 
and  filing. 

E.    librarian's  workroom 

A  librarian's  workroom  of  at  least  10  by  15  feet  should  adjoin  the 
reading-room.3  It  should  be  equipt  with  a  desk  for  cataloging,  a  type- 
writer table,  a  typewriter  with  card-cataloging  attachment,  chairs,  shelves, 
and  ample  closet  space  for  storage  of  new  books  being  cataloged  and  of  old 
books  being  repaired. 

F.      LIBRARY   CLASSROOM^ 

A  hbrary  classroom  also  should,  if  possible,  adjoin  the  reading-room. 
It  should  be  furnisht  with  from  thirty  to  sixty  chairs  with  tablet  arms,  a 
small  stage,  complete  lantern  outfit,  moving-picture  outfit,  victrola,  reflecto- 
scope,  table,  and  bulletin  boards  of  corticine.  Not  more  than  two-thirds 
of  the  room  should  be  occupied  with  chairs.  A  room  so  equipt  would  serve 
as  a  model  classroom  for  visual  instruction  and  should  be  available  for  use 
by  teachers  of  all  departments  wishing  to  use  shdes,  pictures,  illustrated 

•  This  has  provision  for  current  magazines  on  top  and  drawers  below  for  storing  back  numbers.  Can  be 
purchast  from  dealers  in  standard  library  furniture. 

» It  is  possible  to  dispense  with  the  accession  book.  Accession  numbers  may  be  used,  arranged  in  the 
order  of  bills  and  entered  in  blocks  in  a  small  notebook. 

5  Preferably  at  one  end  of  the  reading-room. 

<  In  the  construction  of  special  rooms,  glass  partitions  and  glass  doors  simplify  the  problem  of  supervision. 


Report]  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  699 

books,  or  victrola  records  kept  in  the  library.  The  walls  should  be  equipt 
with  posting  surfaces  of  cork  or  burlap  for  the  display  of  posters  and 
pictures. 

Note. — For  specifications  as  to  standard  library  shelving  and  furniture,  also  plan- 
ning of  school  library  room,  architects  and  school  superintendents  are  referred  to  the 
following  authorities: 

School  Library  Management,  by  Martha  Wilson.    The  H,  W.  Wilson  Co.,  958  Univer- 
sity Ave.,  New  York  City. 
Small  Library  Biiildings,  by  Cornelia  Marvin.    American  Library  Association  Publishing 
Board,  78  E.  Washington  St.,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

G.      COMMITTEE   ROOMS   FOR   SOCIAL   STUDIES* 

There  should  be  one  or  more  committee  rooms,  among  these  the  library 
classroom,  adjoining  the  library,  where  students  could  work  in  groups  upon 
problems  assigned  them  in  EngUsh,  history,  civics,  economics,  and  other 
high-school  subjects.  It  is  also  desirable  that  the  offices  of  the  heads  of  the 
department  of  English  and  of  the  social-studies  department  should  be 
connected  conveniently  with  the  library. 

H.      STACKROOM 

A  stackroom  is  rarely  necessary,  except  in  the  case  of  the  very  large 
high  school  in  which  many  surplus  books  must  be  stored,  such  as  textbooks 
and  library  books  that  are  rarely  used. 

II.    THE  LIBRARIAN 

A.      QUALIFICATIONS 

The  librarian  in  the  high  school  should  combine  the  good  qualities  of 
both  the  librarian  and  the  teacher  and  must  be  able  to  think  clearly  and 
sympathetically  in  terms  of  the  needs  and  interests  of  high-school  students. 

A  wide  knowledge  of  books,  ability  to  organize  library  material  for 
efficient  service,  and  successful  experience  in  reference  work  should  be 
demanded  of  every  librarian.  Most  of  all  should  the  personality  of  the 
librarian  be  emphasized.  Enthusiasm  and  power  to  teach  and  inspire  are 
as  essential  in  the  high-school  librarian  as  in  the  teacher.  Successful  library 
experience  in  work  with  boys  and  girls  of  high-school  age,  either  in  the 
reference  room,  in  the  children's  department  or  school  department  of  a 
public  library,  or  in  a  high  school  should  be  required  of  candidates.  Suc- 
cessful teaching  experience  in  a  high  school  is  a  valuable  asset  in  the 
librarian. 

B.      PROFESSIONAL  REQUIREMENTS 

The  standard  requirements  for  future  appointments  of  Ubrarians  in 
high  schools  should  be  a  college  or  university  degree  with  major  studies  in 
literature,  history,  sociology,  education,  or  other  subjects  appropriate  to 
any  special  demands,  as,  for  example,  those  of  the  technical  high  school, 
upon  the  library.     In  addition  the  librarian  should  have  at  least  one  year 

'  Preferably  a    one  end  of  the  reading-room. 


700  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Library 

of  postgraduate  library  training  in  an  approved  library  school  and  one 
year's  successful  library  experience  in  work  with  young  people  in  a  library 
of  standing. 

1.  Approved  library  schools. — By  approved  library  school  is  meant  a 
school  which  meets  the  standards  of  library  training  set  up  by  the  Com- 
mittee on  Library  Training  in  the  American  Library  Association  and 
adopted  by  the  Committee  on  High  School  Libraries  in  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association.  The  following  meet  these  standards  and  are  approved 
by  the  National  Education  Association  Committee  on  High  School 
Libraries : 

New  York  State  Library-School,  Albany,  N.Y. 

University  of  Illinois  Library  School,  Urbana,  111. 

The  University  of  Wisconsin  Library  School,  Madison,  Wis. 

Western  Reserve  Library  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Simmons  College  Library  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Pratt  Institute  Library  School,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

New  York  Pubhc  Library  School,  New  York,  N.Y. 

Atlanta  Library  Training  School  of  the  Carnegie  Library,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Carnegie  Library  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Syracuse  University  Library  School,  Syracuse  University,  Syracuse, 
N.Y. 

Los  Angeles  Public  Library  Training  School,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

The  following  library  schools  which  have  been  recently  estabhshed 
give  courses  of  one  year  or  more  in  library  training  and  are  under  considera- 
tion for  approval  by  the  National  Education  Association  Committee  on 
High  School  Libraries: 

Los  Angeles  Library  School,  Public  Library,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

California  State  Library  School,  Sacramento,  Cal. 

St.  Louis  Library  School,  Pubhc  Library,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

University  of  Washington  Library  School,  Seattle,  Wash. 

2.  Standard  library-training  courses. — For  information  as  to  the  standing 
of  any  library-training  course  in  the  country  write  to  the  Chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Library  Training,  American  Library  Association,  78  East 
Washington  St.,  Chicago,  III,  or  to  Mary  E.  Hall,  Girls'  High  School, 
Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  chairman  of  Committee  on  High  School  Libraries,  National 
Education  Association. 

^.Authoritative  information. — For  help  in  securing  efficient  librarians 
for  high  schools  apply  to  the  directors  of  library  schools  listed  in  the  fore- 
going paragraphs  or  to  the  Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  High  School 
Libraries,  National  Education  Association.  Help  may  also  be  secured 
from  the  Secretary  of  the  American  Library  Association,  78  East  Washing- 
ton St.,  Chicago,  or  by  writing  to  the  secretary  of  the  state  library  com- 
mission of  any  state  having  such  a  commission  at  the  state  capitol.  Most 
states  have  such  a  commission. 


Report]  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  701 

C.      SALARIES 

The  salary  of  a  high-school  librarian  should  be  adequate  to  obtain  a 
person  with  the  quahfications  set  forth  in  this  report.  It  should  not  be 
lower  than  that  of  the  Enghsh  teacher,  but  it  may  be  necessary  to  pay  a 
higher  salary  when  there  is  an  oversupply  of  English  teachers  and  an 
undersupply  of  librarians. 

D.      ADMINISTRATIVE   REQUIREMENTS 

1.  The  library  staff. — The  Hbrary  staff  should  be  sufficiently  large  to 
keep  the  library  open  continuously  thru  the  day  session,  also  before  and 
after  the  session  and  evenings  for  night  school,  if  local  need  demands  this. 

2.  Status  of  the  librarian. — In  high  schools  having  heads  of  departments 
the  librarian  should  be  made  head  of  the  library  department,  with  status 
equal  to  that  of  the  heads  of  other  departments. 

3.  Trained  assistants. — For  every  one  thousand  students  in  daily 
attendance  a  full-time  trained  assistant  Hbrarian  is  needed  to  help  in  the 
reference,  technical,  and  clerical  work  and  to  allow  the  librarian  time  for 
conference  with  teachers  and  pupils,  to  give  instruction,  and  to  visit  classes. 

Professional  requirements  for  assistant  librarians:  Standard  require- 
ments for  assistant  librarian  should  be  the  same  as  for  the  librarian. 
There  should  be  no  distinction  between  Hbrarian  and  assistant  librarian  in 
the  requirements  for  eHgibility  except  in  the  matter  of  hbrary  experience. 

4.  Jtidicious  distinction  in  library  service. — In  the  administration  of  the 
hbrary  distinctions  should  be  made  as  to  clerical,  administrative,  technical, 
and  educational  work. 

a)  Clerical  work:  Clerical  work  of  the  high  school  of  the  nature  of  office 
work  should  not  be  demanded  of  the  librarian.  Under  no  circumstances 
should  the  hbrarian  be  expected  to  do  clerical  work  properly  required  in  the 
principal's  office,  such  as  keeping  records  of  attendance  and  official  records. 
To  require  such  work  of  trained  librarians  is  wasteful  of  educational 
resources  and  money. 

Free  textbooks  should  not  be  stored  in  the  library,  and  they  should  be 
handled,  not  by  the  library  staff,  but  by  a  special  book  clerk. 

b)  Administrative  work:  The  administrative  work  may  be  summarized 
as  follows:  Directing  the  pohcy  of  the  Hbrary,  selecting  books,  purchasing 
books,  planning  the  room  and  its  equipment,  keeping  records  of  expenses 
and  planning  the  annual  library  budget,  planning  and  directing  the  work  of 
trained  or  student  assistants,  and  building  up  a  working  coHection  of 
pamphlets,  clippings,  and  of  illustrative  material. 

The  Hbrarian  should  be  present  at  all  teachers'  meetings  held  with 

reference  to  courses  and  poHcy  governing  instruction  and  should  have  the 

ability  to  work  for  and  with  teachers  so  well  that  mistakes  in  adaptation  of 

book  collections  to  needs  may  not  occur. 

Note. — These  requirements  are  also  approved  by  the  New  York  State  Board  of 
Regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York  and  by  the  Association  of  American 
Library  Schools. 


702  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Library 

c)  Technical  work:  The  technical  work  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 
The  classifying,  cataloging,  indexing,  and  filing  of  all  printed  matter  so 
that  it  may  be  readily  available  for  use;  estabUshing  a  practical  charging 
system  to  keep  track  of  books  and  other  materials  borrowed  from  the 
Hbrary;  attending  to  the  proper  binding  and  rebinding  of  books;  and 
keeping  necessary  records  and  statistics  of  additions  to  library,  use  of 
library,  etc. 

d)  Educational  work:  The  educational  work  may  be  summarized  as 
follows: 

(i)  Reference. — Helping  teachers  and  students  to  find  suitable  material 
on  special  topics,  notifying  teachers  of  new  books  and  articles  along  pro- 
fessional lines,  looking  up  answers  to  questions  which  have  come  up  in 
classroom  or  laboratory,  and  preparing  suggestive  reference  reading  along 
the  lines  of  the  course  of  study. 

(2)  InstriKtion. — Systematic  instruction  of  students  in  the  use  of 
reference  books  and  library  tools,  such  as  card-catalog  indexes,  etc.,  by  the 
giving  of  lectures,  quizzes,  and  practical  tests.  In  this  instruction  the 
relationship  of  the  high-school  library  and  the  public  library  and  the  relation 
of  a  Hbrary  to  life  outside  of  school  should  be  emphasized. 

(3)  Educational  and  vocational  guidance. — Cultural  and  inspirational 
work  in  widening  the  interests  of  the  students  and  in  cultivating  a  taste  for 
good  reading.  This  is  done  thru  posting  interesting  material  on  bulletin 
boards  and  compiling  Hstsof  interesting  reading  in  books  and  magazines,  thru 
reading  clubs  and  personal  guidance  of  the  reading  of  individual  students. 

The  librarian  should  also  cooperate  with  vocational  counselors  in  aiding 
students  in  the  choice  of  vocations  and  should  have  on  hand  in  the  library 
pamphlets,  catalogs,  etc.,  on  the  occupations. 

A  card  record  for  each  student  should  be  kept  from  year  to  year,  showing 
the  progress  of  the  student's  reading  interests.  Much  attention  should  be 
given  to  individual  and  group  conferences. 

The  work  of  the  assistant  librarian,  altho  under  the  direction  of  the 
librarian  in  charge,  should  be  coordinate  in  many  respects  with  that  of  the 
librarian  and  should  be  along  inspirational  and  educational,  as  well  as  tech- 
nical, lines.  The  work  of  the  assistant  Hbrarian  should  include,  among 
other  duties,  keeping  records  of  loans,  caring  for  magazines,  newspapers, 
pictures,  and  clippings,  helping  with  cataloging,  assisting  in  enforcing  dis- 
cipline, helping  in  the  supervision  of  clubs,  and  personally  guiding  the 
reading  of  students. 

III.    SCIENTIFIC  SELECTION  AND  CARE  OF  BOOKS 

The  selection  of  books  should  be  made  with  reference  to: 

1.  Educational  guidance  and  local  industrial,  commercial,  and  com- 
munity interests. 

2.  Laboratory  and  classroom  needs. 

3.  The  general  recreational  and  cultural  needs  of  the  students. 


Report)  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  703 

All  books  should  be  classified,  shelf-listed,  cataloged,  and  kept  in  good 
repair  and  in  fit  condition  for  ready  use. 

Book  selections  should  be  made  by  the  librarian  with  the  approval  of 
the  principal,  and  must  be  based  upon  (i)  recommendations  by  heads  of 
departments  and  teachers  and  (2)  the  general  cultural  needs  of  the  students. 

The  library  should  be  provided  with  the  best  reference  books  and  with 
literature  that  has  a  natural  human  appeal  to  young  people.  There  should 
be  very  few  books  of  criticism,  a  few  complete  works  of  authors,  a  generous 
proportion  of  finely  illustrated  editions  of  standard  books,  popular  scientific 
books,  special  reference  books  on  methods  of  teaching,  pictures  appropriate 
for  illustrative  purposes,  novels,  short  stories,  books  of  travel,  biography, 
modern  drama,  modern  poetry,  weekly  and  monthly  magazines,  and 
newspapers. 

Subscription  books  should  be  avoided,  with  certain  exceptions  known  to 
trained  librarians.  Information  on  this  subject  may  be  obtained  from  the 
state  library  commission. 

Books  that  are  out  of  date  or  seldom  used  should  not  be  allowed  to 
occupy  valuable  shelf  space  but  should  be  stored  where  accessible,  or  should 
be  otherwise  disposed  of. 

Books  greatly  in  demand  should  be  supplied  in  duplicate  to  meet  the 
demand  not  only  adequately  but  generously. 

IV.    INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  USE  OF  BOOKS  AND  LIBRARIES 

One  of  the  following  plans  should  be  selected  in  giving  instruction  in  the 
use  of  books  and  libraries: 

A.  A  minimum  of  three  recitation  periods  per  year  should  be  given  in 
each  EngUsh  course  to  graded  instruction  in  the  use  of  books  and  libraries. 
This  instruction  should  be  given  by  the  librarian  and  credited  as  a  distinct 
requirement  for  graduation.  The  credit  should  be  recorded  as  a  grade  in 
Library  Instruction,  and  not  as  a  grade  in  English  or  some  other  subject. 

B.  To  establish  Instruction  in  the  Use  of  Books  and  Libraries  as  a 
unit  course,  a  minimum  of  twelve  lessons  a  year  should  be  given  to  this  work. 
In  view  of  the  fact  that  efficiency  of  instruction  in  any  department  depends 
upon  an  intelligent  use  of  the  library,  the  following  schedule  would  seem 
practicable: 

In  English  three  lessons  a  year  should  be  given  to  instruction  in  the  use 
of  the  library,  in  history  three  lessons  a  year,  in  Latin  one  lesson,  in  Spanish 
or  French  one  lesson,  and  in  the  sciences  and  manual  training  together  four 
lessons.  The  required  twelve  lessons  a  year  should  thus  be  scheduled  for 
instruction  in  the  use  of  the  library. 

Training  in  hbrary  use  should  include: 

I.  The  use  of  books  for  educational  guidance. — The  students  should  be 
given  systematic  guidance  in  the  choice  of  books  helpful  to  an  understanding 


704  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Library 

of  social  well-being.  Clubs  should  be  organized  to  study  biographies  of 
persons  who  have  achieved  pecuHar  success  in  particular  vocations  and  of 
those  who  have  rendered  great  services  to  mankind. 

2.  The  use  of  books  as  tools. — The  lessons  given  should  include  such 
topics  as  the  card  catalog,  magazine  indexes,  dictionaries,  encyclopedias, 
documents,  official  city  reports,  indexes  to  sets  of  books,  and  special  and 
commercial  indexes.  These  lessons  should  be  given  early  in  the  high-school 
course,  during  the  first  and  second  years,  that  students  may  use  the  library 
intelligently  and  efficiently. 

3 .  The  use  of  books  as  a  means  of  recreation y  amusement,  and  inspiration. — 
The  students  should  be  encouraged  to  collect  books  for  personal  libraries 
and  should  be  given  information  concerning  good  editions  of  books,  such  as 
the  "Everyman  Series"  and  other  inexpensive  but  well-printed  editions. 
They  should  be  taught  something  of  bookbinding  and  should  be  fortified 
against  the  wiles  of  unscrupulous  book  agents.  The  librarian  should  or- 
ganize reading  clubs  and  devise  other  means  of  making  reading  enjoyable. 

4.  "Esprit  de  corps^'  in  handling  books  as  public  property. — Lessons  in 
this  connection  should  be  given  upon  (a)  the  history  of  printing  and  book- 
binding, {b)  the  care  of  the  physical  book,  (c)  cooperation  in  the  care  of 
pubUc  property,  (d)  cooperation  in  securing  the  greatest  benefits  from 
public  educational  institutions,  (e)  unselfishness  in  the  use  of  pubHc  goods, 
(/)  the  examination  of  representative  collections  of  books  in  the  best  edi- 
tions, and  (g)  appreciation  of  the  cost  and  value  of  Hbrary  equipment. 

Lessons  2,3,  and  4  should  be  given  to  the  students  when  they  first  enter 
high  school;  lesson  i  may  be  given  later. 

5.  Relation  of  high-school  and  public  libraries. — To  relate  the  work  in 
the  high  school  library  to  that  of  the  pubHc  library  and  to  make  clear  the 
uses  to  students,  after  school  days  are  over,  of  an  institution  which  should 
be  a  factor  in  their  future  mental  development,  classes  should  be  taken  to 
the  pubUc  library,  where  its  book  resources,  rules,  methods,  departments, 
catalog,  and  support  can  be  briefly  explained  by  one  of  the  staff.  This 
should  be  done  in  the  large  cities  and  small  towns  as  well.  Definite  outHned 
instructions  can  be  prepared  for  the  talks  which  will  make  them  of  practical 
value.  Where  visits  to  the  library  are  an  impossibihty  in  school  hours 
because  of  distance,  competent  members  of  the  library  staff  may  be  invited 
to  talk  on  the  subject. 

Courses  2,  3,  4,  and  5  are  the  most  important.  Other  courses  may  be 
offered  in  heu  of  course  i. 

V.    ANNUAL  APPROPRIATION  ' 

The  Hbrary  should  receive  an  annual  appropriation  of  sufficient  amount 
in  addition  to  salaries  to  provide  means  for  the  necessary  correlation  with 
all  other  departments.  This  appropriation  should  be  increast  annually  in 
direct  ratio  to  the  increasing  Hbrary  needs  of  each  department  and  should 


Report]  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  705 

include  specific  amounts  for  the  maintenance  and  supervision  of  the 
library. 

The  maintenance  of  the  library  should  not  depend  upon  incidental 
sources  of  money,  such  as  school  entertainments  and  "socials."  Students 
may  be  encouraged  to  raise  funds  for  the  library  in  appropriate  ways,  but 
these  funds  should  be  used  only  for  such  accessories  as  make  the  hbrary 
more  restful,  more  refreshing,  and  more  attractive.  By  this  means  decora- 
tions, special  equipment,  finely  illustrated  editions,  and  plants  may  be 
secured;  but  the  high  school  should  not  be  forst  to  depend  upon  such  means 
for  necessary  Hbrary  service. 

The  initial  expense  of  the  library  includes  (i)  the  salaries  of  the  librarian 
and  assistants,  which  should  be  on  the  same  schedule  as  those  of  other 
teachers;  and  (2)  the  cost  of  books  and  equipment. 

Funds  for  maintenance  should  provide  for  increase  of  salaries,  additional 
books,  periodicals,  binding  and  other  repairs,  replacement  of  worn-out 
books.  Library  of  Congress  catalog  cards,  general  supplies,  and  funds  for 
general  depreciation,  for  new  equipment,  and  for  handling  materials  bor- 
rowed from  pubUc-library  agencies. 

Funds  should  be  provided  in  such  a  way  that  the  librarian  may  take 
advantage  of  sales  to  buy  books  as  they  are  needed  and  offered,  instead  of 
being  forst  to  buy  only  once  or  twice  a  year,  as  is  customary  with  most 
boards  of  education.    A  contingent  fund  is  necessary. 

A  minimum  annual  appropriation  per  student  should  be  determined 
upon  for  books,  pictures,  magazines,  and  newspapers. 

For  books  alone  a  minimum^  of  50  cents  a  student  is  needed.  Not  less 
than  $40  a  year  for  magazines  is  needed  even  in  small  high  schools. 

Funds  should  be  apportioned  scientifically  by  the  librarian  according 
to  the  specific  needs  of  each  department  or  subject,  and  according  to  the 
recreational  and  cultural  needs  of  the  students.  A  tentative  schedule  of 
disbursements  should  be  prepared  before  book  Usts  are  made. 

Each  department  should  file  with  the  librarian  definite  statements  of 
needs,  as  they  are  felt  thruout  the  year,  and  the  librarian  should  make 
disbursements  according  to  these  needs. 

In  technical,  commercial,  or  academic  high  schools,  after  the  necessary 
quota  of  reference  books  has  been  accumulated  and  other  necessary  books 
acquired,  the  amount  spent  on  books  for  teaching  purposes  should  not 
exceed  the  amount  spent  on  books  for  general  recreational  and  cultural 
purposes.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  hbrary  is  primarily  for  the 
pupils. 

VI.     STATE  SUPERVISION  OF  SCHOOL  LIBRARIES 

A  trained  librarian  should  be  employed  by  the  state  department  of 
education,  or  by  the  state  department  of  education  in  cooperation  with  the 
state  library  commission,  to  act  as  supervisor  of  all  public-school  libraries 

»  Amounts  recommeniJed  are  based  upon  prices  quoted  in  1917. 


7o6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

in  the  state — normal,  high,  elementary,  and  rural.  Expert  supervision  will 
mean  a  high  standard  of  efficiency  in  even  the  small  high  schools  thruout 
the  state. 

In  states  having  no  supervisors  of  libraries  high-school  inspectors  should 
keep  records  upon  high-school  libraries  and  embody  in  their  reports  detailed 
statements  of  library  conditions  in  all  high  schools  visited.  A  six  weeks' 
course  in  modern  library  methods  would  be  of  advantage  to  inspectors. 

/.    JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

The  junior  high  school  library  should  be  organized  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  meet  the  needs  of  boys  and  girls  in  Grades  VII,  VIII,  and  IX.  The 
materials  in  the  library  must  be  suited  to  the  expansion  and  development  of 
the  students  and  to  their  natural  interests  and  powers  of  appreciation  and 
understanding.  The  library  in  the  junior  high  school  should  be  sharply 
differentiated  from  the  library  in  the  senior  high  school,  not  only  as  to  the 
character  of  books  selected,  but  also  as  to  the  kind  of  service  expected  from 
the  hbrarian.  It  should  contribute  to  more  varied  and  extensive  interests. 
Unlike  the  library  of  the  senior  high  school,  the  library  of  the  junior  high 
school  does  not  require  the  kind  of  material  and  the  character  of  service 
necessary  to  a  high  degree  of  intensive  study,  concentration,  and  appHcation 
in  definite  specialization. 

The  organization  of  the  library  in  the  junior  high  school  should  conform 
to  the  organization  of  the  junior  high  school  curriculum.  Unremitting 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  details  of  supervised  study  when  the 
students  come  to  the  library  to  do  supplementary  study  or  collateral  reading. 

1.  Housing  and  equipment. — What  has  been  recommended  as  to  attain- 
able standards  with  reference  to  location,  size  of  reading-room,  furniture, 
and  equipment  appHes  equally  well  to  the  junior  high  school  library. 

2.  The  librarian. — The  librarian  should  be  a  student  of  children  and 
adolescent  psychology  and  should  have  sufficient  culture  and  professional 
training  to  select  books  discriminatingly  from  the  standpoint  of  the  appro- 
priateness and  the  educational  value  of  their  subject-matter.  The  hbrarian 
should  be  prepared  to  give  tactful  and  intelligent  supervision  to  the  reading 
of  the  children. 

The  librarian  should  be  a  graduate  of  an  approved  library  school  with 
special  training  in  children's  work  and  should  be  a  normal-school  graduate 
with  college  or  university  training  in  addition,  or  a  college  or  university 
graduate  with  special  courses  in  education.  The  librarian  should  have  had 
several  years'  experience  in  library  work  with  children,  or  in  reference  work, 
or  in  school-department  work  in  a  first-class  public  library. 

The  librarian  should  keep  reading  records  of  individual  students,  to  be 
sent  to  the  senior  high  schools  in  which  students  enrol. 

«  For  list  of  approved  library  schools  sec  p.  1 1 . 


Report]  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  707 

3.  Scientific  selection  and  care  of  books. — The  statement  of  Attainable 
Standards,  pages  6  to  17,  applies  here.  It  is  suggested  that  the  recom- 
mendations be  adapted  to  specific  needs. 

4.  Instruction  in  the  use  of  hooks  and  libraries.. — The  statement  of 
Attainable  Standards,  pages  6  to  17,  appHes  here.  It  is  suggested  that 
recommendations  be  adapted  to  specific  needs. 

5.  Annual  appropriations. — The  statement  of  Attainable  Standards, 
pages  6  to  17,  applies  here.  It  is  suggested  that  recommendations  be 
adapted  to  specific  needs. 

6.  State  supervision. — A  trained  librarian  should  be  employed  by  the 
state  department  of  education,  or  by  the  state  department  of  education  in 
cooperation  with  the  state  library  commission,  to  act  as  supervisor  of  all 
pubHc-school  libraries  in  the  state — normal,  high,  elementary,  and  rural. 

//.    HIGH  SCHOOLS  WITH  ENROLMENT  BELOW  200 

I.  Housing  and  equipment. — The  library  should  have  a  separate  room 
whenever  it  is  possible. 

If  a  separate  room  is  not  available,  a  classroom  should  be  fitted  up  with 
bookcases  and  a  reading  table,  and  the  library  atmosphere  should  be  created 
even  if  recitations  have  to  be  held  in  the  room. 

The  room  should  be  easily  accessible  from  the  study  hall  and  should 
be  open  to  students  only  when  the  Hbrarian  or  her  assistant  is  in  the 
room. 

The  room  should  be  well  lighted  and  should  have  an  exposure  which  will 
admit  plenty  of  sunlight  during  the  day.  The  room  should  be  well  venti- 
lated and  heated.  It  should  be  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  Ubrarian's 
desk,  catalog  case,  and  tables  and  chairs  sufficient  to  accommodate  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  readers,  in  addition  to  the  bookshelves. 

In  small  high  schools  with  an  enrolment  of  fewer  than  one  hundred 
students  it  is  very  common  to  have  a  main  room  in  which  each  student  has 
his  own  desk.  This  arrangement  brings  all  the  students  under  the  direct 
control  of  the  principal,  which  is  very  important.  In  many  of  the  smaller 
high  schools  there  are  frequent  changes  in  the  teaching  staff,  and  the 
assistant  teachers  are  very  often  beginners  who  have  not  as  yet  developt 
good  methods  of  disciphne.  This  plan  is  also  desirable  because  it 
strengthens  the  unity  of  the  school.  With  this  arrangement  the  students 
do  all  their  studying  at  their  own  desks.  Recitations  should  not  be  held 
in  the  main  room.  When  conditions  make  possible  the  use  of  home  desks, 
library  books  and  equipment  should  be  in  this  main  room,  and  not  in  a 
separate  room.  Reading  tables,  bulletin  boards,  and  ample  bookshelves 
should  be  provided  in  this  room. 

So  far  as  the  quahty  of  equipment  is  concerned,  the  standard  should 
be  the  same  as  for  libraries  in  large  high  schools. 


7o8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Library 

a)  Tables  and  chairs:  The  size  of  tables  depends  upon  the  size  of  the 
room.  ^  Tables  8  feet  long  and  4  feet  wide  make  convenient  study  tables. 

b)  Librarian's  desk  and  chair:  These  may  be  secured  through  a  local 
dealer.  The  fiat- top  desk  and  swivel  chair  would  cost  about  $25.^  The 
desk  should  have  drawers  on  either  side  of  the  opening  in  front  and  a  vertical 
file  below,  with  drawers  on  one  side.  It  should  be  placed  near  the  exit, 
so  that  borrowers  must  pass  by  the  librarian's  desk.  There  should  be  free 
access  to  the  shelves.  A  regular  library  charging  outfit  should  also  be 
provided.  There  should  be  provided  also  a  standard  catalog  case  (3-inch 
by  5-inch  cards),  the  number  of  drawers  depending  on  the  number  of  books 
in  the  collection.  In  estimating  drawer  space  700  cards  should  be  counted 
to  the  drawer.  Every  book  requires,  on  the  average,  four  cards,  including 
the  sheK-Ust  card.  Five  years'  normal  growth  should  be  provided  for  in 
advance.  Sectional  cases  are  very  satisfactory.  A  section  of  drawers 
should  be  added  as  needed,  if  this  style  of  case  is  used. 

2.  The  librarian. — A  full-time  hbrarian  with  the  professional  training  of 
a  one-year  course  in  an  accredited  school  for  Ubrarians  is  the  ideal.  In  the 
larger  schools  this  ideal  should  be  realized,  but  in  the  smaller  it  may  be 
necessary  to  provide  "teacher-librarians."  This  term  "teacher-librarian" 
means  a  high-school  teacher  who  is  reUeved  of  a  part  of  her  teaching  duties 
and  placed  in  charge  of  the  school  Ubrary.  To  qualify  for  this  work  she 
should  have  at  least  a  six  weeks'  course  of  training  in  a  summer  library 
school  approved  by  the  Committee  on  High  School  Libraries  in  the  National 
Education  Association,  or  in  a  public-Ubrary  course  of  training  which  meets 
with  the  approval  of  this  committee. 

If  college  training  is  essential  for  the  high-school  teacher,  then  college 
and  technical  library  training  are  essential  quaUfications  for  the  librarian. 
For  those  schools  which  cannot  have  a  full-time  librarian,  with  the  regular 
one-year  course  in  library  training  in  an  accredited  school  for  librarians, 
college  graduation  and  an  approved  short  course  in  library  science  are 
preferable. 

When  the  library  is  under  the  supervision  of  a  teacher,  her  daily  schedule 
should  be  definitely  arranged,  in  order  that  she  may  have  regular  hours  in 
the  library.  She  should  then  train  one  or  more  students  to  assist  her,  in 
order  that  the  Hbrary  may  be  open  all  day.  Students  should  not  be 
admitted  to  the  library  when  there  is  no  one  in  charge  of  it. 

3.  Scientific  selection  and  care  of  books. — Greater  care  should  be  exercised 
in  the  selection  of  books  for  a  small  library  than  for  a  large  one.  It  is 
difficult  to  select  the  few  best  books  out  of  a  multitude  of  really  good  books. 
Every  book  purchast  for  a  high-school  hbrary  should  be  a  useful  book  and 
one  that  will  be  in  constant  use.  Standard  approved  lists  of  books  for 
high  schools  such  as  those  pubhsht  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation should  be  used  in  building  up  a  small  library. 

'  These  may  be  purchast  from  reliable  makers  of  library  furniture. 


Report)  STANDARD  HIGH -SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  709 

An  accredited  high  school  with  an  enrolment  of  100  or  fewer  students 
should  have  a  library  of  not  fewer  than  1000  carefully  selected  books,  and 
schools  with  an  enrolment  of  200  should  have  at  least  2000  volumes.  This 
means  practically  ten  volumes  for  every  student  in  the  high  school.  The 
high-school  Ubraries  could  cooperate  with  the  pubUc  libraries  and  make  use 
of  their  reference  and  other  books  and  of  advice  and  service  which  the 
librarians  of  the  pubUc  Ubraries  may  render.  This  will  increase  materially 
the  efficiency  of  the  school  Ubrary. 

The  high-school  libraries  should  subscribe  to  several  good  magazines, 
some  for  teachers,  others  for  students. 

4.  Instmction  in  the  use  of  books  and  libraries. — The  statement  of  Attain- 
able Standards,  pages  6  to  17,  applies  here.  It  is  suggested  that  the  recom- 
mendations be  adapted  to  specific  needs. 

5.  Appropriations. — There  should  be  a  definite  annual  appropriation, 
however  small  the  amount  may  be,  for  the  purchase  of  books,  subscriptions 
to  magazines,  and  equipment  and  suppHes. 

The  statement  of  Attainable  Standards,  pages  6  to  17,  applies  here. 
It  is  suggested  that  the  recommendations  be  adapted  to  specific  needs. 

6.  State  supervision. — A  trained  librarian  should  be  employed  by  the 
state  department  of  education,  or  by  the  state  department  of  education  in 
cooperation  with  the  state  library  commission,  to  act  as  supervisor  of  all 
public-school  libraries  in  the  state — normal,  high,  elementary,  and  rural. 

///.    FOUR-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  OR  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 
WITH  'enrolment  BETWEEN  200  AND  500 

I.  Housing  and  equipment. — Adequate  housing  and  equipment  include 
more  than  tables,  chairs,  books,  and  a  corner  in  the  study  hall  or  in  a 
classroom.  There  should  be  a  library  room  large  enough  to  seat  at  one 
time  the  largest-sized  class  in  the  school.  As  a  rule  it  should  have  a  seating 
capacity  of  at  least  thirty  to  fifty.  Enough  wall  space  is  needed  to  provide 
standard  shelving  not  only  to  hold  the  present  number  of  books  but  to  allow 
for  a  five  years'  normal  growth.  Sufficient  floor  space  should  be  provided 
to  accommodate  a  rack  for  periodicals,  a  vertical  filing-case,  and  a  librarian's 
desk,  in  addition  to  chairs  and  tables.  The  library  room  should  be  located 
in  an  accessible  and  quiet  part  of  the  building.  The  lighting,  ventilating, 
and  heating  facilities  of  the  room  should  be  designed  with  particular  care. 
The  furniture  and  shelving  should  be  of  good  quality  and  of  standard  size 
and  made  of  a  finish  to  harmonize  with  that  of  the  room. 

The  same  kind  of  equipment  is  needed  as  for  larger  high  schools  but  on 
a  smaller  scale.  Tables,  a  rack  for  periodicals,  chairs,  wall  cases  for  books, 
librarian's  desk,  a  typewriter,  catalog  case,  and  bulletin  boards  are  the  most 
important  necessities.  Additional  furniture  and  equipment  should  be 
supphed  as  needs  become  imperative. 


710  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

The  library  should  be  a  separate  room  used  for  neither  study-room  nor 
recitation  purposes. 

If  the  library  must  be  used  as  a  study  hall,  students  should  not  only  be 
carefully  guided  in  their  use  of  time  in  reading  but  should  be  systematically 
aided  in  the  improvement  of  their  methods  of  study.  If  conditions  are 
such  that  a  librarian  cannot  be  secured  unless  the  study-hall  teacher  can  be 
dispenst  with,  a  competent  librarian  may  not  only  attend  to  the  Ubrary 
work  but  also  advise  students  in  their  studies.  Under  such  conditions  the 
library  and  study  hall  should  of  course  be  combined. 

In  case  that  it  is  impossible  to  provide  a  separate  room  for  the  Hbrary, 
or  combined  library  and  study  hall,  a  section  of  the  assembly  hall  should  be 
fitted  up  with  reference  books,  tables,  and  chairs,  or  an  English  or  history 
classroom  should  be  equipt  with  shelving  for  books  and  with  at  least  one 
table. 

2.  The  librarian. — A  full-time  librarian  with  training  and  experience 
should  be  in  charge  of  the  library.  The  training  should  be  a  course  in 
library  methods  approved  by  the  National  Education  Association  Commit- 
tee on  High  School  Libraries,  such  course  to  be  in  a  library  school,  college, 
university,  state  hbrary  commission,  or  public  library^  in  which  an  adequate 
training  course  is  offered. 

For  the  standing  of  such  library  courses  apply  to  the  Chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  High  School  Libraries  in  the  National  Education  Association. 

In  the  small  city  where  the  size  of  the  high  school  alone  does  not  warrant 
the  salary  of  a  trained  librarian,  the  librarian  should  be  employed  not  only 
for  service  in  the  high  school,  but  also  to  supervise  the  grade-school  libraries 
in  charge  of  assistants. 

Student  assistants  for  clerical  help  should  be  employed  when  needed. 

If  the  hbrary  is  under  the  direction  of  a  teacher  a  definite  daily  schedule 
should  be  arranged,  apportioning  the  teacher's  time  between  the  classroom 
and  the  library,  and  other  arrangements  should  be  made  for  the  library  to 
be  open  all  day  for  reading  and  reference.  Thoroly  satisfactory  library 
service,  however,  cannot  be  given  by  a  teacher.  Every  standard  high 
school  should  have  a  trained  librarian. 

Students  should  not  be  admitted  to  the  library  except  when  the  teacher 
or  other  authorized  person  is  in  charge. 

The  supervision  of  the  library  should  not  be  intrusted  to  anyone  who 
has  not  had  at  least  a  six  weeks'  course  of  library  training  approved  by  the 
state  library  commission  at  the  state  capitol,  or  the  National  Education 
Association  Committee  on  High  School  Libraries. 

