(/yCT.--^ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/addressesproceed55natiuoft ADDRESSES AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES z NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION '" OF THE UNITED STATES Addresses and Proceedings OF THE FIFTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT PORTLAND, OREGON JULY 7-14 1917 VOLUME LV I9I7 publlsbt bg tbe Tlssociatlon secretary's office, WASHINGTON, D.C. Id- %'^. Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chicajo, Illinois, U.S.A. CONTENTS PAGE Act of Incorporation i By-Laws 5 Calendar of Meetings 13 Officers for 1916-17 15 Secretary's Minutes of General Sessions 21 GENERAL SESSIONS Addresses of Welcome : •I. Alderman 29 II. Foster 30 President's Address — Aley 32 The Imperative Necessity of a Food-Conservation Program — Van Hise . . . 37 The Press and Preparedness — Piper 42 How the Public School Can Foster the American Ideal of Patriotism — Fahey . 48 The Normal School as an Agency for Teaching Patriotism — Ackerman . . . 57 Women and Preparedness: Their Part in National Life, Especially in Time of War — Preston 63 Preparedness — A Veneer or a Fundamental — Which Will Our Schools Give Our Children? — Thompson 68 The Public School the Laboratory for Citizenship — Force 73 Shall This Country Economize for or against Its Children ? — Lathrop ... 76 Belgian Special Mission to the United States — Remarks by Baron Moncheur . 80 Maintenance of Standards in All Schools as a Necessary Element of Preparedness — Bolton 82 Social Hygiene in Relation to National Defense — Coleman 88 Art Teaching in the Nation's Service — Dow 91 Address to Applicants for Citizenship — Kavanaugh 96 Must Be Patriotic and United — Withycomhe 98 American Education and the Inner Life — Young 99 Cost of the Inadequate Night School — Hedger 104 Religious Education as a Means of National Preparedness — Rugh .... 107 Education and the World- War — Kerr m The University and the Nation's Ideals — Campbell 119 National Education and World-Polity — Sisson 122 THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes — Portland Meeting 1 29 How the School May Help Increase Food Production — Wilson . . , . 131 Waste of Food from the Producer to the Household — Bexell 134 Food Storage and Preservation — Daniel 140 Adaptation of Courses in Domestic Economy and Industrial Arts to Meet Existing Demands — Dempsey 143 Thrift, a Patriotic Necessity — Straus 145 Thrift in the Home — Blake 149 V vi NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE Agricultural Preparedness and Food Conservation: A Study in Thrift — Chamber- lain 151 Opportunities of the War — Blake 161 Obligations and Opportunities of the Schools during the War — Aley . . . 162 The Obligations and Opportunities of the Schools during the War — Barnum . 162 The Obligations and the Opportunities of the Schools during the War — Seerley 164 The Elementary School during the Wa.t—McN aught 166 Discussion: Food Prices — Brandenburg 168 Patriotism in the Schools — Sims . . . 169 The Opportunities and the Obligations of the Schools during the War — Pearse . 171 Secretary's Minutes — Kansas City Meeting 172 A Constructive Policy for the National Council of Education — Owen . . . 173 The Control of Educational Progress thru School Administration — Wirt . . 179 Edward Thompson Fairchild — Towne 186 The Control of Educational Progress thru School Supervision — Coffman . . 187 The Control of Educational Progress thru Educational Experimentation — Meriam 194 The Control of Educational Progress thru Professional Preparation — Bagley . 201 The Direction of Educational Progress thru Professional Organization — Pearse . 208 Report of Committee on Health Problems in Education — Wood . . . . 210 Report on Common Characteristics of EflBcient Courses of Study — Yocum . . 213 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 221 Why Vocational Education ? — Woolman 222 Why a Visiting Teacher ? — Hodge 223 Rural Education as an Element in the Strength of the Nation — Baylor . . . 226 The Public School and the Nation in 191 7 — Alderman 230 The Public School and the Nation in 191 7 — Mary C. C. Bradford .... 233 The Democratic Trend in School Administration — Mary D. Bradford . . . 234 Supervision as Liberating the Teacher — Dorsey 239 The Enfranchised Woman Teacher: Her Opportunity — McN aught . . . . 244 The Democratic Significance of Recent Educational Movements in the Com- munity— Ellis 249 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes . 253 The Conservation of the Student — Jensen 254 The Girl Problem in the High School— iJowe// 258 The Evening High School, Its Needs and Possibilities— O^ftwrn . . . . 262 The Intermediate School or Junior High School — Barker 266 The Junior CoWtgt—Frazier 271 Education thru Socialization — Andrus 275 The Responsibility of the High School for American lAtdXs—Reinhardt . . . 281 Orienting the High School— Sisson 282 DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 285 Relation of the Governor to the Oregon Public Educational System— Withycombe 286 Administrative Responsibility and the Current Doctrines of Academic Freedom and Academic Tenure — Elliott . 290 CONTENTS Vll PAGE War Measures of Higher Educational Institutions — Van Rise . . . . 293 Educational Institutions — Crabtree 296 The Four-Quarter Plan of University Operation During the War and After — Widtsoe 299 Critical Present-Day Issues in Administration of State Higher Education — Buck- ingham 305 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 315 Vocations for High-School Girls — Woolman 316 Pan-American Relations — Dubach 317 The Teaching of Salesmanship to High-School Girls — Paine 321 Modifications in Commercial Training Suggested by Present World- Conditions — Dahm 326 How to Teach Salesmanship in the High School — Young 332 Expert Training Methods — Their Necessity and Application in Your Typewriting Department — Smith 335 How Can the Higher Schools of Commerce Best Serve the High Schools ? — Bexell 339 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Secretary's Minutes 345 Report of the Committee of Standardization of Schoolhouse Planning and Con- struction— Cooper 346 Court Decisions versus Social Progress — Ella Flagg Young 350 Some Unsolved Problems in School Administration — Shorrock 355 A Principle in School Administration — Pearse 359 Administration "Safe for Democracy" — Barnum 362 Some Essentials in the Planning of School Buildings for Community Use — Bruce 366 The Relations between Boards of Education, Their Superintendents, and the Architects — Donovan 369 The Necessity of the Adaptation of the Building to the School Organization — Challman 373 Standardization of School Buildings — Ittner 375 Conservation of National Ideals in War Time — Foster 380 DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS PORTLAND MEETING Secretary's Minutes 383 How Far Should the Principle of Standardization Be Followed by Normal Schools ? Pearse 384 How Far Should the Principles of Standardization Be Followed by the Normal Schools? — Crabbe 385 The Responsibility of the Normal School for Training Teachers for AU Lines of School Work— Nash 388 The Normal School and the Demands of Industrial Education — Seerley. . . 389 The Practical Arts — Barr 392 The Normal Schools and the Demand for Education in the Household Arts — Barnum 395 The Commercial Arts — Sprout 399 viii NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE The Claims of Scholarship upon the Normal School — Foster 402 The Responsibility of the Normal School for Training Teachers for All Lines of School Work — Crabtree 403 KANSAS CITY MEETING A Systematic Plan for the After-Training of Normal-School Graduates — McCracken 404 Growth in Service— if cZmwy 410 Discussion: Standards in Teacher-Training — Claxton 416 DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 417 The Kindergarten as an Organic Part of Every Elementary School — Force . . 418 The Dramatic Arts in Kindergarten: Game, Song, and Story as the Basis of a Democratic Education — Baker 421 The Kindergarten as an Agency for the Control of Pre-School Welfare and Educa- cation — Grupe 427 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICAL ARTS Secretary's Minutes 431 Vocational Guidance a Distinct Function of the Public School — Bartlett . . 432 Training of Girls and Women for Trade and Industry — Woolman .... 436 Extension of the Field of Home Economics in the School Curriculum — Ravenhill . 438 Vocational Guidance — Problems of Organization and Administration — Reed . . 443 The Training of Teachers for Vocational Schools — Shepherd 449 Industrializing the Manual Arts — Jensen 454 Practical Fine Arts — Emergency Art Courses for War-Time Service — Dow . . 460 The Relation of Art to Vocational Education and Manual Training — Johnson . 464 The Betterment of Homes in Urban Communities thru Extension Work in Home Economics — Refuse h 468 MUSIC DEPARTMENT Secretary's Minutes 473 President's Address — Gantvoort 475 The Music Preparation of the Grade Teacher as Provided in Teachers' Colleges — Soper 476 Music Appreciation in the Elementary and Grammar Grades — Stone . . 480 Music, a Required Subject in the High School, and Patriotic Music in All the Grades — Owen 483 Music Appreciation in the High School — Finn 486 DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE Secretary's Minutes 491 Sanitation of the Rural Schoolhouse in Oregon — Pittman 492 The Tacoma System of Health Supervision — Layton 494 Physical Training versus Athletics — Hunt 499 Some Factors in Human Efficiency — Ravenhill 502 A State Program for School Health— £//w 506 Some Phases of Child- Welfare Work — Randall 510 The Work of the School Nurse — Grittinger 513 Oral Hygiene: Its Relation to Economic and Educational EflSciency — Fixott . 516 CONTENTS IX DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION PAGE Secretary's Minutes 521 What Should Be the Outcome of Physical Training in the Public Schools ? — Frazier 522 Preparedness thru Physical Education — Strange 525 School Spirit — Andrus 528 The Physical Bases of Character — Rugh . . ■ 530 Intercollegiate Athletics and the War — Foster 532 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION The Legitimate Vocational Content of the Intermediate High-School Course — Kirkpatrick 535 Biology in the Intermediate School — Peirson 538 General or Elementary Science in Junior High Schools — Deamer . . . . 542 Physics and Chemistry — Kirkpatrick 545 The Training of Science Teachers — Edwards 548 War Is a Highly Organized Science — The Soldier and Industrial Worker Both Need Training in Scientific Thinking and Application — Sinclair . . . 551 LIBRARY DEPARTMENT Secretary's Minutes 557 Report of Elementary School Committee — Power 558 Report of Committee on High-School Libraries — Cross 559 Problem Method of Instruction and Its Probable Correlations in Library Service and Administration — Lull 562 State Supervision of School Libraries — Churchill 572 Library Opportunities in the Junior High School — Bailey 576 DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 583 Special Classes and Preparedness — Byers 584 The Oral Method of Education of the 'Dea.i—Tillinghast . . . " . . . • 585 Construction Work — Its Value in the Subnormal School — Kordsiemon . . . 589 The Special Child and the Visiting Teacher — Johnson 593 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 599 The Rural People a Strong Factor in Rural Educational Problems — Campbell . 600 Results Achieved in Secondary Agriculture and Methods Pursued in Actual Practice — Goddard 603 DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Secretary's Minutes 615 Vocational Guidance and Educational Preparedness — Reed 615 Demands Made by the Public on the Teacher and the School — Willson . . 619 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS Secretary's Minutes 623 Report of the Committee on Vocational Supervision — Moore 624 Report of the Vocational Bureau in Chicago: A Summary — Harding . . . 625 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE Report of the Committee on School Health — Hobson 626 Report of Association of Collegiate Alumnae — Martin 627 Report of the Southern Association of College Women — McVea .... 630 Report of Committee on Education, Council of Jewish Women — Long . . 631 Report of Education Department, Qeneral Federation of Women's Clubs — Parker 633 The Work of the Department of School Patrons — Harding 636 The Past, Present, and Future of the Patrons' Department — Barnum . . . 639 Conserving the Children of Working Age — Moore 645 Some f*hases of the Rural-School Problem — Bradford 650 Rural Schools and the War — McN aught 651 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS Secretary's Minutes 653 Free or Rented Textbooks — Wilson 653 Round-Table Discussion: Educational Journalism — Bruce 658 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Secretary's Minutes 661 Addresses of Welcome: Lamkin / 669 Cammack 670 Response to Addresses of Welcome — Corson 672 The School and the Nation — Beveridge 678 Topic: A Stronger Foundation for, and a Better Command of, Spoken and Written English: * A. In the Elementary Schools — Potter 690 B. In the High Schools — Newlon 694 C. In the Normal Schools — Hosic 699 D. In the Colleges — Hopkins 703 Standards of School Architecture and Schoolhouse-Construction — Keeler . 708 Standards of Individual Health among Children — Robertson 713 Are the Older "School Virtues" Obsolescent? — Bagley 717 Standardized Units of Achievement of Pupils and Measureable Standards of School Administration — Judd 721 The Legitimate Range of Activity of the Junior College in a Public-School System — Cammack 724 Relations and Lines of Demarcation between the Fields of Industry and Public- School Education — Shiels 729 Multiple Use of Child- Welfare Agencies — Wirt 734 Report of Committee on Relation between Boards of Education and Superin- tendents 739 Observable Tendencies toward National Education — Blair 757 Character-Education-Methods Competition — Fairchild ...... 763 Variations in the Ratio of Time to Be Given to the Mental and Manual Elements in the Different Grades of the Elementary Schools and Their Relative Values in Developing Educational Symmetry — Van Sickle .... 767 Educational Poise — Baylor 769 Preparedness — White 771 Military Training Camps — Clay 774 The High-School Teacher's Professional Preparation— 5w«7ey 775 CONTENTS xi PAGE Report of the Committee on Military Training in the Public Schools 778 Some Remarkable Achievements in Rural Schools — Winship 791 The All- Year School — Kennedy 795 The Two-Group Plan — Alderman 801 A Kindergarten Training for Every Child — Locke 804 round tables Round Table of State and County Superintendents How the State Department of Public Instruction and the County Superintend- ents May Best Cooperate for the Advancement of Education in the State — Pearson 807 Round Table of Superintendents of Cities with a Population of over 250,000 The Duplicate School as an Educational Asset — Taylor 810 Round Table of Superintendents of Cities with a Population of from 25,000 TO 250,000 Books as Tools — Shields 813 Silent Reading — Dressel 816 Testing the Efficiency in Reading — Fordyce 8x8 Round Table of Superintendents of Cities with a Population under 25,000 Earmarks of an Efl&cient School System — Hunter 821 Round Table on Compulsory Education, School Census, and Child Welfare What Provisions Should a Compulsory-Education Law Include from the View- point of Aim and the Viewpoint of Enforcement ? — Chatfield. (Discussion —Shiels) 828 The Federal Child-Labor Law — Twiggs 829 Child Welfare as the Product of Civic Cooperation — Horn 831 The Factors of an Adequate School Census — How They May Be ReaUzed — Habans 835 Round Table of Directors of Educational Research Correlation between Ability to Think and Ability to Remember, with Special Reference* to United States History — Buckingham 837 Organized Effort in Educational Research in City School Systems — O'Hern . 839 Fundamental Problems in Conducting a State Bureau of Educational Research — Fordyce 842 The Function of a Bureau of School Service in a State University — Kelly . 844 Necrology 847 General Index 853 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1857-1870 The National Teachers Associaton Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Purpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. The name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the "National Educational Association." I 870-1 907 National Educational Association Incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, "National Education Association," which was changed to "National Educational Association," by certificate filed November 6, 1886. 1907- National Education Association of the United States Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the "National Educational Association." The charter was accepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Con- vention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled: Section i. That the following named persons, who are now ofl5cers and directors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eight-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz. : Nathan C. Schaeflfer, *Eliphalet Oram Lyte, *JohnW.Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; IsaacW. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J.Matthews, of Arizona; John H. Hinemon, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Connor, *Josiah L, Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; *George W. Twitmyer of Delaware; *J. Ormond Wilson, * William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District ♦ Deceased. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; *Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, * Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, *Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; *Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, *Luther D. Whitte- more, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; *Warren Easton, of Louisi- ana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot, ♦Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White, William H. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, *IrAvin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, *James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri; *Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of Nebraska; *Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M. Green, John Enright, of New Jersey; *Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; *James H. Can- field, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina; *Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; *Charles Car- roll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert Lange, of South Dakota; *Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas; David H. Christensen, of Utah; *Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall, Lucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; *Thomas T. Tynan, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. GriflSths, of Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as ofl&cers or members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia by the name of the "National Education Association of the United States," and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. Sec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to promote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of Education and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by organization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties and the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Educa- tion may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its by-laws. Sec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a common seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws not inconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the Constitution of the United States; to take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal estate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorpora- tion; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the objects of the corporation. * Deceased. ACT OF INCORPORATION Sec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia, which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corpora- tion as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation; provided, however, That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational • purposes of the corporation; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year. Sec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of members — viz., active, associate, and corresponding — whose qualifications, terms of membership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the by-laws of the corporation. Sec. 6. That the oflBcers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve Vice- Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and a Board of Trustees. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-President, the Sec- retary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Edu- cational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former Presidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association hereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the by-laws of the corporation. The Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of the Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Direc- tors, to serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be given by said board. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect one trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unex- pired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership. Sec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the "Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association," when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be held by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trus- tees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the prmcipal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two- thirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon the recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Associatiou. The income of th§ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall other- wise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treas- urer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When •practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his office for a period not to exceed four years. Sec. 8. That the principal oflSce of the said corporation shall be in the city of Wash- ington, District of Columbia; provided, That the meetings of the corporation, its officers, committees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and an office or ofl&ces may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be determined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the by-laws. Sec. 9. That the charter, constitution, and by-laws of the National Educational Association shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall be accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until new by-laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Association shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this act and adopt by-laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the "National Educa- tion Association of the United States"; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association, incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the presiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted by this act by the National Educational Association, shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, pro- vided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Association and its corporate existence shall be and are hereby extended until the thirty- first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District of Columbia. Sec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obli- BY-LAWS 5 gations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corpora- tion had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act. Sec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Approved June 30, 1906. Accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. 1 BY-LAWS (Amended at meeting of active members held in New York City, July 7, 19 16) ARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP Section i. Teachers, others actively engaged in educational work, and educational institutions as defined in Section 2, may become active members of the National Education Association of the United States upon the payment of an enrolment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. Sec. 2, Educational institutions shall include schools, school boards, library boards, educational publishers, and such clubs and similar organizations as are distinctly educational or have educational departments properly organized with a definite member- ship. Sec. 3. Educational institutions as defined in Section 2 may be enroled as active members and represented by any person regularly connected with or a. member of the institution, and such representative may exercise all the rights and enjoy all the privileges of active membership, including the right to vote at business meetings; provided, That such representative presents a certificate showing that the person named therein has been regularly elected as such representative of the faculty or membership of such institution; but no person shall under any circumstances have the right to cast more than one vote. Sec. 4. The annual dues of active members are two dollars, which shall be paid at the time of the annual meeting of the Association, or shall be sent to the Secretary before November i of each year. An active member may discontinue his member- ship by giving written notice to the Secretary before November i. An active member forfeits his membership by being two years in arrears. Those who have forfeited or discontinued their membership may exercise the option of renewing the same by paying all arrears and getting the publisht Proceedings of the intervening years, or of becoming members on the same terms as new members. Active members shall be entitled to the publisht Proceedings without coupon or other conditions. Sec. 5. All life-members and life-directors shall be denominated active members, and shall have all the rights and privileges of such members without the payment of the annual dues. Sec. 6. The right to vote and to hold office in the Association or the departments is open to all active members whose dues are paid; the right to vote and hold office in the Council is open to members of the Council whose dues are paid. Sec. 7. Any person may become an associate member for one year by paying a membership fee of two dollars. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Sec. 8. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected, by the Board of Directors, corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at no time exceed fifty. They shall not pay any dues. Sec. 9. The names of active and corresponding members shall be printed in the publisht Proceedings, or the Yearbook of the Association, with their respective educa- tional titles, offices, and addresses. ARTICLE II— ELECTION OF OFFICERS SECTION I. The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and Directors of the National Education Association of the United States shall be chosen by the active members of the Association by ballot, at their annual business meeting, a majority of the votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the terms for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. ARTICLE III— DUTIES OF OFFICERS Section i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive of such an association. In his absence, the ranking Vice-President who is present shall preside; and in the absence of all Vice-Presidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association, and, with the approval of the Executive Committee, shall determine the time and place of the general meeting of the Association and of the various departments not definitely fixt by these by-laws, and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in the programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and chairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, and all bills approved or authorized by the Executive Committee between the meetings of the Board of Directors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he shall become first Vice-President for the ensuing year, anfl shall be chairman ex officio of the Committee on Publication. Sec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the Association as provided in the articles of incorporation and the by-laws, and, in all matters not definitely pre- scribed therein, shall be under the direction of the Executive Committee, and, in the absence of direction by the Executive Committee, shall be under the direction of the President, and shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same each month to the Treasurer, shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee in the interval between the meetings of the Board of Directors, or on the approval of the President acting under authority of the Board of Directors, or Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records present at all meetings of the active members of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members as required by Section 9 of Article I of these by-laws and shall revise said list annually. He shall be secretary of the Board of Directors, and a member of the Committee on Publication. He shall be the custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report BY-LAWS to the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of ofl&ce, he shall transfer to his successor all money, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The Secretary shall not print, publish, nor distribute any ofl&cial report or other document without the approval of the publication committee. Sec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of the Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall pay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of the Association and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds in his possession exceed five hundred dollars; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirtieth day of June of each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than July I, and when approved by said committee they shall be transmitted by the com- mittee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting and to the active members at their annual business meeting. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belong- ing to the Association. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed by Section 8 of Article I of these by-laws, shall elect members of the National Council of Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these by-laws, shall have power to fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees; shall recommend to the Executive Committee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Association, the Council of Education, and the departments. The Board of Directors shall approve all bills incurred under authority of the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee, or the President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or Executive Committee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the active members at their annual business meeting for the work of all special committees of research and investigation authorized and provided for by such active members at their annual business meeting, shall make a full report of the financial condition of the Association (including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees) to the active members at their annual business meeting, and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution. Sec. 5. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging for the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Council of Education, and of the various departments. The Executive Committee shall recommend to active members at their annual business meeting the appointment of special committees for investigation or research, the subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active membership of the National Education Association or by any of its departments; it shall recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such investigations. When such special committees are provided for and duly authorized by the active members at their annual business meeting, the Executive Committee shall have general supervision of them, shall receive and consider all reports made by them, and shall print such reports, and present the same, together with the reports received from the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon, to the active members at their annual business meeting. All such special committees shall be appointed by the President of the National Education Association. The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association except vacancies in the Board of Directors, Board of Trustees, and the office of Secretary. 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Sec. 6, The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds of such amount as may be determined by said board for the faithful performance of their duties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Com- mittee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting of the Associa- tion. It shall choose annually its own chairman and secretary. ARTICLE IV— THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Section i. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational questions of public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to time, suitable subjects for investigation and research; have a report made at its annual meeting on "Educational Progress- during the Past Year"; and in other ways use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general. Sec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred and twenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education Association. Any active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the Council, and each member shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected. Sec. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association shall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all vacancies in its quota of members. No state, territory, nor district in the United States shall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council. Sec. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Sec. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denominated honorary members of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association with the privilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and participating in its discussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Asso- ciation forfeits his membership in the Council. Sec. 6. The ofl&cers of the Council shall consist of a president, a vice-president, a secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The Secretary of the Council shall, in addition to performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish, the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication. Sec. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by-laws for its government not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or the by-laws of the Association; provided, That such by-laws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors of the Association before they shall become operative. Sec. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council abolisht upon a two-thirds vote of the Association taken at the annual business meeting of the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Association. ARTICLE V— DEPARTMENTS Section i. The following departments are now (1914) in existence, to wit: The departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Vocational Education and Practical Arts; sixth, of Kindergarten Education; seventh, of Music Education; eighth, of BY-LAWS Secondary Education; ninth, of Business Education; tenth, of Child Hygiene; eleventh, of Physical Education; twelfth, of Science Instruction; thirteenth, of School Administra- tion; fourteenth, the Library Department; fifteenth, of Special Education; sixteenth, of School Patrons; seventeenth, of Rural and Agricultural Education; eighteenth, of Classroom Teachers; nineteenth, for the Promotion of the Wider Use of Schoolhouses; twentieth, of Educational Publications. Sec. 2. The active members of the Association, and no others, are members of each department of the Association. Sec. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may hold its annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined by said department, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the Association. Sec. 4. The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and under the general direction of, the President of the Associatiftn. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the Presi- dent of the Association, except that a third session for business or informal round-table conference may be held at the discretion of the department officers. Sec. 5. The officers of each department shall consist of a president, a vice-president, and a secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve one year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their •election, be active members of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of president of any of the departments, it shall be filled by an appointment made by the President of the Association. Any other departmental vacancy shall be filled by appoint- ment made by the president of the department. Sec. 6. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the meetings of the department for publication. Sec. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the exception stated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section i of this article in the order of their establishment and shall be dropt from the list when discontinued. Each department may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or these by-laws. Sec. 8. A new department may be establisht by a two-thirds vote of the Board of Directors taken at a regular meeting of the board or by a two-thirds vote of the active members at any annual business meeting; provided, That a written application for said department, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular meeting of the board next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the preceding annual business meeting, by at least twenty-five members engaged or interested in the field of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be establisht. A department already establisht may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a two-thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a two-thirds vote of the active members at any business meeting of the active members; provided, That announcement has been made of the proposed action at a regular meeting of the board the preceding year, or at the preceding annual business meeting. A department shall be discontinued when it fails to hold a regular meeting for two successive years. ARTICLE VI— COMMITTEES Section i. On the first day of each annual meeting of the Association, unless appointment has already been made, the President shall appoint a Committee on Resolutions, consisting of seven active members, and a Committee on Necrology, lo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION consisting of five active members, and on the third day of such meeting he shall appoint a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one active member from each state, territory, and district represented at the meeting. Each state, territorial, and district representative shall be appointed on the nomination of the active members in attendance from said state, territory, or district; provided, That three or more active members participate in said nomination in accordance with these by-laws; and provided further, That in case of the failure of the active members of any state, territory, or district to nominate a member of the nominating committee in accordance with these by-laws, the President shall appoint an active member from said state, territory, or dis- trict, to serve on said committee. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors on the first day of the annual meeting, the President shall appoint an Auditing Committee consisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a trustee or a director; to this committee shall be referred the report of the expert account- ant, together with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided in Section 6 of this article; and the committee shall report its findings at the meeting of active members. The chairman of each of the foregoing committees shall be designated by the President of the Association at the time of its appointment. Sec. 2. The meetings of active members present from the several states, territories, etc., to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association. Sec. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the fourth day of the annual meeting at 9:00 a.m., at a place designated by the President of the Association, and shall nominate persons for the following ofiices in the Association, to wit: one person for Presi-» dent, eleven persons for Vice-Presidents, one person for Treasurer, and one person from each state, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board of Direc- tors. It shall report to the active members at their annual business meeting. Sec. 4. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting of active members, and, except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to said committee, without discussion. This committee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President; some time during the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold a meeting, at a place and time to be announst in the printed program, for the purpose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them. Sec. 5. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the publisht Proceedings a list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year, accom- panied by memorial sketches whenever practicable. Sec. 6. Within thirty days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Associa- tion, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licenst to do business as expert accountants; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts, papers, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and compare the same, and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees. The report of the said accountants shall be filed with the Presi- dent before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to the Board of Directors, at their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association. ARTICLE VII— MEETINGS Section i. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Council of Education, and of each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee acting for the board in accordance with these by-laws. An annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies BY-LAWS II may be omitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of two-thirds of the directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee. Sec. 2. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held in July, beginning on a day determined by the Executive Committee. Two sessions shall be held daily, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association. The annual business meeting of the active members shall be held on the fifth day of the annual meeting at 1 1 : oo a.m. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting at 10:30 a.m. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the annual meeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announst in the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors referred to above in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the chairman, and shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shalf be given to every member of the board by the secretary thereof. ARTICLE VIII— PROCEEDINGS Section i. The proceedings of the meeting of the Association, the Council, and the departments shall be publisht under the direction of a committee consisting of the President, the First Vice-President, and the Secretary, the First Vice-President acting as chairman of the committee; provided, That in the opinion of the Executive Committee the funds of the Association warrant the publication. Each member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings. Associate members must make written application to the Secretary on or before November i for a copy in order to obtain it. Corresponding members, and active members whose dues are paid, will receive the publisht Proceedings without written application. Sec. 2. No paper, lecture, nor address shall be read before the Association or any of the departments in the absence of its author, without the approval of the President of the Association or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be publisht in the Proceedings, without the approval of the Executive Committee. ARTICLE DC— ELECTIONS, QUORUM Section i. The certificate of membership, in connection with the official list of active members, shall be accepted as evidence that members are entitled to vote. Sec. 2. Representatives from twenty-five states and territories shall constitute a quorum in all meetings of active members and of the Board of Directors. ARTICLE X— APPROPRIATIONS Section i. Unless otherwise ordered by the active members at their annual busi- ness meeting, not less than 10 per cent of the gross income of the Association each year shall be set aside for such educational investigations and studies as may be ordered in accordance with Section 5 of Article III. ARTICLE XI— AMENDMENTS Section i. These by-laws may be altered or amended at the annual business meeting of the active members by unanimous consent, or by a two-thirds vote of the .active members present if the alteration or amendment shall have been substantially proposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action is taken; due announcement of the proposed action shall be made in the annual publisht Proceedings. 12 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. SchaeflFer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incor- porate the National Education Association of the United States," Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected officers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907. Nathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer Irwin Shepard, Secretary VERIFICATION RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE ACTIVE MEMBERS, JULY lO, I907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter granted by an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States," passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by said act. 2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meet- ing of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the Journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the title "National Education Association of the United States," and the dates " 185 7-1907." 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize under the charter granted by the act of Congress. Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4, 1907. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, 1857-1870 1857— PHILADELPfflA, PA. (Organized) Jaues L. Enos, Chainnan. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary 1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO Z. Richards, President. J. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary. A. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer. 1859— WASHINGTON, D.C. A. J. RiCKOFF, President. J. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary. C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. i86o— BUFFALO, N.Y. J. W Bulkley, President. Z. Richards, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1861, 1862 — No session. 1863— CHICAGO. ILL. John D. Philbrick, President. James Cruikshank, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1864— OGDENSBURG, N.Y. W. H. Wells, President. David N. Camp, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. i86s— HARRISBURG, PA. S. S. Greene, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P. WiCKERSHAM, President. S. H. White, Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867 — No session. 1868— NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President. L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary. James Cruikshank, Treasurer. 1869— TRENTON, N.J. L. Van Bokkelen, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. A. L. Barber, Treasurer. 1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO Daniel B. Hagar, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W. E. Crosby, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1871-1907 1871— ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. PicKARD, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873— ELMIRA, N.Y. B. G. Northrop, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1874— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 187s— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. M. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1877— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A. Newell, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878 — No session. 1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N.Y. J. Ormond Wils— BOSTON, MASS. James Y. Joyner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer. 1911— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. Ella Flagg Young, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. DuRAND W. Springer, Treasurer. 191 2— CHICAGO, ILL. Carroll G. Pearse, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Katherine D. Blake, Treasurer. 1913— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Edward T. Fairchild, President. DuRAND W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1914— ST. PAUL, MINN. Joseph Swain, President. DxjRAND W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasxurer. 1915— OAKLAND, CAL. (International Congress of Education) David Starr Jordan, President. DuRAND W. Springer, Secretary. Gblace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1916— NEW YORK, N.Y. David B. Johnson, President. DuRAND W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1917— PORTLAND, ORE. Robert J. Aley, President. DuRAND W. Springer, Secretary. Thomas E. Finegan, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS FOR 1916-17 GENERAL ASSOCIATION Robert J. Aley President Orono, Me. DuRAND W. Springer Secretary Ann Arbor, Mich. Thomas E. Finegan Treasurer Albany, N.Y. VICE-PRESIDENTS David B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College Rock Hill, S.C. Mary C. C Bradford, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Denver, Colo. Guy E. Cornelius, Superintendent of Schools Winslow, Ariz. Charles J. Koch, Superintendent of Schools Baltimore, Md. J. A. Churchill, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Salem, Ore. F. M. Longanecker, Superintendent of Schqols Parkersburg, W.Va. Francis W. Wenner, Superintendent of Schools Bartlesville, Okla. E. G. GowANS, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Salt Lake City, Utah Josephine Corliss Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Olympia, Wash. Frances E. Harden, Teacher, Stewart School Chicago, 111. Joseph L. Henderson, Professor of Secondary Education, University of Texas. . . Austin, Tex. Payson Smith, State Commissioner of Education Boston, Mass. BOARD OF TRUSTEES Carroll G. Pearse, Chairman Milwaukee, Wis Term expires in 1918 James Y. Joyner, Secretary Raleigh, N.C Term expires in 1920 Agnes E. Doherty St. Paul, Minn Term expires in 1917 Walter R. Siders Pocatello, Idaho Term expires in 1919 Robert J. Aley Orono, Me Ex officio EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Robert J. Aley President Orono, Me. David B. Johnson First Vice-President Rock Hill, S.C. Thomas E. Finegan Treasurer Albany, N.Y. Carroll G. Pearse Chairman, Board of Trustees Milwaukee, Wis. George B. Cook Member by Election , . Little Rock, Ark, I Durand W. Springer Secretary Ann Arbor, Mich. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors ex officio Robert J. Aley, Orono, Me. Thomas E. Finegan, Albany, N.Y. David B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S.C. Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis. Durand W, Springer, Ann Arbor, Mich. Life-Directors BiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R.I. Corson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio Board of Education, Nashville, Tenn. Eliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass. Brown, Elmer Ellsworth; New York, N.Y. Gove, Aaron, Denver, Colo. Butler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N.Y. Graham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Claxton, P. P., Washington, D.C. Green, James M., Trenton, N.J. Cook, John W., DeKalb, 111. Harvey, Lorenzo D., Menomonie, Wis. Cooley, Edwin G., Chicago, 111. Jewett, A. V., Abilene, Kans. IS i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Johnson, David B., Rock Hill, S.C. Skinner, Charles R., Albany, N.Y. Jordan, David Starr, Stanford University, Cal. State Teachers' Association of Illinois JOYNER, Jabies Y., Raleigh, N.C. Swain, Joseph, Swarthmore, Pa. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W.Va. Taylor, A. R., Decatur, 111. Maxwell, William H., New York, N.Y. Teachers Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. Pearse, Carroll G., Milwaukee, Wis. White, Charles G., Menomonie, Wis. Schaeffer, Nathan C, Harrisburg, Pa. Young, Ella Flagg, Chicago, 111. Directors by Election Alabama Samuel S. Murphy, Superintendent of Schools Mobile Arizona CO. Case, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . . Phoenix Arkansas George B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion Little Rock California Susan M. Dorsey, Assistant Superintendent of Schools. . Los Angeles Colorado Anna L. Force, Principal, Lincoln School Denver Connecticut F. A. Verplanck, Superintendent of Schools South Manchester Delaware A. H. Berlin, Principal of High School Wilmington District of Columbia. . . F. E. Farrington, Bureau of Education Washington Florida William N. Sheats, State Superintendent of Public In- struction Tallahassee Georgia M. L. Brittain, State Superintendent of Education Atlanta Idaho Walter R. Siders, Superintendent of Schools Pocatello Illinois R. O. Stoops, Superintendent of Schools Joliet Indiana M. H. Stuart, Principal, Technical High School Indianapolis Iowa L. H. MiNKEL, Superintendent of Schools Fort Dodge Kansas John F. Eby, County Superintendent of Schools Topeka Kentucky V. C Gilbert, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Frankfort Louisiana Thomas H. Harris, State Superintendent of Education. . Baton Rouge Maine DeForest H. Perkins, Superintendent of Schools Portland Maryland A. J. Pietsch, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Baltimore Massachusetts Robert J. Fuller, Superintendent of Schools North Attleboro Michigan Fred L. Keeler, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion Lansing Minnesota Bessie A. Tomlinson, Grade Teacher Minneapolis Mississippi E. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools Greenville Missouri W. H. Martin, Supervising Principal of Schools Kansas City Montana W. K. Dwyer, Superintendent of Schools : Anaconda Nebraska F. M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools Lincoln Nevada B. D. Billinghurst, Superintendent of Schools Reno New Hampshire H. C Morrison, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion Concord New Jersey Frank H. Lloyd, Supervisor of Schools Perth Amboy New Mexico Alvan N. White, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion Santa Fe New York J. H. Finley, State Commissioner of Education Albany North Carolina F. M. Harper, Superintendent of Schools Raleigh North Dakota N.C. Macdonald, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion Bismarck Ohio I. N. Keyser, Superintendent of Schools Urbana Oklahoma Edwin S. Monroe, Superintendent of Sc*hools Muskogee Oregon; O. M. Plummer, Member, Board of Education Portland Pennsylvania R. B. Teitrick, Deputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction Harrisburg Rhode Island Walter E. Ranger, State Commissioner of Public Schools Providence South Carolina J. E. Walmsley, Professor of History and Political Sci- ence, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College Rock Hill South Dakota Charles H. Lugg, State Superintendent of Public In- struction Pierre Tennessee J. R. Lowry, Superintendent of Park City and Oakwood Schools Knoxville Texas Arthur W. Evans, Superintendent of Schools Uvalde Utah D. C. Jensen, Superintendent of Schools. Brigham City Vermont Caroline S. Woodruff, President, State Teachers Asso- tion St. Johnsbury Virginia S. P. Duke, Head, Department of Education, State Nor- mal and Industrial School for Women Farmville DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 17 Washington Elmer L. Cave, Superintendent of Schools Bellingham West Virginia M. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools Charieston Wisconsin Nellie Minehan, Principal, Clybourn School Milwaukee Wyoming C. A. Dundvay, President, University of Wyoming Laramie Alaska L. D. HE^fDERSON, Superintendent of Schools Juneau Hawaii Vaughan MacCaughey, Professor of Botany, College of Hawaii Honolulu Philippine Islands Walter W. Marquardt, Director of Education Manila Porto Rico Ralph S. Garwood, Dean, College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, University of Porto Rico Mayaguez DEPARTMENT OFFICERS National Council President William B. Owen, Principal, Chicago Normal College. . . Chicago, 111. Vice-President Augustus S. Downing, First Assistant Commissioner of Education Albany, N.Y. Secretary Adelaide Steele Baylor, Vocational Division, State Department of Public Instruction Indianapolis, Ind. (A. J. Matthews, President, Normal School of Arizona. . . Tempe, Ariz. Ellen C. Sabin, President, Milwaukee-Downer College. . Milwaukee, Wis. David B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College Rock Hill, S.C. Kindergarten President Elizabeth A. Woodward, Supervisor, Brooklyn Free Kindergarten Society Brooklyn, N.Y. Vice-President Gail H. Calmerton, Supervisor of Primary Instruction Fort Wayne, Ind. Secretary Clara Meisner, State Normal School EUensburg, Wash. Elementary President Georgia A. Alexander, Supervising Principal of Schools Indianapolis, Ind. Vice-President Grace DeGraff, Principal, Kenton School Portland, Ore. Secretary Lida Lee Tall, Supervisor of Grammar Grades, Balti- more Co Baltimore, Md. Secondary President Emma J. Bbieck, Head of English Department, The Uni- versity School Oakland, Cal. Vice-President. M. R. McDaniel, Principal, Oak Park Township High School Oak Park, 111. Secretary Jeanette Taylor, Teacher, Girls High School Brooklyn, N.Y. Higher President Edward C. Elliott, Chancellor, University of Montana Helena, Mont. Vice-President Charles H. Johnston, Professor of Secondary Educa- tion, University of Illinois Urbana, 111. Secretary John E. Rouse, Head of School of Education, James Millikin University Decatur, 111. Normal President J. Asbury Pitman, Principal, State Normal School Salem, Mass. Vice-President Natalie Thornton, Dean of Women, State Normal School Moorhead, Minn. Secretary John Sims, President, State Normal School Stevens Point, Wis. Superintendence President John D. Shoop, Superintendent of Schools Chicago, 111. First Vice-President. . . F. L. Keeler, State Superintendent of Publiclnstruction Lansing, Mich. Second Vice-President. . John Dietrick, Superintendent of Schools Helena, Mont. Secretary Margaret T. Maguire, Supervising Principal of Wash- ington School Philadelphia, Pa. 1 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Vocational Education and Practical Arts President William J. Bogan, Principal, Lane Technical School .... Chicago, 111. First Vice-President Ellsworth Woodward, Director of School of Art, Tulane University New Orleans, La. Second Vice-President. . Isabel Bevier, Professor of Household Science, Uni- versity of Illinois Urbana, 111. Second Vice-President. . Anna H. Talbot, State Department of Education Albany N.Y. Music President A. J. Gantvoort, Teacher of Public School Music and Sight Reading, College of Music Cincinnati, Ohio Vice-President Herman Owen, Supervisor of Music San Jose, Cal. Secretary M. Teresa Finn, Supervisor of Music St. Louis, Mo. Business President A. H. Sproul, Principal, High School of Commerce Portland, Ore. Vice-President H. R. Hatfield, University of California Berkeley, Cal. Secretary Mrs. G. Holmes Lawrence Portland, Ore. Child Hygiene President Linnaeus N. Hines, Superintendent of Schools Crawfordsville, Ind. Vice-President Lewis M. Terman, Associate Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Junior University Stanford University, Cal. Secretary C. Ward Crampton, Director of Physical Training, City Schools New York, N.Y. Physical President Baroness Rose Posse, President, Posse Normal School of Gymnastics Boston, Mass. Vice-President C. Ward Crampton, Director of Physical Training, City Schools New York, N.Y. Secretary E. H. Arnold, Director, Normal School of Gymnastics. . New Haven, Conn, Science President W. H. Timbie, Head of Applied Science Department, Wentworth Institute Boston, Mass. Vice-President Chester B. Curtis, Principal, Central High School St. Louis, Mo. Secretary Fred D. Barber, Professor of Physics, State Normal University Normal, 111. School Administration President O. M. Plummer, Member, Board of Education Portland, Ore. Vice-President Frank D. Wilsey, Member, Board of Education New York, N.Y. Secretary William C. Bruce, Editor, School Board Journal Milwaukee, Wis. Library President Epfie L. Power, Carnegie Library Pittsburgh, Pa. Vice-President Mary C. Richardson, The Lewis and Clark High School Spokane, Wash. Secretary Nancy Thompson, State Normal School Newark, N.J. Special President Daniel P. MacMillan, Director, Department of Child- Study and Educational Research Chicago, 111. Vice-President Burchard W. Debusk, University of Oregon Eugene, Ore. Secretary Nellie A. Goodhue, Director, Special Classes Seattle, Wash. School Patrons President Hatxie Hover Harding, Secretary, Vocational Super- vision League Chicago, 111. Vice-President May L. Cheney, Appointment Secretary, University of California Berkeley, Cal. Secretary. . ^ Sarah F. Clarke, Assistant Principal, Eighth Grade Scranton, Pa. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 19 Rural and Agricultural President Walter H. French, Professor of Agricultural Educa- tion, Michigan Agricultural College Lansing, Mich. Vice-President Zora M. Smith, Superintendent of Agricultural Educa- tion, Purdue University Lafayette, Ind. Secretary Charles H. Lane, Chief Specialist in Agricultural Edu- cation, United States Department of Agriculture. . . . Washington, D.C. Classroom Teachers President Sara H. Fahey, Teacher of English, Seward Park School New York, N.Y. Vice-President Anna Willson, Principal of High School Crawfordsville, Ind. Secretary Mary V. Donoghue, Sixth Grade Teacher, Stewart School Chicago, 111. Promotion of Wider Use of School Houses President Henry M. Leipziger, Supervisor of Lectures, Board of Education New York, N.Y. Vice-President Charles C. Kelso, Director of Social Center, High School Los Angeles, Cal. Secretary Raymond F. Crist, Deputy Commissioner of Naturaliza- tion, Department of Labor Washington, D.C. Educational Publications Chairman Arthur H. Chamberlain, Editor, Sierra Educational News San Francisco, Cal. Secretary George E. Towne, Editor, Nebraska Teacher Lincoln, Nebr. I JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES PORTLAND, ORE., JULY 7-14, 1917 EDUCATIONAL SUNDAY In the Sunday services of the various Portland churches sermons were preacht bearing on the general problem of education. At 3:00 o'clock, in the City Auditorium, there was a special musical service. Prayer was offered by Rt. Rev. Walter T. Sumner, Bishop of Oregon. Remarks were made by Robert J. Aley, president of the University of Maine and president of the National Educa- tion Association. Music was fumisht by the Auditorium Orchestra, under the direction of Harold Bayley. W. H. Boyer conducted the singing. His Grace, Most Reverend A, Christie, Archbishop of Oregon, held a reception for visitors to the National Education Association convention on Sunday afternoon at 4:00 o'clock, immediately following the service at the Auditorium, at St. Mary's Academy and College, Fourth and Market streets. FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS OPENING SESSION — Monday Afternoon, July 9, 2:00 o'clock The Fifty-fifth Annual Convention of the National Education Association was opened in the City Auditorium, Portland, Ore., at 2:00 p.m. on July 9. Vice-President David B. Johnson, of Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C., presided at the opening of the session. The program was opened by the rendering of "The Beautiful Willamette," by the Triole Singers. Scripture reading by Minnie Richards Blanc, College of Speech Arts, Denver, Colo., followed the music. The addresses of welcome were given by: George L. Baker, mayor, Portland, Ore.; L. R. Alderman, superintendent of schools, Portland, Ore.; W. T. Foster, president, Reed College, Portland, Ore. A response to the addresses of welcome was made by C. A. Duniway, president. Uni- versity of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. Following the addresses of welcome and response, Vice-President Johnson introduced Robert J. Aley, president, University of Maine, Orono, Me., president of the National Education Association, and transferred to him the conduct of the convention. President Aley then delivered the presidential address, which was entitled " Coopera- tion in Education." 21 22 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION "The Imperative Necessity of a Food-Conservation Program" was the title of an address given by Charles R. Van Hise, president, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. An address by James Withycombe, governor of Oregon, Salem, Ore., followed. The following committees were announst by President Aley: COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS J. W. Crabtree, of Wisconsin, Chairman Francis G. Blair, of Illinois F. L. Keeler, of Michigan P. L. Campbell, of Oregon W. M. Davidson, of Pennsylvania Josephine Corliss Preston, of Washington E. O. Holland, of Washington Mary C. C. Bradford, of Colorado M. H. Stuart, of Indianapolis C. A. Duniway, of Wyoming E. E. Bass, of Mississippi A. C. Barker, of California Susan M. Dorsey, of California COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY J. Stanley Brown, of Illinois, Chairman Charles S. Foos, of Pennsylvania Frank Strong, of Kansas Following the announcements, the convention adjourned to Monday evening, the active members of the Association reassembling by states at 5:30 p.m., at the places designated at Hotel Multnomah, for the election of members of the nominating committee. SECOND SESSION— Monday Evening, July 9, 7:00 o'clock Preceding the addresses of the evening, the following musical program was given: "The Legends of Seaside." A song cycle for women's chorus and soli. Music by Emil Enna, words by Virginia Drake. A typical American composition. The story is pertaining to legends and true happenings on the Pacific Coast. Participants Octet Emil Enna, Conductor * Adel Bamickel Goldie Peterson, Soprano Laura Korell Katherine Brandes, Contralto Mabelle Holmes Anne Mathison, Contralto Florence Gilmore Mrs. Percy W. Lewis, Reader Katherine Brandes Albert S. Brown, Tenor Anne Mathison and the Anna Bergstrom Monday Musical Club Chorus Garcie Byars program Chorus Song of the Sea Soprano Solo The Sea Gull Alto and Chorus The Fire Fly's Lullaby Soprano and Tenor The Sea Shell's Secret Alto and Octett The Legend of the Kinnie-Kinnie Soprano Solo The Song of the Star Fish Tenor, Soprano, and Chorus The Song of Neptune Contralto and Chorus Sweet and Low Recitation and Piano To Tillamook Head Tenor Solo The Fisherman's Song Soprano Solo Sacajawea's Lullaby Tenor and Chorus Three Graves at Seaside Following the musical program, the meeting was called to order by President Aley, and the following addresses given: "The Press and Preparedness" — E. B. Piper, editor The Oregonian, Portland, Ore. "How the Public School Can Foster the American Ideal of Patriotism" — Sara H. Fahey, Seward Park School, New York, N.Y. "The Normal School as an Agency for Teaching Patriotism" — ^J. H. Ackerman, president, Normal School, Monmouth, Ore. "Newsboy Service — An Opportunity for Educational and Vocational Service" — Anna Y. Reed, Seattle, Wash. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 2^ SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS THIRD SESSION — Tuesday Afternoon, July io, 2:00 o'clock Preceding the addresses of the afternoon, music was fumisht by the High School Orchestra. Following the musical program, the meeting was called to order by President Aley, and the following addresses given: "Women and Preparedness: Their Part in National Life, Especially in Time of War' —Josephine Corliss Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash* "Preparedness. A Veneer or a Fundamental: Which Will Our Schools Give Our Children?" — Mrs. Alexander Thompson, member, Oregon Legislative Assembly, The Dalles, Ore. "American Education and the Inner Life" — Ella Flagg Young, Chicago, 111. "The Public School, the Laboratory for Citizenship" — Anna Laura Force, principal, Lincoln School, Denver, Colo. "Shall This Country Economize for or against Its Children ? " — Julia C. Lathrop, chief, Children's Bureau, Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. During this program the Belgian special mission to the United States was intro- duced. The party consisted of Baron Moncheur, chief of the Belgian special mission; Lieu tenant-General Leclercq, chief of the Belgian military mission to the United States; Major Osterrieth, First Regiment of Guides, Belgian army; Mr. Hugh Gibson, Depart- ment of State; Captain T. C. Cook, U.S.A., military aide to General Leclercq, and James G. Whiteley, of the Belgian Legation. A short address of welcome was given by President Aley and responded to by Baron Moncheur and Lieutenant-General Leclercq. THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FOURTH SESSION— Wednesday Evening, July ii, 7:00 o'clock Preliminary to the evening program, W. C. McBride, Portland, Ore., gave an illus- trated lecture on "Mesa Verde National Park." Under the direction of A. J. Gantvoort, president, Department of Music Education, members of that department sang the following song (the audience joining in the chorus), which was written by Upton Sinclair. Canning the Kaiser (Tune: "Marching through Georgia") News despatch — London, June 30: The newspapers declare today that the American soldiers and marines have already found a slogan, which is, "Can the Kaiser!" The British are much puzzled by the ability of the Americans to invent new slang, and the papers explain that the word "can" is used in the sense of hermetically sealing the Kaiser to prevent his further activity. Bring the good old bugle, boys, we'll sing another song. Sing it with a spirit that will move the world along. Sing it as we need to sing it, half a million strong — While we are canning the Kaiser. Chorus Oh, Bill! Oh, Bill! We're on the job today! Oh, Bill! Oh, Bill! We'll seal you so you'll stay! We'll put you up with ginger in the good old Yankee way — While we are canning the Kaiser. Hear the song we're singing on the shining roads of France Hear the Tommies cheering, and see the Poilus prance; Africanders and Kanucks and Scots without their pants — While we are canning the Kaiser. (Chorus.) • i4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Bring the guns from Bethlehem, by way of old New York; Bring the beans from Boston, and don't leave out the pork; Bring a load of soda-pop, and pull the grape-juice cork — While we are cannmg the Kaiser. (Chorus.) Come, you men from Dixieland, you lumber-jacks of Maine; Come you Texas cowboys, and you farmers of the plain; From Florida to Oregon, we boast the Yankee strain — While we are caiming the Kaiser. (Chorus.) Now we've started on the job, we mean to put it through; Ship the kings and kaisers all, and make the world anew; Clear the way for common folk, for men like me and you — While we are canning the Kaiser. (Chorus.) At the close of the song. President Aley called the meeting to order, and the following addresses were given: "The War Danger to Children" — Kate Devereaux Blake, principal. Public School No. 6, New York, N.Y. "Maintenance of Standards in All Schools as a Necessary Element of Preparedness" — F. E. Bolton, dean. College of Education, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. "Social Hygiene in Relation to National Defense" — N. F. Coleman, professor of English, Reed College, Portland, Ore. "Art-Teaching and the Nation's Service" — Arthur W. Dow, professor of Fine Arts, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. At the close of the program, President Aley announst the following Committee on Nominations: Committee on Nominations John R. Kirk, of Missouri, Chairman A. M. Matthews Alaska Theodora Richardson. .New Hampshire James A. Davis Arizona John V. Conway New Nexico George B. Cook Arkansas Kate D. Blake New York C. H. Covell California Arthur Deamer North Dakota J. G. Crabbe Colorado A. J. Gantvoort Ohio Katherine M. Cook Dist. of Columbia Charles B. Smith Oklahoma S. Phillips Florida Samuel C. May Oregon Ethel Redfield Idaho Walter W. Haviland. . . Pennsylvania W. S. Booth Illinois D. B. Johnson South Carolina Horace Ellis Indiana Charles H. Lugo South Dakota Z. C. Thornburg Iowa A. A. Kincannon Tennessee R. P. Willis Kansas E. R. Bentley Texas Margaret E. Brann Maine E. A. Smith Utah F. A. FiTZPATRiCK Massachusetts C. C. Bras Washmgton Bessie P. Miller Minnesota J. Frank Marsh West Virgmia R. J. Cunningham Montana H. A. Schofield Wisconsin George L. Towne Nebraska J. E. Burch Wyoming G. F. James Nevada FOURTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FIFTH SESSION— Thursday Evening, July 12, 7:00 o'clock Preliminary to the regular program, the Circuit Court of the State of Oregon for Multnomah County was in session for the purpose of final hearings on petitions for naturalization and administration of oath of allegiance. John P. Kavanaugh, presiding judge. Present: Thomas M. Hurlburt, sheriff of Multnomah County; Joseph W. Beveridge, clerk; John B. Easter, deputy clerk, and Samuel W. Poole, bailiff. The court was opened in due form by the sheriff. Five petitioners and their witnesses were sworn by the clerk and questioned under the direction of the court as to their quali- fications by Naturalization Examiner Henry B. Hazard, Portland, Ore., representing the United States Bureau of Naturalization. These petitioners were students of the public L JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 25 night schools of Portland, Ore., in which they had been trained for their citizenship duties and responsibilities under the supervision of L. R. Alderman, superintendent of schools, and John C. Veatch, supervisor of night schools. The court admitted the peti- tioners as citizens upon their qualifying, also 136 other petitioners of various nationalities who were present and who had previously past their examinations before the court, subject to taking the oath of allegiance. Their wives and minor foreign-bom children, present, derived citizenship thru the naturalization of husband and father. This hearing was made possible thru the desire of the court to aid the Bureau of Naturalization and the public-school authorities in the cooperative work for the better preparation of the prospec- tive citizens. Following the examination, James F. Ewing, vice-president, Oregon Society, Sons of the American Revolution, Portland, Ore., presented American flags to applicants for citizenship. John P. Kavanaugh, presiding judge, gave an address to the applicants. All of the petitioners renounst allegiance to foreign sovereignties and took the oath of allegiance to the United States, after which the audience and the petitioners, led by W. H. Boyer, of Portland, Ore., joined in singing "America" and the "Star Spangled Banner." At the close of the singing, President Aley called the meeting to order, and the following addresses were given: "Cost of the Inadequate Night School" — Caroline Hedger, Americanization Com- mittee Worker, Chicago, 111. "Religious Education as a Means of National Preparedness" — Charles E. Rugh, School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. Address, E. O. Holland, president. State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash. At the close of the addresses, Hugh McStay, San Francisco, Cal., gave an illustrated lecture on "Yosemite, the Incomparable." FIFTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS SIXTH SESSION — Friday Afternoon, July 13, 2:00 o'clock A special program was provided as follows: "Life in War-Time France" (Illustrated) — Ruberta Tanquarry, Technical High School, Oakland, Cal. "Beauties of Hawaii" (Illustrated) — Fred J. Halton, San Francisco, Cal. "Legends and Languages of Oregon Indians" — ^J. D. Lee, Portland, Ore. SEVENTH SESSION— Friday Evening, July 13, 7:00 o'clock Preliminary to the regular program, an illustrated lecture on "Oregon Wild Life" was given by William Finley, of Portland, Ore. Following the lecture. President Aley called the meeting to order, and the following addresses were given : "Education and the World War" — W. J. Kerr, president, Oregon Agricultural Col- lege, Corvallis, Ore. "The University and the Nation's Ideals" — P. L. Campbell, president, University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore. "National Education and World Polity" — E. O. Sisson, state commissioner of education, Boise, Idaho. President Aley presented the president-elect, Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintend- ent of public instruction, Denver, Colorado, who spoke as follows: I feel that the challenge of the present hour is more insistent and fundamental than has been heard by the world or the Association for many decades. The world crisis means the testing of democratic institutions as the product of democratic education. The great experiment in human brotherhood, called "United States of America," can only survive in spirit and in truth if all the children of all the people are afforded the enrich- ment, discipline, and stimulus of a vital, potent, character-building education. Europe is suffering today from a war caused by a perfectly organized educational system based upon absolutely false educational and sociological ideals. To turn the tide 26 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION of war in favor of the peoples whose educational system has taught respect for the indi- vidual, the sanctity of human life, equal and free opportunities for all, has become our great task. And in this mighty effort to win the war that shall end wars, the schools must play their part. "The last line of defense," as President Wilson has called the educational organization of the country, must be kept intact, ready for all the varied forms of service that the world's struggle must necessarily impose upon each unit of our life. But fully as imperative as this is the task of so deepening, broadening, and strengthening our edu- cational vision and vitalizing our educational administration that the rebuilding of civili- zation, after the war-storm shall have past, may receive its crowning contribution from the school world. To save civilization thru the agency of the United States, a nation which is largely the product of the public schools, is the task of the present. To rebuild civilization across the sea in a fairer form and on a more enduring basis, is the mission of the future. Neither of these duties can be fulfilled unless we, the school people of the United States, realize our responsibility, dedicate ourselves to the work, assume the burden, and answer the call of the God of Nations with a glad response and the triumphant achievement of willing service. Let us, the National Education Association, as the composite interpretation of the educational thot and life of the country, offer ourselves to the President of the United States as a unit in the army of soldiers of the common good, to be used by him as the developing needs of our present mighty struggle may indicate, to the end that we may help to "come true" the mighty dream of human brotherhood thrown upon the screen of his- tory when this nation was born. Let us each say in our hearts, with our lips, and in our lives: "Lord God of Nations, here am I, what wouldst thou have me to do?" After brief remarks of thanks and appreciation, President Aley announst the adjourn- ment of the Convention. D. W. Springer, Secretary REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS The members of this Association express their grateful appreciation to the Committee on Arrangements, under the leadership of Superintendent L. R. Alderman, and O. M. Plummer, of the Portland Board of Education, for the extensive measures taken for the success of this meeting; to the local press and to the representatives of the Associated Press and of the United Press, for complete and reliable reports of our meetings and encouraging and valuable editorial comments on educational' topics; to the special committees on entertainment, to the teachers, to the Board of Education, to the city officials, and to the citizens of Portland, for the royal welcome and the whole-souled generous hospitality accorded to this Association. DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES The National Education Association, assembled in annual convention in the city of Portland under unprecedented conditions of world- war, recognizes that the first duty of the hour is whole-hearted national loyalty. Our supreme wish is to give the fullest measure of service for the sacred cause of our country and our allies, in defense of democracy and righteousness. We pledge to President Wilson and the national administration, and to governors and other authorities of our respective states, that we will conduct all educational affairs com- mitted to our care in this spirit, putting aside for the present the consideration of all other questions, however important. We rejoice that the young men and young women of our country have manifested such a splendid spirit of patriotic devotion to the national cause. The records of our secondary schools, colleges, and universities give proof that the American educational system has not failed to inculcate the spirit of patriotism. We are proud of the work that our young people are doing in army, navy, training camps, hospitals, and Red Cross service. Realizing that this is not to be a war of a few months, that victory is to be won not so much by individual valor as by organization and full use of the resources of the nation, we are convinst that the educational system miist be maintained in the highest possible state of efficiency. All are agreed that standards in the elementary, secondary, and indus- trial schools rnust not be allowed to deteriorate during this crisis, but, if possible, must be improved. Likewise, collegiate and professional education must be encouraged and JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 27 further developt, because one of the greatest needs of the country, both in war and in periods of national reconstruction, is trained leadership. In this spirit we recommend to all who are responsible for educational organization and administration that they survey present conditions and evaluate the work being done, in order that the greatest possible efficiency may be immediately secured. Revision of courses of study, im{)rovement of methods of instruction, alterations in the lengths and dates of school terms, shortening of vacations and holidays, adaptations of school days with provision for part-time work, the maintenance of continuation schools, the wider use of school plants, prompt organization and further development of industrial and other forms of vocational work — all these matters should receive immediate attention and prompt action. Physical education, including medical inspection for all children in all schools, should be workt out wisely and emphasized as never before. In technical institutions, colleges, and universities, where young men are of suitable age, we recommend that the government give every encouragement to genuine military training, ample in scope and practical in character. The nation needs the benefits of genuine thrift and conservation of all resources. To this end we recommend that all schools and institutions make definite provision for the teaching of these practical virtues. We recommend that the existing extension depart- ments of our land-grant colleges, normal schools, and other institutions be strengthened in order that their advantages may be brought to all people. We reaffirm the previous recommendations of this Association on the justice and edu- cational value of manhood and womanhood suffrage; the establishment of a national university; the creation of a national department of education under the direction of a secretary of education; the protection of teachers and institutions from designing partisan- ship; and the maintenance of improved standards of salaries commensurate with condi- tions of living. We urge that patriotism be taught by every teacher of whatever grade, by methods adapted to the mental and spiritual life of pupils, whether this be by heroic story, by song, by biography and history, by social ethics, or by a revised and vitalized civics. We ask the cooperation of the National Council of Defense, state councils of defense, governors, superintendents, and all school officers, in order that these recommendations may be put into practice in the shortest possible time and in the wisest possible way. Finally, as President Wilson has given us the vision, we ask the blessing of God upon the cause of the nations in alliance to save the world from militarism and autocracy, and we pledge again that we will work with entire devotion for the establishment of triumphant peace after victory, a peace to be administered by a "Veritable League of Honor," an inclusive league of nations, founded upon the principle of national loyalty extended into world citizenship. J. W. Crabtree, president, State Normal School, River Falls, Wis., Chair- man. F. L. Keeler, state supermtendent of public instruction, Lansing, Mich. W. M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. E. O. Holland, president, State College, Pullman, Wash. M. H. Stuart, principal, Technical High School, Indianapolis, Ind. E. E. Bass, superintendent of schools, Greenville, Miss. Susan M. Dorsey, assistant superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal. Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111. P. L. Campbell, president, University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore. Josephine Corliss Preston, stat6 superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash. Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo. C. A. DuNiWAY, president, university of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. A. C. Barker, superintendent of schools, Oakland, Cal. GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION ADDRESSES OF WELCOME I. L. R. ALDERMAN, SUPERINTENDENT, CITY SCHOOLS, PORTLAND, ORE. It is not very long since this was a land of pioneers. Do you know that the Oregon pioneers made the greatest overland pilgrimage ever made by any pioneers in the world? The pioneers came and settled in this vast land, and their homesteads were far apart. The social hunger they felt made them give whoever came a welcome that was real and not perfunctory. It was a welcome from the heart. When a new immigration came from " the states," the news spread to all parts of the country, and each family vied with the other in giving the newcomers a hearty welcome. When our states out here were territories, we used to speak of the East as "the states." You have come from "the states" to this state at the end of the Oregon trail. And you are finding that this habit of being glad to see folks has persisted among us to some considerable degree. We hope it will always continue. Today we are giving you a real pioneer welcome to our hearts as well as to our country, city, and homes. We are glad to see you. We are glad to see anybody, but we are espe- cially glad to see you, because — well — it's you! Just think who you are You are the educators of the United States. There is no other gathering in the world that has as much influence in affecting the world as the National Education Association of America. Out of this great gathering will come a better understanding of our problems. I believe that under your influence we shall have new hopes for our schools. Our war-time motto has been, "School as usual." I believe it must give way to the saying, "School as unusual." While the nation is at war we need better schools, and when peace returns we shall need still better schools. For service in the great war we are now conscripting the young men of the nation, and in a certain sense are conscripting the wealth of the nation. For our schools, too, we must conscript talent, labor, and wealth, so that we may have more talent, more wealth, and more effective labor. From the talent that has been conscripted for our service in the twenty- one departments and the general meetings of this great convention we are to get new conceptions of our problems and many valuable ideas and plans for doing better work. We want to prevent waste — the waste of human talent caused by lack of development. At the present time, in Portland, we are sending about 70 per cent of all our grammar-school graduates into the high schools, and we have seen our high schools in the past four years double 29 30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General in number and in attendance, and we have been gratified. But what about the 30 per cent that did not go to high school ? In many cases these young people had parents dependent upon them. In order to reach them we must establish some form of continuation school. Their problem is one of those that you will help us to solve. There are a few features of the Portland schools that I should like to call to your notice. Because we believe that after all is said and done the biggest factor in education is the teaching, we have tried to increase, and have wonderfully increast, the influence of the teacher by having her continue longer with her pupils than a single term or year. We have a variant of the Gary plan, which we call the two-group plan, whereby we have specialists teaching all the special subjects, and yet have a " mother- teacher " to teach the major" subjects and to be the children's adviser. We have tried to connect closely the schools and homes, so that the teacher may be in effect a third parent and so that the parent may realize that to be a real parent he or she must also be, especially in the practical arts, a teacher. In order to make our schools fit all grades of talent we have woven into all of them a great deal of industrial education, and we have special trade schools. That we might have more money for teach- ing, and in the conviction that neither machinery nor buildings are the most important factors in education, we are trying a new and economi- cal type of building, the one-story building, to which we invite your attention. We want you to notice our school gardens and our home gardens. We want you to get a glimpse of the wholesome, friendly, home-loving spirit that is behind the beauty of our beautiful Portland. WILLIAM T. FOSTER, PRESIDENT OF REED COLLEGE, PORTLAND, ORE. This should become a day memorable in the history of Portland, memo- rable in the history of the National Education Association — the day upon which we welcome the teachers of the nation in this, the first year of our entrance into the world war. This convention is fittingly dedicated to conservation, patriotism, and nationalism; for the school — the only agency of society that reaches virtually all those who are to become the next generation — ^has thereby undertaken a special responsibility for the conservation of national ideals. The school is patriotic in so far as it meets this obligation. The dominant theme of this convention, therefore, is fixt by world events. We could not escape it if we would. Our new and controlling problem is how to use this war to clarify our vision and intensify our national purposes. War — which elsewhere breeds brutality, bigotry, cupidity, race- hatred, intolerance — must in our schools and colleges be interpreted to Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 3I develop catholicity of spirit, human sympathy, sacrificial devotion to convictions, and passion for truth and for justice. Ye who are kicking against Fate, Tell me how it is that on this hillside, Running down to the river, Which fronts the sun and the south wind, This plant draws from the air and soil Poison and becomes poison ivy ? And this plant draws from the same air and soil Sweet elixirs and colors and becomes arbutus ? And both flourish ? You may blame Spoon River for what it is, But whom do you blame for the will in you That feeds itself and makes you dock weed, Jimpson, dandelion, or mullen, And which can never use any soil or air So as to make you jessamine or wistaria ? The dominant question before our schools and colleges today — and therefore the most important question before us this week — is how the blood-stained soil and poisoned air of this war can be made to bring forth the finest flowers of the human spirit. "America," says Henri Lafontaine, Belgian statesman, "America has to liberate Europe from its burdens, its prejudices, its hatreds. It is your duty, it is your highest duty, to reconcile outside your borders the people you have reconciled within your borders. For indeed the American people .... is the elect people which can alone transform all of the peoples of the earth into a family of nations — a brother- hood of men." This is a duty worthy of our best national traditions, but one we can never perform if, with the battles of Europe, we also take over its prejudices and its hatreds. The war thrusts upon the nation the need of burnishing ideals as well as armaments. There is always danger, thru the bitterness and sacrifice of conflict, of falling to lower planes — of doing violence to the very ideals we started out to exalt and defend. Armies and navies and aeroplanes alone cannot make the world safe for truth; and the world cannot be safe for democracy until it is safe for truth. Democracy is a body of ideals. Its last citadel of refuge from the enemy therefore must be an institution dedicated to the conservation of ideals. Such an institu- tion is the school. Thousands of the noblest young men of America are now on their way from the universities to the front trenches of the fight for ideals. We are giving the best we have. Some of them will never return. That will be a loss beyond the power of imagination; but it will be a greater tragedy if, while they are dying at the front, we who are intrusted at home with the conservation of national ideals fail to do our part. We shall fail unless we make our schools and universities safe places for continuing — even under stress of war-=-to inculcate the principles for which we went to war. For 32 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General what shall it profit us if we gain the whole world for democracy and thereby lose the soul of democracy ? We have declared again and again by the most solemn official utterances that we have undertaken a war for freedom, freedom from tyranny, freedom from autocratic power, freedom of the seas, freedom to the seas, freedom of small nations to live their lives without fear of subjugation, freedom from injury without due process of law, freedom in the pursuit of truth. We have declared that our purposes are humanitarian, free from the suspicion of selfishness; that we ask no indemnities, no spoils of war, no conquest of land, no monopolies of trade; in short, that we ask nothing for ourselves that we do not ask for all mankind. It is the function of the school, as the conservator of ideals; it must therefore be the central purpose of this convention to which we welcome you today, in the first flush of our entrance into the war, to keep the vision of these, our noblest national aspirations, unblurred; for where there is no such vision, the people perish. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENTS ADDRESS COOPERATION IN EDUCATION ROBERT J. ALEY, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF MAINE, ORONO These are strange and startling times. The old world of peace, class conservatism, self-satisfaction, and clashing nationalities is passing thru a death struggle. Out of this mighty contest there must come a new world — a world of enduring peace, broad liberalism, and patriotic internationalism. This great association has never held a meeting when national and world conditions were as they are now. Our country for the first time in her history is part of a world conflict. We joined the Allies because of our love of liberty, our faith in mankind, our desire to see justice given to the opprest, and our willingness to fight for the establishment of a world brotherhood. We are a united people, overflowing with a new spirit of patriotism, and ready to make all the sacrifices that may be demanded of us. The principles upon which our government rests have stood the test of time. We have an abiding faith that these principles are permanent. Democ- racy rests upon them. The world struggle is between democracy and autocracy. Civilization cannot longer exist, half democratic and half autocratic. This world war must decide the issue. Unless democracy wins, all the struggles and sacrifices of the past have been in vain. Last August Congress establisht the Council for National Defense. It also authorized the President of the United States to appoint an advisory commission to the council. One of the seven members of the Sessions] PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 33 advisory commission is Dr. HoUis Godfrey, president of Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. He is chairman of engineering and education. By the terms of the Federal Act this gives official recognition to education as a national resource. It is significant that this is the first time that education has been so recognized. We have a right to rejoice in, and be proud of, this recognition. Chairman Godfrey by conferences with the representatives of higher education and thru committees representing the various college and uni- versity organizations has already done much to unify and harmonize the work of our institutions of higher learning. The colleges and uni- versities have been made aware of what is expected of them and how they can best serve the nation in her hour of great need. Dr. Godfrey recently held an important conference with representatives of secondary schools for the purpose of making plans and suggestions by which these schools may be able to render a larger service, not only to young people of high- school age, but also to adults. It is expected that a conference representing elementary education will soon be held. As teachers, we certainly appreci- ate the confidence of the government in our work, and the efforts to help us make our work of greater value. We need not make new pledges. We simply renew the pledges that our work of the past has verified and offer ourselves unreservedly for the great work ahead of us. We cheerfully lay all we have upon the altar of our country. War demands the best. It gets the best, because those who have had greatest advantages appreciate their country most and are the first to offer themselves for service. Our Allies, because of conditions which they could not control, due to the suddenness with which the war opened, were com- pelled to sacrifice many men who ought to be leaders now. The com- missions from the Allies that have recently visited our country have been insistent in urging the importance of proper selection and conservation of men. It is of supreme importance that every man be put where he can render the greatest service. In this important selective process the school can take a most valuable part. If this war is to continue for a number of years, as it seems probable that it will, it is incumbent upon this country to see that the schools — ele- mentary, secondary, and higher — not only continue the pace of normal times, but, if possible, increase that pace. Organized education must continue to produce broadly educated men and women. In addition, it must speed up its machinery and produce men and women specially prepared to handle the difficult and complex problems of the Great War. We must have the first to conserve our civilization and to help in the rehabilitation of the world after the war. We must have the second so that the victory may come more speedily. It is also essential that organized education do more than heretofore to disseminate knowledge and to teach those beyond school age how to produce more and how to conserve it better. 34 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General No one can prophesy all the results of this world war. One result is certain— a changed world. Old things will have past away. New things will be on the stage. They will require care, management, and direction. The changing conditions of the present and the greater changes that the future will bring make it necessary to review and revise our notions of educa- tion. We may also need to change the measure by which we have deter- mined the educated man. Our Allies, England, France, and the others, have found by experience that every type of knowledge, skill, and culture that the various forms of education have produced is needed. More than that, they have been compelled to develop new types of education and new forms of skill to meet the immediate necessities of the war. Our experience is sure to be similar. The democracy of this country has produced a multitude of schools of different aims and ideals. In this crisis we need the hearty and united service of all the men and women produced by all these schools. This is not the time to interfere with progress by criticizing any worker because his knowledge and skill came from a school and by a method different from ours. What is education? It is that practical, intellectual, and spiritual result that comes from individual and organized effort to conserve all that the world has found necessary and useful, to transmit the same to others, to enlarge the field of that which is worthy to be transmitted, and to assist the folk in applying knowledge skilfully and accurately to the affairs of life. Who is the educated man? That man is educated, or at least has education, who sees the affairs of life clearly, who thinks straight enough to attack his problems logically, who has skill enough to apply his knowledge practically, who knows enough of some form of art to retain a sane idealism and who has sufficient realization of his divine origin to keep himself in harmony with the laws of God. . In the past we have spent much time in trying out the fads and fancies of educational doctrinaires. We have argued and discust the strength and weakness, likeness and difference, culture and utility, theory and prac- tice, of our various t3^es of education. Sometimes the convincing logic of the classicist has persuaded us that the only education of value is that derived from a long-continued study of the literature, art, and science of Greece and Rome. Again the subtle arguments of the scientist have made us willing to throw aside the learning of the past and devote ourselves to the material studies of the present. Sometimes we have held culture as an ideal and have scorned the practical. At other times we have been enamored of the practical and have decided that culture is a mere incident that may or may not come to the practical man. Occasionally our desire to train the individual for complete living has been so strong that we have forgotten the primal necessities of food and raiment. Then again the trade or voca- tion has loomed up so large that we have lost sight of the individual and failed to see that he must be larger than his work. Sessions] PRESIDENrS ADDRESS 35 These discussions and arguments have been valuable because they have helpt us to clarify our notions. They have, however, fixt us in our opinions, strengthened our conservatism, and unduly emphasized differences. We ought now to open our minds to new needs, to let go some of our conserva- tism, and to place a mighty emphasis upon fundamental likenesses. It has been made clear upon the battlefields of Europe that the old and the new, the spiritual and the material, the cultural and the practical, are all needed. It has also been made equally clear that all these in their fundamental qualities have many and striking resemblances. The poet, the artist, and the story-teller have been of inestimable value both in the trench and back of it. The scientist, abstract and applied, the engineer, the inventor, the organizer, the business man, the mechanic, have all alike been necessary in devising methods of offense and defense, in increasing pro- duction, and in devising better methods of conservation. All types of men have found places to serve in useful ways. All types of education have justified their work. The need of the hour is for more worthy representa- tives of all the various schools. American education both nationally and in the states has been largely without system or unity. It has developt along the traditional lines, and has been modified to meet local needs or has been changed because of the dominating influence of some strong teachers. In a general way it has responded to the needs of a democracy. Our successes nationally and individually, however, have been due more to the abundance of oppor- tunities and the profusion of resources than to education. In a country like ours, where saving has been unnecessary, keenness of wit and an ability to profit by failure have been fairly good substitutes for systematic train- ing and scientific knowledge. The rapid increase of our population, the higher plane of living expected and demanded of our citizens, the increas- ing complexity of modern life, the calls of our Allies in the present crisis, and the part that we must take at the close of the war in the remaking of the world, all unite to give American education an opportunity and to place upon it a great responsibility* It has been weaker than it ought to be because neither national nor state oflicials have been able to coordinate the various types and bring them into that helpful cooperation that would produce good results without undue loss. If education accepts its oppor- tunity and assumes its responsibility, there must be coordination and co- operation. There must be also more constructive builders and fewer carping destructive critics. If the educational boat is to move safely and surely up stream, there must be no one to rock it and no idle passengers. Everyone must do full duty at the oars. I think we are ready to announce a constructive program based upon the following statements of belief: I. We believe that the body of common academic knowledge which the race has found fundamental and mcessary should be taught to all the youth of the 36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General land. It should he increast hy the addition of new knowledge developt in the progress of civilization. Old forms of knowledge that have become obsolete and useless should be eliminated. 2. Every form of activity, physical, mental, and spiritual, necessary for the life and progress of the people rests upon knowledge and skill, both of which may and should be the result of organized education. All types of education, therefore, that fit the individual better to do necessary work are worthy of hearty recognition and support. 3. We believe that, since a democracy rests upon the foundation principle of equal opportunity to all, our education ought to be so organized that individual ambitions and qualities may have ample opportunity for complete realization. The age of special education, therefore, should be delayed long enough to reduce the misfits to a minimum and to prevent the formation of a caste system based upon trade or industry. 4. We believe in the poise that comes from straight thinking, the patriotism that comes from an understanding of the principles of a free government, the reverence for law that comes from the practice of obedience, and the clean and wholesome living that results from an active faith in God. All schools, there- fore, of whatever grade, general or special, should give much practice in logical thinking and in drawing necessary conclusions. The meaning of our flag and the principles of our government should be taught so thoroly that in a generation every American will know and appreciate the soul of this nation. Obedience based upon understanding and reason should be so much a part of school life that presently we shall be changed from a nation of law breakers to a nation of law observers. The wisdom of prophets, seers, and teachers of right- eousness should be freely used to make clear the care of an overruling Providence and to make sure the faith in an eternal Father. 5. We believe that, if our nation is to grow, prosper, and be strong, knowl- edge and skill must be thoroly diffused among all the people. The schools, therefore, should be centers for the education and training of adults. Night schools, extension work, correspondence, lectures, moving pictures, practical demonstrations, and all other available and elective means should be used to give every individual an opportunity to continue to grow and to better his con- dition. 6. We believe that modern civilization with all its complexities and compe- titions can only advance as the circle of human knowledge widens. Both state and nation, therefore, should spend mu^h larger sums of money in subsidizing research and encouraging investigation. 7. We believe that, not only now in the crisis of war, but for all time, preparedness, patriotism, conservation, and internationalism are virtues of supreme and permanent value and that all the educational forces of the country will unite to make them real in the life of the American people. Sessions] NECESSITY OF FOOD-CONSERVATION PROGRAM $7 THE IMPERATIVE NECESSITY OF A FOOD-CONSERVATION PROGRAM CHARLES R. VAN HISE, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS. In order that the war may be carried to a successful conclusion, it is necessary that four things be done: first, men must be sent to France by the hundreds of thousands; second, our men and those of the Allies must be furnisht with vast quantities of munitions; third, ships must be built with suflGicient rapidity, not only to transport men, munitions, foods, and other supplies, but also to make up for the losses by submarines. The fourth and final great problem is that of food for ourselves and the Allies. This is the one that I shall consider. There is no question that at the present time there is a shortage of food for the entire civilized world such as has not occurred in modern times. This year the Argentina wheat crop was nearly 100,000,000 bushels short. The Australia crop is short by 50,000,000 bushels. Moreover, the consid- erable accumulated surplus is mostly unavailable because of the severe shortage in shipping. Last year the United States wheat crop was short by more than 200,000,000 bushels, and Canada produced little more than a half-crop. The result is that the reserve of wheat at the present time is very small, not more than 100,000,000 bushels, which is but a fraction of the amount which is ordinarily available at this period of the year. The United States wheat crop for this year is estimated at about 655,- 000,000 bushels. The Canadian crop will again probably be short because of insufficient labor. It may be placed at 250,000,000 bushels. Normally in the United States and Canada there are used for flour about 550,000,000 bushels of wheat, and for seed and other purposes 100,000,000 bushels. If these amounts were consumed, this would leave for export from North America only 255,000,000 bushels from this year's crop. Taking into account. on a liberal basis all the wheat that can be obtained from other countries than the United States and Canada, the Allies need from North America 550,000,000 bushels, but probably the best we can do even if the conservative program proposed below is carried out is to furnish them 400,000,000 bushels. The rest must be made up by other cereals. Just as there is a world shortage of wheat, so there is a world shortage of sugar. The production of sugar in France has been greatly redust and none is available from the Central Powers. The main available sources are Cuba, Hawaii, and the United States, since the sugar of Java cannot readily reach the market. Computations indicate that, if the Allies are to be furnisht with the barest necessities in the way of sugar, we should reduce our consumption by one-fourth, that is, from four ounces to three ounces per person per day. This ounce, which seems small for the people of the United States, means for a year the vast total of 1,100,000 tons. 38 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The third fundamental shortage of food for the Allies is the fats. It is difficult to estimate the requirements in fats because of the consumption, not only for food, but for munitions. The vast shortage of the fundamental food products of wheat, sugar, and fat shows the seriousness of the problem which confronts us. It can only be solved by a clear comprehension of the facts and an intelligent application of measures necessary to meet them. In order successfully to carry on the war, it is just as essential for the United States to furnish the Allies with food as it is to furnish them with men or money. This can be done by three lines of action upon our part: we should increase our production; we should decrease waste; we should readjust our food ration. For the most part, the campaign for an increase of food production has been finisht for this year. It has been highly successful and there is no doubt that in consequence of it we shall have a great increase over what would otherwise have been the case for all the cereals — wheat, corn, barley, rye, oats — a vast increase in potatoes, beans, and peas, and a similar increase in other less important vegetables. With regard to waste, it is estimated on a conservative basis that we throw away each year not less than $700,000,000 worth of food, which in a European country would have been utilized. Anyone who has been able to compare the habits of a family in America with those in France or Eng- land knows that each day the waste is relatively very large in America. In Europe it is planned to cook just enough food for the family; and if any- thing is left over, even a scrap of bread, this is saved and goes into some future dish. In America the scraps and left-over food largely go into the garbage pail. The contrast between the hotel and restaurant service in America and in Europe is even more glaring. One is appalled by the waste of food in hotels and restaurants in America. Already, however, a campaign of education has been begun which has resulted in greatly lessening waste. This is proved by the reports of the city officials, who state that for many cities the amount of garbage has been redust to one-third or one-fourth of the former amounts. While improve- ments have been made, there is still opportunity for large savings, and the coming year no food should be thrown away. The ehmination of waste will help, but it will not be sufficient to furnish the essential food to the Allies. We must readjust our daily program. For wheat we should eliminate white bread one meal a day, seven meals a week from our tables. This does not mean that we shall go hungry, but that we shall use, as a substitute for white bread, corn bread, hominy, barley bread, oatmeal, or rice. To such an extent have we become white- bread eaters that these other thoroly wholesome and abundant foods are largely neglected; and by careful thought a menu could be made even more varied which uses rice, barley, corn, oats, and other substitutes for one- third of the wheat. If this proposed substitution were made, this would I Sessions] NECESSITY OF FOOD-CONSERVATION PROGRAM 39 increase the amount of wheat which we could send to the Allies by more than i"5o,ooojooo bushels. For sugar, the solution is not so much that of substitution as of reduc- tion. If we eliminated candy altogether it would probably be a benefit rather than a detriment. The same may be said of sweet soft drinks. Sugar could be left out of tea or coffee or redust to one-half or one-third of the amount. Beets and carrots contain much sugar and an increase of their use will compensate for the decrease in sugar. With a little self- denial and thought on the part of all there would be no difficulty in reducing the daily consumption of sugar per person from four ounces to three ounces. The necessary saving in fats will come by reducing the amounts used of fat meat, butter, lard, etc. As substitutes for meat, beans and peas serve admirably; and an increase in their use will decrease the amount of meat used. Soy beans and cow peas, not ordinarily used in the human diet, are excellent articles of food. A saving of fat of one-third ounce per person per day would add in one year to our exports to the Allies about 350,000 tons. - Additional help in the matter of wheat, meat, fat, and sugar will be an jncre.'ist use of vegetables. This we can do this year because of the exten- sive and successful campaign to increase the vegetable gardens and the acreage of potatoes. The vegetables which have been grown should be ^'iit^d'as near their source as possible, and the surplus of vegetables not needed in the season should be canned or dried. If the consumption of potatoes were to be increast three or four ounces per day and in addition turnips, carrots, beets, and cabbage, etc., were used more largely than before, all this would help greatly in reducing the amount of food which heretofore has been supplied by wheat, meat, and butter. In short, a survey of the situation shows that there is an ample amount of wholesome food for all, besides furnishing a minimum sufficient amount of wheat, sugar, meat, and fats to the Allies. We need but eliminate waste and readjust our daily food program in order that these things shall be accomplisht. But how shall we succeed in getting the people of the United States to make the necessary changes ? First, all the educational forces of the country should harmoniously cooperate to place the facts before the people and induce them to adopt the program. In the schools of the country, from the primary school to the university, courses should be given, adapted in each case to the pupils, in the elimination of waste and in the readjustment of the daily food program to accomplish the purposes desired. If courses of this kind are given in an intelligent and interesting way, the children will carry back to their parents the story and thus get quick reaction in the household. While the teachers of the country have a great function to perform, so pressing is the emergency that this will not be sufficient. It is planned by Mr. Hoover to work out a daily program for the households of the country, or rather alternative programs adapted to the different 40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General sections and different families. The women's organizations of the country are headed by Dr. Anna Shaw, chairman of the Women's Advisory Com- mittee of the Council for National Defense. All the great women's organi- zations in the United States have recognized this headship. It is planned by the women to make a house-to-house canvass of the nation. Each head of the household will be presented with a conservative food program, which it is desired she should use; and she will be asked to sign a state- ment that she will put the program in force in her household. Upon so doing, she will receive a card, indicating that she is in the war service of the country. If she desires it and is willing to pay ten cents, she will receive a bronze button, which will give evidence of her enlistment in the war work. Finally, the President's Food Administration bill must be enacted into law, and Congress should do this at the earliest possible moment. This bill, authorizing the President to establish agencies to control the distribu- tion of the essential food supplies of the country, is now in the Senate. The President is authorized to prevent market manipulation which unduly enhances prices and thus works a severe hardship upon the wage earlier and the men receiving small salaries. At the present time becausje of hoarding and manipulation, the workingman of this country is paying a higher price for his loaf of bread than is the Englishman or Frenchman, whose bread is made from American wheat. Indeed, the workingmaliU family is actually suffering, owing to the present sky-high prices, produst in a large measure by evil practices. To manipulate the market so as to practice extortion upon the poor in this time of war is the very opposite of patriotism. The bill authorizes the President to secure a fair price by restricting the right to deal in the essentials of life to organizations having a license, and such license may be discontinued if discriminatory or unfair prices are charged. It authorizes him, if necessary, to purchase any portion of each of the cereals and to sell them again at fair prices to the consumer. Other comprehensive powers are given by this bill. It is a pleasure to note that this bill was introdust into the United States Senate by Senator Chamberlain, and he upon the floor of the Senate is at the present moment the able leader who is guiding this bill thru the upper house of Congress. The President has already announst that when this law is enacted Mr. Herbert Hoover will be made food administrator. It will be his duty to see that a sufficient amount of wheat and other essen- tial foods are retained in this country to meet the needs of our population. The surplus will go, first, to the Allies, and any residue will finally go to the neutrals. The harvest has already begun and the food bill should be made a law without delay. The full power of the National Education Associa- tion should be behind the President, Senator Chamberlain, and Mr. Hoover in their attempts to secure prompt action upon the bill for food control. Sessions] NECESSITY OF FOOD-CONSERVATION PROGRAM 41 When the world war began in far-off Germany in August, 19 14, it seemed impossible that the United States should become involved; and yet the world conflagration starting in Europe has spread to the United States. Why should we make the mighty sacrifices which are necessary to carry this war to a successful conclusion ? Laboriously thru the centuries, with vast losses of blood and treasure, a system of international law has been built up, which has been respected by beUigerents in past wars; but in this war every international obligation has been disregarded by Germany under the plea of necessity. The doc- trine of frightfulness has been deliberately adopted in order to intimidate the enemies of Germany, little Belgium being the first to be overrun. We, the people of the United States, have been told that we may sail our ships on the sea in restricted areas, but on other parts of the sea we are to remain off! If we meekly accepted this behest we might as well at once declare that the United States is a vassal of Germany. But the violation of inter- national law is but a sign of the great principles involved. If Germany dictates the terms of peace, she will have forst upon the world the doctrine that might makes right. This world war cannot cease; it must not cease until Germany shall recognize that the laws of nations must be obeyed, that the conquest of small and weak nations is wrong. It is to establish these great prin- ciples that we entered the war. In order that they may be maintained, all the sacrifices which are necessary must be made by this nation. If the fundamental principles of freedom and democracy call for the death of hundreds of thousands of our young men, the sacrifice must be made. If it calls for the expenditure of billions of dollars, the money must be forth- coming. If it requires the concentrated ability of the best intellect of the country to devise ways and means to build ships to destroy the submarine menace, that ability must be dedicated to those purposes. And, last of all, if it requires that we eliminate waste and that we readjust our food program in order that the Allies shall not starve, this must be done. Indeed, as compared with the giving of our young men, as compared with the simply incredible sacrifices that the Allies have already made for these principles, it is a trivial thing to ask that our people be self-denying in order that the Allies may be fed. I ask that this great group of teachers do everything possible in order to make the nation appreciate the absolute necessity for the adoption of a conservative readjusted food program as one of the imperatively essential steps which are necessary to maintain in the world the principles of free- dom and democracy upon which this nation was founded. 42 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General THE PRESS AND PREPAREDNESS EDGAR B. PIPER, EDITOR OF THE "OREGONIAN," PORTLAND, ORE. Not long ago in the city of Washington there was a hearing before the Senate Finance Committee of the newspaper publishers of America on the question of a proposed tax to be imposed against the papers by the govern- ment in its new war revenue bill. There was protest by the publishers and editors because of the discriminatory and unusual nature of the intended levy. A senator from a Middle Western state displayed surprising spleen against the papers, asking this pointed question: "Don't you newspapers want to help pay for your war ? " The reply, of course, was that the news- papers expected to be assest as all business and industry should be assest to pay for any war in which the nation might be involved. I cite this incident as illustrative of a certain kind of mind, in Congress and out of Congress, in its bearing toward a great and vital patriotic enter- prise in which the country as a whole is now concerned. Those who are of this mind think, some of them, and some of them say, that but for the newspapers the war might have been avoided. Some of them belong to the wilful twelve who last spring opposed the President in his request for an outright declaration of support in his attitude toward Germany and its allied powers. Others of them, out of Congress, have been active in the campaign against any kind of overt act toward the enemies of the country. Still others have met in convention under various guises, such as peace leagues, or disarmament organizations, or international brotherhoods, and have made forthright expressions against preparedness. This vastly diminishing minority of the American people is now united only in the opinion that but for the newspapers the great test of democracy against autocracy might not have come. I am not here to say that the newspapers are responsible for the war nor am I here primarily to defend them against any accusation that they have any such accountability. But if they are to be held responsible for a policy which in the name of the nation resorts to any measure, however heroic or extreme, in defense of liberty and democracy, then I am here to plead guilty. The newspapers of the country, with some exceptions, have played a prominent part in the preparedness campaign which brought the people to a state of mind in which they were ready to support the measures of miHtary preparedness devised by the government in this emergency. It was not a contemptible part. It was not a questionable part. But to me it seems obvious that it has been a part played with high patriotic purpose and with united, aggressive, and outspoken loyalty to certain ideals which have markt the course of the RepubHc during 140 years. It seems very strange now, looking over the history of the past three years, to read some of the things that have been said by distinguisht speakers and more or less distinguisht writers on the subject of preparedness. Almost Sessions] THE PRESS AND PREPAREDNESS 43 inconceivable to the patriotic mind are the pusillanimous arguments set forth by some opponents of an adequate preparedness for the emergency that has for three years and more been imminent before our very eyes. Some of these fatuous spellbinders and eager stargazers profess to think that the true place of America in the overthrow of nations and wreck of civilizations was to assume the innocent role of a playful and trusting lamb amid the ravenous wolves and roaring lions and hydrophobic coyotes of militarism. They profess to think that we could impress upon the imperial power mad with the lust of conquest the disinterestedness of our purposes and the loftiness of our aims to such a degree that they would let us alone. Others of these were ladies and gentlemen who thought that an army and navy of any pretensions or size were a real peril to democracy. They forgot, of course, that any army raised in America would be an army of American citizens, and would not be and could not be made to spring to arms over- night, for now we are beginning to understand the long course of prepared- ness necessary to create a real military establishment. Let us hope that they have come to know that an American army is an army of American democracy and therefore an army to be trusted by free Americans. So it has come to pass that there are no vocal alarms or silly appre- hensions such as were raised a year or two ago about the menace to our institutions furnisht by a great miUtary and naval establishment. When an American army and an American navy are not to be trusted to uphold American ideals and protect the American flag at home and abroad, then Americans cannot trust America itself. For the present state of public favor, then, toward a real army and a real navy, the American press, which for the most part has unceasingly by day and by night advocated universal miUtary training, is in great part to be credited. American newspapers early saw that our troubles were likely to be the same troubles that were encountered in England early in the war. When the Prussian Kaiser set about his insane enterprise of overthrowing all democracy and enthroning autocracy in the seats of power thruout the world, Great Britain, except for its fleet, was in a condition of incredible impotency. The newspapers began at once a campaign for an army, but it was to be a volunteer army. They feared there, as many fear here, the very words draft or conscription, and they supported various devices designed to make mihtary service open to all but compulsory upon no one. Nothing but the overwhelming peril, nothing but the universal apprehension of what Germany intended to do, made such a scheme, or any of the volunteer schemes, possible. If Great Britain had it to do over again undoubtedly it would propose and effect universal military service just as Canada now at last is about to resort to that method of raising new armies. When the newspapers of Great Britain began to talk about the faults of Britain's miUtary system they were immediately put under ban of the censor, the only mailed fist that Great Britain seemed to be free and willing 44 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General to use. But after two long years of struggle with the censorship Great Britain has found out that the men in the sanctum are just as patriotic as the men in the camps or at headquarters, and that they know vastly more about what the people ought to know than the men who have followed the profession of arms all their lives and know and pretend to know little else. So again now the press of Great Britain is free in the sense that it was not free at the beginning of the war and discusses poUcies and problems with- out any kind of restriction from the censor except possibly as to specific military or navy movements. During all this time the press in this country has been free and in great part has sought to show that, in the titanic strug- gle going on, on European soil, the American nation was not to be left in its happy isolation, and that the issues being fought out there were of profound and of immediate concern to all the people of this free Republic. . I will take the liberty of stating for your benefit, if you will pardon me, some foundation facts as to this great contest, for we cannot too frequently refresh our minds about the difficulties and perils of our position. You teachers in your service to your state have, with true patriotic willingness, long been instructing your pupils in the perfection of the American ideal of liberty, equality, opportunity. They have come to be the commonplaces of our very existence. To us, or to most of us, they seem to have been bestowed upon us by our forefathers without any condition, and have been received as our rightful heritage just as we take as a matter of course the sun that shines above our heavens, and the air that we breathe so freely into our lungs. Our eyesight is a precious gift which we use almost without thought of its marvelous and indispensable nature. Yet if we were suddenly to be deprived of the inestimable physical function of vision, the horror of the calamity upon any one of us as an individual would be no greater than the black tragedy you and I would suffer if the national endowment of liberty, equality, and opportunity were to be taken from us. So these things in a free republic are the American ideal. Our forefathers fought for them — did not merely negotiate for them — but fought for them because they were denied by a German king on an Enghsh throne. They fought for the right of representation in government, for freedom, equality, and opportunity, and they won it. In 1812 they fought again for the freedom of the seas and they won that. In 1861, being free themselves, they wel- comed the Civil War and fought again through four long years of bloody struggle for the liberation of the black man on our own soil. In 1898 once more they fought for freedom of an opprest people under another flag, extending the beneficent influence of that ideal which they have cherisht during more than a century to the downtrodden Cubans laboring under the iron heel of a Spanish oppressor. So during more than 140 years, when any vital right of an American citizen, white or black, has been concerned, or it has appeared that democ- racy itseK was in any danger from inside enemies or outside foes, the Ameri- I Sessions] THE PRESS AND PREPAREDNESS 45 can people did not merely meet in convention and pass resolutions and declare the high purity of their purposes, but they buckled on their armor and as men fought for their rights. During the present generation, except for the brief interlude of the Spanish-American War, there has been until now no warfare, no peril, no menace, no dark cloud in a perfect sky of tranquillity and peace to excite the alarms of the American people. It seems to me, then, that to a great extent the American ideal and what it represents had come to merely something that our children read about in the school books. In this same period when an American democracy threw off the fetters of kings and potentates and grew into a young giant among the nations of the earth, a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night for encouragement of all peoples desirous of liberty everywhere, there has been establisht and fostered another ideal. It is the Prussian ideal, with military power as the foundation stone in a vast temple of education, of science, of philosophy, of art, of eloquence, all the things that make life worth while. Upon the priiftiple of a socialized paternalism, or of a paternal socialism, with a great army as a basis, and a kaiser as its crown piece, we have seen the development of a great people. It has thrived and prospered under another system of government than the American system. This German or Prussian ideal was probably the creation originally of Frederick William I two hundred years ago and it had been fostered and protected and developt during two centuries, with some vicissitudes, by his many successors until the entrance upon the scene of the Iron Chancellor more than fifty years ago. Then and there the German ideal came to its full fruit and flower. This great militarism, the German ideal, clad in the poHsht habiliments of civilization and Christianity, triumpht over Austria — and exacted an indemnity. The German ideal lookt with envy upon Schleswig-Holstein and took that unhappy state away from Denmark. Then it profest to find reasons for being angry with France, and it made war upon that unsuspecting and unprepared country, and exacted, accord- ing to the German fashion, an indemnity of a billion dollars in gold for a war which France lost. There, too, on French soil Prussia and all the North German states were made over into the German Empire, and at Versailles, the French capital, the German Emperor was crowned, literally with his heel upon the neck of the prostrate French people. Is it necessary to show or necessary to say what has occurred in Ger- many, on European soil, during the past forty-five or fifty years ? Over there is told the story of the growth of German power in commerce, in industry, in agriculture, in education, in science and all the arts and indus- tries that make up modern civilization. Here, living under the grateful influence of American idealistic conditions, we thought it possible to live in harmony with the German ideal. We did not look with envy upon any- thing that Germany was doing and it did not occur to us that we in our 46 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General isolation and in the development of our own destiny could possibly have excited any kind of resentment in any body of the German people, or any king or kaiser or prince who was the creation or symbol of German power. But we have had a rude awakening. There came the fateful 19 14. Ger- many had erected with care its vast structure of German imperialism. An assassination in an Austrian Serbian city set the world afire. Then, indeed, the hour of its destiny had struck, and the German ideal put its shining armor on its head, took its flaming sword in its mailed fist, pulled on its seven-league boots, and set out to conquer the world. The legions of the Cerman Kaiser, clad in their fleckless gray, poured in upon defenseless but undaunted Belgium. Is there anyone here, or anywhere, that would have had Belgium meet the conqueror at its border with flowers and honey, and other emblems of peaceful submission, and notify him that he was free to set foot upon its soil in his grand march against civilization? Not one but now looks with pride upon valiant and freedom-loving Belgium, while dropping a tear at the sacrifice of its sons and martyrdom of its daughters. Not one. Somehow Belgium, and Germany, ^00, are to me symbolized in the incident of the little boy who, early in the war, was seized by a brave German captain and brought before a drumhead court-martial on the charge of being a Belgian spy. He was instantly found guilty. This poor little boy was then blindfolded and his back was placed to the wall and German Kultur with a capital K stood before him with its loaded weapons leveled, and vindicated the German ideal by shooting its tender and helpless victim to death. If the world did not before that terrible and fateful incident understand the true meaning of German Kultur, what excuse thereafter could it have had for remaining in ignorance that German Kultur was German frightfulness and German frightfulness was the practice of terrorism upon all the world, belligerents and neutrals alike. We are to know that the great European war is not merely a moving spectacle, however tremendous and thrilling, in which we are to be only spectators. It is not merely a vast military panorama, not a great moving picture, not something just to be read about daily in the papers. I was out in the country the other day, and I saw a tramp sitting in the shade of a tree by the roadside. Near him was burning a bright fire and on it a kettle was boiling, doubtless in preparation of the tramp's breakfast. With his back against the tree, his shoeless feet out in the sun, he was read- ing a newspaper, calmly indifferent to everything in the world, evidently, except what he saw in the paper and except the feast that was in preparation for him. That tramp seems to me to have typified pretty well the American attitude. Here our skies are bright, our fields are rich with ripening grain, our orchards are heavy laden with fruit, our children go in happiness to their schools, our boys play in the streets or in the open. Our men, and our women too, go, or for nearly three years have gone until now, about their usual occupations. It has been well-nigh impossible for us to understand Sessions] THE PRESS AND PREPAREDNESS 47 that under the same skies, the same sun, and the same God there is black tragedy and bleak horror for some fifteen nations of the world. Over there are leveled orchards, devastated fields, wreckt homes, broken fire- sides, tumult, destruction, devastation, and death. But we shall know about it soon. Our sons and our brothers are going to the war. Now they are in the National Guard or in the training camps, and every day or two we get letters from them about their occupations and their pastimes. Some day soon they will go to France. Perhaps we shall have more letters from them, but for some of them there are to be other things. There are to be misery and wounds and battlefields and hospitals and all the dread tragedy of bloody war. Then there will be no letters; only silence and unmarkt graves. For any of us to whom such a calamity may come there will indeed be an appalling realization of what warfare means. We ought to make an effort to grasp it now. We must. We have heard at times that it is the duty of nations to have business as usual. So it is. But just now our business is the business our forefathers undertook wten they achieved our liberty and made the world free for us. Was it possible, or is it possible, for the American ideal to live forever in harmony with the German ideal, or was the war between them inevitable ? Now it is as clear as the noonday sun that one or the other, the American ideal or the German ideal, must die that the other may survive. Lincoln said that the nation could not survive half slave and half free. It was true. Now we see that civilization cannot live half democratic and half imperiahstic. Is there any question now about the duty of the American people in this crisis ? Is there any remaining doubt about the things that we must do for the world, giving our sons and our brothers and even our daughters to the service of humanity? Just as we fought a century ago to make the nation free, so now it is clear that we must fight to make civiliza- tion free, our civilization and not Prussian civilization with a capital K and a capital F. If the newspapers, as I have said, have any responsi- bility for the state of the public mind in America at this time, they have every reason to avow it and to be proud of it, and I am here as one witness for them to testify before you that in the future as in the past they will continue to do their share for the protection and preservation of the Ameri- can ideal, for the priceless heritage of liberty, equality, and opportunity which our fathers won for us, and which, untarnisht and complete, we must in sacred honor and in solemn duty pass on to our sons and their sons and daughters forever after. 48 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tGeneral HOW THE PUBLIC SCHOOL CAN FOSTER THE AMERICAN IDEAL OF PATRIOTISM SARA H. FAHEY, TEACHER OF ENGLISH, SEWARD PARK SCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY I appreciate the compliment of being accorded a place on this evening's program. I respect my opportunity, because, among the thousands of demonstrations of preparedness thruout the land, none is more significant than this convention of American educators. It is not necessary to state that we are assembled here primarily because we feel that the work of education must go on. Government by the people implies education of the people. It is a truism to say that in education rests the life of democ- racy. Education must give leaders to the new age that is to follow this upheaval of civilization from which we are suffering. In taking an inventory of the nation's strength, we must remember that the greaj:est resource of any nation is, not its mines, its quarries, its forests, and its fisheries, but rather its people and particularly its children — its future citizens — and they are the material with which the school deals. This fact has made tyrants everywhere dread the free school. They know that it is the one weapon of democracy against the tyranny of the mob, or of the arbitrary ruler. It has been truly said by one of our statesmen: " Whatever we want in the nation for tomorrow we must put into the school of today." This beUef is well illustrated by Russia in her efforts to make freedom permanent. Witness the Educational League of Moscow imme- diately mapping out an extensive plan for reaching the 100,000,000 illiterates of the civic body, the aim being to teach them reading and writing and the privileges of citizenship. The Educational League reahzes that while ignorance has been the safeguard of autocracy, it is certain to be the pitfall of democracy. In our country the public school should stand alone in its ability to discriminate, and should reflect the American people's conception of citizenship and patriotism. Such patriotism is of the character that prompts a citizen to serve his country in whatever way she needs him most. It is patriotism for daily living as a member of a society whose basic prin- ciple is that government rests on the consent of the governed. President Wilson, in that magna charta of democracy known as the war message, gives as the essential principle behind our ideal — the right of each nation to decide its own form of government. One hundred and forty-one years ago, when our forefathers issued that most momentous document, the Declaration of Independence, they gave us the basis for our ideals of free- dom. From it we get the slogan for our entrance into the present war: "To make liberty and self-government safe for mankind." Our Secretary of the Interior, Frankhn K. Lane, in his terse English, has also given the keynote to our ideal when he states the object of the jHi cou Sessions] PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND AMERICAN PATklOTISM 4^ present war to be: "To justify our right as Americans to live as we have lived, not as someone else wishes us to live. We fight with the world for an honest world in which nations keep their word, for a world in which the man is held more precious than the machine, the system, or the state." Because of these ideals, America is today committed to the most serious war the world has ever known. Long and anxiously had we hoped and prayed and trusted that our land would not be drawn into that seething vortex which has well-nigh engulft all of Europe. But our country found at last that she could not keep out — that she must enter in self-protection. She found that tacit approval of a great principle counts for but Uttle. The world is slow to respect men until they strip and fight for a principle. We have not been awake to the signs of the times. Even from the platform of our own National Education Association we have been warned again and again of the war spirit developing in Europe. Many of us regarded those that warned us as alarmists. While we were dreaming of arbitration methods, educational systems in Europe were stimulating adoration of the past, historic hatred, and unwholesome fear of their sister- nations. We were confident that our feelings and methods would conquer the ancient and stagnant spirit of the Old World; but we were not earnest in preaching our gospel. We should have spent some of the billions that we now have on hand in sending representatives of our ideals across the seas. We should have made missionaries to those lands of our youths and our teachers. We know now that we can never enjoy peace and stabiUty in government until democracy establishes nationalism in a larger sense than is at present understood. There must be a moral and spiritual character behind those terms, and there must be a high purpose in the masses of the people before the democratic ideal of patriotism can be fully realized. Patriotism, as we know it, is a device in the autocracy thru which secret diplomatists attain their ends. In the democracy, unfortunately, it has been too often a plaything in the hands of demagogs rather than a force to be felt in education. Patriotism is not a synonym for war; nor is the term inconsistent with ideals of peace. No movement of modern times for the advancement of civilization and the relief of humanity from terrific burdens of expenditure and paralyzing fear has been more patriotic than that for arbitration and for world-wide peace, yet we have allowed the burden of such work to rest on the shoulders of a few idealists. We suc- ceeded in having Peace Day celebrated in our schools; we formed cos- mopolitan clubs in our universities, the object being to break down race hatreds; but we did not realize that it was necessary for our happiness to have these ideals accepted by other nations. We did not realize that the interrelation of nations is now so close that the progress attained in our country must extend to our neighbors, if that progress is to be permanent. 