3.  Scientific  selection  and  care  of  books. — The  proper  selection  and  care 
of  books  are  as  vital  considerations  for  libraries  in  small  high  schools  as  for 
libraries  in  large  high  schools. 

'  The  training  courses  given  in  public  libraries  often  are  limited  in  scope  and  apply  essentially  to  local 
methods,  which  make  them  inadequate  for  general  professional  training. 


I 

I 


Report]  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  711 

For  a  working  library,  from  2000  to  3000  carefully  selected  volumes 
are  necessary.  If  the  number  of  books  is  small,  a  large  number  of  maga- 
zines, in  proportion,  might  be  taken. 

The  high  school  should  cooperate  systematically  with  the  local  public 
library,  if  there  is  one,  with  the  state  library  commission,  the  state  univer- 
sity extension  department,  and  with  other  public-Hbrary  agencies. 

If  conditions  are  at  all  favorable  regular  service  should  be  secured  from 
the  county  library. 

By  proper  cooperation  with  public-library  agencies  in  securing  the  loan 
of  many  necessary  books,  a  generous  portion  of  the  book  fund  may  be  made 
available  for  subscription  to  a  few  well-selected  magazines,  the  binding  of 
these  magazines  for  future  reference  use,  and  the  supplying  of  a  file  of 
pamphlets,  clippings,  pictures,  post  cards,  and  lantern  sHdes  for  illustrative 
use  in  class  work.  Each  school  library  should  have  its  own  permanent 
collection  of  important  reference  books. 

The  smaller  the  library  the  more  minute  the  cataloging  should  be. 

4.  Library  instruction. — The  same  courses  should  be  given  as  specified 
in  Attainable  Standards,  pages  6  to  17. 

5.  Annual  appropriation. — Definite  funds  for  books,  magazines,  and 
papers  are  necessary,  however  small  the  funds  may  be. 

Though  smaller,  the  funds  should  be  handled  as  for  larger  high-school 
libraries. 

6.  State  supervision  of  school  libraries. — Where  there  is  no  trained  super- 
visor of  school  libraries,  a  six  weeks'  course  in  modern  library  methods  would 
be  of  advantage  to  state  high-school  inspectors  visiting  small  high  schools. 


IV.    FOUR-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  AND  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 
WITH  ENROLMENT  BETWEEN  500  AND  1000 

1.  Housing  and  equipment. — The  statement  of  Attainable  Standards, 
pages  6  to  17,  applies  here.  It  is  suggested  that  the  recommendations  be 
adapted  to  specific  needs. 

2.  The  librarian. — The  statement  of  Attainable  Standards,  pages  6  to 
17,  appUes  here.  It  is  suggested  that  the  recommendations  be  adapted  to 
specific  needs. 

In  schools  of  from  500  to  1000  enrolment  and  even  in  some  larger  schools 
conditions  may  make  these  qualifications  impracticable.  For  such  schools 
the  following  recommendations  are  submitted: 

a)  High  schools  with  enrolment  of  800  and  over:  The  librarian  should 
be  a  graduate  of  an  approved  library  school,  or  should  at  least  hold  a  certifi- 
cate for  a  full  one-year  course  in  library  economy  successfully  completed  in 
an  approved  library  school,  and  should  have  at  least  two  years  of  successful 
experience  in  library  work  with  young  people  in  a  library  of  standing,  or 
in  Heu  of  one  of  these  years  one  year  of  successful  teaching  experience  in  a 


712  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

high  school.  If  the  librarian  is  not  a  college  graduate,  four  years  of  experi- 
ence in  library  work  or  in  teaching  in  a  high  school  should  be  required  in 
addition  to  the  year  of  training  in  an  approved  library  school. 

b)  High  schools  with  enrolment  between  500  and  700:  A  full-time 
librarian  with  training  and  experience  should  be  in  charge  of  the  library. 
If  possible,  the  standard  should  be  the  same  as  recommended  above  for 
schools  of  800  and  over.  Where  this  is  impossible  the  following  standards 
are  suggested: 

(i)  A  full-time  librarian  with  college  graduation  and  at  least  a  six 
weeks'  course  in  library  methods  approved  by  the  National  Education 
Association  Committee  on  High  School  Libraries,  together  with  one  year 
of  successful  library  experience.  Teaching  experience  is  a  valuable  asset. 
The  six  weeks'  course  is  of  necessity  superficial,  but  under  some  circum- 
stances may  be  acceptable  until  higher  requirements  can  be  met. 

(2)  A  full-time  librarian  who  is  a  high-school  graduate  and  has  had  a 
course  of  training  in  library  methods,  given  by  a  public  library,  library  com- 
mission, college,  or  other  institution  approved  by  the  National  Education 
Association  Committee  on  High  School  Libraries,  and  in  addition  two 
years  of  experience  in  a  library  of  standing. 

3.  Scientific  selection  and  care  of  hooks. — The  statement  of  Attainable 
Standards,  pages  6  to  17,  applies  here.  It  is  suggested  that  the  recommen- 
dations be  adapted  to  specific  needs. 

Collections  of  3000  to  8000  volumes  are  needed  for  high  schools  of 
500  to  1000  enrolment. 

4.  Instrtiction  in  the  use  of  hooks  and  libraries . — The  statement  of  Attain- 
able Standards,  pages  6  to  17,  applies  here.  It  is  suggested  that  the 
recommendations  be  adapted  to  specific  needs. 

5.  Appropriation. — The  statement  of  Attainable  Standards,  pages  6 
to  17,  appHes  here.  It  is  suggested  that  the  recommendations  be  adapted 
to  specific  needs. 

High  schools  of  500  to  1000  students  should  have  a  minimum  appro- 
priation of  from  $200  to  $300  per  year  for  books  and  magazines 5  $400  to 
$500  should  be  appropriated.^ 

6.  State  supervision  of  school  libraries. — A  trained  librarian  should  be 
employed  by  the  state  department  of  education,  or  by  the  state  department 
of  education  in  cooperation  with  the  state  Hbrary  commission,  to  act  as 
supervisor  of  all  public-school  hbraries  in  the  state — normal,  high, 
elementary,  and  rural. 

V.    FOUR-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  AND  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 
WITH  ENROLMENT  BETWEEN  1000  AND  3000 
I.  Housing  and  equipment. — The  statement  of  Attainable  Standards, 
pages  6  to  17,  apphes  here.     It  is  suggested  that  the  recommendations  be 
adapted  to  specific  needs. 

» Amounts  recommended  are  based  upon  prices  quoted  in  IQ17. 


Report)  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  713 

Shelving  must  be  provided  for  a  maximum  collection  of  from  10,000 
to  20,coo  volumes  for  high  schools  of  from  1000  to  3000  enrolment. 

2.  The  librarian. — The  statement  of  Attainable  Standards,  pages  6  to 
1 7,  applies  here. 

The  standard  requirement  for  the  future  librarian  in  high  schools  with 
an  enrolment  of  1000  to  3000  should  be  a  college  or  university  degree  with 
major  studies  in  literature,  history,  sociology,  education,  or  other  subjects 
appropriate  to  any  special  demands  of  the  high  school  upon  the  Ubrary, 
together  with  one  or  two  years  of  postgraduate  library  training  in  an 
approved  library  school  and  one  year's  successful  library  experience  in  work 
with  young  people  in  a  library  of  standing. 

In  high  schools  of  1000  pupils  a  full-time  trained  assistant  Ubrarian 
should  be  appointed.  This  assistant  should  at  least  have  completed  satis- 
factorily a  full  one-year  course  in  an  approved  Hbrary  school. 

In  large  high  schools  of  2000  to  3000  enrolment,  a  second  assistant  in 
the  library  should  be  appointed  in  addition  to  the  assistant  recommended 
for  a  school  of  1000  pupils.  This  assistant  should  have  the  same  profes- 
sional training  as  the  first  assistant,  and  a  library  clerk  or  page  or  student 
pages  should  be  employed  to  assist  in  general  manual  and  routine  work,  as 
keeping  records  of  circulation,  listing  books  for  purchase,  hsting  books  at 
bindery,  preparing  notices  on  overdue  books  and  lost  books,  lettering  dis- 
play posters,  keeping  books  in  order  on  shelves,  alphabetizing  and  fiHng 
cards,  numbering  books  and  pasting  labels,  and  replacing  books  on  shelves. 
The  work  of  the  assistant  should  be  determined  by  the  librarian. 

3.  Scientific  selection  and  care  of  hooks. — The  statement  of  Attainable 
Standards,  pages  6  to  17,  applies  here.  It  is  suggested  that  the  recom- 
mendations be  adapted  to  specific  needs. 

For  high  schools  not  exceeding  an  enrolment  of  1000  students,  from 
5000  to  8000  volumes,  not  including  duplicates,  carefully  selected,  make  a 
good  working  library. 

4.  Instruction  in  the  use  of  hooks  and  libraries . — The  statement  of  Attain- 
able Standards,  pages  6  to  17,  appHes  here.  It  is  suggested  that  the 
recommendations  be  adapted  to  specific  needs. 

5.  Adequate  appropriation. — The  statement  of  Attainable  Standards, 
pages  6  to  17,  applies  here.  It  is  suggested  that  the  recommendations  be 
adapted  to  specific  needs. 

High  schools  of  1000  to  3000  students  need  as  a  minimum  appro- 
priation from  $300  to  $500  per  year;  from  $500  to  $1200  should  be 
appropriated.'  For  binding  and  rebinding,  high  schools  of  800  to  1000 
students  need  a  minimum  of  $40  a  year;  high  schools  of  1200  to  3000 
need  $75  a  year.^ 

»  Amounts  recommended  are  based  upon  prices  quoted  in  191 7. 

■  When  the  library  is  new  it  is  evident  that  comparatively  little  rebinding  will  be  necessary.  The  need 
for  rebinding  and  repairing  increases  with  the  age  of  the  library  and  with  the  increased  use  of  the  library 
materials. 


714  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Library 

6.  Supervision  of  school  libraries. — A  trained  librarian  should  be 
employed  by  the  state  department  of  education,  or  by  the  state  department 
of  education  in  cooperation  with  the  state  library  commission,  to  act  as 
supervisor  of  all  public-school  libraries  in  the  state — normal,  high, 
elementary,  and  rural. 

APPENDIX 
I.    ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

1.  For  many  of  the  definite  recommendations  of  this  report  the  Com- 
mittee is  indebted  to  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Library  Equipment 
in  the  report  of  the  Joint  Committee  of  the  National  Education  Association 
and  National  Council  of  Teachers  of  EngUsh  on  the  Reorganization  of 
English  in  Secondary  Schools,  pubHsht  by  the  Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington,  D.C. 

2.  Reports  also  of  the  Committees  of  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion, of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  and  of  the 
American  Library  Association  have  been  freely  consulted. 

3.  For  many  definite  recommendations  as  to  planning  and  equipping 
the  library  room  we  are  indebted  to  the  pamphlet  School  Libraries  published 
by  the  Library  Bureau,  New  York. 

4.  Helpful  criticisms^  have  been  received  from  the  librarians  in  the 
Orange  Union  High  School  (350  students).  Orange,  Cal.;  the  high  school 
(small  high  school),  White  Plains,  N.Y.;  the  Wausau  High  School  (700 
students),  Wausau,  Wis.;  Olean  High  School  (small  high  school),  Olean, 
N. Y. ;  from  librarians  in  the  pubUc  libraries  of  Detroit,  Mich. ;  Cleveland, 
Ohio;  Portland,  Ore.;  and  from  other  persons  in  the  library  and  teaching 
professions. 

II.    REFERENCES 

I.      GENERAL  REFERENCES 

A  Study  of  Colleges  and  High  Schools  in  the  North  Central  Association. 
Bulletin,  191 5,  No.  6,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington, 
D.C. 

Statistical  summary  of  the  library  facilities  available  to  high  schools  in  the  territory 
of  the  Association. 

Cleveland  Foundation  Survey.  Report  on  High  School  Libraries.  (In 
Leonard  P.  Ayres,  The  Public  Library  and  the  Public  School  [Survey 
Committee,  Cleveland,  1916],  pp.  59-64,  74-80,  86-88,  93.) 

Bardwell,  Darwin  L.     "Phases  of  Work  in  the  Modern  High  School," 
Educational  Review,  April,  1915. 
Emphasizes  the  importance  of  the  high-school  library. 

Barette,  Emma  E.  "The  Use  of  the  Library  as  an  Aid  in  School  Work," 
School  and  Society,  March  16,  191 8. 

» Teachers  or  librarians,  or  others  who  feel  interested  to  make  constructive  criticisms,  are  requested  to 
write  Mr.  C.  C.  Certain,  head  of  the  department  of  English,  Cass  Technical  High  School,  Detriot,  Mich. 


I 

I 

I 


Report)  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  715 

Booth,  M.  J.     Lists  of  Material  Which  May  Be  Obtained  Free  or  at  Small  Cost. 

Chicago,  111.:    American  Library  Publishing  Board,  1915.     25  cents. 

(A  later,  revised  edition  was  published  by  Eastern  Illinois  State  Normal 

School,  Charleston,  111.     Free.) 
Breck,  Emma.     "The  Efficient  High-School  Library,"  English  Journal 

(January,  1916),  pp.  10-19. 
Certain,  C.  C.     "High-School  Libraries,"  Educational  Review,  June,  191 7. 
Fletcher,  Mabel.     "  The  Struggling  High-School  Library,"  English  Journal, 

IV  (1915),  357-61. 

Hall,  M.  E.     "A  Day  in  a  Modern  High  School  Library,"  Public  Libraries, 

XXni  (1918),  si-59. 
Hall,  M.  E.     "Development  of  the  Modern  High  School  Library,"  Library 

Journal,  XL  (1915),  627-32.     History  Teachers'  Magazine,  VII  (1916), 

46-49. 

Defines  what  is  meant  by  a  "modem"  high-school  library. 

Hargreaves,  R.  T.  "The  Possibilities  of  the  High-School  Library,"  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  National  Education  Association  (1915),  pp.  730-34.  See 
also  the  National  Education  Association  Bulletin,  February,  191 7, 
papers  by  Charles  Hughes  Johnston,  Jesse  B.  Davis,  and  others. 

Hosic,  James  Fleming  (Editor).  Report  of  Committee  on  High-School 
Library  Equipment  for  the  Teaching  of  English.  See  the  report  of  the 
Joint  Committee  on  the  Reorganization  of  the  Course  of  Study  in 
Secondary-School  Enghsh.  National  Council  of  Teachers  of  EngHsh 
and  the  National  Education  Association.  Published  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C.     Bulletin  No.  2,  191 7. 

Johnston,  W.  D.     "Relation  of  the  Library  to  the  Teaching  of  English," 

English  Journal,  IV  (1915),  21-27. 
Keyes,  Rowena  Keith.     "How  We  Use  Our  School  Library,"  English 

Journal,  III  (1914),  86-93. 
Library  Aids  for  Teachers  and  School  Librarians.     Compiled  by  Esther  M. 

Davis  and  Agnes  Cowing.    H.  W.  Wilson  Co.,  1916.     958  University 

Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y.     10  cents. 

Contains  a  classified  bibliography. 

Powell,  Mrs.  S.  H.     "The  Children's  Library,"  chap.  iv.     H.  W.  Wilson 
Co.     New  York  City. 
Excellent  chapter  on  high-school  library. 

Public,  Society,  and  School  Libraries.     Bulletin,  191 5,  No.  215,  United  States 

Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 
Public  Libraries.     Special   School   Library    Number,  Chicago,   111.     Vol. 

XXIII,  February,  1918. 
Ward,  G.  O.     The  High-School  Library.    American  Library  Association 

Publishing  Board,  1916.     78  E.  Washington  St.,  Chicago,  111.    10  cents. 


7.l6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

Wilson  Bulletin,  High-School  Libraries  Number,  June,  1916.    958  University 
Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y.:  H.  W.  Wilson  Co. 

Contains  (i)  excerpts  of  interesting  articles,  (2)  bibliographies,  (3)  "List  of  Books 
for  the  Browsing  Corner  of  the  High  School  Library,"  (4)  "A  List  of  Inexpensive  Helps 
for  the  High  School  Librarian."     Free. 

Wilson,  Martha.    School  Library  Management.    St.  Paul,  Minn.:    State 
Department  of  Education.     To  be  published  in  new  edition  by  H.  W. 
Wilson  Co.,  New  York. 
A  manual  designed  to  offer  practical  suggestions  on  the  equipment,  organization,  and 

administration  of  the  school  library. 

Young,  Ira  M.,  "A  New  England  High-School  Library,"  English  Journal, 

IV  (1915),  571-76. 

2.      HOUSING   AND   EQUIPMENT* 

*Marvin,  Cornelia.    Small  Library,  Buildings.     Chicago,  111.:    American 

Library  Association  Publishing  Board. 
Nunn,   Janet  H.     "Planning  and  Equipping  a  High-School  Library," 

Public  Libraries,  XX  (November,  191 5),  406-9. 

*School  Libraries.    Library  Bureau,  316  Broadway,  New  York.     Free. 

Contains  photographs  and  plans  of  well-equipped  high-school  libraries  and  valuable 
data  as  to  specifications. 

Stearns,  L.  E.     Essentials  in  Library  Administration.     78  E.  Washington 

St.,  Chicago,  111.:  American  Library  Association  Pubhshing  Board. 
*Wilson,  Martha.    School  Library  Management.    The  H.  W.  Wilson  Co., 

New  York  City. 

For  description  of  equipment  of  modern  high-school  libraries  see: 
*Hall,  M.  E.     "The  Girls'  High-School  Library,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,"  Public 

Libraries,  Chicago,  XXIII  (February,  191 8),  53-55.     (In  her  Day  in 

a  Modern  High-School  Library.) 
♦Howard,    Clara.     "The    Schenley    High    School,   Pittsburgh."    Public 

Libraries,  Chicago,  XXIII  (February,  191 8),  67-69. 
Catalogs  from  the  following  firms  will  be  suggestive:    Library  Bureau, 

Chicago  and  New  York  City;    Gaylord  Brothers,  Syracuse,  N.Y.; 

Democrat  Printing  Co.,  Madison,  Wis. 

3.      BOOKS 

Annotated  List  of  Books  for  Secondary-School  Libraries.     Albany,  N.Y.: 

University  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
Fay,  Lucy,  and  Eaton,  Anne.     "The  High  School  Library,"     (Pp.  149-82 

in  their  Use  of  Books  and  Libraries.)     Boston:  Boston  Book  Co. 
HoUister,   H.   A.    (Editor).     Standards  for  High-School  Library  Content. 

Bulletin  on  High-School  Libraries,  University  of  Illinois,  Vol.  XIV, 

No.  33,  April  16,  191 7. 

»  Asterisk  denotes  pamphlets  of  special  value. 


Report]  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  717 

Oregon  Library  Commission.  Books  for  High  School  Libraries.  Salem, 
Ore. 

Proceedings  of  High-School  Conference.  Bulletin  No.  15,  University  of 
Illinois. 

Reports  of  the  Joint  Committee  on  the  Reorganization  of  High-School 
EngUsh.  PubUshed  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington,  D.C.     See  chapter  on  library  equipment. 

Reports  of  the  National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English:  (a)  Report  of 
Committee  on  Plays,  25  cents;  (b)  Report  of  Committee  on  Home  Reading, 

IHL;       10  cents;   (c)  Magazine  Lists.    PubUshed  by  the  National  Council  of 
^»         Teachers  of  EngHsh,  68th  St.  and  Stewart  Ave.,  Chicago,  111. 

University  High  School  (Chicago).     List  of  Books  Suited  to  High-School 

I         Libraries.    United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 
Wilson,  Martha.     Books  for  High-School  Libraries,  rev.  ed.     United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C.     15  cents. 


» 


4.      PROFESSIONALLY  TRAINED   LIBRARIANS 

American  Library  Association.  "Statement  as  to  Quahfications  for  School 
Librarians  Adopted  by  the  American  Library  Association  through  Its 
Official  Council,  May  28,  1914,"  Library  Journal,  XXXIX  (September, 
1914),  692. 

Bardwell,   D.  L.    The  Duties  of  the  High  School  Librarian  Defined. 

(Pp.  47-48  in  his  Reports  on  High  Schools,  1914.)     Department  of 

Education,  New  York  City. 

Separate  pamphlet  to  accompany  the  sixteenth  annual  report  of  the  city  superin- 
tendent of  schools. 

Breck,  Emma  J.  The  type  of  librarian  needed.  (In  her  "  Efficient  High 
School  Library,"  English  Journal,  V  [January,  1916],  16-18.) 

Fargo,  Lucile  E.  Appoint  the  trained  Hbrarian  before  planning  the  room 
or  buying  books.  (In  her  "  Place  of  the  Library  in  High  School  Edu- 
cation," Education,  XXXIII  [April,  1913],  474.) 

Hargreaves,  R.  T.  The  importance  of  the  work  of  the  high-school  librarian 
and  her  qualifications.  (In  his  "  Possibihties  of  the  High-School 
Library.")  National  Education  Association  Proceedings,  1915,  pp. 
730-34. 

Johnston,  W.  D.  The  school  librarian,  training  and  status.  (Minnesota: 
Department  of  Pubhc  Instruction,  19 15.)  Public  Libraries,  XX  (April, 
1915).  151-54. 

Minnesota  State  High  School  Board.  Qualifications  and  library  training 
for  teacher-librarians  in  high  schools.  Library  Journal,  XL  (Septem- 
ber, 1915),  649. 


7l8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English.     Resolutions  concerning  library 
service  in  the  schools  and  qualifications  of  school  librarians.     Library 
Journal,  XXXIX  (19 14),  692. 
With  slight  modifications  these  were  adopted  by  the  American  Library  Association. 

National  Education  Association.  Library  department.  Report  of  the 
committee  on  high-school  Hbraries  on  standards  of  qualifications 
recently  adopted  for  high-school  Hbrarians  in  different  cities.  National 
Education  Association  Proceedings  (1915),  1064-73. 

National  Education  Association.  Library  department.  Training  and 
duties  of  the  high-school  librarian.  National  Education  Association 
Proceedings  (1912),  1275-76.  In  report  of  the  committee  on  high- 
school  libraries. 

5.      LIBRARY   INSTRUCTION 

Davis  and  Cowing.  Library  Aids  for  Teachers  and  Librarians,  pp.  22-23. 
958  University  Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y.:  H.  W.  Wilson  Co.     10  cents. 

Hall  and  Moulton.  Vocational  Guidance  through  the  Library.  78  E. 
Washington  St.,  Chicago,  111.:  American  Library  Association  PubHsh- 
ing  Board. 

Hopkins,  Florence  M.  Reference  Guides  That  Should  Be  Known.  Revised 
edition.  A  series  of  ten  pamphlets,  each  one  devoted  to  a  lesson, 
requiring  two  recitation  periods,  on  some  one  phase,  such  as  Ency- 
clopedias; or  Concordances;  or  Atlases,  etc.  Adapted  especially  for 
immediate  class  use.  Single  pamphlet  25  cents;  quantities  at  special 
rates.     The  Willard  Company,  479  Sixth  St.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Lessons  on  the  Use  of  the  School  Library.  Madison,  Wis. :  State  Department 
of  Public  Instruction,  191 5. 

''Library  Tour"  (Round  Table),  English  Journal,  IV  (191 5),  531-33. 
Madison,  Elizabeth.     "A  High-School  Course  in  Library  Use,"  English 
Journal,  V  (191 6),  196-207. 

Severance,  H.  O.  A  Library  Primer  for  Missouri  High  Schools.  Bulletin 
No.  30,  Volume  XVI,  University  of  Missouri,  Columbia,  Mo.  (Re- 
vised, enlarged  edition,  1917,  Missouri  Book  Co.,  Columbia,  Mo., 
$1.25.) 

Ward,  Gilbert  O.  Practical  Use  of  Books  and  Libraries.  Boston  Book  Co. 
$1.00. 

6.      APPROPRIATIONS 

Ayres  and  McKinnie.  The  Public  Library  and  the  Public  Schools.  Cleve- 
land Education  Survey  Reports. 


Report]  STANDARD  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARY  ORGANIZATION  719 

Bardwell,  D.  L.     "Report  on  High-School  Libraries  in  New  York  City," 
Sixteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools j  New  York 
City  (1914),  PP-  43-50-     500  Park  Ave.,  New  York  City:  Department 
of  Education. 
Gives  tentative  budget  for  high  schools  of  1000,  2000,  3000  pupils,  equipment,  and 

supplies  needed,  list  of  periodicals,  outline  of  lessons. 

Newberry,  Marie  St.     "A  Normal  Budget  for  the  High  School  Library," 

Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association  (1914),  pp.  817-20. 
I  Williams,  Sherman.    High-School  Library  Problems.    New  York  Libraries 
!         February,  191 6. 

Better  choice  of  books  and  larger  appropriations. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  TEACHERS' 
SALARIES,  TENURE,  AND  PENSIONS 


^ 


I.    REPORT  ON  SALARIES 

Owing  to  the  effect  of  the  world-war  on  prices,  the  committee  has 
deemed  it  advisable  to  make  a  more  extended  report  on  salaries  than  other- 
wise would  have  been  necessary.  Not  only  have  definite  recommendations 
been  made,  but  data  have  been  appended  which  support  the  recommenda- 
tions made. 

The  committee  has  been  fortunate  in  securing  the  services  of  a  number 
of  persons  in  preparing  this  report.  While  the  committee  agrees  with  the 
conclusions  and  recommendations  set  forth,  the  persons  writing  the  different 
parts  are  responsible  for  the  statements  of  facts. 

The  report  is  submitted  with  the  hope  that  it  will  not  only  meet  with 
the  approval  of  the  National  Education  Association,  but  be  found  helpful 
to  legislators,  school  officials,  teachers,  and  the  general  public. 

Joseph  Swain,  Chairman 
Ernest  C.  Moore 
Margaret  A.  Haley 
David  B.  Johnson 
Harlan  Updegraff 
Grace  C.  Forsythe 
James  Ferguson 
Francis  G.  Blair 
John  W.  Carr 

THE  NATION  AND  THE  CRISIS  IN  ITS  SCHOOLS 

Apart  from  the  prosecution  of  the  war  itself,  there  is  no  more  urgent 
problem  now  before  the  American  people  than  that  created  by  the  threat- 
ened collapse  of  the  teaching  profession.  Collapse  is  an  extreme  word, 
but  so  is  the  emergency  it  describes.  The  drafting  into  other  work  of 
large  numbers  of  the  most  capable  teachers,  the  continual  opening  of  new 
doors  of  opportunity  to  thousands  of  others,  the  utterly  inadequate  financial 
provision  for  the  majority  of  the  remainder — these  are  no  longer  matters 
for  debate.  They  are  facts.  And  they  are  facts  ominous  with  disaster 
for  the  nation.  If  the  American  people  cannot  be  made  to  see  the  situation 
and  to  supply  an  early  and  drastic  remedy,  we  shall  run  the  risk,  even  tho 
we  win  the  war,  of  losing  much  that  makes  the  war  worth  winning. 

721 


722  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Teachers' 

Our  schools  are  the  spring  and  origin  of  our  democracy.  Of  what  avail 
will  it  be  to  spend  our  blood  in  defending  the  forms  of  democratic  society 
if  the  life  that  is  to  fill  and  energize  them  is  lost  ?  And  if  our  schools  suffer, 
it  will  be  lost.  It  is  futile  to  declare  that  this  is  a  matter  for  the  future. 
If  the  war  has  taught  us  anything,  it  has  taught  us  that  the  future  becomes 
the  present  with  fatal  rapidity,  and  that  failure  to  provide  for  that  future 
in  advance  is  criminal.  Foresight  then  is  what  is  wanted,  and  again 
foresight,  and  yet  again  foresight.  The  American  people  now  have  a 
supreme  opportunity  to  exercise  foresight  in  the  matter  of  their  schools. 
Will  they  exercise  it  ?    Or  will  they  kill  the  goose  that  lays  the  golden  eggs  ? 

INDUSTRY  ATTACHES  VALUE  TO  EDUCATION 

Fortunately  there  are  a  few  departments  of  education  which  anybody 
can  see  are  not  only  indispensable  to  the  life  of  the  nation,  but  are  as 
integral  parts  of  the  prosecution  of  the  war  as  the  building  of  ships  or  the 
training  of  armies.  A  bUnd  man  can  see  that  if  the  teaching  of  chemistry 
or  engineering  or  medicine  in  this  country  were  to  suffer,  the  military  arm 
of  the  nation  would  soon  be  crippled.  Fearful  lest  the  supply  of  skilled 
workers  should  fall  off,  industrial  leaders  are  realizing  more  fully  every  day 
how  dependent  they  are  on  the  flow  of  trained  men  from  the  hands  of  the 
schoolmasters.  Within  a  month,  for  example,  a  manager  of  one  of  the 
largest  munitions  plants  in  the  country  came  to  the  head  of  the  department 
of  chemistry  of  one  of  our  colleges  with  the  declaration  that  he  was  in 
need  of  a  chemist  particularly  fitted  for  work  of  a  character  which  he 
specified. 

"You  have  the  very  man  we  want,"  said  he,  naming  an  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  the  college  in  question.     "  You  must  let  us  have  him." 

"But  I  can't,"  replied  the  professor.  "Our  department  cannot  get  on 
without  him.    He  cannot  be  replaced." 

"How  much  is  he  receiving  here?"  inquired  the  manager. 

The  head  of  the  department  mentioned  the  salary. 

"We  will  double  that,"  declared  the  manager  without  an  instant's  hesi- 
tation, "if  he  will  go  to  work  for  us  tomorrow  morning." 

"We  cannot  meet  that  offer,"  said  the  professor,  "but  if  you  take  him, 
don't  expect  us  to  keep  on  sending  you  the  groups  of  trained  chemists 
that  that  man  has  helpt  to  turn  out  in  the  past." 

The  manager  hesitated;  the  thought  seemed  to  sober  him.  "You're 
right,"  he  exclaimed.  "I  see  it.  Keep  your  man.  He  is  more  indispen- 
sable to  us  here  than  he  would  be  in  our  plant."  And  the  manager  went 
away  to  seek  some  other  solution  of  his  problem. 

That  incident  presents  in  miniature  the  relation  of  technical  education 
to  the  war.  Every  day  this  war  becomes  more  of  a  war  of  expert  knowl- 
edge. The  man  behind  the  desk  is  as  essential  as  the  man  behind  the 
gun.    Indeed  he  is  the  man  behind  the  gun. 


Salaries)  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  723 


All  this  is  so  plain  in  the  case  of  subjects  like  chemistry,  engineering,  and 
medicine  that  an  apology  is  almost  necessary  for  dwelling  on  it.  But  it 
oes  not  appear  to  be  so  plain  in  the  case  of  subjects  just  as  really,  albeit  a 
bit  more  indirectly,  connected  with  the  war.  And  when  it  comes  to  edu- 
cation generally,  to  the  majority  of  the  public  it  does  not  appear  to  be 
plain  at  all. 

^L  EDUCATION  PRESERVES  FRUITS   OF  VICTORY 

^^  The  argument  in  many  minds  seems  to  run  something  like  this:  "Our 
business  at  present  is  to  win  the  war.  By  all  means  let  us  keep  the  tech- 
nical schools  that  have  a  bearing  on  that  business  running  full  blast.  As  for 
the  rest  of  the  school  system,  time  enough  to  attend  to  that  when  the  war 
is  over."  Now,  if  we  knew  that  the  war  would  be  over  in  a  year;  or  if  the 
country  were  financially  at  its  last  gasp,  with  taxation  passing  the  Hmits  of 
the  tolerable — if  luxury  were  entirely  eliminated,  and  waste  and  extrava- 
gance things  of  the  past;  or  if  all  the  able-bodied  men  and  women  were  at 
the  front,  in  the  factory,  or  on  the  farm — then  there  might  be  a  gleam  of 
reason  in  a  proposition  to  close  the  schools  till  the  war  was  over,  or  to  let 
them  pass  into  the  hands  of  admittedly  inferior  persons.  Even  under  such 
circumstances  the  proposal  would  be  a  desperate  one.  Culture  and  educa- 
tion are  by  their  nature  continuous  things.  They  are  a  kind  of  birth.  You 
cannot  disturb  the  process  of  physical  birth  in  a  nation  without  disaster. 
Neither  can  you  interrupt  its  spiritual  and  intellectual  life  and  expect  to  take 
it  up,  unimpaired,  where  it  was  dropt.  It  would  be  tragedy  indeed  if  the 
present  generation  were  to  win  the  war  only  to  have  the  fruits  of  victory 
wasted  by  a  generation  incapable  of  understanding  or  using  them. 

A  WAR  OF  SCHOOLMASTERS 

Here  it  is  that  we  touch  the  center  of  the  misunderstanding  concerning 
this  war  and  general  education.  This  is  not  merely  a  war  of  chemistry  and 
engineering,  a  war  of  technical  knowledge  pitted  against  technical  knowl- 
edge; it  is  a  war  of  cultures  and  ideals,  of  ideas  pitted  against  ideas.  In 
this  sense  it  is  literally  a  war  of  schoolmasters;  and  only  the  hope  of  victory 
in  this  latter  struggle  makes  the  sacrifices  of  the  other  conflict  seem  worth 
while.  But  to  achieve  that  victory  the  ideas  and  ideals  for  which  we  stand 
must  be  kept  pure  and  free-flowing  at  their  source.  For  that  deeper  war 
behind  the  other  is  bound  to  go  on  long  after  the  physical  strife  has  ceast. 
Everywhere  men  make  the  capital  mistake  of  supposing  that  the  good  or 
the  evil  of  this  war  is  a  thing  that  will  be  definitely  settled  on  the  day  when 
victory  is  attained  and  the  treaty  of  peace  signed.  There  could  not  be  a 
grosser  error. 

The  upshot  of  this  war  for  humanity,  the  final  good  or  bad  of  it,  is  going 
to  depend  on  what  the  nations  do  as  a  result  of  it,  on  whether  it  gets  the 
better  of  the  brain  of  humanity  by  stunning  it  or  whether  the  brain  of 


724  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Teachers' 

humanity  gets  the  better  of  it  by  understanding  it.  But  this,  in  the  main, 
lies  with  the  will  and  the  intellect  of  the  next  generation,  and  the  will  and 
the  intellect  of  the  next  generation  lie  in  no  small  measure  in  the  keeping  of 
the  teachers  of  the  present. 

MARKEDLY   SUPERIOR  TEACHERS  DEMANDED 

It  has  become  a  truism  that  the  Germany  of  today  is  the  product  of  the 
German  schoolmasters  of  yesterday.  Just  as  certainly  the  America  of 
tomorrow,  perhaps  the  world  of  tomorrow,  will  be  the  product  of  the  Ameri- 
can teachers  of  today.  What,  then,  if  the  American  teaching  force  of  today 
comes  to  consist  of  an  inferior  selection  from  our  present  teachers  supple- 
mented by  high-school  girls  of  no  experience,  no  special  training,  of  tempo- 
rary tenure,  and  only  passing  interest  in  their  work !  What  if  the  prophecy 
of  at  least  one  publisher  of  textbooks  be  realized,  who  has  declared  that  only 
"fool-proof"  textbooks  must  be  publisht  in  America  for  the  present — for 
the  reason,  to  use  his  own  words,  that  "we  are  going  to  have  to  deal  with 
just  that  type  of  teacher  for  the  next  ten  or  fifteen  years"!  Such  a  pre- 
diction from  an  unsentimental  business  man  with  an  eye  to  profits  should 
set  us  thinking.  America  must  not  delude  herself  into  believing  that  she 
can  put  her  children  into  the  hands  of  teachers  of  the  "fool-proof  text- 
book" type  and  yet  expect  those  teachers  to  turn  out  a  generation  of  states- 
men capable  of  grappling  with  the  problems  of  what  promises  to  be  the  most 
critical  period  in  the  social  and  political  history  of  mankind.  To  achieve  that 
result  the  teachers  must  be,  on  the  contrary,  not  only  not  inferior,  but  mark- 
edly superior,  the  best  that  can  be  had,  not  merely  in  training  and  intellec- 
tual equipment,  but  in  character,  imagination,  and  social  vision — men  and 
women  fitted  by  virtue  of  what  tliey  are  to  disseminate  the  spirit  of  democ- 
racy. We  must  put  forever  behind  us  the  childish  notion  that  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  the  rest  are  all  there  is  to  education.  For  the 
genuine  purposes  of  life,  these  are  the  incidental  products  of  teaching;  its 
central  products  are  those  intangible  and  imponderable  things,  that  total 
attitude  toward  life,  which  the  child  takes  in,  as  unconsciously  as  it  takes 
in  the  air,  from  the  personality  of  the  teacher  as  a  whole.  Woe  to  the 
future  if  that  personality  be  of  inferior  grade! 

SALARIES   BELOW  LEVEL  OF   SUBSISTENCE 

Yet  at  the  present  hour,  as  has  been  hinted,  practically  all  forces 
are  making  in  the  direction  of  just  such  inferiority.  There  are  induce- 
ments on  every  hand  for  the  most  successful  teachers  to  leave  the  pro- 
fession. There  are  few  inducements  for  those  with  promise  of  success  to 
enter  it.  With  the  many  branches  of  military  service  open  to  the  teacher, 
with  hundreds  of  industrial  concerns  bidding  for  the  services  of  men  and 
women  with  precisely  the  equipment  that  the  teacher's  training  gives,  and 


«1, 


Saferksl  TEACBERS'  SAURIES  AKD  COST  OF  UVtNG  7^$ 

with  salaries  in  most  of  the  schools  far  below  e\Tn  that  modest  level  o( 
subsistence  that  tbe  teacher  has  been  granted  in  the  past,  the  profession  is 
bound  to  undergo,  is  already  undergoing,  rapid  deterioration.  If  it  be  urged 
that  the  teacher  at  this  crisis  should  be  patriotic  and  remain  at  his  post, 
bearing  his  part  of  the  sacritice  of  the  time,  the  answer  is  that  there  is  no 
group  of  workers  in  the  country  who  would  be  less  willing,  if  they  could,  to 
escape  that  sacritice.  They,  if  anyone,  are  in  a  position  to  know  the  worth 
of  the  thing  that  is  at  stake.  All  they  ask  is  that  they  shall  not  be  called 
upon  to  carry  aji  utterly  unjust  and  crushing  share  of  the  burden.  All  they 
ask  is  that  they  shall  be  treated  in  the  spirit  of  President  Wilson's  recent 
declaration  to  Congress  that  the  load  the  people  must  slioulder.  must  be 
equitably  placed.  "If  the  burden  is  justly  distributed,"  were  the  Presi- 
dent's words,  "and  the  sacritice  made  a  common  sacrilice  from  which  none 
capes  who  can  bear  it  at  all,  |the  pet^ple  of  this  country]  will  carry  it 
cheerfully  and  with  a  sort  of  solemn  pride."  The  teacliers  of  the  country 
subscribe  unanimously  to  that  creed,  but  they  also  ask  to  have  it  applied  to 
their  case.  If  it  is  not.  what  will  happen  to  the  teaching  profession  can 
be  predicted  with  acoiirar\ .  The  teachers  o\  the  count rv  will  fall  nnighly 
into  tlirec  classes,  (.-l.issos  whirh  wcic  alri\ul\  Ihmhc  diMuu\l  JurinL:  the 
decade  and  a  hall  ol  sharp  rise  in  prices  prior  to  1914.  The  war  merely 
accelerated  enormoush-  their  forn\alion. 


r. 


POVERTY  DKTERIORATES  THE  PROFESSION 

First,  there  will  be  what  we  may  call  the  ettdawed  class.    This  will  be 

a  small  one  and  will  be  confined  in  the  main  to  the  higher  branches  of  ediu  a- 
tion.  It  will  consist  of  a  certain  number  of  linanciall\-  indepciulcnt  persons 
who  will  continue  teaching  because  of  the  pUasmc  oi  the  work  or  the 
intellectual  and  social  prestige  flowing  from  connection  with  a  college  or 
university.  However  highly  we  may  think  of  individuals  within  this 
group,  the  idea  is  repugnant  to  every  denuHr.uie  instinct  we  possiss  of 
having  any  part  of  our  educational  system  pass  under  what  would  inevitably 
become  a  kind  of  upper-caste  control. 

Second,  tliere  will  be  what  we  may  call  the  part-iime  class.  This 
will  consist  of  an  immense  number  who  will  give  only  a  share  of  their  time 
and  energy  to  teaching:  who  will  teach,  but  who  will  not  expect  their 
teaching  salary  to  support  them.  Few  outside  the  profession  have  any 
idea  how  largely  the  teachers  of  the  country  already  belong  to  this 
class,  from  tlie  many  who  earn  a  few  dollars  on  the  side  or  devote  what 
ought  to  be  their  period  of  intellectual  recreation,  the  summer  vacation, 
to  other  work,  to  the  few  who  frankly  make  their  teaching  incidental  and 
double  or  treble  their  salaries  by  outside  work.  The  effect  of  this  state 
of  affairs  on  the  profession  calls  for  no  comment.  No  man  can  serve  two 
masters  in  tlie  vocational  world  any  more  than  he  can  in  the  moral  world. 
The  secret  of  a  strong  will  is  undivided  attention.    No  one  can  calculate  the 


726  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 

degree  to  which  the  efficiency  of  education  in  this  country  is  already  im- 
paired thru  the  necessity  under  which  thousands  of  teachers  suffer  of  doing 
two  things  at  once.  What  sort  of  work  would  the  nation  expect  of  its  execu- 
tives and  legislators,  of  its  sailors  and  soldiers,  or  of  its  business  men,  if 
after  their  regular  day's  labor  they  were  compelled  to  give  their  attention 
to  some  side  line  of  work  to  eke  out  a  living  income  ?  Yet  that  is  exactly 
what  the  nation  seems  to  expect  of  a  multitude  of  its  teachers.  And  bad  as 
this  part-time  condition  is  at  present,  it  is  bound,  unless  something  radical 
is  done,  to  become  immeasurably  worse. 

Then  there  will  be  a  third  class  of  teacher.  For  it  there  is  no  satis- 
factory name.  Were  the  term  not  certain  to  be  misunderstood,  it  might 
be  called  the  sweated  class.  Perhaps  the  exploited  class  would  be  less  open 
to  objection.  This  class  will  consist  in  part  of  teachers  who,  thru  age,  or 
poor  health,  or  family  responsibilities,  or  other  circumstances  over  which 
they  have  little  or  no  control,  will  be  able  neither  to  escape  from  the  pro- 
fession nor  to  add  materially  on  the  side  to  their  teaching  income,  with 
the  result  that  they  will  be  compelled  to  take  what  is  offered  them  and 
lower  their  standard  of  living  accordingly.  Such  teachers  will  deserve 
nothing  but  sympathy.  They  will  be  slaves  in  outward  condition  but 
not  in  spirit.  Much  the  same  will  be  true  of  those  teachers  who,  thru  a 
mistaken  sense  of  duty,  combined  with  ignorance  of  political  economy, 
remain  at  their  desks  when  they  could  leave  them.  But  this  will  not  be 
the  case  with  what  it  is  to  be  hoped  will  prove  a  small  group  of  teachers 
who,  with  both  power  to  do  otherwise  and  knowledge  of  the  consequences 
of  their  choice,  will  accept  a  standard  of  living  below  the  minimum  of  what 
makes  genuine  human  life,  as  distinguisht  from  mere  living,  possible. 
Surely  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  time  may  never  come  when  the  teacher 
will  not  be  willing  to  live  simply.  A  certain  austerity  of  life  befits  his  posi- 
tion of  spiritual  leadership  as  it  does  that  of  the  minister.  But  simpHcity 
is  one  thing  and  a  poverty  that  stunts  the  soul  is  another — and  at  the 
opposite  pole.  The  teacher  who  submits  to  such  poverty  voluntarily  is  a 
slave  in  spirit  as  well  as  in  outward  fact,  and  his  act  degrades  not  only  his 
own  profession  but  the  working  world  as  a  whole  as  certainly  as  child  labor, 
or  coolie  labor,  or  convict  labor,  degrades  it. 

LOW  SALARIES  HARM  THE  CHILD 

And  even  if  poverty  did  not  injure  the  teacher  and  his  fellow- workers, 
how  could  it  fail  thru  him  to  harm  the  child  under  his  care  ?  How  can  he 
whose  function  is  to  awaken  life  perform  that  function  when  life,  in  the  sense 
of  something  above  mere  subsistence,  is  denied  him  ?  And  how,  on  the  other 
hand,  can  the  child  be  expected  to  have  respect  for  the  things  of  the  mind 
when  he  sees  those  who  have  devoted  a  lifetime  to  them  refused  the  reason- 
able comforts  of  existence  ?  "  Why  should  I  go  into  teaching,"  a  high-school 
girl  is  reported  to  have  askt  an  aunt  who  was  urging  her  to  adopt  her  own 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  727 

vocation,  "  Why  should  I  go  into  teaching  when  I  can  get  two  dollars  and  a 
half  a  day  more  than  you  are  getting  after  teaching  twenty  years?" 
"  Why  should  I  want  an  education  ?  "  a  boy  who  had  left  school  for  the  mines 
is  said  to  have  retorted  smilingly  to  the  teacher  who  was  trying  to  impress 
on  him  the  need  of  a  high-school  education  for  success  in  life,  "Why 
should  I  want  an  education  ?  Why,  my  dear  teacher,  I'm  making  a  good 
deal  more  than  you  are,  now."  What  could  the  teacher  say?  No  one  in 
his  senses  desires  to  measure  the  value  of  truth  in  dollars.  But  you  will 
never  convince  the  rising  generation  that  knowledge  is  power  while  it 
beholds  so  many  of  the  professional  dispensers  of  knowledge  in  a  state  of 
virtual  slavery. 

These  then  are  the  three  classes — an  endowed  class,  a  part-time  class,  a 
sweated  or  servile  class.  These  are  the  divisions  into  which  the  American 
teaching  profession  will  split  up  if  some  radical  remedy  is  not  adopted.  Is 
this  country  willing  to  have  its  schools,  which  it  has  long  pointed  to  with 
pride  as  the  source  of  its  democracy,  pass  into  the  hands  of  an  endowed 
class,  or  a  part-time  class,  or  a  slave  class  ?  If  it  does,  democracy  in 
America  deserves  to  perish.    And  it  will  perish. 

What,  then,  is  the  remedy  ? 

There  is  just  one  remedy — tho  there  may  seem  to  be  two,  owing  to  the 
two  quite  opposite  ways  thru  which  it  may  be  attained. 

THE   SOCIAL  NEED  FOR  HIGHER  SALARIES 

But  before  coming  to  the  remedy  and  the  methods  of  attaining  it,  let  us 
notice  what,  emphatically,  is  not  the  remedy.  The  remedy  is  not  to  raise 
teachers'  salaries  sporadically,  here  a  little  and  there  a  little,  25  per  cent  in 
this  enlightened  city,  5  per  cent  in  that  benighted  one,  $500  a  year  in  some 
industrially  booming  section  where  teachers  have  grown  scarce,  $50  a 
year  in  some  out-of-the-way  corner  of  the  land  where  supply  and  demand  in 
teachers  has  not  been  perceptibly  affected.  "Supply  and  demand" — 
that  goes  to  the  heart  of  the  matter.  The  critical  situation  of  our  schools 
mill  never  be  genuinely  remedied  so  long  as  teachers'  services  are  regarded  as  a 
commodity  to  be  purchast  at  the  cheapest  obtainable  rate  in  the  open  market. 
That,  in  too  many  places,  is  the  present  attitude  toward  the  teacher.  That 
attitude  must  end,  or  our  democracy  will  end.  The  teacher  must  come 
to  be  taken  for  what  he  is :  a  public  servant,  performing  a  task  of  unsurpassed 
importance  to  the  nation,  and  on  that  account  just  as  fully  entitled  to 
adequate  compensation,  or  its  equivalent,  as  the  soldier,  the  legislator,  or 
the  judge.  From  the  kindergarten  to  the  university  the  teaching  pro- 
fession in  America  must  be  lifted,  wherever  it  has  fallen  below  it,  to  a  level 
that  will  command  for  it  the  full  respect  of  the  community  and  attract 
into  its  ranks  men  and  women  of  the  first  order.  This  demand  would 
have  been  imperative,  it  is  important  to  notice,  even  tho  the  war  had  not 
come  to  complicate  matters.    The  problems  of  negro  and  alien  education, 


728  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Teachers' 

to  mention  no  others,  especially  the  presence  among  us  of  thousands  of 
foreigners  who  could  not  speak  a  word  of  English,  were  questions  that, 
prior  to  19 14,  were  pressing  for  solution.  The  single  staggering  fact,  brought 
out  in  a  recent  letter  of  Secretary  Lane  to  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
that  there  were  in  the  United  States  in  19 10  more  than  five  and  a  half  million 
persons  over  the  age  of  ten  who  could  neither  read  nor  write  in  any  language, 
shows  better  than  anything  else  how  incredibly  far  the  country  had  fallen 
short,  under  the  free  and  easy  method  of  regarding  teachers'  services  as  a 
commodity,  of  creating  a  genuinely  democratic  system  of  education. 

THE  NATION  MUST  RESCUE  ITS   SCHOOLS 

All  this  is  simply  a  way  of  saying  that  education  is  a  national  matter. 
The  man  who  denies  that  at  this  hour  is  not  worth  listening  to.  The  man 
who  denies  that  education  is  a  national  matter  is  capable  of  denying  that 
our  Army  and  Navy  are  national  matters,  of  thinking  that  our  states  and 
towns  and  cities,  left  to  themselves,  could  carry  on  the  war.  Which  is 
not  to  imply  for  a  moment  that  education  is  merely  a  national  matter.  May 
the  time  never  come  when  the  people  in  this  locality  or  that  lose  control  over 
the  teaching  of  their  own  children.  But  the  child  is  of  concern  to  a  wider 
region  than  the  place  in  which  he  is  born;  and  the  wealth  of  a  community 
is  no  measure  of  the  promise  of  its  human  material.  Can  we  permit  boys 
and  girls  of  rare  gifts,  not  to  mention  average  boys  and  girls,  just  because 
they  happen  to  have  been  born  on  the  outskirts  of  the  country  to  have  only 
the  outskirts  of  an  education?  Those  boys  and  girls  are  the  nation's 
highest  assets.  The  nation  must  do  its  share  toward  bearing  the  burden  of 
their  training.  The  nation,  the  state,  and  the  locality  each  has  its  func- 
tion. The  nation,  either  directly  or  thru  the  states,  must  subsidize  and 
stimulate  the  struggling  community,  holding  it  meanwhile  to  the  highest 
standards;  the  state,  up  to  the  limit  of  its  power,  must  do  the  same^  while 
the  locality  must  be  lookt  to  to  preserve  the  principles  of  variety  and  indi- 
viduality against  the  encroachments  of  too  great  centralization.  Just 
now,  however,  it  is  the  nation  that  must  take  the  initiative  and  lead  the 
way — if  for  no  other  reason  than  because,  at  a  moment  when  immediate 
action  is  half  the  battle,  legal  and  constitutional  restrictions  tie  the  hands  of 
many  of  the  states  and  threaten  a  delay  that  will  be  fatal. 

But  suppose  the  nation  cannot  be  made  to  see  its  duty.  Then  there  is 
only  one  other  way,  the  second  of  the  two  methods  already  mentioned: 
the  teachers,  by  concerted  action  and  the  application  of  the  principle  of 
collective  bargaining,  must  compel  the  nation  to  wake  up. 

But  surely  this  will  not  be  necessary.  The  war  is  training  the  national 
imagination  to  see  things  on  a  new  scale.  It  is  no  longer  a  day  when  we 
say,  "  This  ought  to  be  done.  We  will  do  it,  provided  we  can  get  the  money  J^ 
It  is  a  day  rather  when  we  say  of  whatever  is  vital  to  the  public  welfare, 
"Let  this  be  done."    And  then  we  get  the  money. 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  729 

It  is  a  day  of  big  things.  It  is  preeminently  a  day  when  those  who  are 
serving  the  state  must  be  granted  the  right  of  way.  The  teachers  of  the 
country  are  not  only  serving  the  state  now;  they  have  been  serving  it  all 
their  lives.  They  are  the  captains  of  the  army  of  understanding:  not  alone 
of  that  technical  understanding  upon  which  military  victory  depends,  but  of 
that  larger  human  understanding  upon  which  depends  the  whole  hope  and 
future  of  the  world.  If  we  spend  billions  to  save  the  world,  can  we  not 
spend  millions  to  make  the  world  worth  saving  ?  If  we  pour  forth  our 
treasure  without  stint  to  those  who  shape  our  steel  and  iron,  can  we  not 
grant  at  least  a  living  wage  to  those  who  are  molding  our  life  itself  ?  The 
nation  must  come  to  the  rescue  of  its  schools.  For  a  nation  without  educa- 
tion is  a  coast  without  a  lighthouse. 

TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  THE  COST  OF  LIVING,  1918 

INCREASE  IN  THE   COST  OF   LIVING 

In  19 13  the  Committee  of  the  National  Education  Association  on 
Teachers'  Salaries,  Tenure,  and  Pensions  publisht  an  extended  report 
which  subsequently  has  been  widely  circulated  and  effectively  used  thruout 
the  country.  The  last  year  for  which  figures  were  obtainable  at  the  time  of 
the  completion  of  this  report  was  19 11.  From  the  latter  year  until  near 
the  end  of  19 15  there  was  a  slow  upward  movement  of  prices,  both  whole- 
sale and  retail,  in  the  United  States.  So  gradual  was  this  movement, 
however,  that  it  did  not  justify  any  large  revision  of  the  conclusions  reached 
in  the  report  of  1913.  During  the  years  1916  and  1917,  however,  there 
has  occurred  an  extremely  rapid  rise  of  prices,  a  rise  so  great  and  so  sudden 
that  it  makes  imperative  a  new  and  thorogoing  study  of  the  whole  situation 
as  it  affects  the  teachers  of  the  country. 

The  skyrocketing  of  prices  which  we  are  now  experiencing  is  graphically 
presented  in  Chart  I,^  herewith,  which  shows  the  movement  in  the  wholesale 
market  of  the  United  States  from  1890  to  19 17  inclusive.  From  1890  to 
1897  prices  declined.  Between  the  latter  low-level  year  and  19 11,  the 
last  year  for  which  figures  were  available  when  our  earlier  report  was  pre- 
pared, there  was  an  increase  of  44 .  i  per  cent  in  wholesale  prices.     The  year 

191 2  showed  an  increase  of  6.5  per  cent  over  191 1,  but  during  the  years 

1913  and  1914  wholesale  prices  actually  decHned  slightly.  For  1915  they 
were  still  slightly  lower  than  for  191 2.  But  the  two  succeeding  years  show 
an  upward  rush  that  dwarfs  all  movements  recorded  during  the  whole 
period  of  twenty-seven  years.  To  illustrate:  From  1897,  the  year  of  lowest 
prices,  to  19 15,  wholesale  prices  advanst  51.6  per  cent,  an  average  of  less 
than  3  per  cent  a  year.  During  the  two  years  from  1915  to  1917  alone 
they  advanst  42.8  per  cent,  an  average  of  21.4  per  cent  a  year.  To  put 
the  matter  in  another  way,  the  upward  movement  of  prices  has  been  more 

'  This  chart  brings  down  to  date  the  diagram  presented  on  p.  s,  National  Education  Association  Repo 
on  Salaries  and  Cost  of  Living,  igi3. 


730 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


[Teachers' 


than  seven  times  as  rapid  during  the  last  two  years  as  it  was  during  the 
preceding  eighteen  years  of  increasing  wholesale  quotations.  The  fact  may 
seem  astounding,  but  it  is  none  the  less  true  that  wholesale  prices  in  the 
United  States  were  more  than  two  and  one-half  times,  exactly  2.65,  higher 
in  19 1 7  than  they  were  twenty  years  earlier. 


CHART 

I 

270 

r^ 

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250 

J 

1 

210 

1 

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INDEX  NUMBERS 

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RrLA  T/VE  RR/CES  OE 

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00000000000000000000       0»0i       OlO<        OiO«OiOiO>OiOi       0>OiO»0»OiO>0> 

Years 


From  the  point  of  view  of  the  teacher  the  significance  of  these  figures  is 
unmistakable.  Taking  the  country  as  a  whole,  strenuous  efforts  were 
necessary  to  keep  salaries  advancing  as  rapidly  as  prices  during  the  period 
of  comparatively  slow  upward  movement.  Not  always  indeed  was  the 
advance  of  income  kept  even  with  the  necessary  increase  of  expenditure. 
But  to  meet  an  upward  rush  so  rapid  as  that  from  the  beginning  of  19 16  on, 
it  is  manifest  that  almost  superhuman  efforts  must  be  put  forth.     It  was 


Salaries] 


TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING 


731 


hard  to  climb  to  the  summit  of  the  Pelion  of  high  prices  reacht  in  the  years 
1911  to  191 5.  Now  suddenly  Ossa  has  been  heapt  upon  Pelion,  and  the 
teachers  of  the  country  must  begin  a  vastly  more  difficult  climb. 

Some  further  analysis  of  the  developments  of  the  last  two  years  is  neces- 
sary.   First,  it  may  be  noted  that  figures  dealing  with  retail  prices  confirm 

CHART  II 


the  observations  made  with  regard  to  wholesale  prices  during  this  period. 
Thus  in  the  case  of  the  retail  prices  of  twenty-two  principal  articles  of  food, 
the  general  level  for  December,  19 17,  as  shown  by  the  figures  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Labor,^  is  50  per  cent  higher  than  for  December,  1915. 

'  These  statements  are  based  upon  figures  presented  by  the  monthly  review,  February,  iqi8,  of  the 
Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  United  States  Department  of  Labor,  (see  Chart  II).  The  March  number  of  this 
review  shows  that  on  January  15,  1918,  the  retail  price  of  food  had  made  a  further  increase  above  the  level  for 
December  15,  1917,  of  2  per  cent. 


732 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


[Teachers' 


Chart  III  shows  in  detail  the  movement  of  wholesale  prices  by  months 
from  January,  1913,  to  December,  1917.  The  figures  upon  which  it  is 
based  cover  296  commodities  of  all  kinds,  including  farm  products,  food, 
cloths  and  clothing,  fuel  and  lighting,  metals  and  metal  products,  lumber 


CHART  III 


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17s 
170 
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160 


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135 
130 

125 


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19 14 

Years 


1916 


and  building  materials,  drugs  and  chemicals,  house-furnishing  goods,  and 
miscellaneous  articles.  An  increase  of  the  cost  of  such  basic  materials 
must  of  course  be  reflected  in  the  retail  prices  of  all  commodities  derived 
from  them.  The  general  level  of  wholesale  prices  is  shown  by  these  figures 
of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  to  be  not  less  than  72  per  cent  higher  in  December, 
1917,  than  in  December,  1915. 


Salaries) 


TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING 


733 


"This  increase  (of  wholesale  prices)  has  been  particularly  great," 
according  to  the  Bureau  of  Labor,  "  among  farm  products,  foods,  clothing, 
metal  products,  drugs,  and  chemicals" — all  articles,  with  the  exception  of 
metal  products,  which  enter  largely  into  the  teacher's  budget.     Some  of 

CHART   IV 


1     ,  M!     !    ^        i     i     !      M                        ■     "  ■   : 

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7 

80                                           '                   -''                                                                                                               T- 

the  details  of  the  movements  of  wholesale  prices  by  special  groups  of 
commodities  are  shown  in  Charts  IV  and  V.  Thus  from  December,  1915, 
to  December,  1917,  lumber  and  building  materials  advanst  39.1  per  cent, 
fuel  and  lighting  59 . 3  per  cent,  food  66 . 6  per  cent,  house  furnishings  73 . 2 
per  cent,  cloths  and  clothing  92.5  per  cent,  and  farm  products,  98.1  per 
cent. 


734 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


[Teachers' 


It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  there  has  been  no  recession  of 
prices  in  the  few  months  which  have  elapst  since  December,  191 7,  and  this 
popular  impression  is  confirmed  by  Bradstreet's  index  numbers,  which  are 
obtainable  for  a  more  recent  date  than  the  figures  furnished  by  the  govern- 


CHART  V 


M^^aE  a 


ment.  Bradstreet's  figures  are  based  upon  ninety-six  different  commodities, 
including  many  kinds  of  food  products,  thirteen  metals,  eleven  chemicals 
and  drugs,  seven  building  materials,  and  numerous  other  articles.  For 
December,  1917,  this  authority  quoted  an  index  number  of  17.5962.  On 
May  I,  1918,  it  had  advanst  to  18.9133.  This  means  a  price  increase  of 
very  nearly  7  J  per  cent  within  a  period  of  five  months. 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  735 

With  the  continuance  of  the  war,  in  all  probability  new  higher  levels  will 
be  recorded.  Further  increases  as  rapid  as  those  of  19 16  and  19 17  are  by 
no  means  impossible.  Even  after  the  termination  of  the  war  it  is  probable 
that  prices  will  remain  high  during  the  subsequent  years  of  readjustment 
and  reconstruction.  For  an  indefinitely  long  period,  perhaps  from  fifty 
to  one  hundred  years,  the  payment  of  interest  and  sinking-fund  charges  on 
war  debts  will  continue  to  exert  an  effect  upon  the  level  of  world-prices. 

There  is  consequently  slight  ground,  if  any,  for  the  expectation  that 
prices  may  decline  as  rapidly  as  they  have  advanst  during  the  last  two  years. 
On  the  contrary,  every  circumstance  indicates  that  they  will  continue  to 
increase  indefinitely  and  remain  fixt  at  a  high  level  for  a  considerable  period 
thereafter.  Teachers  and  others  with  fixt  incomes  must  deal  with  the 
situation  from  this  point  of  view,  or  else  prepare  to  suffer  a  further  reduc- 
tion of  real  wages,  i.e.,  purchasing  power  of  salary,  in  addition  to  the 
severe  losses  already  inflicted  upon  them  by  the  price  movements  of  the 
last  two  years. 

WIDENING  OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  EMPLOYMENT 

Coincident  with  the  rapid  increase  in  wholesale  and  retail  prices  in 
1 9 16  and  19 1 7  has  occurred  a  tremendous  expansion  of  the  demand  for  the 
services  not  only  of  men  but  of  women  as  well.  Men  have  volunteered 
and  have  been  drafted  by  the  hundreds  of  thousands  for  our  new  Army  and 
Navy.  Back  of  those  in  the  fighting  line  such  directly  auxiliary  industries 
as  shipbuilding,  transportation,  and  the  innumerable  branches  of  munitions 
production  have  absorbed  a  large  part  of  the  labor  force  of  the  country. 
For  the  latter  purposes,  shipbuilding,  transportation,  and  munitions  pro- 
duction, the  supply  of  men  has  not  been  adequate.  At  least  industries  of 
this  character  are  making  vigorous  and  systematic  efforts  to  enlist  women  as 
workers.  More  recently  agriculture  has  begun  to  bid,  almost  frantically, 
for  the  services  of  women. 

Upon  the  teaching  profession  the  effects  of  higher  prices  and  wider 
opportunities  for  employment  have  been  complementary  and  cumulative. 
Of  course  the  results  are  more  markt  in  industrial  than  in  agricultural 
districts,  but  they  are  apparent  to  a  considerable  degree  the  country  over. 
Higher  prices  prevail  generally,  even  if  wider  opportunities  for  employ- 
ment are  more  or  less  localized.  Fairly  well-defined  cases  in  which  teachers 
have  been  forst  out  of  the  schools  by  sheer  inability  to  meet  the  increasing 
cost  of  living  are  of  common  occurrence.  Far  more  numerous,  however, 
are  the  cases  in  which  the  lure  of  high  wages  in  industrial  undertakings, 
with  the  hope  of  future  rapid  increases,  has  led  teachers  to  give  up  their 
profession. 

As  tangible  illustrations  the  following  cases  may  be  cited  from  a  city 
which  had  a  population  of  38,537  in  1910,  and  whi  h,  as  a  consequence 
of  its  rapid  industrial  development,  particularly  along  the  lines  of  ship- 


736  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  rT^)>m' 

building  "'"I  •'"'  nuinufacturc  of  nninitionH,  now  claims  from  60,000  to 
75,000  or  niori'.  i'lic  cily  referred  to  is  in  the  center  of  the  Philadelphia 
shii)l»uildinK  district.  An  investigation  of  this  district  just  made  by  the 
iUireau  of  I.jd)or  Statistics  in  cooperation  with  the  Shipbuilding  Wage 
Adjustment  Board  and  the  JOmer^ency  Fleet  Corporation  shows  that 
expenditures  per  family  for  clothing  showed  an  increase  in  1917  of  51.33 
per  cent  over  1914;  exi)enditures  for  furniture  and  furnishings  an  increase 
of  49.84  per  cent,  for  food  of  54.41  per  cent,  for  hou.sing  of  2.60'  per  cent, 
for  fuel  and  light  of  21.54  per  cent,  for  miscellaneous  purposes  of  43.81 
per  cent.  For  the  whole  512  families  studied,  expenditures  in  1917  showed 
an  increase  of  43 .81  per  cent  over  those  for  1914.  It  is  from  a  community 
of  this  character,  with  a  rapidly  increasing  population  and  with  industrial 
wages  also  rising  rapidly,  that  the  following  actual  cases  have  been  taken. 

A  iifth-grade  woman  teacher,  of  ten  years'  experience,  salary  $682 .  50  a 
year  ($05.00  per  month,  10^  months  a  year),  accepted  a  clerical  position 
in  a  shipbuilding  establishment  at  $1144.00  a  year  ($22.00  per  week,  52 
weeks  a  year). 

A  special  teacher  of  drawing  in  intermediate  grades,  at  a  salary  of 
$682 .  50  per  year  ($65 .00  per  month,  io|  months  a  year),  accepted  a  clerical 
position,  taking  charge  of  pay-rolls,  in  a  shipbuilding  establishment  at  a 
salary  of  $900.00  per  year  ($75.00  per  month,  12  months  a  year).  This 
teacher,  a  woman  of  thirty-seven  years  of  age,  had  taught  successfully  for 
fifteen  years.  Her  only  preparation  for  a  business  career  was  a  brief  course 
which  she  had  once  taken  in  a  business  school  and  two  summers  spent  as 
bookkeeper  at  a  summer  hotel.  Nevertheless  her  services  were  welcomed 
by  the  shipbuilding  company  and  an  increase  was  promist  beyond  her  initial 
salary  of  $900.00. 

A  drawing  supervisor,  woman,  of  nine  years'  experience,  salary  $1050.00 
per  year  ($100.00  per  month,  10 J  months  per  year),  accepted  a  position  with 
a  large  chemical  concern  at  a  salary  of  $1250.00  per  year,  with  a  further 
increase  of  $200.00  per  year  promist. 

A  woman  teacher  in  the  grades,  thirt>-four  years  old,  of  ten  years' 
experience,  salary  $577.50  ($55.00  per  month,  ip^  months  per  year),  had 
taught  in  a  school  in  the  Italian  section  of  the  city  where  she  had  given  most 
useful  service  and  was  greatly  beloved  by  the  children  and  parents.  She 
possest  the  qualitications  not  only  of  a  teacher  but  of  a  social  worker  as 
well.  Fond  of  her  profession,  she  attended  summer  session  in  normal  school 
at  her  own  expense  for  two  years  to  secure  a  higher  certificate.  Altho 
anxious  to  continue  teacliing  she  found  U  impossible  to  maintain  a  standard 
of  living,  under  stress  of  the  higher  prices  of  1916  and  1017.  Very  reluctantly 
she  accepted  a  position  in  the  otVice  of  a  shipbuilding  concern,  at  a  salary  of 

•  Pho  sutall  iH^tvtMvta^f  of  increase  for  hou<unj;  is  prv>b.Abl>'  due  to  the  fact  that  these  families  ha>-e  resided 
ii\  the  district  studicvl  fv^r  some  time.  .\s  old  tenants  their  rents  have  not  been  nisevl  so  rapid^v  as  in  the  case 
of  ne>\Avmer>»,  Certsunlj-  it  is  tr\»e  that  rentals  of  n>»n>'  prv>perties  in  this  city  h*\-e  ad\-anst  50  to  too  per  cent 
»iuc«  1914. 


$1040.00  a  ^'ear.  She  found  readjustment  to  new  duties  less  difficult  th^n 
she  had  anticipated,  and  she  is  under  no  such  strain  or  responsihihty  in  het 
new  work  as  in  the  schoolri>om  of  a  crowde(^  foreiijjn  section  of  the  city.* 

In  addition  to  the  demands  of  shij>huilding  and  munition  making,  the 
tea  hers  of  the  city  referred  to  a]>ove  have  recently  received  a  hlank  f(>rm, 
sent  out  by  one  of  the  largest  railroad  corporations  in  the  country,  inquir- 
ing into  any  qualifications  they  may  possess  for  any  form  (>f  railroad  work 
and  requesting  them  to  register  for  possible  future  employment.  One 
interesting  question  propounded  in  the  inquiry  blank  is,  "If  satisfied,  will 
3^ou  remain  in  the  service  of  the  company  ?" 

To  meet  the  probable  resignation  of  experienst  teachers  in  this  com- 
munity and  in  others  similarly  circumstanst,  it  was  proposed  at  the  superin- 
tendents' convention  recently  held  in  Atlantic  City  that  girls  who  have  just 
graduated  from  high  school  might  be  employed,  in  case  they  could  spend  a 
summer  in  pedagogical  preparation.  After  meeting  the  expense  thus  en- 
tailed those  able  and  willing  to  do  so  might  receive  appointments  at  $45 .00 
per  month,  payable  lof  months  annually.'  Considering  that  in  this  com- 
munity there  is  eager  competition  among  a  number  of  large  industrial  con- 
cerns for  the  services  of  unskilled  women  workers  at  wages  of  from  $15.00 
to  $18.00  per  week,  and  that  girl  munition  workers  of  slight  experience  may 
easily  earn  $20.00  per  week  on  a  piecework  basis,  it  does  not  seem  likely 
that  there  will  be  any  great  demand,  even  by  scantily  prepared  high-school 
graduates,  for  teaching  positions.  In  rural  communities,  doubtless,  this 
kind  of  teaching  material  would  be  more  largely  available. 

^  In  this  connection  a  story  recently  circulated  regarding  the  attitude  ot  A 
publishing  house  engaged  largely  in  the  textbook  business  shows  what  may 
be  expected  in  the  near  future.  A  representative  of  this  publishing  firm, 
delegated  especially  to  visit  college  and  university  professors  and  ascertain 
what  texts  they  were  producing  or  could  be  induced  to  write,  was  recently 
met  with  the  query,  "  What  sort  of  books  does  your  firm  want  ?'*  To  thi« 
the  agent  of  the  publishing  house  replied: 

We  are  not  m  the  blightest  doubt  as  to  idiat  kind  of  textbook*  we  wuit  tor  tlie  Deaf 
future.  We  want  the  most  elementary  treatises  that  can  he  written.  We  want  A-B-C 
books.  Books  that  presuppose  a  ndnmram  of  mtel%ence  on  the  paai  al  Hat  ieMehen. 
Books  that  wiU  teach  themselves.  In  short,  IboHmiof  books.  And  we  want  thif  tifld 
of  textbook  becanse  we  realize  that  with  pfcsent  prices  and  prcscni  aalarie*  we  are  iMOi 
to  have  to  deal  with  just  that  Qrpe  of  teacher  for  the  next  tea  or  fiftem  yeaMk, 

Tbe  same  proUem,  £ram  a  whoDy  di£fetent  aiigle,  IS  Mg^^  the 
story  of  a  li^^b-sdiool  giil  wlio  was  eacaaragDA  by  her  aunt  to  conttntie  het 
educatiao  in  ooOegr  so  as  to  pitpare  for  tradimg.  The  Moat  had  hem 
teadni^  some  twenty  years  and  was  gettiiis  only  about  |$oo  a  year  is  A 


738  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 

salary.  The  young  high-school  girl  replied  to  her  aunt,  "Why  should  I 
go  to  college  to  prepare  to  be  a  teacher  when  I  can  get  right  now  by  working 
in  a  mill  more  than  you  are  making  when  you  have  been  teaching  for  twenty 
years  ?  "  The  high-school  girl  might  have  added  that  she  could  get  employ- 
ment the  year  around  in  a  mill  and  could  get  employment  for  only  eight  or 
nine  months  in  school  teaching.  The  superintendent  of  schools  at  Benld, 
111.,  reports  that  he  excuses  two  or  three  boys  in  the  grades  at  three  o'clock 
every  day  to  work  on  the  ''second  shift"  at  the  mines.  They  work  from 
3.30  to  11.30  P.M.,  make  $3  to  $5,  and  attend  school  also.  Mr.  Elmer 
Coatney,  a  teacher  in  the  Benld  Township  High  School,  recently  urged  a 
boy  who  had  left  school  to  work  at  the  mine  to  return  to  school.  He 
endeavored  to  convince  the  boy  of  the  need  and  value  of  an  education.  But 
the  boy  replied,  "  Mr.  Coatney,  I  am  making  more  money  without  an  educa- 
tion than  you  are  making  with  one."  This  is  the  truth,  although  Mr. 
Coatney  is  paid  $100  a  month,  which  is  more  than  the  average  wages  of 
high-school  teachers  in  that  locality. 

Remember  that  these  districts  are  doing  the  best  they  can  under  the 
present  legal  limitations  on  the  tax  rate. 

As  a  result  of  the  increast  demand  for  their  services  a  spirit  of  unrest, 
entirely  natural  under  the  circumstances,  has  taken  possession  of  the  teach- 
ing stajBf  of  many  cities.  There  is  a  widespread  inclination  to  try  out  the 
opportunities  for  industrial  employment  during  the  comiiig  summer. 
Those  who  find  the  change  advantageous  will  resign  within  the  time  limit 
fixed  in  their  contracts  toward  the  end  of  the  coming  vacation.  Not  until 
schools  reopen  in  the  fall  of  this  year,  therefore,  will  the  full  extent  of  the 
industrial  draft  be  apparent. 

Only  a  part  of  those  who  experiment  with  industrial  employment  will 
abandon  the  profession  of  teaching.  A  comparison  of  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  the  two  methods  of  earning  a  livelihood  may  throw  some 
light  on  the  probable  number  of  resignations  from  the  teaching  stafifs  of 
industrial  centers.  In  most  business  establishments  the  hours  of  work  are 
from  8 :  00  a.m.  to  5 :  00  p.m.,  with  one  hour  for  lunch.  The  hours  which  the 
teacher  is  required  to  spend  in  the  classroom  are  indeed  much  shorter,  but 
when  one  counts  in  the  additional  duties  performed  by  a  teacher  out  of 
hours — such  as  preparing  lessons,  grading  papers,  and  meeting  the  innumer- 
able professional  demands,  direct  and  indirect,^  upon  her  time — the  advan- 
tage which  she  enjoys  in  this  respect  is  comparatively  slight.  Moreover,  it 
is  generally  admitted  that  the  nervous  strain  and  burden  of  responsibility 
carried  by  the  industrial  worker  of  corresponding  salary  are  much  lighter. 
Of  course  the  teacher's  vacation  periods  are  considerably  longer  than  those 
which  are  customary  in  industry.  However,  industrial  employes  are  some- 
times given  full  pay  for  the  customary  two  weeks  allowed  during  the 

»  See  "The  Teacher's  Working  Day,"  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Teachers'  Salaries  and  Cost  of  Living, 
pp.  138-56.     Publisht  by  the  Natioaal  Education  Association  in  1913. 


Salaries!  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  739 

summer.  True,  the  tesichet  has  two  months  or  so  of  summer  vacation,  but 
without  pay,  and  if  dependent  wholly  on  her  own  resources  she  sometimes 
finds  it  difficult  to  meet  current  expenditures  during  this  period.  More- 
over, required  professional  training  in  summer  schools,  normal  schools, 
etc.,  makes  considerable  inroads  into  the  apparently  long  vacation  she 
enjoys. 

Much  is  made,  perhaps  too  much,  of  the  alleged  better  social  position 
enjoyed  by  the  teacher  as  compared  with  the  industrial  employe.  However, 
a  better  social  position  without  the  means  of  maintaining  the  standard  of 
living  associated  therewith  in  the  public  mind  becomes  a  burden  rather  than 
an  advantage.  Often  it  leads  to  pitiful  little  economies,  unworthy  shifts 
and  devices  that  harm  one's  health,  lame  one's  self-esteem,  and  reveal 
themselves  to  the  scornful  laughter  of  the  prosperous  and  unfeeling. 