50 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Note the contrast in ideals. In Central Europe the instruction of youth has been based on the miUtary regime. The aim has been to teach a narrow-minded patriotism consisting of pride in the armed world power of one's own nation and a contempt of other nations. Unquestioning readiness to fight at the first sign from the war lord and to sacrifice any sums for the demands of the war department is the highest virtue implanted in the growing generation by the official school methods. There is no room for such dreams as arbitration treaties. It is regarded as dangerous to the necessary military spirit that such Utopian matters be even mentioned in the schools. Small wonder that the ideals of these countries clash with ours. With these people nationalism is a delusion by which they have perverted their civilization into a mechanical organization of power that now menaces the truest interests and welfare of mankind. Such nations may boast of their eflSciency, but, as the poet and seer of India, Tagore, expresses it, ''What- ever their efficiency, such great organizations are so impersonal that they bear down, on the individual lives of the people like a hydraulic press whose action is completely impersonal and therefore completely effective in crushing out individual liberty and power." On the other hand, we, in our country, have been too insistent in our claims for individual liberty. Many of us have wanted the privileges of freedom without its respon- sibilities. We have been lazily indifferent to the standards of patriotism of the rest of humanity. But our bitter experience today is rudely awaken- ing us to this fact, namely, that we can never again return to our provincial attitude regarding other nations — that our civilization is retarded by their false ideals. It is for us to consider what the school can do in this twentieth century to substitute a higher ideal of Christianity and brotherhood than this narrow nationalism of past ages — an American ideal of patriotic citizenship. Since our government rests on the popular vote, it is necessary that the school educate the student in the morality which is the basis of our country's prosperity and happiness. The greatest tragedy in our history is our failure to give the young moral education, a failure due to our neutrality on religion. Only then can we be counted on to support measures tending toward that morality. Our forefathers believed this so implicitly that the city which boasts the Cradle of Liberty founded also the first free school of America. The school can lead young people to feel that historic hatreds have no place in a democracy. A beautiful illustration of this truth was given a few weeks ago by the Confederate Veterans of the Civil War. President Wilson, in expressing his pleasure that they were holding their reunion at the national Capitol, said, " The world does not live on memories. There are some things that we have thankfully buried. Among them are the great passions of division which once threatened to render our nation in twain." i Sessionsl PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND AMERICAN PATRIOTISM 51 The old veterans were so thoroly iifibued with the feeling exprest that their reply was typical of the chivalry of the old South, even in the assurance, "If any of the young men of America prove to be slackers in their defense of the flag of the Union, just send for us — just send for the old boys." From the lowest primary grade upward we should develop in youth an ability to regard itself as a part not alone of its own community, nation, or religion, but as an integral part of the human family. In this connection, the school, by training pupils to question self- conduct, will have made a long stride toward the ideals of a real democracy. For he who would control others must first learn to govern himself. Teach pupils that democracy does not mean that the majority necessarily is right. They should not be taught that the voice of the people is always the voice of God. But democracy does mean that decision and responsibility are put on the same shoulders. If war must be declared it ought to be done by those who, when war comes, have to go out and be shot. In the mon- archy the ruler makes the decision, and the people take the responsibility. One of the first ideals to implant is that a stable society must represent the will of the people. It cannot be half autocratic and half democratic. The school should teach that any society that governs itself is superior, even if some autocracies may seem to be more efficient. There is great necessity for this teaching. People have been flocking from the four corners of the earth to this land of freedom. They may bring with them charms of education and of culture. But many of them bring also notions of social relations and of national government which make them misunderstand the spirit of our institutions. How are we to develop American ideals of citizenship from these conflicting sentiments and ideals ? Will we accomplish it thru a salute to the flag and an occasional patriotic song? Will the atmosphere of freedom that hangs about us envelop them as it d;d the boys who defended their right to skate on the Boston Common ? Or shall we depend wholly on the proverbial melting- pot, and still do nothing to help on the melting ? I do not believe so. The abiding transformation is wrought on the foreign-born adult through his children in the public school. The study of the lives of great Americans which furnish models for imitation, lives standing for what is most worth while in American life — the simplicity of thought and action, notably in the lives of Washington and Lincoln— is what gives ideals for the true American. But there are certain obstacles in the way of making our teaching effective. Unfortunately many of our schools are not democratic organizations, either in relation to the teaching body or to the people taught. Indeed it is safe to say that there are no more autocratic institu- tions in our country than are some of our largest public-school systems. Great numbers of teachers are trained at public expense, yet, because of this autocratic conception of organization, their knowledge and experience are seldom capitalized for the benefit of public education. Such schools 5^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General fail to illustrate the great principles which we should teach. They fail to grasp the meaning of waste in education. Pupils will not appreciate the value of democratic organization unless their relations to each other are dramatized in their daily life. The school city, or some such form of student self-government, is ideal for this purpose. It gives pupils an opportunity to elect people who are to exercise power and to remove them if they fail to exercise it justly. It makes pupils see also the importance of having decision and responsibility rest on the same body. The demoralizing monitorial system in operation in some schools is, on the contrary, directly opposed to the democratic ideal. Even when a wise selection of monitors has been made by a supervisory officer, abuses creep in. But when doubtful students are chosen, as they are sometimes, in the hope that they will make good, the evils of this system become more markt. We see lust for power and for what is known as graft in the adult world, as a rule, whenever pupils of weak moral fiber are assigned to control others. Trustworthy, self-reliant pupils are led to have less respect for law because of seeing one of their number over whom they have no control become arbitrary and tyrannical, while they, the governed, have little opportunity for redress. Since we are fighting for a world in which the man is held more precious than the machine, the system, or the state, then it is most important that the school recognize that democratic principles are essential to its own organization. Another weak spot which we find in the school when we try to teach social responsibility lies in the fact that what is known as the new education depends as much on involuntary interest as the schools of the past depended on the birch rod. Some of our methods of today make children flabby of mind, weak of will, superficial in character, and inaccurate in scholarship. Pupils too frequently get the notion that they should do nothing except what they like to do. We have too many children in the schools who are sure to increase the moral weakness of their community. Children should be led to appreciate the meaning of a thorobred. To quote from a bit of advice in a recent novel, " You must go on until you can get no further. You reach the limit of human endurance, and then you hold on another minute, and that's the minute that counts." In a recent address on preparedness before urban universities, Mortimer L. SchifE said: Our young people are not taught to concentrate. There can be no real efficiency without this power. Furthermore, our schools seem to be deficient in the matter of discipline. If the students cannot be disciplined in regard to their attendance, behavior, and the like, then there is little chance of disciplining their minds. Positive knowledge is what is needed, not guesswork. The world deals with facts, and bluffing does not lead to success. Discipline, thoroness, and efficiency are not only military virtues but are also requisites for industrial, commercial, and civic success. It is well worth while to ask ourselves, "Is there any basis for the criticism?" We grant young people should be habituated to doing well Sessions] PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND AMERICAN PATRIOTISM 53 whatever it is their duty to do, and to find stimulus to some extent in the satisfaction that comes from mastering difficulties because of the end in view. The strong and wise know that, for the most part, our tasks in the world must be followed in grim purpose, thru discouragement and darkness, holding on in sheer and hard loyalty to the end. We may feel that we have done much to train in citizenship, but we have not done enough that is practical. We do not test our product by the standards set. At best, pupils are graduated because of intellectual attainment, not for the charac- teristics that make for patriotic citizenship. The survival of the fittest still holds true; and, just as Rome fell because its people became decadent, so today no nation can live whose citizenship is shiftless, inefficient, and inadequately trained and educated. The school should teach that a nation of free men means a nation that is keen to recognize the majesty of the law. Whatever of good we enjoy in our land is bought at a great price and conserved at a sacrifice. When there is no voice to say with absolute finality, ''This shalt thou do," there is anarchy. The conception of freedom which prompts men to conspire to bring about chaos by dynamiting property, or by murdering men in authority, or by violence, destroying all establisht institutions, is not the American ideal of patriotism. Pupils must be taught that unless a demo- cratic government thru its majority can act as positively and as dependably as a king or an aristocracy, it is only a mob ; it is a nuisance and a menace. They must also be taught that rights and privileges are conditioned by service; that selfishness and separateness will eat out the heart of any civilization. Every child born into the world is not only the parent's child, but the nation's child and humanity's child. If a child be not so educated as to lay upon him a duty and an obligation to render in return a service to all in like measure as he has received from all, then our system of educa- tion is a failure and the vast expenditure for it a criminal waste. We should teach that in a democracy the duty to serve and the privilege to serve fall upon all alike. Each one of us must hold himself ready to be summoned to the duty of supporting the great government under which we live. Pupils should be taught that the question whether we should go to war is no longer debatable. We are in war. We went into it by a vote of an overwhelming majority of our legally chosen representatives. Our duty now is to stand by democracy. "The supreme test of the nation has come. We must all speak, act, and serve together." To rebel against the decisions of our Congress is to rob democracy of all efficiency. The facts that concern us are, "The United States is at war. The United States is our country. If we fail to do our duty our country may be defeated. What then will happen to us ? " Teach the young that our country must be true to its ideals. As Washington long ago voiced it, "Let us raise a standard to which the wise and the honest can repair. The event is in the hand of God." 54 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General Teachers must be clear as to their own ideals. Whatever dislike individuals may have for one ally or another, because of the historic past, patriotism will prompt them now to stand by the issues of the living. The pacifist's duty is to see that the war is kept true to the lofty aims stated by our President. It should be clear that we are fighting for a new inter- nationalism— to make the world safe for democracy — for a world federa- tion, and the school is to build the foundation on which to rear these ideals. The pacifist could perform a patriotic service for the schools if he would help to organize material for efficient civic training. At the present time much of the so-called instruction in civics is concerned with the organization of national government and with national problems. This phase of govern- ment is so far removed from the actual experience of young people as to be of little value for citizenship. The kind of civics which trains to a knowledge of local conditions and local needs is the kind that is of real value. The pupils today get a smatter- ing of general government in the school, while they depend on the street- corner orator to instruct them in civic responsibility. Many subjects of vital interest are tabooed by the school, and are learned later from the wrong sources. Attention is seldom called to the slacker who fails to become a citizen, or who fails to vote when the privilege is granted him. And still less is said of the traitor who sells his right to the franchise. It is the street-corner teaching that has muddled the term ''pacifist." Teach that Washington was a pacifist. When his job was done, without any lust for power, he went back to his farm to become again a private citizen. Teach that Lincoln was a pacifist driven into war, as exprest in his words, "Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray, that this scourge shall speedily pass away." True pacifists all down the ages have believed that, while peace is good, it is not more good than is life and liberty. They believe with Franklin that "they who can give up liberty to obtain temporary safety, deserve neither." Young people must be taught the high aims of our country in this war. If we fail to keep these ideals uppermost, mercenary people may pervert our purpose. Pacifists can serve by taking care that speculators are not allowed to fatten illegally off the American people. In former times we had the highwayman; today we have the food gambler who in the last six months has been stealing $50,000,000 per month thru the sale of flour alone. This is a state of economic anarchy, and the men who create such a condition should be recognized as the most contemptible of outlaws and traitors. It would be well to remember that most nations die as most men do, from internal causes. What shall it profit a nation to circle the earth with power if she forget justice, hear not the cry of the needy, check not the wrongdoing of the mighty ? Young folks should be trained to city-mindedness. Attention should be called to social relations. For example, they should be led to see that Sessions] PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND AMERICAN PATRIOTISM 55 no democracy is safe where there are casts of race — where any race is set apart as perpetually inferior; where a race may be permitted to become lower, but not higher. No democracy is safe if any part of its people is so moved by the surging of passion that an orgy of butchery and incendiarism is substituted at will for the orderly processes of laws and justice. Pupils must be trained to open-mindedness. New situations cannot always be measured by old standards. Every progress consists in the victory of a new thought over old prejudices. It cannot be wholly thru knowledge of past facts laid down by former generations in textbooks that the new ethical and political systems can vanquish the old ones. Young people and adults too must be taught that the portals of the future cannot always be opened with the blood-rusted keys of the past. Show pupils that the care of the public health is a kind of patriotism. Americans fail to balance their health books until plunged into bankruptcy. Very few of them grasp the idea that the body is an asset. The result of this indifference is that they show a peculiar deterioration in middle life. While European countries in normal times show a lowered death-rate for every age, in the United States the death-rate for chronic or degenerate diseases has sharply increast, a fact believed to be due to the rapid transition from country to city life. If our people could be educated to the periodic health examination they would be awakened to some of their dangers. Then again we might have taught the evils from the use of alcohol more impressively long ago if we had enlightened young people about the con- servation of our resources, about the waste of foodstuffs involved; in other words, if the economic problem had been emphasized. Train pupils to be ready, if necessary, to do their share of the rough work of the world. In the words of Roosevelt, "Let not man or woman become so refined or so highly educated that either the men or the women will be unfitted to do the rough, useful work of life." It is patriotic service to show children how to spend money wisely. For example, pupils, thru the school savings banks, have been well represented as purchasers of Liberty Bonds. In the city of New York nearly $500,000 was realized for the government from this source alone. Somewhere in the course point out that our present political system robs the home of adequate representation and makes business and finance the chief interest of politics. The great majority of the teaching force are by implication declared legally unfit to vote, yet are engaged in the training of our citizens — are required to set up American ideals of patriotism. Young people should be taught also that whether we believe in war or not we are constantly forst to deal with the terrible by-products of war: the sweatshop system, the impossible tenement, the child-labor problem. In Europe, for centuries, mother and child have labored, while war and the army have demanded father and son. If it be true that organized gangs prey on the young girls of our great cities, what is this white-slave traffic $6 NATIONAL EDUCATION A^SOCtATtON [General but a by-product of war ? Can we therefore refuse now to concern our- selves with war and with the ideals of other nations on this subject of war, when later they will thrust the aftermath of war on us by the shipload ? American ideals of patriotism will lead us to attack all plans for educa- tion which tend to narrow the student's mental outlook. For example, if we are to escape the slow hardening of society into layers, vocational training must be kept in close touch with the other work of the schools. In a democracy it is not sound training, from childhood, to place the mechanic in one group and the professional man in another. It is most important that the schools shall teach the English language. The national language is the one common agency and tool of national life. The city superintendent of schools of New York realized this importance when he said recently that patriotism should prompt people with foreign accent or defects of pronunciation of English to refrain from teaching in the elementary schools. In all this connection we must not fail to maintain our compulsory- education laws. Franklin once said, ''Wars are not paid for in war times; the bill comes later." This is true in more senses than one. England reports an increase in the past two years of 34 per cent in juvenile delin- quency and crime due to relaxed educational laws. We must also guard labor laws, particularly those of child labor. It is against public interest to exploit women and children in industry, even under the stress of war conditions. A few days ago a cartoon in the daily press showed "A Betsy Ross of 191 7." It represented a foreign mother and her little children in New York, hard at work in a sweatshop making flags of the United States. Some of them were sewing on the stars, and others were fastening the flag to the staff. It is self-evident that acquaint- ance with our flag under such conditions will not arouse feelings of patriotism. I repeat that the organization of the school should demonstrate the ideal of democracy. Besides our great body of patriotic literature, we have our songs. Someone has said, "Let me write the songs of a nation and I care not who makes the laws." There is much in the folklore, the myths, and the literature of our own and of foreign lands that we can utilize for this purpose. Pupils will be thus led to feel the internationalism of literature as well as of government. There are few subjects in the schools for which material can so easily be found as for this subject of patriotism. The school is then the one great nurturing-ground for the American ideal of patriotism. To these training camps called public schools come 17,000,000 children of the nation. From farm homes and mining towns, from villages and from the teeming centers of industry, comes this great army of citizens of the future. They should be taught that the message that all government rests on the consent of the governed was uttered to an unresponsive world 141 years ago. Today it is the creed of two-thirds of the people of the Sessions] NORMAL SCHOOL TEACHING PATRIOTISM 57 earth. This is sufficient proof of the progress of mankind. Teach them that their destiny as Americans is onward and upward, realizing this ideal for every one of God's children. Let us so train them that they will hold their country true to democratic ideals, and that they will have faith in her power to realize those ideals. Teach them to say with the poet Hovey, The guns that spoke at Lexington Knew not that God was planning then The trumpet word of Jefferson To bugle forth the rights of men. To them that wept and curst Bull Run, What was it but despair and shame! Who saw behind the cloud and sun ? Who knew that God was in the flame ? Had not defeat upon defeat, Disaster upon disaster, come. The slaves' emancipated feet Had never marcht behind the drum! There is a hand that bends our deeds To mightier issues than we planned; Each son that triumphs, each that bleeds, My coimtry, serves its dark command. I do not know beneath what sky Nor on what seas shall be thy fate; I only know it shall be high, I only know it shall be great. THE NORMAL SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY FOR TEACHING PATRIOTISM J. H. ACKERMAN, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MONMOUTH, ORE. Were I an artist, I would paint a picture of the public school as being on trial in the court of public opinion. The indictment has been drawn, service has been served on the defendant, witnesses have been subpoenaed, attorneys have been employed, the jury has been selected, the judge is on the bench. The defendant has appeared for trial and demands that the charge shall be read in open court. The charge is as follows : "The public school is required to prove that its standards, ideals, and practices are such as to produce citizens who are worthy and well qualified to perform any and all of the duties incumbent on a free and independent people; that in a time of stress such as now harasses the American people they shall be tried and not found wanting." The testimony is now being taken and when com- pleted will be submitted to the jury. The whole world is breathlessly awaiting the verdict. Shall it favor the plaintiff or shall it exonerate the defendant? Time alone will tell. In the meantime the events of last 58 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General year give us courage to hope that in substance it will be, "Well done, good and faithful servant," and that it will be accompanied with an edict that the good work shall continue even more abundantly, and that the decree will receive the plaudits of a friendly and admiring world. During this trial the question will be fully agitated as to whether or not the two national ideals, the German and the American systems of edu- cation, are so planned and administered as fully to meet the requirements of their respective national ideals; whether or not our educational system has developed the spirit of genuine patriotism. In other words, the question before the jury is. Has the public-school system of America produced a citizenship which will meet the present demands for the highest type of patriotism, or will it be proved that a different system would have proved more effective in this our hour of peril? A corollary to this question is: Has the public-school teacher done her work well, and consequently has she had proper and adequate training for her work ? For when the ques- tion at issue has been reduced to its lowest terms, the responsibihty rests on the shoulders of the teacher and her trainer, or upon the normal school and its influence upon public-school methods and practices. During this trial the product of the school as evidenst by patriotic conduct will be carefully scanned. Every citizen will be called upon to give a patriotic account of himself. His private and public attitude toward his government will be closely scrutinized. His ideals as to what constitutes loyalty will be fully discust; his courage and manhood will be challenged at every turn. Some of the evidence is now in. Let us examine it. During the days of waiting, when our President was sharply criticized for his policy of waiting; the days when the pacifists were actively striving to keep us out of war; the days when some of our brightest and most loyal leaders were urging the policy of preparedness and, if must be, war, how did the American people conduct themselves? Were they not always willing to examine both sides of the question and suspend judgment ? For one of the highest attributes of an educated person is the ability to suspend judgment. Were they not always law-abiding? I think we must admit that so far the defendant has the best of the argument. Again, when war was declared, did not the people loyally acquiesce in the decision and as one man prepare for the conflict ? Again must the credit be given to the defendant. When the call came for subscriptions for the Liberty Bonds did not the people rise nobly to answer it? Another test of the loyalty of the people and another test of the product of the schools, and right worthily did they meet it. How did the people respond to the idea of conscription ? No need to say. Hence another credit mark for the loyalty of the people and, we believe, for the schools. Then when the people were askt to sacrifice by donating to the Red Cross fund it was the same story, a loyal and united people, and thru it all who were the first to answer the call for volunteers ? Sessions] NORMAL SCHOOL TEACHING PATRIOTISM 59 The schoolrooms of our educational institutions. Could we ask for stronger evidence ? Do we not think with the trial so far advanst that the judge would be justified in giving the case to the jury with instructions to bring in a verdict for the defendant ? In order that any organization may accomplish its best mission it should be dominated by high and well-comprehended ideals. What have been and what shall be the controlling and all-pervading ideals of the school is the problem of the hour. To solve any problem a thoro and accurate knowledge of it is necessary, especially when its solution so vitally afifects the weal or woe of a great people. Such a problem should be honestly stated and viewed from every angle, and should have for its foundation principles justice and righteousness. Have not the American people during these last three years measured the great problem with the square of justice and righteousness? Have they not viewed the problems from every angle and formed sane judgments concerning it ? The fact that they have would seem to indicate in the strongest possible manner that the principles of justice and righteousness are the fundamental principles in our educational system. As an agency for teaching patriotism by means of the teachers whom it sends forth, a normal school should be a potent factor. In order to do this the spirit of loyalty, which is only another word for patriotism, should be felt in every nook and corner of its classrooms and on its campus and in all its practices and activities. Its faculty should be so imbued with the spirit of loyalty to the student body, to its coworkers, to the institution, and to the state, the very atmosphere should be so saturated with loyalty that the faculty would never have to speak of patriotism as such, no more than does the teacher who teaches morality in the best sense have to speak of morality, as her very life does the speaking. The normal school should stand in no uncertain terms for certain and well-defined standards of loyalty. Its student body should be characterized by its loyalty to itself, to its school, to its country, and to humanity, if it is to be imbued with the highest spirit of patriotism. In this training the normal school should endeavor to have the student unselfishly loyal to himself. When this end has been obtained, the school has done its best work as an agency for teaching patriotism. I am always highly pleased to have a student who has come from another school show by look or word that he is loyal to his former school, for then I am morally certain that he has the elements of loyalty so well estabhsht that he will eventually be loyal to the new. Of such stuff is the patriot made. Any legitimate effort that may be made to secure a student's loyalty to his own school tends to lay a safe and sure foundation for loyalty to his country. There are many ways by which this may be secured, among which may be mentioned the following: team work in the preparation of competitive programs, care always being taken that the keen rivalry thus engendered 6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General does not leave a feeling of hate or jealousy. To this end every opportunity should be given to present programs for national holidays and other patriotic occasions. The past year has afforded many such opportunities. Not only should these programs be used for building up the patriotic spirit in the student, but they should serve as standards when the student shall have occasion to prepare programs for like occasions in his own school. In fact, every program given in a normal school, whether patriotic or otherwise, should have this end in view. The normal school should afford every opportunity for students to participate in any altruistic movement. The past few months have been indeed rich with such opportunities. For instance, one of the principal social functions of a certain normal school is the "Junior Prom," one that is looked forward to with keen interest by the student body and alumni, for which the greatest expense is incurred for decorations, music, refreshments, etc. When it came time to discuss ways and means for financing it, the Liberty Bond question was uppermost in the minds of everyone. Inspired with the spirit of patriotism, and feeling the graveness of the situation and wishing to do its "bit" in a patriotic way, the Junior class so simplified its arrangements as to save one hundred dollars with which it purchast a Liberty Bond and presented it to the board of regents with instructions to apply one-half of the pro- ceeds to the student body loan fund and the other half to the purchase of a memorial to President Wilson. The Senior class of the same school assest each member one dollar and the one hundred and fifty dollars thus raised was used in purchasing a Liberty Bond, which was presented to the board of regents with instructions to apply the proceeds to the credit of the student loan fund. The discussions that took place and the decisions arrived at led to a realization of the fact that genuine patriotism consists in making a sacrifice for a worthy cause — a splendid foundation for building up a patriot spirit. Then again, students were encouraged to take a financial interest in all movements for aiding the Red Cross, and the Honor Guard girls of the school were especially active in all activities in which they could add their " bit," all of which were entered into with zeal and pleasure. So many of the men students volunteered to join the colors that there was a dearth of men for janitor work. The Honor Guard girls promptly offered their assistance as a patriotic duty, and the work was done willingly and well. I am sure these instances, or similar ones, were duplicated in every normal school in the land. It cannot be too strongly urged that that school will do its best work when in season and out of season it persistently builds up in the mind and conscience of the individual student the ideal of loyalty to self. In this connection one of the most interesting problems a faculty has to meet is the well-ingrained notion that it is disloyal under any circumstances to inform on a fellow-student. I once asked a Senior class of nearly one hundred members if it would be right, in case one member of the class had been Sessions] NORMAL SCHOOL TEACHING PATRIOTISM 6i guilty of setting fire to a normal building and another member of the class knew who did it, for that member to give the name of the guilty person. Much to my surprise more than 90 per cent declared that it would not be right. These students were splendid people, law-abiding and loyal, but the idea of loyalty to the individual had been so thoroly inculcated during their early life that they failed to see the harm that would come to society were this ideal followed by every individual in the body politic. The teacher thoroly saturated with this idea could not teach patriotism in the best sense. Hence the school that is preparing teachers should strive so to change the student's attitude that he will see the light — no easy task in many instances. It is a self-evident truth that no faculty of such a school can do this unless it too is loyal to itself, to its school, and to its country. Another ideal to be inculcated into a body of normal-school students is that each person should train himself to be socially efficient; that unless one has this quality he cannot do his best work in teaching patriotism. To accom- plish this, ample opportunity should be offered for all students to take part in social affairs, and they should be urged, if not required, to do so. Stu- dents should be trained to take responsibility and see it thru to the end. Press reports indicate that the present war will be won by the aeroplanes, and the reason assigned for this is that the American aviator has more initiative, can think more quickly and decide more quickly in an emergency than does a German, attributes all vitally important for one who is to be a successful aviator. This being true, it certainly should be a function of the school to train its students so that they shall be able to take the initiative and accept responsibility wherever they may be called. It should teach pupils to think clearly and independently. I need not remind you that our people during the last three years have been called upon as never before to weigh and judge the conflicting arguments that have been presented to them. On the one hand were the arguments of peace. Even this great body but two short years ago had for its slogan the peace idea, and so strong was the sentiment and so far-reaching was its influence that many a teacher felt that it would be a disloyal act to have her children sing a martial song, or even to have them march in any of their exercises. On the other hand were heard the arguments for preparedness. The people were appealed to by the forum and the press. So well had the school teacher done her work that the people were able to listen understanding^, read clearly, judge well, and act wisely. When war was declared our people never faltered, so well had they been mentally prepared. When the call came to arms, who were the first to join the colors ? The young men from the halls of learning — high school, normal school, college, and university — with one voice ex- claimed, "Here we are, loyal are we, we are yours," and the places that were wont to hear their merry laughter and see their pleasant faces knew them no more. I predict that if all the men in America between the ages 62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General of twenty-one and thirty-one had been students in the educational institu- tions of the land, so generous would have been the response that conscription would not have been heard of. Again I see one more tally for the teacher and all the agencies behind her. The school that is preparing teachers should ever remember that the boy is naturally a hero-worshiper, and therefore material for teaching patriotism thru citing instances of heroism should be most carefully selected. His history teacher should carefully instruct him as to the kind of material that should be used for this purpose. This will naturally come from two sources — the battlefield and from the walks of peace. He should point out clearly that the walks of peace have their heroes as well as do those of the battlefield. He should insist that the teacher must ever bear in mind that there are two kinds of courage, that of the crisis and that of the com- monplace, and that many times the courage of the commonplace requires as much or even more manhood or womanhood than does the courage of the crisis. The courage of the crisis is enhanst by the drum beat, the blare of the trumpet, and the wild and exultant shouts of men — a courage of the highest type and necessary, and we would not have it otherwise — but the courage of the commonplace comes without any of these, but must come often without the knowledge of men and without acclaim. He must be taught to know that to take a stand on a moral question ofttimes requires as much real courage, if not more, than it does to face the cannon's mouth — that it took as much courage for Lincoln to sign the Emancipation Procla- mation as it does to lead a victorious army to victory. The normal school should teach that the keynote to patriotism is the life and message of the Great Teacher, that of service. That school will do its best work as an agency for teaching patriotism that causes its teachers to incorporate the teaching of " service" into their creeds. It should imbue into the minds and consciences of its students the imperishable fact that the one who has for his motto the most unselfish word in the English language has also written upon his brow in golden letters the imperishable inscrip- tion, "A Patriot." We believe that if the seeds of loyalty or patriotism have not been properly sown during a person's early life the chances are that they never will be. Hence the importance of having been taught during those impressionable years by teachers who themselves possess the elements of loyalty. This being true, how important it is then that the schools in which teachers are trained shall likewise stand in no uncertain way for all that pertains to loyalty and patriotism. The answer then to the question as to how the normal school may act as an agency for teaching patriotism should be: Do not be one who, like a guideboard, merely points the way, but rather like one who not only knows the way and points it, but is ever found following the way, not only by precept, but by example as well. Sessions! WOMEN AND PREPAREDNESS 63 WOMEN AND PREPAREDNESS: THEIR PART IN NATIONAL LIFE, ESPECIALLY IN TIME OF WAR JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, OLYMPIA, WASH. One evening this spring — April 30, to be exact — I was leaving my home city, Walla Walla, for my office in Olympia. Many people were at the station standing in groups, evidently to bid friends " God-speed." I recog- nized and nodded to a number of acquaintances as I hurried down the plat- form in search of some important baggage that I had sent in advance. It was almost train time and I had only a minute or two in which to identify my bags and secure my berth. As I reacht the steps of the sleeper, I ran into a group of friends. I shook hands with them and hastened on to find my berth. Just as I boarded the train someone said, " We are here to see Mort Pauly off." So many times the sons and daughters of my friends were taking this same train for college or university that I gave little heed to the casual remark. Another college boy off for school was about all it meant to me. I had barely seated myself when I heard many good-bys and cheery words to someone who was getting on our sleeper. A young man came in. He was very youthful in appearance. I did not recognize him as anyone I had seen before. He lookt for his berth, found it, and sat down. A woman came swiftly down the aisle. I glanced up and recognized Mrs. Pauly, my friend of many years. A strained look in her face, unshed tears in her eyes as she glanst past me at the young man sitting across and just behind my section. She spoke to the youth. "Mother just wanted one more look, son," she said sweetly and bravely. A mother's soul was shining thru those eyes as she glanst at her son, and a world full of love and tender sympathy was in her voice as she spoke to him. . She had said one good-by on the platform by the sleeper, but that did not suffice. She must see her child again. She had herself well in hand as I recalled afterward, a true Spartan mother. The boy rose and smiled and came forward. The moment was a tense one, and they stood there speech- less for an instant. There was so much to say, but little time. Turning, the mother spied me. She spoke to her son, "You know Mrs. Preston, Mort." He came over and shook hands with me. Just then the conductor shouted, "All aboard," and with a kiss and a love-pat on the boy's shoulder, the mother hurried from the car. I invited the boy to sit down beside me and learned that he was going to San Francisco, that he had enlisted — was on his way to the training camp. He talkt in jerks — trying to keep down a pent-up emotion — a feeling of homesickness, I feared. He seemed anxious to talk, so I sat and listened. I lookt out of the window once when his voice showed the sign of a quaver. It was his first trip away from home. He had learned the printing trade after leaving high school. I didn't hear all that he said 64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General because my mind kept recurring to the dear mother. What was she doing ? Would that Spartan stoicism sustain her thru that long, disquieting, lonely- night — with her first-born speeding across our great state en route to the San Francisco training camp ? Her drawn face had revealed the anguish of heart, despite the effort to keep her poise. The pain of separation was stampt indelibly upon her features even tho her courage and determination had helpt her to present a brave front at the last. When the boy had talkt himself out of his first wave of homesickness, he left me to visit with some friends in another car. I sat there deeply moved by this first touching war incident that had come to my attention. So war was to mean this — my friends and their sons. Until this moment I had only thought of it impersonally and as remote. Surely this was my war and my friend's war just as well as other people's war — but I had not fully realized it until now. I sat — thinking and thinking. A realization of war with all of its horror and what it meant to our American homes was slowly and vividly being thrust upon me. I pickt up the week's issue of the Saturday Evening Post and happened to open to an article by Mary Roberts Rinehart, "The Altar of Freedom." Her first sentence startled me. "We are virtually at war." I had known that — I had read the President's message — I knew that war had been declared — our papers were full of war articles, but not until I saw mother and son part, did I fully realize what I was reading. Yes, the scene that night brot home the fact fully that we were virtually at war. The good-by scene together with Mrs. Rinehart's first sentence seemed to burn the words into my soul. There was much in her article that interested and imprest me. It seemed to be the outpouring of her heart as a mother, because her son, too, had gone. I wondered if the unshed tears that I had just seen in the mother's eyes were in the writer's eyes as she wrote this article: All over the country this bright spring day, there are mothers who are waiting to know what they must do; mothers who are facing the day with heads up and shoulders back, ready to stand steady when the blow falls; mothers who shrink and tremble, but who are ready too; and other mothers who cannot find the strength to give up to the service the boys who will always be little boys to them. I love my country. There is nothing that she can ask I will not do. I am ready to live for her or die for her. Last stand of the humanities on earth, realization of a dream and fulfilment of an ideal, my home, my native land — that is America for me. Because I am a woman, I cannot die for my country, but I am doing a far harder thing. I am giving a son to the service of his country, the land he loves. The cost of war falls heaviest on the women. No woman has the right to hold her son back if he desires to go to war. It is the fruition of the years in which she sought to make him a man. It is the vindication of his manhood. It is the crystallization of those very ideals which she taught him with his prayers. I decline to believe that there are mothers who will not let their boys strike back when they are attackt. But it is hard. Always the relation between mother and son is very close. As the boy grows up the mother faces this — that he needs more than she can give him. He is still her world, but Sessions] WOMEN AND PREPAREDNESS 65 she is no longer his. Life calls, work and play and love, and sometimes battle. And the mother cannot hold him. Everywhere are mothers, women who have patcht small garments and tied up little wounds, who have built up a house of life out of millions of loving services, whose world has been the four walls of home. To such women comes the call for their sons, who are still to them, instead of grown-up men, the little boys of the stockings, and the small wounds, and Christmas trees, and the Fourth of July. I do not fear for these women, but we cannot mmimize what they will do. They will send their sons, because they know that a nation is but a great home, consisting of many small ones. Homes are the units of a nation, as men of an army. And these women know that our homes are only safe as long as the country is. War is a great adventure, the greatest adventure in the world. The adventurers go forth to battle, eyes ahead. Mostly they are boys who go, because war is the young man's game — the young man's call. All over Europe boys have left their homes, with a shame- faced tear or two, but the great adventure ahead. And they have left at home a great emptiness, a quiet that is not peace. Then, very suddenly — they have ceast to be boys on a great adventure, and are men, fighting men, patriots and soldiers. Something that has always been theirs had become a thing that had to be fought for. Not until it was menaced had they known how dear was their country. The flag had been but a flag. It became a symbol of home. I have lived to see my country's flag beside the altar of my church. Men fight wars, but it is the mothers of a nation who raise the army. They are the silent patriots. Given her will, every mother in this great land would go to war, if by so doing she could keep her son's safety. It is easier to go than to send a boy. The mothers of our nation are indeed being called upon to make a great sacrifice. Their hearts are being torn asunder with the silent grief of the possible payment of a son's life for world, humanity, and democracy. I quote "The Bravest Battle," by Joaquin Miller: The bravest battle that ever was fought. Shall I tell you where and when ? On the maps of the world you will find it not. It was fought by the mothers of men. Nay, not with the cannon or battle shot; With sword or nobler pen, Nay, not with eloquent word or thought, From the mouths of wonderful men. But deep in a walled-up woman's heart; Of woman that would not yield, But patiently, silently bore her part Lo! there is the battlefield. No marshaling troop, no bivouac song; No banner to gleam and wave. And lo! these battles they last so long — From babyhood to the grave! Yet faithful still as a bridge of stars, She fights in her walled-up town — Fights on and on in the endless wars. Then silent, imseen, goes down. 66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Some way the call had come to us Americans so suddenly. Three years ago we were appalled by the European war. It concerned us as the " other man's burden" only. We were admonisht by our chief executive to be neutral and take no heed as American citizens. Most of us tried to be neutral. The thought of war, especially under modern conditions, was horrible to us. We received our American tourists and travelers back from the maelstrom of carnage on the European Continent, three years ago, with open arms. They seemed almost to be heroes and heroines as they related their tales of excesses and horror. We western people were especially removed from the scene of action. The eastern people were more closely in touch with war conditions because of their great manufacturing centers and increast activity in war munitions. Nation-wide, we realized the first real personal shudder of war when the "Lusitania" was sunk, revealing to us for the first time the cruel course which was pursued by the enemy who nationally justified their action. It was against our best judgment to believe any nation guilty of such a das- tardly act. We were prone to place confidence in a nation of people who have made such tremendous strides toward national organization and efficiency. Little did we seem to realize that the German nation was leading up to a policy of unrestricted submarine frightfulness. In spite of the nation-wide activity of the German secret service in this country, we were yet kindly disposed to believe that the German people were not basically unfriendly. Our countrymen were loath to participate in this world war until the startling plot was revealed that it was the plan of the German government to award a part of the territory of the United States as the price of a counter war to be waged by proposed Japanese-Mexican interest. And furthermore Germany proposed to collect the price of her war in the present European contiict from prosperous America after having devastated and prostrated her immediate enemies. The first essential of preparedness is the state of mind. Three years ago — two years ago — even one year or six months ago — we Americans con- ceded nothing but that this was to be a war confined strictly to the Old World. Our legislatures, in session at the beginning of the year, were deluged with protests and importunings against any kind of military pre- paredness for public-school children. The majority of our people — ^peace- loving in their policy — hoped against hope that through some successful peace arbitration or intervention of Divine Providence this country should not be involved. And then, as in a flash, the treacherous designs of Germany stood revealed to American eyes in the intercepted Zimmermann note and a vowed resumption of submarine atrocities. America — neutral America — became aroused to its own peril. We were awake at last to the unbeHevable fact that the perpetuity of our nation — that the inalienable right of every Sessions] WOMEN AND PREPAREDNESS 67 individual to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness — that the principle ; of government of the people, by the people, and for the people, as opposed to the f eudalistic world-dominion policy of Germany, is the fundamental issue at stake in this war. The great American nation faced the fact that democracy trembled. From a peace-loving and strictly neutral nation we changed to one demanding world-wide democracy and to one determined to crush down the evil attempt at world-wide autocracy. These two mothers^ — the one that I had seen this night and the one I whose words and heart yearnings I had just read — ^had the true vision of the great struggle; had weighed the consequences and had made the sacrifice. Their sons were at the front. I had witnest this night the supreme sacri- fice of motherhood. The measure of the mother's contribution is her son. What will she get in return ? The woman, a neighbor, lying in her hammock manicuring her shapely and well-cared-for fingers lightly thinks of the boy next door who has gone to war. Why shouldn't he go? It is his duty. Perhaps the "lady of the hammock and immaculate grooming" did not comprehend that it was not easy for the mother to come in and tell her with a smile and a cheery voice that does not quite hide the catch in her throat, that her sturdy college boy has volunteered. The "lady in the hammock" has not yet realized that this is also her war and that she too has a responsi- bility. Military authorities are in accord with the statement that to main- tain one man on the firing line the service of seven people is required at home. It is safe to say that the mother whose son is at the front will be found to be one of the seven. . We women who are here today represent the great army of women educators of this nation who are counted as next to the home in influence and responsibihty in the training of the youth of our land. We, many of us, cannot give sons to the war. They are not ours to give. But we have an important part to perform in this great life-struggle nevertheless. Our country needs us. A great world of humanity needs us. The test of our citizenship has come. We know too that we belong and represent a greater army of women — millions of them — ^who stand for American woman- hood. Upon a group of nations now depends a world-wide democracy. We are at the parting of the ways. Autocracy must go. Humanity — world humanity — is calling us. We women of America hear the call. As women have ever responded to the world's great need, so shall we thru self-sacrifice pledge our devotion to the sword and seal of the right of liberty in this momentous crisis of our national, as well as world, history. Our nation's sons are at the front. With true mother-hearts we will consecrate to them our dollars and our service. 68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General PREPAREDNESS— A VENEER OR A FUNDAMENTAL— WHICH WILL OUR SCHOOLS GIVE OUR CHILDREN? MRS. ALEXANDER THOMPSON, MEMBER, OREGON LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY, THE DALLES, ORE. I have been askt to discuss one phase of the general theme of prepared- ness, from my experience as a member of the Oregon Legislature. To say that this experience was highly illuminating is putting it mildly. My membership on the education committee of this body served to emphasize and confirm the opinions which I shall present for your consideration. Before I went I knew that there had been an upheaval in the Portland schools caused by two or three disgraceful trials of teachers, extending over a period of months, much to the disgust of the people in Portland and the state at large. I knew that in my own home town, The Dalles, with a population of 6,000, a three-cornered fight between the superintendent, the school board, and the long-suffering public had dragged its weary length over a period of two years, until the taxpayers arose in their might, called a mass meeting, and took action that rid us of an incompetent superintendent and curbed the activities of an ill-advised school board. But not until I reacht the Capitol and began my work on the education committee, did I sense the real situation. I began to realize that there was a general upheaval and a spirit of dissatisfaction with the conduct of our schools that was not confined to any one section, but was state-wide in extent. If you could have read some of the school bills that were presented to this committee, you might readily have perceived that the people, blindly perhaps, impractically without doubt, yet most frantically, were seeking to remedy conditions in school life which to them had become unbearable. Further investigation convinst me that these conditions are not local, but national, in extent. All this agitation and general unrest cannot fail to bring us to the conclusion that the people, generally, feel that, with all the effort that is being put forth, with all the money that is being spent, and with our boasted system of modern education, we are still, somehow, missing the mark. Americans as a whole are still a long way from under- standing the true mission of the schools in our national life. There is a comparatively small group in each community intelligently interested in the public schools. But the fact that the schools are so often the target of the interested patrons of the system argues that the system as it now exists does not cover life and its problems. The title of this paper — "Preparedness — A Veneer or a Fundamental — Which Will Our Schools Give Our Children?" — is a very clear example of our prevailing habit of dealing in glittering generalities, vague phrases, and high-sounding appeals to sentiment, and we are left in a state of bewilderment when we try to fit these glittering generalities and oratori- cal phrases to the details of daily life. "Preparedness" is one of these Sessions] PREPAREDNESS 69 mysterious words, hypnotic in its influence. Prepare! Prepare! is the cry of the time. Prepare for what? It should mean preparedness for a life of use- fulness, and the question is this: Do our schools give our children a work- able basis for life ? And if they do not, what is the reason ? The question as presented implies that there is a doubt in the mind of the writer of this paper, and with a temerity which must seem as foolhardiness to this group of professional educators, a layman will endeavor to answer that question, and give the reasons for the implied doubt. The basis for that doubt is the attitude of the present generation of grown-ups. I am speaking now of the great mass of our people, who are the product of our public schools — who have not been so fortunate as to have had college training or the advantage of the private schools; the everyday mass of our people, upon whose shoulders rests our civilization. Nothing could speak in louder tones of the superficiality of our prepara- tion for life's work than the present hysterical attempt of this nation to meet the great responsibilities the war has brought us. If the public schools had prepared the mothers for their tasks as home-makers — if the nation's mothers had been taught to think, the expensive campaign now being financed by Congress to teach economical management of the household, would be unnecessary. The criminal waste of food and the speculation in food materials would not be a national disgrace had we been given a proper respect for those things which make for honesty and thrift, when we were in the formative period of our lives. This nation is but reaping the harvest its public schools have sown, and our schools but reflect the national character. If we had been taught to think, there would not have been the recent hysterical appeal which was sent out some weeks ago to close the schools so that the children could be sent to the farms. The rapidity with which the movement spread indicated that the welfare of the child had been the last thing considered. You are all familiar with the result of the investigation of the National Child Labor Committee of this particular bit of ill-advised activity, so that it is unnecessary for me to give the details. The farmers did not want untrained city boys, and city boys did not want work for which they were unfitted. Again, had our training been other than superficial — a. veneer — would we today be facing a repetition of England's destructive policy in wiping out in the early days of the war all the protective standards of legislation which years of effort had built up around her workers ? Had our men and women been educated to the idea that that policy is only a veneer which robs a child of its education in order that the material wealth of a state or a nation may be increast, there would have been no thought of breaking down the child labor laws of this country which we had workt for years, against tremendous odds, to secure. 70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Nothing is more important in the final strength of a nation than a determined conservation of the labor power of the nation, and yet, on every side, we hear the demand that our workers must be sacrificed to the God of Business Success. In our national life today we are facing the most perplexing problems that have ever confronted us, because the dollar mark and what it represents has been the goal of our endeavor rather than the things that are above price. And this takes me back to my first statement — that I must prove that my doubt as to the basis of our public-school system is a well-grounded doubt, and to prove this I shall apply to our public-school system the acid test of the business man, and we shall judge the results by our own American standard of success. Does the training our public schools give our children turn out successful business men ? When our public schools have turned out a finished product, he must write his success in figures with the dollar mark in front of it, or the American public will have none of him. One of the clearest examples of the inadequacy of the system of education in our state, from this point of view, was given during the agitation for our mini- mum-wage law. Over and over again the statement was made by our business men, when they were questioned concerning their objections to the payment of a living wage to the young workers in their employ, that "they are not worth it." One merchant, a pioneer among Portland's business men, made this statement repeatedly: ''Our public schools do not fit the children for work. I count as clear loss the first six months' wages I pay to any girl. It costs me that much to teach her what she should have been taught in the schools." Turning to the schools to secure material with which to combat this statement, I was given the report of the survey of the Portland schools for 1 9 13 — the same year the minimum- wage law was passed — and I find here the following: The Portland high schools are the regulation type of American academic high schools plus a limited amount of modem applied work. The nearest approach to vocational work is to be found in the commercial work, and second to this is the sewing for girls. The other manual work is more scholastic in its nature than practical. The indications of real life elements are scant. Fearful lest this situation might be peculiar to Portland alone, I sought for other expert opinions as to other cities. In the survey of the schools of Springfield, 111., made under the direction of Dr. Leonard P. Ayers, I find these statements: The facts suggest the desirability of a broader form of education, having for its aim the development of those sorts of general knowledge, adaptability and resourcefulness which will be of greatest practical use in money-earning occupation. The great problem is to find out how to give such general preparation that will be of real practical vocational value. Sessions] PREPAREDNESS 7 1 And again: If the school system is to assist young people to prepare themselves for money-earning occupations, it must carefully consider the sorts of occupations that these young people wish to enter. The object of public education is to equip each child with the knowledge and training that will enable him to make the most adequate use of his innate abilities. Its efforts must be directed toward improving the pro- ducer and his quality rather than toward increasing the product and its quantity. The main defect of this work (manual training) is that it is not real. It is largely made up of problems conceived or invented to fit into a scheme of development that exists rather in the mind of the person arranging the course than in the interests of youth or the requirements of real life In former years young people gained their most useful education thru doing the chores of the home and the farm. Here they were brought into contact with a large range of industrial operations and they developt a most adaptable sort of skill and knowledge in the handling of materials. Today a more highly organized and specialized civilization is taking away most of these chores and with them much that is best in the training of youth. To go farther east — ^lest these situations might be peculiarly western — I studied the report of the survey of the schools of Richmond, Va., and I find such a pertinent statement as this: Mere literacy is no longer an adequate preparation for life or for labor What is needed is not longer courses in cookmg, sewing, or typewriting, but an organized training which will include a variety of experiences drawn from the occupations which are open or should be open to the girls in the life of the community All practical courses should be made intensive enough to insure serious, purposeful work on the part of the pupil and discourage the dawdling and waste of time which is so often seen in handwork courses. Where, then, lies the difficulty in our present system, and who is to blame for this shaky foundation ? First, our school boards; second, our teachers; third, the attitude of the public toward both boards and teaching force. As to the school boards, I find this common fault both in cities and in small towns, that the school boards are made up of men who are business men, experts in their own lines, perhaps, none of which is education. Immedi- ately upon their election, or the next day after, they qualify as educational experts. They elect or appoint a superintendent, and then proceed to tell him how to run the schools. He is fust with and hampered by this same group of business men, who would not think of conducting their own hard- ware, legal, dental, or meat-market business after the manner they impose upon the superintendent. Let me quote here the finding of the Portland survey upon this point: The minutes show clearly that the Board spends a large proportion of its time trying to handle technical and professional matters, largely relating to teachers and instruction, which no board is competent, alone, to handle, and which ought to be referred to the educational department for attention It simply means that in those matters 72 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General which are matters of expert judgment, and which no board of laymen is competent wisely to decide, they ought to act only on the recommendation of the experts whom they employ and should trust. And I might add my own personal opinion that they should exercise care in the choice of these experts. Also from the Springfield survey: It is a waste of money to purchase, thru large salaries, a high grade of experience and ability, and then not permit that ability and experience to be used. In a well-run corporation, the directors largely confine their activities to supplying funds, supervising expenditures, and determining what additions or reorganizations of the business are to be undertaken. These same functions may well constitute the bulk of the work of an efficient board of education. The work of the board will be rendered far more effective when it is devoted to the consideration of the larger problems of the system, such as questions of finance, selection and purchase of building sites, plans for new buildings, etc. The best efforts of the most competent men and women of the city are needed for the solution of these problems. These are not alone typical of these two cities, but of all school boards. Let us pray that the vision of the city of Cleveland may be granted our school boards in all cities, so that they may have the courage to invite a man to take charge of our schools and then say to him, " We will handle the business end, and do you train the children." Now as to the teachers: Here again I find that the fault is largely that of the school boards, intensified, however, on the one hand by either the interference or the indifference of the parents, and on the other hand by the cramping exactions and narrow pohcy exhibited toward the teachers by some superintendents. Oregon is criticized most severely for her tenure-of-office law, and well she may be. But more are we to be criticized for the conditions which made it necessary. In the majority of our cities the teacher is not allowed to be a good citizen. If she expresses herself upon public questions, sooner or later her opinions clash with those of the superintendent or a parent prominent in school or town politics, and she suffers decapitation. Let me ask the ques- tion: How can a teacher develop individuality of thought or action in a pupil when she dare not call her soul her own without fear of losing her job ? I call it "job" advisedly — it becomes a position only when it has a freedom and dignity which we do not ordinarily attach to the profession of teaching. Again, how can a teacher give to her pupils a sound basis of character when the whole trend of the profession keeps her from the contacts of the ordinary life of the average citizen ? This cramping process is reflected in her influence on our children to their detriment. To remedy this we must admit the teacher to every activity for which she may have fitness. We must allow her that freedom of expression and action which we accord every citizen. We say the profession of the teacher is the most sacred next to that of the mother, and then we make the teacher a hireling and her profession a job. Sessions] PUBLIC SCHOOL THE LABORATORY FOR CITIZENSHIP 73 We, the parents and the indifferent public, are so little interested in the process of education that we allow all sorts of petty tyrannies to spring up thru our school boards under the guise of discipline, until our teachers, those to whom we intrust our most sacred possession, our children, until they, to protect themselves, secure the passage of such legislation as the tenure-of- office law. We, the parents and unthinking public, allow our schools to be commercialized and our children taught to view life and life's ideals thru the glamor of the dollar sign, and to value business success above character — above humanity; to rate material progress as higher than spiritual growth. And then when a crisis, such as that which our nation faces today, calls for manhood and womanhood of the highest ideals, we mourn because the response to the call of that crisis is one which sweeps away the human ele- ment in its consideration for the business interests of the nation. Our America must establish thru its public schools the sacredness of her claims to liberty of thought and freedom of action if she would preserve the democracy for which she is fighting today. THE PUBLIC SCHOOL THE LABORATORY FOR CITIZENSHIP ANNA LAURA FORCE, PRINCIPAL, LINCOLN SCHOOL, DENVER, COLO. At no time in the history of our nation has it been more necessary to conserve our children, the future citizens of the country. The teacher must be ready at any sacrifice to give the protection necessary to keep their minds and bodies occupied with such school activities as will give a wholesome atmosphere and a stimulating environment. It has been said that " educa- tion at the expense of the state is justified only on the* ground that it improves the quality of citizenship. Children must be trained so that they may develop to the best advantage all their powers, physically, mentally, socially, and morally." The school has more and more taken over the responsibility of the home. The child belongs to the state. No longer may the parent say, "The child is mine, I will do with him as I please." Under the compulsory-attendance law, the responsibility of the school is increast. It is obliged to concern itself with the health, surroundings, and activities of the pupils. The necessity for the protection of the health of the school demands medical inspection, which in time will increase physical and mental efficiency by reducing disease. The psychological clinic and free dispensary have come to stay. The child must be made comfortable and happy. His environ- ment must contribute to his well-being. "All the children of all the people" are entitled to the best that scientific education can give. The sanitary and hygienic condition of the school is of vital importance, for health must be the first consideration. How often do we see forty or fifty children packt into one close, dusty schoolroom ? For years we have attended educational meetings, and the 74 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iGeneral _ most glaring defects have been pointed out, but, comparatively speaking, how little has been accomplisht! Within a radius of thirty miles in a prosperous community will be found several types of schools. One will have up-to-date equipment, skilful teachers, thoughtful supervision, and a curriculum and methods connecting school with life; another will be partially graded, no medical inspection, teacher poorly paid; the third type will be an antiquated schoohoom with dry-as-dust textbook methods, short term of school, and compulsory attendance ignored. A teacher in such a school askt a school director for kindergarten appliances and received the answer, "Why, where are the dumbbells we bought for you two years ago?" Are we, the educators, are we, the people, true to our trust when such conditions prevail ? Surveys have been made by scientific men from leading colleges of the United States which have given publicity to the crying needs. To better conditions, changes in organization in both rural and city schools are necessary. There must be an attitude of mind favorable to progress. Readjustment will cause inconvenience and perhaps disappointment, but in the end the boy or girl will be trained to become " an economic unit and to render to the state the highest and best service." This is citizenship, this is patriotism. Public sentiment must be aroused in favor of progressive school legislation. Educators must cooperate and strive for these needed reforms. Thru the activities of the Parent-Teachers' Association the school will become an influence in the community. Thru it vital problems can be studied, and there will be less objection to raising funds for needed improvements when the real need of the improvement is seen. Carlyle has defined a genius as ''one who takes infinite pains." A genius is needed to solve this big problem of improving school buildings and making a better classification of pupils according to progress and native ability. Modern pedagogy is trying to put physical and mental training on a scientific basis. From the hundreds of books on psychology, pedagogy, and child-study now publisht, the teacher may select the best science has to offer. If she seeks she will find. The preparation of the teacher for her work is no longer in question. The opportunity in summer schools and in extension study of the colleges keeps before her the highest ideals of her profession; thru them she will make of the school a scientific laboratory as well as a workshop for citizenship. She must understand the needs of each individual child in every stage of his development. A noted educator says, "The curriculum must present in idealized form present life with its social activities, ethical aspirations, and appreciation of the cultural value of the past. It must introduce life as it is and should be." Life is enricht thru mental training by giving the child an appreciation of art, literature, science, and music. A better understanding of the world about him will fit him for the social group of which he is a part. Sessionsl PUBLIC SCHOOL THE LABORATORY FOR CITIZENSHIP 7$ Opportunities for practice in citizenship arise in every school. Current events in connection with history or language make the pupil acquainted with the great human family, and he gains a breadth of view that helps him to understand the government of his own city, state, or country. Scientific discoveries, national events, the present high cost of living, and the food problem are matters that connect the child with the outside world. The playground offers an opportunity to discover that the rights of others must be considered, that team work means "adjustment of the individual to the other person and to the group," bringing about "a reduc- tion of juvenile delinquency, the breaking up of corner-lot gangs, lessening of street fights, and improvements in racial relations." Participation by the school in civic affairs gives valuable lessons in citizenship. Clean-up campaigns in which the whole community becomes interested arouse civic pride in the boy and girl who help. They gladly take part in planting home gardens, in cleaning vacant lots, in ''swatting" the fly, and in other activ- ities that tend to make the city healthful, attractive, and beautiful. Many young men and women are handicapt for lack of skill in different lines of work. They realize the need that is met by vocational, part-time, evening schools and instruction for the foreigners. They become more eflScient and receive better wages, which makes them happy and useful citizens. Donations to the poor or to the Red Cross fund create a spirit of love and service putting to shame the older person who gives niggardly of his abundance. Lessons in thrift teach economy in the use of time and money and develop a foresight that will reduce pauperism, poverty, and crime. Lessons in the conservation of food and in the economical management of the home are taught in the domestic-science courses. It has been said that the Allies could be supported upon what American households waste. Language work, oral and written, using material taken out of the lives of the children will create habits that will help now to develop in time a thrifty people. At present the American nation is considered the most extravagant in the world. A saving habit can be taught by calling the attention of the children and their parents to the amount of money expended in one day by the whole school for candy and chewing gum. In a large city school in which a careful account in one day was kept, it was discovered that twenty dollars had been spent for trifles that cost a nickel or a penny. The spirit of service becomes the ideal when the teacher shows the interdependence of human beings one upon another, and the appreciation of the world toward those even in the humblest calling who render service to their fellow-men. Never in the history of our country has there been a period when the youth of the country could be taught to better advantage the ideals of justice and liberty. We know not what sacrifice our nation will yet be called upon to make. We must be ready to serve in the best way we can. At this time when men go to war and women take their 76 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General places, we must guard against the tendency to weaken the child-labor laws, for the boy's earning power in the years to come depends upon the training which the school is now giving him. Would it not be poor political economy to sacrifice a great possible future to an insignificant present gain ? Greater than the love for one's city, state, or country is the love for humanity. What could better express the true American spirit than the enlistment of the volunteers, the purchase of Liberty Bonds, and the contribu- tions to the Red Cross ? The well-being and safety of the nation depend upon the intelHgence of the citizens. The school must not only prepare the boys and girls for future responsibility, but it must make every opportunity for them to be citizens in the service they render to their school, home, and city. What a splendid illustration in legislation the school can give in the making and carrying out of rules teaching self-government and fair play! Habits of truthfulness, honesty, and loyalty acquired in school and home strengthen the moral fiber and build up a citizenship that will be able to assume the future responsibihties of the nation. "Our country cannot subsist without liberty, nor liberty without virtue." Our forefathers laid the foundation of freedom and justice. In the building of the great American nation, the school is the laboratory for citizenship, and its safety and well-being depend upon the character of its citizens. It is their duty to place the welfare of the nation above selfish greed and personal ambition. SHALL THIS COUNTRY ECONOMIZE FOR OR AGAINST ITS CHILDREN? JULIA C. LATHROP, CHIEF, CHILDREN'S BUREAU, DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, WASHINGTON, D.C. This country is engaged in a war to make democracy prevail in the world. There could be no nobler purpose, for within democracy we imply the grow- ing measure of social justice obtainable thru a government of the people, by the people; we include our advances in homely daily life — the wisdom and liberality with which children can be nurtured and trained. Sir Ernest Rutherford, the distinguisht English physicist, in an address before the Academy of Science in Washington last month, said, in speaking of the fearfully destructive weapons which science bestows for fighting, "This war would not be worth fighting if it is not a war to end war, for so destructive has war become that either we must end war or war will end civilization." If this war can end war and can make democracy safe it will be worth great sacrifices; and sacrifices and cost it will demand to a degree beyond all present reckoning. War expenditure is inevitably directed to the immediate destruction of values — material destruction and the destruction of human life and of human efficiency. Sessions] FOR OR AGAINST ITS CHILDREN? 77 Plainly economy will be required of a sternness never practist in our country still in its rich, unexhausted youth. In some way the debts created by war must be paid by us. The only choice we have as a nation is how and when and where we shall save in order to pay them. Added to the fact of debt is another, already familiar enough in talk, but not yet felt with its real sharpness: the cost of food and clothing has increast until the family standards of an unknown proportion of our people are seriously threatened. I need not tell any gathering of salaried people that pay for services has not climbed automatically upward with prices for commodities. If we go to Europe to make democracy prevail we must see to it that democracy does not suffer irreparable harm at home. Our armies must not return victorious from Europe to find that we have allowed democracy to be defeated at home — that family standards have been destroyed by poverty and civic neglect. How can we keep democracy alive except by the preservation of the hard-won standards of social order by which we have thus far been able to express it ? Already methods of retrenchment and economy are being urged. The only question is where we can properly economize. Here is the greatest test of our national good sense and foresight. What do we consider the foundation necessities; what luxuries shall we spare first? The ultimate treasure and resource of any people is its young life — the only surety of the continuance of the race. What is the fundamental necessity? Is it not to safeguard that reservoir? There are 30,000,000 children in our care under sixteen years of age; about 20,000,000 of them in our schools. Slowly we have arrived at certain measures of protection for those under sixteen — by compulsory-education laws, by child-labor laws; by mothers' pension laws, and now by a national child-labor law which says that after September i, 19 17, every child under fourteen years of age is entitled to protection from labor in mill, cannery, workshop, fac- tory, or manufacturing establishment. No child between fourteen and sixteen shall work in these industries more than eight hours a day nor more than six days a week nor after seven at night nor before six in the morning. And no child under sixteen shall work in mine or quarry. It is not too much to say that the first effect of war is to threaten all such standards; it may suspend or destroy them all, so that now in the beginning it is exceedingly important that we should face squarely the risk before us and determine whether such laws are necessities or luxuries. What have foreign countries to teach us from their three years' war experi- ence ? The Children's Bureau has made a search of public reports upon living conditions affecting children behind the lines in the various warring nations in order to learn what seems to the belligerent powers the great necessity back there where the women and children are living. 78 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Admittedly our standards of life, including those of child protection, are higher than those of Europe. Otherwise 95 per cent of our European immigrants would not have come upon the advice of earlier arrived friends who earned and sent the passage money for more than half of them. The important consideration is, not the actual standards of life in any European country, but the attitude of the public mind toward their preservation or loss. At the outbreak of the war the Board of Education of Great Britain stated that "in the general interest of the nation it is of the greatest importance that the public education of the country should be continued without interruption and with undiminished efficiency." A year later its report contains this paragraph: To withdraw the child from school at an earlier age than that contemplated by the attendance by-laws is to arrest his education on the threshold of the years when he is probably just commencing to assimilate and consolidate the instruction he has received and is receiving at school. His introduction to labor at this time renders him liable to conditions of strain detrimental to his physical well-being. The reports of the British Munition Workers Committee emphasize the waste of extraordinary war conditions of work and urge the restoration of former restrictions. They say in part: Conditions of work are accepted without question and without complaint which, immediately detrimental to output, would if continued be ultimately disastrous to health. It is for the nation to safeguard the devotion of its workers by its foresight and watch- fulness lest irreparable harm be done to body and mind both in this generation and the next. Very young girls show almost immediate symptoms of lassitude, exhaustion, and impaired vitality under the influence of employment at night. A very similar impression was made by the appearance of large numbers of young boys who had been working at munitions for a long time on alternate night and day shifts. In the same tone says M. Albert Thomas, French Minister of Muni- tions: The experience of war time has only demonstrated the necessity — technical, economic, and even physiological — of the labor laws enacted before the war. In our legislation secured in time of peace we shall find the conditions for a better and more intense pro- duction during the war. It is especially noteworthy that England has not permitted any lowering of the age limits for factory work. Its exemptions for farm labor by chil- dren have been considerable, in certain localities, yet continually opposed in others, and in some districts no exemptions have been allowed. The British Board of Education quotes the Board of Agriculture as expressing the opinion that if the women of the country districts of England took the part they might take in agriculture it would be quite unnecessary to sacrifice the children. And the Board of Trade Labour Gazette says: The Board of Trade, in consultation with the Board of Agriculture, are taking active steps to mobilize a sufficient supply of women for work on the land in order to meet the shortage of agricultural labour due to the enlistment of men in His Majesty's forces. I Sessions] FOR OR AGAINST ITS CHILDREN? 