Much  has  been  made  also  of  the  greater  social  service  rendered  by  the 
teacher.  It  is  a  thoroly  justifiable  appeal,  perhaps  the  highest  that  can 
be  made  to  those  qualified  for  the  duties  of  our  profession,  and  in  response 
to  this  appeal  such  heroines  of  real  life  as  Deborah  of  Ernest  Poole's  His 
Family  will  continue  to  give  themselves  to  the  care  of  their  big  school 
families.  But  this  is  no  longer  the  age  of  asceticism.  Nor  is  there  any 
necessary  logical  connection  between  the  call  of  social  service  and  poverty. 
Finally  it  must  be  emphasized  that  at  the  present  time  and  so  long  as  the 
war  shall  last  many  industries  may  make  a  direct  and  energetic  appeal  to 
the  patriotism  of  their  workers,  just  as  the  teaching  profession  has  always 
done.  This  is  preeminently  true  of  farming,  shipbuilding,  and  the  many 
branches  of  munitions  making.  The  former  advantage  which  teaching 
enjoyed  in  its  broad  appeal  for  patriotic  and  social  service  is  therefore 
shared  for  the  time  being  by  many  industries  which  are  competing  for  the 
services  of  teachers. 

Finally,  when  it  comes  to  a  comparison  of  tangible  rewards  all  the 
advantages  are  on  the  side  of  industrial  work.  The  latter  usually  offers 
a  substantial  increase  at  the  beginning  over  the  salary  of  the  teacher. 
It  may  not  offer  such  security  of  tenure  as  teaching,  but  for  an  indefinitely 
long  period  in  the  future  industry  as  a  whole  is  likely  to  expand.  Besides 
larger  initial  salaries,  promotions  in  industrial  employment  are  likely  to 
come  more  frequently,  and  when  they  do  come  they  usually  bring  with  them 
much  more  substantial  increases  of  salary  than  those  promist  by  the  average 
schedule  of  teachers'  salaries,  with  its  theoretically  admirable  but  personally 
somewhat  invidious  groups,  grading,  experience,  and  efficiency  ratings.  At 
a  time  like  the  present,  with  new  higher  price  levels  recorded  from  day  to  day, 
the  likelihood  of  occasional  substantial  raises  of  pay  possesses  an  appeal 
much  stronger  than  during  periods  of  stable  prices.  All  things  considered, 
therefore,  industrial  employers  are  in  a  position  to  make  a  much  stronger  bid 
for  the  services  of  teachers  than  ever  before.  And  the  economic  qualities  of 
teachers  are  precisely  such  as  to  make  them  especially  desirable  employes. 


740  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 

They  possess  a  greater  share  of  native  intelligence  than  most  applicants 
for  such  positions;  their  education  is  considerably  better;  they  do  not 
expect  to  maintain  excessively  high  standards  of  living  and  consequently 
are  satisfied  with  moderate  salaries;  and  finally  they  are  thoroly  dependable 
workers,  capable  of  accepting  heavy  responsibilities  and  trained  to  stick  to  a 
job  until  it  is  completed.  In  the  light  of  these  admirable  industrial  qualities 
it  is  not  strange  that  various  kinds  of  business  have  begun  to  seek  recruits 
for  their  working  forces  from  the  ranks  of  school  teachers. 

THE   QUESTION   OF   METHOD 

The  two  factors  already  considered,  rapidly  increasing  prices  and 
widened  opportunities  for  employment,  have  brought  about  an  acute 
economic  crisis  so  far  as  teachers  are  concerned.  They  are  inexorably 
forcing  out  some  teachers,  while  many  others  are  being  attracted  into 
business  enterprises  by  the  lure  of  new  industrial  opportunities. 

Under  the  stress  of  these  economic  forces  the  question  of  the  unioniza- 
tion of  teachers  has  naturally  come  into  prominence;  indeed,  such  a  move- 
ment for  the  union  of  teachers  in  afiiliation  with  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor  has  recently  been  making  rapid  progress.  Nowhere  is  this  more 
apparent  than  in  the  city  of  Washington.  In  Washington  teachers  have 
been  drafted  from  the  schools  into  many  branches  of  the  civil  service  by  the 
simple  process  of  taking  civil  service  examinations.  Teachers  whose 
minimum  salary  is  $500  are  metamorphosed  into  government  clerks  at  a 
salary  of  $1200.  The  result,  not  unnaturally,  has  been  a  demand  for  a 
large  increase  of  teachers'  salaries,  say  from  the  minimum  of  $500  to  $1000. 
This  demand  has  been  presented  very  ably  and  effectively  by  the  unions  of 
school  teachers  in  Washington,  and  they  have  organized  in  its  behalf  a 
very  effective  and  sympathetic  propaganda. 

The  movement  has  spread  rapidly.  Of  recent  date,  a  roster  of  local 
unions  includes  the  names  of  twenty-four  such  bodies.  Not  only  large 
cities  such  as  New  York,  Chicago,  and  Washington  are  represented,  but  also 
cities  of  the  second  class  such  as  Chattanooga,  Scranton,  Schenectady, 
Gary,  Valparaiso,  Norfolk,  Va.,  and  Vallejo,  Calif.  The  literature  of  the 
unionist  organizations  is  conservative  in  tone.  One  need  not  be  disturbed 
by  the  fear  that  they  will  resort  to  undignified  and  violent  measures. 
Unions  formed  of  American  teachers  may  be  depended  upon  to  pursue  a 
wise,  patient,  and  purely  democratic  policy.  Moreover,  what  the  teachers 
of  the  country  are  asking  of  the  people — their  ultimate  employers — is  not 
askt  in  selfishness  but  in  the  widest  interest  of  the  people  themselves. 
Public  schools  are  the  chief  bulwark  of  liberty.  If  the  teachers  of  the 
country  are  ruined  economically  the  schools  will  fail  and  democracy  itself 
will  be   mperiled. 

The  economic  crisis  which  confronts  teachers  now  is  so  great  and  so 
immediate  that  it  seems  altogether  unlikely  that  the  advocacy  of  higher 


Salaries!  TEACHERS*  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  741 

salaries  for  teachers  is  likely  to  be  overdone  in  the  near  future.  It  is  true 
that  agitation  for  wage  increases  during  war  times  should  be  made  only 
after  due  deliberation  and  on  the  most  compelling  grounds.  But  it  is 
certain  that  the  teachers  of  the  country  are  justified  in  taking  such  action 
at  the  present  time.  Nor  is  there  the  least  likelihood  that  such  increases  as 
they  may  secure  will  be  unduly  high.  In  no  sense  will  teachers  become 
war  profiteers.  On  the  contrary  the  strongest  cooperation  of  all  effective 
means  for  the  raising  of  salaries  will  hardly  avail  to  secure  adequate  results 
even  to  the  extent  of  restoring  to  them  the  purchasing  power  which  they 
possest  in  19 15. 

While  many  of  us  are  strongly  inclined  to  favor  agitation  within  strictly 
professional  lines  rather  than  along  the  lines  associated  with  the  labor 
movement,  we  must  recognize,  however,  that  in  certain  communities  the 
union  method  may  be  the  better  method.  At  least  we  must  be  prepared 
to  welcome  the  cooperation  of  the  new  method  in  every  feasible  way.  The 
National  Education  Association  should  therefore  make  special  study  of 
the  progress  of  unionism  among  teachers,  the  methods  employed,  and  the 
possibilities  of  cooperation  therewith,  and  publish  a  report  on  these  topics 
for  the  guidance  of  its  members  and  teachers  everywhere  in  dealing  with 
this  new  form  of  organization.  Manifestly  in  those  communities  where 
teachers'  unions  are  formed  such  unions  are  likely  to  become  very  effective 
centers  for  propaganda  in  favor  of  higher  salaries  for  teachers.  Merely  by 
cooperating  with  the  unions  along  statistical  lines  the  National  Education 
Association  should  be  able  to  render  valuable  service  without  unnecessarily 
indorsing  all  the  methods  which  the  unions  may  decide  to  use  in  furthering 
their  own  interests. 

At  the  present  moment  the  three  great  material  issues  confronting 
teachers,  namely,  salaries,  tenure,  and  pensions,  have  shifted  largely  in 
importance,  as  compared  with  the  year  19 14.  Of  the  three,  salaries  are 
much  the  most  important  and  are  likely  to  remain  so  for  an  indefinitely 
long  time.  As  for  tenure,  instead  of  teachers  worrying  about  that  subject, 
it  is  the  school  boards  and  superintendents  of  the  country  who  have  to 
worry  lest  they  may  not  be  able  to  retain  their  teaching  staffs.  With 
teachers  leaving  in  large  numbers  for  industrial  and  other  employment, 
pensions  cease  to  be  of  any  great  interest  for  the  time  being.  The  situa- 
tion is  a  difl&cult  one.  Only  by  boldly  and  resourcefully  standing  out  as 
leader  of  the  teaching  profession  in  this  emergency  can  the  National  Educa- 
tion Association  justify  its  existence  and  guarantee  its  future.  Indeed  it 
is  only  by  such  a  policy,  pushed  sufficiently  to  secure  large  advances  of 
salary,  that  the  National  Education  Association  can  hold  teachers  to  the 
professional  point  of  view  and  to  professional  methods  of  taking  action  n 
their  own  interest  and  the  interest  of  the  community.  Otherwise  unionism 
will  dominate  the  situation,  as  indeed  it  should  if  it  proves  the  only  means 
to  rescue  the  teaching  profession  from  economic  deterioration.    For  it 


742  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Teachers' 

must  be  rescued  from  the  impending  bankruptcy  if  it  is  to  continue  to 
perform  the  great,  aye,  the  indispensable,  function  which  has  been  intrusted 
to  it  by  the  democracy  of  America. 

HOW  IS  THE  MONEY  TO  BE  OBTAINED  TO  PAY  ADEQUATE 
SALARIES  TO  TEACHERS? 

I 

How  is  the  money  to  be  obtained  to  pay  adequate  salaries  to  teachers  ? 
The  19 13  report  of  the  Committee  of  the  National  Education  Association 
on  Teachers'  Salaries  and  Cost  of  Living  proved  in  detail,  what  many  would 
have  been  willing  to  admit  without  askmg  for  figures,  that  even  before 
the  war  the  teachers  of  the  country  were  inadequately  paid.  But  the  war, 
as  the  preceding  section  of  the  present  report  amply  demonstrates,  has 
turned  a  situation  that  was  bad  into  one  that  is  critical.  Something  imme- 
diate and  radical  must  be  done  or  there  is  danger  of  educational  collapse. 

School  ofiicials,  as  a  rule,  recognize  this  danger  and  are  willing  enough 
to  pay  better  salaries  to  teachers.  But  theu:  pertinent  question  is,  "Where 
is  the  money  to  come  from?"  This  is  a  practical  problem  that  must  be 
answered  in  a  practical  way.  Before  taking  it  up  it  is  desirable  to  know  how 
much  money  will  be  required,  first,  to  meet  the  needs  of  our  existing  school 
system  in  the  present  emergency;  secondly,  to  extend  the  scope  of  public 
education  to  meet  twentieth-century  demands;  and,  thirdly,  to  pay  adequate 
salaries  to  the  teachers.  It  is  necessary  also  to  know  what  has  already  been 
done  toward  obtaining  the  necessary  funds. 

In  order  that  the  committee  might  have  up-to-date  information  con- 
cerning what  has  been  done,  and  opinions  from  all  over  the  country  as  to 
what  should  be  done,  the  following  questions  were  sent  to  each  state  super- 
intendent. 

1.  About  what  percentage  of  increase  of  teachers'  salaries,  including  supervisors 
and  city,  town,  and  county  superintendents,  is  necessary  to  meet  present  war  conditions: 

a)  Elementary  and  rural  teachers  ? 

b)  Other  persons  engaged  in  public-school  work  ? 

2.  Approximate  amount  expended  for  salaries  in  your  state  according  to  last  report: 

a)  Raised  by  local  taxation. 

b)  Appropriated  by  the  state. 

3.  Are  the  laws  of  your  state  such  that  local  communities  can  levy  and  collect  suffi- 
cient funds  to  pay  adequate  salaries  to  teachers: 

a)  In  rural  communities  ? 

b)  In  towns  and  smaller  cities  ? 

c)  In  large  cities  ? 

4.  Are  there  adequate  funds  available  for  additional  state  support  ? 

5.  State  briefly  the  means  that  are  being  taken  in  your  state  to  secure  adequate 
funds  for  teachers'  salaries  to  meet  the  present  emergency. 

6.  Do  you  favor  national  aid  to  the  different  states  ? 

(A  bill  is  being  prepared  by  the  National  Education  Association  Commission  provid- 
ing for  the  appropriation  by  Congress  of  $100,000,000.00  for  this  purpose.) 


Salaries!  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  743 

Replies  have  been  received  from  more  than  half  of  the  state  superin- 
tendents representing  every  section,  and  their  answers  have  been  tabulated 
in  brief  form  (see  Appendixes  I  and  II). 

If  we  consider  the  answers  to  the  first  question,  we  find  that  in  order 
to  meet  war  conditions  it  is  necessary,  in  the  opinion  of  the  state  superin- 
tendents, to  increase  the  salaries  of  elementary  and  rural  teachers  from  10  to 
50  per  cent  and  those  of  high-school  teachers,  supervisors,  town,  city,  and 
county  superintendents  from  10  to  50  per  cent.  If  a  rough  average  is 
taken,  the  state  superintendents  recommend  that  elementary  and  rural 
teachers  should  have  their  salaries  increast  about  33  per  cent  and  all  others 
about  20  per  cent.  According  to  the  publisht  statistics  (1914-15)  the  aggre- 
gate amount  expended  for  teachers'  salaries  in  the  United  States  was 
$345,006,445.^  Therefore,  according  to  the  estimate  of  the  state  superin- 
tendents, it  will  require  from  $100,000,000  to  $115,000,000  to  meet  the 
present  emergency  on  account  of  the  rapid  increase  in  the  cost  of  living. 

But  there  is  another  and  a  better  way  of  approximating  the  amount 
of  money  required  to  meet  the  war  emergency.  On  April  30,  19 18,  the 
Railroad  Wage  Commission  of  the  United  States  made  a  report  to  the 
Director  General  of  Railroads  relative  to  the  wages  of  railroad  employes 
and  the  cost  of  living.  "  We  have  had  a  most  exhaustive  study  made  of  the 
cost  of  living  today,"  says  the  Commission,  "as  contrasted  with  the  cost 
of  living  in  the  latter  part  191 5 To  our  mind  it  conclusively  estab- 
lishes two  things:  (i)  that  the  cost  of  living  has  increast  disproportionately 
among  those  of  small  incomes,  and  (2)  that  there  is  a  point  up  to  which  it  is 
essential  that  the  full  increast  cost  shall  be  allowed  as  a  wage  increase, 
while  from  this  point  on  the  increase  may  be  gradually  diminished."^  As 
a  result  of  this  study  the  commission  made  a  table  setting  forth  the  rate  of 
increase  of  all  wages  up  to  $250  per  month,  the  "vanishing-point"  so  far 
as  increases  are  concerned.    This  table  provided  the  following  i^ 

Monthly  Wages  Percentage  of  Increase 

Under  $  46  103    -44* 
$  46-    79  43    -41 

80-  100  40. 44-3 I. 75 

100-  200  31-29-  8.37s 
200-  250  8.26-0 

*  The  increase  was  $20  per  month. 

Applying  these  schedules  to  the  salaries  of  teachers  and  changing  monthly 
wages  into  yearly  salaries,  we  have  calculated  the  increases  which  it  would 
be  necessary  to  make  in  order  that  the  financial  condition  of  the  teachers 
in  1918  might  be  as  good  as  it  was  in  1915.     The  amount  is  $i66,og4,2ii, 

■  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1917,  II,  54-  The  aggregate  salaries  for  igis 
are  taken  instead  of  those  for  igi6  ($364,789,265,  on  p.  81  of  the  same  report)  because  the  percentage  of  increase 
in  wages  of  railroad  employes  is  calculated  on  the  1915  basis  by  the  Railroad  Wage  Commission.  See  Report 
of  Railroad  Wage  Commission  to  the  Director  General  of  Railroads,  Washington,  igiS. 

»  See  Report  of  the  Railroad  Wage  Commission  for  1918,  p.  15.  '  Ibid.,  pp.  20-26. 


744  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 

or  an  increase  of  45.3  per  cent.  See  Appendix  III  for  detailed  statement 
by  states. 

But  what  about  the  extension  of  the  public  school  system?  What 
amount  of  money  will  be  needed  to  bring  our  education  up  to  the  level 
of  twentieth-century  demands  ? 

There  is  space  here  to  enumerate  only  a  few  of  the  most  pressing  of  the 
educational  questions  with  which  we  are  face  to  face.  Our  foreign-born 
population  must  be  Americanized.  The  widespread  prevalence  of  illiteracy 
must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Industrial  education,  in  which  we  have  as 
yet  made  scarcely  a  beginning,  must  be  extended;  our  entire  industrial 
future  is  contingent  on  it.  An  adequate  system  of  physical  education 
must  be  establisht  and  developt;  the  health  and  vigor  of  our  people,  per- 
haps the  very  endurance  of  the  Republic,  depend  upon  it.  The  school  term 
in  a  majority  of  the  states  must  be  lengthened.  Better  attendance  laws 
must  be  enacted,  and  more  effectively  enforst.  This  last  point  is  a  matter 
of  prime  importance,  the  fact  being  that,  altho  the  average  school  term  in 
19 1 6  was  eight  months  (160.3  days),  yet  the  average  daily  attendance 
of  all  of  the  pupils  enrolled  was  only  six  months  (120. 9  days).  There  were 
sixteen  states  in  which  the  average  attendance  was  less  than  five  months 
and  one  in  which  it  was  only  72.9'  days.^ 

The  matter  of  illiteracy  deserves  a  special  word  owing  to  conditions 
recently  revealed  in  a  letter  of  Secretary  Lane  addrest  to  the  President  of 
the  United  States  and  to  the  chairmen  of  the  educational  committees  of  the 
House  and  Senate.    The  letter  states: 

"The  war  has  brought  facts  to  our  attention  which  are  almost  unbelievable  and  that 
are  in  themselves  accusatory.  There  were  in  the  United  States  in  1910,  5,516,163  persons 
over  ten  years  of  age  who  were  unable  to  read  or  write  in  any  language.  There  are  now 
nearly  700,000  men  of  draft  age  in  the  United  States  who  cannot  read  or  write  in  English 
or  any  other  language.     Over  4,600,000  of  the  illiterates  of  this  country  were  twenty 

years  of  age  or  more The  percentage  of  ilUterates  varies  from  i .  7  in  Iowa  to 

29  in  Louisiana.  In  the  first  draft  between  30,000  and  40,000  illiterates  were  brought 
into  the  army,  and  approximately  as  many  more  near  illiterates. 

They  cannot  sign  their  names. 

They  cannot  read  their  orders  posted  daily. 

They  cannot  read  their  manual  of  arms. 

They  cannot  read  their  letters  or  write  home. 

They  cannot  understand  the  signals  or  follow  the  signal  corps  in  time  of  battle." 

The  urgent  necessity  for  reducing  illiteracy  is  further  emphasized  by 
the  fact  that  the  number  of  illiterates  actually  increast  in  sixteen  states  from 
1900  to  1910.  These  states  are  all  in  the  North  and  West  and  comprise 
several  of  the  greatest  states  in  the  Union — New  York  27.6  per  cent,  Penn- 
sylvania 18.3  per  cent,  Illinois  6.5  per  cent,  Massachusetts  5.6  per  cent, 
New  Jersey  31.0  per  cent,  Connecticut  24.9  per  cent,  California  27.0  per 
cent,  and   the  state  of  Washington  44.7  per  cent.    Altho  the  South  still 

«  See  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1Q17,  II,  75. 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  745 

has  a  very  high  per  centage  of  ilHteracy,  yet  the  density  of  ilhterate  popula- 
tion in  the  great  manufacturing  states  of  the  North  exceeds  that  of  the 
states  in  the  Black  Belt  of  the  South.  The  former  has  9 . 8  illiterate  persons 
,  to  the  square  mile,  the  latter  7 .  i  to  the  square  mile.^ 

The  bare  enumeration  of  these  facts  shows  that  the  scope  of  education 
must  be  greatly  extended.  What  will  it  cost  ?  No  one  knows.  Perhaps 
$75,000,000  a  year,  perhaps  more.    But  it  must  be  done,  cost  what  it  may. 

So  far  we  have  considered  only  what  amounts  of  money  are  necessary 
to  meet  the  war  emergency  due  to  the  high  cost  of  living  and  to  extend  the 
necessary  scope  of  education.  To  rescue  the  profession  of  teaching  from 
bankruptcy  will  require  $330,000,000  to  $400,000,000  in  addition  to  the 
amounts  named  above.  Few  persons  have  ever  taken  the  pains  to  study 
the  financial  condition  of  the  public-school  teachers  of  the  United  States. 
No  one  has  ever  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  distribution  of  salaries, 
but  until  such  a  study  is  made,  it  is  impossible  to  present  the  facts  in  their 
true  light.  The  best  we  have  are  averages,  and  we  use  those  for  19 14-15. 
But  the  mere  statement  of  these  averages  is  pathetically  eloquent. 

The  average  salary  for  all  of  the  622,321  public-school  teachers  in  1915  was  $543.31. 

That  is,  $1 .  73  per  working  day  thruout  the  year. 

That  is,  $1 .48  per  living  day  thruout  the  year. 

There  was  not  a  single  state  in  the  Union  in  which  the  average  salary  of  the  teachers 
was  $1000. 

There  were  only  two  states,  California  and  New  York,  in  which  the  average  salary 
of  the  teachers  exceeded  $900. 

There  were  only  three  other  states,  Washington,  New  Jersey,  and  Massachusetts, 
in  which  the  average  salary  of  the  teachers  was  between  $800  and  $900. 

There  were  only  three  other  states,  Nevada,  Arizona,  and  Rhode  Island,  in  which 
the  average  salary  of  the  teachers  of  each  was  between  $700  and  $800. 

But  that  is  not  all  of  the  story. 

There  were  twenty-nine  states  in  which  the  average  salary  of  the  teachers  was  below 
the  average  for  the  United  States. 

There  were  twenty-three  states  in  which  the  average  salary  was  below  $500. 
There  were  twelve  states  in  which  the  average  salary  was  below  $400. 
There  were  three  states  in  which  the  average  salary  was  below  $300. 
There  was  one  state  in  which  the  average  daily  wage  was  64  cents! 

If  these  are  averages  of  all  teachers,  including  principals  and  superin- 
tendents, what  must  be  the  economic  condition  of  more  than  350,000  of  the 
poorest-paid  teachers  of  the  United  States!^ 

But  the  foregoing  statistics  represented  conditions  in  19 15.  What  are 
the  present  conditions  relative  to  the  salaries  of  teachers  ? 

For  the  most  part  we  do  not  know.  The  most  roseate  optimist  we  have 
heard  of  says  that  salaries  have  advanst  10  per  cent  within  the  last  three 

«  For  charts  and  tables  relative  to  illiteracy  see  Appendixes  IV  and  V. 

*  These  statements  are  based  on  the  table  of  statistics  found  on  p.  50,  Vol.  II,  of  the  Report  of  the  United 
Slates  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1917.    For  detailed  statement  by  states  see  Appendix  III. 


746  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Teachers' 

years.  If  that  is  true,  the  average  daily  wage  of  the  teachers  in  the  United 
States  is  now  $1.63  instead  of  $1.48.^ 

But  we  do  know  something  definite  about  the  present  salaries  of  the 
elite  of  our  profession,  the  salaries  of  the  teachers  in  320  cities  of  the  United 
States.  These  data  have  been  collected  within  the  last  sixty  days  by  the 
National  Education  Association  Commission  on  the  National  Emergency. 
These  data  have  been  collected  in  such  a  manner  as  to  show  the  number  of 
teachers  receiving  salaries  of  different  amounts.     The  actual  facts  are  these; 

The  median  salary  for  59,020  elementary  teachers  in  the  city  schools  is  $816. 19. 

The  median  salary  for  3779  intermediate  teachers  in  the  city  schools  is  $899.42. 

The  median  salary  for  13,976  high-school  teachers  in  the  city  schools  is  $1249.50. 

There  are  19,017  teachers,  including  338  high-school  teachers,  in  the  city  schools 
who  receive  less  than  $700  per  year. 

There  are  2931,  including  33  high-school  teachers  in  the  city  schools,  who  receive 
less  than  $500  per  year.* 

While  we  do  not  know  the  worst  conditions  relative  to  teachers'  salaries, 
yet  this  study  shows  the  actual  condition  of  the  best-paid  group  of  teachers 
in  the  United  States  to  be  bordering  on  bankruptcy. 

But  what  was  a  living  salary  in  19 15  ?     What  is  a  living  salary  in  19 18  ? 

Here  again  we  must  rely  on  the  Railroad  Wage  Commission,  which  says: 

This  study  of  the  cost  of  living  was  not  made  from  paper  statistics  exclusively,  by 
the  gathering  of  prices,  and  comparison  of  theoretical  budgets.  It  was  in  no  inconsider- 
able part  an  actual  study  from  life Roughly,  it  may  be  said  that  the  man  who 

received  $85  a  month  on  January  i,  1916,  now  needs  40  per  cent  additional  to  his  wage 
to  give  him  the  same  living  that  he  had  then.  Below  that  wage  a  larger  percentage  must 
be  allowed,  because  the  opportunity  for  substitution  and  other  methods  of  thrift  decline 
almost  to  the  vanishing-point,  while  above  that  wage  a  growing  proportion  of  the  in- 
crease will  go  to  those  things  essential  to  cultured  life  but  not  essential  to  actual  living.^ 

WHAT  CONSTITUTES  A  MINIMUM  WAGE  AND  A  FAIR  WAGE  FOR  TEACHERS? 

Estimates  have  been  made  by  charity  workers  and  others  of  the  amount 
of  earnings  needed  to  keep  a  family  above  the  pauper  or  poverty  Hne. 
In  1900,  John  Mitchell,  of  the  United  Mine  Workers,  stated  that  a  minimum 
wage  of  $600  a  year  was  necessary  for  a  worker  in  the  anthracite  region. 
At  about  the  same  time  the  New  York  Bureau  of  Labor  estimated  $10 
a  week  or  $520  a  year  as  an  amount  adequate  for  the  necessities  of  a  city 
workingman.  Dr.  E.  T.  Devine,  Secretary  of  the  Charity  Organization 
Society  of  New  York  City,  estimated  $600  as  the  minimum.  Another 
charity  official  of  New  York  City  considered  $624  a  minimum  necessary 
for  a  family  of  five.  About  the  same  time  the  Massachusetts  Bureau  of 
Statistics  estimated  $724  as  a  fair  living  wage  .for  a  family  of  five.    These 

'  The  average  salary  of  all  teachers  in  igi6  was  $563 .  08,  or  an  increase  of  3 . 6  per  cent  (see  Report  of  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1917,  II,  77).  The  National  Education  Association  Commission 
reports  23  cities,  representing  10,340  teachers,  which  report  no  increase  at  all.  See  Appendix  VI.  The 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  has  forwarded  to  this  committee  data  from  108  cities,  showing  that 
the  increases  have  not  been  general.  It  is  difficult  to  make  estimates  from  such  data.  See  Appendix  VII. 
For  conditions  in  Missouri  see  Appendix  XI. 

*  For  table  giving  distribution  of  salaries  of  teachers  of  320  cities,  see  Appendix  VIII. 

» Report  of  the  Railroad  Wage  Commission,  p.  16. 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  747 

estimates  were  all  made  for  a  period  in  which  prices  everywhere  were 
materially  lower  than  in  1915.  Furthermore,  they  were  not  estimates 
of  an  ideal  standard  of  comfort  for  workingmen  but  represented  the  amount 
which  was  considered  necessary  to  keep  the  famihes  of  the  individuals 
concerned  without  providing  any  surplus  for  luxuries  or  comforts. 

NOTES   ON  WHAT  CONSTITUTED  A  LIVING  WAGE   FOR  TEACHERS   IN   THE 

YEARS    191 5-1 8 

While  the  Report  of  the  Railroad  Wage  Commission  does  not  attempt  to 
say  what  sum  represents  a  hving  wage  for  all  the  railroad  men  of  the 
country,  it  does  attempt  to  show  how  much  of  an  increase  in  wages  will  be 
necessary  in  order  to  enable  the  members  of  the  different  wage  groups  to 
secure  approximately  the  same  returns  in  191 8  as  in  191 5.  It  is  manifestly 
unfair  to  compare  the  earnings  of  the  teachers  of  the  country  with  the 
earnings  of  a  heterogeneous  group  hke  the  railroad  employes  of  the  United 
States.  It  would  seem  more  appropriate  to  compare  teacher's  salaries 
with  the  returns  of  some  one  of  the  groups  of  railway  workers,  like  that  of 
the  engineers,  or  conductors,  or  even  of  the  brakemen.  On  page  18  of  the 
report  of  the  eight-hour  commission,  the  statement  is  made  that  "the 
typical  earnings  of  an  eastern  freight  engineer  was  around  $180  a  month, 
and  that  of  the  eastern  freight  brakeman,  $100  a  month."  According  to 
the  table  found  on  the  same  page,  t5^ical  earnings  of  freight  brakemen  in 
the  southern  and  western  section  would  be  about  the  same  as  those  in  the 
eastern  division.  The  skill  required  and  the  degree  of  inteUigence  necessary 
to  become  a  railroad  brakeman  cannot  compare  with  the  skill  and  intel- 
ligence of  a  teacher;  and  a  comparison  of  the  earnings  of  the  two  classes  is 
therefore,  if  unfair  at  all,  unfair  to  the  teacher.  On  the  other  hand  the 
average  wages  of  all  the  railway  wage  earners  is  not  a  good  criterion  since 
the  majority  of  railroad  employes  are  very  low  grade,  unskilled  labor  like 
section  hands,  teamsters,  and  porters.  Their  pay  being  very  low  tends  to 
bring  down  the  average  of  all  railroad  employes,  whereas  those  branches 
of  the  service  which  really  require  skill  or  brains  are  paid  at  very  much 
higher  rates.  If  the  wages  of  a  typical  freight  brakeman  are  around  $100 
a  month  is  it  unfair  to  assume  that  the  typical  teacher  ought  to  receive  at 
least  $85  a  month  ?  If  we  assume  that  this  was  a  fair  salary  in  191 5  for  the 
average  teacher  of  the  country  his  annual  salary  would  have  amounted 
to  $1020  a  year. 

The  man  who  received  $85  per  month,  or  $1020  per  year  in  19 15,  should, 
according  to  the  report,  have  a  40  per  cent  increase,  or  $1428,  in  1918.^ 

»  The  Railroad  Commission  made  a  study  of  the  budgets  of  265  families  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
States  (p.  93): 

IS  families,  income  of  each  less  than  $600,  deficit $  2647 .95 

105         "  "         "     "     from  $600  to  $1000,  deficit 9991  •  iS 

14s         "  «         «     «         «  jiooo  to  $2000,  deficit 149 .  20 

Total  deficit  for  265  families $12,788.20 

This  shows  that  the  living  wage  for  a  family  is  not  reacht  until  the  income  is  well  above  $1000. 


748  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 

With  all  the  demands  made  upon  teachers,  "cultural"  as  well  as  those  for 
the  "essentials  of  actual  living,"  their  increases  in  salaries  should  be  as 
great  as  those  or  railroad  employes.  On  this  basis  the  teachers  should 
have  received  in  191 5,  not  $543,  but  $1020  a  year,  that  is  a  total,  not  of  $345,- 
000,000,  but  of  $648,000,000.  On  the  same  basis,  according  to  the  Railroad 
Commission,  they  should  receive  in  1918  an  average  of  $1428,  or  a  total  of 
$907,000,000,  in  order  that  the  average  salary  may  be  a  living  salary. 

But  cost  what  it  may,  teachers  should  receive  not  only  a  living  wage 
but  salaries  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  live  respectably,  to  keep  abreast  of 
the  times  professionally,  and  to  lay  by  something  for  old  age.  This  is  not 
only  reasonable  but  necessary  if  the  schools  are  to  fulfil  their  mission.  Your 
committee  therefore  submits  for  the  indorsement  of  the  National  Educa- 
tion Association  the  following: 

Tentative  Program  on  Salaries 

1.  An  immediate  increase  in  the  salaries  of  all  teachers  sufl&cient  to  meet  the  increase 
in  the  cost  of  living,  these  increases  to  be  made  on  a  sliding  scale,  that  is,  those  receiving 
the  lowest  salaries  to  be  given  the  largest  percentage  of  increase. 

2.  A  minim tmi  salary  for  all  teachers,  rural  and  urban,  which  will  unable  them  to 
support  their  families  twelve  months  in  the  year. 

3.  A  scale  of  increases  in  salary  from  time  to  time  which  will  provide  teachers  with 
a  reasonable  assurance  of  a  remuneration  which  will  enable  them  to  live  appropriately 
without  embarrassment,  and  which  will  also  enable  them  to  lay  by  something  for  old 
age.  The  compensation  should  be  sufficient  to  warrant  young  men  and  young  women 
of  first-class  ability  to  prepare  themselves  properly  for  teaching  and  to  remain  in  the 
profession  after  they  have  once  entered  it. 

4.  After  a  reasonable  probationary  period  and  proper  certification,  tenure  of  position 
during  efficiency,  with  a  fair  chance  of  advancement  to  positions  of  greater  importance 
and  emolument. 

II 

How  can  the  funds  be  obtained  to  carry  out  such  a  program  ?  Let  us 
consider  only  three  items: 

Amount  paid  teachers  in  1915 $345,000,000 

Amount  necessary,  according  to  Railway  Wage  Commission,  to 

meet  increast  cost  of  living  in  19 15 303,000,000 

Additional  amount,  required  to  pay  living  salaries  to  teachers  in 

1918 259,000,000 

Amount  required  to  extend  scope  of  education  (near  future) ....  75,000,000 

Total*. $982,000,000 

If  we  study  the  replies  of  the  state  superintendents  to  questions  2  and  4, 
as  given  above  (p.  22),  we  find  that  the  money  for  teachers'  salaries  comes 
(i)  from  state  support  and  (2)  from  local  taxation;  that  there  is  no  uni- 
formity among  the  states  as  to  which  of  these  two  parts  should  be  the 
larger;    that  some  states,  like  Kansas,  give  no  state  support  whatever, 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  749 

while  others,  like  Pennsylvania,  give  millions.^  We  find,  moreover,  that 
almost  without  exception  there  are  no  additional  state  funds  available  for 
school  support  until  there  is  further  legislation.*  This  means  that  in  most 
states  there  is  for  the  ensuing  school  year  but  one  way  to  raise  the  large 
sum  of  money  needed  for  the  immediate  emergency,  and  that  is  by  local 
taxation. 

The  answers  to  question  5,  regarding  the  measures  adopted  to  meet  the 
present  emergency,  are  set  forth  in  Appendix  II.  They  are  worthy  of 
careful  study. 

An  examination  of  these  answers  makes  it  clear  that  with  the  exception 
of  Delaware,  Maryland,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  and  a  few 
other  states  nothing  has  been  done  by  the  legislatures  to  meet  present 
emergencies.  In  fact,  only  a  few  legislatures  have  been  in  session  since 
war  was  declared.  It  is  evident  then  that  if  funds  are  to  be  obtained  at  all 
for  the  next  school  year  they  must  be  raised  in  most  states  by  local  taxation. 
But  except  in  the  wealthiest  communities,  to  increase  local  taxation  in  one  year 
sufficiently  to  raise  enough  money  to  increase  teachers^  salaries  45  per  cent  is 
an  impossibility.  The  reasons  for  this  are  two.  In  the  first  place,  tax 
officials  dare  not  raise  the  rate  so  much  at  a  single  bound.  In  the  second 
place,  legal  restrictions  in  many  states  forbid  the  levying  of  such  a  tax 
rate.  The  answer  "No"  to  question  3  shows  the  states  where  these  legal 
obstacles  exist.  Salaries,  in  most  places,  will  be  increast  more  than  usual 
this  year,  but  anything  approaching  a  general  increase  of  45  per  cent  is 
out  of  the  question  until  there  are  radical  changes  in  those  state  laws  that 
at  present  bar  the  way.^ 

But  even  legislation  by  the  different  states  will  not  provide  sufficient 
funds  to  carry  out  the  program  as  outlined  above  without  imposing  undue 
burdens  of  taxation  on  the  people  in  many  states.'*  The  fact  is  that  our  pres- 
ent system  of  school  support  is  breaking  down  in  the  present  crisis  and  must 
give  way  to  a  new  one.  And  the  only  new  one  in  sight  is  the  system  of 
national  aid.  The  adoption  of  this  system  will  involve,  not  only  legislation 
on  the  part  of  Congress,  but  an  almost  complete  change  of  poHcy  of  public 
education  on  the  part  of  the  nation.  To  bring  these  changes  about  will 
require  the  compelling  force  of  an  aroused  public  opinion.     Not  a  moment 

«  Pennsylvania  gives  $18,000,000. 

»  See  Appendix  I. 

»  The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  has  just  compiled  statistics  relative  to  the  salary  increases 
in  io8  cities  located  in  27  different  states.  See  Appendix  VII.  His  report  shows  salary  schedules,  minimum 
and  maximum,  rather  than  actual  salaries  paid,  yet  even  these  schedules  show  that  in  many  cities  the  increase 
is  very  small  or  that  there  is  none  at  all.  The  Commission  on  National  Emergency  furnishes  a  list  of  23  cities 
which  report  no  increase  at  all  (Appendix  VI).  Appendix  IX,  furnisht  by  Grace  C.  Forsythe,  shows  increases 
in  teachers'  salaries  in  certain  cities;  also  increase  in  wages  in  certain  industries. 

4  There  is  no  sort  of  correlation  between  the  wealth  of  a  community  and  the  number  of  children  to  be 
educated.  This  is  true  to  a  less  degree  in  states  than  in  school  districts,  yet  in  some  states  there  is  nearly 
six  times  as  much  wealth  per  teacher  as  in  others,  e.g.,  Nevada  has  $671,816.56  of  taxable  wealth  for  each 
teacher  and  North  Carolina  only  $117,047.33,  or  approximately  only  one-sixth  as  much.  For  the  average 
amount  of  wealth  per  teacher  for  each  state,  see  Appendix  X. 


7SO  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 

must  be  lost,  therefore,  in  bringing  this  issue  in  the  most  forcible  manner  to 
the  people's  attention.' 