79 The reserves of women's labour available for agriculture are to be found chiefly among the local unoccupied women in country villages, who have some experience of, or familiarity with, agricultural work, and also among the better educated women who are willing to be trained for the purpose. The countries which have borne the brunt of the war have indeed sacrificed the schooling of children to their evident injury. Cecil Leeson says in his book on The Child and the War: If the lads were leammg anythmg useful the situation, though still undesirable, would be not quite so bad; but they are not learning anything useful. Most of the fac- tory work they do is "blind alley" work, fitting them for nothing afterwards; and, to do it, lads are sacrificing physique, efficiency, and in very many cases, character. This year, notwithstanding the increasing exhaustion of the war, Eng- land and France have taken determined measures to restore or to improve their old standards. In England the Board of Education has demanded a budget for 191 7-18, showing an increase of nearly four million pounds over last year — the largest increase over the preceding year known in the history of EngHsh education. Its purpose is to raise teachers' salaries, to restore school buildings to school use, and to increase school efficiency. Mr. Herbert Fisher, president of the Board of Education, in a speech in the House of Commons last April, supporting this budget, said, "Econ- omy is in the air. We are told to economise in our expenditure and food stuffs. I suggest that we should economise in the human capital of the country which we have too long allowed to run to waste." It is inspiring to know that certain younger countries have from the first refused any sacrifice of children's right to education. Compulsory school-attendance laws have not been lowered in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Since the. war began requirements for school attendance have been raised in Nova Scotia and in some parts of Australia. Manitoba passed its first compulsory-education law in March, 1916. There has been no weakening of labor laws affecting women and children in New Zealand or in any Canadian province. Yet Canada has sent to the front one- nineteenth of her total population and New Zealand has sent one-fourteenth. This heroic struggle to protect the schooling of children in countries so desperately involved in war as are France and England, this brave insistence upon no reduction by the colonies, which have sent their men so freely and generously to the aid of England, are in strange contrast with the spirit of the law passed by the largest state in this country permitting the school year to be curtailed five months; in strange contrast to the specious willing- ness to let children do their bit; in strange contrast with the suggestion that the federal child-labor law shall be suspended or repealed before it goes into operation. Such efforts to tamper with the rights of children are not at an end. They will grow in plausibility and insistence unless they are frankly and vigorously met. Today as never before it is certain that the public-school So NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General teachers of America have an unparalleled power to guard the nation's children and to mold public opinion so that this country will insist that the schools shall gather momentum during this period of war in order that they may better cope with the inevitable disturbance of orderly life which war entails. Are not we who are older and not at the front in duty bound to agree upon and to practice whatever public and personal economies are necessary to give children their chance in war time ? BELGIAN SPECIAL MISSION TO THE UNITED STATES REMARKS BY BARON MONCHEUR, OF BELGIUM The cordial reception which you have given to my colleagues and myself has deeply touched us, and it is an additional pleasure to have the opportu- nity of meeting here the National Education Association, which has in its hands the education of the rising generation — ^for we want you to hand down to posterity the record of the deep gratitude and everlasting friendship of our country to your great Republic. We have been charged by our government to express to you the pro- found appreciation and admiration with which your nation is regarded by the whole Belgian people and by our beloved leader and ruler. King Albert. We feel it a great privilege to bear this message in person to the city of Portland which has done so much to save us from famine, and which is now sending the flower of her youth to help us regain our liberty and inde- pendence. We should like to visit all your country, which has been so generous and so sympathetic — ^but, of course, that is impossible. However, we are fortunate in meeting here, today, members of the National Educa- tion Association from all over this vast land, and we beg you, when you go back to your homes, to bear our message to your fellow-citizens. Tell them that Belgium is grateful, that our people look upon you as brothers, and that, with you as Allies, we look forward with absolute confidence to the final victory. When the history of this war is written, against the dark pages of our suffering, there will stand out in letters of gold the aid and comfort you have given to the people of my country. Part of that history has already been written in the blood of our people by the hand of the author of the war itself. The full story is not yet known, but what we already know is horrible enough. And you cannot fully appreciate what you have done for us and what you are now doing for us until you know from what depth of distress you are aiding to lift us. You all know the outlines of the story of the sack of Louvain, that great center of learning. We do not even know all the details ourselves. That great university is in ruins — but that is not the worst of it. We know I Sessions] BELGIAN SPECIAL MISSION TO THE UNITED STATES 8i that in and around Louvain several hundred men, women, and children have been ruthlessly murdered by order of the German authorities. We can rebuild the university, but who can give back to the mother the little child that has been shot before her face ! Louvain is but one of the hundreds of places where similar scenes occurred. At Dinant over six hundred innocent citizens were rounded up in the public square and shot — men, women, and children, ranging in age from a few months to over eighty years. At the small town of Andenne one hundred and three bodies have already been exhumed and identified; at the village of Aerchot, one hundred and fifty-five. The massacre at Tamines has been described, under oath (by one of the many witnesses of that cruel butchery of some four hundred citizens), in these words: "On entering the square the first thing we saw was a mass of bodies of civilians extending over at least forty yards in length by six yards in depth. They had evidently been drawn up in line to be shot. We were placed before these corpses, and were convinst that we too were to be shot." However, he was not shot, but was put to work burying the bodies of his neighbors and friends. "Actually," he says, "fathers buried the bodies of their sons and sons the bodies of their fathers. The women of the village had been marcht out into the square and saw us at our work All round were the burnt houses." Then he goes on to describe another incident: "While some of us were carrying the corpses along I saw a case where they had stopt and called a German doctor. They had notist that the man they were carrying was still alive. The doctor examined the wounded man and then made a sign that he was to be buried with the rest. The plank on which he was lying was borne on again, and I saw the wounded man raise his arm elbow- high. They called the doctor again, but he made a gesture that he was to go into the trench with the others." But the massacre and devastation was not all. To murder and arson succeeded systematic robbery, the theft of our supplies of raw materials, the seizure of our machinery, the destruction of our factories, the imprisonment of burgomasters and influential men, crushing taxes imposed upon an already impoverished nation; and, finally, that crowning infamy of the centuries, the deportation and enslavement of our workmen. Our people stand, today, widowed, orphaned, impoverisht, hungry and famisht, within a ring of steel formed by the bayonets of the German soldiery. But, " though cast down, they are not destroyed." Their courage has never faltered. Ladies and gentlemen, I do not tell you these things to rouse your pity. We do not wish to pose as martyrs. As our beloved king has said, "We have but done what any honest man would do." But, without knowing the deep distress which we have endured, you cannot understand the great- 82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General ness of our gratitude for your aid, nor our joy upon seeing the sons of your soil rush to arms to dehver Belgium from the yoke of the oppressor. Military autocracy is tottering to its fall. You have bared your mighty arm to secure the hberties of the world, and, as your great statesman, John Hay, has said, "The people will come into their own: God is not mocked forever." MAINTENANCE OF STANDARDS IN ALL SCHOOLS AS A NECESSARY ELEMENT OF PREPAREDNESS FREDERICK E. BOLTON, DEAN OF THE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, SEATTLE, WASH. A few short weeks ago there rang out the call "to arms." The sover- eign law-making body in our land declared this necessary to preserve our national integrity and honor. Instantly the manhood and womanhood of our land sprang up to do their part in the mighty struggle. Instinctively we envisaged service in the trenches as the sole means of vindication. Later the idea of sustenance and succor of those in battle came to us as a necessary supporting measure. We were told that bread wins more wars than bayonets and bullets. And so preparation for the trenches and conservation of food became impelling slogans. Such were the fervor and patriotic zeal that industries, commerce, and schools threatened to be paralyzed. College and high-school classes became depopulated because of students volunteering to do their bit. It was even seriously proposed to change the child-labor laws so as to capitalize the labor of children in factories to a greater degree than ever before. A niighty protest went up all over the land against the proposed child-labor legislation, and the victory of child conservation so tardily won is made permanent. Then came a message from the President, from a National Advisory Council, and even from the War Department, that the greatest efficiency in every line, even in military science, could best be achieved and conserved by the most expert technical training that could possibly be given in our higher institutions of learning. An immediate attempt was made to stem the tide of migration from the colleges and higher schools of learning, and students were advised to hold steady until selected for the specialized service which they, as individuals, could best render. Note how the country is almost instinctively turning to the schools and colleges as the most potent means of securing high-speed preparation for the most exacting kinds of service. Like mushrooms there have sprung up schools of aviation, schools for training Red Cross nurses, ambulance sphools, officers' reserve schools, and even in the army camps the methods of the schools are requisitioned to bring about the training and skill so immediately needed. The note sounded by the United States Commis- Sessions] MAINTENANCE OF STANDARDS IN ALL SCHOOLS 83 sioner of Education is timely and should be heard by every school and every community. He says: It is of the utmost importance that there shall be no lowering in the eflSciency of our education .... schools and other agencies of education must be maintained at whatever necessary cost and against all hurtful interference with their regular work except as may be necessary for the national defense, which is of course our immediate task and must be kept constantly in mind and have right of way everywhere and at all times. From the beginning of our participation in the war we should avoid the mistakes which some other countries have made to their hurt and which they are now trying to correct When the war is over, whether within a few months or after many years, there will be such demands upon this country for men and women of scientific knowledge, technical skill, and general culture as have never before come to any country. The world must be rebuilt. This country must play a far more important part than it has in the past in agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce, and also in the things of cultural life — art, literature, music, scientific discovery. Russia and China are awakening to new life and are on the eve of great industrial development. They will ask of us steel, engines and cars for railroads, agricultural implements, and machinery for industrial plants. They will also ask for men to instal these and to direct much of their development in every line. England, France, Italy, and the central empires have thrown into battle a very large per cent of their educated and trained men, includmg most of the young professors and instruc- tors in their universities, colleges, gymnasiums, lycSes, and public schools. Their colleges and universities are almost empty. The young men who would under normal conditions be receiving the education and training necessary to prepare them for leadership in the future development of these countries are fighting and dying in the trenches. All these countries must needs go thru a long period of reconstruction, industrially and in many other respects. Our own trained men and women should be able and ready to render every possible assistance. Therefore a right conception of patriotism should induce all students who cannot render some immediate* service of great value to remain in college, concentrate their energies on their college work, and thus be all the more ready and fit when their services may be needed either for war or for the important work of reconstruction and development in our own and other countries when the war shall have ended. The higher schools have already come to have a new significance in the minds of people everywhere. Every line of endeavor, military or indus- trial, in seeking brains and developt skill, turns to the universities and technical schools. For example, in this crisis when they need engineering experts, they go to the universities. When they need physicians or men with legal lore, they turn to the universities; when they need men with cool heads to command in the heat of battle, they turn to our boys in the cadet corps; when they need men to survey the resources of the nation, they turn to our univ^ersities; when they need men to speed up the production of the fields, the forest, the mine, or the factory, they turn to our higher institutions of learning; when they need those with softened touch, refined emotions, to soothe the fevered brow, to perform the most trying ministra- tions to friend and foe alike, they turn to the girls in our colleges; when they seek men with power of organization to marshal and conserve all the great forces of the nation, they turn to our great university leaders. They tell our boys in college that if they are pursuing studies in law, medicine, 84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General engineering, forestry, or whatsoever skill or craft, to stick to their labora- tories and their books, as their skill may soon be needed in the titanic struggle. This will mean a new evaluation of the productive power of education. This revaluation will not be for this calamity alone, but will be a permanent recognition of the function that education must assume toward every human endeavor. If so consequential in the hour of struggle, how vastly more important in times when deliberation can focus all scientific resources upon the problems which await men's solution. Not only will the higher schools be thus recognized, but from the lowest grade to the highest new values will be set upon education. Educational aims and educational processes are to be profoundly reconstructed. No other event in the world's history will bring to us with such striking reality the utter futility and dire waste of dead formalism in the schools. The school will be main- tained as an instrument of industrial efficiency, social enlightenment, and true democracy in citizenship — or not at all. These aims the school has been struggling to achieve, but because of unintelligent interpretation of this function by the public itself, the school has been staggering under the load. Even more important than munitions and man-power adequate to conquer in this immediate crisis is the necessity of developing citizens and statesmen with far-sightedness and diplomatic wisdom to guide the gigantic world-ship after the enemies of democracy have been put to rout. Citizen- ship and statecraft of a higher order than ever before dreamed of are imperative if civilization is to endure. To develop these the schools must bear the largest part. To succeed they must be equipt and managed as never before. They cannot be in the hands of mere boys and girls with fledgling notions of education, efficiency, and citizenship, but must be guided by the choicest and most highly trained intelligence the world can produce. The highest patriotism will be sustained by the highest degree of preparedness, preparedness to recover for the awful shock to our present industrial, commercial, and poUtical system, and preparedness to enter upon an era of world citizenship when the Herculean struggle shall have been ended. The perpetuity of a world democracy depends, not merely nor even mainly upon industrial and military preparedness, but vastly more upon the sane social and political organization and the development of genuine social consciousness and altruism. Has the time not come when conscription of pupils for life preparation in school is as necessary a type of patriotism as conscription for military service ? The boy must realize that his bit now, while restless to enter the active fray, consists in regular attendance at school and in the improvement of his time and his talents while there. The lack of fitness of a vast army of young men today for national service could doubtless be traced to non- attendance at school or wasted opportunities while at school a few short years ago. Sessions] MAINTENANCE OF STANDARDS IN ALL SCHOOLS 85 The schools must be open twelve months in the year, their doors swing wide three hundred and sixty-five days in the year for some phase of educa- tional activity, for some people of the community to learn some art or craft or science or philosophy or means of civic betterment. The attend- ance in the upper grades during school age must be almost doubled, and every boy and every girl must feel that they are there to do their part in preparing for some of the great, busy, enticing world's work. Commissioner Claxton urges: Parents should be encouraged to make all possible efforts to keep their children in school and should have public or private help when they can not do so without it. Many young children will lack the home care given them in times of peace, and there will be need of many more kindergartens and Montessori schools than we now have. The attendance in the high schools should be increast, and more boys and girls should be indust to remain until their course is completed. A school year of four terms of twelve weeks each is recommended for the high schools, as for the elementary schools. In the high schools adopting this plan, arrangements should be made for half-time attendance, according to the Fitchburg, Cincinnati, and Spartanburg, S.C, plans, for as large a proportion of pupils as possible. .... For all boys and girls who cannot attend the day sessions of the high schools, continuation classes should be formed, to meet at such times as may be arranged during working hours or in the evening. All cities should maintain evening schools for adult men and women. In cities having considerable numbers of immigrants, evening schools should be maintained for them with classes in English, in civics, and such other subjects as will be helpful to these foreigners in understanding our industrial, social, civic, and political life. Have we not with us an opportunity, yea, an obligation, to teach the pupils the duty of conservation, not only of the materials for the sustenance of life, but even more important, the conservation of their time and their brain power? Should not a boy who deliberately wastes his time and opportunities in school be made to feel that he is a slacker no less than if he turned a deaf ear to the nation's call to arms ? Should he not be made to feel that to work in opposition to the welfare of his school is as traitorous and treasonable as to conspire against the welfare of his country ? England, for example, has awakened to the extreme importance of keeping her educa- tional system to its highest efficiency. At the outbreak of the war they made a sad mistake. A policy of retrenchment in public education was started as soon as the war began. It is reported that a member of parlia- ment said that "several hundred thousand children are out of school, and that the whole English school system will have to be rebuilt. It is as much in ruins as is Lou vain." To solve the problem blockt out for us we must not only emphasize full school attendance and regularity, but also the best quality of instruction. This means that there must be a sufficient number of teachers possest of the highest possible degree of competence. Unless we take care there will be a lowering of the quality of the teaching staff. Large numbers of the most capable will be drafted into various forms of national service, leaving 86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the mediocre and poor ones to minister to the needs of the children. Al- ready the supply of high-grade young men for manual and industrial arts, technical sciences, and as coaches of athletics has become so small that it is practically impossible to supply the demands. Even before the declara- tion of war there was crying need for better-qualified teachers. A vast number of our schools are in low gear because poorly qualified teachers cannot shift them to high speed. About 60 per cent of all children in the schools of the land are in rural schools. Those schools, according to the United States Bureau of Education, are in sore need of better-qualified teachers. At least one-third of the rural teachers for the country at large have no professional training. The average scholarship of this class of untrained teachers is little more than an eighth-grade education. There are 212,000 one- teacher rural schools in the United States. It is conservative, therefore, to say that there are 70,000 rural teachers in this country with only an elementary education and no pro- fessional training. There is one state in the Union that has over 4,000 teachers, with only seventh-grade education and no professional training, in charge of its rural schools this year. There are several states that number their rural teachers in this class by the thousand and there are many states that count their rural teachers in this class by the hundred. Another third of the rural teachers of the United States have only a limited amount of professional training and on an average their scholarship is not above the tenth grade. There are at least 70,000 teachers in this class. A majority of the remaining one-third of the rural teachers of our country have on the average only a four-year high-school educa- tion. These are the conditions that face us in the qualifications of our rural teachers. The problem that confronts us is how to improve these conditions. It is the purpose of the Bureau of Education to issue a series of talks in an effort to show the country how to solve this most important problem in American education today. The fact that we have over 150,000 teachers without adequate preparation for their work is enough to arouse the public mind on this question to such a degree that within the next decade we shall have a sufi&cient number of teachers with adequate training for every rural school in the United States. How can this be done in the face of soaring prices and diminishing salaries? Should war burdens become so great that sacrifices must be made by all classes of workers, the teacher should not murmur in con- tributing his share, but at the present time there is scarcely a line of industry in which the workers have not had their wages increast to meet the high cost of living. Railway workmen, mine operatives, laundry workers, carpenters, milk-wagon drivers, truck drivers, farm laborers, sawmill hands, clerks, stenographers, factory operatives, all, have demanded and received more for their labor because of the increast cost of the necessities of life. But how about the teacher ? My observation leads me to believe that, in general, teachers' salaries show a markt decrease in the last year or two, and the purchasing power of money has declined so that the outlook is exceedingly serious. And yet the teacher has no recourse. The United States Commissioner of Education has exprest the idea of the same necessity in a recent circular. He says: I I Sessions] MAINTENANCE OF STANDARDS IN ALL SCHOOLS 87 All schools of whatever grade should remain open with their full quota of officers and teachers. The salaries of teachers should not be lowered in this time of unusual high cost of living. When possible, salaries should be increast in proportion to the services rendered. Since the people will be taxt heavily by the Federal Government for the pay- ment of the expenses of the war, teachers should be willing to continue to do their work, and do it as well as they can, as a patriotic service even if their salaries cannot now be increast. All equipment necessary for the best use of the time of teachers and students should be provided, as should all necessary increase of room, but costly building should not be undertaken now while the prices of building material are excessively high and while there are urgent and unfilled demands for labor in industries pertaining directly and imme- diately to the national defense. Schools should be continued in full efficiency, but in most instances costly building may well be postponed. Our task in all grades of school is to develop large, broad-minded ideals of citizenship. It is a more difficult task than to train to skill and technique. But in the world of civilization, one genuine leader with power to marshal the forces of nature and human skill and direct them to efficient service in the interest of humanity will mean more than a thousand hands with skill alone. This task will mean the utilization of every means of group activity in the school, in order that the plastic youth may become accus- tomed to organization and also the selection of factors in the curriculum that shall stimulate, direct, and promote citizenship. It may not be amiss to call attention to the extreme importance of the great group of social and civic studies as a means of promoting these ends. The ideal of efficiency must be supplemented by the ideal of service. Vocational training must become thoroly establisht and maintained. The man without a regular vocation in which he is reasonably efficient is a dangerous man. The nation without industrial vigor and efficiency is a decadent nation. Every man ought to have a means of livelihood. Every nation must encourage the handicrafts, trade, and commerce and secure efficiency in all of them. But are these all and are they most fundamental ? Is there not danger that the ideal of efficiency in gainful occupations may crowd out all other ideals and its dominance mean danger? Efficiency in gainful occupations unmodified by higher ideals means selfishness and sordidness. Mere efficiency may crowd out all opportunity for fostering the development of altruism and of the finer sentiments contributory to it. National superiority should not mean that that country is the greatest, the mightiest, which can achieve the most for itself, can most completely dominate all others for its own selfish ends. We should not only ask how extensive its domains, how strong its army, how efficient its navy, how rich its mines, how fertile its fields, how shrewd its men. Should we not also ask how fine are its schools, how justly governed its cities, how empty its jails and poorhouses, how unnecessary its hospitals, how justly its laws administered, how free from vice, graft, and corruption, how charitable and magnanimous its people, how developt its ideals of freedom, what its rank in the world's democracy ? 88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General In this education for larger citizenship every means in every grade must be employed to instil worthy ideals of conduct and character. Every possible attempt should be made to awaken dormant consciences, to arouse the nobler sentiments, and to inspire manly and womanly impulses. Emotions are the mainsprings of life. Properly develop the nobler emotions and all else will follow — even efficiency. Instead of following Huxley's idea that education should develop the mind into a clear, cold, logic engine, should not we follow Milton, who says that education should fit the individual to perform skilfully, justly, and magnanimously all the arts of peace and all the arts of war ? Education should be a means of awakening and ministering to all the higher instincts, a means of refining the soul and purging it of all that is base and ignoble, a means of stimulating to the highest forms of unselfish social service. The great problems of the world which demand immediate solution if our civilization is to endure are not questions demanding technical skill alone, but are great social and moral questions. There is skill enough, scientific knowledge enough available, if there were only courage enough, honesty enough, and unselfishness enough in their application. No one of them demands any special amount of shrewdness or technical skill. A strict application of the Ten Com- mandments on the part of all men, on the part of all nations, will solve every really great question confronting the world. Should the present crisis be still with us a decade hence, or should new emergencies confront us, may we have as a national asset, the contribution of the combined wisdom and insight of the home, industry, society, and political organization, emerging from the highest grades of our public schools, a grand army of youth such as the world has never beheld, physi- cally fit, strong of brain, sound in mind, brave of heart, with scintillating eye, senses alert, hands trained to a high degree of skill, abounding patriot- ism, tempered judgment, broadened ideals of citizenship, ready to give their all to the cause of human freedom, fraternity, and justice. This. is the task of education in all grades of our schools. The prob- lem of education will become recognized as the problem fundamental to all others. Even that of war at the present moment is less significant than ultimate education, for all war is occasioned by miseducation, and wars and rumors of war shall not be banisht from the earth till all men everywhere shall have become educated to the highest degree in the principles of true democracy, liberty, fraternity, equahty, magnanimity, justice, and good will toward all men. SOCIAL HYGIENE IN RELATION TO NATIONAL DEFENSE NORMAN r. COLEMAN, PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, REED COLLEGE, PORTLAND, ORE. I have too much respect for our national military forces to exaggerate the corruption of the health and morals of the men in the army and navy, but there are serious and incontrovertible facts of disease and vice that I Sessions] SOCIAL HYGIENE AND NATIONAL DEFENSE 89 must be faced by those concerned in our national defense. For any national need our final dependence is upon men, men to work ships, to fire guns, to build roads, to manufacture munitions, to produce food. Whatever weakens and destroys men endangers the nation. We know that in the Spanish-American War far more effective strength was lost thru preventable disease than by the bullets of the enemy. Sexual vice was rampant in the army. We know of one western regiment that was 85 per cent infected with venereal disease. An Iowa man told me last week that six of the eight men in his tent were under treatment at one time while his regiment was encampt at San Francisco. Two reports from the Secretary of War in the last ten years have stated that the army has lost more effective strength thru venereal diseases than thru all other diseases combined. Coming to the present day and the present conflict, we know that one of the nations involved lost more men in the first eighteen months of the war thru venereal disease than thru casualties at the front. Men went down by the hundreds in mobilization camps and never reached the fighting line. A report from Vienna, publisht in the Journal of the American Medical Association, indicated that sixty divisions since the war began, close to a quarter of a million men, had been temporarily withdrawn from the fighting because of venereal diseases. The governments of Europe are struggling, not only with the problem of saving the strength of these men during the war, but also with the problem of guarding the health of the women and children to whom they may carry infection when they return to their homes. In the mobilization camps last summer and on the Mexican border conditions, while not nearly so bad as they were in the Spanish-American War, were bad enough to call for special investigation and report. On the basis of the reports from our own camps and from the European armies our government is, as you all know, taking energetic steps to guard the health of the men, not only by keeping liquor and prostitution, as far as possible, away from military and naval stations, but also by providing social and recreational facilities that may save the men from the loneliness and depres- sion that lead many of them, in sheer reckless desire for change and excite- ment, to give themselves to vicious ways. At the present time hundreds of thousands of our best young men are being gathered into military camps. Many of these are young students from high school and college. All of them are physically vigorous and are at the age of full passions and relatively scant prudence. They are noto- riously free spenders, so that they are the special prey of purveyors of vice, the harpies and parasites that establish themselves about military canton- ments. On the Mexican border and in Mexico they sometimes establisht themselves, with the consent of the officers, within the army camp itself. Some officers frankly defended the official recognition and supervision of prostitution as a necessary element of camp life. Official recognition and regulation of prostitution is now pretty thoroly discredited as a civil policy. 90 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Happily, too, its folly and danger are recognized by the heads of the army and navy departments and exprest in their announcements to the national forces and to the public, but there are still officers in both army and navy, some of them medical officers, who hold to the old bad tradition that prostitution must be permitted or even provided for our soldiers and sailors. So the young men who join the forces are exposed to dangers without and within the camp that are likely to make them useless or worse than useless for the country's defense in time of war, and sources of moral and physical infection in time of peace. For the protection of the men's physical health much is being done by army regulations which seek on the one hand to remove incitements to dangerous practices, and on the other to kill the germs of disease before they begin to destroy health. Effort is being made also by the army authorities to develop an enlightened opinion among the men that will discourage the vicious and support the self-respecting. The protection that is needed just now is from dangers outside the camps. There the communities in or near which camps are situated frequently allow, for commercial and political reasons, the establishment of centers of vice that are a stench in the nostrils of all decent and patriotic citizens. It matters not that the thing threatens the very life of the young men called into national service — it pays, and the community shuts its eyes and takes the cash. The recent letter of the Secretary of War to the governors of states is a challenge to the citizens of this land to show their patriotism by putting down the public and flagrant vice that preys upon the men whom the country has called. Behind all this the final protection is, of course, in the enlightened mind of the man himself, and his steady purpose to keep himself fit for the service of his country now, and for the protection and support of his wife and children when the war is over. Unfortunately the schools to which the man went have done little to enhghten that mind and form that purpose. Many a youth goes up to an army camp from a home where the simple facts of sex health were not told him because his parents did not know them or had not decent words to express them, from schools where all the bodily functions and their relation to health and disease were explained except the function that at his age he most needs to understand. He lives in the daily neighborhood of vicious women, who in many cases are the only women he can associate with. He finds some of his comrades indulging in prostitution as a matter of course. He may be advised, as in one case I know of, by one of his officers to go that way himself. He may hear his medical officer imply, as in another case I know of, that sexual vice is neces- sary. Tell me, has that youth a fair chance to keep clean ? The soldiers of today were in our schools yesterday. The soldiers of tomorrow are in our schools today. They have a right to the scientific facts and the fortify- ing moral suggestions and counsel that will give them a fighting chance to Sessions] ART TEACHING IN THE NATION'S SERVICE 91 reach the battle front unshamed and untainted by vice, so that if death spares them there, they may return to their homes with characters as strong and health as pure as when they offered their lives for their country's need. ^K wr: ART TEACHING IN THE NATION'S SERVICE ARTHUR WESLEY DOW, PROFESSOR OF FINE ARTS, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY The schoolmaster is held to be indirectly responsible for this war. His work is the hardest to undo, and that is why this Association is askt by its president to lead the teachers to new service. If one kind of education ruined the world, another kind must redeem it. The teacher is to realize now, more than ever, what his responsibility is for good or ill, what his part is to be in shaping the nation's destiny. Each of us is askt to show what he can do, as a teacher, for his country's rebuilding and progress. I might speak to you of the art teacher's special war-time service in camp and hospital and home. I could tell you how art in the form of crafts and occupations can serve the disabled, comfort the convalescent, and bring hope to destitute families of soldiers; how women and children in Belgium are already being relieved in this way; how the painter can, by his art, disguise ships and conceal military operations. But this special emergency art work I will bring before you in the sectional meeting for vocational and practical arts education. What the art teacher shall do after the war when the country is to meet new problems — that is the main question. Nor is the task the art teacher's alone; the educational value of the fine arts concerns all teachers. The responsibility for the neglect of art or for the culture of art rests upon all educators. The art teachers, art associations, art museums, and public- spirited individuals will do their part, but the full utilization of their resources for public service will not be reacht without the cooperation of the leaders in general education. Tho so much has been done for the cultivation of the fine arts in the United States I think you will agree with President Eliot that we as a nation are seriously lacking in public appreciation of art — particularly of the arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture. In his recent paper, "Some Changes Needed in Secondary Education," Dr. Eliot speaks his mind freely concerning the absence of art from American life, and he asks educators to recognize this condition and meet it now. If we are to recover our lost heritage we must face facts and act promptly. Does anyone ask what the facts are ? I do not need to rehearse them here. The blatant billboard and flaring advertisement are but lesser evils, soon to be overcome. More serious things cause us anxious thought. It is a pity that the people who write books and the people who buy books care so little about the printing 92 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General of them, beyond legibility. There is an art of printing and there is an art of design, but they are absent from most of our pages and covers. The girl-cover of our magazines would disappear if the public demanded a genuine design. City planning is another field where the absence of art is almost a disaster. You can think of cities and towns whose natural setting is one of incomparable beauty, but man has done nothing to enhance it, or worse still, has defaced it by everything he has built. You know how hard a fight it costs to protect our scenic wonders and historic monuments from ravage or destruction. Business necessity is as ruthless as military necessity. I will not dwell longer upon facts that are so apparent. Fortunately for America we have educational leaders — some of them here — who have long recognized this defect in our national life; who have workt and will work, by word and by example, to correct it thru a general art training. Their influence is already felt, and we have hope for the future. In the new Lincoln School of Teachers College at Columbia University art study is to have a larger opportunity. The Ethical Culture School of New York has its Arts High School. Some colleges are recog- nizing art courses for the Bachelor's and the Master's degrees. Despite these encouraging facts it seems to us that too many American educators are indifferent to art education — at least officially. The sub- ject finds no important place in the programs of educational associations or of college faculties of education. It is not strange then that it should have no place upon the floors of our national and state legislatures. I have often wondered why American educators seem so indifferent to the teaching of the fine arts in the schools. It may be that the subject has not been convincingly presented by art teachers and critics. There may have been too much talk about beauty in general, which everybody appre- ciates, and too little constructive discussion of art as a live subject in the curriculum. Those in control of large educational interests want from the art teacher something more than sentiment, something more deeply con- nected with life than admiration of the obvious beauty of sunset and moun- tains, or the color of flowers and birds. The attitude of the Old World educator and the Old World public toward art instruction ought to be an object lesson. We have had reason in these days to examine more critically the educational systems of Europe in order to understand how they have influenst national life and character. We all know that abroad the art teacher is a government official. From Europe to the Far East we find royal colleges of art, government art schools, and ministers of fine arts. I do not believe that we are ready for govern- ment control of fine-arts teaching — public appreciation must come first — but the art teacher might at least have recognition from his government. In 1908 the third International Congress of Art Teachers met in London. Every government except ours, sent at public expense, official delegates I Sessions] ART TEACHING IN THE NATION'S SERVICE 93 and exhibits of work. The American delegates went at their own expense, with no official recognition except that of the schools and universities which they represented. Attendance upon foreign conventions under such circumstances is not an agreeable duty for the loyal and patriotic American art teacher. He knows that foreign educators come here to study our school system and that they find things worthy of imitation. He bitterly regrets that they should get the impression that art study is with us a non-essential. Americans individually are not insensible to the value of fine art as a national asset. When Rheims Cathedral was shelled a cry of protest came from every part of our country. Americans have felt a personal loss when a work of art was destroyed. They watcht anxiously when danger threat- ened the picture gallery of Antwerp and other collections and monuments in the war zone. As ruthlessness increast they feared for the Louvre, the national gallery of London, St. Mark's of Venice, and all the precious things that have become a part of American life. When the majestic Coucy-le-Chateau was redust to a heap of stones Americans mourned with the French people. Maeterlinck tells us that those old Gothic cities of Belgium, destroyed by the Germans, were veritable museums of mediaeval art. Americans, far and wide, feel that they are poorer as a result of this destruction. Our public is ready to respond if our educators will lead the way. Private individuals and some municipalities have been giving time, effort, and wealth to the fostering of fine arts. The Portland Art Association, with its museum and its educational work, and the art departments of uni- versities and normal schools in these Pacific states are examples of an art activity that is growing thruout the country. We can foresee a public appreciation that will regard the absence of art as poverty in a nation's life, but we ought not to wait too long for it. I shall waste no time in talking about the causes of our present artless condition or in blaming anybody for it. President Eliot and other author- ities have covered that ground. It is sufficient now to tell the truth and suggest a course of action. What are we going to do about it? Well, nothing, probably, unless we can come to a better appreciation of the real nature of fine art. Let us think a moment and question: What is it that is lost when the stones fall from ancient shrines, when precious thirteenth- century glass is shattered, when paintings are burned ? Why are we not comforted by the suggestion of restoration? There are the Parthenon columns lying where they fell in that older war — why not set them up again ? And the answer is, we can put the fallen drums again in place, we can rebuild the Gothic halls and cathedrals and carve copies of the old statues, but we cannot call back the quality. The nations that were custodians of these monuments, and yes, the whole world, valued the quality, not the stones or the glass. We grieve for the loss of that personal loving touch of 94 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the ancient artist. In fact it is not usefulness or historic association or skilful workmanship, but the art that is precious to the world. In this art quality there is something that stirs the imaginations of men, something from the soul of the old artist that speaks to your soul and mine. A nation that produces great art sends forth power to all generations. The world has never been so conscious of this as today when it sees so many of its treasures fall into dust under shell fire. It may be that the enemies of France and Belgium are purposely depriving those countries of their art to make them still poorer, to take from them that vital power that draws the world to them. With these thoughts in mind let us ask how the teaching of art in America may render the highest service to our country. It is not enough to train children to appreciate the art of other peoples, past or present. We want an education that will stand for the conservation of the beauty of our country's scenery and the development of creative arts that will enrich the life of our cities, our towns, our rural districts, and our homes. In many colleges and higher schools art teaching appears under the name of "practical arts," and fine-arts courses are called "technical" courses, as if we must find some excuse for having art taught. I resent the use of the term " technical" applied to creative art as if it were mere skilful workman- ship. In the elementary school the words " drawing " or " design " are made to stand for art teaching. With due respect for differing opinions I take the ground that art is not defined by the terms " technical," " practical arts," "industrial arts," "drawing," or "design." These are names for certain ap'plications of the art power. It is possible to teach drawing, design, and industrial art without producing a vestige of that quality which stirred you before Rheims Cathedral. Art consists in excellence (of quality, not of technique) and the produc- tion of it depends upon exercise of powers within, not of collection of facts from without or acquirement of knowledge and skill. This excellence can- not be measured except by the appreciations. It does not consist in truth or accuracy or "precise expression," tho these have value in other ways. It is not defined by use — a useful thing is not necessarily beautiful, as some will claim. An armored tractor or "tank" is perfectly adapted to its use, but is certainly no more a thing of beauty than a pterodactyl. Hegel in his Philosophy of Art warns us not to make too much of material. "Wood, stone, metal, canvas, even words, are in themselves but dead stuff. What art creates upon this dead stuff belongs to the domain of the spirit and is living as the spirit is living." Says FenoUosa, "Use is something which belongs equally to art and not-art." Mr. Flexner reminds us that the terms "serving a purpose," "useful," "genuine," etc., are not synonymous with "utilitarian," "materialistic," "commercial," and the like, "for intellectual and spiritual purposes are genuine and valid, precisely as are physical, physiological, and industrial purposes." The so-called practical and useful I I Sessions] ART TEACHING IN THE NATION'S SERVICE 95 arts alone will not give us a secure foundation for effective and efficient art teaching that will reach the whole people. We must go deeper. And here we must part company with the familiar and traditional method of basing art instruction upon a study of nature's forms and colors. I am well aware that many art schools here and abroad base their courses upon nature- drawing. I am also aware that many art educators both here and abroad have rejected this time-honored theory. Hence, if I may be permitted to criticize, it seems to me a matter for regret that a committee recently appointed to report to you regarding a possible nation-wide system of art teaching should recommend the older method. They would have children begin by observation of nature, follow with observation of works of art, and end with projects. This seems to me a perpetuation of a bad philosophy of education. The notion that art can in some way be extracted from external nature is a survival of the aca- demic teaching of the seventeenth century. In general education we have rejected the older teaching method — the stuffing of the mind with facts to be used at some indefinite future time. Why continue this process in art teaching when it has been given up everywhere else ? If you turn the child's mind into a storehouse of facts you leave its creative powers inactive. Let him observe and reverence nature's beauty, and learn to represent it, but the outside world is by no means the source of all art. Much of the art of the world has nothing to do with nature's forms or nature's beauty — for example, architecture, metal working, pottery, pattern, and fine printing. As to mechanical drawing, perspective, anatomy, and color theory, they are sciences which the art power may use. They are not arts or even parts of an art. I can fully agree with the committee as to the country's needs and the desirability of more extended art teaching, but I beg to object to the proposed system as not in accord with modern education. It seems more like the methods of the drawing books of the last generation. As against the teaching of art through its uses and applications or thru the copying of nature's facts, I would advocate basing the art teaching upon structure, the fundamental thing in all the visible arts, whether called fine, industrial, applied, representative, or decorative. There are, in these arts, but three elements of structure : 1. Line (direction, shape, proportion) 2. Dark-and-light (tone, quantity of light) 3. Color (quality of light) Fine relationships of these give us fine art — architecture, painting, sculpture, the crafts, art industries. To bring these elements into fine relationships means the exercise of creative power through choice. Let children create with line, tone, and color; let them choose and arrange, following their feeling for what "looks right." Let them draw nature's forms and paint her colors, when they need them for help in expression, not as a drill, not to store up in memory. Let them model and build — but see to it that the 96 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General power to appreciate fine relationships is constantly called forth. There is a wrong way and a right way of doing a thing — yes, there is a fine way of doing even very simple things, like arranging a few lines, or holding a brush, or folding a dress, or planning a garden. Art training, thru building up of structural harmony, helps to find the fine way of doing things. It brings out personal power and choice — the very life of art. In art there can be no carelessness or shilly-shallying; the art structure, be it only a few lines or spots of color, is seen with the inner vision and is built up outwardly with a sure touch. Such school experience in making good choices, in finding the best way of doing a thing, in recognizing fine relationships, should come to every child. It will affect home, environment, costume, and occupation. It will awaken and give greater capacity for production and invention. It pro- ceeds in creative activity, step by step, like an onward rhythmic march. Such an art training, experienced by all, will result in a better quality of industrial products, better city planning, better taste in dress and decora- tion, and the conservation of scenic beauty. It will insure public interest in the art educational work of our schools, our universities, and our museums. It will help us to appreciate the art of others, and better still it will help us to create an art that is purely our own. This is the larger service that the art teacher can render to the nation. ADDRESS TO APPLICANTS FOR CITIZENSHIP JOHN P. KAVANAUGH, PRESIDING JUDGE, PORTLAND, ORE. You are about to renounce allegiance to the land of your birth, and swear allegiance to the land of your adoption. Your memories of home and country are still a bright tradition, but you have chosen America as your final home. It is your country; its air and sunshine have mingled with your blood. All that the future holds for you and your children is centered in this Republic. You have anxiously awaited this day when the fulness of your citizenship would be accomplisht. You now accept the full measure of responsibility, the burdens which the government imposes along with the blessings it bestows. You have not hesitated to declare your allegiance at this tragic time. The grim reality of war could not dissuade you from your purpose. Everyone within the age of conscription has registered, and many of you young men have already enlisted in the country's cause. All of you have signified in most sincere fashion that you are ready to respond to any service which the country may require. You know that all must sacri- fice and serve in this great conflict, and that many must fight and fall for American honor and security. It is heartening to know that you who first saw the light in distant lands are among the first to espouse the cause of democracy and justice. Sessions] ADDRESS TO APPLICANTS FOR CITIZENSHIP 97 You will be no longer subjects, but citizens, vested with sovereign functions and privileges. We welcome you to that high estate. Our power and might are drawn from every quarter of the earth. The unseen crimson threads of kinship stretch across the seas. Here the best blood of the world is mingled; here the races are fused into a great mixt racial family, forming a composite citizenship, the greatest the world has known. The govern- ment confers upon you a privilege that is above price. You receive the institutions of liberty as a free heritage, institutions which were founded by the fathers thru privation and sacrifice, thru blood and tears. It is our duty to preserve them in their native vigor, and to transmit them unim- paired to succeeding generations. It remains for you to demonstrate that this confidence has not been misplaced. If your allegiance be undivided, if your loyalty be pure and constant, then you will be a distinct contribution to our industrial life, an energizing influence in every field of activity, a bulwark of safety in times of stress and danger. Your oath of allegiance admits your wives and minor children to citizenship. They are admitted without taking oath and without submitting to examination to test their qualifications. So the mantle of protection will fall at o'nce upon you and your household. You are especially privileged to declare your allegiance in this brilliant company, these men and women of light and leading, whose sacred duty and earnest care have been to train the minds of the young, to direct their feet in the ways of honor and righteousness, and to instil into their hearts the true spirit of patriotism. You have profited by their training and free instruction in the public night schools. Your examinations disclose an intimate knowledge of civic duty, of our system of government, of the intel- ligent exercise of the suffrage, and the true relation of the government to its citizens. Continue these studies. Enlarge your mental vision. Educate your children, for knowledge is power. It increases efficiency; its light illumines the mind and unfolds nature in her wild witchery and compelling beauty. It lays human history under tribute, and brings us into direct communion with the master-minds of the ages. If this great Republic shall long endure, if it be destined to live and last, it must find its chief support in the intelligence and enlightenment of its citizens. We have with us the officials of the government naturalization service. These officials are in the various courts of the land conducting the examina- tion of applicants, guarding against the admission of undesirable citizens, and stimulating the interest of our alien friends. There is no department of the public service more essential to the security of the country. They labor with untiring energy, an energy so skilfully, so zealously, and so impartially directed that they command the entire confidence and support of the courts of naturalization. Their service has materially raised the standard of our citizenship, and it will increase in importance during the years to come. 98 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General In ancient Rome the sacred fire burned constantly in the temple of Vesta. It was thought that the safety of the city depended upon that waver- ing, lambent flame. If it were extinguisht, the vestal virgins were severely punisht, and it was rekindled from the rays of the sun. Patriotism is our sacred fire, and the existence of the state depends upon its ardent glow. We are the vestals charged with the duty to tend and watch with eternal vigilance. Let it never smolder, but keep it ever aglow, that this nation, the refuge of the persecuted and haven of the opprest, the nation of equal opportunity, of impartial justice, of equality before the law, may not perish from the earth. As you call the God of nations to witness the sincerity of your intentions and the purity of your motives, may there arise in your mental vision the spirit of America, in grace and majesty, her form suffused with holy light, bearing the flaming sword of justice and the radiant shield of mercy — a sign and promise that before the sword is sheathed again tyranny will be brought low and the weak raised up; and that peace with justice may pre- vail among all the races of men. MUST BE PATRIOTIC AND UNITED JAMES WITHYCOMBE, GOVERNOR OF THE STATE OF OREGON, SALEM, ORE. Oregon and the city of Portland are to be congratulated and the North- west is honored in having this notable convention within its borders. The pioneer men and women of this state were a splendid type of people, law-abiding and God-fearing, and laid the foundation for an excellent citizenship. They were a home-loving, generous, hospitable people and did much for the cause of education. In fact, thru their influence in the early period of its history western Oregon could claim more higher institu- tions of learning in proportion to population than any other section of the globe. We are proud of our university, agricultural college, and normal school, which compare favorably with the best in the land. You will find here much interest in your work, for our people thoroly appreciate the value of educa- tional work. However, I am presumed to speak on conservation, an exceedingly important topic in our present stress of national affairs. First we must be patriotic there should be no sectional or party differences, but we should be thoroly united as red-blooded, patriotic American citizens standing sohdly back of our President, with a full determination to do our part in this great world-struggle for democracy. \ Sessions] AMERICAN EDUCATION AND THE INNER LIFE 99 The clean plate in the home will prove a great factor in food conserva- tion. Our children should be taught to take no more than they can eat, and waste nothing. "Waste not, want not" is a good maxim. If we were to establish the practice of eating whole-wheat bread, for example, it would make a difference of two hundred million bushels of wheat more for our soldiers and allies. The food problem will be a large factor in this world-struggle. It is our patriotic duty to conserve our resources and to be wiUing to make any reasonable sacrifice in the interests of our country. This is no time for profit-making, but a time to render the greatest possible service to our country. AMERICAN EDUCATION AND THE INNER LIFE ELLA FLAGG YOUNG, CHICAGO, ILL. The inner life has its foundations in the emotions. It is the unseen power initiating our impulsive, unreasoned, insistent acts. We rarely are conscious that the persistent, constantly recurring ideas that will not down owe their origin to emotions experienst in early life. Our acts usually seem to take their coloring and tone from the intellect. This is due to the custom of adults of capping the emotional experiences of children with a truism or a principle in morals. This tendency to force feeling into the mold of intellectual expression is the outgrowth of a theory that early in life the human being must learn to repress strong emotions. Instead of teaching repression to the child and the youth, we should help them to a sense of the value of the feeling, the emotion. The value of an emotion of joy, of grief, of anger, of pleasure to a child or a youth lies in its inducing him to think of the feeling of pleasure or sorrow until it reveals the self of the happy or sorrowing one to himself. How many of us know how to help a child or youth to that self -revelation, instead of telling him what that revelation should be ? How familiar to our ears are the expressions from our own lips, " You have reason to be proud of yourself," "You ought to be ashamed of yourself," especially the latter. Of all problems that confront parents and teachers, this is the most per- plexing; to many it remains unsolvable. The intricacy is not in the emo- tion, it is in the difference in temperaments of the one creating and the one trying to solve the problem. Illustration of this is in the acknowledged inability of a parent of two children to understand the moods, the tempera- ments, of both. The explanation of the inability is usually given as a result of the resemblance of one child to the father's family and of the other to the mother's family. loo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The intricacies arising from varieties in temperaments in the school- room are many, yet some teachers have a wonderfully sympathetic adapta- tion to the emotions that are active in those different temperaments; others never acquire that power. There is no problem for those who, all too readily, give to the one needing help an intellectual solution of conditions that are and those that should be. The oft-repeated advice, "Stop thinking about it" (the feeling, the emotion), causes children to learn early to conceal their emotions beneath the surface. There the emotions sometimes shrivel away expressionless, at other times they lie dormant, apparently, until stirred by an unusual occurrence, when their latent influence is made evident. Unsympathetic or hard natures in men and women are often the results of atrophy of emotions of joy or grief. Those emotions were too often in early life coldly formulated by onlookers, thus depriving them of that warmth which might have led to visions. In order that the emotion, the feeling, shall enrich the spirit, the deed arousing the emotion should be the subject of disapprobation or of commen- dation— never the individual. To praise the individual develops conceit or self-consciousness and checks at low-water mark the child's pleasure in doing for the benefit of another. As a rule we center blame or praise on the doer instead of on the deed. It is frequently charged that in this country little children are manner- less and the older ones are rudely selfish. This charge cannot be true of all our children, but it must be applicable to a considerable proportion, or it would not be made so often. Since we are entering into conditions that will try the character which the American ideal of freedom has made national, it may be well briefly to analyze the cause of the mannerless expres- sion of character in the young. Statistics supplied by the Bureau of Education inform us that 13,300,- 000 immigrants came to the United States in the first fourteen years of the present century. Of these, 11,700,000 had reacht the age of fourteen years at least; they had been trained to that seemingly respectful obedience to social superiors that commands the admiration of many Americans when traveling in Europe. Admiring travelers returning home deplore the lack here of that same respectful demeanor which they had met abroad. One asks what becomes of that respectful behavior that must have characterized the 11,700,000 before coming to America; one asks, further, why was not the respectful obedience taught by them to the i,6oo,c3oo under fourteen years of age brought here by them and taught also to the hundreds of thousands of children born to the 11,700,000? Obedience and a respectful demeanor that are not the expressions of feelings of pleasure in the company .of those socially or officially above us I Sessionsl AMERICAN EDUCATION AND THE INNER LIFE lOl are quickly ignored when the right of the superior to command them no longer exists. Similar wild rejection of the forms of good behavior are not uncommon in children in a school where discipline is weak or coercive. The reaction from the tension of servility in what some call the lower mind of a nation will bring results such as amaze those of the upper mind when the lower mind is free to express itself in its conduct. The happy child is not thrust into a turbulent state of mind by the withdrawal of the noble character which he imitates unconsciously in his endeavor to express himself. Freedom is not anarchy. But it is not alone many of the children and the young people in the ranks of the first or second generation of immigrants who pay little heed to the courtesies due others. American children are often spoken of as captains on deck. After a few years of doll-like behavior, they express with unbounded license the feelings, the thoughts of childhood and of youth bounded by the finite, the worldly life that surrounds them. The aim of the American parent is in harmony with our social and political systems. Any method that tends toward repression of individual liberty is viewed with disfavor as interfer- ing with that life which is peculiarly the life of an American citizen. It is only within the last half-century that the American parent has acted upon the idea that the fitting preparation for citizenship in this democracy is to feel in childhood the power that is within. When that sense of power has run riot, uncheckt from sixteen to twenty years, that same American parent often sees economic and social forces showing the masterful son and daughter their unpreparedness for the quiet, strenuous conflict in which they must struggle with self and the inequalities of fortune. This raises the question. What is the mistake of American parents in their endeavor to make individual liberty in their children a prerequisite for citizenship in a country founded on democratic principles ? The answer was indicated in the remark made near the beginning of this paper: that the value of an emotion to the child and the youth lies in its inducing him to think of the joy, the grief, the anger, the pleasure, until it reveals himself to the happy or sorrowing child or youth. The joy, the exultation, without revealing the young to himseK or herself , may be a mere feverish condition that is the basis of a memory that recurs in the life as one of those insistent suggestions that will not down, but it fails of its greatest possibility — deepening character. If we can help the young to pause over their feelings, not analyzing them as indications of goodness, but enjoying them, living them over, sin- cerely reaching out as it were toward those for whom they have done a kind deed, if we can help the young to such emotional life, they will thru the feelings stirring them, and thru unconscious imitation of the ways of parents and friends, initiate those manners that we desire them to have. Manners 102 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General acquired for use in polite society, and almost always dropt in the hurry and bustle of everyday life, are those that leave our children and young people mannerless. Tho the formal manner of a period may pass away, the subtle grace that reflects simplicity and sincerity will never fail. Let us turn for a few moments to consideration of the inner life of those who have finisht the elementary-school course and are nearing the close of the high-school course, and of those in the college course. In industrial and commercial establishments we find efficiency to be the watchword; but in magazine articles and public addresses the word has changed in the last year from efficiency to character. With us, the teachers, character has long been the watchword. It has in a large measure, however, been restricted to an ideal founded on virtues and acts that are individualistic. With the opening of social settlements and with the organization of com- munity centers in the school buildings, the theory of education has been enlarged to include both individualistic and community ideals. Sociology has become a departmental subject in college, and the corps of settlement workers is recruited largely from the ranks of college graduates; community centers are establishing a new^ relation between teachers and grown boys and girls. There has appeared, however, a rival to the humanistic studies in high school and college. It is holding in the technical high schools a certain type of boy and girl for whom the classics had no detaining power; it is training in the state universities and institutes of technology thousands who would not have entered on advanst courses in the liberal arts. This powerful rival of classical training is termed technical or vocational training in the high schools; technological training and expert laboratory work in colleges and institutes. In the news of the war there have come accounts of atrocities hitherto unknown among civilized nations. Various attempts have been made to explain deeds that fill men with indignation and women with terror. While it is not incumbent upon me to repeat the explanations offered, nor to dis- cuss the, as yet, unrefuted charge that has been made against one of the most sentimental peoples in the world, it is germane to the subject of this paper to ask if the humanistic phase of scientffic study was ignored in the education of the boys and young men of that people. The line of thought presented leads to a brief consideration of the neces- sity for attention to the humanistic phase of all subjects in courses of study, elementary and higher. It is held by some advocates of technical education in high schools and of advanst laboratory work in science in colleges and institutes and its application in the industries that a combination of their special work and humanistic subjects weakens both. A century ago the father of John Stuart Mill, observing the trend of education in the schools in Great Britain, called attention to what he thought Sessionsl AMERICAN EDUCATION AND THE INNER LIFE 103 should be its chief aim. He said that its aim should be the training of boys and girls to be instruments for the promotion of happiness to themselves and to others. This is, in other words, the endeavor to develop an inner life that shall be the moving spring of an ideal relation to society. The vocational, the industrial, the scientific training should have in them the spirit that suggests an outcome, first and foremost, for the common good; second, for the individual's good. Last summer Sir Gilbert Murray, of Oxford University, was interviewed by a reporter of one of the large New York dailies. The reporter tried to get a satisfying distinction between English and German scholarship. The professor of Greek, after giving high praise to the accuracy of German scholarship in Greek, finally said in effect that English scholarship aims, in the study of Greek, to create an atmosphere and a tendency in thought that are humanistic. Whatever may be the aim of education in the English universities in Oxford and Cambridge, and in the German and American universities, that aim in the lower schools and colleges is, I regret to say, distinctively intellectual. This does not mean that the students graduated therefrom are markedly intellectual. It does mean that all subjects are approacht from the intellectual point of view; are approacht on their intellectual side. Even in literature endeavor is made to bring out exact descriptions of the emotions which ennobling and lofty ideals in literature arouse. A certain type of written examination has developt efforts to merge in the foreground emotions that should be left under the surface of verbal expression. This overemphasis of the intellectual is not peculiar to any class of schools — ^public, private, or religious. It is the spirit of the day. The question of greatest importance that confronts the educational corps of America today is the possibility of idealization of industrial, commercial, and scientific study, so that their first, their chief value in the thoughts of boys and girls in the high school and of college students shall be as instru- mentalities for the advancement of the common good. Coordinate with this question is a similar one with regard to humanistic and professional studies. Do they, will they bring to society an understanding, an appre- ciation of fellow-beings classically and non-classically trained that will be founded on an inner life of feeling and thought familiar with the realities, the verities, of all life ? If America develops in her homes, her schools, and her colleges, that inner life on which generous, sympathetic, sincere character is founded, she will be prepared to carry forward the fruits of the triumphs of lives sacri- ficed in the present war for democracy. Then we shall have a new democ- racy, in which the chief adventure will be a struggle for the common good. I04 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General COST OF THE INADEQUATE NIGHT SCHOOL CAROLINE HEDGER, M.D., AMERICANIZATION COMMITTEE WORKER, CHICAGO, ILL. We suffer from two forms of inadequate night school; (i) the insuf- ficient, and (2) the inefficient. The insufficient is caused by American indifference — and lack of funds. The inefficient is caused by the widespread and absolutely erroneous opinion that anybody can teach the foreign man and woman English. The results of the insufficient night school are seen in the slow naturalizar tion since 1906: to the danger of which we are awaking since war began; to the presence of the straw boss in industry; to the enormous and costly labor overturn that occurs in industry; the resulting nomadic industrial population. To illustrate the first point, let me cite one coal-mining county in Illinois in which there are five towns. In these five towns there live at least 15,000 foreign population, without any attempt to estimate the rural foreign population. Since 1906 there have been 464 applications for second papers in that county, not all of which past. As to the second point, in war time this seems self-evident. A man in industry needs to deal with his men directly, for however reliable the straw boss, his translations may take a color inimical to the spirit that makes output pay. On the matter of labor overturn it is well that school people should pause, because it is the proper presentation of these facts to chambers of commerce and the managers of industry that enables the educator to obtain the money he needs for night schools. The cost of hiring and firing is enormous and is not realized. A man- ager said, " O, they stay one or two pay days." I found in Illinois industries with a labor overturn of 900 per cent a year that had never considered the cost. The costs tabulated are as follows: 1. The cost of the employing department. 