Fortunately  for  the  success  of  the  proposed  change  the  system  of  national 
support  can  be  justified  on  other  grounds  than  that  of  necessity  in  an 
emergency.  Even  if  national  aid  were  not  in  itself  desirable,  it  would  have 
been  resorted  to  to  save  the  situation.  In  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the 
committee,  however,  national  aid  is  desirable  and  can  be  advocated,  there- 
fore, on  the  double  basis  of  practical  necessity  and  soundness  of  principle. 
In  fact,  a  study  of  the  history  of  the  systems  of  school  support  in  America 
abundantly  proves  that,  however  great  the  change  in  pohcy  which  the 
method  of  national  aid  seems  to  involve,  it  is  entirely  in  harmony  with  the 
evolution  of  our  public-school  system,  a  natural  next  step  in  its  development, 
a  step  which,  if  wisdom  had  prevailed,  would  have  come  in  the  near  future 
even  without  the  war.  The  briefest  summary  of  the  development  in 
question  will  make  this  plain. 

EVOLUTION  OF  THE  SYSTEM  OF  SCHOOL  SUPPORT 

Historically  considered,  public-school  support  began  with  the  levying 
of  a  local  tax  in  the  district  to  pay  the  tuition  of  indigent  children.  Then 
permission  was  granted  by  law,  whereby  the  voters  of  a  district  might  tax 
themselves  to  support  a  public  school  for  all  of  the  children  of  the  district. 
Next  the  privilege  was  extended  to  the  residents  of  a  town  or  township. 
Then  the  taxing  unit  was  enlarged  so  as  to  embrace  a  county,  as  in  many 
parts  of  the  South  and  West.  And  finally,  in  most  of  the  states,  a  tax  is  now 
levied  on  the  ratables  of  the  state  to  aid  in  school  support.^ 

The  theory  is  that  education  is  for  citizenship  and  that  citizenship  is  a 
concern  of  the  state;  that  all  of  the  taxable  wealth  of  the  state,  therefore, 
should  be  taxt  to  educate  all  of  the  children  of  the  state.  Until  now  this  is 
as  far  as  the  evolution  has  extended  in  practice  except  in  reference  to  voca- 
tional education. 

But  primarily  persons  are  citizens  of  the  United  States,  but  only  second- 
arily of  a  state,  and  never  of  a  community  alone.  When  a  foreigner  takes 
his  oath,  it  is  to  the  United  States  that  he  swears  allegiance.  The  nation 
first,  the  state  second,  demands  military  service  and  may  require  its  citizens 
to  lay  down  their  lives  to  defend  the  nation,  or  to  protect  life  and  property 
in  the  state.  The  nation,  as  well  as  the  state  and  the  community,  is  inter- 
ested in  the  education  of  its  citizens.  The  very  existence  of  the  Republic 
depends  on  the  intelligence  and  virtue  of  its  citizens.  The  appalling  facts 
concerning  il  iteracy  and  the  dangers,  of  which  the  war  makes  us  acutely 

«  "The  local  policy  [of  school  support)  is  hopelessly  obsolete  because  (i)  it  is  unjust,  (2)  it  is  unreasonable, 
(3)  it  is  impossible.  Unjust  because  communities  dififer  so  widely  in  their  ability  to  raise  money;  unreasonable 
because  the  burden  of  a  state  and  nation  is  laid  upon  the  town  or  city.  Finally  and  most  practically  important, 
the  adequate  support  of  schools  by  local  taxation  has  been  wholly  impossible." — Henry  C.  Morrison,  State 
Superintendent  of  Connecticut,  Journal  of  Education  (April  25,  1918),  p.  452. 

» It  does  not  follow  that  each  state  has  past  thru  all  these  stages  of 'evolution.  Iowa  and  several  other 
states  depend  almost  entirely  upon  local  taxation  for  school  support. 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  751 

aware,  from  our  foreign-born  population  show  that  the  nation  will  neglect 
the  education  of  its  citizens  at  its  peril.  It  is  the  manifest  duty  of  the  n  .  tion 
to  see  to  it  that  proper  systems  of  education  are  maintained  in  all  parts  of 
the  Republic  and  to  help  pay  the  bill.  This  recognition  should  have  been 
granted  and  this  obligation  assumed  long  ago.  Our  system  of  school  sup- 
port is  breaking  under  the  strain  of  the  war.  To  save  our  education  the 
next  step  in  the  evolution  of  this  system  must  be  taken. 

But  this  step,  so  far  as  the  nation  is  concerned,  is  not  as  great  as  it  may 
at  first  seem  to  be.  From  the  early  history  of  the  Republic  until  the  present 
time  Congress,  in  various  ways,  has  encouraged  public  education  and  has 
rendered  financial  aid. 

In  1785  Congress  adopted  an  ordinance  relating  to  the  Northwest 
Territory  providing  for  the  reservation  and  sale  of  "lot  numbered  16,  of 
every  township  for  the  maintenance  of  public  schools  thruout  the  township." 

In  1787  this  ordinance  was  confirmed.  This  reservation  and  grant  mark 
the  commencement  of  a  policy  since  uniformly  observed.^ 

In  1803  Congress  further  provided  that  all  states  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  should  share  in  the  educational  privileges  of  the  ordinance  of  1787. 

In  1848  the  grant  of  land  was  raised  to  two  sections. 

In  1896  Utah  received  four  sections.^ 

In  1836  Congress  provided  for  the  distribution  of  the  surplus  revenue  in 
the  United  States  Treasury.  Thirteen  of  the  states  devoted  part  or  all  of 
their  quota  to  educational  purposes. 

In  1850  Congress  granted  to  the  several  states  the  proceeds  arising  from 
the  sale  of  certain  swamp  lands.  Some  of  the  states  used  this  money  to 
increase  their  school  funds.^ 

In  1862  the  first  Norrill  Act  was  past  by  Congress  allotting  to  the 
different  states  10,929,215  acres  of  land.  The  proceeds  arising  from  the 
sale  of  these  lands  form  a  permanent  fund.  The  interest  from  this  fund 
goes  to  help  support  state  agricultural  colleges.  In  19 16  the  income  from 
this  source  was  $916,151. 

In  1890  the  second  Norrill  Act  was  past,  and  in  1907  the  Nelson  Act  was 
passed  creating  what  is  known  as  the  Norrill-Ne  son  fund — $2,500,000 
is  paid  annually  from  the  United  States  Treasury  in  aid  of  colleges  of 
agriculture  and  the  mechanical  arts.'' 

In  19 1 7  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  was  past.  This  act  provides  a  scheme 
of  cooperation  between  the  federal  government  and  the  states  for  the 

« It  was  unfortunate  that  Congress  did  not  specify  that  these  lands  should  never  pass  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  school  authorities  but  should  be  held  in  perpetuity  for  the  use  of  the  public  schools.  In  some  localities  it 
is  difi&cult  to  find  out  what  ever  became  of  the  funds  obtained  from  sale  of  these  lands.  In  Chicago  there  was 
a  section  of  school  land  in  the  very  heart  of  the  city.  Most  of  this  land  has  been  sold,  or  leased  for  ninety-nine 
years  without  revaluation.  If  these  lands  were  still  owned  by  the  schools  and  properly  managed,  the  income 
would  be  sufiicient  to  pay  the  salaries  of  all  teachers  of  the  city. 

'  Cubberley,  School  Funds  and  Their  Apportionment,  p.  57.  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
1906. 

J  Ibid.,  p.  58.  *  Report  of  the  United  Stales  Commissioner  of  Education  for  igi?,  II,  375. 


752  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Teachers' 

promotion  of  vocational  education  in  the  fields  of  agriculture,  trade,  home 
economics,  and  industry. 

Under  this  act  the  federal  government  does  not  propose  to  undertake  the  organization 
and  immediate  direction  of  vocational  training  in  the  states,  but  it  does  agree  to  make 
from  year  to  year  substantial  financial  contributions  to  its  support.  This  cooperation 
of  the  states  with  the  federal  government  is  based  on  four  fundamental  ideas:  first,  that 
vocational  education  being  essential  to  the  national  welfare,  it  is  the  function  of  the 
national  government  to  stimulate  the  states  to  undertake  this  new  and  needed  form  of 
service;  second,  that  federal  funds  are  necessary  in  order  to  equalize  the  burden  of  carry- 
ing on  the  work  among  the  states;  third,  that  since  the  federal  government  is  vitally 
interested  in  the  success  of  vocational  education,  it  should,  so  to  speak,  purchase  a  degree 
of  participation  in  the  work;  and  fourth,  that  only  by  creating  such  a  relationship  between 
the  central  and  the  local  governments  can  proper  standards  of  educational  eflficiency  be 
set  up.^ 

In  this  act  the  federal  government  recognizes  that  a  certain  kind  oj 
education  is  essential  to  national  welfare,  and  that  federal  funds  are  necessary 
to  equalize  the  burden  in  carrying  on  the  work.  The  jiext  step  is  for  the 
federal  government  to  recognize  that  public  education  in  general  is  essential 
to  national  welfare  and  that  federal  funds  are  necessary,  not  only  to  equalize 
the  burden,  but  to  make  it  possible  to  carry  on  the  work  of  education  and  to 
maintain  proper  standards.  When  this  principle  is  recognized  it  will  be 
necessary  only  to  set  up  the  machinery  for  carrying  out  the  idea,  and  the 
solution  of  the  salary  problem  will  be  under  way. 

Ill 

What,  in  detail,  this  machinery  is  to  be  is  a  question  which  naturally 
remains,  in  large  measure,  to  be  workt  out.  But  since  this  Association,  if 
it  indorses  the  method  of  national  aid,  must  be  prepared  to  make  specific 
recommendations  and  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  reorganization  and 
extension  of  the  system  of  school  support,  a  tentative  program  is  demanded. 
The  committee  therefore  submits  the  following: 

1.  That  the  management  of  schools  remain  in  the  hands  of  local  authorities  but 
that  they  be  required  to  maintain  standards  which  are  fixt  by  law  or  by  state  and  federal 
boards  of  education  relative  to: 

a)  Buildings  and  equipment. 

h)  QuaUfications  and  standards  of  teachers. 

c)  Length  of  school  term. 

d)  Proper  enforcement  of  attendance  laws. 

e)  Hygienic  conditions,  including  medical  inspection. 

/)  Proper  provision  for  the  education  of  special  groups  of  children,  such  as  defectives 
and  deUnquents. 

g)  Number  of  pupils  per  teacher,  minimum  and  maximum. 

h)  Forms  of  education,  elementary,  secondary,  industrial,  physical,  etc. 

i)   Such  other  requirements  as  may  be  found  necessary  and  desirable. 

2.  That  the  local  boards  be  required  to  raise  by  taxation  at  least  one-fourth  of  the 
total  amount  required  for  teachers'  salaries,  provided  that  no  local  tax  rate  for  this  purpose 

«  Quoted  from  Bulletin  No.  i,  p.  7.     Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Washington,  1917. 


Salaries)  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  753 

shall  exceed  a  minimum  of,  say,  five  mills  (50  cents  on  $100)  on  a  fair  assessment  of  all 
property  in  the  local  unit  of  taxation. 

3.  That  the  state  provide  at  least  one-fourth  of  the  funds  for  teachers*  salaries,  with 
proper  reporting  and  adequate  inspection  and  supervision  of  accounts,  to  the  end  that 
all  laws  and  regulations  may  be  carried  out. 

4.  That  state  and  national  funds  be  apportioned  on  a  basis  which  will  enable  local 
school  boards  to  maintain  legal  standards  and  to  pay  adequate  salaries  to  teachers.' 

5.  That  federal  aid  be  given  to  each  state  to  an  amount,  in  each  case,  not  exceeding 
one-half  of  the  salaries  of  all  teachers  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  and  that 
additional  aid  be  given  for  special  purposes,  such  as  the  education  of  foreigners  and  adult 
illiterates,  the  extension  of  physical  education,  and  especially  the  training  of  teachers. 
This  aid  should  be  extended  in  such  a  way  as  to  stimulate  the  state  and  local  communities 
to  maintain  high  educational  standards. 

A  tentative  draft  of  a  bill  extending  federal  aid  to  the  different  states  has 
been  prepared  by  the  Commission  of  the  National  Education  Association 
on  the  National  Emergency  in  Education.  This  draft  has  been  printed  and 
circulated  so  that  proper  criticisms  may  be  offered  before  its  final  formu- 
lation. 

The  tentative  draft  provides  for  the  appropriation  of  $100,000,000  a  year 
by  the  federal  government  to  the  different  states  for  educational  purposes, 
divided  as  follows:  $5,000,000  for  the  instruction  of  illiterates;  $5,000,000 
for  teaching  immigrants  the  English  language  and  instructing  them  in  the 
duties  of  citizenship;  $50,000,000  to  aid  the  states  in  the  improvement  of 
public  schools  of  less  than  college  grade;  $30,000,000  for  physical  education 
and  recreation;  $10,000,000  to  furnish  better  instruction  in  teacher  training. 

In  addition  to  the  appropriation  the  tentative  draft  provides  for  the 
establishment  of  a  Department  of  Education  and  for  the  necessary  machin- 
ery for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the  proposed  law. 

The  committee  approves  of  this  draft  in  principle  but  deems  the  amount 
of  the  appropriation  too  small.  The  estimate  of  United  States  Commis- 
sioner Claxton  of  $220,000,000  will  come  nearer  meeting  the  requirements. 
The  passage  of  this  or  a  similar  measure  will  mark  a  new  epoch  in  the  educa- 
tional history  of  the  nation  and  will  place  public  education  on  a  basis  which 
will  enable  it  to  be  properly  finanst  and  supervised. 

IV 

But  many  things  must  be  done  before  teachers  really  receive  adequate 
salaries.  There  is  not  only  need  for  Congress  to  pass  a  law  appropriating 
a  large  sum  of  money  for  teachers'  salaries,  but  there  must  be  appropriate 
school  legislation  in  every  state  to  supplement  and  make  available  any  funds 
that  may  be  furnisht  by  the  federal  government.    In  case  Congress  fails 

»  This  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  in  the  whole  realm  of  school  finance.  A  scientific  solution 
of  it  is  greatly  needed.  No  single  basis  of  apportionment  is  satisfactory.  The  best  systems  now  in  use  are  those 
which  provide  for  the  apportionment  of  part  of  the  funds  on  the  teacher  basis,  another  part  on  the  census  basis, 
or  better  yet  on  the  aggregate-attendance  basis,  and  a  third  part,  not  so  large  as  either  of  the  other  two  (which 
usually  should  be  in  the  form  of  a  special  appropriation),  on  basis  of  need  of  the  poorer  districts.  The  last 
provision  is  a  necessity  in  order  that  proper  standards  may  be  maintained. 


754  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 

to  act  favorably,  then  it  is  to  the  state  legislatures  that  teachers  must  look 
for  additional  funds.  Back  of  these  are  the  local  city  councils  and  boards 
of  education.  Much  depends  upon  the  action  of  these  whether  or  not  ade- 
quate salaries  are  paid  to  individual  teachers.  But  back  of  all  these  are  the 
people  of  the  community,  state,  and  nation,  and  pubHc  opinion  will  finally 
decide  what  is  to  be  done  and  to  what  extent  the  campaign  for  adequate 
salaries  will  succeed.  This  is  a  time  of  war,  a  day  when  exacting  demands 
are  being  made  upon  the  strength,  the  attention,  and  the  resources  of 
government — national,  state,  and  local.  It  is  a  time  when  people  are  called 
upon  to  sacrifice  and  to  pay,  pay,  pay.  Unless  the  people  can  be  made  to  see, 
not  only  the  justice  of  the  demand,  but  the  necessity  for  better  salaries  for 
teachers,  unless  they  can  be  convinst  that  proper  support  of  the  schools 
is  necessary  for  winning  the  war  and  for  reconstruction  after  the  war,  any 
plans  which  may  be  formulated  are  doomed  to  failure  in  advance.  "There 
are  two  armies  for  the  defense  of  our  civilization,"  says  Dr.  John  Finley. 
"One  is  the  army  of  Present  Defense;  the  other  is  the  army  of  Future 
Defense,  and  unless  they  both  do  their  work  well  it  matters  little  what  the 
first  Army  of  Defense  does.  It  is  upon  both  armies  that  civilization  depends 
— if  either  fails  all  is  lost." 

To  secure  wide  publicity,  to  collect  and  disseminate  necessary  informa- 
tion, to  prepare  data  for  educational  legislation,  and  to  do  many  other 
things  which  must  be  done,  teachers  must  organize.  Organization  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  success.    There  will  be  needed: 

1.  Effective  national,  state,  and  local  organizations  among  teachers, 
with  leaders  of  experience,  knowledge,  and  social  vision,  and  a  large  active 
membership  that  is  willing  to  study  and  work. 

2.  Committees  to  study  the  system  of  educational  support^  and  the 
problems  of  taxation  in  each  state  and  to  make  available  reliable  data  for 
use  in  formulating  measures  to  be  introduced  in  the  various  legislatures. 
In  this  connection  public  ofl&cials  and  the  departments  of  education  and 
economics  in  the  universities  and  colleges  can  render  valuable  assistance 
thru  their  faculties  and  graduate  students. 

3.  Organization  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  other  organizations  in 
carrying  thru  educational  measures — labor  unions,  chambers  of  commerce, 
granges,  editorial  associations,  women's  clubs,  poHtical  parties.  These  are 
the  agencies  whereby  public  opinion  is  created  and  directed,  and  their 
support  may  be  obtained  by  proper  effort. 

4.  Organization  for  pubhcity.  Educational  writers  and  speakers  should 
be  enlisted  and  a  systematic  campaign  made  to  keep  the  subject  before  the 
public.  Show  the  people  the  needs  of  their  schools  and  they  can  he  relied  on  to 
see  that  the  necessary  funds  are  forthcoming. 

»  Such  research  should  include  a  study  of  methods  of  apportioning  school  appropriations  in  order  that  a 
scheme  may  be  devised  whereby  the  poorer  districts  may  support  their  schools  without  placing  undue  burdens 
on  their  people. 


Salaries)  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  755 

It  will  also  be  necessary  to  enlist  the  cooperation  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education  and  other  agencies  for  the  collection  and  dissemina- 
tion of  accurate  data  relative  to  salaries,  and  to  make  investigations  of  the 
economic  conditions  of  teachers  in  different  parts  of  the  country  and  pub- 
lish the  results  obtained.  By  this  means  up-to-date  material  may  be 
available  continually/ 

Finally  the  committee  wishes  to  call  attention  to  the  necessity  of  the 
appointment  of  an  official  representative  of  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion who  shall  devote  his  entire  time  to  carrying  on  the  work  begun  by  the 
committee.  This  person  should  be  a  member  of  long  experience  in  the 
teaching  profession,  capable  of  statistical  inquiries,  of  wide  knowledge  of 
taxation  for  educational  purposes,  and  fitted  especially  for  making  effective 
pubHc  appeal  both  in  writing  and  by  speech.  He  should  be  guaranteed  a 
salary  corresponding  with  his  duties  and  should  be  suppHed  with  a  budget 
which  will  enable  him  to  secure  efficient  office  help  and  necessary  printing 
and  traveling  expenses.  So  far  as  his  time  is  not  occupied  by  other  duties 
connected  with  the  whole  field  of  employment,  tenure,  salaries,  and  pensions, 
it  might  well  be  given  as  adviser  and  director  of  local  campaigns  in  cities 
and  states  which  might  desire  his  services  termporarily.  It  should  be  the 
duty  of  this  officer  to  keep  the  National  Education  Association  constantly  at 
the  head  of  movements  for  the  improvement  of  material  conditions  of  teach- 
ers in  this  country.  Such  an  officer  should  not  be  primarily  a  student  of  sta- 
tistics. He  should  be  an  organizer  and  executive.  Your  committee  is  clear 
that  not  less  than  $10,000  for  the  next  fiscal  year  should  be  appropriated 
at  once  for  the  purpose  named  above.  The  crisis  is  too  acute  to  depend 
longer  on  a  volunteer  committee,  the  members  of  which  are  already  Loaded 
with  other  interests.  There  must  be  at  least  one  representative  educational 
leader  drafted  to  devote  his  entire  energies  to  this  work. 

«  The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  has  kindly  offered  to  carry  out  the  suggestion  made  above. 
He  has  already  collected  data  relative  to  increases  in  salaries  in  io8  cities,  which  is  publisht  in  Appendix  VII 
of  this  report. 


7S6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Teachers' 


II.    REPORT  ON  TENURE 

The  chairman,  in  accordance  with  the  decision  of  this  committee  to 
undertake  a  study  of  tenure  of  teachers,  has  secured  the  cooperation  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education.  Commissioner  Claxton  writes  as 
follows:  "Mr.  Hood,  in  this  office,  tells  me  that  it  will  be  comparatively- 
easy  to  get  facts  of  tenure  laws  in  the  several  states.  Most  states  have  no 
laws  on  this  subject.  This  office  could,  with  a  httle  help  from  your  com- 
mittee, compile  data  on  this  subject  in  a  hundred  cities  and  a  hundred 
counties  which  would  probably  be  a  sufficient  number  for  your  purpose." 
Continuity  of  employment  during  efficiency  and  good  behavior  is  essential 
to  any  sound  pension  system  and  any  sound  educational  system. 

The  committee  has  devoted  no  time  or  special  study  to  the  subject  of 
tenure.  It  is  self-evident,  however,  that  a  pension  system  to  be  sound  and 
satisfactory  must  require  mandatory  deductions  from  teachers'  salaries, 
and  this  compulsory  saving  naturally  tends  toward  permanent  tenure. 

One  of  the  biggest  things  in  the  way  of  tenure  legislation  of  which  the 
committee  knows  is  the  revised  state  education  law  for  New  York  which  was 
past  in  191 7,  and  this  law  gives  permanent  tenure  during  satisfactory  service, 
after  a  probationary  period  of  three  years,  to  all  members  of  the  teaching 
and  supervising  force  except  superintendents.  In  New  York  City  the 
district  superintendents  of  schools  and  the  members  of  the  Board  of  Examin- 
ers are  included  in  the  provision  giving  permanent  tenure. 

Joseph  Swain,  Chairman 
Ernest  C.  Moore 
Margaret  A.  Haley 
David  B.  Jonhson 
Harlan  Updegraff 
Grace  C.  Forsythe 
James  Ferguson 
Francis  G.  Blair 
John  W.  Carr 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  757 


III.    REPORT  ON  PENSIONS 

PRELIMINARY   STATEMENT 

The  National  Education  Association's  Committee  on  Salaries,  Tenure, 
and  Pensions,  appointed  in  191 1,  has  publisht,  independently  or  in  co- 
operation with  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  reports  on  Teachers^ 
Salaries  and  Cost  of  Living  (January,  1913),  The  Tangible  Rewards  of  Teach- 
ing (Bulletin  16,  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  1914),  Salaries  of  Teachers  and 
School  Officers  (Bulletin  31,  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  1915),  and  State 
Pension  Systems  for  Public-School  Teachers  (Bulletin  14,  U.S.  Bureau  of 
Education,  1916). 

The  committee  has  also  enlisted  the  cooperation  of  the  Carnegie  Founda- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  which,  in  addition  to  its  granting  of 
pensions  to  university  and  college  professors,  has  conducted,  for  a  dozen 
years,  comprehensive  studies  of  pensions  for  teachers,  wherever  such  systems 
exist.  The  president  of  the  Foundation,  Dr.  Henry  S.  Pritchett,  has  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the  committee  all  of  this  material,  together  with  the 
services  of  the  secretary  of  the  Foundation,  Dr.  Clyde  Furst,  and  his 
colleague.  Dr.  I.  L.  Kandel. 

These  gentlemen  have  met  in  extensive  conference  with  the  committee 
and  invited  representatives  from  each  state  at  the  meetings  of  the 
National  Education  Association  and  its  Department  of  Superintendence, 
at  Detroit  and  New  York  in  1916,  and  Atlantic  City  and  Pittsburgh  in  1918. 
The  reports  which  they  prepared  for  these  meetings,  the  meeting  at  Kansas 
City  in  191 7  and  the  meeting  of  the  National  Council  of  Education  at  New 
York  in  1916,  have  been  printed  in  the  Tenth,  Eleventh,  and  Twelfth  Annual 
Reports  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation,  which  have  been  sent,  without  charge, 
to  all  teachers  who  requested  them.  Addresses  on  pensions,  dehvered  by 
Commissioner  Claxton,  Dr.  Furst,  and  the  chairman  of  the  committee, 
before  the  Association  as  a  whole,  at  New  York  in  191 6,  are  printed  in  the 
Proceedings  of  that  meeting. 

All  of  the  material  thus  provided  by  the  Foundation  is  brought  together, 
completed,  and  rearranged  in  Bulletin  Number  Twelve:  Pensions  for  Public 
School  Teachers,  which  the  Foundation  will  send,  without  charge,  to  any 
teacher  who  requests  it.  The  committee  desires  to  record  its  appreciation 
of  the  sympathetic  and  complete  cooperation  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation, 
which  has  thus  rendered  a  service  to  every  teacher  in  the  country. 

teachers'  pensions 

There  are  many  reasons  for  teachers'  pensions.  Economically  the  work 
of  an  organization  is  not  effective  unless  there  is  a  satisfactory  method  of 


758  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 

retiring  aged  or  infirm  workers,  with  the  consequent  freedom  from  anxiety 
concerning  such  risks  on  the  part  of  the  workers.  Only  a  satisfactory 
pension  system  can  prevent  either  the  dismissal  of  aged  or  infirm  teachers 
without  resources,  or  the  sacrifice  of  the  best  interests  of  the  schools  in  order 
to  continue  the  employment  of  teachers  who  are  no  longer  capable.  Socially^ 
men  and  women  of  character  and  inteUigence  are  wiUing  to  undertake 
difficult  pubUc  service  that  is  poorly  paid;  but  it  is  too  much  to  expect  them 
also  to  sacrifice  the  prospect  of  security  and  dignity  in  old  age  and  disabihty. 
Educationally  there  is  great  need  to  attract,  retain,  and  advance  able  people 
in  teaching  as  a  permanent  career.     A  good  pension  system  helps  to  do  this. 

These  facts  were  first  apprehended  in  the  United  States  a  quarter  of  a 
century  ago.  Eight  systems  of  pensions  for  teachers  were  founded  before 
1900,  twenty-three  in  the  next  decade,  and  thirty-six  since  the  beginning  of 
1 9 10.  There  are  now  sixty- seven  different  systems  in  thirty-four  states. 
The  experience  of  this  brief  period  has  been  fruitful,  so  that  we  are  already 
able  to  correct  errors  and  proceed  with  more  assurance.  The  time  should 
soon  come  when  every  state  will  have  made  such  provision  for  its  teachers. 

The  organization  of  the  teachers'  pension  systems  now  in  existence  is 
generally  satisfactory,  there  being  ordinarily  a  small  special  board  upon 
which  the  teachers  and  the  pubhc  are  about  equally  represented.  More 
attention,  however,  is  demanded  by  the  need  to  have  the  actual  administra- 
tion under  expert  direction  with  the  supervision  of  the  state's  banking  and 
insurance  commissioners. 

The  greatest  difficulty  that  has  been  encountered  has  been  the  provision 
of  adequate  funds.  The  cost  of  a  pension  system  for  teachers  may  be  borne 
by  the  teacher  alone,  by  the  public  alone,  or  by  the  teacher  and  the  public 
together.  If  the  cost  is  borne  by  the  teacher  alone,  he  cannot  afford,  out  of  a 
small  salary,  to  set  aside  enough  money  to  purchase  adequate  protection, 
and  the  public  fails  to  fulfil  its  obligation.  If  the  cost  is  borne  by  the  public 
alone,  the  money  is  really  taken  from  the  teachers'  salaries  without  their 
agreement,  and  the  majority,  who  withdraw  or  die  before  retirement,  receive 
no  return  for  their  reduced  pay.  When  the  cost  is  borne  by  the  teachers  and 
the  public  together,  the  teacher  receives  appropriate  compensation  and 
contractual  security,  and  the  teacher  and  the  public  cooperate  in  an  eco- 
nomic, social,  and  educational  obligation.  This  principle  of  cooperation 
between  the  teacher  and  the  .public  is  recognized  by  most  of  the  pension 
systems  that  are  now  in  operation. 

The  application  of  the  principle  of  cooperation,  however,  is  not  so 
satisfactory.  Only  a  few  systems  relate  the  amount  of  the  contribution 
to  the  prospective  cost  of  the  pensions.  Frequently  public  money  is 
expected  from  sources  like  excise,  inheritance,  license,  or  transfer  receipts; 
or  deductions,  fines,  or  forfeitures  from  teachers'  salaries  for  absence  or 
illness;  or  from  the  tuition  of  non-resident  students,  which  cannot  be 
accurately  estimated  in  advance  and  so  cannot  furnish  a  reliable  basis  for 


I 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  759 

pension  payments.  Equally  unsatisfactory  is  the  expectation  of  paying 
pensions,  when  they  fall  due,  from  current  school  or  other  funds,  without  any 
assurance  that  these  funds  will  be  adequate;  or  from  special  or  general 
appropriations,  without  any  certainty  that  such  appropriations  will  be  made 
by  future  and  perhaps  unsympathetic  administrations.  Indeed  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  limit  in  advance  the  sums  that  may  be  taken  from  such 
sources,  thus  reducing  the  proportion  of  the  pension  that  can  be  paid,  or 
leaving  the  whole  question  of  payment  largely  to  accident. 

The  only  way  in  which  absolute  security  can  be  obtained  is  for  the  con- 
tribution of  the  public  as  well  as  that  of  the  teacher  to  be  paid  annually, 
credited  to  the  individual  teacher,  and  set  aside  to  accumulate  until  the 
time  of  his  retirement.  This  also  is  the  only  economical  method.  Any 
system  which  agrees  to  pay  a  pension  from  current  funds  after  the  teacher 
retires,  plans  to  spend  two  or  three  times  as  much  money  as  would  be 
required  if  sums  were  set  aside  each  year  to  accumulate  during  the  teacher's 
period  of  service.  Any  other  method  is  parallel  to  issuing  bonds  without 
provision  for  retiring  them. 

Pension  systems  are  still  too  generally  organized  without  estimating 
their  cost.  The  probable  length  of  life  of  a  teacher  in  service  or  after 
retirement  may  be  estimated  from  the  tables  of  mortality  that  have 
been  developt  by  the  life  insurance  companies,  with  adjustment  for  the 
fact  that  teachers  live  longer  than  other  people.  Some  basis  is  becoming 
available  for  estimates  of  the  likelihood  of  disabiUty  and  the  probable 
length  of  life  after  retirement  because  of  disability.  It  is  wise  to  avoid,  so 
far  as  possible,  basing  pensions  upon  salaries  at  or  near  the  age  of  retire- 
ment, since  no  one  can  predict  what  any  teachers'  salary  will  be  thirty,  or 
forty,  or  fifty  years  hence. 

There  is,  of  course,  a  definite  relation  between  the  benefits  and  the  cost 
of  pensions.  No  one  can  secure  expensive  benefits  in  return  for  very  small 
contributions.  Only  failure  awaits  the  systems  which  promise  retirement 
after  twenty  years  of  service  or  at  the  age  of  fifty;  or  in  which  teachers 
contribute  only  one-half  of  i  per  cent  of  their  salaries,  or  the  public  contrib- 
utes only  one-half  as  much  as  the  teachers. 

Such  errors  may  easily  be  corrected  by  a  very  simple  pension  system 
based  upon  conservative  tables  of  mortality  and  upon  a  safe  rate  of  interest, 
with  the  provision  that  the  teacher  receives  the  benefit  of  the  accumulation 
of  all  of  his  contributions  and  those  made  for  him.  It  is  possible  to  esti- 
mate with  reasonable  definiteness  what  certain  desired  benefits  will  cost, 
or  what  benefits  can  be  had  for  the  money  available.  It  is  easy  to  estimate 
what  any  annual  contribution,  begirming  at  any  age  and  accumulating  at  a 
given  percentage,  will  amount  to  after  any  number  of  years.  If  then  the 
money  is  deposited  in  a  central  fund,  each  contributor  can  be  guaranteed  a 
definite  annuity  for  life,  since  the  lives  of  all  are  averaged  in  the  standard 
mortality  tables.    Thus  an  annual  contribution  of  $100  a  year,  beginning  at 


76o  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  (Teachers' 

the  age  of  twenty-five,  and  accumulated  at  4  per  cent  interest,  will  amount  at 
sixty-five  to  $8,882 .  65,  at  seventy  to  $12,587 .  06.  These  sums  will  provide 
a  man  with  an  annuity  for  life,  according  to  the  McClintock  Table  of  Mor- 
tality and  3I  per  cent  interest,  of  $1086  a  year  beginning  at  sixty-five,  or 
$1681  a  year  beginning  at  seventy.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  man  wishes 
to  be  sure  of  a  life  annuity  of  $1000  a  year  at  sixty-five  or  seventy,  he  knows 
that  this  will  cost  $9098.60  or  $8642.40  at  those  ages,  and  that  it  would, 
require  an  annual  contribution  of  $92  or  of  $68  a  year  from  the  age  of 
twenty-five  to  accumulate  these  sums.  The  annuities  from  such  a  contri- 
bution for  women,  who  live  longer  than  men,  would  be  about  four-fifths  of 
the  sums  that  have  been  mentioned. 

These  figures  imply  a  return  of  the  accumulations  of  the  teachers  who 
die  before  retirement  and  of  those  who  withdraw  from  the  system  for  any 
reason.  If  it  is  desired  for  the  sake  of  family  protection,  there  may  be  also 
a  return  of  the  balance  of  the  accumulations  of  the  teachers  who  retire  but 
die  before  they  have  drawn  all  of  their  accumulations.  This  also  can  be 
calculated  from  standard  mortality  and  interest  tables.  This  protection 
costs  about  one-fourth  more  than  a  straight  annuity.  If  further  protection 
is  desired  against  disability,  this  can  be  similarly  provided,  by  the  use  of 
the  best  tables  that  we  have,  with  the  proviso  that  the  rates  for  those  who 
enter  into  the  system  in  the  future  may  be  modified  according  to  future 
experience. 

A  pension  system  of  the  kind  that  has  been  mentioned  is  just  and  fair  to 
all  concerned,  giving  the  teacher  secure  and  adequate  protection  at  a 
reasonable  cost  to  himself  and  to  the  public. 

Such  a  system  provides  for  retirement  on  the  basis  of  age  or  of  dis- 
ability after  any  suitable  period  of  service.  The  age  of  retirement,  which  is 
now  usually  fixt,  can,  if  desired,  be  left  to  the  teacher  and  the  administration. 
If  the  need  is  great  retirement  may  be  earlier,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
smaller  accumulations  would  then  make  the  pension  smaller.  In  general, 
retirement  will  in  all  probability  be  later  than  at  present  because  of  the 
larger  pension  provided  by  the  longer  accumulation,  and  the  educational 
desirability  of  keeping  the  able  teacher  in  service  as  long  as  possible. 

Disability  can  be  provided  for  by  using  whatever  money  has  been 
accumulated  at  the  time  when  retirement  becomes  unavoidable,  perhaps 
with  some  supplement  from  the  state  until  statistical  experience  makes  it 
possible  to  provide  specifically  for  disability. 

The  newer  system  provides  full  protection  for  both  the  teacher  and 
those  who  are  dependent  upon  him,  since  the  form  of  contribution  sets  up  a 
contractual  relation  which  provides  definite  returns  in  case  of  withdrawal 
or  death.  Return  of  contribution  in  case  of  resignation  is  now  arranged  for, 
but  return  in  case  of  dismissal  and  in  the  case  of  death  is  seldom  pro- 
vided for.  Contractual  arrangements  for  the  return  of  contributions  will 
faciHtate  the  desirable  transfer  of  the  teacher  from  one  system  to  another. 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  CQlST  OF  LIVING  761 

Indeed,  with  the  spread  of  sound  plans,  pension  systems  thruout  the  country' 
will  become  more  and  more  uniform,  so  that  the  experience  of  each  will 
help  all.  Continuity  of  employment  during  efficiency  and  good  behavior 
is  essential  to  any  sound  pension  system. 

Joseph  Swain,  Chairman 
Ernest  C.  Moore 
David  B.  Johnson 
Harlan  Updegraff 
Grace  C.  Forsythe 
James  Ferguson 
Francis  G.  Blair 
John  W.  Carr 


JOINT  RESOLUTION  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON 
SALARIES,  TENURE.  AND  PENSIONS,  AND 
THE  COMMISSION  ON  THE  NATIONAL 
EMERGENCY  IN  EDUCATION 


Our  schools  are  in  danger.  Their  present  support  cannot  keep  up  former 
standards,  much  less  meet  war  demands. 

The  money  now  available  is  not  sufl&cient  to  instruct  five  million  ilUterates, 
to  Americanize  thirteen  miUion  foreigners,  to  provide  physical  and  health 
education  for  all  children,  to  secure  adequate  school  terms  and  attend- 
ance, to  pay  teachers  a  living  wage,  and  to  provide  for  their  professional 
preparation,  development,  security,  and  protection  in  disability  and  old 
age. 

The  teachers  of  the  country  were  not  receiving  a  living  wage  before 
the  war;  their  present  situation  is  critical.  In  191 5  they  received 
an  average  annual  salary  of  $543.  The  increase  since  then  has  been 
small. 

Immediate  national  aid  is  urgently  needed.  Increast  local  taxation 
and  state  support  will  not  suiO&ce;  such  support  will  of  necessity  be  avail- 
able in  very  unequal  degree  even  if  it  could  be  had  quickly. 

Education  in  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  and  household  arts  has  long 
been  recognized  as  essential  to  national  welfare,  and  national  funds  are 
provided  to  equahze  its  burdens  and  maintain  its  standards. 

General  public  education  is  even  more  essential  to  national  welfare 
to  promote  the  allegiance,  inteUigence,  moraUty,  and  devotion  of  all 
citizens. 

National  support  of  general  public  education,  begun  in  1785,  confirmed 
in  the  ordinance  of  1787,  and  extended  thereafter,  should  now  be  increast  to 
the  extent  of  a  Hberal  cooperation  with  the  state,  and  thru  the  state  with 
the  local  community. 

A  national  department  of  education  should  be  estabUsht  to  carry  out  this 
program  of  cooperation. 

The  National  Education  Association,  in  order  to  collect  full  information 
concerning  the  present  state  of  pubHc  education,  to  enhghten  pubhc  opinion, 
and  to  aid  in  securing  appropriate  local,  state,  and  national  school  support, 
hereby  authorizes  the  Executive  Committee  to  secure  the  full  time,  for  a 
term  of  not  less  than  three  years,  of  an  educator  of  recognized  ability  and 

762 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  763 

experience,  and  to  provide  for  the  organization,  correspondence,  travel, 
publication,  and  other  expenses  of  his  office,  a  total  sum,  including  salaries, 
of  at  least  ten  thousand  dollars  a  year. 

Joseph  Swain,  Chairman, 
Committee  on  Salaries,  Tenure,  and  Pensions 
George  D.  Strayer,  Chairman, 
Commission  on  the  National  Emergency  in  Education 

Note. — This  Resolution  was  unanimously  adopted  by  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation at  Pittsburgh,  July  5,  19 18. 


764 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


[Teachers' 


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766  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 


APPENDIX  II 

MEASURES  ADOPTED  TO  MEET  THE  PRESENT 
EMERGENCY 

The  following  extracts  are  the  repUes  of  state  superintendents  to 
question  5  of  the  questionnaires  sent  out  by  the  Committee  on  Teachers' 
Salaries.    It  is  the  latest  information  on  present  conditions. 

Alabama. — Local  tax  levy. 

Delaware. — Last  general  assembly  increast  the  school  funds  by  taxing  incomes. 

Florida. — Constitutional  amendment  raising  tax  from  7  to  10  mills  will  carry  with  little 

opposition  in  the  November  election.    Many  counties  have  voted  to  raise  teachers' , 

salaries  an  average  of  10  per  cent. 
Iowa. — Each  district  has  its  own  budget  to  make  up.    We  levy  $40  per  pupil  and  $60  in 

districts  transporting  pupils. 
Kentucky. — By  legislature  fixing  a  30-cent  rate  for  county  outside  of  city.    By  consolida- 
tion.    By  economizing  so  far  as  possible  in  expense  of  maintenance. 
Maine. — The  state  of  Maine  offers  this  year  an  average  increase  in  the  salaries  of  super- 
intendents thus  far  elected  of  about  four  hundred  dollars,  and  there  is  evidently  an 

increase  in  teachers'  wages  of  at  least  25  per  cent. 
Maryland. — The  recent  session  of  the  legislature  increast  the  state  appropriation  $250,000 

and  increast  the  minimum  salaries  for  teachers  from  25  to  50  per  cent. 
Massachusetts. — Legislation.    In  1918  minimum  of  union  superintendents  raised  from 

$1500  to  $1800;   also  $550  minimum  for  all  teachers  except  in  towns  of  less  than 

$1,000,000  valuation. 
Minnesota. — Increase  of  local  taxation  for  school  purposes. 
Mississippi. — We  are  making  a  campaign  for  more  money  by  local  taxation. 
Missouri. — An  attempt  has  been  made  by  a  state  tax  commission  appointed  by  the 

governor,  authorized  by  the  state  legislature,  to  raise  the  valuation  of  property. 

The  work  of  this  commission  was  set  aside  by  the  state  Board  of  Equalization. 
Montana. — Additional  special  levy. 
North  Carolina. — Special  local  taxation  for  immediate  relief.    A  movement  to  amend  the 

state  constitution  requiring  a  greater  minimum  length  of  term  with  proper  legal 

statuary  enforcement. 
North  Dakota. — Have  given  as  much  publicity  as  possible  to  the  necessity  for  a  material 

increase  in  salaries.    No  legislature  has  met.    Hence  no  bills  for  it. 
Oregon. — Principally  larger  district  tax  levy. 
Pennsylvania. — Our  new  minimum-salary  law  advances  the  salary  from  $40  and  $50 

respectively  to  $45,  $55,  and  $65,  and  the  amount  needed  to  make  this  increase  will 

be  taken  out  of  the  general  school  appropriation,  which  was  raised  to  $18,000,000  at 

the  last  session  of  the  legislature. 
Rhode  Island. — School  committees  are  asking  town  meetings  and  city  councils  for  lower 

appropriations. 
South  Dakota. — By  inducing  school  boards  to  levy  sufl5cient  tax. 
Texas. — By  raising  valuations  of  property. 
Utah. — Attempt  being  made  to  tax  mines. 

Vermont. — Our  local  boards  are  raising  salaries  in  many  cases  25  per  cent. 
Virginia. — Increase  standard  appropriations  and  have  levy  to  limit. 
Washington. — Conferences  with  all  county  officials  and  circular  letters  to  all  school 

directors,  superintendents,  and  principals. 
Wisconsin. — Local  authorities  are  increasing  tax  levy  for  that  purpose. 
Wyoming. — Maintain  a  teachers'  employment  bureau  in  the  department  of  education, 

which  maintains  standards.     Convince  district  boards  that  other  professions  will 

take  desirable  teachers  at  higher  wages. 


Salaries] 


TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING 


767 


APPENDIX  III 

ESTIMATED  SALARIES  AND  EXPENDITURES  NECESSARY  TO 
MEET  THE  ADVANCE  IN  COST  OF  LIVING  IN  1918 

The  average  salaries  and  expenditures  for  teachers'  salaries  are  taken  from  Report  of 
the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1917,  II,  50  and  54. 

The  estimated  salaries  to  meet  the  advance  in  the  cost  of  living  are  based  on  the  table 
'found  on  page  20  of  the  Report  of  the  Railroad  Wage  Commission  for  191 8,  Washington,  D.C. 


State 


Average  Salaries 

of  Teachers, 

1914-1S 


Estimated 

Salaries  to  Meet 

the  Advance  in 

Cost  of  Living, 

1918 


Percent- 
age of 
Increase 


Total  Expendi- 
tures for  Teachers' 
Salaries,  1914-15 


Estimated  Ex- 
penditures to  Meet 
the  Advance  in 
Cost  of  Living, 
1918 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota  (1914) 

Iowa 

Missouri 

North  Dakota 

South  Dakota 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

Delaware 

Maryland 

District  of  Columbia 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida  (1914) 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Mississippi  (1913) .  . . 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Oklahoma 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

New  Mexico 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washington 

Oregon 

Camomia 

United  States. . , 


$  411-13 
472.34 
418.77 
810.72 
714.37 
619.36 
975-13 
861.86 
465-72 
537-52 
592-69 
713.84 
557-71 
542.02 
469 . 28 
506.09 
533-59 
574-76 
457-27 
454-67 
635-34 
358.31" 
561.83 
1019.08 
332.19 
320.29 
251.31 
282.68 
305.97 
327.00 
342.96 
335.20 
345.00 
233.64 
437.19 
428.20 
334-94 
438.69 
640 . 07 
494.06 
.560.58 
507-54 
738-96 
691 . 66 
725-08 
66s  - 16 
808.42 
506.3s 
951.27 


$  651.13 
712.34 
658.77 

1143-11 

1007.26 
878.80 

1365-18 

1215.22 
705.72 
777-52 
847.55 

1006. 5X 
797-53 
782.02 
709.28 
746.09 
773-59 
821.91 
697.27 
694.67 
895-83 
598.31 
803.42 

1426.71 
572.19 
560.29 
491.31 
522.68 
545-97 
567.00 
582.96 
575.20 
585.00 
473.64 
677.19 
668.20 
574.94 
678.69 
902.50 
734.06 
801.63 
747.54 

1041.93 
975.24 

1022.36 
927.88 

1139.87 
746.3s 

1340.05 


58 
51 
57 
41 
41 
41 
40 
41 
52 
44 
43 
41 
43 
44 
51 
47 
43 
43 
52 
53 
41 
67 
43 
40 
72 
75 
96 
85 
78 
73 
70 
72 
70 
103 
55 
56 
72 
55 
41 
49 
43 
47 
41 
41 
41 
41 
41 
47 


2,240,982 

1,200,110 

1,246,816 

14,789,286 

1,807,332 

4,363,034 

46,690,195 

12,301,576 

25,687,143 

18,789,778 

11,168,718 

23,179,650 

11,931,113 

8,850,051 

10,375,297 

11,174,716 

10,767,962 

3,695,051 

2,987,437 

6,217,797 

7,933,519 

263,608 

3,495,724 

1,760,667 

4,156,959 

3,545,573 

3,487,304 

2,281,249 

4,385,259 

1,644,481 

4,270,554 

4,185,097 

3.579,199 

2,173,717 

3,451,226 

11,373,2.80 

3,567,461 

6,179,928 

2,775,290 

856,059 

4,402,243 

974,608 

943,525 

2,572,114 

484,855 

2,094,875 

7,854,843 

3,786,684 

17,062,504 


$  3,540,752 

1,812,166 

1,957,501 

20,852,893 

2,548,338 

6,183,728 

65,366,273 

17,345,222 

39,044,457 

27,057,280 

15,971,267 

32,683,306 

17,061,492 

12,744,073 

15,666,698 

16,426,833 

15,398,186 

5,283,923 

4,540,904 

9,513,229 

11,186,262 

440,225 

4,998,88s 

2,464,934 

7,149,969 

6,204,753 

6,835,116 

4,220,311 

7,805,761 

2,844,952 

7,259,942 

7,198,367 

6,084,638 

4,412,646 

5,349,400 

17,742,317 

6,136,033 

9,578,888 

3,913,159 

1,275,528 

6,295,207 

1,432,674 

1,330,370 

3,626,681 

683,646 

2,953,774 

11,075,329 

5,566,419 

24,035,949 


%   543.31 


$  788.43 


$345,006,445 


$511,100,656 


'  Exclusive  of  Wilmington. 


768 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


[Teachers' 


APPENDIX  IV 

PERCENTAGE  OF  ILLITERACY  BY  STATES 

States  in  which  the  number  of  illiterates  increast  from  1900  to  igio. 
Sixteen  states  increast  in  the  number  of  illiterates,  all  in  North  and  West. 

TABLE  A 
Based  on  Census  of  1910,  Abstract,  p.  245 


State 

No.  of  Illiterates, 
1900 

No.  of  Illiterates, 
1910 

Increase 

Percentage  of 
Increase 

134,043 
29,004 
42,973 

318,100 
86,658 

299,376 

157,958 
12,719 
11,67s 
2,878 
17,779 
46,971 
27,307 
6,141 
12,740 
58,959 

141,541 

33,854 

53,66s 

406,020 

113,502 

354,290 

168,294 

13,070 

14,457 

^3,874 

48^697 

18,416 
74,902 

7,498 
4,850 
10,692 
87,920 
26,844 
54,914 
10,336 

2782 
996 
6,001 
1,726 
5,646 
680 
5,676 
15,943 

5-6 

Rhode  Island 

24.9 

New  York 

27.6 

New  Jersey 

31.0 

18.3 

Illinois 

6.5 

North  Dakota 

2.8 

23.8 

Wyoming •. 

34-6 

Colorado 

New  Mexico 

20.7 

Utah                             

II. I 

Washington 

44.7 

California 

27.0 

Salaries] 


TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING 


769 


I. 


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NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


rreachers' 


APPENDIX  V 

DENSITY  OF  ILLITERATE  POPULATION 

Great  manufacturing  states  of  the  North  compared  with  the  states  of  the  Black  Belt  of 
the  South. 

See  Abstract  of  Thirteenth  Census  (1910),  p.  28;  also  p.  245. 

TABLE  A 


State 

Land  Area 

Number  of 
Illiterates 

Number  per 
Square  Mile 

GREAT  MANUFACTURING  STATES  OF  THE  NORTH 

Massachusetts ... 

8,039 
1,067 
4,820 

45,409 
7,514 

44,832 

141,541 

53,665 
406,020 
113,502 
354,290 

17.6 

Rhode  Island 

31-7 

Connecticut 

II. I 

New  York 

'S.9 

iS-i 

Pennsylvania   . . 

7-9 

Total 

111,681 

1,102,872 

9.8 

STATES  OF  THE  BLACK  BELT  OF  THE  SOUTH 

South  Carolina 

30,495 
58,725 

46^362 
45,409 

276,980 
389,775 
352,710 
290,235 
352,174 

0  I 

Georgia 

6:6 

Alabannia 

6.0 

6? 

7^8 

Total 

232,270 

1,661,879 

71 

Rhode  Island  31.7 

Massachusetts  17.6 

New  Jersey  15.1 

Connecticut  11.1 

South  Carolina  9.1 

New  York  8.< 

Pennsylvania  7.! 

Louisiana  7.8 

Alabama  6.9 

Geoi^a  6.6 

Mississippi  6.! 


TABLE  B 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  771 


APPENDIX  VI 

CITIES  REPORTING  NO  INCREASE  IN  TEACHERS'  SALARIES 

FOR  1918 

Of  320  cities  of  over  10,000  population,  23  report  no  increase  in  salaries. 
List  furnished  by  the  National  Education  Association  Commission  on  the  Emergency  in 

Education,  June,  1918. 
City  No.  of  Teachers 

1.  Bethlehem,  Pa 68 

2.  Columbia,  S.C 109 

3.  Eureka,  Cal 59 

4.  Greensboro,  N.C 72 

5.  Jacksonville,  Fla 196 

6.  Jeffersonville,  Ind 41 

7.  Lexington,  Ky 149 

8.  Little  Rock,  Ark 139 

9.  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  (no  change  since  1914-15) 2589 

10.  Marshall,  Tex 71 

11.  Massillon,  Ohio 77 

12.  MiUville,  N.J 78 

13.  Mount  Carmel,  Pa 58 

14.  Natchez,  Miss 36 

15.  Niagara  Falls,  N.Y 196 

16.  Pawtucket,  R.I 161 

17.  Philadelphia,  Pa 5593 

18.  Rome,  Ga 39 

19.  Salem,  Mass 154 

20.  Vicksburg,  Miss 59 

21.  Washington,  Pa 104 

22.  Watertown,  Mass 77 

23.  York,  Pa 215 

Total 10,340 


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NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


[Teachers' 


APPENDIX  VIII 


SUMMARY  OF  REPORT  ON  SALARIES  PAID  TO  TEACHERS  IN 

320  CITIES  OF  OVER  10,000  POPULATION  IN  THE 

UNITED  STATES 

This  report  was  made  as  a  result  of  an  investigation  conducted  by  the  National 
Education  Association  Commission  on  the  National  Emergency,  Dr.  George  D.  Strayer, 
chairman. 


Kind  of  School 

Salary  Levels 

Number  of  Teachers 
Employed  at  Each 
Level 

Median  Salary  for 

Each  Kind  of 

School 

♦Elementary  Schools    

$  300-$  499 
500-     699 
700-     899 
900-  1099 
IIOO-  1299 
130a-  1499 
1500-  1699 
1700-  1899 
1900-  2099 

2IOO-    2299 
2300-    2499 

Over      2500 

278s 
15219 
19807 
11200 

96 

47 

I 
I 

$  716.19 

Total  elementary 

♦Intermediate  schools  (Junior  high  schools) 

$  300-$  499 
500-     699 
700-    899 
900-  1099 
HOC-  1299 
1300-  1499 
1500-  1699 
1700-  1899 
1900-  2099 
2100-  2299 
2300-  2500 
Over      2500 

113 

562 

1218 

1065 

S97 

161 

38 

21 

2 

2 

$  799.42 

Total  intermediate  schools 

3779 

♦High  schools 

$  300-$  499 

SCO-    699 

700-    899 

900-  1099 

HOC-  1299 

1300-  1499 

1500-  1699 

i70Cf-  1899 

1900-  2099 

2100-  2299 

2300-  2499 

Over      2500 

33 

1852 
2950 
2472 
2033 
2294 

IIIO 

li 

152 
149 

$1149.50 

Total  high  schools 

13976 

♦Salaries  of  principals  or  general  supervisory  ofl5cers  are  not  recorded. 


I 


Salaries)  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  777 


APPENDIX  IX 

INCREASE  IN  SALARIES  OF  TEACHERS  IN  CERTAIN  CITIES; 

ALSO  INCREASE  IN  WAGES  OF  EMPLOYES  IN 

CERTAIN  INDUSTRIES 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  establishing  salary  schedules  the  "equal 
pay"  principle  has  been  recognized  by  the  Hon.  William  G.  McAdoo, 
director  general  of  railroads  of  the  United  States,  by  the  War  Depart- 
ment and  its  ammunition  factories,  and  by  the  National  War  Labor  Board. 

INCREASES  IN  TEACHERS'   SALARIES 

The  committee  has  knowledge  up  to  date  of  increases  in  salaries  as 
follows:  In  New  York  City  on  January  i,  19 12,  the  minimum  salary  was 
raised  from  $600  to  $720;  on  January  i,  19 18,  the  minimum  was  raise 
from  $720  to  $800;  and  it  was  proposed  that  from  July  1,1918,  the  minimum 
should  be  raised  from  $800  to  $1000.  This  affects  only  7000  of  the  21,000 
teachers  and  is  unsatisfactory.  The  Board  of  Education,  however,  believes 
that  this  is  the  best  use  of  the  money  available  for  1918,  because  of  the  fact 
that  the  national  government  is  offering  $1000  to  young  women  equipt  as 
teachers  are.  Said  Board  has  a  committee  working  on  a  general  upward 
revision  of  all  salaries,  which  will  probably  call  for  a  total  increase  of 
$4,000,000.  The  teachers,  however,  are  demanding  schedules  more  com- 
mensurate with  the  present  cost  of  living,  which  schedules  call  for  a  total 
increase  of  approximately  $12,000,000.  Naturally  the  question  arises, 
"  Where  is  the  money  to  come  from  ?  "  The  teachers  are  planning  to  appeal 
to  the  state  legislature  to  amend  the  state  education  law  by  changing  the 
tax  rate  for  teachers'  salaries  in  cities  over  100,000  from  4.9  mills  to  6  mills. 

The  County  Council  of  London  has  voted  a  50  per  cent  increase  to 
teachers'  salaries. 

Fall  River,  Mass.,  has  voted  to  increase  the  salary  of  every  member  of 
the  teaching  corps  $100  per  year,  dating  from  May  20,  1918. 

Rockford,  111.,  has  granted  an  annual  increase  of  $100  from  September  i, 
19 1 8,  and  is  considering  a  proposal  of  a  $50  bonus  in  addition. 

Hoboken,  N.J.,  has  added  $300  to  the  annual  salary  of  its  teachers. 

Paterson,  N.J.,  had  added  $200  to  the  annual  salary  of  its  teachers. 

UNITED   STATES   STEEL   GIVES   LABOR  A    15   PER  CENT  INCREASE 

Two  hundred  thousand  employes  of  the  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion were  made  happy  by  the  announcement  of  a  15  per  cent  increase  in 
wages  effective  April  15.  The  advance  is  in  recognition  of  the  increast 
cost  of  Uving. 


778  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 

It  is  estimated  that  the  increase  in  wages  just  granted  will  cost  the  com- 
pany yearly  about  $45,000,000.  The  annual  report  of  the  company  shows 
a  191 7  surplus  of  more  than  $52,000,000  and  a  total  undivided  surplus  of 
$431,660,803. 

Between  the  end  of  191 5  and  the  last  quarter  of  191 7  the  corporation 
raised  the  pay  of  its  employes  60  per  cent. 

The  corporation  at  the  close  of  the  year  had  268,058  employes,  compared 
with  252,668  at  the  close  of  1916.  During  the  year  11,486  employes  entered 
the  United  States  service. 

STANDARD  OIL  RAISES  WAGES  THREE  MILLIONS 

An  increase  in  wages  averaging  10  per  cent  was  made,  applicable  to  all 
wage-earners  except  first-class  bricklayers  and  watchmen,  whose  rates  will 
be  increast  5  per  cent,  and  lead  burners,  whose  rates  previously  had  been 
raised. 

All  employes,  without  any  contribution  on  their  part,  will  be  given 
individual  life  insurance  poHcies  with  benefits  ranging  from  a  sum  equal  to 
three  months'  wages  to  $2000. 

The  old-age  pension  system  now  in  vogue,  where  employes  sixty-five 
years  of  age  are  provided  for,  has  been  amended  so  that  an  employe  may 
retire  at  the  end  of  twenty  years  of  service  on  a  pension. 

President  Teagle  said  that  about  30,000  employes  were  affected  by  the 
wage  increase,  which  totaled  somewhat  more  than  $3,000,000  a  year. 
When  he  announced  the  wage  increase  he  stated  that  since  August  i,  191 5, 
the  Standard  Oil  Company  has  granted  five  general  wage  increases  for  all 
classes  of  labor,  so  that  the  average  increase  since  that  time  has  amounted 
to  62  .8  per  cent,  while  the  rate  for  common  labor  had  been  increast  80 .57 
per  cent  in  this  period. 

In  addition  to  these  increases  a  change  from  a  nine-  to  an  eight-hour 
day  was  made  effective  September  15,  191 5.  This  was  without  any  change 
in  the  scale  of  wages  and  was  therefore  equivalent  to  an  increase  in  the 
wage  scale  of  19 .37  per  cent. 

RAILROAD-WAGE  INCREASES 

General  pay  increases  for  nearly  2,000,000  railroad  employes  were 
announced  by  Director-General  McAdoo. 

Issuance  of  General  Order  No.  27  granted  an  increase  of  wages 
on  the  eight-hour-day  basis  to  all  employes.  The  increases  will  reach 
$300,000,000  a  yea;". 

The  increases  carry  out  almost  entirely  the  recommendations  of  the 
Railroad  Wage  Commission.  They  become  effective  next  Saturday  and 
are  retroactive  to  last  January  i. 

In  the  state  legislature  last  April  a  bill  was  introduced  providing  a 
20  per  cent  increase  for  all  state  employes  receiving  less  than  one  thousand 


Salariesl  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  779 

($1000)  dollars,  and  a  15  per  cent  increase  for  those  receiving  more  than  one 
thousand  ($1000)  dollars  but  less  than  two  thousand  ($2000)  dollars.  This 
would  have  cost  $2,900,000,  and  because  it  was  understood  that  this  amount 
would  be  prohibitive  the  bill  was  past  in  an  amended  form,  which  provided 
for  a  10  per  cent  or  such  lower  increase  of  all  salaries  under  fifteen  hundred 
($1500)  dollars,  so  that  the  minimum  of  fifteen  hundred  ($1500)  dollars 
might  be  made.  This  involved  the  expenditure  of  one  million  ($1,000,000) 
dollars. 

PROPOSALS  FOR  INCREASE 

The  Board  of  Alderman  of  New  York  City  on  June  11,  1918,  by  a 
unanimous  vote  adopted  a  resolution  providing  for  a  10  per  cent  increase 
to  employes  now  receiving  from  $1000  to  $2000  a  year,  and  20  per  cent  to 
those  receiving  $1000  or  less. 

The  teachers  of  the  state  of  New  York  thru  the  Teachers'  Council  and 
various  teachers'  organizations  are  asking  for  a  minimum  salary  of  one 
thousand  ($1000)  dollars  with  a  maximum  for  teachers  in  the  first  six 
years  of  $2160,  and  for  teachers  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  years  of  $2400. 
This  would  involve  an  additional  expenditure  of  $12,000,750. 

The  Interborough  Association  of  Women  Teachers  and  some  other 
associations  are  asking  for  a  "war  bonus"  of  $200  for  every  member  of  the 
teaching  and  supervising  force,  pending  a  general  revision  of  teachers' 
salaries,  to  make  them  more  nearly  commensurate  with  the  increast  cost  of 
living.  During  the  last  session  of  the  New  York  state  legislature  two  bills 
were  introduced  which  did  not  become  law,  but  which  are  indicative  of  the 
belief  that  salaries  should  be  increast  in  proportion  to  their  nearness  to  a 
"living  wage."  One  of  these  provided  that  all  city  employes — New  York 
City — whose  salary  is  less  and  not  more  than  twelve  hundred  ($1200) 
dollars  shall  be  increast  20  per  cent;  those  whose  salary  is  twelve  hundred 
($1200)  and  not  more  than  eighteen  hundred  ($1800)  dollars  shall  be 
increast  15  per  cent;  those  whose  yearly  salary  is  more  than  eighteen 
hundred  ($1800)  and  not  more  than  twenty-four  hundred  ($2400)  dollars, 
shall  be  increast  10  per  cent;  those  whose  salary  is  more  than  twenty-four 
($2400)  hundred  dollars  shall  be  increast  5  per  cent. 

The  other  bill  provided  that  all  state  employes  whose  annual  salary  is 
less  and  not  more  than  $1080  shall  be  increast  20  per  cent,  those  whose 
salary  is  less  and  not  more  than  $1560  shall  be  increast  15  per  cent,  those 
whose  salary  is  not  more  than  $1800  shall  be  increast  10  per  cent,  and  those 
whose  salary  is  less  and  not  more  than  $2040  shall  be  increast  50  per  cent. 


78o  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 


APPENDIX  X 

CHART  SHOWING  THE  AMOUNT  OF  WEALTH  FOR  EACH 
TEACHER  EMPLOYED  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS,  1916 

Average  amount  for  each  teacher  for  the  United  States  is  $280,754.08. 

The  wealth  is  based  on  the  report  of  the  Department  of  Commerce,  Bureau  of  the 
Census,  for  191 2. 

The  number  of  teachers  for  19 16  is  based  on  the  Report  of  the  United  States  Com- 
missioner of  Education,  II,  76. 

The  calculations  were  made  for  the  Commission  on  Emergency  in  Education  by  John 
A.  H.  Keitt,  1918.    The  chart  was  made  by  John  W.  Carr. 


Salaries] 


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782  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 


APPENDIX  XI 

RELATION  OF  SALARIES  TO  EXPENSES  OF  1504  ELEMENTARY 

TEACHERS  IN  TOWN  AND  CITY  SCHOOLS  OF 

MISSOURI  (DECEMBER,  1917)^ 

The  teachers  of  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  and  St.  Joseph  are  not  included. 

The  facts  brought  out  are  based  not  upon  theory  but  upon  actual 
salary  received  and  actual  expenses  incurred  during  the  first  three  months 
of  the  school  year  19 17-18.  A  study  of  the  items  included  under  expenses 
will  show  that  nothing  has  been  included  which  is  not  actually  essential  to  a 
teacher's  welfare. 

In  considering  the  report  that  follows  the  following  striking  facts  should 
be  noted:  93  per  cent  stated  that  expenses  would  be  greater  in  proportion 
during  the  remainder  of  the  school  term  than  during  the  first  three  months. 

TOTAL  SALARIES 

Of  all  elementary  teachers,  12.2  per  cent  receive  less  than  $360  per  year; 
31 .5  per  cent  receive  less  than  $450  per  year;  75.5  per  cent  receive  less 
than  $500  per  year. 

The  foregoing  are  annual  salaries.  Usually  paid  for  an  eight-  or  nine- 
month  school  term,  they  must  be  divided  by  twelve  to  get  the  average 
monthly  salary. 

RELATION  OF   SALARIES  TO  EXPENSES 

Of  the  teachers  receiving  $360  or  less,  67  per  cent  spend  more  than  they 
earn  in  the  schoolroom;  58  per  cent  of  those  receiving  $405  spend  more  than 
they  earn  in  the  schoolroom;  50  per  cent  of  those  receiving  $550  or  less  spend 
more  than  they  earn  in  the  schoolroom. 

The  foregoing  allows  nothing  for  savings  and  little  for  professional 
growth.     It  covers  bare  Uving  expenses. 

Of  all  elementary  teachers,  52.4  per  cent  receive  less  than  $550  per 
year.    These  must  supplement  their  earnings  in  the  schoolroom. 

The  foregoing  is  true  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  a  large  percentage 
of  teachers  live  at  home  and  by  their  own  statements  contribute  nothing 
whatever  to  living  expenses.  In  the  teacher- training  schools  62  per  cent  of 
all  grade  teachers  are  local  and  in  the  main  live  at  home.  The  answers 
from  many  of  these  local  teachers  show  that  the  salary  from  teaching 
would  by  no  means  support  them  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  room  and 
board  cost  them  nothing,  being  paid  by  their  parents. 

'Extract  adapted  from  a  pamphlet  issued  by  the  state  superintendent,  Uel  W.  Lampkin. 


Salariesl  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  783 


APPENDIX  XII 

THE  WAR  AND  TEACHERS'  SALARIES 

(Prepared  for  the  Commission  by  Dr.  I.  L.  Kandel) 
England  and  Wales 

The  problem  of  maintaining  an  adequate  supply  of  elementary-school 
teachers  was  already  becoming  serious  in  England  and  Wales  before  the 
war;  the  outbreak  of  the  war  and  its  continued  duration  have  only  served 
to  intensify  the  crisis.  A  large  proportion  of  the  men  have  joined  the  Army, 
and  many  women  have  been  attracted  to  occupations  which  appear  at  once 
to  be  more  obviously  connected  with  the  war  activities  and  to  offer  higher 
remuneration  than  teaching.  At  the  same  time  the  war  has  imposed  addi- 
tional burdens,  willingly  assumed  but  none  the  less  demanding  sacrifices, 
on  the  teachers;  these  have  taken  the  form  of  larger  classes,  extra  work  in 
the  schools,  voluntary  war  work  of  different  kinds,  and  so  on.  Not  the 
least  of  the  hardships  has  been  the  depreciation  of  salaries  due  to  the  rising 
cost  of  living,  which  by  19 17  had  increast  about  80  per  cent  above  that  of 
1914.  Education  authorities  were  confronted  with  several  problems — 
inabiUty  to  retain  teachers  in  the  face  of  more  attractive  opportunities 
elsewhere,  inabiUty  to  secure  an  adequate  supply  of  candidates  ready  to 
undertake  several  years  of  training  at  a  time  when  remunerative  occupa- 
tions were  open  to  them  without  training,  and  inability  to  find  additional 
resources  when  the  public  purse  was  otherwise  being  drained  to  meet  other 
demands. 

The  first  response  was  to  grant  bonuses  on  salaries  which  never  went 
beyond  the  annual  addition  of  10  per  cent  and  rarely  affected  salaries  above 
$1000  or  $1 250  a  year.  Such  increases  were  of  course  quite  incommensurate 
with  the  needs  of  the  time,  especially  when  skilled  workmen  could  command 
as  much  as  $75  a  week,  and  boys  still  under  eighteen  about  $15  a  week  for 
unskilled  services.  In  only  one  important  respect  was  the  stringency 
reUeved  by  a  government  prohibition  against  the  increase  of  rents.  The 
bonus  system  prevailed  until  about  the  middle  of  191 7,  when  the  govern- 
ment came  to  the  rescue  with  an  addition  to  the  educational  budget  of 
about  $18,000,000^  which  was  specially  earmarkt  for  salaries.  At  the  same 
time  the  Board  of  Education  issued  a  minute  recommending  that  the 
minimum  salary  for  women  teachers  in  elementary  schools  should  be  $450 
and  for  men  teachers  $500.  The  effect  of  the  additional  government  grant 
was  to  stimulate  the  estabHshment  of  new  scales  of  salary. 

In  the  meantime  the  government  had  appointed  in  June,  191 7,  a 
departmental  committee  to  inquire  into  the  principles  which  should  deter- 
mine the  construction  of  scales  of  salary  for  teachers  in  elementary  schools; 


784  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 

and  another  committee  to  make  a  similar  inquiry  into  the  salaries  of 
secondary-school  teachers.  The  first  committee  issued  its  report  in 
February,  1918.    The  report^  is  based  on  three  main  principles: 

1.  That  the  "authorities  in  constructing  a  scale  should  aim  at  obtaining 
a  constant  supply  of  suitable  recruits,  at  retaining  them  while  other  careers 
are  still  open  to  them,  and  at  securing  service  of  the  desired  quality  from 
those  who  make  teaching  their  life  work." 

2.  That  the  scale  "shall  provide  them  with  a  reasonable  assurance  of  a 
remuneration  that  will  enable  them  to  live  appropriately  without  embar- 
rassment, and  that  they  may  have  a  fair  chance  of  advancement  to  posts  of 
greater  importance  and  emolument." 

3.  That  the  authorities  "in  framing  their  scales  are  taking  part  in  the 
work  of  establishing  the  teaching  service  of  the  country  on  a  basis  conducive 
to  the  efficiency  of  the  system  of  national  education;  they  should  proceed 
upon  a  common  basis  of  principles." 

The  committee,  while  accepting  the  administrative  advantages  of  a 
salary  scale,  recognized  that  special  consideration  must  be  given  to  reward- 
ing teachers  of  exceptional  ability,  to  dealing  with  teachers  who  drift  into 
a  rut,  to  withholding  increments  from  those  teachers  who  are  reported  to  be 
inefficient.  It  further  considered  the  question  of  equal  pay  for  men  and 
women,  for  which  a  strong  agitation  has  been  launcht  by  women  teachers 
thruout  the  country.  Finally  some  attention  was  given  to  removing 
some  of  the  inequalities  in  salaries  paid  to  teachers  in  rural  and  urban 
areas. 

The  chief  principle  adopted  for  the  construction  of  salary  scales  was  that 
a  scale  with  smaller  increments  for  the  early  years  of  service,  followed  by 
larger  increments  leading  up  to  a  salary  adequate  for  increasing  family 
responsibilities,  and  then  with  further  prospects  until  retirement,  is  superior 
to  a  sharp,  steep  scale  leading  early  up  to  a  maximum,  or  a  long  and  gradual 
scale  which  would  not  yield  an  adequate  salary  when  responsibilities  were 
greatest.  For  example,  in  the  case  of  men  certificated  teachers,  annual  in- 
crements are  suggested  for  not  less  than  twelve  years,  followed  by  increments 
at  intervals  of  not  more  than  three  years  for  a  further  period  of  about  ten 
years;  and  for  women  certificated  teachers,  annual  increments  for  not  less 
than  eight  years,  followed  by  increments  at  longer  intervals  as  in  the  case  of 
men.  Uncertificated  teachers  should  have  a  short  scale  covering  a  period 
of  four  to  six  years  and  not  rising  above  the  minimum  for  women  cer- 
tificated teachers,  with  discretionary  increments  in  cases  of  individual 
merit.  Owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  teaching  body  the  committee  was 
unable  to  recommend  that  increments  should  depend  solely  upon  merit, 
and  it  suggests  that  increments  be  automatic  except  in  the  case  of  definite 

'  Report  of  the  Departmental  Committee  for  Inquiring  into  the  Principles  Which  Should  Determine 
the  Construction  of  Scales  of  Salary  for  Teachers  in  Elementary  Schools.  Vol.  I,  Report,  Cd.  893Q;  Vol.  II, 
Summaries  of  Evidence  and  Memoranda,  Cd.  8999. 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  785 

default  or  wilful  neglect,  with  additional  rewards  for  exceptional  merit. 
The  committee  was  unable  to  accept  the  principle  of  equal  pay  for  men  and 
women,  partly  because  a  scale  of  salaries  adequate  for  women  is  under 
present  circumstances  inadequate  for  men,  and  partly  because  it  is  essential 
to  attract  and  retain  suitable  men  in  the  profession.  Accordingly  it  advo- 
cated the  principle  that  the  minimum  salaries  for  both  men  and  women 
should  be  approximately  the  same,  but  that  the  maximum  for  women  should 
not  be  less  than  three-fourths  of  the  maximum  for  men.  With  reference 
to  rural  and  urban  teachers  the  committee  was  of  the  opinion  that  service  in 
the  rural  districts  should  be  made  financially  attractive,  and  that  accordingly 
salaries  should  be  only  a  little  lower  than  in  urban  areas.  While  the  com- 
mittee did  not  attempt  to  estabhsh  a  national  scale,  it  ojffered  for  considera- 
tion a  number  of  illustrative  scales  and  emphasized  the  importance  of 
avoiding  such  diversity  that  the  larger  school  systems  would  draw  teachers 
away  from  the  smaller. 

The  following  illustrations  of  scale-making  for  certificated  teachers  were 
offered: 


1.  Minimum  $500  rising  by  annual  increments  of  $25  to  $800  in  the  thirteenth  year 
of  service,  and  then  by  triennial  increments  of  $50  to  $950  in  the  twenty-second  year  of 
service. 

2.  Minimum  $500  rising  by  annual  increments  of  $25  to  $700  in  the  ninth  year  of 
service,  then  by  annual  increments  of  $50  to  $900  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  service,  and  then 
by  triennial  increments  of  $50  to  $1050  in  the  twenty-second  year  of  service. 

3.  Minimum  $500  rising  by  annual  increments  of  $25  to  $575  in  the  fourth  year  of 
service,  then  by  annual  increments  of  $50  to  $1050  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  service,  and 
then  by  triennial  increments  of  $50  to  $1200  in  the  twenty-third  year  of  service. 

4.  Minimum  $500  rising  by  annual  increments  of  $25  to  $600  in  the  fifth  year  of 
service,  then  by  annual  increments  of  $50  to  $1150  in  the  sixteenth  year  of  service,  and 
then  by  triennial  increments. 

5.  Minimum  $500  rising  by  annual  increments  of  $50  to  $1200  in  the  sixteenth  year 
of  service,  and  then  by  triennial  increments  of  $ioo  to  $1500  in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of 
service. 


1.  Minimum  $450  rising  by  annual  increments  of  $25  to  $650  in  the  ninth  year  of 
service,  and  then  by  triennial  increments  of  $50  to  $750  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  service. 

2.  Minimum  $450  rising  as  in  (i)  to  $650  in  the  ninth  year  of  service,  then  by  one 
increment  to  $700  in  the  tenth  year  of  service,  and  then  by  triennial  increments  to  $850  in 
the  nineteenth  year  of  service. 

3.  Minimum  $450  rising  by  annual  increments  of  $25  to  $600  in  the  seventh  year  of 
service,  then  by  annual  increments  of  $50  to  $750  in  the  tenth  year  of  service,  and  then  by 
triennial  increments  of  $50  to  $900  in  the  nineteenth  year  of  service. 

4.  Minimum  $450  rising  by  annual  increments  of  $25  to  $550  in  the  fifth  year  of 
service,  then  by  annual  increments  of  $50  to  $850  in  the  eleventh  year  of  service,  and  then 
by  triennial  increments  of  $50  to  $1000  in  the  twentieth  year  of  service. 

5.  Minimum  $450  rising  as  in  (4)  to  $550,  then  by  annual  increments  of  $50  to  $900 
in  the  twelfth  year  of  service,  and  then  by  triennial  increments  of  $100  to  $1200  in  the 
twenty-first  year  of  service. 