2. The cost of outfit, if any is furnisht, or of selling outfit. Foundries often sell foundry shoes, and one packinghouse gives the first uniform to its women employes and sells the later ones. 3. The examination of employes by a physician, which is practically a necessity to protect the employer under our compensation laws, i.e., in heavy industries, the employer runs great risk unless he knows whether the man is ruptured or not. 4. The waste of material by the new workman. A corset manufacturer loses if the Hungarian girl spoils one piece of the set that goes to make up the finisht garment. 5. Reduced output. The new man or woman cannot work as fast. Sessions] COST OF THE INADEQUATE NIGHT SCHOOL 105 6. The danger to machinery because of unfamiliarity. I know of a new man in one industry that cost the firm $700 the second day by some- thing he did to a pair of rolls. 7. The danger of injury to the employe from unfamiliar machinery. 8. The cost of teaching the new man. In one twine mill 18 per cent is added to the wage of an old employe for teaching a new employe. 9. The delay of other departments. In a piano factory a frame finisher had frames piled up behind him while the departments ahead could get no frames to work on. 10. The teaching of safety first, which must be done under the com- pensation laws. The Ford factory publishes the fact that it has reduced injuries 54 per cent by teaching its employes EngHsh. 11. The cost of the time of the foreman, who must more stringently supervise the new man. 12. The esprit de corps. Almost any manager can see these costs, and some do see them and estimate that every person hired costs from $36 to $80 for hiring. These costs can be reduced by teaching the foreign worker English. I cited one — the reduction of injury. A class of girls in a factory was shown the sign "Exit." Only one girl knew what it meant. She said it meant "git out." Many of the points given above are self-evident — the last one perhaps not. One manager told me that he could have stopt a strike had he been able to address the strikers in any language they could understand. If school people were prepared to present the financial evils of labor overturn and point out that a common language is a financial as well as a patriotic necessity, there would be little trouble in financing night schools. The educator is not always awake to the social dangers of the nomadic industrial people evolved by this constant hire and fire that is financially fatal. I assure you it is also fatal socially and educationally. The nomadic cotton-mill hand of the South is a peril, and educators in the mine fields of Illinois are burdened and their hard work rendered inefficient by the same cause. You cannot do your work on children that are in eight different schools in four years, as they are in some instances in the coal fields. It is of course self-evident that no community spirit or health work can be built up in industrial nomadism of this kind. But let us suppose that you have interested your community to the point where they consider the foreign neighbor, even to the point where they cease to call him slang names that hurt and alienate, and you have funds sufficient for a night school. The common history of the common night school is that it dwindles. It is not what we call a going institution. Why ? Again our indifference, and by that I mean the indifference of the public; the educators try hard and often pathetically, and they are forst to use teachers untrained for this work. Teachers should be especially trained to treat the foreign man as a lo6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General man, not as a child. It is an outrage that teachers call the foreign man, responsible for his family and his work, "Willie" and "Johnnie," and even " Dearie, " and make him stand up to recite like a six-year-old. They must be trained in objective teaching; they should have some background of the history and the heroes of the nationality of the foreigners whom they must teach. And, speaking broadly, they should be differently trained to teach men and women. The fatigue of the pupil in the night school must be considered in the location of the school, the seating of the pupils, the work given him. We sometimes thrust him into a child's desk, a mile from home, and stick a book in his hand that says things that have no interest to him, that are utterly unrelated to his job and his life, and then we wonder why the attend- ance falls off. There must be a definite aim, not merely naturalization, but the giving of American ideals of sanitation, health, and recreation. The community must be roused to assist the educator. He should not carry this burden, so vital to all of us, alone. One of the most successful night schools that I know is in De Kalb, 111. In that town the night schools are enter- tained during the winter at various homes, and the Americans are invited to become acquainted with the men who are working so hard to be able to meet their responsibilities in the community. The D.A.R. and the woman's club certainly can furnish the night school with coffee and doughnuts at intervals, and unaffiliated members of the community, if they could get rid of their superior feeling, could receive and give great happiness with a postcard picture machine, a victrola with foreign music, or an occasional dance. But it cannot be done in the spirit of "Now, my dear, I must do something for these poor foreigners." It can only be done in the spirit of " I have this, use it; and give me of your experi- ence and knowledge so different from mine." The professional or amateur story-teller, if unaffected and simple, can be of great use, and a teacher of the right spirit can play games with the men that promote much speaking of English in the group, and really it is speaking ability and American ideals that we want. These are sometimes missed by a strict adherence to the primer. To sum up: our national needs are a common language and the enlarge- ment of community ideals. To secure this there must be money for night schools, and this is to be considered as a paying investment and not a philanthropic move. These night schools must be manned by teachers trained in technique and spirit. There must be thorogoing cooperation without condescension by the community. The aim of the school must be wider than the ability to read and answer twenty questions for naturali- zation. It must include recreational, sanitary, and civic ideals, and these must be evolved from the historic and hero ideals of the nationahties in the school. » Sessionsl RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AS A MEANS OF PREPAREDNESS 107 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AS A MEANS OF NATIONAL PREPAREDNESS CHARLES E. RUGH, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL. This world-war has repeatedly brought forth the exclamation that religion has failed. The facts are that all things — science and art, industry and commerce, government and diplomacy, education and religion — have failed to prevent this worst of wars. For three years, and up to this very hour, everything has failed to stop the worst waste and the greatest human butchery in history. Why has religion been singled out as the greatest but worst of failures ? Because it had been believed and hoped by many of the world's wisest and best men and women that religion had evolved enough in power and effec- tiveness to prevent civilized nations from going to war. That hope has failed, but out of the failure emerges a clear and well-defined issue between war and religion. Time was when human slavery was defended and pro- moted in the name and in the interests of religion. There have been religious wars and wars in the interest of religion, but that time is gone. War looms up as the worst of evils because it multiplies all other forms of evil. War multiplies all kinds of suffering and thrusts its awful conse- quences upon the innocent and helpless as well as the guilty for generations to come. Religion has evolved as a way of preventing and alleviating sin and suffering. Religion and war are henceforth and forever incompatible. Three world-problems face men and nations here and now: first, this human butchery and terrible destruction must be stopt; secondly, the men, women, and children left must be fed, clothed, sheltered, and educated; thirdly, these two problems must be solved and the governments of the world reconstructed by such means, by such methods, and in such a spirit as will make impossible the repetition of such a world-crisis in the near future. This paper but suggests the functions of religion and religious education in the solution of these world-problems. I am aware that the word "reli- gion" has a history and that it arouses different emotions and different ideas in different persons. I am also aware that with many persons the mention of social or religious problems engenders more heat than light. I am going to assume that this intelligent body of educators are as individuals and as an organization aware of the findings of modern psychology concerning the phase and function of religion in human life. Self-preservation is the first and last law of nations as well as of nature. Each belligerent nation tells its citizens, its soldiers, and its sailors that that is the object for which they are fighting. In the last councils of peace self-preservation is what the representatives of each nation will demand. io8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General This conflict and all the conflicts of men and nations arise out of differing and changing conceptions of the self to be preserved. Men and nations are the most complex things in the world. Self-preservation may mean, does mean, many and different things to different men and nations. Our religious consciousness arises out of the conviction that not every aspect or interest of the self is equally valuable. The unity of personal consciousness demands that the normal person choose some personal interest of supreme value and subordinate other values to that. This need of sys- tematizing our values gives rise to a second conviction — that we may miss this end that we set up as supreme. These two convictions give rise to the specific forms and processes by which men and nations try to preserve themselves. The fundamental and distinguishing fact about men and nations is the ability and disposition ,to conceive a good to be attained. This, self-projected into the future, is the only thing for which men and nations strive and fight. Preparedness is the problem of the means and methods of achieving the self conceived as good and desirable. These means and methods are determined by the kind of a self deemed worthy to be preserved. It is perfectly evident that preparedness for either war or peace implies material resources. Our bodily selves must be fed, clothed, and sheltered. For bodies as puny as ours and ambitions as great there must be steam, electricity, powder, and machines to multiply and direct the powers we have to the ends we choose. Material resources are means of preparedness, however, only in the hands of intelligent persons. But intelligence is not enough. Intelligent persons may use power to destroy as well as to conserve. The supreme problem is the kind of end toward which intelligence directs its powers. It must be evident to every intelligent citizen that there can be no national preparedness without national unity. There can be no national unity without a clear consciousness of national aims and personal loyalty to those aims. But patriotism is not enough. Edith Cavel caught that vision. When confronted by the German soldiers who were about to shoot her she is reported to have said: "Standing in the immediate presence of my God and of eternity, I realize that patriotism is not enough. I must have neither hate nor spite towards any human being." Mazzini defined democracy as " the progress of all thru all under the leadership of the wisest and the best." To be prepared and to be safe a democracy must profess and pursue such a social aim that the strongest, the wisest, and the best can give willingly all their strength, all their minds, and all their hearts to its achievement. One of the perplexing problems facing our nation, indeed the problem that may prove to be a millstone about the neck of democracy, is just the question of how far individual and selfish aims can be pursued with safety. Sessions] RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AS A MEANS OF PREPAREDNESS 109 How far may the advocates of personal liberty go in their demand for the freedom to think, to say, and to act as they please? Most "antis," the atheists, anarchists, agnostics, are wrong in their claim that freedom is an individual, inherited right. Freedom is an achievement and can be rightfully claimed only by the person who pays the price. The price is the truth. Discussion, publicity, and justice are the indispensable condi- tions of safety in a democracy. The practice that condemns these 'indi- vidualists" is their hidden and secret ways. It is no answer that the laws and government oppressions have driven them into the ways of other wrongdoers. Like other wrongdoers they seek secrecy and the darkness because their deeds are evil and they know it. Of the same character is the spy system of Germany. Education as a means of national preparedness. — It is a trite but half truth that the perpetuity of a democracy depends upon the intelligence of its citizens. Fichte told the German people that schools could make Germany a conquering nation. Inspired and guided by that vision Germany became the champion of education, of schools, of science, of efficiency. The world is painfully aware of the power of education as a means of national preparedness. The fatal fallacy in education is the doctrine that the aim of education is the development of power. The weakest and worst men and women of the world have not lackt mental energy. The all-important questions for the nation are the ends toward which persons and organized groups of persons direct their power. The previous and supreme question of education is the aim, and this is a problem of ethics and religion. Individuals living by themselves or communities that think themselves sufficient unto themselves may pursue selfish ends, may hate and resist other individuals and communities, and survive for a time. But there are no more frontiers. Pioneer times are past. Steam, electricity, increasing intelligence, and increasing human wants have forst intelligent human beings to be citizens of the world, but have not yet forst them to employ a world-system of values. The provincial standards of individuals and isolated communities can no longer be maintained. Under the present economic and social conditions only universal standards can make the world a safe place in which to live. The fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of all men is the only formula that gives any promise of world-peace. But this is a formula of thinking believers. It is, as President Wilson said, a "fair but empty phrase." To the poor, the sick, or the suffering who are struggling for the bare means of subsistence, this is worse than a fair phrase. It seems a hollow mockery. Unless this conception of brotherhood, based upon the fatherhood of God, can be translated in a practical and working principle for evaluating things and persons, it can give neither inspiration nor guidance. If such a vision is impossible, then the people will perish. no NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The greatest challenge of the ages faces the religious forces of the world. If they are to survive this world-crisis, for the time being at least they must forget the differences that divide them and they must unite upon the prob- lem of working out a workable and working program of brotherhood. Such a program can be carried out only by education. In America the only efficient means of general education are the public schools. The religious consciousness for a universal brotherhood in a democracy cannot be developt by dividing children into groups according to denominational preferences. William James was one time discussing the salvation of the world. A bold student asked him when the millennium would come. That great philosopher replied, "When every human being does the best that is in him." That is the correct formula. But that formula forces us to conceive and work out the principles of education in psychological and sociological instead of theological terms. Never in the history of American education was the necessity of imagination and vision so great. Our children must see and must think about the material resources by which this war must be won. The American parent and American teacher must see to it that the imaginations of our children see thru food and guns and ships and soldiers to the human and spiritual ends for which they are given. This is no easy task. The adolescent boys and girls of America must not only see the industrial and commercial reconstruction for the world, but they must take part in that reconstruction. But the imagination and emotions of these boys and girls must be guided to see the values of things in terms of human values. This will be a tremendous task. When this war is over and the facts are accessible, there will be material for a literature that could keep the wounds of war open for years and pass the hopes of parents to coming generations. Nothing but a spiritualizing of the means and processes by which this war is won and nothing but a religious interpretation of our human rela- tionship can save us from the fate of Germany. Interpreted in psychological terms a good American school is already a religious institution. In the first place, it arises in the individual will of the pupil. The pupil wills to put himself under the direction of a person, the teacher whom he believes wills his good. This process develops the psychological machinery for the right notion and use of the fatherhood of God. In the second place, the pupil agrees to be directed in action by the good will of this teacher and to have his acts and his standing judged by the teacher. This practice develops the psychic machinery for the religious attitude toward God as judge. In the third place, the children of our good schools see every other pupil judged on merits. They play and work together. This develops that sense of justice necessary for brotherhood. Sessions! EDUCATION AND THE WORLD-WAR III The glorious opportunity of the churches of America is built upon this general foundation and special denominational doctrines and rites. This war is now furnishing, and will for some years to come furnish, one of the dominant features of the economic, social, and spiritual atmos- phere around the children we shall teach. What will those children think of this war and of the world after we have taught them ? Perhaps of more importance is the question, How will they feel toward Englishmen, French- men, Germans, Russians, Japanese, and what will be their attitude toward the government? Very much will depend upon what we think and how we feel and the character of our loyalty. Our immediate problem is to think straight and feel right. Personally I know no solution for that problem save the spirit and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. He placed the child at the center of hiis Kngdom. The teachers of America can do nothing greater. Dare we do any less ? EDUCATION AND THE WORLD-WAR WILLIAM JASPER KERR, PRESIDENT, OREGON STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CORVALLIS, ORE. The great war in which most civilized nations are now involved is a challenge to modern civilization. On the hypothesis that education is the concomitant of civilization, it is alleged that therefore, as evidenst by the great world-cataclysm, education has failed; that instead of school work being a vital, controlling factor in individual and national life, it has been, for the most part, remote, isolated, not adapted in a real, practical way to the needs of the people. But education has not failed. Of this there is ample evidence on every hand, even in the war itseK. The achievements of European nations in the mobilization and equipment of the greatest armies in the history of warfare attest the real value of the educational work of these countries. The facilities provided for the rapid and certain movement of millions of men, under the most adverse conditions, and of fiurnishing troops with the necessary munitions and other supplies as required, are all the products of modern education. As declared by an eminent European specialist, this war is an engineers' war, and if we have victory it will be an engineers' victory. The entire enginery of modern warfare — the submarine and aircraft and artillery, destructive implements of whatever kind — all are possible only thru the applications of science, developt, largely at least, in the institutions of higher learning; likewise, the means of alleviating suffering and of saving life. But educational systems generally have been workt out on the policy of peace. The aim has been the elevation of character, the discipline of 112 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General mind, the applications of science in industry, the promotion of the general welfare of humanity. It is to education, indeed, that we are indebted for the great achievements in modern industry and statesmanship. Funda- mentally, however, education for peace essentially must be of a character such that it may easily be adapted to meet the exigencies of war. Upon this point I quote from Dr. Herbert L. Fisher, minister of education in the new British Cabinet, an authority who speaks out of an experience of several years in the greatest, most gigantic struggle the world has ever known. Speaking of Great Britain, he says: ''In the course of two years a nation whose whole industrial and civil structure was calculated for the pursuits of the arts of peace has converted itself into a great and efficient military machine. It has not only created a vast army, but has done what is in- finitely more difficult, supplied it with uniforms, guns, and explosives." Continuing, he adds that "a great industrial people can, without great difficulty, turn its industrial skill and aptitudes from one channel to another. The same aptitudes that produce success in industry necessarily produce success in the provisions of the industrial equipment, which is the larger half of victory in modern war." The effect of war upon the education of the belligerent countries may be indicated by reference to a few statistics. For instance, in England dur- ing the first year of the war more than 20,000 teachers enlisted; in France, more than 30,000. The majority of the men students in all the institutions of higher learning thruout these countries, and a large proportion of the professors, were either with the forces at the front or were employed in other branches of the war service. More than 11,000 Cambridge students were engaged actively in the war during the year 191 6, while 70 per cent of the men students in the University of Glasgow had enUsted. Edin- burgh lost 55 per cent of her men students during the second year of the war. The check to plans for developing public education is counted as one. of the great disasters entailed by the European war. Plans were before legislative bodies which contemplated "large extension of provision for the instruction of the masses and their better preparation for industrial life and civic duties." These efforts to reform and advance school work ceast with the beginning of hostihties, not only in the countries actually engaged in the war, but also, to a large extent, in the neutral countries of Europe. The disturbances in education caused by the war, applicable alike to all the participant nations, may be briefly summarized by the following excerpt from an official report: "Retrenchments, reductions, and disorganization of the teaching force by the call of men to arms; temporary expedients to supply this loss by combining schools, substituting women, doubling the work of professors past military age, deserted universities — these are features of the common record," Sessions] EDUCATION AND THE WORLD-WAR 113 Notwithstanding all this, and the mighty struggle in which these nations are engaged and the enormous difficulties with which they have to contend, all of them are making heroic efforts to continue their school work. As indicative of this I quote from the report of the Board of Education of England: . In the schools [of Francel upon every line of battle the teachers "carry on their classes stoically, and pass in companies over the ruined roads to the pedagogical confer- ence." At Reims, in the midst of the bombardments, schools were installed in cellars of country houses. Out of 1,715 pupils in the schools of this one town, 498 were instructed in these subterranean schools. The greater part of the school teachers having entered the service, this work was mostly in charge of women. Time will not permit a recital of the experiences of the different nations in this respect. In most of the countries many of the schools were unavoid- ably closed at the outbreak of the war, but some of these were later reopened. The general effect of the war has been to emphasize in European countries the importance of education in conserving and promoting the national welfare, and to point the way to certain reforms which will tend to connect school work more vitally and more completely with the lives of the people. Upon this question, speaking of France, Professor Petite says: "The future welfare of the republic depends, not only upon safeguarding the young, but upon the increase of their training and opportunities. As primary education was made obligatory as an outcome of the War of 1870, so in like manner it is necessary that obligatory continued education should follow the present conflict." Again, Dr. Fisher, referring to the changes contemplated in the higher institutions of learning thruout the British Empire, places particular stress upon the importance of bringing higher learning within the reach of the middle classes. He also emphasizes the necessity of developing in the colleges and universities branches of pure and applied science, serviceable to the leading industries in the respective localities in 'which these institutions are located. Viscount Haldane, also, speaking of Great Britain, declares: "Our greatest mistake in this country has been in center- ing upon the conducting and training of the well-to-do." He explains that in that country more than 90 per cent of the people under the conditions obtaining theretofore had received the advantage of no school training beyond the age of fourteen. Comparing the national-system of education in Switzerland with that of Great Britain, he emphasizes the importance of readjusting the school work of the latter in such a way as to adapt it more nearly to the needs of all the people, "particularly of those who are engaged in the great industries." The old methods in England, he says, will no longer avail. The government must lead in preparing the nation for the industrial struggle which must follow the war. 114 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General Two things here may be noted: First, recognition of the right of the great middle classes to training in school comparable with that which has heretofore been afforded the well-to-do in preparation for the vocations they are to follow in life ; and, second, as a matter of interest to the individual and of concern to the nation, school work must be so modified that it shall train men for efficient service in the industries. This latter idea of estabUshing a closer relationship between education and industry is further emphasized by Dr. Goy, in a speech before the French Senate, in which he urges that steps should be taken to increase the corps of engineers, managers of great enterprises, etc. "Science and education," he says, "have both been too far divorst from industry." He proposes that a faculty of applied science be estabhsht in every institution of higher learning thruout France, with an adaptation of university work to industrial needs. "In this war," he continues, "there would be estabhsht in France centers of the higher technical education, including altogether the totahty of the applied sciences." The same interest in this subject is also shown in England. The President of the National Association of Head Teachers of that country in a recent report says: "The outstanding fact in the year's record is the awakened consciousness in England in regard to national education and its relation to national industry." The first action of the British government in this direction, as he explains, was the creation, in July, 191 5, of a new Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, with an initial appropriation of $150,000. Another reform in education that has grown out of the experiences of the European countries at war has been in the larger opportunities for higher education offered to women. For the first time the universities of England and France are now open to women as to men. Special provi- sion has also been made for the training of women in the more diversified forms of technical and vocational education. In Russia the government has given official recognition to the Institute of Technology for women at Moscow. But what of the general effect of the war upon the future, not only of the nations immediately involved, but of civilization ? Dr. James D. Clarke says: Perhaps the greatest mistake made by some of the nations across the sea has been the failure to make provision for replacing the trained leaders who have gone to the front, many never to return. Large numbers of teachers and undergraduates are in the trenches or are buried on the fields of battle; schools and colleges are closed or runnmg with greatly reduced attendance, and now, after three years of war, thoughtful men are asking, "What are we gomg to do for a trained leadership for the future ? " Some of the European countries, at least, are answering this question by enlarged appropriations for education. In England, for instance, as reported by the Board of Education, the appropriation for education during Sessions] EDUCATION AND THE WORLD-WAR 115 the year 19 16- 17 was more than four million dollars greater than for the year 1913-14, the year immediately preceding the outbreak of hostilities. These nations have come to realize, as declared by Arnold Bennett, that, whatever the other demands, education is the very last thing in which they should economize. With all that has been done, however, or can be, think of the enormous wastage the war involves — in property, but more especially in men! And many of these are the educated men, the men who have been trained for leadership, for positions of responsibility in the world's afifairs. As an instance, recall the fact that during the first year of the war 50,000 teachers enlisted from England and France alone, that a large proportion of the professors and a majority of the students in the institutions of higher learn- ing in all the belligerent countries were at the front, and then picture the sacrifices of war in leadership to these nations! But what of the United States, the last great nation to become involved in this world-mad cataclysm ? Shall this country profit by the experiences of Europe? Having more recently entered the conflict, with the lessons before us to be drawn from Europe's three years' experience, may we not view the situation in truer perspective, and avoid the more serious errors, at least, that were made by other nations during the earlier period of the war? A repubhc, the perpetuity of whose institutions is dependent upon an intelligent citizenship, and a government which in its ideals at least is of the people, by the people, and for the people, must have large interest in measures for the training, not only of leaders, but of the entire population. From the time of the earHest settlement of this country there has been special interest in school work, and with the development of the country has come corresponding advancement in education. Indeed, the development of the school system of the United States, particularly during recent decades, is without a parallel in the history of education. We spend more money for education per pupil or per capita of population than any other country. The school budget of the United States for the year 1914, as reported by the Commissioner of Education, aggregated more than $800,000,000, and it was estimated that this amount would be increast within two years to at least $1,000,000,000. The elementary schools alone are costing more than $550,000,000 a year. The average expenditure per pupil between the ages of five and eighteen is $21 .34; per capita of population, $5 . 62. The amount invested in school property aggregates more than $2,560,000,000. In addition to all the public funds provided, private gifts to institutions of learning since 1896 amount in the aggregate to more than $407,000,000. The progress being made in the advancement of school work is shown by the fact that since 1900 the cost per capita of population has increast from $2 . 84 to $5 . 62, or nearly 100 per cent. Another evidence of real progress ii6 " NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General is found in the report that during the same period the percentage of illiterates in population decreast from 7 . i per cent to 4 . i per cent, or nearly one-half. But the growth of education in the United States is measured not alone by the funds provided for its support. Even greater progress has been made in the improvement of standards, and more particularly in the adapta- tion of school work to community needs. It is now recognized that educa- tion, to be of the greatest value in a democracy, must afford the best possible training for all the children of all the people, in preparation for their life- work, whatever occupations they may follow. Our ideals in education, however, notwithstanding all that has been accomplisht, have not yet been fully realized. A careful survey of condi- tions obtaining thruout the United States, especially in the light of war developments, reveals limitations in our school machinery that must be removed, and indicates improvements that must be made if we are to achieve the desired results. There is not yet equahty of opportunity in education, even in this country. Among the reforms most important at this time are an improvement of rural-school conditions, an extension of the advantages of vocational education, and larger and more general provision for the educa- tion of the adult aHen population. The development of the war and the unusual and extraordinary demands resulting therefrom place upon the schools of the country a greater burden of responsibility than ever before. Never before in history has there been such need for trained leadership. However great the other demands upon the country, it is imperative in this crisis that at all cost our educational processes should continue. The future of the nation depends upon it. It was Bismarck who said, "As the school is, so is the nation." If the school work should be depleted, and relatively large numbers should discontinue their education, to what source can the nation look for the training of the leadership required during the period of reconstruction to follow the war, and even during the war itself ? As stated by the Secretary of the Navy, "The country must look to the educators to furnish the larger portion of men who will lead in the great struggle which we are waging until victory comes." The Secretary of War also declares, "The nation will be needing educated men even more than ever before, as a result of this war, for the coming years, and the colleges must supply them." The three things most needed, he says, for the successful prosecution of the war are muni- tions, food, and educated men. And he might have added that educated men are quite as necessary in the manufacture of munitions and in the production and conservation of food as in the military service. The first impulse when the United States became involved in the war was to close all the schools, that the children might be used in industrial work. There could have been no greater mistake. Children should be taken from school only in cases of extreme necessity. High-school graduates Sessions] EDUCATION AND THE WORLD-WAR 1 17 and college students, also, should be encouraged and urged to continue their educational work. In building up the military forces the government has decided upon a policy of selective conscription. The object no doubt is that under this policy every man should be used in the particular kind of service in which he could be of the greatest value. The relatively small number of men students in our higher institutions, and the extraordinary present demand for advanst training, particularly in the field of applied science, would indicate that most, if not all, of the young men who are now in college or who are prepared to enter upon college work could render the nation no greater service than by continuing their education, at least for the present. That our educational work may be successfully continued it is not necessary that the teachers, as a class, should be exempt from military service. Most of the teachers now in the elementary schools are women. Many of the men teaching in high schools could be replaced by women. Women also could do much of the work now in charge of men in certain departments of the higher institutions. In other divisions, however, as in the technical departments, a comparatively large number of the best- trained and most competent men of conscriptive age would no doubt be needed, and should be exempt purely in the interest of th€ country in meeting the present emergency. School curricula thruout all grades should be readjusted to meet, so far as practicable, the requirements of the war situation. By having college and university work continue over a period of forty-eight weeks, divided into four terms, instead of following the present semester plan, and by arranging the courses so that students might enter at the beginning of any term, many more people would no doubt be able to get the advantages of the training afforded by these institutions. The vital relationship between the various industries and the war and the unprecedented demand for the products of industrial enterprise, add emphasis to the importance of the technical courses in the colleges and universities and to vocational training in the secondary and elementary schools. There is urgent need for the largest number possible of trained specialists and skilled workers in the different lines of industry. The industrial development of -the United States during the past fifty years is perhaps greater than that of any other country; and yet, with all the achievements of the past, there is still enormous waste and great oppor- tunity for improvement. For instance, it is estimated that "not over II per cent of the energy in coal is effectively utilized, the remainder being lost in the inefficiency of the steam boiler, the steam engine, and the electric dynamo." The value of recoverable products wasted each year in the manufacture of coke is estimated at more than forty-five million dollars. The 'United States produces forty miUion tons of coke annually, and it is ii8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General said that " if every ton produced came from the most modern by-product ovens, thereby saving the gas, tar, ammonia, benzol, etc., otherwise wasted, we should be almost entirely independent of Chilean nitrates for explosives as well as fertilizers." The waste products thus saved would also have made this country independent of Germany in the matter of dyestuffs. In the field of agriculture, also, there is equal necessity for eUminating waste. The annual loss from preventable animal diseases and pests, for example, is estimated at more than two hundred million dollars. The loss from smuts of wheat, barley, oats, and rye alone averages more than sixty million dollars a year. The Secretary of Agriculture announces an annual food waste in this country, as a result of bad preparation, bad cooking, improper care and handhng, amounting to more than seven hundred million dollars. These, of course, are only illustrations. On the other hand, as indicating what may be accomphsht, reference may be made to the fact that the extraction of copper by hydro-gravity concentration resulted in a saving in a single year of more than fifty-one million dollars. With the advent of the steam shovel, also, and improve- ment in methods of concentration, three mines alone, otherwise unproduc- tive, were made to produce more than three hundred million pounds of copper, worth, at fifteen cents, forty-five million dollars. In agriculture the saving to the country thru the applications of science is almost inesti- mable, amounting certainly to hundreds of millions of dollars each year. It is upon the schools, likewise, that the country must largely depend for the assimilation and Americanization of the aliens who come to our shores. During the life of the nation thirty-three million foreigners have immigrated to the United States. During the decade preceding 1910, out of 8,398,000 people admitted, more than 2,238,000 were illiterates. At the time of the census in 1910 there were in Michigan 102,000 non-EngUsh-speaking foreigners, and in New York 597,000. Of those in New York, 362,000 could not read or write in any language. In the interest of the nation this class of people must be educated in the meaning and opportunities of our American institutions. Previous to the beginning of the European war immigration to the United States averaged about one milHon annually. The assumption has been that these people were being converted into loyal Americans, but "the war has taught that they were not." In evidence of this reference need only be made to the social disturbances thruout the country — riots, organized conspiracies against the government. "If we are to remain a nation," it has been declared, "we must have the strength of union." Obviously, therefore, we must thoroly Americanize the foreigners already here, and must prepare the machinery to Americanize the immigrants who will make up the great stream that will be expected to flow again to this country after the close of the war. To accomplish this, continuation and night schools must be more general, and other special Sessions] THE UNIVERSITY AND THE NATION'S IDEALS 119 provision must be made to insure the training of all immigrants to this country in the duties of American citizenship for intelligent and desirable participation in our industrial and social Hfe. Finally, with all its limitations, education constitutes the great democ- ratizing agency of this country. It promotes liberty, equahty, opportunity. The schools of the future must emphasize the development of practical efficiency, clear thinking, high ideals of statesmanship, in the preparation of students for the greatest service to themselves, the nation, and mankind. THE UNIVERSITY AND THE NATION'S IDEALS p. L. CAMPBELL, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF OREGON, EUGENE, ORE. The colossal mistake made by the dominant military caste in Germany was in underestimating the fast hold which moral ideals have on civilized humanity. Trained in the doctrine of selfish aggrandizement and cynically accepting the theory that at bottom every nation believes in "safety first" as the supreme rule of action, how could the powerful war lords fail to go astray in forecasting the course of Belgium when invaded by the overwhelming might of the most powerful military organization the world has ever known? Cynical disbelief in heroic unselfishness and infinite self-sacrifice met a rude awakening in Belgium's self-immolation on the altar of the world's freedom. And with England was made the same fatal mistake of misjudgment. Rich, lethargic, seemingly decadent in heroic quaUties, who could guess the fires that burned beneath the easy-going slackness of her upper classes and the all-too-evident deterioration in mind and body of her toihng masses ? That she would risk all and bear all and have a rebirth as a nation in her glorious defense of world-freedom seemed inconceivable to a philosophy that denied the dominance of moral ideals. And in the same blind way America was misjudged. On the surface we seemed but a nation of money-getters. It was the fashion with the military caste to despise and ridicule us. That we could be too proud to fight was the best of all jokes. Cynicism, as usual, did not look under the surface. It had again to learn in the bitter school of experience that it is a vastly safer practical rule to think the best of people than to think the worst of them. History, religion, evolution, all give denial to the deadly doctrine of the dominance of might, and make this the surest of all sure things, that it is a moral universe we live in and that ideals determine the destiny of man- kind. Conquering nations have arisen but to fall. And in nature, as has been well said, all things are against the violent. The great moral forces have welded people together and made them invincible for right. Defiance of the moral order in the world unites the world against the attack. 120 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General It is surprising that an enlightened people who have so desperately- misjudged this country of ours should not have read their history better and understood that from the first this nation has been "dedicated to freedom," and that the origin of our government was in the highest and noblest ideals of the race. It is true that we have been very busy develop- ing a continent; that we have suffered both major and minor ills of mis- management, to which all democracies are liable; that we have been too much engaged to pay as much attention as we might to manner, absorbed as we are in the matter of our great enterprises. As one who judges by exteriors might easily mistake one of our pioneers, seeing only the material- istic practicality that levels forests and reclaims deserts, but failing to pene- trate to the inner source of power in great purposes to be accomplisht for civilization, so this loose-jointed young giant of a nation, working in shirt sleeves and good-naturedly indifferent to minor niceties of etiquette, was thought to be coarsely sordid when it was only sweating freely under the sun in order that it might have at command the means with which to make real in national life its magnificent ideals. The first thought of the pioneers was always for education and religion. In the far West they gave evidence of their splendid aspirations by founding, not colleges, but invariably universities, in the log schoolhouses which sheltered the one teacher and handful of pupils of each ambitious educational center. They lookt not on the things of today, but fixt their eyes on the far horizons and were cheered to their work of conquering a wilderness by splendid visions of the world that was to be. They were the finest of ideahsts, the practical idealists that wrestle with the brute world to convert it into a fit abode for the things of the spirit. They knew only too well from hard experience that life is always a series of compromises between things as they are and things as they ought to be. In order to establish justice, they must at times forget the courts and take into their own hands the summary vindication of the higher law. They would have peace if they had to fight to secure it. But their unshaken ideal, toward which they were striving with all their might, was law and peace and brotherly kindness and human happiness. Let it never be forgotten, then, that this is and has always been a nation of ideahsts, of practical idealists, who toil and sweat and suffer and achieve that their ideals may not remain but empty dreams, but may at last become the living realities of a reconstructed world. But it must not be supposed that in the sharp conflict with the actual, when the give and take at times grows fast and furious and the primitive love of combat threatens to overwhelm all nobler motives, the light of the ideal continues to guide with undiminisht brightness, and the way upward shines out with undimmed certainty and clearness. It is necessary to safeguard "lest we forget." And so a democracy turns to education and to all the strong reinforcements of religion to fasten Sessions! THE UNIVERSITY AND THE NATION'S IDEALS I2i its higher purposes thru enlightenment and the powerful sanctions of con- science. The youth are trained in the ideals of their native land. From primary school to university we almost unconsciously acquire a super- saturation in the principle of liberty and equaUty. But it is in the higher stages of the educational process, for most perhaps in the university years, that the change is made from the routine acceptance of a dogma to the active dynamic of a reasoned belief. It is especially to the safe-keeping of its higher educational institutions that a democracy intrusts its supreme ideals. True, the atmosphere is congenial, and the generous youth that throngs those halls of learning, as yet unhardened by worldly conflict and sordid striving, is especially receptive toward all that is highest and finest. Free- dom characterizes this sacred ground as nowhere else on earth, and here it is that the nation is taking care for the welfare of its ideals. But this very freedom, which is necessary for the full development of all that is highest and best in the world of ideas and of ideals, carries with it a tremendous responsi- bility. It is a high and sacred trust, that which is committed by a people to the leaders of its thought and the instruction of its youth, and only with the deepest sense of obligation to the destiny of the state should anyone dare exercise the high privileges granted by the time-sanctioned doctrine of "academic freedom." It must be the freedom granted to the seer and the prophet and not the irresponsible license claimed by the cheap charlatan who has only selfish personal ends to exploit. In this period of world-crisis, when all that humanity holds dear is at stake, the way of the universities is open and clear. The great ideals of the race are largely in their keeping, and these must not be marred nor obscured by the passions of war or the tragedies of brutal violence. Clear and bright as never before must now shine out the beacon lights of lofty principle which have ever guided the race in its march of progress. They are not many in number, they are not uncertain, they are not difficult to understand. They represent the highest generalizations of all human history. The first of these, raised to a dominant position in world- consciousness today, is the principle of democracy for which we are fighting "to make the world safe"; democracy, with all its impHcations, not only in matters of government, but in the economic and social life of the world as well. It means that equality of opportunity which guarantees to every individual the most complete self-realization. It means the development of all latent talent, the full capitalization by the state of all its hidden resources of potential genius. It recognizes the essential equality of endowment, in posse if not in esse, of all members of the race, knowing that we are all of one blood, that the slow processes of evolution have eliminated inequalities, and that the^variations of successive generations show but different measures of opportunity afforded by time and circumstance. It looks forward to con- ditions which will eventually mean the leveling up of the race to the high plane now achieved by its most fortunate members. With complete self- 122 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General realization will come complete self-control, and the ideal of self-government both for the individual and for the nation will have been attained. But democracy, after all, is but the form, and will be powerless without the spirit which must animate it, the second of the great world-principles, that of the practical good will. This is the dynamic which attacks all prob- lems of life, individual or national, governmental or social, and works out ultimate solutions by processes as widely varying as philanthropy and commerce, as world-congresses and world-war. It sees its great objectives in the good of all mankind, and without hatred and without injustice it uses whatever means the occasion makes necessary in moving on to the accomplishment of its great purposes. It is not passive, but active; it is not negative, but positive. It foresees and prevents. It cleans the city before the plague arrives. It strives for world-justice that may make con- flict impossible. It is not of the quality of a near-Christianity, which knows only how to suffer evil, but of an aggressive Christianity which goes out to conquer the world for righteousness in a spirit of love. Working as unceasingly and as irresistibly as the pull of gravity, these two great principles, democracy and the practical good will, are making for the reconstruction of the world, at times thru constructive periods of peace and prosperity, at times thru destructive periods of national readjust- ments and world-wars. The way is often hard to understand, and supreme faith is demanded in holding to the verity of our guiding ideals. It is the business of the universities to help us maintain this faith. It is their business to train up a generation that grasps it more firmly than our own, and in the light of vindication, which the sure outcome of this world-crisis is to bring, to pass on in its power to higher levels of achievement than we have as yet dared to believe possible. It will be a new era that will begin when peace is made. The world can never again be the same. Vaster opportunities, vaster undertakings, vaster dreams of world-righteousness to be realized — all these are coming to the generation which is now in training, and it is the high duty of the uni- versities to teach no uncertain doctrine, to strike no uncertain note as to the ideals on which this nation is founded, and to the acceptance of which it is striving with all its might to bring the world. Democracy and the practical good will — these are the supreme formulae, the one of the form and the other of the animating spirit, with which the world is to be reconstructed. NATIONAL EDUCATION AND WORLD-POLITY EDWARD O. SISSON, PRESIDENT, STATE UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA, MISSOULA, MONT. The world is ablaze with war. After long immunity we too are now involved, altho as yet the flames have hardly touched us, and our own home land is wrapt in profound peace. But just around the curve of the earth Sessionsl NATIONAL EDUCATION AND WORLD-POLITY 123 unspeakable horrors are in full swing. It is terrible, and would be incredible if it were not actual, that so wonderful a world should go mad in a month. What poison has got into its veins ? Why did the fury spread so swiftly and so irresistibly in spite of all the diplomats of civilization ? This is the supreme question; and the supreme task is to fight the causes of this terrible lapse and secure the world against a like disaster for all time to come. Winning the war is the immediate duty; to this end every effort must be put forth. But back of this task, beyond it, above it, is a greater, vaster problem — to render war impossible and establish peace among all nations. In days like these the educator is awakened to realize what is always and in all times his duty — to rise to the level of statesmanship and grapple with the final problems of human life. Let us look up awhile from the innumerable petty details of our craft and ask ourselves the meaning and the lesson of the present unparalleled world-war. If we can but rise to the true conception of our rule as educators we shall find that the greatest of all the lessons of the present state of the world is to us and to our task. How did the war come to be ? Never before was a war so great; never one in which the occasions and pretexts were so petty and irrelevant; pever one in which the true causes were so vast and so fraught with the destiny of man; never before a war in which liberty and human hopes were so totally thrown into the balance. Such a war must be full of meaning for the educator. The diplomatic documents of 1914 give a shocking picture of nations hurried into mortai combat without a single clear cause and against the ardent desires and prayers of the vast majority of all most deeply con- cerned; each protesting its own innocence and its own devotion to peace. But there was no basis to be found for peace; instead of mutual confidence and good faith there was nothing but the quicksand of distrust and suspicion; each felt compelled to strike lest the other should strike first. No one can read these documents and the history of carnage since written without feeling that the world as it existed then was hardly fit to live in, and offers no safe foundation for the further evolution of human life; it is a world that stands in need of radical and immediate change. This war is already more horrible than all past wars: and, terrible as is the thought, human progress has made it so. The products of man's brain which should minister to human welfare are prostituted to the ends of torture and destruction. Every advance of science and engineering makes war more hideous; every advance in organization and efficiency makes it more terrible; the very international bonds which foreshadow peace thru unity for the present serve to drag every nation into the carnage. But unless the world is radically changed, this war, more terrible than all past wars, will be followed sooner or later by another war more terrible than this. 124 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The present war has at least torn ofE the veil and exposed the total depravity of war. The world has fooled itself with pleasing phantasms of international law and rules of warfare; it even dreamed that modern war at least was noble and almost humane. The rape of Belgium, the shrieks of drowning women and children, the bombing of quiet homes in undefended towns, and other horrors new each day have provided a rude awakening. All these are merely the inevitable result of the logic of war applied without ruth; worse will come just as soon as worse can be found. The very hymn of hate, abhorrent to every human ideal, fits perfectly into the system and spirit of war. Germany has simply played the terrible role of frightfulness in becoming the last champion of war as the final arbiter of human affairs. To have been chosen by the forces of history for this r61e is in itself punish- ment enough for any national crimes. Under the pressure of their situation in the middle of Europe, Germany chose, or rather its rulers chose for it, to be aligned with the past and against the future: for this reason is the defeat of the Germans so indispensable, for their victory would set back the clock of progress five hundred years; and Germany herself, in the midst of Europe, would be the most tragic sufferer. The world is ablaze with war because in 19 14 it was an inflammable world charged with high explosives, material and spiritual. With the^ material explosives, from the bomb at Sarajevo to the Krupp guns in Germany, we are not much concerned; they are but the tools of the spiritual, and of themselves neither make nor prevent wars. If two men live side by side they are pretty sure to quarrel sooner or later if they are quarrelsome men or if they believe they have cause to quarrel; this regardless of whether they have bowie|knives|or sixshooters or not. They can get sixshooters if they really want to kill each other, or if no sixshooters are to be had they can do damage enough with fists, clubs, or stones: lack of weapons is never a safeguard against war and disaster. However, if the two men are good friends who understand each other and have faith in each other, or are working for common ends, they may safely have a whole arsenal of weapons. The spiritual causes of war form the real danger; and this is just where education comes in and where the schools play their part. Disarmament alone will not prevent war. The spiritual causes must be eradicated, or rather the spiritual forces underlying peace must be made supreme. These are simply the forces already domi- nant in the internal relations of all civilized nations: it remains to establish them between nations. The nations, all at war for the first time in history, have suddenly awakened, for the first time in history, to the realization that they should all be at peace; and that peace should no longer be accidental and precarious, to be upset by the first trifling disagreement, but organized and binding, secured by the combined forces of all the powers. This means some sort of United States of the World, with permanent unity and concord, with I Sessionsr NATIONAL EDUCATION AND WORLD-POLITY 125 agreements binding upon all, and force sufficient and available to maintain order. This great idea, long foreseen by prophets and sages, is now quicken- ing in the minds of men everywhere. Of the spiritual causes of war none is more striking than a sort of exaggerated national ego, of which Pan-Germanism is probably the most terrible example. With the Germans this characteristic can be traced far back in their history. While the drums of Napoleon were rattling in the streets of Berlin in 1807, the philosopher Fichte delivered a series of famous lectures, the keynote of which was the absolute supremacy of the German nation. " If you should be lost," he declared to these vanquished and humili- ated people, "with you is lost every hope of the human race for salvation from the depth of its evils .... there is no escape; if you sink to destruc- tion, with you sinks all humanity, without any hope of future recovery." The hearts of the Germans of his own time responded marvelously to these extraordinary words; and Germans ever since have admired and treasured his utterances. But Fichte was simply the mouthpiece of his people and his times: and the response is simply the response of the national ego. Germany took his words seriously, as he meant them; but she also took them crudely and materialistically, as he did not mean them. His was a noble prophecy of spiritual power; the actual realization has been a wild passion for glory thru domination. Germany has for over a hundred years fostered the national ego to a point where no power could avert a clash and a cataclysm; hence the present war. The schools of Germany have been used by the government as the chief instrument for raising up a people fitted to hear and believe the doctrine of Deutschland iiber Alles. Never since the time of Sparta has education been focust so relentlessly and so effectively upon fixt and rigid national aims; the aims and methods of the German schools have all been sub- servient to these ends. The German pupil never asks a question; the teachers, as more than one of them said to me, tell him all he needs to know. "Listen to me, so that you can tell me back what I am telling you! " shouted a German teacher to his class in my hearing. This attitude of the schools is simply the reflection of the attitude of the state. For more than a hundred years the German government has been telling the people all they need to know, and training them to repeat it faithfully in word and deed. The people on their part have listened so long to the voice of the state that their ears are dulled to every other sound. The dominant idea from first to last is the greatness and glory of Germany, especially as embodied in the brilliant figure and personality of the kaiser. Without these schools, "telling the pupils all they need to know," there could never have been the extraordinary spectacle of mediaeval autocracy projected into the twentieth century among a people otherwise highly intellectualized. But Germany is not alone in her exaggerated national ego and ill- concealed contempt of other peoples: she is only the extreme case of a 126 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General general rule. Every nation considers itself the Chosen People of God: not only Germans, but French, English, and, of course, we Americans; also Russians, Italians, Serbs; even Turks and Mexicans. If they but felt chosen to serve, which is probably the only choice made by God, all would be well; but they feel chosen to rule, .and then trouble comes. Fichte told the Germans they were chosen to bear light and truth to all mankind; but the Germans conceived that they were chosen to rule the rest of the world. Even the idea of God is still clouded in petty nationalism: we profess to worship the Father of all mankind, the Lord of all nations; but we cannot break away from the idea that he is peculiarly our God and we his favored people, and that he must fight with our armies and against our enemies. Here again Germany is the horrible example: scarcely a single speech or army order or battle report omits God; only a people exceedingly short of the sense of humor could tolerate such endless iteration of the divine name in every war document. The other side of the exaggerated national ego is the shallow depreciation of other peoples. Each nation is in general grossly ignorant of the virtues and capacities of other nations, and naively regards them as inferior. This is particularly true with respect to prowess and valor in war, and par- ticularly dangerous in this respect. The average American is sure that one American soldier can beat two or three of any other race; but the average Englishman and Frenchman think the same of their soldiers. Of course all such ideas are foolish and contrary to the facts; but they are all the more dangerous for this reason. Napoleon jeered at the English as a nation of shopkeepers, but the English finally destroyed his empire and shut him up on a desert island to die. Even in our own Civil War, where both sides belonged to the same nation, the South despised the Northerners as traders and artisans, and the North looked upon the Southerners as pampered aristocrats who would never endure the hardships and perils of warfare. How bitterly were both disillusioned as to their own fancied superiority! Each nation too easily suspects the motives and decries the ideals of others; and each nation is prone to decry and disregard the claims of others, whenever these claims conflict with their own desires or ambitions. These tendencies are fruitful causes of war. The schools have had a large share in fostering this false idea of national superiority and of the inferiority of other peoples. In every controversy we are right and our opponents wrong; all the honesty and fair-mindedness are on our side, all the meanness and treachery with our opponents. In every war all the heroism and splendor are attributed to our troops, and all the flight and defeat to the enemy. We are always outnumbered and win by incredible valor and prowess; the troops of the enemy are over- whelmed in spite of all their advantages. All this is so unutterably false and silly that one would never believe it could exist except that it does exist Sessions) NATIONAL EDUCATION AND WORLD-POLITY 127 and is common to all peoples. It is the pernicious remnant in civiliza- tion of the grotesque war-dance of the barbarian, in which he brags and boasts of his achievements and derides his antagonists. One of the health- ful signs today is the protest against the falsehoods and evasions of our own American school histories, and the demand that the plain truth be told as to our diplomacy and our wars, even when it is not entirely to our national credit. Let the good work go on: we shall know the truth and the truth shall make us more and more free. Thus education has had its share in making this war and in making all wars. Education has had its share in making men and nations and a world which easily go war-mad. Education must play even a greater part in making men and nations and a world which shall be war-proof. The spirit of the new world order is to be made dominant; the school must lead the way. But exactly how? That is the question. You and I are teachers — educators, to use the broader term; what is our part? How shall we discover it, perceive it clearly, perform it well, and win for ourselves and our profession the crown of wild olive from the hand of history, which is after all the reward most worth seeking? We must seek to learn the lesson of experience, and then seek to practice the wisdom thus gained in the actual day's work of home and school. This, it seems to me at least, is the greatest question today for us as educators. Unless we find the answer to our question and solve our problem, there is little chance that the diplomat or the statesman will do better now than in the war-curst past. But already the signs are good, and we may confidently lay hand to our part in the nurture of the new world-spirit. Just what changes must be made in our education to produce men and nations and a world which shall be at least reasonably conflagration-proof ? The briefest answer is that we must foster a new sense of the unity of the world; we must take seriously that splendid resolution passed with enthusi- asm by this convention proclaiming a great new aim — World-Citizenship I This, fellow-teachers, is the most momentous action ever taken by the National Education Association; let us rejoice that our profession has at least not fallen short of declaring for the dawn of the new world-order. Thank God for the acclamation which sprang from the hearts of this assembly when that great closing resolution was read; it is an omen of brightest promise ! After all, the error in our education has not been so much in what we have done in overfeeding our own national ego as in what we have omitted in teaching our children a decent respect and regard for our fellow-peoples. How many times we sing "Long may our land be bright, with freedom's holy light," and how seldom it occurs to us to stir in our children the idea that all lands must be bright with liberty! The German national song tears open the old sore of the French defeat in 1870. England's "Britannia rules the waves" rasps the national sensibilities of every commercial people. 128 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Nationally we must cultivate the ego less and the socius more. We have long let our altruism stop at our frontiers in what we praise and rightly praise as patriotism; it must range beyond, over oceans and continents, to all peoples. We must better understand other nations and races, believe in them, teach them to believe in us; trust them and be trustworthy in our relations with them. We must exchange, not only commodities, but also service, regard, aye, love. All this is the simplest and most natural thing in the world, and is absolutely in the line of historical progress; in our own land it is but yesterday that thousands of noble men put state above the nation; but that is all past and gone; our land has risen, one nation, united and indivisible. So the world is to rise in new unity as the home and fatherland of all mankind. We need not less, but more and wiser patriotism; but we need also more and wiser and broader humanity. In a word we need to establish between nations what is already practist between individuals and between the states of federated nations like our own. The opportunity and duty of America in this work are incomparable. We have been favored by providence beyond all peoples. We know nothing of the crushing economic and spiritual burdens borne by crowded nations living among hereditary foes. God has given us unparalleled breadth and freedom, economically, socially, politically. We have no hereditary antagonisms with any nation. We used to think we hated England, but the Spanish War ended that, and our present common cause is knitting us close together. France has long been bound to us by bonds of democratic sisterhood and mutual aid. We have blood brotherhood with every people of the earth thru the flow of their emigrant children to our hospitable shores. How can we repay our enormous debt to history for all these boons better than by throwing our whole force into the new world-unity ? Happily our beloved country already has a gracious record of the newer diplomacy; witness the freeing of Cuba, the return of the surplus of the Chinese indemnity, and the general frankness of our foreign policy. In all this our national conduct has run ahead of our common talk and our educa- tional procedure. The American school, whatever its weaknesses, is yet the leading example of a great democratic system of education, quite unequaled in its national unity and yet quick in its responsiveness to new truth. Thus may America and American education lead the way in the new world-order, but always in the spirit of humility and service. THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES PORTLAND MEETING OFFICERS President— WiLLiAis B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal College Chicago, 111. Vice-President — Augustus S. Downing, first assistant commissioner of education . Albany, N.Y. Secretary — Adelaide Steele Baylor Indianapolis, Ind. FIRST SESSION— Saturday Afternoon, July 7, 191 7 In the absence of President William A. Owen and Vice-President Augustus S. Downing, the meeting was called to order at 2 : 00 p.m. in the Ballroom of the Multnomah Hotel, by Carroll G. Pearse, president. State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. After the roll call to check up absentees, the entire session was given over to an informal discussion, "The Obligations and Opportunities, of the Schools during the War." The following members took part in the discussion: Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.; C. H. Dempsey, Haverhill, Mass.; Homer H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa; John F. Sims, Stevens Point, Iowa; Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum, Alhambra, Cal.; W. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore.; Charles A. Van Hise, Madison, Wis.; Kate Devereux Blake, New York, N.Y.; Robert J. Aley, Orono, Me.; Mrs. Margaret McNaught, Sacramento, Cal.; Neil C. McDonald, Valley City, N. Dak.; W. H. Campbell, Central City, Nebr.; Samuel C. May, Portland, Ore.; W. A. Brandenburg, Pittsburg, Kans. SECOND SESSION— Saturday Evening, July 7, 191 7 The meeting was called to order by Carroll G. Pearse at 8 : 00 p.m. in the Ballroom of the Multnomah Hotel. Arthur H. Chamberlain, chairman of the Committee on Thrift Education presided. The topic for the session was "Agricultural Preparedness and Food Conservation: A Study in Thrift." The following papers were given by members of the Committee on Thrift Education: "Thrift, A Patriotic Necessity"— S. W. Straus, New York, N.Y. "How the School May Help Increase Food Production" — R. H. Wilson, state supermtendent of public instruction, Oklahoma City, Okla. "Waste of Food from the Producer to the Household" — J. A. Bexell, dean, School of Commerce, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore. "Patriotic Extravagance or Thrift — Which?" — Kate Devereux Blake, principal. Public School No. 6, New York, N.Y. "Food Storage and Preservation" — Henry R. Daniel, secretary, American Society for Thrift, Chicago, 111. "Agricultural Preparedness and Food Conservation — A Study in Thrift" — Arthur H. Chamberlain, executive secretary, California Council of Education, San Francisco, Cal. The following resolution submitted by S. W. Straus was adopted by the National Council: In August, 1915, following the urgent recommendation of the International Congress for Thrift, held in San Francisco, the National Council of Education appointed a committee to investigate the advisability and feasibility of teaching thrift in the public schools of 129 I30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National the United States. After mature deliberations, study, and investigation, the committee unanimously approved the following: Whereas, The world- war has now precipitated unprecedented economic conditions in the United States, calling for the immediate practices of intelligent, constructive thrift because of the calamitous waste of man-power and the destruction of physical resources abroad, and Whereas, The signs of the times point with unquestionable certainty to the fact that the American people must from now on eliminate waste of every character, and Whereas, President Wilson, with a full realization of this fact and with the acute prospective of his lofty position, devoted his first message to the American people, after the declaration of war, to the subject of thrift, and Whereas, It is only thru the medium of the school teacher and the schoolroom that future generations of our citizens will make of thrift, not only a habit, but a fundamental principle of existence; therefore be it Resolved, That it is the urgent duty and patriotic opportunity of this committee to take such immediate action as shall look toward the introduction of the study of thrift in our schools, thus making America the first of all nations to take this decisive forward step in constructive education; and be it further Resolved, That this committee recommend the preparation of such literature as shall be advantageous in making possible the application of thrift studies in connection with arithmetic, domestic science, history and English composition, and other school branches; and be it further Resolved, That this conmiittee shall at its meeting in February, 1918, have before it a comprehensive plan for the practical use of these mediums in the schoolroom. The chairman announced the Committee on Membership in the National Council, and a motion was carried that the name of at least one woman be added to the committee. The following served on that committee: Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis. {ex officio), Chairman; Walter R. Siders, Pocatello, Idaho; Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum, Alhambra, Cal.; Edwin S. Monroe, Muskogee, Okla.; and John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo. THIRD SESSION— Monday, July 9, 191 7 Annual Business Meeting The meeting was called to order at 10:00 a.m. by Carroll G. Pearse. The secretary presented the following report from the Committee on Membership: Your Conunittee on Membership begs leave to submit for the consideration of the Council the following recommendations: a) For membership in the National Council, to succeed themselves, the election of the following: W. J. Kerr, Corvallis, Ore.; Joseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa.; Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.; E. E. Bass, Greenville, Miss.; G. W. A. Luckey, Lincoln, Nebr.; Thomas W. Palmer, Montevallo, Ala.; Frederic E. Farrington, Washington, D.C.; George L. Towne, Lincoln, Nebr.; and F. B. Dresslar, Nashville, Tenn. The terms of those members will expire in 1923. b) For membership in the National Council, to succeed Ben Blewett (deceased), Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Los Angeles, Cal. c) That the Committee on Membership be given authority to supply other vacancies in the Council, should any be found, when the report of attendance for the 1916 meeting is referred to the present secretary of the Council. d) The election of Adelaide Steele Baylor to serve as secretary of the National Council of Education for a term of three years. e) The re-election of A. J. Matthews, whose term as a member of the Executive Committee has expired. /) Thfe re-election of John R. Kirk and James Y. Joyner, whose terms as members of the Membership Committee have expired. (Signed) Carroll G. Pearse (ex officio), Chairman Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum Walter R. Siders John R. Kirk Edwin S. Monroe Adelaide Steele Baylor {ex officio). Secretary CouncUl THE SCHOOL MAY HELP FOOD PRODUCTION 131 On motion this report was adopted by the National Council as read, Robert J. Aley, president, National Educational Association, then named the follow- ing members of a Committee on Membership from the National Educational Association to supply vacancies from that body, on the National Council, and report to the Board of Directors: Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.; John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.; Adelaide Steele Baylor, Indianapolis, Ind. President William B. Owen had sent in the following important reconunendations to be presented to the Council, which were now considered: 1. That the membership of the Council be enlarged from 120 to 240 members and the quota of membership from each state increased. 