786  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 

SCOTLAND 

The  effect  of  the  war  on  the  salaries  of  teachers  in  Scotland  was 
similar  to  that  in  England  and  Wales,  with  similar  attempts  to  meet  the 
situation  by  the  grant  of  bonuses.  In  July,  191 7,  the  government 
appointed  a  Departmental  Committee  on  the  Remuneration  of  Teachers 
in  Scotland,  which  considered  and  reported  in  November,  191 7,  on 
salaries  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools  and  in  training  colleges. 
The  general  considerations  determining  the  report  of  the  committee  was  as 
follows: 

In  considering  the  larger  and  more  important  part  of  our  reference,  viz.,  the  suitable 
scales  of  salary  for  different  classes  of  teachers,  we  desired  to  approach  the  question  not 
solely,  nor  even  mainly,  as  one  involving  the  interests  of  a  single  profession,  but  as  one 
vitally  affecting  the  welfare  of  the  whole  community.  That  welfare  must  depend,  in 
increasing  measure,  upon  the  efficiency  of  national  education;  and  the  fundamental 
requirement  for  securing  this  is  that  there  should  be  an  adequate  supply  of  teachers  of 
high  capacity,  proved  aptitude,  and  thoro  training.  This  cannot  be  attained  unless  the 
remuneration  is  such  as  to  make  the  teaching  profession  one  which  may  compete  with 
other  professions  in  securing  recruits  of  sufficient  capacity  and  in  repaying  these  recruits 
for  the  time  and  labour  spent  in  their  special  training.  To  attract  such  recruits  it  is 
necessary,  not  only  that  a  fair  salary  should  be  offered  to  begin  with,  but — and  it  is  an 
even  more  vital  condition — that  sufficiently  attractive  prospects  should  be  opened  to 
those  who  have  served  for  a  certain  number  of  years. 

Following  this  line  of  inquiry  we  come  to  the  following  general  conclu- 
sions: 

1.  That  not  only  as  a  temporary  war  measure,  but  as  a  permanent 
necessity  in  order  to  maintain  an  efficient  teaching  profession  in  the  interests 
of  the  country,  the  general  remuneration  of  teachers  must  be  raised,  and 
an  equalization  of  the  scale  of  salaries  for  similar  classes  of  schools  over  the 
country  is  desirable. 

2.  That  this  cannot  be  attained  by  any  continuation  or  extension  of  the 
bonus  system. 

3.  That  while  an  adequate  initial  salary  must  be  provided,  it  is  even  of 
greater  importance  that  improved  prospects  should  be  opened  to  those  who 
attain  a  certain  length  of  service  and  have  proved  their  competency  and 
their  aptitude  for  the  profession. 

4.  That  the  scale  should  take  account  of: 

a)  The  length  and  character  of  the  preliminary  training. 

h)  Length  of  service. 

c)  The  responsibility  of  the  post  held  and  its  demands  on  the  capacity 
and  energy  of  a  teacher. 

The  scales  recommended  by  the  committee  are  in  every  case  higher  than 
those  prevailing  at  present  and  determined  by  local  and  accidental  circum- 
stances. While  aware  of  the  large  increase  of  expenditure  involved,  the 
committee  declares  it  to  be  its 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  787 

firm  and  considered  conviction,  however,  that  the  scheme  ....  cannot  be  attained 
except,  first,  by  an  extension  of  school  areas,  and,  secondly,  by  a  very  large  proportion  of 

the  additional  amount  required  being  provided  by  the  central  authority Whatever 

the  cost,  if  it  is  proved  to  be  necessary  for  high  educational  efficiency,  we  cannot  afford  the 
ultimate  extravagance  which  is  involved  in  undue  parsimony  in  such  a  case.  It  should 
not  be  overlookt  that  the  aim  of  the  proposed  standard  of  salaries  ....  is  not  so  much 
to  improve  the  position  and  prospects  of  the  teaching  profession  as  to  secure  in  the  future, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  state,  an  adequate  supply  of  amply  efl&cient  recruits  for  our  educa- 
tional army. 


788  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION  [Teachers' 


APPENDIX  XIII 

TEACHERS'  SALARIES^ 

"Basic  Principles  in  the  Making  of  a  Salary  Schedule  for  Teachers.  The  Findings 
of  the  Evanston,  Illinois,  Committee  of  Teachers,"  American  School  Board 
Journal,  LVI  (March,  1918),  26-27,  83. 

Becht,  J.  G.  "The  Teachers'  QuaUfications,  Compensation,  and  Retirement," 
Pennsylvania  School  Journal,  LXIV  (March,  1916),  393-96. 

Boynton,  F.  D.  "Minimum  Salary  Legislation,"  Journal  of  the  New  York  State 
Teachers'  Association  II  (February,  191 5),  16-20. 

Boykin,  J.  C,  and  King,  Roberta.  The  Tangible  Rewards  of  Teaching.  U.S. 
Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  16,1914.  Washington:  Government 
Printing  Office.    465  pages. 

Chamberlain,  Arthur  H.  "Teachers'  Salaries.  A  Study  of  the  Salary  Schedule 
in  Various  Cities  in  the  United  States,"  Sierra  Educational  News,  XIII 
(January,  191 7),  12-16. 

Chancellor,  William  E.  "The  Future  of  Salaries  for  Ohio  Teachers,"  Ohio 
Teacher,  XXXIII  (February,  191 8),  294-96. 

"College  Teachers,  Financial  Status  of,"  Eighth  Report  of  the  Carnegie  Founda- 
tion (1913),  pp.  98-1 1 1. 

England,  Report  of  the  Departmental  Committee  for  Inquiring  into  the  Principles 
Which  Should  Determine  the  Construction  of  Scales  of  Salary  for  Teachers 
in  Elementary  Schools.  Vol.  I,  Report,  Cd.  8939;  Vol.  II,  Summaries  of 
Evidence  and  Memoranda,  Cd.  8999.    London,  1918. 

"Evanston's  Scale  and  Scheme,"  Journal  of  Education,  LXXXVII  (February  21, 
1918),  215-17. 
A  reply  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  Evanston,  III.,  to  the  report  of  the  teachers' 

committee  on  a  salary  scale  and  scheme  for  grading  salaries,  promotions,  and  dismissals. 

Ferguson,  James.  "Teachers'  Salaries,  Tenure,  and  Pensions,"  National  Educa- 
tion Association,  Addresses  and  Proceedings  (1915),  pp.  1162-64. 

Hadley,  A.  T.    "Salaries  at  Yale  University,"  School  and  Society,  II  (Novem- 
ber 20,  1915),  751-52. 
From  the  annual  report. 

Hoban,  C.  F.     "The  Salary  Question,"  Pennsylvania  School  Journal,  LXIII 

(April,  1915),  431-32. 
Kandel,  I.  L.     "The  War  and  Teachers'  Salaries.     England  and  Wales,  and 

Scotland,"  School  and  Society  (June  29,  1918,  and  July  6,  1918). 
Mayman,  J.  Edward.     "The  High  Cost  of  Living  and  Stationary  Salaries," 

American  Teacher,  VI  (January,  191 7),  2-4. 

Gives  a  table  showing  the  average  increases  in  teachers'  salaries  compared  with  the 
average  increases  in  cost  of  living. 

*  Contributed  by  Dr.  Wolcott,  librarian,  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 


Salaries]  TEACHERS'  SALARIES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING  789 

Miller,  Sarah  Pleis.     "Have  Women's  Salaries  Been  Increased  by  Higher  Uni- 
versity Training?"  Journal  of  the  Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae,  VIII 
(April,  1915),  73-79. 
From  information  received  from  the  Civil  Service  Bureau,  teachers'  agencies,  city 

superintendents  of  schools,  and  university  authorities,  the  author  shows  that  college 

degrees  do  increase  women's  salaries. 

Monroe,  Edwin  S.     "Salaries  and  Pensions,"  Oklahoma  Journal  of  Education, 

VI  (December  30,  1916),  2-4;   Qanuary  6,  1917),  4-6. 
Monahan,  A.  C,  and  Dye,  C.  H.    A  Comparison  of  the  Salaries  of  Rural  and 

Urban  Superintendents  of  Schools.     U.S.   Bureau  of  Education,   Bulletin 

No.  33,1917.     Washington:   Government  Printing  Office.     68  pages. 
National  Education  Association  Committee  on  Salaries,  Tenure,  and  Pensions 

of  Teachers.    Report  of  the  Committee  on  Teachers'  Salaries  and  Cost  of  Living. 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich.:  The  Association,  1913.    328  pages. 
Purcell,  Helen  E.     "Poor  Salaries  for  Teachers  as  They  Affect  the  Child,"  Ameri- 
can School  Board  Journal,  LVI  (February,  1918),  23,  83. 
Putnam,  Mary  B.     "The  Laborer  and  His  Hire,"  American  Schoolmaster,  X 

(December  15,  1917),  433-45- 
^'Resolved,  That  Men  and  Women  Teachers  Should  Receive  Equal  Pay  for  the 

Same  Grade  of  Work,"  Oklahoma  Journal  of  Education,  V  (February  26, 

1916),  3-7. 

Contains:  (i)  Elizabeth  Hodgson:  "Men  and  Women  Teachers  Should  Not  Receive 
Equal  Salaries";  (2)  Laura  M.  Kingsbury:  "Men  and  Women  Teachers  Should  Receive 
Equal  Salaries.    A  Reply." 
Robinson,  Winifred  J.     "Have   Women's  Salaries  Been  Increased  by  Special 

Courses  in  Education?"    Journal  of  the  Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae, 

VIII  (April,  1915),  79-82. 

"Salaries  of  Manual-Training  Teachers,"  Industrial- Arts  Magazine,  VI  Qanuary, 

1917),  36. 
Salary  schedules  of  manual-training  teachers  in  21  cities  in  1916. 

Severance,  Lena  L.     "The  Case  of  the  New  York  State  Normal  School,"  Journal 
of  the  Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae,  VIII  (April,  191 6),  82-88. 
Salaries  of  women  teachers  in  New  York  state. 
"Teachers'  Salaries  Notes,"  American  School  Board  Journal,  LVI  (March,  1918), 
720. 

See  also  "Salary  Schedule  for  Louisiana,"  p.  71,  and  "Teachers'  Salaries  in  Massa- 
chusetts," pp.  70-71. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Education.    A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Salaries  of 
Teachers  and  School  Officers.    Bulletin  No.  31,  1915.    Washington:  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office.     126  pages. 
Winsor,  Frederick.     "The  Underpaid  Pedagogues,"  Atlantic  Monthly,  CXVII 

(May,  1916),  654-57- 
Wood,  Will  C.     "Suggestions  on  the  Adjustment  of  Teachers'  Salaries,"  Western 
Journal  of  Education,  XXIV  (February,  191 8),  4-5. 

For  earlier  references  see  the  bibliography  at  end  of  The  Tangible  Rewards  of  Teach- 
ing, by  Boykin  and  King.    U.S.  Bureau  of  Education.     Bulletin  No.  16,  1914. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


[Names  of  authors  are  set  in  small  capitals] 


Abbott,     Grace— Enforcement     of     the 

United  States  Child  Labor  Law,  657 
Absence  from   Rural   Schools,   Causes  of 

(Edward  N.  Clopper),  668 
Academic  and  Professional  Subjects,  The 

Distinction  between  (W.  C.  Bagley), 

229 
Act  of  Incorporation,  i 
Addams,  Jane — ^The  World's  Food  Supply 

and  Woman's  Obligation,  108 
Address  (Charles  S.  Whitman),  485 
Addresses    of   Welcome    (Edward    Vose 

Babcock),  29;  (Samuel  Hamilton),  30; 

(Calvin  N.  Kendall),  481 
Addresses     of     Welcome,     Response     to 

(Josephine  Corliss  Preston),  32 
Admmistration  of   City  Schools,   Recent 

Growth  in  the  (W.  S.  Deffenbaugh), 

36?  .         . 

Administrative  Legislation,  Report  of 
Commission  on,  535 

Adolescent,  Education  of  the,  in  England 
(Frank  Roscoe),  188 

Agricultural  Education  under  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act  (Charles  A.  Greathouse), 
269 

Agricultural  Efl&ciency,  Effect  of  Rural 
Continuation  School  on  (Rufus  W. 
Stimson),  291 

Agriculture,  The  New  Education  in.  Based 
on  Sound  Pedagogy  (William  R.  Hart), 
287 

Aley,  Robert  J. — The  High-School  Stu- 
dent and  the  Book,  454 

Allerdice,  Mrs.  Taylor — Mothers  of 
Democracy,  178 

American  Children,  Competent  Teachers 
for  (L.  D.  Coffman),  62 

American  Education,  Democratic  Factors 
in  (A.  Duncan  Yocum),  141 

American  Education,  Opportunity  and 
Leadership  in:  A.  The  Place  of  the 
State  Supported  and  Managed  Institu- 
tion (Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler),  508; 
B.  The  Place  of  the  Educational  Institu- 
tion for  Women  (Kathryn  Sisson 
McLean),  511;  C.  The  Place  of  the 
Educational  Foundation  (Clyde  Furst), 
515;  D.  The  View  of  the  Entire  Situa- 
tion from  the  Outside  (Don  C.  Seitz), 

519 
American  Homemaker,  The,  and  Recon- 
struction (Adelaide  Steele  Baylor), 

253 
Americanism,    The   New    (Franklin    K. 
Lane),  104 


Americanization,  The  Kindergarten  as  a 

Factor  in  (Caroline  Hedger),  167 
Americanization  thru  School  Gardens  (Van 

Everie  Kilpatrick),  174 
Americanization,    Spoken    English    as    a 

Factor  in  (Earl  Barnes),  171 
Americanization  as  a  War-Time  Duty  of 

the  Schools  (J.  George  Becht),  363 
Andres,  Elisha  Benjamin  (Necrology),  687 
Appreciation,  A  Better,  of  Cultural  Values 

(Nathan  C.  Schaeffer),  163 
Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae,  Report 

of  the,  for  the  Year  191 7-18  (Gertrude 

S.  Martin),  422 
Athletics,    Citizenship    and — A    Concrete 

Example  (Glen  F.  Thistlethwaite), 

183 
Babcock,    Edward    Vose. — Address    of 

Welcome,  29 
Baer,  Clara  G. — Women  and  the  War, 

355 
Bagley,  W.  C. — The  Distinction  between 
Academic  and  Professional  Subjects,  229; 
Education    and    Our    Democracy,    55; 
The  Status  of  the  Classroom  Teacher, 

383 

Ballou,  Frank  W. — Efl5cient  Finance  for 
the  City  School  System,  613 

Barnes,  Earl — Children's  Sense  of  Time, 
335;  Spoken  English  as  a  Factor  in 
Americanization,  171 

Barnum,  Mrs.  0.  Shepard — Guarding  the 
Schools  in  War  Time,  430 

Baylor,  Adelaide  Steele — The  American 
Homemaker  and  Reconstruction,  253 

Becht,  J.  George — Americanization  as  a 
War-Time  Duty  of  the  Schools,  363 

Belisle,  Hector  L. — Discussion:  Part- 
Time  V.  The  Special  Teacher  as  the 
Economic  Solution  of  the  Speech- 
Disorder  Problem  in  Public  Schools,  674 

Bennion,  Milton — Leadership  in  Educa- 
tion: C.  Direct  Instruction  in  Citizen- 
ship in  the  High  School,  632 

Beveridge,  J.  H. — Discussion:  Leader- 
ship in  Education:  A.  Leadership  as 
Found  Today  in  Instruction  in  Inter- 
preting the  Curriculum;  II.  In  Prin- 
cipals and  Supervisors,  626 

Bexell,  J.  A. — Thrift  and  Commercial 
Supremacy,  138 

Binford,  J.  H. — Standardizing  the  Small 
Country  School,  595 

Blackmar,  H.  E. — Overcoming  the  Objec- 
tion of  Parents  to  the  Special  Class — 
Can  It  Be  Done  ?    How  ?    305 


791 


792 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


Blair,  Francis  G.— War  Problems:    D. 

A  Practical  Program  of  Patriotic  Instruc- 
tion, 652 
Blake,      Katherine      Devereux — The 

Body   a    Fit    and    Perfect   Tool,    159; 

The   Rebuilding    of    Civilization    thru 

the  Schools,  124 
Boards  of  Education,  The  Responsibility 

of  (Mrs.  Charles  A.  Perkins),  377 
Body,    The,    a    Fit    and    Perfect    Tool 

(Katherine  Devereux  Blake),  159 
Books   for   High-School    Boys,    Selecting 

(Edwin  L.  Miller),  449 
Bradford,  Mary  C.  C. — The  Building  of 

the  New  Civilization,  34;    Response  to 

Addresses  of  Welcome,  483 
Bradford,  Mary  D. — Training  for  Social 

Adjustment — the  Citizens  of  the  Future, 

160 
Brett,  William  H. — ^War  Library  Service, 

461 
Brubacher,  a.  R. — Discussion:  A  Better 

Appreciation  of  Ethical  Values,  164 
Brumbaugh,    Martin    G. — New   World- 
Standards  of  Educational  Efiiciency,  84 
Bucke,^  W,  Fowler — The  Strength  of  a 

Nation  Promoted  thru  Physical  Educa- 
tion, 340 
Building   of   the   New   Civilization,   The 

(Mary  C.  C.  Bradford),  34 
BuRDGE,  Howard  G. — A  State  Plan  for 

Vocational  Training,  254 
BuRNHAM,     Dr.    William    H. — Mental 

Hygiene,  329 
Business,  College  Women  in  (Lucinda  W. 

Prince),  409 
Business    Department,    Department    of. 

Officers  and  Resolutions,  235 
Butcher,  Thomas  W. — Maintaining  an 

Adequate  Supply  of  Teachers  without 

Lowering  Standards,  229 
By-Laws,  5 

Calendar  of  Meetings,  13 
Campbell,  William  A.  (Necrology),  689 
Capen,  S.  p. — The  Committee  on  Educa- 
tion and  Special  Training,  205 
C  ARY,     C . .  P . — Discussion :      Centralizing 

Tendencies  in  Educational  Administra- 
tion, 504 
Causes   of  Absence  from   Rural   Schools 

(Edward  N.  Clopper),  668 
Census  of  Children  of  School  Age,  The 

Need  of  a  Continuing  Qohn  W.  Davis) 

665 
Challman,  S.  a. — Child  Welfare  Laws  of 

Minnesota,  662 
Chamberlain,  Arthur  H. — Thrift  in  the 

Public  Schools,  140 
Chaney,   N.   H. — Discussion:    A   Better 

Appreciation  of  Ethical  Values,  166 
Character  Education  (Milton  Fairchild), 

120 
Character  Formation,  Cooperation  between 

School    and     College     in     (Anna     P. 

Mac V ay),  414 


Child,  The,  and  the  Book  in  War  Tunes 

(Clara  W.  Hunt),  448 
Child  Health,  The  State  Normal  Schools 

and  the  Problems  of  (W.  S.  Small),  217 
Child  Hygiene,  Department  of.  Secretary's 

Minutes,  323 
Child  Labor  Law,  United  States,  Enforce- 
ment of  the  (Grace  Abbott),  657 
Child  Life,  What  the  Government  Is  Doing 

to  Conserve  (Ella  Arvilla  Merritt), 

152 
Child-Study,  A  General  Survey  of  (Dr.  G 

Stanley  Hall),  332 
Child  Welfare  Laws  of  Minnesota  (S.  A. 

Challman),  662 
Children's  Sense  of  Time  (Earl  Barnes), 

335 

Children's  Year,  The,  and  the  Opportunity 
of  the  Kindergarten  for  Conservation 
Work  in  Congested  Cities  (Elizabeth  A. 
Woodward),  131 

Christopher,  John — Discussion:  Part- 
Time  V.  The  Special  Teacher  as  the 
Economic  Solution  of  the  Speech- 
Disorder  Problem  in  Public  Schools,  676 

Churchill,  J.  A. — The  Relation  of  .the 
High-School  Library  to  Modern  Educa- 
tional Aims,  457 

Citizens,  The,  of  the  Future,  Training  for 
Social  Adjustment — (Mary  D.  Brad- 
ford), 160 

Citizenship  and  Athletics — A  Concrete 
Example  (G;len  F.  Thistlethwaite)  , 

183 

City  School  System,  Efl&cient  Finance  for 
the  (Frank  W.  Ballou),  613 

City  Schools,  Recent  Growth  in  the  Admin- 
istration of  (W.  S.  Deffenbaugh),  361 

Civilization,  The  Rebuilding  of,  thru  the 
Schools  (Katherine  Devereux  Blake), 
124 

Clark,  Edith  K.  O. — Discussion:  Cen- 
tralizing Tendencies  in  Educational 
Administration,  507 

Classroom  Teachers,  Department  of,  Secre- 
tary's Minutes,  381 

Classroom  Teacher,  The  Status  of  (W.  C. 
Bagley),  383 

Clopper,  Edward  N. — Causes  of  Absence 
from  Rural  Schools,  668 

Club  Work  and  Salvage  (Henry  R. 
Daniel),  146 

Cody,  Frank — The  Practical  Value  of 
Psychological  Tests — Do  They  Find  the 
Bright  and  Dull  Pupils  ?  302 

CoFFMAN,  L.  D. — Competent  Teachers  for 
American  Children,  62;  Training  for 
National  Service  in  Normal  Schools,  209 

Coleman,  Norman  F. — Sex  Education  and 
the  War,  195 

College  Community  Life,  The,  as  an 
Opportunity  for  Socialization  (MmA 
Kerr),  402 

College  Women  in  Business  (Lucinda  W. 
Prince),  409 


INDEX 


793 


Collier,  John — Democracy  Every  Day, 

53 
Commercial  Education  in  Preparation  for 

Foreign    Service    (Glen    Levin    Swig- 

gett),  238 
Commercial-Education   Statistics    (David 

H.  O'Keefe),  240 
Commercial    Education    after    the    War 

(J.  T.  Holdsworth),  236 
Commercial  Supremacy,  Thrift  and  (J.  A. 

Bexell),  138 
Commission  on  Administrative  Legislation 

Report  of,  535 
Committee  on  Cooperation  of  Boards  of 

Education,  Report  of,  549 
Committee  on  Economy  of  Time  in  Ele- 
mentary Education,  Report  of  the,  520 
Committee  on  Economy  of  Time,  School 

Practice  as  Affected  by  the  Reports  of 

the  (C.  N.  Kendall),  531 
Committee    on    Education    and    Special 

Training,  The  (S.  P.  Capen),  205 
Committee  on  Federal  Aid  and  the  Train- 
ing of  Teachers,  Report  of  (John  A.  H. 

Keith),  214 
Committee  on  Publicity,  Report  of  the,  533 
Committee  on  Resolutions,  Report  of  the, 

Committee  on  Teachers'  Salaries,  Tenure, 
and  Pensions,  Report  of  the,  721 

Conflict,  The  Immortal  (Andrew  F. 
West),  87  ^ 

Conservation  Work  in  Congested  Cities, 
The  Children's  Year  and  the  Opportu- 
nity of  the  Kindergarten  for  (Elizabeth 

A.  Woodward),  131 

Cook,  Albert  S. — Centralizing  Ten- 
dencies in  Educational  Administration: 

B.  The   County  as  a   Unit   for  Local 
Administration,  493 

Cooper,  Frank  Irving — Standardization 
of  Schoolhouse  Planning  and  Construc- 
tion, 568 

Cooperation  of  Boards  of  Education, 
Report  of  Committee  on,  549 

Cooperation  between  School  and  College 
in  Character  Formation  (Anna  P. 
MacVay),  414 

Corson,  David  B. — Does  the  Special  Class 
Equip  Pupils  for  Industrial  Employ- 
ment in  the  Community?  Can  the 
Co-operation 'of  Employers  during  and 
following  the  School  Period  Be  Obtained 
and  How?     312 

Cost  of  Public  Education,  Why  the.  Is 
Increasing  (John  D,  Shoop),  607 

Country  School,  Standardizing  the  Small 
(J.  H.  Binford),  595 

County  Superintendency,  The,  and  Its 
Problems  (P.  C.  Fair),  593 

County,  The,  as  a  Unit  of  Organization 
(Maurice  S.  H.  Unger),  598 

Cowling,  Donald  J. — The  Emergency 
Council  on  Education,  200 

Creed  of  Physical  Education  (Randall  D. 
•  Warden),  350 


Cultural  Values,  A  Better  Appreciation  of 
(Nathan  C.  Schaeffer),  163 

Cutter,  Annie  S. — Report  of  the  Ele- 
mentary-School Committee:  Library 
Cooperation  with  the  Junior  Red  Cross, 
452 

Daniel,  Henry  R. — Club  Work  and 
Salvage,  146 

Davis,  John  W. — The  Need  of  a  Continu- 
ing Census  of  Children  of  School  Age,  665 

Dean  of  Women,  What  a  President  May 
Rightly  Expect  from  a  (George  S. 
Dick),  395 

Deaning  in  the  Public  High  School  (Janet 
M.  Purdue),  404 

Deans,  Some  Ideals  for  (Mary  W. 
Woolley),  411 

Deans  of  Women,  Department  of,  Secre- 
tary's Minutes,  391 

Defectives,  What  and  How  to  Teach 
(Charlotte  Steinbach),  304 

Deffenbaugh,  W.  S. — Recent  Growth  in 
the  Administration  of  City  Schools,  361 

Democracy,  Education  and  Our  (W.  C. 
Bagley),  55 

Democracy  Every  Day  (John  Collier),  53 

Democracy,  Mothers  of  (Mrs.  Taylor 
Allerdice),  178 

Democratic  Factors  in  American  Education 
(A.  Duncan  Yocum),  141 

Department:  of  Business  Education,  235; 
of  Child  Hygiene,  323;  of  Classroom 
Teachers,  381 ;  of  Deans  of  Women,  391 ; 
of  Educational  Publications,  465;  of 
Elementary  Education,  157;  of  Higher 
Education,  191;  of  Kindergarten  Educa- 
tion, 151;  of  Library,  447;  of  Music 
Education,  315;  of  National  Council  of 
Education,  135;  of  Normal  Schools,  209; 
of  Physical  Education,  339;  of  Rural  and 
Agricultural  Education,  271;  of  School 
Administration,  359;  of  School  Patrons, 
419;  of  Science  Instruction,  295;  of 
Secondary  Education,  177;  of  Special 
Education,  297;  of  Superintendence, 
473;  of  Vocational  Education  and 
Practical  Arts,  249;  of  the  Wider  Use  of 
Schoolhouses,  471 

Development  of  Children,  The  Mental 
(Dr.  G.  W.  a.  Luckey),  326 

Development  of  the  Individual,  The 
Influence  of  Physical  Education  on  the 
(S.  H.  Replogle),  343 

Dick,  George  S. — What  a  President  May 
Rightly  Expect  from  a  Dean  of  Women, 

395 
DiLLARD,  James  H. — Discussion:  National 

Responsibility    for    Education    of    the 

Colored  People,  566 
Discussion:     A    Better    Appreciation    of 

Ethical  Values  (A.  R.  Brubacher),  164; 

(N.  H.  Chaney),  166 
Discussion:     Centralizing    Tendencies    in 

Educational     Administration      (C.     P. 

Gary),    504;     (J.    Y.    Joyner),    506; 

(Edith  K.  O.  Clark),  507 


794 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


Discussion:  Efficient  Finance  for  the  City 
School  System  (Albert  Shiels),  6i6 

Discussion:  Leadership  in  Education  (J. 
H,  BEVERroGE),  626;  (J.  W.  Mc- 
Clinton),  631;  (Fred  M,  Hunter), 
620 

Discussion:  National  Responsibility  for 
•  Education  of  the  Colored  People  (James 
H.  Dillard),  566 

Discussion:  The  New  Responsibilities  and 
Opportunities  Which  the  War  Situation 
Has  Brought  to  the  State  Department 
and  the  Schools  (A.  N.  Farmer),  588 

Discussion:  Part-Time  V.  The  Special 
Teacher  as  the  Economic  Solution  of  the 
Speech-Disorder  Problem  in  Public 
Schools  (Hector  L.  Belisle),  674; 
(WiLMER  Kinman),  675;  (John  Chris- 
topher), 676 

Discussion:  Sectional  Conferences  and 
Periods  of  Professional  Improvement 
Work  for  Teachers  of  High-School 
Agriculture  (A.  K,  Getman),  281 

Discussion:  War  Problems:  D.  A  Practi- 
cal Program  of  Patriotic  Instruction 
(A.  E.  Winship),  655 

Duffy,  Frank— The  Reeducation  of  Our 
Returning  Disabled  Soldiers  after  the 
War,  251 

Dutton,  Betty  A.  (Necrology),  686 

Earhart,  Will — The  Essential  Factor  in 
Musical  Education,  316 

Economy  in  Learning  in  Relation  to 
Economy  of  Time  (Ernest  Horn),  526 

Economy  of  Time  in  Elementary  Educa- 
tion, Report  of  the  Committee  on,  520 

Education  of  the  Adolescent  in  England 
(Frank  Roscoe),  188 

Education,  Agricultural,  under  the  Sfhith- 
Hughes  Act  (Charles  A.  Greathouse), 
269 

Education  in  Agriculture,  The  New,  Based 
on  Sound  Pedagogy  (William  R.  Hart), 
287 

Education,  Character  (Milton  Fairchild)  , 
120 

Education  of  the  Colored  People,  National 
Responsibility  for:  A.  The  Status  of 
Negro  Education  (Kelly  Miller),  555; 
B,  The  Nation's  Responsibihty  to  the 
South  for  Negro  Education  (W.  T.  B. 
Williams),  558;  C.  The  Nation's  Re- 
sponsibility to  Itself  for  Negro  Education 
and  Its  Constitutional  Power  to  Render 
Aid  Thereto  (Isaac  Fisher),  562;  Dis- 
cussion (James  H.  Dillard),  566 

Education,  The  Emergency  Council  on 
(Donald  J.  Cowling),  200 

Education  toward  the  Formation  of  Moral 
Character  (David  Snedden),  79 

Education,  Health  Problems  in  (Sally 
Lucas  Jean),  443 

Education  Is  Preparation  for  Life  (Arthur 
E.  Holder),  261 

Education,  The  Life-Career  Motive  in 
(William  L.  Ettinger),  42 


Education,  The  National  Emergency  in 
(George  D.  Strayer),  129 

Education  and  Our  Democracy  (W.  C. 
Bagley),  55 

Education,  Practical,  under  Federal  Guid- 
ance (Ernest  A,  Smith),  77 

Education,  The  Present  Emergency  in 
(George  D.  Strayer),  205 

Education,  Secondary,  The  Emergency  in 
(George  D.  Strayer),  187 

Education  and  Special  Training,  The 
Committee  on  (S.  P.  Capen),  205 

Education,  Vocational,  under  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act  (C.  A.  Prosser),  266 

Education  after  the  War  (James  P.  Mun- 
roe),  196 

Education,  War-Modified,  and  Illiteracy 
(Cora  Wilson  Stewart),  117 

Education,  War-Modified,  and  the  Rise 
of  the  Common  People  thru  It  (A,  E. 
Winship),  123 

Education,  War-Modified,  the  Teachers, 
and  the  Schools  (Walter  R.  Siders), 

Educational  Administration,  Centralizing 
Tendencies  in:  A.  Limitations  of  State 
Control  in  Education  (Payson  Smith), 
490;  B.  The  County  as  a  Unit  for  Local 
Administration  (Albert  S.  Cook),  493; 

C,  The  Township  as  a  Unit  for  Local 
Administration  (R.  B.  Teitrick),  497; 

D.  How  a  State  Department  May 
Stimulate  Local  Initiative  and  Increase 
Efficiency  (George  D.  Strayer),  501; 
Discussion  (C.  P.  Cary),  504 

Educational  Agency,  A  New  (Guy  Stanton 
Ford),  207 

Educational  Aims,  Modern,  The  Relation 
of  the  High-School  Library  to  (J.  A. 
Churchill),  457 

Educational  Efficiency,  New  World- 
Standards  of  (Martin  G.  Brum^paugh), 

Educational  Publications,  Department  of, 
Secretary's  Minutes,  465 

Educational  Values  of  War,  Some  (G. 
Stanley  Hall),  96 

Eldred,  Arvie — War  Problems:  B.  Con- 
servation of  Resources — School  Savings 
Banks  and  Thrift  Education,  645 

Elementary  Education,  Department  of, 
Secretary's  Minutes,  157 

Elementary-School  Committee,  Report  of 
the:  Library  Cooperation  with  the 
Junior  Red  Cross  (Annie  S.  Cutter), 
452 

Emergency  Council  on  Education,  The 
(Donald  J.  Cowling),  200 

Enforcement  of  the  United  States  Child 
Labor  Law  (Grace  Abbott),  657 

English,  Spoken,  as  a  Factor  in  Americani- 
zation (Earl  Barnes),  171 

Enlistment  of  the  Profession,  The  (Car- 
roll G.  Pearse),  66 

Ennis,  Isabel  A. — Causes  of  the  Present 
Shortage  of  Teachers,  387 


INDEX 


795 


Ethical  Values,  A  Better  Appreciation  of, 
Discussion  (A.  R.  Brubacher),  164; 
(N.  H.  Chaney),  166 

Ettinger,  William  L. — The  Life-Career 
Motive  in  Education,  42  . 

Fahey,  Sara  H. — The  Training  of 
Teachers  as  a  Factor  in  Establishing 
Professional  Standards,  382 

Fair,  P.  C. — The  County  Superintendency 
and  Its  Problem,  593 

Fairchild,  Milton — Character  Educa- 
tion, 120 

Farmer,  A.  N. — Discussion:  The  New 
Responsibilities  and  Opportunities 
Which  the  War  Situation  Has  Brought 
to  the  State  Department  and  the  Schools, 
588 

Federal  Aid  and  the  Training  of  Teachers, 
Report  of  Committee  on  (John  A.  H. 
Keith),  214 

Feeble-Minded,  After-School  Care  of  the 
(Charlotte  Stelnbach),  309 

Finance,  Efficient,  for  the  City  School 
System  (Frank  W.  Ballou),  613 

Financial  Needs  of  the  School,  Educating 
the  Public  to  (George  D.  Strayer),  609 

Financing  the  Public  Schools  (E.  C. 
Hartwell),  605 

FiNEGAN,  Thomas  E. — Training  for  Na- 
tional Service,  59 

Finley,  John  Huston — A  Message  from 
France,  552 

Fisher,  Isaac — National  Responsibility 
for  Education  of  the  Colored  People: 
C.  The  Nation's  Responsibility  to  Itself 
for  Negro  Education  and  Its  Constitu- 
tional Power  to  Render  Aid  Thereto,  562 

Food  Supply,  The  World's,  and  Woman's 
Obligation  (Jane  Addams),  108 

Ford,  Guy  Stanton — A  New  Educational 
Agency,  207 

Foreign  Service,  Commercial  Education  in 
Preparation  for  (Glen  Levin  Swiggett), 
238 

Foreign  Service,  Why  Should  the  Govern- 
ment Train  for?  (Glen  Levin  Swig- 
gett), 71 

FuRST,  Clyde — Opportunity  and  Leader- 
ship in  American  Education:  C.  The 
Place  of  the  Educational  Foundation,  515 

General  Committees,  27 

General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs 
(Mary  E.  Parker),  427 

General  Sessions  of  the  Association,  29 

Gerwig,  George  W. — War  Policies  for 
Schools,  375 

Getman,  a.  K. — Discussion:  Sectional 
Conferences  and  Periods  of  Professional 
Improvement  Work  for  Teachers  of 
High-School  Agriculture,  281 

Greathouse,  Charles  A, — Agricultural 
Education  under  the  Smith-Hughes  Act, 
269 

Greene,  E.  B.— The  Problems  of  Histor- 
ical Scholarship  and  Teaching  as  Affected 
by  the  War,  199 


Gregory,    Helen   L. — Effective    Health 

Education  thru  Public  Schools,  357 
Griswold,  Marvin  E. — School  Budgets 

and  School  Finance,  367 
Gulick,  Luther  Halsey  (Necrology),  687 
Hall,  Dr.  G.  Stanley— A  General  Survey 

of  Child-Study,  332;   Some  Educational 

Values  of  War,  96 
Hamilton,  Samuel — Address  of  Welcome 

30 
Harding,  Mrs,  Charles  F. — President's 

Address,  421 
Hart,  William  R. — The  New  Education 

in  Agriculture  Based  on  Sound  Pedagogy, 

287 
Hartwell,  E.  C. — Financing  the  Public 

Schools,  605 
Harvey,  Marie  Turner — Rural  Schools 

in  the  War,  438 
Hayes,  Mrs.  Thomas  W. — Rural  School 

as  a  Social  Center,  602 
Health  Education,  Effective,  thru  Public 

Schools  (Helen  L.  Gregory),  357 
Health  Education,  A  National  Program  of 

(Thomas  D,  Wood),  144 
Health    Problems    in    Education    (Sally 

Lucas  Jean),  443 
Health  of  School  Children,  Conserving  the 

(Sarah  M.  Hobson),  432 
Hedger,  Caroline — The  Kindergarten  as 

a  Factor  in  Americanization,  167 
Higher   Education,   Department  of,   Sec- 
retary's Minutes,  191 
High-School    Boys,    Selecting    Books   for 

(Edwin  L.  Miller),  449 
High-School  Library,  The  Relation  of  the, 

to   Modern   Educational   Aims    (J.   A. 