2. That standing committees be appointed to investigate and report on educational movements and that one or more sessions of the National Council be devoted to the informal discussion of important educational problems. On motion the president of the National Council was empowered, to appoint a com- mittee of three to consider the advisability of enlarging the membership of the Council. This committee was given full power in the making of recommendations, which, if favor- able to the recommendations of the president, will be presented at the next annual business meeting of the Association. A motion was carried that there would be no objection to the appointment by the president of the special committees referred to in his recommendations. On motion it was also decided to ask the president of the Council to consider the wisdom of providing, at the next meeting of the Council, for one or two sessions for the discussion of questions by the Council members only. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS I I HOW THE SCHOOL MAY HELP LNCREASE FOOD PRODUCTION R. H. WILSON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OKLAHOMA CITY, OKLA. The school organization may be utilized to increase food production by adopting generally the plan outlined by the Bureau of Educational Experi- ments, according to which camps for boys from 16 to 19 years of age are to be located in agricultural commtmities and the boys in such camps given employment on the near-by farms during the growing season. Under a proper regulation of hours of labor permitting the boys to work in relays of seven hours' duration while the farmer would secure his full day's labor of fourteen hours, the conditions can undoubtedly be made satisfactory to all concerned. The boys would have more time for camp life and its diversions by working shorter hours and the farmer would have the benefit of two willing workers during the day, neither of whom would work until entirely exhausted. Even the city-bred boy after going thru the harden- ing process for a week or ten days would approximate the value of the experienced farm laborer, especially where hours are shortened. The elimination of waste during this period of food scarcity is also closely related to the subject of food production, because conservation is equal in importance and supplementary to production. In preventing waste the domestic science departments of our schools should play a most important part. It is impracticable to establish camps for girls along the lines of those suggested for boys, but the schools can throw the domestic 132 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National science departments open to the women of the community in the summer months and during the evenings of the fall, winter, and spring, or at such hours during those seasons as will not interfere with the regular school work. It will prove more difficult for the domestic science department to reach the rural women than for the boys to be mobilized for farm service. But results may be seciu-ed thru a liberal use of the country press and com- munity institutes, analogous to those conducted by the farmers' institutes or agricultural colleges. In rural communities the labor problem is all important. Unsatis- factory labor conditions are the cause of the present tendency to leave the farm. Boys and girls, however, are kept reasonably busy on the home farm or on a neighboring farm so that their work is properly arranged and directed. The schools can touch with new life rural pupils, largely thru the clubs organized for intelligent promotion of better agriculture, better stock, and better homes. Intensive work should be done along the line of better farming thru the medium of boys' and girls' clubs at this time while the necessity is great. The numerous instances on record where boys or girls thru intelligent club activity have revolutionized farming methods offer ample justification for the emphasis which it is recommended be placed on this work at this time by our schools. This will prove an effective means of reaching the adult farmer at this time when by reason of circumstances there is unusual interest in the better methods of agriculture. Experience has demonstrated that little can be accomplisht in the teaching of agriculture in our one-room schools. The pupils attending these schools are the ones that should receive agricultural instruction since from their ranks the farms are recruited. Club work, so far, has proved the most effective means of conveying practical instruction to farm boys and girls in such a form as to be properly assimilated. The laboratory nature of the work required is such that it also serves as a demonstration for adult farmers, thus coupling the school and home interests and for our present purposes helping, both thru precept and example, in securing improvements in methods that ultimately lead to increast production. The schools can well afford to give credits for work done by the pupils on the farms both as club members and as members of camps of farm laborers. Many of our city schools have adopted the policy of increasing production by means of having vacant lots planted to vegetables and other food crops. This movement should continue after the present stress in food conditions is relieved, because it is fundamentally important both from a civic and an economic standpoint. Means of distributing the products must be provided in order to give this movement its widest possible develop- ment. The schools, thru the educational associations and thru the administrative department, must devise some workable plan whereby excess products can be conserved to the greatest possible advantage. In Oklahoma City there is employed a garden supervisor to help the children Coundl] THE SCHOOL MAY HELP FOOD PRODUCTION 133 and adults with suggestions and directions. In this good year, when we are considering a national food dictator — aye, an international food dictator — we can well begin to allow our supervisor to dictate in a measure the crops that shall be planted on vacant lots by children belonging to the garden clubs in order to eliminate such waste as would ordinarily follow unrestricted and unsupervised planting and marketing. The attitude of the pubUc is at this time such that larger powers along lines of supervisory control will be accepted as not only advisable but necessary. A closer organization of this garden work in cities should be made now while efficient organization is appreciated by the public at large. The best means that the schools may employ for increasing the pro- duction and the conservation of food is to be sought in intelligent coopera- tion with those agencies now addressing themselves to this great task. Such cooperation will accomplish the results desired by means suggested by the experts. The school should lend its organization to the cause and should place itseK under the leadership of the specialists now undertaking this work, never forgetting that in this connection the principles of thrift should be inculcated and that parents as well as children should be taught the character value of ownership, lest too many of the young producers suffer from such experiences as are detailed in the following verses: Why Johnnie Left the Farm Johnnie bought a little pig with money he had earned, He named her Nell and fed her well, and lots of tricks she learned. But Nellie grew to be a sow, had piggies quite a few, Then father up and sold them, and kept the money, too. Johnnie took a little calf as pay for hoeing com, He loved that calf and the calf loved him as sure as you are bom. But calfie grew to be a cow, as all good calfies do. Then father up and sold her, and kept the money, too. Now, Johnnie loved his little pets, but father loved the pelf. So Johnnie left his father's farm and struck out for himself. Said Johnnie's pa, one summer day, "I often wonder why Boys don't like life upon the farm, 'the City' is their cry." "It always will be strange to me," continued Johnnie's pa, "It only goes to prove, though, how ungrateful children are." When Johnnie heard what father said, he gave a bitter laugh, And thought of his empty childhood and of his pig and calf. We must not overlook the fact that the jingle of the coin, either in possession or in prospect, furnishes the inspirational music that makes the boy or girl march forward with more alacrity, energy, enthusiasm, and patriotism than all the band music that can be supplied, and that production without a profitable market is more likely to act as a discouragement than as an encouragement. Neither the school nor the other agencies can afford to overlook this fundamental human trait. 134 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National WASTE OF FOOD FROM THE PRODUCER TO THE HOUSEHOLD J. A. BEXELL, DEAN OF SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, OREGON AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CORVALLIS, ORE. My subject is "Waste of Food." Of all the problems that engage the minds of the American people today, there is no subject of wider import nor of more universal discussion than food production and consumption. Slowly, painfully, costly, the human race is learning that God's universe is governed by immutable laws. The eternal law of compensation is exert- ing itself. The decree, *'As thou sowest so shalt thou also reap," is being executed with relentless exactness. Innumerable times has the parable of the slothful servant been expounded to us; every child understands something of the laws of action and reaction, of pain and pleasure, of reward and punishment, but the practical appHcation of these laws to economic and social conditions is either misunderstood or completely ignored. A national disgrace. — Nothing has been so startling and so disquieting to the complacent American people as the discovery a few months ago that we are threatened with shortage of food. That this should have been pos- sible in this the most favored land on the globe is nothing short of a national disgrace. Practically everyone in this audience remembers how the fertil- ity of our soil was once regarded as well-nigh inexhaustible and when no one thought of taking steps to restore it. The magnitude of the disgrace is best shown by comparative statistics. Let us begin by comparing the area of some of the best developt agricultural states. Iowa, Missouri, and Kansas are larger than France by nearly 2,000 square miles and have vastly more land for cultivation. Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Colorado, Texas, and California are greater agriculturally than Great Britain, Ger- many, and France combined. The six states named have a combined population of 15,611,565, while the three foreign countries have almost ten times the population, or 153,565,738. Texas alone is greater than all the north German states combined. California, if properly cultivated, should be able to feed all the Pacific states, and the Willamette Valley alone, with a population not to exceed 250,000 people, is larger and richer than the Po Valley in Italy having a population of 5,000,000 people. In spite of these great advantages, we are almost in a state of panic regarding the food situation, and the alarm is scarcely more urgent in Europe after three years of devastating war. Classification of waste. — In each of the numerous processes as food passes from the producer to the consumer it is not possible altogether to ehminate waste, but it should require no argument that waste should be reduced to a minimum. Waste of food may be classified as direct and indirect, the latter being the more serious and of more far-reaching consequences. Among the direct wastes of food should be mentioned improper preparation and I Councfll WASTE OF FOOD 135 preservation, intemperance, epicureanism, and downright destructiveness and carelessness in handling food in the household. The chief indirect sources of waste are found in the operations of pro- duction, the handling of soil, labor and equipment, the processes of manu- facture, inadequate and wasteful transportation facilities, including bad roads, improper methods of preservation, storage, etc., and finally in the methods of distribution. Waste of soil fertility. — Let us now look at the situation in the light of history and in the light of actual farming practice thruout the world at the present day. Is the tendency toward improved agriculture increasing the production per acre, or is it the reverse? What has been the history of older civilizations? Land that was once flowing with milk and honey is now uninhabitable, and many a civilization has passed away because of the improvident use of the soil. But we need not cross the seas for examples of poor agriculture. The average returns per acre thruout the United States is only $11 .38 per acre, which is the lowest of any civilized country next to Russia. Comparing this with the yield of the virgin land in many of the great agricultural valleys of the United States, we perceive the star- tling fact that the fertiHty of the soil has been reduced by two-thirds during two or three generations. Only a generation ago it is reported that the Willamette Valley averaged forty-five bushels of wheat to the acre, and now the average is probably not more than fifteen bushels. This has been brought about by mine farming, that is, removing the fertiHty of the soil without restoring it by means of proper agricultural methods. The fundamental problem before the American people today is the restoration of vast agricultural areas so as to leave the land for future generations more productive than at present. That Washington reaUzed what was coming to the American people is evident from a letter written by him to Alexander Hamilton : It must be obvious to every man who considers the agriculture of this country (even in the most improved parts of it), and compares the produce of our lands with those of other countries, no way superior to them in natural fertility, how miserably defective we are in the management of them; and that if we do not fall on a better mode of treating them, how ruinous it will prove to the landed interests. Ages will not produce a system- atic change without public attention and encouragement; but a few years more of increast sterility will drive the inhabitants of the Atlantic states westwardly for support; whereas if they were taught how to improve the old, instead of going in pursuit of new and productive soils, they would make those acres which now yield them scarcely anything turn out beneficial to themselves. That Washington's foreboding has been justified is shown in a recent bulletin by the Federal Department of Agriculture: Wheat was produced quite successfully in central New York for something like forty years. During the latter part of that period the yields began to decline and at the end of another twenty years they were so low that exclusive wheat growing became unprofit- able. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa have each in turn repeated the history of New 136 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National York. The soils of these states were productive in the beginning, and it required forty, fifty, or sixty years for the single crop system to materially reduce the yields. Aside from the question of increase in population there are absolutely only two ways of avoiding a world-disaster of shortage of food, namely, by increase in production and decrease in consumption. Greater production can be effected in two ways, by a more effective use of land, labor, and capital now engaged in farming, and by enhsting unproductive land, labor, and capital in food production. Unfortunately, most of us have a tendency to urge others to greater efforts without a corresponding effort on our part. Here we are up against the proposition, not only of urging others to work, but for every one of us to do his part. The slogan should be " Produce more at less cost and consume less." Some progressive farmers have found that splendid results can be accomplisht by enlarging the day, working in two or three shifts. This has been found so satisfactory that it bids fair to revolutionize large-scale farming. The remedies for waste in fertility are very simple. First, smaller farms. Altho this is strictly opposed to the fact that as a business venture the smaller farm is not as profitable as larger acreage, from the point of view of national economy there is no question but that the smaller farm, being usually better cultivated, is by far the most profitable; second, scientific rotation of crops; and, third, proper cultivation and fertilization. Improved fertilization implies increast production of livestock, and con- sequently the greater cultivation of leguminous plants. The principal elements in plant life are water, nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus. Thru ceaseless labor, science has taught us practically how to control these elements; it now remains for the tiller of the soil by pru- dence and careful cultivation to utiHze these gifts of nature and not only to restore the fertiUty of the soil but to improve it. Waste in farming practice. — There is one enormous waste which I must not pass over. I refer to waste in farm management. It is fair to assume that in the long catalog of wasteful processes no single item is more impor- tant. It is not long since the book farmer was ridiculed and very few people would have anything to do with the agricultural schools, much less with county agents, had there been any. Farmers are now beginning to learn that they must mix brains with brawn. It is just as unwise to intrust a sick farm to an incompetent agriculturist as it is to submit a difl&cult case of surgery to an unskilled operator. Both cases need to be thoroly diag- nosed and studied before a cure is attempted. All who are engaged in productive enterprises must study costs and operations and be ready to adopt those changes which are labor saving and productive of economy and efficiency. Waste of labor. — One of the most serious types of waste in production is found in the management of labor, both of man and beast. Authorities on the farm management say that loss of motion occurs to a greater extent I Council] WASTE OF FOOD 137 on the farm than in any other productive enterprise. This is doubtless due in a large measure to unavoidable conditions, but it is due largely to an indisposition to adopt labor-saving methods. Waste in farm equipment. — The waste in the use of farm equipment is no less serious than the waste in the use of land and labor previously referred to. In a recent message President Wilson said: It is not enough simply to stop waste, stop carelessness. Take care of the farm machinery so it will not be lessened in efficiency by the weather. Put everything under shelter and keep it painted. It may be very difficult to buy new machinery when you need it, so take care of what you have. Keep up the fences so the livestock will not damage your crops. You cannot afford to have stock tramping thru grain worth so much as it now is. It takes only a minute or two to trample down several dollars' worth of Waste in the selection of livestock. — Untold millions of dollars are lost to the farmer every year thru improper selection of Hvestock. It is to correct this evil that the well-known cow-testing association has come into existence, January 23, 1895. Waste in storage. — Waste in storage of feed is very large. Many millions of dollars could be saved for stock feed by the more general introduction of the silo. Food experts all advise that perishable foods should be utilized during the summer when they are available and that the more permanent foods suitable for preservation should be stored for winter use. Enormous waste results from improper handling of eggs and dairy products. It is estimated that many millions of dollars' worth of eggs are wasted annually in storing fertile eggs, which is wholly a preventable waste. Waste in marketing. — ^The waste in marketing is serious for two reasons. One is the enormous waste of perishable products due to improper connec- tion between the producer and the consumer and the consequent ignorance of the producer as to just what is needed in the market. This often causes an overflow in the market and an oversupply of one product and an under- supply of another. It is not generally realized that a large crop is often a serious loss to the producer and to the community. A crop that cannot be sold to advantage represents a loss, not only to the owner, but to the community at large by the amount of labor expended for food which cannot be consumed. In the second place, waste in marketing results from the improper tying up of capital in the business of a large number of useless middlemen and the removal from industry of both the capital and the labor thus unprofitably employed. A large number of such middlemen should be turned into productive employment. Every person and family who is maintained by society and who is not rendering a full quota of service is just that much waste. In normal times it may result only in increast prices, but in times like these it results in a serious decrease in the food supply. Waste in retailing. — That there is an enormous waste in our method of distributing food thru the medium of the ordinary retail dealer everyone 138 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National recognizes, but a remedy has not yet been found. The cooperative store has been tried for a generation or more in different localities, but at least 95 per cent of such ventures have been failures. That these stores will be modified so as eventually to become successful there is no doubt. The conditions for success, however, are generally lacking. Cooperative buying circles. — In a recent bulletin it was announst by the United States Bureau of Markets that the most successful types of co- operative buying is where a number of consumers, usually farmers, get together and pool orders on the cash-on-delivery plan. It eliminates almost wholly overhead expense, does not involve the giving of credit, and obviates the necessity of handling a stock of goods which requires considerable capital. That cooperative distribution of commodities has only begun and will be one of the great economic movements in the future there can be no doubt. But neither has the method been perfected nor has the compelling necessity arisen in the United States. More than one-third of the necessities of life are distributed on the cooperative plan in Europe, and this exercises a powerful stimulus on the retail trade in general, so that consumers are sure of receiving fair treatment and reasonable prices. Those interested in this subject of cooperative organizations should com- municate with the United States Bureau of Markets at Washington. The organization of this agency for the study of marketing conditions, stand- ardizing business methods and procedure, promises to reduce much of the present waste in distribution. Waste in specidation. — The most shameful and criminal of all waste of food is when unscrupulous speculators succeed in controUing the market and in destroying large quantities of food in order to maintain prices. An instance was recently reported where several thousand sacks of potatoes were consigned to the ocean for fear that an abundant supply would weaken the market. Holding food for speculation in the hope that prices will advance results not only in a loss of food but often weakens the efficiency of laborers to such an extent that large indirect waste follows. A remedy for this evil is a direct supervision of warehouses and refrigerator lines by the government. Waste in public use. — It is said that Nero built a canal from the ocean to the imperial palace in order to insure fresh fish for his breakfast and thus made himself infamous not only as a tyrant but as a disciple of Epicurus. But why refer to ancient examples? According to the 1910 census, 157,000,000 bushels of grain alone are now wasted in the manufacture of liquors, to say nothing of the waste of labor and capital in this stupendous crime. By the official estimate of liquor consumed, this requires enough grain to produce not less than 12,000,000 loaves of bread per day, which would feed an army of 3,000,000 men. Fortunately, Congress is now taking measures to stop this wasteful traffic. The use of tobacco is not generally regarded as a waste of food, and yet every puff of the fragrant weed and every filthy Council) WASTE OF FOOD 139 chew of tobacco would contribute toward the alleviation of suffering of thousands if the labor and capital required in its production were utilized in the production of food. There is one source of waste which deserves more than passing notice: namely, the waste resulting from unwise legislation, especially taxation. Under our present system the improvement of land is generally discouraged by taxes which often amount to a fine for enterprise. Land speculators are encouraged to hold vast tracts of land in idleness because taxes on unimproved land are insignificant as compared with those on improved property. Waste in consumption. — The United States Department of Agriculture has compiled some very interesting figures regarding the probable waste in the use of foodstuffs in the household. Regarding milk: If the 20,000,000 homes in the United States waste one-half cup of milk daily, it would equal two and one-half million quarts a day, or 1,249,000,000 quarts a year, which is approximately the total production of 400,000 cows. Regarding meat: If 20,000,000 families wasted one ounce of meat or fat daily, this would be equivalent to 1,285,000 pounds of food, which is equivalent to 875,000 steers or 3,000,000 hogs. Again, if the same number of famiUes waste one slice of bread per day, it would amount to 875,000 pounds of flour daily, or 365,000,000 loaves per year. The bread supply should increase 18,000,000 barrels if 81 per cent of the whole wheat were utilized for bread instead of 75 per cent. It is estimated that this saving would feed 12,000,000 people. The prodigious waste in hotels, hospitals, and other places is too well known to require more than passing notice. Under the caption, "Analyze Garbage," the Department of Agriculture recently gave the following advice: "Have your city food chemist analyze your city garbage from week to week and publish prominently what he finds as an index of food saving or waste in your community." Where there is no official chemist, local chemists capable of determining percentage of fats, protein, starch, and organic matter wasted in garbage can render great service to the nation by volunteering to make these analyses in their localities. Vast amounts of bread, meat, and edible fats are wasted in garbage and tons of valuable foodstuffs for animals are lost to the food supply of the nation by usual garbage reduction or disposal methods. One of the first results from the careful analysis of city garbage should be the passage or more rigid enforce- ment of garbage-collection ordinances, requiring that no glass, tin, wood, burnt matches, paper, string, or inorganic trash be mixed with the vegetable material, meat scraps, or bones which can be used for feed. It is estimated that the thrifty Germans save from the garbage pail sufficient food to feed a herd of cows capable of producing two milHon quarts of milk daily. I40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Sane buying. — It should not be inferred that agricultural economists advocate during these trying days a complete cessation of buying everything except necessities. Nothing could be more disastrous. We may not agree with the doctrine ''business as usual," in the sense that people should be encouraged to spend their substance as extravagantly as during peace times, but unquestionably the sane method is that during these prosperous years for the farmers, when they have an opportunity to create a surplus, they should improve the farms and buy those personal conveniences for which they have long planned during less prosperous times. It will be a splendid opportunity to buy that electric-lighting and power outfit, those much- needed conveniences for the home which have been the dream of the tired housekeeper these many years. A coat of paint on the weather-beaten house, a new fence, some shrubbery and a lawn around the house, and more attention to the roads in the neighborhood of the homestead are improve- ments which should receive attention, to say nothing of the general road improvements, which are not only economic necessities for the farmer but are also public necessities in times of war. I cannot close in more fitting terms than to quote from the great industrial prophet, James J. Hill, who wrote these words long before a war cloud was visible on the horizon. Now as ever, to the nation and race, as to the individual, nature, the unrelenting task-mistress of the centuries, holds in one hand her horn of plenty and in the other her scourge. This country has brought itself within reach of the thong, while grasping at the satisfaction of present appetite and forgetting the primal relation between the earth and man. The pathway to prosperity is still open. The divinity of the earthly life at heart is kind. Under her rule there is work and abundant reward for all, but these must be won in her designated way and in none other. Her pointing finger, that has never varied since man came upon the earth, shows the old and only way to safety and honor. Upon the readiness with which this is understood, the sober dignity with which a whole nation rises to the winning of its broad and permanent prosperity, will depend the individual well-being of millions of this and many generations. Largely by the result will posterity, our fit and righteous judge, determine whether what issues from the crucible of this twentieth century is a bit of worthless dross to be cast aside or a drop of golden metal to shine forever upon the rosary of the years. FOOD STORAGE AND PRESERVATION HENRY R. DANIEL, AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR THRIFT, CHICAGO, ILL. In the matter of food storage and preservation no organized progress of consequence has been made in America. It is true that cold-storage plants are numerous thruout the country, but they are not of sufficient number or consequence to prevent a fabulous wastage. If the war should be of long duration, it is safe to assume that the government will take hold of the storage problem with characteristic American vigor and with sufficient thoroness to warrant a diminution of the present colossal waste from inade- I t^ Councilj FOOD STORAGE AND PRESERVATION 141 quate preservative facilities. But for the immediate present we must look to the individual if conditions are to be improved. When we consider that the first practical application of a method of preserving food was made over one hundred years ago by Francoise Appert, we are brought to the conclusion that there has been shameful lack of prog- ress in this line. In fact, there has been little advancement made since Appert's time, compared with other accomplishments of science. He put the full bottles or cans in water and boiled them. His theory was that the things essential to the preservation of food in this manner were the exclu- sion of air and the application of gentle heat, which caused a diffusion of the constituents and fermentation in such a manner that the power of ferments was destroyed. Scientists since then, particularly Pasteur, have discovered that fermentation and putrefaction were caused by bacteria and other microscopic organism. Appert's theory as to the cause of the spoiling of food was incorrect, but his method of preserving it by sealing and cooking was correct, and science has been able to discover no successful method of improving Appert's discoveries. Some efforts have been made along the line of cooperation in the can- ning of agricultural products. That cooperative canneries in the United States really handle a very small portion of the total business is shown by the fact that of approximately $158,000,000 worth of canned and dried fruits and vegetables marketed in 19 14 these cooperative organizations sold only $3,500,000 worth. Nevertheless, a few successful cooperative fruit and vegetable canneries stand above the large number of failures, which shows that if properly managed they can be made successful. The cooperative cannery has a legitimate place in an efficient scheme of market- ing perishable products. Practically all the cooperative canneries in the United States are found in the Pacific Northwest and California. Many canneries have failed because they were organized solely to utilize that portion of the fruit crop that could not be sold on the market in its fresh state on account of its deteriorated condition. The use of such fruit results in an inferior quality of canned goods, which is not readily salable and may be Hable to seizure under the various federal and state pure-food laws. The United States Department of Agriculture has made an exhaustive study of the cooperative fruit and vegetable canneries, and from data obtained from this source the writer ventures the assertion that the coopera- tive cannery scheme is feasible and practicable.. While many failures have existed, their nature has not been such as to make apparent the futiUty of the entire plan. Managers of several cooperative canneries give as their greatest handicap the lack of sufficient capital. A few organi- zations have started with as little as $5000 or $6000 paid-in capital when only a few products were handled and business was being done on a small scale. To be successful the association should have sufficient paid-in capital 142 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National to make the plant and equipment practically free of debt at the time the first canning season opens. There is sometimes an interim of eighteen months or more from the time the raw material is delivered until the final returns from the canned goods are received. This delay necessitates a liberal fund for making advances to the growers at the time of the delivery of the raw material. In several instances farmers' organizations have purchast at a bargain the canning plant and equipment of private enter- prises which have failed, and they have made a success of the business. It is not, of course, within the scope of this brief paper to go into the details of cooperative canning. It is hoped that the government will lend its aggressive assistance in the work of organizing rural canning associa- tions, because here is a fertile field for the eUmination of food wastage on a gigantic scale. It would mean more money and a more complete employ- ment of acreage in the rural communities and a great reduction in the cost of food to the city dweller, provided food prices are based on the law of supply and demand. The United States Department of Agriculture has taken commendable steps to encourage home canning and to disseminate information on house- hold methods of preparation of canned fruits, preserves, and jeUies. A very worthy booklet by Maria Parloa, prepared under the supervision of the Office of Experiment Stations, has been issued. This gives all essential information needed on the subject and should be in the hands of every housewife. The United States government also has disseminated consider- able information on the preservation of food for short periods. It has even issued information on the construction of an iceless refrigerator, show- ing how food may be preserved by those who for any reason are not able to keep an ice box. Thru this device it is said that even on hot days a temperature of 50 degrees can be maintained in this iceless refrigerator, which can be constructed at an estimated expense of 85 cents. The government also has taken commendable steps in the encourage- ment of home canning and has issued a series of follow-up instructions to be used in the home-canning-club work. This literature gives every bit of information that possibly could be desired, so that no one in America can plead ignorance as an excuse for not joining in the movement for the national elimination of waste of foodi In this connection it might be said that the government is giving the following counsel to those who cultivate gardens or raise fruit: If your garden at any time produces any more than you can use immediately, do not allow the surplus to spoil. Can surplus beans, peas, com, tomatoes, beets, spinach, pumpkin, and squash for winter use. Can or preserve apples, peaches, pears, cherries, quinces, berries, and other cultivated and wild fruits. Every can of vegetables or fruit and every jar of preserved fruit means that you have saved food materials that would otherwise have been wasted. Can or store root crops, cabbage, and other vegetables properly so they will keep well and supply you with food when the garden ceases to produce. Council] DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 143 We are informed by the same source that last year boys and girls of America raised in their gardens and helped to can more than 4,000,000 packages of valuable food. If this matter were taken up energetically and systematically, what a tremendous addition could be made to our national food supply. We beHeve that the greatest good can be accomplisht thru the coopera- tive cannery associations, and we suggest that leaders in rural communities get in touch with the Agricultural Department at once for information and advice. This department will tell them just how to undertake the organiza- tion of a cooperative club and will furnish them with enough data to assure the success of the enterprise if the advice of the department's experts is followed. We suggest also to boys and girls, housewives, and others who desire to take up canning work in the home, or in small clubs, to get in touch either with the United States Department of Agriculture, a state agricultural club, or a county agent, who will be able to give simple methods for canning vegetables and fruit at home with ordinary home utensils. It is certain that the United States Department of Agriculture must be the medium through which this work is developt and encouraged. If we are to have better food- storage and preservation conditions in this country, the individuals in the homes in districts where there is an abundance of fruit and vegetables must be aroused. Lack of public understanding of canning problems and lack of appre- ciation of the vast amount of food that can be saved in this way are respon- sible for the somewhat slipshod conditions that exist in this country today. ADAPTATION OF COURSES IN DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS TO MEET EXISTING DEMANDS C. H. DEMPSEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HAVERHILL, MASS. ' We have lived so long in times of peace and prosperity, in a land of seemingly inexhaustible resources, under conditions apparently so far removed from real danger and disaster, that we have acquired habits of carelessness and extravagance very difficult to break. We have wasted our substance in high living until we are face to face as a nation with far too many run-down and deserted farms, denuded timber tracts, depleted fishing grounds, exhausted industries, inefficient laborers, and other sinister results of thoughtless and spendthrift policies. We have ignored or scoft at the remonstrances of thoughtful men — scientists, economists, and statesmen — and have even, in addition to our improvidence, adopted an individualism and an indifference to real public welfare that all together have brought us into conditions that we must admit are full of peril. 144 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National We are, to be sure, enjoying a national prosperity of surpassing mag- nitude, but it will hardly be contended that teachers, retail merchants, laboring classes, farmers, in short, the people at large, are as well off as in normal peaceful times before 1914. It has in truth remained for the present era of war and high prices to bring us to a sharp realization of the need, in the home, in industries and commerce, and in our national life of true economy and forethought — of thrift. The cultivation of genuine thrift is emphatically one of our most impor- tant national and individual problems, and must be a task of every social agency we have. It is peculiarly an obligation resting upon the schools in their work of training intelligent, efficient citizens. Even more emphati- cally is it incumbent upon the educational organization and forces of the country, supported by society for the avowed purpose of bettering and serving society, to rise to present emergencies and contribute everything in their power to meet existing demands for food production and conserva- tion, domestic economy, industrial self-help, rational living and saving, and the like. Three things the schools, as a branch of governmental activities, ought to do. First, they should serve as a means of publicity and dissemination of vital and practical knowledge. By instruction of pupils, and thru them of adults, by organization and direction of parent-teacher associa- tions, by establishment of lecture and instruction courses for adults, and by other similar means splendid service can be rendered in bring- ing most valuable knowledge and impetus to people who need one or the other. Secondly, the schools should furnish demonstrations of practical methods of meeting present demands for better provision and utilization of food products and other necessaries, both for our own use and for that of our allies in Europe. Thirdly, the schools are the best existing organization, not only for demonstration of practical individual economy, but also for the formation and fixing of habits of intelligent industry, efl&ciency, and thrift. These three functions — the dissemination of knowledge, the demonstra- tion of practical methods and applications, and then actual use and mastery by the recipients, pupils or citizens — constitute ideal service and should go hand in hand. The particular departments of school work best adapted to this broad service are the courses in domestic economy and industrial arts. Their aims, equipment, and methods have from their inception been in line with our present economic needs. In the expansion, adaptation, and emphasis of these departments lie the readiest means of contributing to our national domestic welfare, I 1^ CouncU] ' THRIFT, A PATRIOTIC NECESSITY 145 Our most acute needs of this sort are evidently these: a) More abundant supply of staple foods. b) More general conservation of food by storing, canning, etc. c) More economical use of food as to quantity and kinds, balanst rations, use of substitutes, nutritive values. d) Avoidance of waste (due to difficulty of marketing, spoiUng, poor cooking, lavish serving, ignorance about foods, etc. e) Elimination of excesses in condiments, fancy foods, candies, etc. /) Practical knowledge of clothing, textiles, footwear, house furnishings, and the like. g) Practical knowledge of use of household equipment, fuel, light, etc. h) Knowledge in marketing and purchasing, supplemented by judicious government control of prices. i) Development of personal efficiency in gardening, handiwork, house- hold accounting, dressmaking, and the like. The list might be lengthened appreciably, but it would but emphasize the fact that these needs are not new, but rather age-old. They are simply more acute and point out decidedly the direction of greatest emphasis. Our courses in domestic economy and industrial arts, then, should assuredly be greatly expanded to give us speedier, more complete, and more widespread mastery of the production and utilization of the necessaries of life. Where such courses do not exist in elementary and high schools, they should by some adequate means be introduced. Where already installed, their scope should be broadened, if necessary, by lengthening the school day. Vocational and continuation classes and special classes for adults, day and evening, should be organized at once for instruction along lines indicated. Credit for home work in household arts, canning, gardening, and industrial service, and adequate supervision of such related activities ought to be provided in fuller measure. The demand is more insistent than ever that culture and learning must be supplemented by what may be termed productive efficiency. At all times essential, war conditions and the present world-crisis make it impera- tive that the schools thru their applied arts courses enhance the economic value of every pupil, and by extending their work give similar assistance to citizens at large. THRIFT, A PATRIOTIC NECESSITY S. W. STRAUS, NEW YORK, N.Y. When, in August, 191 5, your honorable body appointed a committee to investigate the advisability and feasibility of teaching thrift in the public schools of America, we had little thought that within the short space of two years we would find ourselves confronted with the conditions that exist today. We did know, however, that the war in Europe would levy a tax 146 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National upon our resources, because, to the most superficial student of economics, it was apparent that all humanity must share in the burden of this stupendous waste. And now that we have been thrown into the great world- war, a much more serious economic condition confronts us. The first message delivered direct to the, nation by President Wilson after the declaration of war with Germany was on the subject of thrift. So rapidly are events of epochal importance being enacted today that possibly the full significance of this fact was lost sight of by most of our citizens. But to my mind it would seem to indicate that the chief executive of the United States, with the accurate perspective of his lofty position, saw thrift alike as the first duty and the first patriotic opportunity of the citizens of this country in the face of the great national crisis. In the present instance the whole world virtually is in a state of upheaval. We are fighting in the darkness that precedes the dawn of universal democracy. Autocracy and militarism will have vanisht from the earth when peace comes again. Not only the rights, but the responsibilities, of the individual will hold larger sway. We shall have learned first of all that waste has no right to exist any- where under any circumstances. Today the man who becomes intoxicated is held in aversion by his fellow-citizens, and tomorrow the man who is not thrifty will be a social outcast, for we shall understand then what we are just beginning to learn today, that the spendthrift is a public menace. A man cannot waste his own substance alone. Destruction cannot be confined to the individual who commits it. Cast a pebble in the water and the ripples will describe a wide circle. In like manner, waste of any sort describes a vast circle of harmful influence. Let me call attention at this time to the point that thrift means in a general way simply the elimination of waste. We have had examples recently in this country of the baneful influence of misguided thrift. Because we, as a nation, failed to understand the full meaning of the word we rusht into practices of false economy when war was declared in such manner that, had they continued, they would have brought about industrial disorganization and personal hardship. We failed to differentiate between constructive and destructive thrift. We concluded that it meant tight- fistedness, and as a result we began to deflect from their normal courses the tides of the nation's money that turned the wheels of industry. While attempting to build up on one hand, we were tearing down on the other. We must understand that we cannot practice thrift merely by ceasing to spend money. The greater thrift consists, not only in the prudent spending and wise saving of money, but in the intelligent regulation of our lives, and, above all things else, in the elimination of waste. I am happy to state that our committee has since its organization evinced a thoro understanding of thrift in its broadest interpretation, and CouncUl THRIFT, A PATRIOTIC NECESSITY 147 no one can accuse us of attempting to establish in this country those practices of hysterical economy which would, if widely followed, slow down the legitimate business of the nation. We have taught since our organiza- tion that thrift means sane judgment in the spending of money, time, and energy; we have taught that mere indiscriminate tight-fistedness is as far removed from real thrift as is ruthless extravagance. We have taught also that thrift gives us the power to practice self- denial — that quality of heart and mind which is so much needed in these distressing war times. Had we as a nation learned the true meaning of thrift years ago and had our children been taught it in our schools, we would be better prepared to face the conditions that are confronting us today. For thrift begets strength of character — the ability to withstand stress and turmoil even to the physical hardships of a soldier's life. But, tho these things have been neglected in the past, it is for us to begin to preach their beneficent influences today. We must teach the nation that individual fortitude and self-reliance must have thrifty practices as their foundation. In times of peace we have taught also that a man who can surround himself with the finer things of life is not thriftless, provided, of course, that he can well afford these things and that he is otherwise doing his full duty to society. We have taught that these practices are necessary to the development and encouragement of the fine arts. But in times of war we must all know the value and necessity of self-denial. We must not gauge our expenditures by the same standard that exists in times of peace. The rights and wishes of the individual must be surrendered to the greater needs of the nation, and it is only through a cultivation of thrift that we can bring ourselves to these sacrifices for the common good. Thrift means the sane administration of one's personal affairs to the end that there shall be the least amount of waste, the least amount of lost motion, and the greatest possible good to oneseff and the nation. Thrift is the foundation of individual preparedness, and let me say that the present war shows what a vital part individual preparedness plays in the destiny of a nation when a great crisis is presented. Individual preparedness schools one to the hardships which come alike to those who fight at the front and to those who suffer at home. It is thru thrift that the individual develops nerve, stamina, courage, and character, and these are the quaUties we need most of all in times of war. It is only thru thrift that we are enabled to maintain that equiUbrium so necessary to individual and national success in times alike of war or of peace. We must bear in mind always that thrift is a virtue that must be studied if its manifest quaHties are to be of value either to the individual or to the nation. These are the reasons why, I say, an application of thrift must be included in our school curriculum. The nation of today is learning the I4S NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National economic necessity of thrift, but the nation of tomorrow must know the educational necessity of this virtue. Current events make our duty today so plain that posterity will hold us in strict account for our decision. We must safeguard the America of tomorrow. We must see to it that our children are given a fundamental understanding of thrift, that they may go forward into the world and practice it understandingly to the benefit of themselves, their fellow-citizens, and the nation. This is a responsibility that rests upon us today. Our committee has made considerable progress in two years. But now the war has come upon us as a tremendous object-lesson. We are seeing our theories of other days tested today. Thrift has indeed become a patriotic necessity. There is but one pathway for us to follow. The schoolroom is the vestibule of the great tomorrow. It is the only point of contact between the present and the future. It is only through this channel that we can make our influence felt for posterity. Therefore our duty is clear — to place thrift teaching in the schools on the grounds of pure patriotism. Those of our boys who have donned the khaki, or have taken service in the navy, or enUsted in the aviation corps have responded definitely and valiantly to the call of duty, but patriotism does not exact her toll from the soldier alone. She imposes duties on each of us, and I say to you here today that the man who is not a soldier has duties to perform that are as imperative as those imposed upon the man at the front or in the training camp, and I say also that he who remains in civil life and falls short of the duty that patriotism places upon him is no less reprehensible than the soldier who flinches when the hour of battle comes. It is our duty to see that the nation no longer proceeds in ignorance of the true meaning of thrift. Thrift must be taught in the schools. It is your duty and my duty to see that this is done — and it is your duty and my duty to contribute this much to oiu: nation in this crisis. What I am saying to you tonight in urging that this step be taken is but a reiteration of statements I have previously made before this committee. At the meeting of the Congress for Thrift held in San Francisco at the Panama-Pacific Exposition in August, 191 5, I pointed out the facts that while we had not at that time been drawn into the European cataclysm, still we would not be able to escape its effects, as war meant, above all things else, that Americans must turn to habits of thrift if they would save the future of the nation; that all mankind must share in this carnival of colossal waste that was raging across the seas; and that you could not wipe out billions of dollars, annihilate millions of men, and pauperize countless thousands of widows and children without incurring a debt that all humanity must pay. Then again, at the midwinter meeting of your Association held in Detroit in February, 1916, 1 urged the value of individual preparedness. I CouncU] THRIFT IN THE HOME 149 tried to point out what I felt was our urgent duty — that the individual must be better equipt for whatever circumstance might arise in the country. I called attention to the fact that in the process of evolution now going on there was a constantly increasing demand for individual efficiency. I said at that time, and I wish to emphasize it tonight, that the foundation of individual efficiency is thrift, and thrift can only be brought about in a great way thru the medium of the schoolroom. And at the New York meeting held in July, 1916, 1 pointed out the need of a better understanding of the "Greater Thrift" — that saving money is only one of the foundation stones in the building of a thrifty character; that true thrift consists in the judicious use of all our mental, material, and physical resources. The events of the present day emphasize as never before that the most urgent needs of our nation today are a more thoro appreciation of indi- vidual preparedness and a deeper understanding of the principles of the greater thrift. Let us therefore not fall short of the spirit of our republic. We are fighting today to make the world safe for democracy. We are coming into a new order of things, and in this new order the rights, the responsibilities, and the opportunities of the individual will be greater than ever before. Let us arise to the situation — let us be true patriots, teaching our nation that while mankind can progress only thru the processes of democracy, a democratic people can succeed only when thrift is the mainspring of its actions and the foundation of its existence. I f THRIFT IN THE HOME KATHERINE DEVEREXJX BLAKE, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 6, NEW YORK CITY I was surprised when the chairman wrote me that I was to speak on Thrift in the Home." At first I had little sympathy with this topic. There are so many Adams in the world always ready to follow the example f the father of the race and say, "It is the woman's fault," and they have iscovered that the place to practice economy is in the household. No one rges economy in the use of tobacco, and the editorials in the New York 'newspapers have been fairly hysterical at the thought of economy in beer. There has been so much talk of the imperative need for saving and it has frightened eastern people so much that the New York merchants have been obliged to start a campaign of "Business as Usual" in order to prevent the utter stagnation of trade. "The rich are buying nothing," said a former pupil of mine with a sob in her voice, as she told how she and many others had been dismist from the Fifth Avenue shops which supply the wealthy. Mr. Hoover tells us that ten million famihes waste one hundred million dollars each year. That sounds very terrible, but that is only ten dollars ISO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National per family. The average family consists of five persons, so it is but two dollars a year each, or a tiny bit less than four cents a week per person. Not so very bad, particularly as it is all guess-work statistics, as are those wonderful figures about that million hah-cups of milk that would save the lives of I don't know how many thousand babies. How would you put those half -cups of milk together ? And what mother would want to feed her child with it if you could ? It would not be sanitary. But let us put guess-work statistics and joking aside. All waste is bad. But the garbage contractor in New York is authority for the statement that on the East Side the garbage pail^^holds but 25 per cent of what it held last year. Any further economy will come, not out of the garbage pail, but out of the dinner pail, I fear, and that will mean more under-nourisht children. The lowest estimate made by the head of the New York Health Board is that there are one hundred and forty thousand under-nourisht children in the public schools of my city now. So you can understand why I came here prepared to advocate ''Patriotic Extravagance." But when I came to this wonderful west country where the men have left Adam behind them and have learned to love and respect their women and treat them with equahty, I said, "I will be good and help." If you will consult the dictionary, you will find that thrift really means, not economy, but healthy growth. When you speak of a thrifty plant, you mean one that is growing vigorously. The true meaning of thrift is that which produces healthy and vigorous growth. Every side of the human being must be developt, mental, moral, physical, and spiritual, or we are not thrifty. I have been a practical housekeeper all my life, yet I have only a bowing acquaintance with calories and proteids, though an intimate knowledge of how to make two ends meet. Domestic-science experts might plan a winter menu and a summer menu — not a week's menu, for that is deadly, it is so tiresome — but each for three weeks, so that there may be no danger of monotony. Such a menu, arranged for a family of four, providing a diet properly balanst for healthy growth, would be a real benefit to many women who are eager to do what is right, but ignorant as how best to pro- ceed. In experimenting for this thrift menu, materials should be bought in small quantities at the top market prices, for so the poor must always buy. Famihes of five living in two rooms do not buy in bulk. Such experiments as those which have been conducted frequently in the past, where the food has been bought at wholesale prices and cooked by an expert, only discourage the tenement housekeeper. Let this committee try to plan food that will produce thrifty growth at the lowest possible rate of expense under difficult conditions.^ Such a menu with its tabulated cost would also show to a certain extent whether any minimum-wage scale could produce thrifty families of future citizens. h Counciil PREPAREDNESS— A STUDY IN THRIFT t^i AGRICULTURAL PREPAREDNESS AND FOOD CONSERVATION: A STUDY IN THRIFT BY ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, SECRETARY, CALIFORNIA COUNCIL QF EDUCATION Food, clothing, shelter, transportation, are the fundamental, physical necessities of mankind. In temperate cHmates, and especially among simple peoples, neither clothing nor shelter is as important a factor as in more rigorous climates and where society has developt complex conditions. Even transportation, in many of its modern phases, is, aside from the part it plays in the solution of the food problem for cities, more of a convenience than a necessity. MATERIAL GROWTH AND INTERDEPENDENCE The food problem itself is daily becoming more complex. From an agricultural people in the beginning we are rapidly developing into an industrial, a commercial, people. From a nation of rural communities, widely scattered farms, and distances great with individual demands easily met, we find ourselves today with a large part of our one hundred million people compacted into cities and towns. These people must be fed. Where once each family or group was self-sustaining and largely independent of each other family or group, we are today largely dependent one upon the other. In early times all the processes of converting the raw material of food or clothing into the finisht product were carried on in the home, and even today in certain countries this is done. At the present time, with us specialization has been developt to such an extreme that a shoe which once was made in the home must now, from the tanning of the hide to the turn- ing out of the completed article, pass thru the hands of 60 experts. The making of bread, which from the raising of the grain to the baking of the loaf was the work of each family at first, has now become a matter so intricate and complicated that the farmer may buy back the flour from his original wheat after it has been transported half-way across the continent. Obstruct for the period of a week the channels thru which food in its raw state reaches the great centers of population, and famine, disease, and death will result. And because the producers of these raw foodstuffs are in their turn dependent in such great degree upon the manufacturing and industrial plants to return to them in converted form and ready for use the product of the soil, it is apparent that the producer and the manufacturer are necessary, the one to the other, and that food and transportation are, in the final analysis, closely identified. In our own country the exodus to the cities has carried from the rural communities many of their young men. These, following the generations that have reapt the first fruits of the soil, and being impatient for the more attractive life, more rapid rise, and greater financial return that the city is 152 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National presumed to offer, leave once populous and prosperous communities to the old and infirm, or to waste and weeds. Then, too, many who have past their lives on the farms prefer an urban existence for their sons and daughters. Rural life is thought of in terms of hardship and privation. OUR UNJUST ECONOMIC SYSTEM Our economic system, in many ways unjust, has placed the producer at a disadvantage, and in isolated districts at the mercy of the middleman, represented by organization and capital. As a result the producer has not been able to reap just financial rewards from his labor. This, however, has not brought foodstuffs to the consumer at the price which he should be expected to pay. More than all else, however, we are faced by the fact that our American people, whether in country or city, are the most extrava- gant, most profligate, most wasteful, of any nation on the globe. Indeed, it would appear that we are fast becoming a nation of spendthrifts. Our vast expanse of territory, our tremendous resources, our countless forest areas, our mines and quarries, our streams and lakes for transportation and power, our bigness everywhere, has led people to believe that nature would continue in her original abundant fashion to supply our every demand. WASTEFUL TENDENCIES EMPHASIZED BY WAR All too late we are suffering a rude awakening. Long ago certain European countries began to adopt a policy of intensive agricultural production, of ehmination of waste, and of using the by-products. A French family will exist with comfort upon the product of a patch of ground we would consider too small for a kitchen garden. The substantial meal of the Russian or Italian peasant could well be made from the waste of the average table in our country. From every large hotel in the land many tons of bread are annually thrown away, and fruits, vegetables, meats, and table foods of all kinds are allowed to go to the garbage can in such quantities as would feed the needy of a city. Ice, coal, gas, oil, timber, and those resources that affect directly or indirectly the food supply are being ruthlessly wasted or so controlled by capital or by transportation agencies as to make their use almost prohibitive outside the wealthy classes. The conditions outUned, bad enough in so-called normal times, are today aggravated many fold. With the great Central Powers of Europe at war there has been an unusual drain upon the food products of those countries. During the three years past the food resources have been seriously taxt. Land has been devastated, crops destroyed, agriculture neglected. Men of the farms have been called into the conflict. As a result it is to this country that Europe is now looking for much of her food supply. Now, with the entrance of our own country into the war, matters take on a much more serious aspect. Our storehouses have been depleted, and Council] PREPAREDNESS— A STUDY IN THRIFT 153 thruout the nation there is seen the need for intensive farming, for sufficient farm labor at the time when it is required to save the crop, facilities for moving and marketing crops, and the elimination of waste in the preparation and use of foods. We are faced with the prospect of having to become the granary, not alone of our own country, but also of our AUies. The situation appears even more serious when it is realized that with average crops and under normal conditions it would take many months to fill our granaries and storehouses to the level they had reacht before the war opened. It would seem that, little by little, our people are coming to realize that real preparedness lies fully as much in increasing and conserving our food supply as in activity in some other direction. EDUCATION THAT EDUCATES That the schools of the nation have now an additional task to perform there can be no doubt. Our upper grammar grades, our intermediate schools, our high schools, our colleges, are filled with young men who, while they may not be called upon at once to enter actively into war preparations in the field, can be made fully as useful on the farm and in the laboratory. It has taken a great calamity to bring home to us clearly and forcibly the fact that, efficient as our educational system is, we have not begun to realize our possibiUties in hitching the schools to the actual conditions of life. States, counties, municipahties, rural districts, schools everywhere thruout the land, are appreciating this, and have made such progress during the last few months as seems incredible. School grounds have been plowed up and are under cultivation, lands have been least, high-school boys have given assistance upon the farms where help could not be secured and where crops would otherwise have been destroyed; girls are canning, preserving, and storing fruits and vegetables, are learning the nature of food substitutes, and how simple menus can be prepared — these and many other things are being done that will prove of the greatest value, not alone to the community in increasing the food supply, but to these young men and women in teaching them one of the greatest lessons they should learn, that of economy and thrift. NATION-WIDE PARTICIPATION The results of an investigation recently made as to what schools are doing thruout the nation are most suggestive. It will be impossible to give here more than an outline. While the schools of practically every state in the Union are at work, only a few typical examples are here cited, these alphabetically and without preference. California. — In 37 school districts only there are under cultivation 2625 acres, this exclusive of additional school gardens, small plots, and other lands aggregating 800 or 1000 acres. Small mountain country schools with 20 to 40 pupils, large city high schools, and grammar and high schools in agricultural, fruit, and dairying districts are all making their contributions. 