Churchill),  457 
High-School  Library  Standardization  Aims 

from  the  Point  of  View  of  the  School 

Administration    (Jesse    H.    Newlon), 

460 
High  School,  Physical  Education  in,  in  the 

Present  Emergency  (W.  S.  Small),  181 
High-School  Student,  The,  and  the  Book 

(Robert  J.  Aley),  454 
Hill,  Lawrence  L. — Physical  Education 

in  Rural  Schools,  347 
Historical    Scholarship    and    Teaching   as 

Affected  by  the  War,  The  Problems  of 

(E.  B.  Greene),  199 
Hobson,     Sarah     M. — Conserving     the 

Health  of  School  Children,  432 
Holder,  Arthur  E. — Education  Is  Prepara- 
tion for  Life,  261 
Holdsworth,  J.  T. — Commercial  Educa- 
tion after  the  War,  236 
Home-Project  Work  too  Small — Something 

Bigger  Needed — A  Substitute  in  Opera- 
tion (W.  S.  Welles),  283 
Horn,  Ernest — Economy  in  Learning  in 

Relation    to    Economy    of    Time,    526; 

Leadership     in     Education:      B.  How 

Leadership  in  Making  New  Adjustments 

in  Education  Must  Be  Provided,  628 


796 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


Hunt,  Clara  W.— The  Child  and  the 
Book  in  War  Times,  448 

Hunter,  Fred  M. — Discussion:  Leader- 
ship in  Education:  A.  Leadership  as 
Found  Today  in  Instruction  in  Inter- 
preting the  Curriculum :  I.  In  the  Super- 
mtendent,  620;  Needed  "Modifications 
in  Textbooks  as  Shown  by  the  War,  465 

Hygiene,  Mental  (Dr.  William  H.  Burn- 
ham),  329 

Ideals,  Some,  for  Deans  (Mary  W. 
Woolley),  411 

Illiteracy,  War-Modified  Education  and 
(Cora  Wilson  Stewart),  117 

Industrial  Employment,  Does  the  Special 
Class  Equip  the  Pupils  for?  (E.  R. 
Whitney),  310 

Industry,  Preparing  the  Boy  for  (Louis  L. 
Park),  259 

Interpretation,  An,  of  Life  in  Terms  of 
Beauty  and  of  Color  in  Terms  of  Music 
(Maud  M.  Miles),  91 

Introductory  Address  (Albert  Wunder- 
lich),  360 

Ireland,  John  (Necrology),  688 

Jean,  Sally  Lucas — Health  Problems  in 
Education,  443 

Journal  of  Proceedings,  21 

JoYNER,  J.  Y. — Discussion:  Centralizing 
Tendencies  in  Educational  Administra- 
tion, 506 

Junior  Red  Cross,  Library  Cooperation 
with  the  (Effie  L.  Power),  461 

Junior  Red  Cross  Organizations  in  Rural 
Schools,  Practicable  Library  Coopera- 
tion with  (O.  S.  Rice),  450 

Junior  Red  Cross,  Work  and  Scope  of 
(Henry  Noble  McCracken),  576 

Keane,  John  Joseph  (Necrology),  688 

Keeler,  Fred  L. — The  New  Responsi- 
bilities and  Opportunities  Which  the  War 
Situation  Has  Brought  to  the  State 
Department  and  the  Schools,  583 

Keith,  John  A.  H, — Report  of  Committee 
on  Federal  Aid  and  the  Training  of 
Teachers,  214 

Kendall,  Calvin  N. — Address  of  Wel- 
come, 481;  School  Practice  as  Affected 
by  the  Reports  of  the  Committee  on 
Economy  of  Time,  531 

Kerr,  Mina — The  College  Community 
Life  as  an  Opportunity  for  Socialization, 
402 

Kidner,  T.  B. — Vocational  Reeducation  of 
Disabled  Soldiers — Canada's  Experience, 
264 

Kiehle,  David  Pritchard  (Necrology), 
686 

Kilpatrick,  Van  Everie — Americaniza- 
tion thru  School  Gardens,  1 74 

Kilpatrick,  William  H. — The  Problem- 
Project  Attack  in  Organization,  Subject- 
Matter,  and  Teaching,  528 

Kindergarten  Education,  Department  of, 
Secretary's  Minutes,  151 


Kindergarten,  The,  as  a  Factor  in  Ameri- 
canization (Caroline  Hedger),  167 

KiNNAN,  WiLMER — Discussion:  Part-Time 
V.  The  Special  Teacher  as  the  Econ- 
omic Solution  of  the  Speech-Disorder 
Problem  in  Public  Schools,  675 

Knapp,  Warren  E.  (Necrology),  689 

KoRDSiEMON,  Anna  M. — Overcoming  the 
Objection  of  Parents  to  the  Special  Class 
— Can  It  Be  Done  ?    How  ?     307 

Kraus-Boelte,  Marie  (Necrology),  686 

Lane,  Franklin  K. — The  New  American- 
ism, 104 

Leadership  in  Education:    A.  Leadership 

.  as  Found  Today  in  Instruction  in 
Interpreting  the  Curriculum:  I.  In  the 
Superintendent  (Z.  C.  Thornburg), 
618;  (Fred  M.  Hunter),  620;  II.  In 
Principals  and  Supervisors  (R.  O. 
Stoops),  623;  (J.  H.  Beveridge),  626; 
B.  How  Leadership  in  Making  New 
Adjustments  in  Education  Must  Be  Pro- 
vided (Ernest  Horn),  628;  Discussion 
(J.  W.  McClinton),  631;  C.  Direct 
Instruction  in  Citizenship  in  the  High 
School  (Milton  Bennion),  632;  (H.  B. 
Wilson),  636;  D.  Thrift  in  Relation  to 
Public  Schools  (Laura  M.  Smith),  638 

Leland,  Abby  Porter — Scouting  Educa- 
tion for  Girls,  579 

Leupp,  Francis  E.  (Necrology),  689 

Library  Cooperation  with  the  Junior  Red 
Cross  (Effie  L.  Power),  461 

Library  Cooperation,  Practicable,  with 
Junior  Red  Cross  Organizations  in  Rural 
Schools  (O.  S.  Rice),  450 

Library  Department,  Secretary's  Minutes, 

447 

Library  Service,  War  (William  H.  Brett), 
461 

Life-Career  Motive  in  Education,  The 
(William  L.  Ettinger),  42 

Long,  Mrs.  Charles — Report  of  Com- 
mittee on  Education,  National  Council  of 
Jewish  Women,  425;  Report  of  Penn- 
sylvania Department  of  School  Patrons, 
427 

Luckey,  Bertha  M. — The  Practical  Value 
of  Psychological  Tests — Do  They  Find 
the  Bright  and  Dull  Pupils  ?  298 

Luckey,  Dr.  G.  W.  A.— The  Mental 
Development  of  Children,  326 

McClinton,  J.  W. — Discussion:  Leader- 
ship in  Education:  B.  How  Leadership 
in  Making  New  Adjustments  in  Educa- 
tion Must  Be  Provided,  631 

McCoNATHY,  OsBOURNE — In  What  Direc- 
tion Is  Public  Music  Education  Tending  ? 
320 

MacCracken,  Henry  Noble — Work  and 
Scope  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross,  576 

MacCracken,  John  H. — The  Bill  for  a 
National  Department  of  Education,  191 

McElroy,  Robert  M. — Patriotism — Past, 
Present,  and  Future,  94 


INDEX 


797 


McLean,  Kathryn  Sisson — Opportunity 
and  Leadership  in  American  Education: 
B.  The  Place  of  the  Educational  Institu- 
tion for  Women,  511 

McN AUGHT,  Margaret  S. — Guarding  the 
Schools  in  War  Time,  435 

MacVay,  Anna  P. — Cooperation  between 
School  and  College  in  Character  Forma- 
tion, 414 

Maintaining  an  Adequate  Supply  of 
Teachers  without  Lowering  Standards 
(J.  AsBURY  Pitman),  226;  (Thomas  W. 
Butcher),  229 

Manual  Arts  for  Social  Needs  and  for 
Daily  Living  (John  G.  Thompson),  158 

Martin,  Gertrude  S. — Report  of  the 
Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae  for 
the  Year  191 7-18,  422 

Mental  Development  of  Children,  The 
(Dr.  G.  W.  a.  Luckey),  326 

Mental  Hygiene  (Dr.  William  H.  Burn- 
ham),  329 

Merritt,  Ella  Arvilla — What  the  Gov- 
ernment Is  Doing  to  Conserve  Child 
Life,  152 

Message  from  France,  A  (John  Huston 
Finley),  552 

Miles,  Maud  M. — An  Interpretation  of 
Life  in  Terms  of  Beauty  and  of  Color  in 
Terms  of  Music,  91 

Miller,  Edwin  L. — Selecting  Books  for 
High-School  Boys,  449 

Miller,  Kelly — National  Responsibility 
for  Education  of  the  Colored  People: 
A.    The  Status  of  Negro  Education,  555 

Mitchill,  Theodore  C.  (Necrology),  689 

Modifications,  Needed,  in  Textbooks  as 
Shown  by  the  War  (Fred  M.  Hunter), 

465 

Moore,  Ella  Adams — Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Vocational  Supervision,  433 

Moral  Character,  Education  toward  the 
Formation  of  (David  Snedden),  79 

Mothers  of  Democracy  (Mrs.  Taylor 
Allerdice),  178 

MuNROE,  James  P. — Education  after  the 
War,  196;  The  Readjustment  of  the 
School  from  the  Viewpoint  of  a  Manu- 
facturer, 265 

Music  Education,  Department  of,  Sec- 
retary's Minutes,  315 

Music  Education,  In  What  Direction  Is 
PubUc,  Tending?  (Osbourne  Mc- 
Conathy),  320 

Musical  Education,  The  Essential  Factor 
in  (Will  Earhart),  316 

Nation,  The,  and  the  Crisis  in  Its  Schools 
(Joseph  Swain),  45 

Nation,  The,  at  War  (James  A.  B. 
Scheber),  49 

National  Council  of  Education,  Secretary's 
Minutes  (Pittsburgh  Meeting),  135 

National  Council  of  Jewish  Women,  Report 
of  Committee  on  Education  (Mrs. 
Charles  Long),  425 


National  Department  of  Education,  The 
Bill -for  a  (John  H.  MacCracken),  191 

National  Emergency  in  Education,  The 
(George  D.  Strayer),  129 

National  Program  of. Health  Education, 
A  (Thomas  D.  Wood),  144 

National  Service,  Thrift  and  (Frank  A. 
Vanderlip),  127 

National  Service,  Training  for  (Thomas  E. 
Finegan),  59 

National  Service,  Training  for,  in  Normal 
Schools  (L.  D.  Coffman),  209 

Necrology,  847 

New  Civilization,  The  Building  of  the 
(Mary  C.  C.  Bradford),  34 

New  Internationalism,  The  R61e  of  Woman 
in  the  (Mrs.  Louis  F.  Post),  74 

Newlon,  Jesse  H. — High-School  Library 
Standardization  Aims  from  the  Point  of 
View  of  the  School  Administration,  460 

Nolan,  Aretas  W. — Project  Methods  in 
Teacher  Training  in  Vocational  Agri- 
culture, 275 

Normal  School,  Bringing  the  College  to  the 
(George  M.  Philips),  220 

Normal  Schools,  Coordination  of  Theory 
and  Practice  in  (H.  A.  Sprague),  212 

Normal  Schools,  Department  of.  Secre- 
tary's Minutes  (Atlantic  City  Meeting), 
219 

Normal  Schools,  Department  of.  Secre- 
tary's Minutes,  (Pittsburgh  Meeting), 
209 

Normal  Schools,  Training  for  National 
Service  in  (L.  D.  Coffman),  209 

Officers  for  191 7-18,  15 

O'Keefe,  David  H.  —  Commercial- 
Education  Statistics,  240 

Organization  of  Social  Life  Where  There 
Are  No  Dormitories,  and  Housing 
Students  under  Such  Conditions  (Ber- 
NicE  E.  Sanford),  393 

Palmer,  F.  E. — ^War  Problems:  A. 
Economy  of  Time — A  Twelve  Months, 
School,  Divided  into  Four  Quarters,  641 

Park,  Louis  L. — Preparing  the  Boy  for 
Industry,  259 

Parker,  Mary  E. — General  Federation  of 
Women's  Clubs,  427 

Patriotism — Past,  Present,  and  Future 
(Robert  M.  McElroy),  94 

Patriotism  of  War  Savings,  The  (S.  W. 
Straus),  137 

Pattengill,  Henry  Romaine  (Necrology), 
687 

Pearse,  Carroll  G. — The  Enlistment  of 
the  Profession,  66 

Pennsylvania  Department  of  School 
Patrons,  Report  of  (Mrs.  Charles 
Long),  427 

Perkins,  Mrs.  Charles  A. — The  Re- 
sponsibility of  Boards  of  Education,  377 

Peterson,  Frederick — The  Reconstruc- 
tion of  the  Race,  68 


798 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


PniLtps,  George  M, — Bring  the  College 
to  the  Normal  School,  220 

Phillips,  D,  E, — The  War  and  University 
Reform,  100 

Physical  Education,  Creed  of  (Randall  D. 
Warden),  350 

Physical  Education,  Department  of,  Sec- 
retary's Minutes,  339 

Physical  Education,  Efifects  of,  on  School 
Morale  (May  H.  Prentice),  345 

Physical  Education  in  the  High  School  in 
The  Present  Emergency  (W.  S.  Small), 
181 

Physical  Education,  The  Influence  of,  on 
the  Development  of  the  Individual  (S.  H. 
Replogle),  343 

Physical  Education  in  Rural  Schools 
(Lawrence  L.  Hill),  347 

Physical  Education,  The  Strength  of  a 
Nation  Promoted  thru  (W.  Fowler 
Bucke),  340 

Physical  Growth  of  Children,  What 
Teachers  Ought  to  Know  about  the 
(Dr.  John  M.  Tyler),  323 

Physical  Welfare  Work  with  School  Chil- 
dren in  War  Times:  A.  The  Vital 
Necessity  of  Physical  Training  for  the 
Country  Boy  and  Girl  (Dudley  A. 
Sargent),  677;  B,  Principles  Under- 
lying Minimum  Essentials  of  Exercises 
(William  A.  Stecher),  681 

Pitman,  J.  Asbury — Maintaining  an 
Adequate  Supply  of  Teachers  without 
Lowering  Standards,  226 

Policy,  The,  of  New  York  State  with 
Regard  to  Physical  Training  (James  G. 

.  RiGGs),  352 

Post,  Mrs.  Louis  F. — The  Role  of  Woman 
in  the  New  Internationalism,  74 

Power,  Effie  L. — Library  Cooperation 
with  the  Junior  Red  Cross,  461 

Practical  Education  under  Federal  Guid- 
ance (Ernest  A.  Smith),  77 

Prentice,  May  H. — Effects  of  Physical 
Education  on  School  Morale,  345 

Preparation  for  Life,  Education  Is  (Arthur 
E.  Holder),  261 

Preparing  the  Boy  for  Industry  (Louis  L. 
Park),  259 

President,  What  a  Dean  May  Rightly 
Expect  from  a  (Florence  L.  Richards), 
399 

President,  What  the  Dean  May  Rightly 
Expect  from  the  (Helen  M.  Smith),  397 

President's  Address  (Mary  C.  C.  Brad- 
ford), 34;  (Mrs.  Charles  F.Harding), 
421 

Preston,  Josephine  Corliss — Response 
to  Addresses  of  Welcome,  32 

Prince,  Lucinda  W. — College  Women  in 
Business,  409 

Problem-Project  Attack,  The,  in  Organi- 
zation, Subject-Matter,  and  Teaching 
(William  H.  Kilpatrick),  528 


ProblCTis,  The,  of  Historical  Scholarship 
and  Teaching  as  Affected  by  the  War 
(E.  B.  Greene),  199 

Professional  Standards,  The  Training  of 
Teachers  as  a  Factor  in  Establishing 
(Sara  H.  Fahey),  382 

Professional  Subjects,  The  Distinction 
between  Academic  and  (W.  C.  Bagley), 
229 

Program,  The  New,  of  the  National  Educa- 
tion Association — an  Opportunity  and  a 
Responsibility  (Nathan  C.  Schaeffer), 

Project  Methods  in  Teacher-Training 
Courses  (W.  S.  Taylor),  276 

Project  Methods  in  Teacher  Training 
in  Vocational  Agriculture  (Aretus  W. 
Nolan),  275 

Prosser,  C.  a. — Vocational  Education 
under  the  Smith-Hughes  Act,  266 

Psychological  Tests,  The  Practical  Value 
of— Do  They  Find  the  Bright  and  Dull 
Pupils?  (Frank  Cody),  302;  (Bertha 
M.  Luckey),  298;  (A.  H.  Sutherland), 
300 

PubUc  Education,  Why  the  Cost  of,  Is 
Increasing  (John  D.  Shoop),  607 

Public  High  School,  Deaning  in  the 
(Janet  M.  Purdue),  404 

Public  Schools,  Effective  Health  Educa- 
tion thru  (Helen  L.  Gregory),  357 

Public  Schools,  Financing  the  (E.  C.  Hart- 
well),  605 

Public  Schools,  Thrift  in  the  (Arthur  H. 
Chamberlain),  140 

Purdue,  Janet  M. — Deaning  in  the  Public 
High  School,  404 

Readjustment,  The,  of  the  School  from  the 
Viewpoint  of  a  Manufacturer  (James  P. 
Munroe),  265 

Rebuilding  of  Civilization  thru  the  Schools, 
The  (Katherine  Devereux  Blake), 
124 

Reconstruction,  The  American  Homemaker 
and  (Adelaide  Steele  Baylor),  253 

Reconstruction  of  the  Race,  The 
(Frederick  Peterson)  68 

Reeducation,  The,  of  Our  Returning  Dis- 
abled Soldiers  after  the  War  (Frank 
Duffy),  251 

Reeducation,  Vocational,  of  Disabled 
Soldiers — Canada's  Experience  (T.  B. 
Kidner),  264 

Rehabilitation,  The,  of  Disabled  Soldiers 
and  Sailors  or  Victims  of  Industry 
(Charles  H.  Winslow),  268 

Replogle,  S.  H. — The  Influence  of  Physi- 
cal Education  on  the  Development  of 
the  Individual,  343 

Report  of  the  Association  of  Collegiate 
Alumnae  for  the  Year  191 7-18  (Ger- 
trude S.  Martin),  422 

Report  of  Commission  on  Administrative 
Legislation,  535 


INDEX 


799 


Report  of  Committee  on  Cooperation  of 

Boards  of  Education,  549 
Report  of  the  Committee  on  Economy  of 

Time  in  Elementary  Education,  520 
Report    of     Committee    on     Education, 

National    Council    of    Jewish    Women 

(Mrs.  Charles  Long),  425 
Report  of  the  Committee  on  Publicity,  533 
Report  of  the  Committee  on  Resolutions, 

23 
Report  of  the   Committee  on  Teachers' 

Salaries,  Tenure,  and  Pensions,  721 
Report  of  the  Committee  on  Vocational 

Supervision  (Ella  Adams  Moore),  433 
Report   of   Pennsylvania   Department   of 

School  Patrons  (Mrs.  Chaeues  Long) 

427 
Response  to  Addresses  of  Welcome  (Mary 

C.  C.  Bradford),  483 
Responsibilities,  The  New,  Which  the  War 

Situation    Has    Brought    to    the    State 

Department  and  the  Schools  (Fred  L. 

Keeler),  583 
Rice,  O.  S. — Practicable  Library  Coopera- 
tion with  Junior  Red  Cross  Organizations 

in  Rural  Schools,  450 
Richards,  Florence  L. — What  a  Dean 

May  Rightly  Expect  from  a  President, 

399 

RiGGS,  James  G. — The  Policy  of  New  York 
State  with  Regard  to  Physical  Training, 
352 

RoscoE,  Frank — Education  of  the  Adoles- 
cent in  England,  188 

Rural  and  Agricultural  Education,  De- 
partment of.  Secretary's  Minutes,  271 

Rural  Continuation  School,  Efifect  of,  on 
Agricultural  Efficiency  (Rufus  W.  Stim- 
son),  291 

Rural  School  as  a  Social  Center  (Mrs. 
Thomas  W.  Hayes),  602 

Rural  Schools,  Physical  Education  in 
(Lawrence  L.  Hill),  347 

Rural  Schools  in  the  War  (Marie  Turner 
Harvey),  438 

Sabin,  Henry  (Necrology),  686 

Salvage,  Club  Work  and  (Henry  R. 
Daniel),  146 

Sanford,  Bernice  E. — Organization  of 
Social  Life  Where  There  Are  No  Dormi- 
tories, and  Housing  Students  under 
Such  Conditions,  393 

Sargent,  Dudley  A. — Physical  Welfare 
Work  with  School  Children  in  War 
Times:  A.  The  Vital  Necessity  of 
Physical  Training  for  the  Country  Boy 
and  Girl,  677 

Schaeffer,  Nathan  C. — A  Better  Appre- 
ciation of  Cultural  Values,  163;  The 
New  Program  of  the  National  Education 
Association — an  Opportunity  and  a  Re- 
sponsibility, 38 

ScHERER,  James  A.  B. — The  Nation  at 
War,  49 

School  Accounting,  Uniformity  in  (James 
Stover),  369  * 


School  Administration,  Department  of, 
Secretary's  Minutes,  359 

School  Budgets  and  School  Finance 
(Marvin  E.  Griswold),  367 

School  Children,  Conserving  the  Health  of 
(Sarah  M.  Hobson),  432 

School  Finance,  School  Budgets  and 
(Marvin  E.  Griswold),  367 

School  Finances  as  a  War-Time  Problem 
(Edward  L.  Taylor),  364 

School  Gardens,  Americanization  thru 
(Van  Everie  Kilpatrick),  174 

School  Morale,  Effects  of  Physical  Educa- 
tion on  (May  H.  Prentice),  345 

School  Patrons,  Department  of,  Secretary's 
Minutes,  419 

School  Practice  as  Affected  by  the  Reports 
of  the  Committee  on  Economy  of  Time 
(C.  N.  Kendall),  531 

Schoolhouse  Planning  and  Construction, 
Standardization  of  (Frank  Irving 
Cooper),  568 

Schoolhouses,  The  Wider  Use  of.  Depart- 
ment of.  Secretary's  Minutes,  471 

Schools  in  War  Time,  Guarding  the 
(Mrs.  O.  Shepard  Barnum),  430; 
(Margaret  S.  McNaught),  435 

Science  Instruction,  Department  of,  Secre- 
tary's Minutes,  295 

Scouting  Education  for  Girls  (Abby 
Porter  Leland),  579 

Secondary  Education,  Department  of, 
Secretary's  Minutes,  177 

Secondary  Education,  The  Emergency  in 
(George  D.  Strayer),  187 

Sectional  Conferences  and  Periods  of 
Professional  Improvement  Work  for 
Teachers  of  High-School  Agriculture 
(Rufus  W.  Stimson),  278 

Seit^z,  Don  C. — Opportunity  and  Leader- 
ship in  American  Education:  D,  The 
View  of  the  Entire  Situation  from  the 
Outside,  519 

Sense  of  Time,  Children's  (Earl  Barnes), 
335 

Sex  Education  and  the  War  (Norman  F. 
Coleman),  195 

Shawkey,  M.  p.— How  Shall  We  Conduct 
the  Thrift  Campaign  so  as  to  Cause  It 
to  Attain  Its  Maximum  Effectiveness, 

589 
Sherman,     Elmer     C. — War  _  Problems: 

C,    Increst    Food    Production — Home 

Gardening,  649 
Shiels,     Albert — Discussion:      Efficient 

Finance  for  the  City  School  System,  616 
Shoop,  John  D.— Why  the  Cost  of  Public 

Education  Is  Constantly  Increasing,  607 
Shoop,  John  Daniel  (Necrology),  685 
Shortage    of    Teachers,    Causes    of    the 

Present  (Isabel  A.  Ennis),  387 
SiDERS,  Walter  R. — War-Modified  Edu- 
cation, the  Teachers,  and  the  Schools, 

IIS 


8oo 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


Small,  W.  S. — Physical  Education  in  the 
High  School  in  the  Present  Emergency, 
i8i;  The  State  Normal  Schools  and 
the  Problems  of  Child  Health,  217 

Smith,  Ernest  A. — Practical  Education 
under  Federal  Guidance,  77 

Smith,  Helen  M. — What  the  Dean  May 
Rightly  Expect  from  the  President,  397 

Smith,  Laura  M. — Leadership  in  Educa- 
tion: D.  Thrift  in  Relation  to  Public 
Schools,  638 

Smith,  Payson — Centralizing  Tendencies 
in  Educational  Administration:  A.  Limi- 
tations of  State  Control  in  Education, 
490 

Smith-Hughes  Act,  Agricultural  Educa- 
tion under  the  (Charles  A.  Great- 
house),  269 

Smith-Hughes  Act,  Vocational  Education 
under  the  (C.  A.  Prosser),  266 

Snedden,  David — The  Birth  and  Child- 
hood of  Vocational  Education  with  a 
Forecast  of  Its  Development  during 
Adolescence,  286;  Education  toward  the 
Formation  of  Moral  Character,  79 

Social  Center,  Rural  School  as  a  (Mrs. 
Thomas  W.  Hayes),  602 

Social  Ethics,  What  Constitutes?  (Romi- 
ett  Stevens),  407 

Social  Needs,  Manual  Arts  for,  and  for 
Daily  Living  (John  G.  Thompson),  158 

Socialization,  The  College  Community 
Life  as  an  Opportunity  for  (Mm a  Kerr), 
402 

Special  Class,  Does  the,  Equip  Pupils  for 
Industrial  Employment  ?  (E.R.Whit- 
ney), 310 

Special  Class,  Does  the,  Equip  Pupils  for 
Industrial  Employment  in  the  Com- 
munity? Can  the  Cooperation  of 
Employers  during  and  following  the 
School  Period  Be  Obtained  and  How? 
(David  B.  Corson),  312 

Special  Class,  Overcoming  the  Objection 
of  the  Parents  to  the — Can  It  Be  Done  ? 
How?  (H.  E.  Blackmar),  305;  (Anna 
M,  Kordsiemon),  307 

Special  Education,  Department  of.  Secre- 
tary's Minutes,  297 

Speech-Disorder  Problem  in  Public  Schools, 
Part-Time  V.  The  Special  Teacher  as 
the  Economic  Solution  of  the  (Walter 
B.  Swift),  671 

Sprague,  H.  a. — Coordination  of  Theory 
and  Practice  in  Normal  Schools,  212 

Sprague,  Homer  Baxter  (Necrology),  688 

Standard  Library  Organization  and  Equip- 
ment for  Secondary  Schools  of  Different 
Sizes  (C.  C.  Certain,  Chairman),  691 

Standardization  Aims,  High-School  Li- 
brary, from  the  Point  of  View  of  the 
School  Administration  (Jesse  H.  New- 
lon),  460 

Standardization  of  Schoolhouse  Planning 
and  Construction  (Frank  Irving 
Cooper),  568 


Standardizing  the  Small  Country  School 
(J.  H.  Binford),  595 

State  Normal  Schools,  The,  and  the 
Problems  of  Child  Health  (W.  S.  Small), 
217 

State  Plan,  A,  for  Vocational  Training 
(Howard  G.  Burdge),  254 

Statistics,  Commercial-Education  (David 
H.  O'Keefe),  240 

Status,  The,  of  the  Child,  State  and 
National,  as  a  Result  of  the  War  (W.  H. 
Swift),  440 

Status,  The,  of  the  Classroom  Teacher 
(W.  C.  Bagley),  383 

Stecher,  William  A. — Physical  Welfare 
Work  with  School  Children  in  War 
Times:  B.  Principles  Underlying  Mini- 
mum Essentials  of  Exercises,  681 

Steinbach,  Charlotte—  After-School  Care 
of  the  Feeble-Minded,  309;  What  and 
How  to  Teach  Defectives,  304 

Stevens,  Romiett — ^What  Constitutes  So- 
cial Ethics,  407 

Stewart,  Cora  Wilson — War-Modified 
Education  and  Illiteracy,  117 

Stimson,  Rufus  W.^ — Efifect  of  Rural  Con- 
tinuation School  on  Agricultural  Effi- 
-  ciency,  291;  Sectional  Conferences  and 
Periods  of  Professional  Improvement 
Work  for  Teachers  of  High-School  Agri- 
culture, 278 

Stoops,  R.  O. — Leadership  in  Education: 
A.  Leadership  as  Found  Today  in  In- 
struction in  Interpreting  the  Curriculum; 
II,  In  Principals  and  Supervisors,  623 

Stover,  James — Uniformity  in  School 
Accounting,  369 

Strauss,  S.  W.— The  Patriotism  of  War 
Savings,  137 

Strayer,  George  D. — Centralizing  Tend- 
encies in  Educational  Administration: 
D.  How  a  State  Department  May  Stimu- 
late Local  Initiative  and  Increase 
Efficiency,  501;  Educating  the  Public 
to  the  Financial  Needs  of  the  School, 
609;  The  Emergency  in  Secondary 
Education,  187;  The  National  Emer- 
gency in  Education,  129;  The  Present 
Emergency  in  Education,  205 

Superintendence,  Department  of,  Secre- 
tary's Minutes  (Lida  Lee  Tall),  473 

Survey  of  Child-Study,  A  General  (Dr.  G. 
Stanley  Hall),  33''2 

Sutherland,  A.  H. — The  Practical  Value 
of  Psychological  Tests — Do  They  Find 
the  Bright  and  Dull  Pupils  ?  300 

Swain,  Joseph — The  Nation  and  the 
Crisis  in  Its  Schools,  45 

Swift,  Walter  B.— Part-Time  y.  The 
Special  Teacher  as  the  Economic  Solu- 
tion of  the  Speech-Disorder  Problem  in 
Public  Schools,  671 

Swift,  W.  H.— The  Status  of  the  Child, 
State  and  National,  as  a  Result  of  the 
War,  440 


INDEX 


So  I 


SwiGGETT,  Glen  Levin— Commercial  Edu- 
cation in  Preparation  for  Foreign  Service, 
238;  Why  Should  the  Government  Train 
for  Foreign  Service?  71 

Taylor,  Edward  L. — School  Finances  as 
a  War-Time  Problem,  364 

Taylor,  W.  S. — Project  Methods  in 
Teacher-Training  Courses,  276 

Teacher-Training  Courses,  Project  Meth- 
ods in  (W,.  S.  Taylor),  276 

Teacher-Training  Departments  under  the 
Provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act, 
The  Relationship  between,  and  State 
Supervisors  of  Agriculture  for  the  State 
Boards  for  Vocational  Education  (G.  A. 
Works),  272 

Teacher  Training  in  Vocational  Agricul- 
ture, Project  Methods  in  (Aretus  W. 
Nolan),  275 

Teachers  for  American  Children,  Com- 
petent (L,  D.  Copfman),  62 

Teachers  of  High-School  Agriculture, 
Sectional  Conferences  and  Periods  of 
Professional  Improvement  Work  for 
(RuFus  W.  Stimson),  278 

Teachers,  Maintaining  an  Adequate  Sup- 
ply of,  without  Lowering  Standards  (J. 
AsBURY  Pitman),  226;  (Thomas  W. 
Butcher),  229 

Teaching,  Prepare  Rather  than  Train  for 
(A.  E.  WiNSHip),  222 

Teitrick,  R.  B. — Centralizing  Tendencies 
in  Educational  Administration:  C.  The 
Township  as  a  Unit  for  Local  Adminis- 
tration, 497 

Textbooks,  Modifications  Needed  in,  as 
Shown  by  the  War  (Fred  M.  Hunter), 

465 

Theory  and  Practice  in  Normal  Schools, 
Coordination  of  (H,  A.  Sprague),  212 

ThistletHwaite,  Glen  F. — Citizenship 
and  Athletics — A  Concrete  Example,  183 

Thompson,  John  G. — Manual  Arts  for 
Social  Needs  and  for  Daily  Living,  158 

Thornburg,  Z.  C. — Leadership  in  Educa- 
tion: A.  Leadership  as  Found  Today  in 
Instruction  in  Interpreting  the  Curric- 
ulum: I.    In  the  Superintendent,  618 

Thrift  Campaign,  How  Shall  We  Conduct 
the,  so  as  to  Cause  It  to  Attain  Its 
Maximum  Effectiveness?  (M.  P.  Shaw- 
key),,  589 

Thrift  and  Comhiercial  Supremacy  (J.  A. 
Bexell),  138 

Thrift  and  National  Service  (Frank  A. 
Vanderlip),  127 

Thrift  in  the  Public  Schools  (Arthur  H. 
Chamberlain),  140 

Training  for  National  Service  in  Normal 
Schools  (L.  D.  Coffman),  209 

Training  for  Social  Adjustment — the  Citi- 
zens of  the  Future  (Mary  D.  Bradford), 
160 

Training  of  Teachers,  The,  as  a  Factor 
in  Establishing  Professional  Standards 
(Sara  H.  Fahey),  382 


Tyler,   Dr.   John   M. — What   Teachers 

Ought   to    Know   about   the    Physical 

Growth  of  Children,  323 
Unger,  Maurice  S.  H. — The  County  as  a 

Unit  of  Organization,  598 
Uniformity  in  School  Accounting  Qames 

Stover),  369 
Unit  of  Organization,  The  County  as  a 

(Maurice  S.  H.  Unger),  598 
United    States   Boys'    Working   Reserve, 

The  (H.  W.  Wells),  113 
University  Reform,  The  War  and  (D,  E. 

Phillips),  100 
Vanderlip,      Frank      A. — Thrift      and 

National  Service,  127 
Van  Hise,  Charles  Richard  (Necrology), 

687 
Vocational  Agriculture,  Project  Methods 

in  Teacher  Training  in   (Aretus  W. 

Nolan),  275 
Vocational    Education,    The    Birth    and 

Childhood  of,  with  a  Forecast  of  Its 

Development  during  Adolescence  (David 

Snedden),  286 
Vocational  Education  for  Girls,  The  Influ- 
ence of  War  Conditions  on  (Mrs.  Mary 

SCHENCK  WoOLMAN),  256 

Vocational  Education  and  Practical  Arts, 
Department  of,  Secretary's  Minutes, 
249 

Vocational  Education  under  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act  (C.  A.  Prosser),  266 

Vocational  Reeducation  of  Disabled  Sol- 
diers— Canada's  Experience  (T.  B.  Kid- 
ner),  264 

Vocational  Supervision,  Report  of  the 
Committee  on  (Ella  Adams  Moore), 

433 

Vocational  Training,  A  State  Plan  for 
(Howard  G.  Burdge),  254 

War,  Commercial  Education  after  the  (J.  T, 
Holdsworth),  236 

War  Conditions,  The  Influence  of,  on 
Vocational  Educational  for  Girls  (Mrs. 
Mary  Schenck  Woolman),  256 

War,  Education  after  the  Qames  P. 
Munroe),  196 

War  Garden  Movement,  The  (R.  H.  Wil- 
son), 148 

War  Library  Service  (William  H.  Brett), 
461 

War-Modified  Education  and  Illiteracy 
(Cora  Wilson  Stewart),  117 

War-Modified  Education  and  the  Rise  of 
the  Conomon  People  thru  It  (A.  E.  Win- 
ship),  123 

War-Modified  Education,  the  Teachers, 
and  the  Schools  (Walter  R.  Siders), 

IIS 
War,    The    Nation    at    (James    A.    B. 

Scherer),  49 
War   Policies   for   Schools    (George  W. 

Gerwig),  375 
War  Problems:   A.  Economy  of  Time— A 

Twelve  Months'  School,  Divided  into 

Four  Quarters   (F.  E.  Palmer),   641; 


802 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


B.  Conservation  of  Resources — School 
Savings  Banks  and  Thrift  Education 
(Arvie  Eldred),  645;  C.  Increast  Food 
Production) — Home  Gardening  (Elmer 

C.  Sherman),  649;  D.  A  Practical  Pro- 
gram of  Patriotic  Instruction  (Francis 
G.  Blair),  652;  Discussion  (A.  E.  Win- 
ship),  655 

War  Savings,  The  Patriotism  of  (S.  W. 
Straus),  137 

War,  Sex  Education  and  the  (Norman  F. 
Coleman),  195 

War,  Some  Educational  Values  of  the  (G. 
Stanley  Hall),  96 

War-Time  Duty  of  the  Schools,  Ameri- 
canization as  a  (J.  George  Becht), 
363 

War  Time,  Guarding  the  Schools  in  (Mrs, 
O.  Shepard  Barnum),  430;  (Margaret 
S.  McN aught),  435 

War-Time  Problem,  School  Finances  as 
a  (Edward  L.  Taylor),  364 

War  Times,  The  Child  and  the  Book  in 
(Clara  W.  Hunt),  448 

War,  Women  and  the  (Clara  G.  Baer), 
355 

Warden,  Randall  D. — Creed  of  Physical 
Education,  350 

Welles,  W.  S. — Home-Project  Work  too 
Small — Something  Bigger  Needed — A 
Substitute  in  Operation,  283 

Wells,  H.  W  — The  United  States  Boys' 
Working  Reserve,  113 

West,  Andrew  F. — The  Immortal  Con- 
flict, 87 

Wheeler,  Benjamin  Ide — Opportunity 
and  Leadership  in  American  Education: 
A.  The  Place  of  the  State  Supported  and 
Managed  Institution,  508 

Wheeler,  Henry  O.  (Necrology),  689 

White,  Andrew  Dickson  (Necrology),  688 

Whitman,  Charles  S. — Address,  485 

Whitney,  E,  R. — Does  the  Special  Class 
Equip  Pupils  for  Industrial  Employ- 
ment? 310 

Williams,  W.  T.  B. — National  Responsi- 
bility  for    Education    of    the    Colored 


People:  B.  The  Nation's  Responsibility 
to  the  South  for  Negro  Education,  558 

Wilson,  H.  B. — Discussion:  Leadership 
in  Education:  C.  Direct  Instruction  in 
Citizenship  in  the  High  School,  636 

Wilson,  R.  H— The  War  Garden  Move- 
ment, 148 

WiNSHip,  A,  E. — Discussion:  War  Prob- 
lems: D.  A  Practical  Program  of 
Patriotic  Instruction,  655;  Prepare 
Rather  than  Train  for  Teaching,  222; 
War-Modified  Education  and  the  Rise 
of  the  Common  People  thru  It,  123 

WiNSLOW,  Charles  H. — The  Rehabilita- 
tion of  Disabled  Soldiers  and  Sailors  or 
Victims  of  Industry,  268 

Woman  in  the  New  Internationalism,  The 
Role  of  (Mrs.  Louis  F.  Post),  74 

Woman's  Obligation,  The  World's  Food 
Supply  and  (Jane  Addams),  108 

Women  and  the  War  (Clara  G.  Baer),  355 

Women's  Clubs,  General  Federation  of 
(Mary  E,  Parker),  427 

Wood,  Thomas  D, — A  National  Program 
of  Health  Education,  144 

Woodward,  Elizabeth  A. — The  Chil- 
dren's Year  and  the  Opportunity  of  the 
Kindergarten  for  Conservation  Work  in 
Congested  Cities,  131 

WooLLEY,  Mary  W. — Some  Ideals  for 
Deans,  411 

WooLMAN,  Mrs.  Mary  Schenck — The 
Influence  of  War  Conditions  on  Voca- 
tional Education  for  Girls,  256 

Works,  G.  A. — The  Relationship  between 
Teacher-Training  Departments  under 
the  Provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes 
Act  and  State  Supervisors  of  Agricul- 
ture for  the  State  Boards  for  Vocational 
Education,  272 

World-Standards  of  Educational  Efficiency 
New  (Martin  G.  Brumbaugh),  84 

WuNDERLiCH,  ALBERT — Introductory  Ad- 
dress, 360 

YocuM,  A.  Duncan — Democratic  Factors 
in  Ainerican  Education,  141 

Young,  Ella  Flagg  (Necrology),  685 


L  National  Education  Association 

13  of  the  United  States 
N3A13  Addresses  and  pro- 

1918  ceedings,,. 


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