154 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National Says one high school in the beet district: "We gave a week's holiday at beet- thinning time. The boys and girls put in 10,000 hours at farm work. Granted leave of absence to all who were at farm work." From a mining town: "About one-half acre of high-school land is at present under cultiva- tion for vegetables; high-school students, janitor, and teachers are doing the work, each possessing a separate plot." From a fruit-growing com- munity: "We have over 300 gardens under cultivation under direction of our school gardener; domestic-science classes working on cheap menus and better cooking and buying." In one high school in one of the largest cities: 95 out of 118 pupils have gardens, 8$ acres are planted, 43 are yet to be planted. School begins at 7 : 30 A.M. On call for volunteers students went to the beet fields to help thin, thus saving the crop. In the same city the student body of another high school by unanimous vote suspended athletic activities for the year, plowed athletic field for beans, volunteered their service to the beet-growers, thinning over 100 acres of beets, and gave much of the same acreage the first hoeing. School opens at 7 : 20 a.m. Aggregate earnings $1,350. Says the report: "I regard the experience to any one of the pupils as valuable as could be had from any subject in the course of study." In another high school in the same city 22 acres of vacant lots and adjacent land have been planted. In another school 160 acres have been planted, mostly in potatoes, onions, lettuce, beans, and corn, and in still another high school 10 acres of the campus have been brought under cultivation. In a small rural high school boys having jobs on the farms were excused four weeks before the close of school. Not alone the high schools, but the elementary schools, are at work. County authorities are directing their efforts in harmony with the state committees on food preparedness, the agricultural college, and the County Council of Defense. Agricultural clubs are everywhere organized, and land planted before vacation is being tended, cultivated, and irrigated. Canning and preserving clubs are using the school laboratories and domestic-science rooms. House-wives are studying food values, methods of handHng and preparing foods, food substitutes, and simple menus. Illinois. — The statement from the Joliet high school is typical. High- school boys have been excused to work on farms and have received credit for school work during the remainder of the year, such arrangement to continue until after the harvesting of the fall crops. The Rotary Club plowed all the available lots in the city; school boys and girls are planting them and will cultivate them during the summer. This work is under the direction of the school authorities. The food products are sold and the receipts divided, half going to the owner of the land and half to the student who cultivated it. Indiana. — From the state office we learn that more than 80 teachers are employed to supervise boys and girls in their projects for crop production I Council! PREPAREDNESS— A STUDY IN THRIFT 155 and food conservation. In each of 42 counties that have county agents, these have made definite plans for organizing and supervising clubs. Each county in the state has been organized by committees. It is estimated that 40,000 boys and girls will be engaged in food production and conservation this summer. The girls have done much of this work in foods in school, under the direction of special teachers. In Indiana, where there is state aid for vocational work, two-thirds of the salaries of special teachers for this work is paid by the state and one-third by the local community. Students receive no compensation, for they are benefited by learning the latest and best methods for canning, drying, and preserving fruits and vegetables. At Seymour 250 gardens are under cultivation by students, under competent supervision, and this is suggestive of what is being done thruout the state. Kansas. — ^The normal school at Emporia has developt school gardens for the pupils; products are being sold from all of these. "Our children," say the Topeka authorities, "have been taught and urged as never before in reference to the importance of planting and cultivating." A lecture- demonstration was put on at each school building recently by a representa- tive from the state agricultural college. In Kansas towns the Rotary clubs are giving great assistance. The authorities favor a reasonable compen- sation for pupils "in those grades in which promotion is bast upon credits; credit may well be given for summer work that is thoroly vouched for." Maine. — The Junior Volunteers have been organized; for younger boys the Scouts; for girls the Campfire Girls. It is proposed to open schools late in the fall if necessary and to make school work more intensive. Michigan. — In Detroit the Public Recreation Commission has garden clubs on vacant lots, directed by playground workers. There are 1200 ardens and 715 potato-patch assignments. Potato patches are plowed nd the seed furnisht at cost. There are exhibits and competitions among e various classes of gardeners. Credit is given to those who are called way from school before the end of the term if their work is satisfactory t the time of leaving. New Jersey. — " There has been organized the junior industrial army of ew Jersey, consisting of three divisions. Agriculture, Home Gardens, and iris' Service." The assistant commissioner of education heads the work, each county superintendent being responsible for his own county. Instruc- tions are given that every school kitchen in the state should be organized or special emergency service. Short courses are to be given in order that no housekeeper, because of her ignorance, shall waste her own and her country's resources. One circular sent out by the commissioner of educa- tion is headed, "This War must be fought in the Kitchens, as well as in the Trenches." Statistics are being collected regarding facihties for work in the various domestic-science laboratories and manual-training shops, and Ust is being compiled of all manual-training and home-economics teachers 156 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National for the purpose of ascertaining what possible service they could render to the state in case of emergency. People are called upon to organize locally, one slogan being: "Food is not produced from promises or hopes, nor from seed neglected in the ground; but in gardens as on regular farms; by persistent work imder wise direction, thru the growing season." Credit toward graduation may be given in lieu of school work during the time a pupil is actually engaged on the farm. New Mexico. — There is a state director of industrial education. Thru- out the state boys' and girls' gardening and canning clubs are being organized; and there are being estabHsht vocational classes in agriculture and home economics. In all the high schools and upper grammar grades the State Council of Defense is planning to organize boys' camp clubs to assist in harvesting the crops; and a plan is being workt out for giving school credit for industrial work. New York. — Some 8000 boys and girls have been releast from school for work in food production and conservation. Announcement is made by the commissioner of education that any pupil who enlists for, and renders satisfactory, agricultural or industrial service will be credited with the work of the term without examination on the certificate of the school, if his work up to the time of enlistment is satisfactory. Care is taken that the consent of the local school principal or superintendent or of the parents of the children is obtained before the pupils are releast from school. Condi- tions of labor, living, and remuneration must be satisfactory. Girls releast for service must be employed in their homes or so near their homes as to be under the supervision of their parents. '* No claims should be made for a specific percentage in any subject, but simply for credit in the subject in the records of the department." An act recently receiving the signature of the Governor of New York relates to the "employment of children in agricultural pursuits, and relieving children so employed from school attendance, and providing for credit for pupils who are engaged in miUtary, agricultural, and industrial services." Ohio. — In Cincinnati they excused "all pupils over fourteen years of age, and a few who were a little under that age, who were willing to under- take farm work or for whom there seemed to be any opportunity for farm- ing." There are also "two groups of about 100 each engaged; one, two half-days a week; and one, one day a week, in community or group farm- ing"; and in addition to this "about 1200 pupils are engaged in a tentative school and home garden. Full school credit is allowed to pupils who are engaged in this work during the school session." There is in Cincinnati what is known as the Farm and Garden Division of the Industrial Army of the United States and of the State of Ohio. This is being organized for the preservation of American ideals of freedom and democracy. The student who accepts work in this organization in place of school attendance promises to give eight hours a day to farm and garden CouncU] PREPAREDNESS— A STUDY IN THRIFT 157 work, circumstances permitting; to file with the school principal a monthly report of farm attendance; and to return to school when so directed by the superintendent of schools, in accordance with the laws of the state. Oklahoma. — Long before the war precipitated our nation into the conflict, the schools of Oklahoma were actively engaged in promoting agricultural interests and developing economy and thrift therewith. In practically every county of the state campaigns for. the increase of the production of food products have been put on; and in the cities a great many children have been employed in gardening during the vacation period. These in considerable numbers take part in cotton-chopping and other work suited to their ability. In most of the country districts the school is so arranged as to have vacation during the planting period. A large number of university students have been excused to take part in harvesting and planting. These will be granted credit for the courses in which they were doing satisfactory work at the time of leaving. Oregon. — In each county there is a complete organization of boys and girls under the auspices of the boys' and girls' club work, which is carried on by the Department of Agriculture at Washington with the cooperation of the Oregon Agricultural College. These boys and girls are carrying out the different projects of poultry-raising, egg-raising, growing corn, potatoes, and canning and baking. The Home Guard Girls are doing a great deal of work along the line of gardening and potatoes. A committee in every town in the state directs all the work. It is stated that pupils should receive the best wages possible, in order to help them in continuing in school. Credit toward graduation should be given for students who drop out, or they should be given opportunity to make up time on their return. At one town in Oregon, the superintendent visits children on their home premises. Munici- pal gardens are operated thru the assistance of school children, who are to be employed also in the picking of berries and in other light occupations. Rhode Island. — School gardens, back-yard gardens, and vacant lots are being brought under cultivation. In Providence prizes are offered for the greatest successes in gardening. Large numbers of boys are excused to work on the farm. Tools and seeds are purchast thru various municipal and philanthropic organizations. Texas. — ^At Houston more than 3000 home gardens were made and tended by school children during the past year. The boys of the Houston schools sign an obligation to do a certain amount of work in gardening during the coming summer. The domestic-science departments will be kept open for the instruction of girls and women in canning and preserving. "The work has not been considered from the standpoint of credit, but from the standpoint of opportunity." Washington. — The State Agricultural Commission is at work and clubs are active. High-school pupils are expected to assist in harvesting crops, and elementary pupils take part in club work. At Seattle numerous 158 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATIOl^ [National community-school projects are under way. Seed is furnisht for home gardens, and vegetable plants are supplied free thru the high schools. A supervisor of gardens gives his whole time to organization and to preparing teachers' committees. A harvester's bureau is organized outside of school. Wisconsin. — The work in one town is typical. The school board has placed 10 acres at the disposal of the children, and school gardens are everywhere cultivated. The work is under control of the director of pubHc recreation. The placing of children on farms is very carefully guarded that they be not exploited. Proper wages should be given, and students should be surrounded by the best housing, living, and working conditions. The Kenosha authorities object to pupils going on the farms during the regular session. Vacation employment should be permitted under the direction of the federal and state Child Labor laws: "Until, by actual test, the men and women of the nation have proved themselves unable to cope with the emergency we ought not attempt to shift our responsibilities upon the shoulders of children." RECONSTRUCTION AND CONSERVATION We are led to the conclusion that with greater extensive and intensive food production and with improved methods of preserving, canning, and storing of foodstuffs there must come as well a decided sentiment for food conservation. Our resources must be husbanded. From a wasteful policy we must develop, thru scientific methods, a policy of economy and thrift. To meet successfully the great struggle that will follow the close of the war, it must be apparent to any student of economics that, while at the moment faced with a tremendous problem, this problem is not to be solved simply by success on the field of battle. The period of reconstruction that will follow the war means, not alone a diferent Europe^ but also a different America. Changed conditions will be noted in our economic, our industrial, our social, our civic, life. This means, if it means anything, that there must prevail for the proper solution of these problems school conditions different from those we have known for a decade past. AGRICULTURE EVALUATED There is apparent then a very imperative need for agricultural instruc- tion in the high, intermediate, and elementary schools the country over. The fact that there is in so many instances much more definite instruction in agriculture given in the cities than in the rural districts offers only another proof that the rural school is not receiving the funds and necessary attention to make it measure up with the needs of the community. Large school grounds, several acres in extent, or rented or least property should be at the disposal of all schools. It may also be said without fear of contradiction that the tendency is toward an oversupply of high-school graduates who have had training in I CouncU] PREPAREDNESS— A STUDY IN THRIFT 159 commercial branches. What the rural and smaller high schools need is a substitution of instruction in rural education, rural economics, and farm accounting for much of the work now given under the head of commercial subjects. Then, too, these agricultural phases of education must not be handled from the book or from the laboratory side merely, but must be carried on in the most practical way possible. With improved rural-school conditions our young people would not flock to the cities there to enter blind-alley occupations and to receive minimum wages; we should not be forst to discuss a "back to the farm" movement, but would practice the "stay on the farm" poUcy. DOMESTIC PURSUITS PARAMOUNT All schools, rural, town, city, must offer work in home economics — domestic science, domestic art, household arts, applied chemistry, and the like. Girls, and boys as well, should know something about food values, food substitutes, and what constitutes a well-balanced ration, and be able to plan simple menus and understand thoroly the necessity for economy in cooking. Waste in the matter of foodstuffs is not alone noticeable in great cities, but even more so on the farm and in rural conimunities. There should be establisht school-employment bureaus in order that the position and the worker may be brought together; the product of the school garden should be used in the school cafeteria and in the home economic classes in their work in canning, preserving, and storing foods for use in school and home; financial remuneration should be given those who do outside work, but always strictly in accord with results accomplisht; and no student who works for the common good should be penalized in the matter of credit. WASTE vs. THRIFT One of the best lessons that can come to the boy or girl is that of the "gospel of work." They are led to see things as they really are. Their entrance into the real work of the world not only affords them a proper perspective, but helps to give society at large an appreciation of the school and that for which it stands. It will more than anything else tend toward a well-balanst curriculum and one that will meet the needs of the day. While the present condition presents some serious aspects, the results of work by boys and girls will have an effect upon them when the war is over much more far-reaching than can now be appreciated. And the prevailing fault of the American people, that of wastefulness, will, thru proper direc- tion, be check t. For should the American people go forward as they promise to we should soon become a nation of spendthrifts. One of the most far- reaching results of this war for democracy will be to bring home to every man and every woman, every boy and every girl, the necessity for the practice of thrift. i6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National AMERICAN YOUTH OUR GREATEST ASSET The school properly conducted is the most essential institution in our country today. We must not allow ourselves to be carried away by the popular clamor in some quarters which has resulted almost in hysteria. Child labor is permissible nowhere. Some of the European countries are at the moment suffering because children of immature years have been allowed to engage in gainful occupations during this war period. They find juvenile crime increasing and moral and physical natures dwarf t. Under no conditions must children be exploited. If boys and girls are away from home during a vacation period they should be under supervision of competent school authorities and subjected to the best moral and hygienic surroundings, while long hours or undue tax from a physical point of view should never be tolerated. POLICY TO PURSUE Whether or not the present vacation or any vacation should be lengthened to permit boys and girls to assist in the planting or harvesting of crops, is a matter to be properly determined by the local school officials. Authority to postpone *the opening of school, or to close during a session, should be granted individual School Boards. If, without the assistance of school children, crops will be ruined, then and then only should child- ren of proper age and ability be taken from their school to assist in the emergency. But such emergency should not be the excuse for postponing the opening of school for children of the lower grades or those who are unfit physically. The local situation, a knowledge that child conservation is paramount and common sense, should dictate always. MODERNIZING THE SCHOOL The place of the school in developing these problems cannot be over- estimated. While our work in the sciences — ^physics, chemistry, biology, agriculture, domestic science — has been year by year improving, such work is still too isolated and disconnected with the work outside the school. Industrial and vocational lines, the shops, laboratories, gardens, must show application of the principles learned in the various classes. Isolated courses and those with traditional value only must no longer find a place. Not only in the high school, but in the elementary school as well, these practical courses must be given. Boys and girls must be led to see that economy and efficiency are necessary, not only in their work in school, but also in the development of the country at large and in the life of the community in which they as men and women will soon find themselves as intrinsic elements. In the primary school and in the grades the work in arithmetic, history, geography, manual training, must all be given a thrift setting, and in the high school, technical school, and college boys and girls should be Council] OPPORTUNITIES OF THE WAR i6l trained as leaders in order to apply properly the doctrines of thrift. Just as West Point and Annapolis train young men for leaders in the army and navy and in the field, so should the school shape its courses to train young men and women as conservation engineers. For, regardless of the wealth or extent of our country or the possibiUties that He ahead of us, moral stamina rather than commercial greatness is to be the great element in our perpetuity. Such moral stamina and individual development are to be had largely thru the appreciation and practice of the principles of economy and thrift. I I I OPPORTUNITIES OF THE WAR KATE DEVEREUX BLAKE, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 6, NEW YORK, N.Y. Ever since the war began I have been opprest by the awful fact that the teachers of the world have failed or the war would be impossible. We have it in our hands to prevent a like catastrophe in the future. What is the real cause of the stupid slaughter of the flower of the world's young manhood now going on in Europe ? It is a lack of imagination — that is the funda- mental difficulty. What ruler gifted with a keen vivid imagination that would foresee and clearly visualize the men suffering and Hterally rotting in the trenches, the dead on the battlefields, the children dying of starva- tion, the women and old men overworkt trying to take up the burdens, laid down when the men marcht away — the whole fabric of civilized trade destroyed, only the commerce of destruction flourishing — what ruler with such an imagination could plunge his people into the horrors of modem warfare ? What man could be a distiller if he could see the folly, the unhap- piness, and the dark tragedy that lie hidden in each barrel of whiskey ? If the food grafter could see the pallid faces of the poor when he sat at his luxurious table, he would cease to reap his unholy profit. We have been training our children in "make-believe" imagination. If we are to do our duty as educators henceforth, we must train the children, not in the imagination that fills the cheap moving-picture house and sells the five-cent thriller magazine, but the ''put yourself in his place" imagina- tion that is the gift of the seer, the prophet, the saint, and the scientist. The " make-believe " imagination is easy to teach. The silly fairy tales from ''Lazy Mary " up and down are at everyone's hands. The glorious imagina- tion that guided Archimedes, Copernicus, Columbus, and Edison is not so easy. But that is no reason why we should shirk our duty. Let this Council appoint a committee to study this question. And let us who guide the future destiny of this nation see to it that when the citizens leave our hands they go equipt with a glorious imagination that will enable them to grasp the shining fate that should be theirs. i62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National OBLIGATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF THE SCHOOLS DURING THE WAR ROBERT J. ALEY, PRESIDENT, STATE UNIVERSITY, ORONO, ME. It is a condition, not a theory, that confronts us. This is not the time to discuss what caused the present crisis, but the time to recognize that it is here and consider how to meet it. People have no notion of the magnitude of this struggle. They must be educated to a comprehension of its great proportions. The best-informed men do not pretend to prophesy when the war will end. It is a struggle that will cost blood and fortune to a degreenever beforeknown. It is a struggle of democracy against autocracy. It is a struggle that, for the first time in the history of nations, has brought about the recogni- tion of education as a national resource. The schools and the homes must become centers of information and devise ways and means for disseminating this information that the people in them and around them may know the greatness of this struggle and the meaning of the outcome. THE OBLIGATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF THE SCHOOLS DURING THE WAR MRS. O. SHEPARD BARNUM, VICE-PRESIDENT, STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION, CALIFORNIA In President Owen's plans for this meeting, he has, in a way, asked us as members of the Council to serve in the goodly company of " Four ' Minute Men'" — a valuable form of home guard, pledged to charge assemblies and "fire the shot" that shall carry urgent war messages and appeals to the American public. We should first give a salute in honor of our boys who have enlisted — thru whom our school system has triumphantly met the supreme test. Many hundreds of high-school and university students in California, as elsewhere, have made their answer to this solemn question of obligation during the war. Our students, coming up thru the elementary schools to our high schools and colleges, have heard more quickly than any other group the call of their country, and more clearly realized the sublime nobility of their country's cause. "Before the war" — how long ago it seems! — we were forst to Hsten to criticism and serious doubt on this precise point of citizen-building by our public schools. Our boys were becoming "molly- coddles," we were told — a soft, selfish, pleasure-loving, joy-riding genera- tion. We were told that there were too many women teachers in our schools and that in consequence the youth of the nation was suffering from "femi- nization"— whatever that is. Today the crisis that is "sifting out the hearts of men" has banisht doubt; it has proved that our high-school and college boys are patriots and potential heroes. To the first eager bands of volunteers, June 5 added the young manhood of all the land; quietly, sensibly. ■ ''la Council] OBLIGATIONS OF THE SCHOOLS DURING THE WAR 163 with clear vision and grim determination, they wrote out an honor roll ten mil- lion strong. Where was that generation of mollycoddles on registration day ? One true feature mentioned by the critics has become a credit. These Jioble boys of our nation have been taught by women, for the most part. The results show that American- women school teachers must have been busy thruout the years with sterling citizen-building — with the inculcation of ideals of right and justice, with love of liberty and mercy, of humanity and fair play, with the training of quick conscience. Evidently our women teachers understand real democracy. Perhaps we ought to send an army of them to confront the enemy; perhaps a little more "feminization" in. Prussia would have kept human nature's "quality of mercy" from being all strained out of German nature. Let us salute also America's women teachers, who have manifestly instilled, from the first grade on, the divine truth: "It is not all of life to live" for self, "nor all of death to die" for native land and the liberty of others. Regarding opportunities during the war of which the schools of Cali- fornia are enthusiastically availing themselves, Dr. McNaught can speak in detail. They comprise Red Cross work; "adoption" by pupils of suffer- ing children in France and Belgium; assistance in campaigns for Liberty Loan, Y.M.C.A. and other war funds; labor reserve registration; the plant- ing and care of school and home gardens, thousands of acres of them; conservation of food thru extension classes in canning and drying and thru home economics departments; direct teaching of patriotism, as in our "All for America" bulletin, which Mr. Winship has said was the best of its kind that he has seen; extension of vocational education, by state participation in the provisions of the Federal Smith-Hughes law; instruction of adult aliens in citizenship, English, and right living conditions, by means of home teachers and evening classes; and state-wide compulsory physical educa- tion to make all boys and girls physically fit for the great tasks that await them. Truly we are back again in the time of the " survival of the fittest " — the physically most fit. Our fundamental obligation as school officials is, I believe, that indicated iby our President when he called the schools the nation's "last line of defense" — the reserve line of strength and knowledge and training. We as school officials must Hold That Line. Nor must we allow it to be held as the Hindenburg line is being "held" today — by moving it back a few miles every now and then at the instance of the enemy. We should hold the line unbroken, without retreating an inch; school terms should be kept up, attendance should be kept up, the school course of each and every child should be kept up to its reasonable fulfilment. Mass attacks in the interest of child labor should be repelled, as well as individual raids on the part of pupil or parent to snatch a handy "blind alley" job. All these insidious foes must be repelled in the name of education and patriotism. Let us meet our supreme obligation; let us hold the line, the schools-America's "last line of defense," l64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National THE OBLIGATIONS AND THE OPPORTUNITIES OF THE SCHOOLS DURING THE WAR HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLSj IOWA The appeal. — ^National emergencies and crises always appeal to the patriotic citizen as creating obligations and opportunities for special indi- vidual service. No genuine American can fail to feel the urgent call of his country for cooperation and for support during a period such as this when civilization's character and progress are to be determined by the establishment of principles and the breaking down of dominations. The time has come when the world is to be considered as having a right to Uberty and enlightenment and when nationalism is secondary to world social righteousness and justice. Humanity demands a chance to be free, an opportunity to deserve happiness, and tiie privilege of enjoying peace and prosperity, and to this end has the United States of America become a participant in this world's greatest war. To the teacher in the school this appeal comes with special force because of its importance to the immediate present and because of its necessity as a policy for the future. The work for mankind that the schools are undertaking to accomplish is only possible when freedom of the human soul is a reality and when redemption from sin and wretchedness can be made an absolute certainty. It is the emancipa- tion of the mind from ignorance and helplessness that the schools are estab- lisht to secure, as without it national reliabihty is uncertain and national prominence is unattainable and national efficiency is unknown. The teacher as a factor. — ^Amid such conditions as must arise in national life and unity the teacher's loyalty and sincerity as a patriot should occupy peculiar prominence and distinction in times of national stress and suffer- ing. His vision of the rights and duties of men should be clear and definite, his conscientiousness as to obedience and responsibiUty should be consistent and complete, while his faithfulness as a contributor to the necessary cooperating public opinion should be reliable and justifiable. The teacher deals with childhood and youth, personalities that are immature in indi- viduality, inexperienst in judgment and reason, and uncertain in con- clusions and in decisions. On this account he becomes an effective factor in creating sentiment and in making opinions for others, and his country has a right to expect from him a loyalty of spirit and a readiness to sacrifice that are exceptional in their quality and positive in their sanity. It is appropriate for the teacher to be a neutral in religion, politics, and philos- ophy in times of peace, when freedom of discussion is un trammeled and when the issues to be decided are in most respects immaterial and unim- portant, but in such a time as this individuality must be submerged into patriotism and differences of opinion must be lost in loyalty. There has never been ^ time in the history of this country when the people have past k I Council! OBLIGATIONS OF THE SCHOOLS DURING THE WAR 165 thru such an evolution of thinking and doing as has occurred in the past three years. Gradually the government's policies and plans have changed from unobstructed and genuine neutraUty to passive and then active par- ticipation in the mighty conflict. This notable evolution has come despite the attempts to avoid controversy and responsibility while demanding national rights and obedience to recognized international law. The teacher has had the experience of being able for a time to discuss the world situation from the standpoint of free inquiry, to show his neutrality by condemning or commending the parties to the great war, as seemed correct and appro- priate, and then again to find all this changed because circumstances com- pelled his country to become the ally of the one combination and the enemy of the other combination. The very opportunity of the teacher for study, investigation, and giving out conclusions has made him occupy variable attitudes during these years of struggle and strife, so that revisions of deci- sions and reorganization of opinions and development of duties have had remarkable experience in modifications and readjustments to the new situa- tions that the war has produced. The present opportunity. — There is but one view for the American teacher to take in the present-day opportunity. There is but one thing to do from the standpoint of the school amid the present exigencies. There is but one service to perform when immediate needs are to be met and extraordinary opportunities arise. For years the schools have advocated and represented the ideals of democracy as the foremost and best notions of government known to civilization. For years every effort has been made to unify all the forces of the state on the side of liberty in its absolute sense. As a principle of education the schools have taught the rights of men and the equaUty of all. As a fact in civiHzation they have taken the child of the alien and transformed him into a reliable American citizen. As a reality in experience they have insisted that all men everywhere were entitled to the enjoyment of the opportunities and the privileges that America afforded, and hence they have welcomed with enthusiasm those from every country in the world who came to participate in these opportunities and burdens. The training that has thus been accorded has brought its own to-be-expected results, and the people of the United States are prepared in spirit and in development to give their money, their comfort, even their hves, in order that other nations may inaugurate equivalent enterprises and possess similar inalienable rights to those here enjoyed. The American pubUc schools are a gigantic training camp in which the youth are prepared to fight for principle and to defend the rights of others outside of their environ- ment because they know the principles to be true and the cause to be just. It was a remarkable step that America took in the Spanish-American War when it fought for human rights without regard to control and when it insisted on a settlement that paid the defeated country an indemnity for the privilege of teaching the lesson of a better way of living and managing. i66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National It is doubtful if that crisis could have been so consistently and completely met had it not been for the immortal principles of Hberty and brotherhood that had been taught in the public school. The actual outcome. — Today another step is being taken in the active program of a new civihzation. It is now accepted as a fact that the United States must be interested in how other nations Hve and how they fulfil their obligations to civilization. The philosophy of manliness and righteousness taught in the American public school is now to be tried out on the field of battle in Europe with no ambition for more authority over other races and with no other purpose in national life except the ameHoration of mankind and the betterment of civilization. It is remarkable indeed to see a great nation mobilizing all its resources with no thought of indemnity and with no desire to demand retribution; with altruistic motives entirely dominant and with selfishness and prosperity subordinated to the procuring of happi- ness and justice to all humanity. Such an attitude could not exist, such an aim could not be adopted, such a sacrifice could not be possible, were it not for the remarkable accomplishments that have originated from the American pubHc school during its century of effective activity. The obligations and the opportunities balance each other, and the teacher of today holds in his responsibility and his fidelity the promise and the outcome of the civihzation of tomorrow. THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL DURING THE WAR MRS. MARGARET S. McNAUGHT, COMMISSIONER OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, CALIFORNIA In the excitement of war the teachers of elementary schools are going to have many new tasks imposed upon them and many kinds of leadership demanded of them. To begin with, we American people are very fond of making use of school children for purposes of parade and exhibition when- ever occasion calls for spectacular appeal, whether of war, worship, or festi- val. In the second place, school children are themselves sensitive to every form of excitement among their elders and are sure to imitate in play what they see and hear on the street and at home. To meet the first of these demands, elementary-school teachers will have to assist in planning and in conducting frequent school patriotic processions, tableaux, or other forms of display. To meet the second, the teachers will have to guide and direct the imitative ardor of boys and girls into channels of activity that will be genuinely educational and useful in character-forming. Direct children's energy. — When young men are marching along the streets with banners displayed and martial music sounding, small boys will hardly be content to plant beans and tend school gardens if the purpose be not made clear to them. When young women are conspicuous in the I CouncUl THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL DURING THE WAR 167 service of the Red Cross or wearing badges of Army Relief Corps, small girls will thrill with a desire for some brighter work than that of practicing economy and making their own dresses. School lessons will appear to many as tedious things; all sorts of street sights and sounds will be continually awakening impulses toward movements that go beyond the schoolhouse and the home. Any attempt to repress and to stifle this young ardor will be worse than useless. Wherever there is energy there must be an outlet. Every school child that is old enough to feel the popular energy aroused by the war should be provided with some means of making use of it. To deny it would be to provoke revolt. All will turn to disciphne willingly borne and to good results, however, if the energy be directed in the right way to right ends which the child itself can see and understand. Teach patriotism by means of poetry and music. — Patriotism can be taught in poetry and music that are both strong and beautiful. The child's ardor in the war will brighten its mind with a new interest in poetry, and the memorizing of verse, which is to some children a tedious task, will become a joy and even a pride to most. In the glow of the excited mind, reflecting the war spirit of the nation, the recitation of poems that tell of valor and of love of country will be given with an earnestness that will have something of eloquence if the verse chosen be of a merit that inspires eloquence. Plato long ago taught us the power of music. Let children sing the songs that have inspired heroes to valorous deeds. Children a part of the patriotic force of the country. — The discipline of military drill can be made to tend to many other kinds of discipline. Obedi- ence to all school regulations, to all civic laws, to all right customs, to all fair codes of youthful ethics, can be instilled along with the ardently adopted war discipline of which they are going to hear so much at home as long as the war lasts. The need of cultivating gardens as well as farms in order that the armies in the field may be fed, if explained to children as a duty askt of them by the president of the Union, by the governor of the state, and by the com- manders of the army and the navy, can be made widely helpful to the whole scheme of school-garden and agricultural work. Even so, the needle-work and domestic work of the girls' classes can be made more interesting by fitting them into the patriotic work of the women of the community. Schoolgirls can be shown that they are a part of the patriotic force of the nation; that they are doing their share to help the army and the army nurses and all the Red Cross workers. Such adaptation will not be difficult in most cases. In fact, if counsel be taken with the county defense committee and with the local Red Cross committee, it is probable that the elementary teachers will not only have appreciative hear- ing to any suggestions they may make to the committees, but will receive from them suggestions that will be of value in the school work. i68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Teach children to understand this partnership. — The essential point is that the children of the elementary schools shall be as far as possible brought into an understanding partnership with the rest of the community in mastering the lessons the great war is teaching. They should be permitted to share the thrill of drum and flag; to feel the pride of the pomp and parade that accompany military affairs; to take their part in assemblies and pubhc spectacles; but along with these they should be imprest with the meaning of it all as exprest in the finest verses of great poets, the loftiest eloquence of great statesmen, and in the story of its battles and its victories as reported in the daily press. Youth can never be too early instructed in public duties as well as in patriotic devotion; and it behooves the teachers of the elementary schools to be diligent and fervent in giving that instruction to the children who are under their charge in this time of national exaltation of our flag and our arms on land and sea, in both the New World and the Old. DISCUSSION: FOOD PRICES t W. A. Brandenburg, president, State Manual Training Normal School, Pittsburg, Kans. — I have listened with intense interest to the splendid address on regulation of food prices by the distinguished speaker of the afternoon, and I am in hearty accord with everything that he said; but I do feel that he stopt just a little short. If our government is going to regulate prices of foods, I want to say here in this presence that it is up to the government to regulate the price of every commodity, and especially those expenses which directly touch the production of foods. By way of illustration: A McCormick grain self-binder which two years ago could have been purchast for $125.00 to $130.00, during the last season has cost the farmers of this country from $165 .00 to $185 .00; sulky corn-plows which two years ago cost the farmers of this country $25.00 to $26.00, during the past season cost them $35.00 to S3 7 • so; whatever labor farmers have been able to secure during the past season has cost them from 15 per cent to 30 per cent more than a year ago, or any year in the past. Now all these increast costs have come into the production of the crop which we are now beginning to harvest. We have not heard a single word, and so far there has not been a single move made, to regulate the price of metals, labor, cost of seed, and other things which have gone into the production of our foods. Now I submit to you that the place to begin in regulating prices is on the machinery, the appliances, and the labor which must go into the production of a crop. We are all for regulation; but regulation must be broad enough to be just and equitable to all concerned. Mr. Chairman, may I say just a word respecting what teachers may do through the schools to assist in our great crisis. I think one of the great things to be done through American education during the coming years is to lay bare the fallacious and damnable German philosophy by means of which the leaders in Germany have educated their people, so that they are able to lead them as victims into this great slaughter and to perpetrate such a slaughter upon the entire world. For years we have been quoting German philosophers and referring to German philosophy in our schools, colleges, and universities. If we are to permit the teaching of such fallacies, we are only continuing to assist the German leaders in the promotion of that kind of education which they know, and we ought to know, will either continue us in just such slaughter or lead us into another within a few years. We can no more prevent the reoccurrence of this present conflict, if we do Council) PATRIOTISM IN THE SCHOOLS 169 not expose the fallacious education that underlies it all, than we can prevent the develop- ment of disease when we have inoculated the victim. Germany is not engaged in a struggle for the freedom of the high seas; her merchant ships are continually seen in every port of the world. The German labeled goods have been welcomed to every mart and market on land and sea. She is not contending for additional territory to demonstrate her superior industrial and commercial ability. She is led on by selfish, ambitious, bloodthirsty leaders, who believe in autocracy, mili- tarism, and despotism as against democracy. This they seek to establish. After scores of years of the most careful and systematic preparation conceivable, they want to show us the "superman." They are going to do it; but when they do they will find him in the countries that stand for democracy. He will not come from the inhuman brutes that have led the German people into this great slaughter. I PATRIOTISM IN THE SCHOOLS JOHN F. SIMS, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, STEVENS POINT, WIS. Good citizenship is a plant nourisht from many sources and productive of various fruitages. The noble arts of painting, sculpture, literature, history, and oratory measure its strength and virility. Good citizenship is civilization's safeguard, and we ever find that patriotism is one of its essential and abiding elements. Beginning with the love of home and those dear ones who make it home, it extends to the community, the town or city, the state, and the nation. The love of country has its germ in the love of home, for the home should be the place where we first know and feel the father's and the mother's love and their demands upon our allegiance. The word "patriotism" traces its paternity to the Greeks, and signifies the love of the fathers, the respectful regard for their hopes, their aspirations, their struggles, and their achievements. The history of our loved country is a history of our fathers' struggle for liberty — liberty of speech, of the press, of conscience. In America we find liberty, justice, good will. Here opportunity sounds the bugle call to every faculty of the soul. Our ideal, ever in process of realization, yet never realized, must be to make ourselves truly worthy of such an environment. Sings Browning: "Ah, but a man's reach should exceed his grasp, else what's a Heaven for ?" The planting of the colonies in America, following the discovery of the Western world by Columbus, markt a new era in civilization, for it opened the vision of an El Dorado to those who for centuries had been groping in darkness. Our Revolutionary heroes builded better than they knew, while the great Civil War patriots of over half a century ago unshackled the chains of bondage from millions of people and establisht a true democracy — a government of, by, and for the people. Sacrifice has been the common term in all struggles, and sacrifice has meant the surrender of life itself for the sake of establishing the priceless boon of Hberty. I70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National This land of the free and home of the brave has welcomed with open arms the weak, the opprest, from all lands, inviting them to share with us this haven of freedom and this promise of the more enduring things of life. Who among us is not proud of such a country? Who among us does not strive to make himself a worthy citizen of such a country ? Who among us, if the call comes, is not willing to die for such a country? We pay the tribute of admiration to our forefathers whose public spirit revealed itself in the establishment of a common-school system with prophetic vision and heroic sacrifice. They saw in these schools the nurseries of patriotism. Believing in democracy they knew full well that such a government, if attempted without education, was founded upon the sand and not upon a rock. Democracy presupposes intelligence. As a standing army it safeguards national liberty and progress. Governments depend for their perpetuity upon the sagacity and cooperation of their citizens as intellectual growth is brought to bear upon the solution of pressing and ever-changing problems. It is the business of the schools to set tasks before the pupils, and to insist upon the performance of those tasks with promptness, completeness, and fidelity. It is the duty of the schools to exemplify that there is no preparation for future citizenship so valuable as the faithful discharge of present duties, giving strength and resolution for the proper discharge of duties to come. It is the sacred obligation of the schools to instil the love of country into the hearts of the growing generation, when the roots of habit, and therefore character, sink deep into the plastic mold of youth. Thru the teaching of art and hterature, of music and history, of public speaking and debating, lead the children to know the great events of our history thru their causal relations — how each event is at the same time the resultant of those going before and the forerunner of many coming after. Throw the light of reason and reflection upon the motives of men who shapt these events and thereby modified, hopefully toward progress, the institutions of in- dustry, education, and government. History is still the biography of great men. That the schools inculcate a deep and abiding love of country is revealed in the present war-crisis — when thousands of graduates from the schools are offering their lives in defense of democracy. Let us extol the graduates who are honoring our educational institutions by voluntary enlistment. Brave, generous, loyal, and patriotic children of the public schools — may God be with them in the faithful discharge of their manifest duty. May we each and all choose as eagerly and unflinchingly as these brave lads to serve the cause of freedom and democracy — a cause thru which the world will win its way to its true heritage of liberty and honor — a cause for which America has valiantly fought for centuries. k Council] OBLIGATIONS OP SCHOOLS DURING THE WAR 171 THE OPPORTUNITIES AND THE OBLIGATIONS OF THE SCHOOLS DURING THE WAR C. G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. As a nursery of democracy the American school never had an equal. As a training for the actual duties of life it might do a great deal better. The teaching profession of the United States faces a tremendous task. The education which American schools have given to American children has lackt a good deal in essential value. We must give our young people a much better quaHty of physical education. It is our shame that half the young men examined for admission to the Army and Navy are rejected because of physical defects. An equal number of women would be found equally defective if subjected to similar examination. Some system of physical education must be workt out to bring 75 per cent of 90 per cent to maturity, and carry them thru life physically fit, whether for the onerous duties of peace or for those of war. Our system of education has given our people intelligence and interest in the things being done in the world; it has made them adaptable, coura- geous, and aspiring. As an education to fit them for the duties by which to earn their livelihood it has left much yet to be done. The American system of education must do much more and much better to train the youth of the country for their vocations. This training for vocations must include the training of girls for that vocation which nine out of ten of them will follow — the vocation of home- maker. It must not only train them in the ideals of an American home, but it must also make them understand the operative side and qualify them to become buying partners in the home. Our youths who will be heads of families must also learn what are their family responsibilities and how to carry those responsibilities properly. We have left much undone in our training for the duties of citizenship. Ten millions of our young men enrolled for military service on a designated day. Our people respond to great emergencies. They have not, however, been so taught as to be ready for, and to have the habit of responding to, the small daily calls for service. They do not go to the polls on primary election days or on the day of the general election. Our leading and most competent business and professional men refuse to become candidates for office when asked to do so, perhaps because they dread to face possible defeat, perhaps because they do not wish to make the required contribution of their time. Loyalty and usefulness in daily requirements are no less important in establishing a high standard of civic value than the readiness to respond to emergency calls for extraordinary service. It is the task of the school people in the country within the next decade to apply themselves to the working out of this more effective system 172 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National of public education. The National Education Association must lead. The National Council of Education cannot justify its existence more thoroly nor more conspicuously than by taking the initiative in this task. SECRETARY'S MINUTES KANSAS CITY MEETING OFFICERS President — William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School Chicago, 111. Vice-President — ^Augustus S. Downing, first assistant commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y. Secretary — Adelaide Steele Baylor, vocational division State Department of Public Instruction Indianapolis, Ind. FIRST SESSION— Monday Evening, February 26, 191 7 The meeting was called to order by President Owen in the Ballroom of the Muehle- bach Hotel at 8:00 p.m. President Owen read his inaugural address on "A Constructive Program for the National Council." The following papers were given under the general topic, "The Control of Educa- tional Progress": I. "The Control of Educational Progress thru Legislation"— Philander P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C. II. "The Control of Educational Progress thru School Administration" — ^William E. Wirt, superintendent of schools, Gary, Ind. In the absence of John G. Crabbe, president, State Teachers College of Colorado, Greeley, Colo., his discussion of Topic I was presented by John R. Kirk, president, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruc- tion, Springfield, 111., followed in this discussion. Topic II was discust by Calvin N. Kendall, state commissioner of education, Tren- ton, N.J. George L. Towne, Lincoln, Neb., read a memorial to Edward T. Fairchild. In the absence of Dr. John Cook the reading of the memorial to James Cruikshank was post- poned until the next meeting of the Council. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, February 27, 191 7 The meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in Convention Hall. The following papers were given under the general topic, "The Control of Educa- tional Progress": I. "The Control of Educational Progress thru School Supervision" — Lotus D. Coflfman, professor of education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. II. "The Control of Educational Progress thru Educational Experimentation" — Junius L. Meriam, professor of school supervision, School of Education, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. III. "The Control of Educational Progress thru Professional Preparation"— William C. Bagley, director, School of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. IV. "The Control of Educational Progress thru Professional Organization" — Carroll G. Pearse, president, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. Topic I was discust by J. Stanley Brown, superintendent, township high schools, Joliet, 111.; and J. G. CoUicott, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. Councill A CONSTRUCTIVE POLICY FOR NATIONAL COUNCIL 173 Topic II was discust by J. M. Gwinn, superintendent of schools, New Orleans, La. Topic III was discust by John F. Sims, president. State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis.; and W. A. Brandenburg, president, Manual Training Normal School, Pittsburg, Kan. Topic IV was discust by Reed B. Teitrick, deputy state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.; and Agnes E. Doherty, teacher. Central High School, St. Paul, Minn. THIRD SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, February 27, 191 7 The meeting was called to order at 2 : 30 p.m. in Convention Hall. The report of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education, National Council of Education and American Medical Association, was briefly introduced by Thomas D. Wood, professor of physical education, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, New York, N.Y. Discussion of this report was participated in by F. K. Green, M.D., Chicago; John M. Dodson, M.D., Chicago; Mrs. Addison W. Moore, Chicago; P. P. Claxton, Washington, D.C.; and Dr. R. W. Corwin, Pueblo, Colo. Report of the Committee on Thrift Education was presented by Arthur H. Chamber- lam, secretary, California Council of Education, San Francisco, Cal. The report on "The Course of Study as a Test of Efficiency of Supervision" was presented by A. Duncan Yocum, professor of educational research and practice, Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. The report was discust by the following: David N. Snedden, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.; Paul Kreutz Pointner, chairman, Committee on Corporation Con- tinuation Schools, National Association of Corporation Schools, Altoona, Pa.; Dr. A. E. Winship, editor. New England Journal of Education, Boston, Mass.; W. T. Carrington, principal, Normal School, Springfield, Mo.; Charles H. Keyes, president, Skidmore School of Arts, Saratoga, N.Y. ; Arthur H. Chamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education, San Francisco, Cal.; J. O. Engleman, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111.; Robert J. Aley, president. University of Maine, Orono, Me.; William C. Bagley, dean, College of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.; C. E. Chadsey, superin- tendent of schools, Detroit, Mich.; T. A. Mott, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind.; and Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS A CONSTRUCTIVE POLICY FOR THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION WILLIAM B. OWEN, PRINCIPAL, CHICAGO NORMAL SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. On assuming the position of president of this distinguisht body, I have a deep sense of the responsibility that has been placed upon me by the exercise of your choice. In contemplating the meeting which begins with this evening's session and the other meetings to follow during my term of office, I was led to consider with care what I might do to make those meet- ings a success. The answer to this question could be reacht only by seeking the reply to a more fundamental inquiry as to the underlying purpose and aim of the Council itself. This purpose can be learned from three sources: (i) the By-Laws adopted by the Council in accordance with the charter 174 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National granted to the National Education Association by Congress; (2) the purpose of the Council as it lay in the minds of the original members who formed it, set forth by Superintendent Greenwood in his address before the Council at St. Paul in 19 14; and (3) the publisht proceedings of the Council, of which Section i, Article IV, of the By-Laws of the Association reads: "The National Council of Education shall discuss educational questions of public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee from time to time suitable questions for investigation and research; have a report made at its annual meeting on "Educational Progress during the Past Year"; and in other ways use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general. These are three specific things besides the promotion of educa- tion in general that it is the duty of the Council to do in accordance with this law. In the first place, it is to discuss educational questions. Looking back over the history of the Council, one sees that this has been the chief activity of the body. It was the fundamental purpose in the minds of the founders. The Council was to be composed of the best men and women in the profession, and those who had most at heart the welfare of the National Education Association. They were to serve six years, and but one-sixth of the total membership was to be elected in any one year. The Council was to be a relatively stable body as compared with the Association at large. These members, thus chosen, were to come together to discuss the great questions that demanded solution as our American democracy workt out its system of education. There was the underlying assumption that such discussion would actually contribute to the solution of the prob- lems treated. It was believed that the discussions, deliberations, and decisions of such a body would have weight with its own members and authority abroad. The second duty of the Council, as seen by its founders, was to propose to the Executive Committee questions for investigation. The Council was to give expert professional advice to the Association as to what questions should be investigated by its committees. Again the underlying idea was that this more stable and permanent body would by its very composition be the natural guide in determining the educational policy of the Association. There is no reason to believe that the founders of the Council wisht to arrogate to themselves any special privileges, or to set up within the Association itself an inner circle whose membership would do the official thinking for the whole Association. Nevertheless the growth of the Association itself, the excellence of the programs in the different sections, and the rapid increase in the number of trained specialists in education who do not belong to the Council have served to emphasize the fact that the Council is an exclusive body with very little responsibility to the Association as a whole. Questions for investigation have been proposed and committees have been appointed in all departments of the Association. Far-reaching results I I Council] A CONSTRUCTIVE POLICY FOR NATIONAL COUNCIL 175 have followed from the investigations and reports of these committees. The Council, too, has appointed committees which have made most valu- able reports. But the Council cannot claim any unique privilege, nor has it won any distinct merit in this regard. It is possible that in so large an association so loosely organized all interests and needs have been better served by the rather haphazard way in which the committee work has been done. But it is worth considering whether the Association would not be more efficient if its committee work were organized to prevent omission, duplication, and waste. The third specific duty to be performed by the Council was to have a report made on the educational progress of the year. This duty was performed in a perfunctory way for a few years and then neglected. The founders had in mind the advantage to be gained from an authoritative survey of tendencies of growth and direction in development. It is difficult to estimate the significance of movements in a rapidly changing situation. To take account of progress every year approaches dangerously near to assuming the role of prophecy. Yet it is possible, by taking into account a number of years and by using statistical and other methods of social study, to present an accurate and reliable account of the changes that are taking place in our educational system and to define the direction of educational progress. Such a yearly summary of observable tendencies might serve to direct the efforts of superintendents and superiors in the invitation of new movements and to furnish confirmation in matters of professional procedure. There have been many important developments in the profession of education since the aims and purposes of the Council were defined by its founders. The leaders of educational thought were found in those early days among those actively engaged in the management of the schools. Their opinions and judgments were formed in the course of their daily grappling with the problems of their calling. Their theories were the outgrowth of their experience. Their generalizations were reacht as a result of a collection of data which presented themselves as significant for the immediate task in hand. They had no time for the purely scientific approach to the solution of problems and no method of the laboratory and the statistician's office. Education was an art, and direct experience furnisht the only criterion of validity and the only basis of authority. When such men came together for discussion they compared their experi- ences and deferred to the man whose experience was the broadest and whose interpretation was most convincing. It is unwarranted to conclude that their method was without value, or that the conclusions reacht were not sound. Our public-school system was built by the men who thus fashioned and remade their educational theories under the compulsion of the imme- diate need. Whatever progress was made during the century of the establishment and extension of our public-school system was achieved in this fashion. Our more modern method of scientific investigation is but a 176 ■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National refinement of this procedure, and even now the results of our scientific studies must be submitted to the test of application in the field of practical school work. The last decade has seen a remarkable change in the method by which professional opinion, procedure, and standards are being modified and establisht. The schools and departments of education connected with our universities are applying to the study of education the methods of investiga- tion that have been wrought out in other departments of research. It is not too much to say that the results of these investigations are the most powerful influence in determining our educational theories and practice. The weight of personal opinion and the authority of position and experience have given way before the methodical and systematic approach to the problems of the investigator, who relies less upon his personal contact with school situations than upon the impersonal scientific method which carries with it the authority of its own success. It is idle to deny the importance and the permanence of this change. The day of opinion unsupported by a careful collection of facts and the scientific use of those facts is gone. The investigator, whether in the university or the school system, has an instru- ment which enlarges his own power, establishes his authority, and discounts the empirical method of the preceding generation. It is this new situation which confronts the Council of Education as it contemplates the work of the coming years. The Council is no longer in a position to promulgate and to decide by brief discussion questions which can only be decided by investigation conducted with the use of scientific methods. The question, then, arises as to what the Council can do. The answer to this question is threefold. In the first place the Council can use the newer scientific method in its own investigations. There is a new generation of schoolmen who are bringing to the profession the training of the new methods. Nothing has happened in the history of American education so inspiring and heartening as the development of these new methods. There is a new professional literature in the making which is certain to keep the amateur and the untrained out of the profession. The mastery of this new literature and the technique which has produced it is an indispensable qualification for success in the future. The consciousness of the possession of this new training is the guaranty of a new professional spirit and pride which will not only make the schoolman of the future more useful, but also enhance his self-respect and courage. Wherever these newer methods are applicable they should be used in the work of the Council. There are men with this modern training in the Council. They should be askt to serve on the committees of the Council that are engaged in work where their peculiar training would be of the greatest help. If there are not enough men of this sort now in the Council, care should be taken to see that more should be elected. If there are not I I Council] A CONSTRUCTIVE POLICY FOR NATIONAL COUNCIL 177 enough vacancies in prospect to provide places for the needed additions, the Council should amend its Constitution to enlarge its membership. The ideal number for the membership of the Council should be determined by the work to be done. The Council should aim, not to get some advantage for its members, but to work out some profit for the whole Association. It should care little about being exclusive, but a great deal about being efl&cient. Not only can these newer methods be brought into use in the person of men trained to use them, but they are not so abstruse, or so difficult, or so inaccessible that they may not be adopted and used success- fully by schoolmen who are trained in other lines. They can be learned while they are in use. Every scientific study of education contains in itself, not only the results of the investigation, but also a clear embodiment of the method itself, and each must be and remain the justification of the other. And perhaps schoolmen are too easily imposed upon by the claims, or at least the assumptions, of the new scien- tific workers. Many of the latter are schoolmen made over by a semester or a summer term spent in study at a university. It is not to underrate the work of these men that attention is called to the comparative simplicity of their procedure or the limitations of their technique. In so far as possible and by all the means possible the investigations and proceedings of the Council should square with the demands of the new scientific methods in educational research. In the second place the Council can perform a unique service in elevating the results of the new methods as applied to actual school conditions. The work of the scientific investigation is carried on by isolating single factors of a situation and controlling conditions in order to establish causal rela- tions. The schoolman must deal with the conditions as they arise and must find a solution for the problem as a whole. There are vast -areas of our experience in the schools that scientific method has not even attempted to attack. There are problems of such a delicate nature that no measurement and no statistical method has been found to apply to them. Even where a scientific method has been invented for the control of certain phenomena the scope and meaning of the results must inevitably be determined by the schoolman actually called upon to apply the method in the solution of his problem. Not until the scientific workers have covered the whole stretch of social life will it be possible to require contribution of the practical schoolman to the solution of school problems. Such a time lies far distant in the future. The Council should set itself to the task of valuating the results of the new methods in the practical realm of school life. It would not be difficult to point out many places where there is need for such work. No one questions the value of the school survey for certain purposes. Yet the effect of such surveys has not been brought under review by any body of schoolmen. 178 NATIONAL MdVCATION ASSOCIATION [National Nothing could be more unscientific than to fail to check up the results of an experiment. There has been no checking of the results of the surveys made in the schools during the past five years. These surveys have been conducted by educational experts — by self-constituted experts too often, I fear — from teachers, colleges, and departments of education, assisted by graduate students of education. The work has been done within a brief period of time, the results have been compiled and publisht, the investigators have drawn their salaries and passed to other fields, the graduate students have received some valuable training, but what results have followed from this new form of school test ? No one has gathered up these results. There is no responsibility felt by the surveyors for following them up. The super- intendent, if he survives the survey, does not have the time or the means to prepare and publish as elaborate an account of the results as the publisht survey itself would demand. I submit that some body of competent and self-respecting schoolmen should consider this whole question from the standpoint of the schools with due regard for the total result accomplisht. Many other illustrations of this need of evaluating the new scientific methods from the standpoint of their application might be given. The Council might well devote its energies to problems of this nature. In the third place, the Council can do the cause of education and the Association a great service by helping to organize public opinion on school matters. Schoolmen have opinions on school matters, but there is not enough public opinion among schoolmen. We do not have available for use the matured social judgments of the men who are bearing the responsi- bilities of public education in America. The powerful instruments of the public press and the publisht document are not wielded by schoolmen. The schoolman cannot support his position by reference to the opinion of his professional colleagues. He can, to be sure, quote individual opinions as exprest in the addresses publisht in the proceedings of the National Educa- tion Association. But, aside from the resolutions passed by the Associa- tion, it is difficult to find an authoritative, well-grounded pronouncement of what the opinion of educators is on any disputed question. The Council should do what it can to organize public opinion on public education and continue to revise that opinion as the situation demands. The program of this evening was arranged with these fundamental considerations in mind. I am not overconfident that I have selected the vital considerations, or that any one that I have mentioned is as important as I think it is. But I am confident that this Council can be of service to the Association and the country. To accomplish this we shall have to assume responsibilities and meet them. We shall need to have definite aims and work for them. We shall be compelled to utilize the full member- ship of the Council and perhaps to enlarge it. I suggest for the con- sideration of the Council the following four items in a possible program of procedure: Councai CONTROL OF PROGRESS TSRU SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 179 1. The Council should appoint a set of standing committees on those subjects that correspond with the vital and permanent interests of public education and the profession. This will give us continuity and definiteness of aim. 2. The Council should make the chairmen of the committees respon- sible for achieving results. This would develop the leadership that we need. 3. The Council should insist that every member of the Council serve as a member on one of the standing committees. 4. The reports of these committees should constitute the business of the Council and the discussion of them should be the program. The reports should be adopted or rejected. This would make the work of the Council of weight. THE CONTROL OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS THRU SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION WILLIAM E. WIRT, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, GARY, IND. In order that school administration may perform properly its function in providing suitable conditions for studying and teaching, I believe that certain standards for school administration are necessary. 1. In order to offer an enricht school program successfully, the variety of subjects to be taught by any one teacher must be limited to the number that can reasonably be expected to be handled by one person. 2. In order to pay decent salaries, the number of persons employed in the schools must be approximately the same as the number of regular classes taught in the schools. 3. In order to provide satisfactory facilities, the total number of indi- vidual units of accommodation provided for children in the school plant must be approximately the same as the number of children in the plant. 4. In order that sufficient time may be secured for the proper use of the school facilities, a longer school day must be provided. 5. In order that all child- welfare agencies may be able to work at maximum efficiency for the welfare of the child, the school must be a clearing-house for children's activities. 6. Industrial training should be given in workshops that are productive and largely self-supporting. The statement is frequently made that with Mark Hopkins on one end of a log and a student on the other you had a university. I believe thoroly in the importance of the teacher in the educational process. But in many modern schools in our cities, with their over-large classes and poorly venti- lated and poorly lighted rooms, I do not believe that it is possible to have a satisfactory school, even with Mark Hopkins as a teacher. School adminis- tration must provide the physical conditions necessary for the teacher to do i8o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National her work successfully. Also I do not believe that Mark Hopkins in a modern elementary school would be able to teach reading, writing, arith- metic, history, geography, physiology, hygiene, civics, ethics, literature, music, drawing, manual training, gardening, elementary science, physical training, supervised play, thrift, patriotism, and all the other subjects in the modern curriculum. By sending our bright boys and girls from our high schools to normal- training schools for two years we can reasonably expect them to secure a foundation for becoming competent teachers of reading, writing, arithmetic, or competent teachers of music, manual training, history, and geography, or elementary science, but not competent teachers of everything. I am not in favor of one teacher teaching arithmetic, another teaching language, another spelling and writing in the lower grades of the elementary schools. But I do not see any objection to having one teacher teach reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, and language to a class in the elementary school and then permitting the class to go to special teachers for drawing, music, manual training, physical training, play, etc. Persons who have talented children do not expect the elementary-school teacher to give them their musical education. Children go to private music teachers for music lessons. Everyone grants, I think, that in the ranks of the musicians in the country there should be enough teachers to teach the would-be musicians. Why not have music teachers in the schools m place of supervisors? The same should be true in the shop, science, drawing, and art teaching. I do not believe that it is possible for regular teachers properly to super- vise playgrounds, gymnasiums, and swimming-pools. A teacher cannot dress properly for the playground and the classroom at the same time. The elementary teacher usually finds that it is too hot or too cold to go out on the playground with her children. For a number of years I tried to have the playgrounds in the schools under my supervision directed by the regular elementary-school teachers. It seemed to me that it was a good thing physically for the regular teacher to leave the classroom and go to the play- ground for a recreational hour. But we were forst to give it up as an impossibility. There were always a few teachers who would successfully take their turns on the playgrounds, but never more than half of the teach- ing force of any of the buildings. Many a time I have overheard a mother talking with a teacher on the playground. The mother would say, "It will kill my little daughter Mary to play out of doors weather like this." The mother would shrug her shoulders, little Mary would shiver, and the teacher would say, " I know, but Mr. Wirt makes me do it and I cannot help it." There is a wonderful difference when the playgrounds are placed entirely in charge of specially trained playground directors. These directors know the arguments for outdoor life and playing in the sunshine. They not only believe in the I Council] CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION i8l theory of play and outdoor life, but also enjoy play and outdoor life and dress appropriately by wearing heavy sweaters and heavy shoes. When a mother comes to such a teacher and says, "It will kill my little daughter Mary to play outdoors," the teacher not only presents the arguments for out- door life, but uses tact. She says that it is not necessary for Mary to play outdoors if she does not wish to. She can play in the gymnasium, go to the library, or to the auditorium, or do a number of things. Under these condi- tions when the mother leaves she is, as a rule, probably wondering whether it is not after all a good thing for her daughter to play outdoors since she doesn't have to. Many times she will return after five or six weeks and, looking up this teacher, will say, " I do not wish to find fault and am not com- plaining, but why did you deceive me ? Anyone knows it has been a good thing for Mary to play outdoors. You can tell that by the color of her cheeks. Besides she eats almost twice as much as before and she has gained four pounds in weight. But if you were going to have Mary play outdoors why did you say you would not do so?" The teacher replies, "You mis- understood me. I did not say that Mary could not play outdoors if she wanted to." Successful administration in any enterprise attempts to classify work so that each individual employe can work to the best advantage. Our efforts at the enrichment of the school curriculum are not as successful as they should be because we are trying to make our elementary-school teachers do the impossible. When drawing was first introduced into the school, drawing teachers were employed who taught drawing direct to the children. Later it was found more economical to have one drawing teacher supervise in five or six buildings rather than teach in one. The entire supervisory system of special subjects was developt as a makeshift because of financial limitations and not because it was desired pedagogically. School administration can assist 'educational progress by abolishing the supervisory system in the teaching of special subjects. The supervisory system for instruction in special subjects is not eco- nomical, even tho its supposed economy is the reason for its existence. In some states lo per cent of the teaching force consists of supervisors, and 15 per cent of the salary budget for teaching is paid to them. These super- visors are extra teachers and are a great handicap in providing classes of reasonable size and fair salaries for the regular teachers. Regular teachers may be relieved entirely of the burden of the supervisory system, and special teachers who teach the special subject direct may be employed without employing more teachers than our average of one teacher for each regular class. Regular teachers may each take two classes for half of the school day in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and the special teachers may have these classes for the remaining half of the school day for the special subjects. Twenty regular teachers in charge of forty classes half of the day for reading, i82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National writing, and arithmetic, together with twenty special teachers in charge of the same forty classes the remaining half of the day for special work, will provide complete instruction for forty classes alternating between regular and special work. Any t5rpe of special work may be offered, since it does not require an extra teacher and does not burden the regular teachers. Thus it is much more economical to employ special teachers to teach special subjects direct from the standpoint of school expenditures as well as from the standpoint of the economy of the time and strength of the regular teachers. Our efforts at enriching the curriculum in the school are not as success- ful as they should be because we are either trying to do too many things in the same room or trying to provide two, three, or more places for each child in the school plant. It is out of the question to make a successful gymnasium, workshop, music studio, art studio, science laboratory, library and social center, study and recitation room out of the same classroom. I have never seen any successful plan for making an auditorium, study-room, and gymnasium out of the same room. If we wish our children to have auditorium activities, we should provide the best auditorium that it is possible to secure for audi- torium purposes alone. If we wish to provide physical training and play for our children, we should furnish a suitable gymnasium, swimming-pool, and playground, in addition to classrooms and auditoriums. The same thing is true regarding music studios, art studios, science laboratories, libraries, and workshops. It is not economical from the standpoint of school expenditures to make a gymnasium, workshop, studio, laboratory, and library out of an ordinary classroom, even tho economy is the chief reason for our trying to do so. Everyone grants that such a combination is a makeshift and inter- feres more or less with the instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic, for which the classroom is primarily intended. But, bad as have been the results from this effort to provide for a series of combination activities in the same room, the effort to provide gymnasiums, playgrounds, auditoriums and libraries, laboratories and workshops separate and in addition to class- rooms has been much more disastrous. Usually in a school plant with twelve hundred children an effort is made to provide twelve hundred school seats in regular classrooms, an auditorium that will seat twelve hundred children, a gymnasium and play- groimd for twelve hundred children, and extra shops, laboratories, studios, and library, so that when children are in these activities their regular class- rooms are empty, or the reverse. This practice has resulted in the collective effort of the conmiunity providing good facilities for only a part of the population. It is the same thing as in the time of Louis XIV of France, where the people provided collectively for Louis and his courtiers the magnificent palaces and parks of Versailles. In cities where you find the I Counclll CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 183 most complete up-to-j|Jate school plants with two, three, or more places for each child you will find also a large percentage of the school population housed in dilapidated, unventilated schoolrooms and in rented quarters, or a school budget overloaded with the burden of providing the capital out- lay for new buildings and sites and current expenditures for operation and maintenance. School seats for twelve hundred children, an auditorium for twelve hundred children, playgrounds and gymnasiums for twelve hundred children, libraries, workshops, studios, and laboratories for twelve hundred, make a total of forty-eight hundred units of accommodation in a school plant for twelve hundred children; thus four units of accommodation for each child are provided. School administration should devise a plan whereby it is necessary to provide school seats for only six hundred children, auditorium seats for two hundred, playgrounds and gymnasiums for two hundred, and workshops, laboratories, and libraries for two hundred. Thus a total of only twelve hundred units of accommodation are needed for a school plant accommodating twelve hundred children, an average of one for each child. All that is required for this economy in school-accommodation units is that each teacher of reading, writing, and arithmetic use only one classroom for two classes. If thirty teachers are employed to teach the twelve hundred children, fifteen of them will teach the reading, writing, and arith- metic to the entire thirty classes for half of the school day and will use only fifteen classrooms. The classroom is the most expensive unit of a school plant. It is much more economical to build a gymnasium and buy a playground for six or eight classes than it is to use six or eight classrooms [for gymnasiums. The same thing is true of the auditorium. The cost of ifteen ordinary classrooms is sulS&cient to provide elaborate facilities for )lay and physical training, auditorium activities, studios, laboratories, lops, and library equipment for fifteen classes. Under such a plan the regular teachers have the undisputed possession )f the fifteen regular classrooms for the work for which they are best suited, ind the special teachers have the undisputed possession of their respective facilities planned and built for the work to be done in them. It is not neces- iry to provide playgrounds, gymnasiums, laboratories, studios, workshops, ^and Ubraries as extras in addition to classrooms for each class. The total number of class accommodations for classrooms, physical training, play- grounds, auditorium, laboratories, workshops, and library need not be greater than the total number of classes. I Progress in education can be helpt materially by a school administration devising a plan whereby the interference in the work of the regular classroom by the special activities is unnecessary, whereby the diverting of classroom funds to provide elaborate facilities for special activities in a few schools is unnecessary, and the burdening of the school budget with extravagant building programs and current operating cost is avoided. 1 84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National If the school is to provide the facilities for the plaj^ and physical trainhig that children formerly had in the vacant lots, the school must have added to the school day the time that children formerly had for the vacant-lot play. If the school is to provide the child with the opportunities for hand training which the home industries and the small shops and farm of a generation ago afforded, the school must have added to the school day the time the child formerly had for the industries in the home, the small shop, and the farm. The average city child has approximately one thousand hours a year for school and over three thousand hours a year for play in the streets. This proportion of street and school time should be reversed. A school day of six hours in place of five can be provided without increasing the number of teachers, size of classes, or the school day of teachers. Three teachers in charge of six classes on the playground will provide a better playground than six teachers in charge of six classes. Children on the playground should have an opportunity to choose games, umpire games, and take the initiative in the activities. The same is true in the auditorium. Three teachers will supervise the auditorium accommo- dating six classes better than six teachers will supervise it. Since during 20 per cent of the day one teacher is looking after two classes it is possible to provide six hours of supervision for children with a five-hour day for teachers. Under good conditions I believe it practicable and desirable for teachers to teach six hours and thus provide a school day of seven hours for children. To give the children all the opportunities they should have for study, work, and play it is necessary that the school administration provide a seven-hour school day in addition to the time for luncheon. The providing of a child world within the adult world of the city wherein all the children may be kept wholesomely occupied all day, working, study- ing, and playing, should not be considered exclusively a public-school prob- lem. There are many child-welfare agencies that can do for children many things better than the schools can do them. It is not necessary to have public libraries enough to accommodate all the children at once after school. It is not necessary to have social settle- ments and children's clubs enough to accommodate all the children at once when they are turned out of school. It is not necessary to have Sunday- school accommodation to take care of all the children at once. A seven-hour school day is desirable for children who do not have any other activities except those provided by the school. But it is not necessary to require this time of children who have satisfactory activities outside of school. Some children should be permitted to stop with their private music teachers on their way to and from school morning, noon, and afternoon. Other children may stop at libraries on their way to or from school morning, noon, and afternoon. The same is true of Sunday schools. In place of a church trying to secure twenty-five teachers and twenty-five classrooms to accommodate twenty-five classes for religious instruction once a week on CouncUl CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 185 Sunday morning, the church may provide one good classroom and one teacher who can teach five classes a day five days a week. The library should be working to its maximum capacity all day long. Settlements, clubs, private teachers, and churches should be doing the same. The ideal plan for providing child-welfare agencies in any community is that the total number of places provided for children in churches, libraries, social settle- ments and clubs, auditoriums, playgrounds, gymnasiums, school classrooms, workshops, laboratories, and studios are approximately equal to the total number of children in the community. I admit that it is difficult to realize this ideal and secure the necessary cooperation between the several child-welfare agencies. But the school can serve as the clearing-house for children's activities by abandoning the policy of all children doing the same thing in the same way and at the same time and same place and thus make possible the cooperation of all child-welfare agencies. Industrial and vocational training cannot be given in schools separated from industry. It is impossible to finance the salaries of teachers, the small classes, the expensive equipment, and expensive supplies for all the pupils who need such training without making the shops to some extent self-supporting. But if it were possible to finance such industrial and vocational training, it would have little value, because in a non-productive shop you cannot learn how to do productive work successfully. You may start a well-trained workman in a non-productive shop and in a few years he will be enmesht in courses of study, formal exercises, and theoretical instruction. As a rule it is not practical nor desirable to sell the products of industrial- training shops on the market. It is both practical and desirable, however, to do much of the repair and construction work of the school plant in the school shops. No workman should be permitted to do more work than will balance his salary and cost of materials. The repair and construction work should be used only as far as it is desirable, educationally, to use it, and all courses should have formal exercises to supplement the practical work. As a rule the practical shop instructors can earn their salaries and have approximately half of their time left for formal exercises and theoretical instruction. The school should have a department for the maintenance of school property, manufacturing many of the things needed by the school, and doing much of the small construction work. The shops thus provided should not be considered as manual-training shops, but as real productive shops cooperating with the school. The students working in these shops should be considered as cooperative students just the same as students who work in shops not under the control of the school. School administration can make the best type of industrial training possible for every boy and girl in the public schools without much additional i86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National expense for equipment and salaries of instructors thru cooperation with industry in the school and out of the school. Tremendous progress can be made in education thru school administra- tion by getting greater returns for the money we are now spending. The key to the solution of this problem is the multiple use of all public child- welfare facilities. More money will be granted freely by the public when we have made the maximum use of what we have. EDWARD THOMPSON FAIRCHILD GEORGE L. TOWNE, EDITOR, "NEBRASKA TEACHER," LINCOLN, NEB. There is one, for many years a member of the National Council, whom we sadly miss this year. It is hard to believe that President Fairchild will not be at this meeting as usual. We had come to expect a visit, a renewing of the close friendships of years which he had formed with so many members of this Council and so many of the members of this department of superintendence. And he lookt forward to these meetings with longing and pleasure. He loved his friends and loved to spend with them the few hours that could be spared from the duties of these busy days. Edward Thompson Fairchild was an educational pioneer. He was born in Ohio and received his school education there in Wesleyan and Wooster universities. But he early came to Kansas, to whose educa- tional system he devoted a quarter of a century of his best years. By her people he was honored in many ways because he earned their fullest confidence. But he did a pioneer's work. He helpt to organize the growing city schools as a leading city superintendent. He helpt to organize the great agricultural college at Manhattan as one of its board of trustees for nineteen years. He largely molded the state educational system as its state superintendent for six years, following a period of near-chaos. Then he went back to New England to do a pioneer's work there also in the midst of New England's traditions. His best years were devoted to providing for the next generation a richer rural life, better rural schools, and a more productive agriculture. He shortened his life by his zeal to help each Kansas rural community to work out its school and community problems. He helpt to stand- ardize their schools. He helpt, thru normal training, to get them better teachers. He taught them how to consolidate their districts and induced them to build better schoolhouses. He workt unceasingly at home with his people, as a member of this body, and as chairman of the Committee on Rural Schools of the National Education Association to organize, not alone the people, but the school machinery to bring better conditions to the farm homes. The present great interest of the people in rural CouncU] CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU SUPERVISION 187 problems and the generous attention of educators to the rural schools are tributes to his wisdom and to the wisdom of those inspired as he was to see one of the big educational problems of this generation. His service in New England was like in quality to that he had given to Kansas. In five short years he aroused New Hampshire to a new vision of its agricultural possibilities. He stirred the whole state. He brought not only the boys and girls into the state college, twice as many as had been there before, but the fathers and mothers into the extension courses. The Manchester New Hampshire Union pays him this tribute: If results produced count for anything in forming an estimate, Dr. Fairchild had proved himself, in the five years of his stewardship of the destinies of the institution at Durham, the ideal college president. A growth of practically 100 per cent in the student enrolment; the introduction of new and attractive courses of study; new, imposing, and well equipt buildings; revised and modernized entrance requirements; a campus wonder- fully improved in appearance; short-term courses for the benefit of seekers after instruc- tion in special subjects — these are among the many tangible evidences of Dr. Fairchild's wise supervision and direction. Never before in the history of the state did New Hampshire farmers and their wives (not to mention their sons and daughters) have such opportunities for practical instruc- tion as have been afforded them by the state college and by its extension work during President Fairchild's administration. Dr. Fairchild was a student in the truest sense. He was an inspiring teacher, a genuine and able executive. But above all he was a true and loyal friend, a devoted and generous husband and father. He had many honors, more than come to most men, at the hands of his fellow- workers. He was long a member of this body. He was president of the National Education Association. And there are many other high tokens of esteem and confidence which came to him. But what meant most to him was the confidence of his friends and the love of his family. We shall not see him again at these meetings. We shall miss his confidences, we shall need his counsel, and we shall have it only as we remember that his face was always toward the light, that his decision Pwas always for the thing that he thought was right. We shall come and go many times, but those of us who knew him will never find his place filled. We shall miss him, we shall long for his good comradeship, and his memory shall remain with us, an inspiration, till " the silver cord be loosed" and we take our places with him and those others, honored members of this body, who have joined the great throng of another world. I I THE CONTROL OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS THRU SCHOOL SUPERVISION LOTUS D. COFFMAN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. The first American school superintendents devoted their attention to the more mechanical phases of school organization and school management. [-They were interested in the daily routine of the schoolroom, in disciplinary i88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National matters, in examinations, in the seating of children, in the pay of the staff, and in the purchase of small supplies. A little later they devised graduation and promotion systems. Their chief interest lay in having a place for everything and having everything in its place. They emphasized the structural and static aspects of school procedure. But when the machinery was once set and in operation superintendents discovered that there were many other problems of a less detailed and classificatory character demanding attention — ^problems which were incom- parably more difficult because they were susceptible to the flexible and yielding influences of public opinion. Questions relating to revenue, to the relations which the school should bear to mothers' clubs, to art associations, to commercial organizations, to all kinds of community affairs and interests, fairly swamped the supposedly hitherto already overworkt superintendent. He was told that he was a community leader, a skilful molder of public opinion. And many a young superintendent in attempting to display the qualities of leadership failed as an organizer. Good organizers were occasionally discharged because they did not know how to keep their "educational goods on display in their windows." As these two functions were exercised — (i) supplying of the conditions for work and (2) inducing a fair share of the communities' activities to flow into educational channels — it was discovered that both of these things might be genuinely good and the school still be a failure. A new emphasis or point of contact was therefore sought. This search resulted in the word "supervision" finding a place in our vocabulary in the early seventies of the last century. But even in those days a clear distinction was not made between it and administration or between it and management or organization. In most instances supervision related to class regulation, to salary schedules, to rules and regulations, to matters relating to hygiene and sanitation. Only now and then did there appear in the literature any statements which showed that the thinkers were dimly conscious that there was something deeper, more vital, and more significant than these. The early attempts to define supervision now seem more or less grimly humorous, and yet I am sure that they represented a groping desire to raise into relief new types of duties which superintendents were beginning to undertake as supervisors. A board of education in a large eastern city said that it is the business of a supervisor to cast a genial influence over his schools, but otherwise he is not to interfere with the work of the schools. As late as the nineties a writer of distinction said : The supervisor, in relation to the scholarship of his schools, is as a traveller going into a great and far country to earn wages and to bring back treasures from its vast stores of wealth. In relation to children and youth, the supervisor is as a pioneer going into a great wilderness of primeval forests, to make there a home of civilization. In relation to his schools, the supervisor is as a sea-going captain of the medieval time upon a chart- CouncOl CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU SUPERVISION 189 One writer said that "supervision is taking abroad view, the general view, and seeing the back and middle grounds as well as the fore- ground with its details," and in another place he declared it to be "the vision in the old and beautiful sense of seeing things invisible." These definitions are fairly typical of a multitude of meaningless platitudes that could be cited as early attempts to describe the field and problems of supervision. It is clear that such general statements do not define the problems of supervision, nor do they make clear the handicaps and opportunities of the supervisor. They simply show how supervision was evolving. Even yet today practically an open field awaits us — a field that is enormously impor- tant because of its possibilities. It is important because of the unique position that the supervisor holds in the educational scheme. He is the mediator between the teachers and the superintendent. He is in no strict sense a teacher of children (altho he will be all the better if he can do it well) nor an executive empowered with the responsibility and the duty of employing teachers, inspecting buildings, or purchasing supplies, altho these and a number of other duties are closely related to his work. Because the function of supervision is frequently lodged with the superintendent, who is also the organizing and administra- tive head of the schools, it is likely to be sacrificed to these other functions. While there is a tremendous overlapping of responsibility and power between those three functions, for purposes of definition and discussion, if not for the sake of efficient work, they should be kept separate. Gradually out of the chaos and multiplicity of activities performed by the supervisor four great duties have evolved. One of these is that of laying out and prescribing materials and methods. It is not assumed that the supervisor will perform this function without the assistance and cooperation of his teachers. But it is a fact that these are matters of daily concern for the supervisor. Whenever a new subject clamors for admission, he must consider its adaptability to the various grades and to the different types of mind found in his school. He must also consider the methods that should be employed in presenting the materials to the different grades and to the different types of mind represented in them. Another of the important duties of the supervisor is that of studying the quMities of merit and causes of failure among teachers. These should he used as a basis for refining his methods of checking and rating his teachers. Despite the claims of certain educational sentimentalists that it is little short of sacrilegious for a supervisor to judge his teachers in relation to their ability to instruct, it is nevertheless a fact that this is one of the very best excuses for his existence. I do not see how he would justify his existence if he did not think of teaching in terms of efficiency levels. A third of the great duties of the supervisor is that he should be familiar with all the approved mental tests for determining the mental status of children and igb NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION INational with all the units and scales for measuring their educational achievement. Altho he may not find time to prepare original tests, he should, for both practical and scientific reasons, know how to use those already workt out. He should see that they are really impersonal standards for measuring different aspects of teaching efficiency. As an alert-minded and progressive school officer he should welcome the refinement as well as the introduction of every instrument that enables him to substitute establisht facts for current opinion in dealing with the distribution of subject-matter, its time distribu- tion, methods of instruction, or the attainments of the pupils. The fourth great duty of the supervisor is that of improving the teaching act. This is his main problem. It is the one thing that he must keep ever fore- most in his mind. Every visit he makes, every new text that he introduces, every regrouping of the children, every test that he gives, every device of every kind should have the improvement of instruction as its goal. To modify instruction effectively the supervisor must be familiar with the laws underlying its technique. He must be conversant with lesson types, with the special methods of the various subjects, and with the generalized experience of successful men as to the qualities that should be considered in estimating the value of instruction. The four duties — the laying out and prescribing of materials and methods, the thinking of teachers and teaching in terms of efficiency levels, the use of standardized tests and scales, and the improvement of the teach- ing act thru the criticism of instruction — constitute the scope of supervision. They call for scholarly standards based upon a knowledge of historic and contemporaneous experience before supervision can be properly analyzed and appraised. How progress can be made in these special fields is a question with which every large school system in the United States is deeply concerned. I have personal knowledge of the situation in four large city systems in which there is a rising tide of criticism against supervision. And this criticism is coming from the teaching force. At first I was disposed to agree with the supervisors, but more recently I have found evidence that the teachers are not wholly without justification. They have been told that supervision is never petty, but its larger problems and issues have not been pointed out to them; they have been told that supervision should remove errors, but the fundamental errors have not been described; they have been told that supervision is systematic, but the system has not been shown; they have been told that supervision will give them that educational guid- ance which will enable them to analyze a child's several abilities, but they find that doubt is being cast upon the instruments for doing this; they have been told that supervision will show them how to modify instruction so as to meet the individual needs of pupils, but as yet they find that nearly all the instruction is mass instruction. Criticism of supervision can be abated only by fulfilled, not by broken, promises. CouncUl CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU SUPERVISION 191 Another reason for the spreading antagonism between these two units of the teaching force is that the attitude of the supervisor has been too largely that of simply passing judgment. As a judge he inspects, but does not supervise; he directs, but never leads; he points out faults, but never shows how to achieve a different result. Good supervision involves stating the principle behind the judgment and the ability to show how the application of that principle would call for a different technique. When teachers ask, "How would you do it differently and why?" they should find a sympathetic and ever-present resourceful helper. A third reason for the criticism supervision is receiving can be accounted for by the manner in which supervisors have been selected and by the work which they have been askt to perform. In a large city system it has been customary for successful teachers to be appointed to the supervisory posi- tions. These teachers taught the other teachers to teach in the way in which they had been teaching. During their vacation periods it often happened that these newly appointed supervisors were expected to work upon courses of study and to prepare reports for the superintendent. But here and there small groups of teachers had caught the spirit of the new education; they felt the pressure for prof essional training, and consequently they went to summer school. They brought back new ideas, new methods of work, new inspiration. The contagion spread and other teachers went to school. It was not long until there was a group in the teaching corps who knew more about teaching than did the supervisors. The supervisors were not wholly to blame for the situation; the system was to blame. A system which requires them to work from eight o'clock in the morning until five- thirty in the afternoon upon almost purely mechanical things, which saves for them little reserve energy for summer-school work, is the product of an outworn conception of educational efficiency. The situation just described as characteristic of large cities is even worse in many of the smaller cities, for in them the superintendent is com- pelled to look after everything. There is one additional reason why little progress has been made in the field of supervision, and that is that nearly everyone feels that he is compe- tent to pass an expert opinion upon any phase of school work. The almost universal faith that the ordinary citizen has the ability to pass judgment upon the schools is shown in the great variety of reforms advocated. No matter how extreme the critic, if he declares that the schools are worthless and inefficient, the curriculum wooden, methods stereotyped, and the supervision futile, he is certain to have a following. Progress is being made more or less blindly thru cut-and-try methods or thru the influence of the propagandist. There is little agreement as to methods and little consideration among either teachers or supervisors of the problems concerned with the teaching of various subjects. Progress all too frequently is simply the result of catching at those passing things 192 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National which promise improvement in practice. In few fields is knowledge more fragmentary, are ideals more distorted and methods more fluctuating, than in the field of supervision. We are still encouraging uncritical drifting in this field. Confusion and ferment must give way to greater stability and security. An extensive bibliography reveals a literature of obvious remarks on supervision. The things we do not know and the problems we are leaving unsolved make an appalling list. Tradition is still the only basis we have for answering many of the simplest questions. We do not know, for example, the best order of teaching the multiplication tables. Indeed we do not know- whether they should be taught at all as tables. A large percentage of a thousand superintendents replying to a questionnaire stated that the tables should be taught in the regular order, because that was the order in which they had been taught and because that was the order in which the digits originated. At least the second of the two reasons is not true. The order in which the tables should be taught is a supervisory and teaching problem. It is barely possible that the regular order is the most difficult and the most unnatural of all orders. Why should not this problem be experimented with and the answer found ? Again we know practically nothing about reading rates, about the rela- tion between speed and accuracy in learning the formal subjects, about the optimum time units for effective instruction, about the measurement of achievement in the content subjects. Many of the habits of study which we suspected as being true are now known to be false, and yet we have not discovered the laws underlying the technique of study. The adjustment of materials to the different rates of progress in learning is still an unsolved problem. I do not wish to imply that no progress has been made. We are in possession of many investigations dealing with minimum essentials and time limits. Various schemes for the rating of teachers have been devised, and about forty different standardized tests and scales are in existence. Norms as to the distribution of subject-matter or the optimum divisions of time are of value, but they do not disclose teaching procedures. Standard tests and scales enable us to compare results under existing conditions, but their diagnostic worth has scarcely been appreciated. When one learns that a grade is not up to standard or that a pupil is ten points below the median, he is still face to face with the problem of finding what to do. He is still confronted with the eternal problem of how to improve his teaching, of how to differentiate it so as to serve the individual capacities of his students. Dalliance with a matter so inherently fundamental and universally important as this should no longer be permitted. Progress in supervision should be made thru the careful and scientific study of its problems. Mere opinion must give way to facts secured thru trustworthy investigations. Council] CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU SUPERVISION 193 Experiments conducted under controlled conditions must supersede progress made by blind chance. Cooperative work upon definite problems must displace advances made by individual workers. Sensitiveness to problems related to the teaching of the different subjects rather than inter- ests in mechanical devices must characterize supervision. All of which means that we must have and the future will see a new type of supervisor. He must recognize that first and above all the improve- ment of instruction must begin with himself. A recognition of his personal responsibility will keep him alive intellectually. Himself the embodiment of modern specialized scholarship, it will be possible for him to advance the intellectual capacity of his faculty year after year. Appreciating that teachers cannot be left to sink or swim, he will seek to improve them, not by elimination, but by education. Enjoying the qualities of leadership, he will secure the spontaneous cooperation of his teachers and not be a fearless lord in the midst of those who fear, sending out orders and commands from the central office. But where are we to find such men and women ? In the present super- visory and teaching staffs. Where are they to receive this training? In the public schools themselves and in higher institutions. Schools for test- ing forms of organization and methods of instruction should be provided in every large school system. And higher institutions should recognize the peculiar mission they have to perform in the training of supervisors. Every- where vast sums are being appropriated for research in scientific fields. Colleges of medicine have their hospitals, dental schools their clinics, and colleges of agriculture their experimental stations. Everyone believes that most of the money expended in those institutions is wisely expended. We have great respect for the botanist who tries to secure reliable data con- cerning the radiation of leaves* or for the zoologist who tries to find whether any relation exists between the length of the intestines of a fish and the depth at which it lives in the water, and yet neither of these offers an oppor- tunity for social service that will compare with that of discovering the most economical method of learning to read, the elements that should constitute our common culture, or the education that superlatively gifted children should receive. If supervisors are to merit and to dignify the offices they hold, if they are to be imbued with a professional spirit and in turn know how to communicate it to their teachers, then there must be experimental stations and agencies establisht in which they may make investigations and conduct experiments. This movement has already begun. Research departments are being establisht in city and state departments of public education, and normal schools and universities are taking the initial steps to provide a more elaborate training for supervisors. Modern science must focus its attention upon the supervisory problems. It must be given the opportunity to penetrate emotional prejudice and to 194 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National strike at the shackles of tradition. It and it alone can develop a critical type of mind which after all is the best guaranty of progress. Instead of prejudice, contention, selfishness, and opinion, science must determine our biases and attack our sources of error. Studies and investigations extend- ing over broad areas and over long periods of time must be conducted. What we need is an impersonal, unfrightened approach to these important problems. The only way to escape from the unguided, drifting manner in which we have been attempting to make progress in the past is thru the application of science to the concrete problems of supervision. Teachers and supervisors sent out from our higher institutions should be dominated with that spirit of humility but in possession of those instruments which characterize the faithful workers in other fields. My plea, therefore, is that achievements hereafter be made in the supervisory field by those who are controlled by passionate ideals, by those who have the disinterestedness of the scientist, not the attitude of the pedant; by those who are conscious of, sensitive to, and inspired by, the real problems in their field; by those who are willing to devote themselves to the study of those things which relate to the improvement of instruction. Instead of being the victims of blind phantasy and aimless drifting, instead of being mere mechanicians, let us have more and better trained workers upon the scientific level. TEE CONTROL OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS THRU EDUCA- TIONAL EXPERIMENTATION JUNIUS L. MERIAM, PROFESSOR OP SCHOOL SUPERVISION, SCHOOL OF EDUCA- TION, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MO. By way of introduction I wish to make a few statements about the two terms "control" and "progress." I wish educational progress to refer strictly to social improvements. Theoretically this view is readily accepted. Practically it is as readily disregarded. This great divergence of practice from theory means that our public schools are not actually serving society, but are, in large measure, marking time on the "three R's." This isolation from real life is the criticism made in almost every one of the many school surveys of recent years. And I am compelled to entertain the fear that this gap between school and society is being widened by the great emphasis on measurements of children's abilities in school arts and the standardization of school work on the basis of so-called "minimum essentials" in traditional school subjects. The perfecting of the school arts is not of itself evidence of educational progress. This view will affect very considerably our attitude toward the two types of experimental education presented in this paper. I wish the term control, as here used, to refer primarily to the stimula- tion of greater educational progress as dei&ned above. There is danger that we think of control as a check or limitation. Just such a check is 'council] CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU EXPERIMENTATION 195 probably needed to keep within bounds the devices invented for the purpose of advancing the technique of school arts. On the other hand, the school world should be quickened into a more vigorous effort to develop a much more vital relation to the social and industrial world. This view of control, as that above of progress, affects the position herein taken on two t)rpes of educational experimentation. These two types of experimentation are: 1. Laboratory experimentation, in which a study is made of specific activities of children, with the exclusion, so far as possible, of all other activities. 2. School experimentation, in which all school activities continue under conditions as nearly normal as possible, except for certain modifications, the effects of which are to be studied. In laboratory experimentation the experiment is of first concern. Instruction of pupils is quite negligible. In school experimentation instruc- tion of the pupils is of prime importance and the experimenter must select the data he wishes for study. * Laboratory experimentation is carried on by adaptation from the psy- chological, biological, and physical laboratories. The specific problems selected have become essentially quantitative, and the method of study has become, consequently, largely statistical. School experimentation is essentially social in character. It is an effort to help the pupils adjust themselves more adequately to the complex environment in which they live. The problems are, therefore, largely qualitative, and the method of study is like that of most of life out of school, i.e., interpretation, judg- ment, according to circumstances. I wish to discuss briefly laboratory experimentation and then outline some problems for school experimentation in which the issues are, as I view them, much more fundamental and important. Let me say at the outset that I am in full sympathy with the scientific movement in education and that I recognize much of value in the use of statistical methods in educational problems. I believe that the statistical method will play a much larger r61e in school experimentation later than at present. A few words only are needed to point out typical problems studied by laboratory experimentation. Educators and professionally trained teachers are quite well acquainted with these studies, tho the pubUc is still quite in ignorance of them. They are based largely upon the relative efficiencies of various methods of teaching reading, writing, arithmetic, and other conventional school subjects, as well as various types of the learning process. Efficiency of reading may be cited as a type of experimental study in school subjects. This topic is usually separated into two parts, formu- lated into two problems: (i) What is the rate of reading? (2) To what extent is the reading comprehended ? « 196 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National A third question naturally arises, namely, What is the correlation between rate of reading and comprehension? An experiment would con- sist of certain tests, followed by exercises in reading and reporting compre- hension of what was read, and then further tests. A second illustration of laboratory experimentation may be taken from the problem of the learning process. A specific problem may be to find the best method of memorizing sense material. Here the aim is to determine whether it is better to memorize by the so-called part method or by the whole method. Various provisions may be made for exercises in memorizing. Tests are given to measure the efficiency of the two methods in terms of the number of lines learned per hour. No further illustrations are needed. Such laboratory experimentation and allied tests doubtless lead to results of some value. For example: '' Educational science and educational practice alike need more objective, more accurate and more convenient measures "^ "Laboratory experimentation .... will show what methods in current use are most effective under conventional conditions."^ Such experimentation and accompanying tests have supplied us with knowledge — of a sort — as a substitute for speculation. On the other hand, in view of school experimentation which I wish to recommend strongly, let me call attention briefly to certain real dangers in the prevailing emphasis upon this laboratory experimentation. The first danger is that this experimentation be conducted for the pur- pose of science alone rather than for [the social betterment of boys and girls. Note a few illustrations of this danger. A well-known writer on experimental education has recently described an experiment in efficiency of reading.3 Three elements in a complete determination of the efficiency of reading are suggested: (i) the rate of reading; (2) the amount which is retained; (3) the extent to which what is read suggests relative trains of thought. Experiment is made on the first two because, as the experimenter says, "these are the elements most easily measured." It is indeed easy to experiment with pupils upon the number of lines they can memorize, or the number of words they can read in a given time. Another experimenter in the efficiency of reading scores comprehension of the material read by counting the number of written words which express the thought of the test passage, on the ground that this method is "easy, rapid, and objective."4 If our educational experimentation and tests be limited to those elements which are easily measured, in all probability the purpose is primarily science for its own sake rather than for the social improvement of children. And I am impelled to maintain further that in the attempt to follow laboratory methods in the more exact sciences educational experimentation , E. L. Thorndike, Teachers' College Record, XV, No. 4, p. i. » J. Dewey, "Experiment in Education," in Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education. » F. N. Freeman, Experimental Education, pp. 117 £f. * B. Stark, Journal of Educational Psychology, VI, 13. Council! CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU EXPERIMENTATION 197 fails to take into adequate account conditions of the pupil experimented upon. For example, in experiments upon the learning process emphasis is given to regularity in the time of the day, but no account is taken of physical and mental conditions of the pupil. The one is easy to control, the other difficult. The one condition admits of considerable scientific exactness, whatever be the value of the conclusions reached; the other condition contains so much of the personal equation that less exactness is possible. Thus scientific exactness, even in comparatively petty problems, is chosen at the sacrifice of educational products. The second danger is that laboratory experimentation may not touch problems of real value from the social point of view. The experimenter forgets, for the time at least, his theory of educational values. He is bent on certain knowledge without reference to social efficiency. For example, the perceptual process in reading is being studied. Selected words or sentences are exposed before the subject for a moment. The subject is directed to write down what he is able to recognize after each exposure, but not to give his reply aloud to the experimenter.^ The real test in this case is, in large part, writing down, not reading. People — children indeed — can read when unable to write what they comprehend. We are not justified in measuring efficiency in reading by the subject's written report or by the number of words pronounst in a given time. A real test of efficiency in reading may be made only when the pupil is reading for a definite purpose other than that of the test. The rate and comprehension might then be taken into account. Laboratory experimentation is directed to the mechanics of reading, under artificial conditions, not to efficiency of reading in real life. In support of this position Professor Dewey's own statements are most appropriate: The comparative definiteness and accuracy of such results are often apt to blind those undertaking the experiments to the limitations of their educational value There are certain questions of underlying motivation, purpose, spirit in education which cannot possibly be workt out under laboratory conditions, until they have first been intro- duced under school conditions; and these problems are educationally the more funda- mental ones. In short, laboratory experimentation .... will show what methods in current use are most effective under conventional conditions; they will not test the relative worth of the conventionally current type of education as compared with some suggestive reform type.' The effect of this emphasis upon scientific method at the sacrifice of fundamental problems in education directed toward social efficiency is already seen in intensifying attention upon the mechanics of school arts rather than upon the values of life acts. And this emphasis continues iipi the face of modern educational theory aiid current community demands that our pubHc education be more immediately related to social life. ' F. N. Freeman, Experimental Education, p. iii. •Article on " Experiment in Education," Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education. igS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION INational Quite in contrast with this laboratory experimentation with school practices under artificial conditions I wish to urge that educational experi- mentation be directed to larger social problems and conducted under normal-school conditions. This form of study may be called school experi- mentation, in that the experimentation here proposed is carried on as a part of the regular work of the school. Illustrations of this experimentation may be found in a large number of schools, public and private. Progressive superintendents and teachers are trying various plans of making their work more effective. But much of such experimentation is local, temporary, and unscientific. Conditions are not carefully studied and results are not critically examined and publicly reported. But a few school experiments have attracted wide attention. The Continuation Schools of Munich, organized by Dr; Kerschensteiner, sought to supplement apprenticeship work by instruction in trade and citizenship. Dewey's Elementary School, in Chicago, sought " to bring the school into closer relation with home and community life .... to break down the barriers which have unfortunately come to separate the school life from the everyday life of the child." Superintendent Wirt, in the Gary schools, is developing a school program that will enable all pupils to be busy all day long at work, study, and play under right conditions.^ Madam Montessori opened her school in Rome with tjfie problem of improving the physical and social conditions of children as they live in certain tenement houses. At the University Elementary School of the University of Missouri an attempt is being made to meet new demands for a more practical education by the selection and organization of a curriculum strictly in terms of the activities and environments of both children and adults. The central problem is to help boys and girls to do better in all those wholesome activities in which they normally engage. In the work of these five schools, suggested here as types of efficient school experimentation, two important principles are readily discerned. First, educational experimentation on problems of vital social significance must be carried on in the midst of all the other activities of the school. These activities have much to do with the results of such experiments. Dewey's experiment would have been denied its great contribution to the school world had it been reft of its complex school conditions. The Gary system would not have been known had Mr. Wirt's study-work-play program been tried in other than normal-school conditions with all the complications involved. In other words, these problems cease to be educa- tional problems when they are removed from the situation in which they normally arise. Recognition of isolated words by the brief-exposure method is not an element in real reading. Real reading is the acquiring of ideas thru letters, syllables, words, and combinations of words guided by varying « W. Wirt, Introduction to R. S. Bourne's The Gary Schools. K CouncUl CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU EXPERIMENTATION 199 purposes according to varying conditions. Remove these purposes and complicated conditions and we have, not reading or even an element of it, but only recognition of individual characters — an exercise in the mechanics of reading. Laboratory experimentation deals with these empty exercises; school experimentation provides opportunity for real reading and then examines what takes place. The second principle suggested by these five schools is this: Pupils must be unaware of the experiments in which they are subjects. Only in this way is their behavior normal. The behavior of a fifth-grade boy in the presence of formal columns of digits, a stranger as proctor, and a stop watch as timekeeper cannot be normal. Such an exercise is not found in the com- monplace life of a fifth-grade pupil — seldom is it found in even the most formal of schools. The experimenter of today is taking averages and making curves on the ground that deviations due to artificial conditions counterbalance if the number of cases is large. The results would be far more reliable if these averages were made of abilities in strictly normal conditions. What we really want is knowledge of the abilities of pupils in real situations. Such is the demand of life outside of the school. It is the principle applied in school experimentation, in contrast to that used in laboratory experimentation. Educational experimentation of this nature may well be conducted in two classes of schools. At university centers such experimental schools may be conducted in the atmosphere of professional freedom. And much freedom is necessary to prosecute experiments of a reform type. The university has always been recognized for exactly this freedom of inquiry. In the public schools adaptations of the university experiments may be made. The experiments of Dewey's Elementary School have carried over into many public schools. Under the direction of the Division of Education at Harvard University an experiment was undertaken in the public schools of Newton, Mass. Adaptations of the work of the Elementary School at the (University of Missouri are being made in the schools at Mexico, Mo., San iego, Cal, Ravinia, 111., and other places. The most recently proposed experimental school under university auspices, to be directed by Teachers College and financed by the General Education Board, will ere long have its influence in public schools. However, in case public-school officials have a novel insight and a strong inspiration for educational advancement, and in case local conditions are favorable for pioneer work, such experimen- tion may well be initiated in public schools. Such is the case in the Munich Continuation Schools and in the Gary schools. Two conditions are of special importance. First, considerable time is needed. Real injustice was shown the Gary system when judgment was past after a trial of less than one year in New York City. Experiments in the mechanics of reading, writing, and the like may be adequately com- pleted in a few periods of exercises. We must be content to wait several 200 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National years that educational experiments of a social nature may have time to reach results. Educational experiments conducted in schools rather than in laboratories are so complex in nature that much longer time is necessary. A second condition follows: The results of these experiments must be exprest in terms of purposes rather than in terms of the machinery of such purposes. Again, it was a gross injustice to the Gary system to measure its value by formal tests in certain of the traditional school subjects, as conducted in the New York schools. The efficiency of the Gary experiment, in New York or in any other city, must be measured in large part at least by the effects of its work-study-play program on the social life of the pupils. Here is a diJSicult problem for the "efficiency expert," but he must face it. We must not ignore the many dangers evident in this school experi- mentation. For example, there may be a lack of precision due to apparent indefiniteness of data, and there may be loose personal speculation due to enthusiasm to accomplish purposes. But, as Professor Dewey says, these "results are less quantitative, seemingly less accurate and scientific, just because they are dealing with matters educationally much more important." Here again the scientific educator has his opportunity — indeed, his responsibility — to work out scientific methods of studying problems in complicated school conditions as well as in simple laboratory conditions. By way of conclusion I wish to propose a possible program for pro- fessional service on the part of this National Council of Education. A committee on educational experimentation should be appointed with these functions: (i) to suggest problems for experimentation; (2) to advise certain schools to undertake such investigations; (3) to counsel with these schools in their methods of work with special reference to securing coopera- tion; (4) to secure the publication of reports of such studies. This National Council of Education is in a position to wield far-reaching influence. School officials and school communities would welcome assist- ance from a national organization of this character. The committee should represent both the university schools of education and the public schools. Members of this committee should be selected from places where there may be large opportunity for such experimentation. The problems studied should be large educational issues rather than limited schoolroom methods. I believe the curriculum contains the most fundamental of present issues. The question is not one of how much geography or how little arithmetic is necessary in the schools; it is not a question of minimum essentials in language or history. The real issue is, What is the school occupation that will contribute most effectively to improving the out-of-school lives of our young people? Problems of organization, methods, equipment, and the like are strictly subordinate. Extensive cooperation may be secured thru this national committee by way of counsel, reports, and publications. Council] CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU PREPARATION 2oi This is an appropriate time for well-directed, concerted action. This National Council of Education has an opportunity — and therefore great responsibility — for executing some extensive plans of furthering educational progress thru school experimentation. THE CONTROL OF EDUCATLONAL PROGRESS THRU PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION WILLIAM C. BAGLEY, DIRECTOR; SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL. The relation of the professional preparation of public-school workers to the educational progress of the nation is obviously intimate and direct. In the development of our schools during the nineteenth century the teachers themselves took a prominent part. In spite of statements so frequently' made to the effect that teachers as a group are opposed to change and to progress, a study of the history of education in the United States proves conclusively that practically every forward movement in education has been initiated and valiantly advocated by the leaders among the teachers themselves. Thruout the Middle West it was these leaders who fought for the support of schools by general taxation, for provisions that would make elementary education truly universal, for the establishment of normal schools, for the development of the free high school, for the enrichment of the elementary curriculum, and for the introduction of manual training and domestic arts. But the influence of the leaders among the teachers has often been hampered by the immaturity, the brief service, and the inadequate prepara- tion of the larger part of the teaching population. With only a minority of our public-school workers specifically trained for their duties; with prac- tically one-half of them serving in the schools but five years or less; with an overwhelming majority less than twenty-eight years old, it is clear that a handicap of large dimensions confronts the minority of mature, experienst, and well-prepared workers who take their profession seriously and immerge themselves in its problems. Certainly we should all agree that no well- constructed program for insuring educational progress can omit or even relegate to a subordinate position the problem of professional preparation for teachers. I This is not to imply that much has not been done in the past or that much is not being done today to prepare public-school workers for their responsible duties. Very happily the ground has been prepared, the foundations have been laid, the framework of the structure is ready. Normal schools, city training schools, county training schools, and teachers' colleges form a nucleus that may readily be expanded and integrated into an adequate system. It will be the purpose of the present paper to indicate 202 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National very briefly what that expansion and integration should, in the opinion of the present speaker, involve, and upon what principles it should be based. THE FIRST NEED Certainly a prime problem is to insure a more liberal attitude upon the part of the people toward the institution for the training of teachers. This will mean first of all a keener appreciation of the direct relation between well-prepared teachers and both economy and efficiency in public-school work. It will mean in the second place a much more liberal financial sup- port of normal schools and other agencies for the preparation of teachers. It is not a tribute to our profession that normal-school instructors are today the most seriously overworkt and the most seriously underpaid of all teachers on the higher level of educational service. Two years ago I pre- sented before the Normal School Conference at the Cincinnati meeting certain facts that may be profitably reviewed at the present time. Upon the basis of statistics collected just prior to that meeting the average teaching schedule of normal-school teachers in fifty-five representative schools was found to aggregate twenty-four hours each week. The teach- ing schedule for the average teacher in forty-six representative land-grant colleges aggregated only eleven hours a week during the same year, and the maximal teaching schedule permitted by the leading standardizing agencies for colleges is sixteen hours a week. It is also true that the salaries paid to normal-school teachers, while generally better than those paid to teachers in the smaller independent colleges, are still quite inadequate. In fifty-five state normal schools we found two years ago that the median salary of the best-paid teachers of the schools (the heads of departments) was only about twenty-one hundred dollars, while the corresponding figure for heads of departments in land-grant colleges was at that time slightly more than three thousand dollars. If the program for the training of teachers that I shall propose to you is a rational program, it will require the payment of normal-school salaries on a scale that will attract the talent that is best adapted to this difficult work, and this will mean a scale of compensation that will compare favorably with that of the leading universities for full professorships. Assuming the possibility of meeting this condition (and it is certainly well within a range of possibilities), the next question concerns the candi- dates for teaching service who undertake professional training. The normal schools of this country have been, from their inception, peculiarly democratic. They have been close to the people. They have seen a field ripe for the harvest, and they have rolled up their sleeves and pitcht in. They have rendered a splendid service in giving to the students who came to them the instruction and the training that these students needed and from which they could derive the greatest profit in proportion to the time that could be given to the work. The normal schools have been evangelistic in III I I CouncU) CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU PREPARATION 203 a sincere and consecrated sense of the term. It was necessary at the outset and for a long time afterward that they should admit students with little reference to academic preparation and seek to make up the deficiencies by giving to these students instruction on the secondary level and not infrequently on the elementary level. A BROAD BASIS IN LIBERAL EDUCATION It is my conviction that, while this necessity has not yet entirely past, it is rapidly passing, and that a comprehensive program for educational progress should take every possible measure to insure that every candidate shall have before entering the professional school a general and liberal educa- tion equal at least to that represented by graduation from a four-year high school. This end is to be sought thru the raising of certification standards, thru increasing the attractiveness of the work of teaching upon all levels, and thru an improvement in the social status of the teacher thruout the country. If to the four years of high-school education some candidates can add two, three, or four years of college education, so much the better. A few weeks ago I talkt to the young women students of our university on the opportunities that teaching offers as a career for women. I urged those who were convinst that they were qualified for elementary service to go into that service rather than into the high schools. There is a place in the ele- mentary schools for college-trained women — for teachers with the broader insight which a longer period of liberal education will provide. But I also said that they should never expect general and liberal education to become a substitute in any way for specialized and technical preparation for teaching on any level, and especially on the elementary level. We have in our uni- versity a number of students who come to us after graduating from the normal schools and who remain two years to receive our degree. I shall ever be thoroly satisfied until a reciprocal movement is inaugurated — until a proportion of our students leave us after two, three, or four years of general education and go to the normal schools to prepare for elementary teaching. Granting the necessity of insuring at least a high-school preparation in the way of a foundation for professional work, and granting that all pro- fessional work should be at least of collegiate grade, the next question has to do with the nature of that professional work. I am personally convinst that it should be truly professional, but not narrowly professional. By truly professional I mean that it should prepare the student explicitly for some type of teaching service rather than attempting a "general" preparation which would necesarily be scattered and non-intensive. To this end profes- sional curricula should be differentiated. I should plan for a term or a semes- ter of work common to all who enter the professional college. This first unit of work should aim among other things to acquaint the student (i) with the various needs of the teaching service, (2) with the qualities that are 204 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National essential to success in each type of work, (3) with the preparation that is needed, and (4) with the rewards that success may bring. It is not too much to hope that we may ultimately have diagnostic tests which may be applied to candidates for teaching and which will enable us to determine with a fair measure of certainty whether a person is natively disqualified for certain types of work. There are teachers in the primary grades who ought never to undertake this work because they lack entirely the elements of sympathy, patience, and insight which are so essential in dealing with little children. There are teachers who ought never to teach in high schools because they are entirely insensitive to the instabilities of young adolescence. And it goes without saying that there are some teachers who ought never to teach at all; their natural field may be that of selling goods, or pleading in courts of law, or managing "big business," or writing novels, or making furniture, or plowing corn, or even running large school systems as administrators — but it is not teaching. Diagnostic tests which will reveal the heavier natural handicaps to suc- cessful teaching are quite predictable; but in any case the term or the semester of common work will enable most candidates to choose more intelli- gently than they do now. At the close of this period the curricula should be differentiated. THE RANGE OF DIFFERENTIATED CURRICULA How many curricula should be offered is a question the answer of which will depend upon the rapidity with which the notion of special training for special work is accepted by the people. At the present time primary work and upper-grade work are fairly well specialized. Most of the better normal schools already offer specific curricula for primary teachers. Upper-grade teachers are now commonly recruited from among those who have served an apprenticeship in the intermediate grades. In Illinois the intermediate- grade teachers are, as a group, seven years younger than the upper-grade teachers and five years younger than the primary teachers. Whatever the outcome of the junior high-school proposals may be, this movement will certainly set a premium upon special preparation for teachers of the upper grades. There will remain, then, the intermediate grades as the last field of elementary teaching to be specialized. It is safe to predict that this field will be permitted but little longer to suffer from the sad neglect which has hitherto been its lot. The provision of specific curricula for the training of intermediate-grade teachers will certainly work in this most desirable direction. At least three curricula, then, should be provided for teachers in graded elementary schools. There should be additional curricula for teachers of departmentalized upper grades and junior high schools, and these should be still further differentiated in respect of subject-matter. Special- ized curricula for high-school teachers must also be differentiated in respect Councill CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU PREPARATION 205 of subject-matter, and specially designed to remedy the present serious defects in preparing teachers for this field. The present practice is to prepare high-school teachers merely thru a four-year general course with intensive study of the subject the candidate expects to teach, plus two or three more or less unrelated courses in educational theory. This is one of the markt weaknesses that a comprehensive program of educational progress should seek to correct. The high-school teacher does not need more "hours" of pedagogy, but he needs very seriously a better articulation of all his work with reference to the problem of teaching adolescent boys and girls. He does not need more subject-matter so much as he needs a study of subject-matter with particular reference to its adaptation to the needs of high-school pupils. A BROADER CONCEPTION OF "PROFESSIONAL" COURSES And this suggests the essential nature of a truly professional preparation of all teachers as I see the problem. I am convinst that much of the so-called "professional work" is generally futile, partly because it comes too soon and partly because it is unrelated to other subjects. On the other hand, while general education is important, it cannot be substituted for technical and professional training. It is, then, our conception of what constitutes "professional" work that needs to be broadened. This conception must be extended to include specific courses in the subject-matter that the candidate proposes to teach, but courses organized from the standpoint of a relatively mature mind that is studying a specific teaching problem. It is clear that arithmetic, geography, American history, and English must appear in the programs that prepare for elementary teaching, but these subjects should be taught on the collegiate level to students of the maturity and preparation represented by that level, and they should be recognized as demanding the same quality of thinking as does the study of economics or college history or political science or any other subject now recognized as being of collegiate grade. I am confident that, with a proper conception of his problem and a proper background in his own experience and training, the teacher of mathe- matics in a normal school could offer a course covering, let us say, the subject-matter of primary number in its relation to the teaching of primary number to little children — a course that would stimulate the best thinking of even a graduate student. The instructor in physics who would prepare teachers of physics for the high schools should certainly take his students over the subject-matter of physics as it appears in the high-school program. I do not mean that these "professional" courses should exclude subject- matter not found in corresponding courses offered in the lower schools. I do mean that each subject taught on the lower levels must be presented on a broader plane and with many more associations in the teacher-training curricula that prepare for service upon these levels. 2o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National STRATIFICATION MUST BE BROKEN UP This explanation will serve in a way to justify the answer which our program for educational progress might well make to the ever-present question, Should high-school teachers be trained in normal schools or in universities? The answer would be that both institutions should con- tribute. If a normal school has facilities for offering the curricula suited to the training of high-school teachers, it should certainly undertake this service. If the university is willing to organize similar curricula and has the facilities (including, of course, provisions for practice teaching), it should not be denied the privilege. If, on the other hand, the normal school belittles elementary service for the sake of secondary service, or sells its soul for a mess of "advanced-standing" pottage, or if the university is not willing to grant its credit for the kind of work in subject-matter and in professional branches that the intending high-school teacher should have, then a new type of institution should be developt that will render the desired service. To set off the normal schools for the elementary service and the universities for the secondary service is simply to perpetuate that stratification of the teaching population which all of our efforts should aim to break up. In our comprehensive plan we should look toward the lengthening of the period of preparation for elementary service to at least three years of speciahzed work after the high school. Each two-year curriculum should be capable of expansion into three-year and four-year curricula. Graduates entering service from a two-year curricula should come to look upon this initial teaching as in the nature of an apprenticeship or an interneship, and should be encouraged to return to the training college or to the university for advanst work. This advanst work should be primarily a continuation, an extension, and a broadening of the work already done, with provisions always for liberaHzing elements. The more highly trained teachers gradu- ating from advanst courses could then be selected for the more responsible types of service. Our present practice of encouraging normal-school •graduates to teach for a while in the grades and then return for additional work to prepare for high-school teaching is good for the high schools, but extremely unfortunate for the elementary schools. And this, of course, suggests a condition that any constructive program of educational progress must aim to bring about: the essential equality of the teaching service at all levels. It may never be possible to pay elementary teachers as a group salaries so attractive as those that teachers on the higher levels will receive. But — and this is the important point — there should be certain positions in elementary service that will command rewards just as attractive as any that are offered by either secondary or collegiate service. There are a few positions of this sort today; a really constructive program will aim to increase them and thus strike another body blow at the unfor- tunate stratification which now characterizes the teacher's calling. I CouncU] CONTROL OF PROGRESS THRU PREPARATION 207 THE NEEDS OF THE RURAL SCHOOLS It should go without saying that one of the important iy^QS of service for which a thorogoing system of teacher training must provide is that which is represented by the work of the rural schools. Whether these are one- room schools or consolidated schools, their work upon all levels must be specialized both from the standpoint of teaching and because of the responsi- bilities that the rural-school teacher must assume as a community leader. I should by no means exclude the preparation of rural-school teachers from the general rule that all professional preparation for teaching must rest upon a basis of general education equivalent at least to a four-year high-school course. Professional curricula for these teachers should be as extensive and as carefully organized as professional curricula for primary, upper- grade, junior high-school, or high-school teachers. Supplementary cur- ricula extending the period of preparation to three, four, or five years should also be available for rural-school teachers and should aim to provide a group of highly trained rural-life experts from whose ranks county superintendents and supervisors could be recruited. I am not unmindful of the handicaps which a really constructive pro- gram of educational progress will have to overcome in thus raising the standard of general and professional preparation for rural-school teachers. This problem has always presented the most serious obstacle to the effective preparation of teachers. But my contention is that we should not temporize or compromise in dealing with a situation that involves inequities so markt as those represented by the present differences in the standards required of rural-school teachers on the one hand and of town and city teachers on the other hand. The only conceivable solution of the problem is very far from an easy solution. It involves an extension of the principle which our predecessors succeeded after a long struggle in firmly establishing. Just as they establisht the principle that it is just and equitable to tax an indi- vidual in proportion to his wealth for the education of all the children of the community, so we must fight for the principle that it is just and equitable to tax a community in proportion to its wealth for the education of all the children of the state. If town and city service is more attractive to teachers than rural service, then the obvious remedy is to make up the difference in some effective way. And the towns and cities, whose prosperity is depend- ent upon the prosperity of the rural districts and consequently upon the intelligence of the rural population, ought to help to pay the bills. It is clear that few if any institutions will be able to offer all of the specialized curricula that will be required to meet the needs of a typical state. The largest demand will be for elementary- and rural-school teachers. Most of the teachers' colleges that I have in mind will attempt to meet these two needs and in addition will offer a curriculum, or two or more curricula, preparing for more specialized types of service, such as agricul- ture, domestic arts, music, and the like. Other colleges will be larger 2o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National and will prepare certain types of high-school teachers as well as elementary teachers and special teachers. Under present conditions the university should limit itself to curricula for teachers of high schools and possibly junior high schools and to more advanst curricula for the preparation of superintendents and other supervisory officers. In large states one of the teachers' colleges should cooperate with the university in offering curricula preparatory to these supervisory positions. It is needless to say that all of the teachers' colleges offering four-year curricula of any type should confer the Bachelor's degree and that the colleges offering five-year curricula should confer the Master's degree. Not all of the colleges, of course, will offer the supplementary years of the shorter curricula. One institution, for example, may specialize in the higher preparation of primary teachers, another in the higher preparation of intermediate teachers, still another in the higher preparation of rural-school teachers. TO SUMMARIZE THE PROPOSALS 1. A constructive program of educational progress on a national scale will involve much more liberal and extensive provisions for the preparation of teachers than are now afforded in any single state. 2. The time should shortly come when all teachers, including those of rural schools, shall have had at least two years of carefully organized professional training beyond the general and liberal education afforded by a four-year high school, and every effort should be made to make the work of teaching sufficiently attractive either to encourage a longer period of general education or to insure a minimal specific preparation of at least three years. 3. Teacher- training curricula should soon come to comprise work of collegiate and university grade exclusively, and existing normal and train- ing schools should be recognized as institutions of collegiate grade and standing. 4. Teacher-training curricula should be specialized with reference to the specific needs of the various kinds of teaching and supervisory service. 5. Courses offered to intending teachers in the specific subject-matter that they propose to teach can and should be so organized as to be equivalent in academic rank to other collegiate and university courses. 6. Every level of educational service should afford opportunity for professional growth and advancement and equal rewards should accrue to varying types of service requiring equal preparation and equal ability. THE DIRECTION OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS THRU PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION CARROLL G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. a) The National Education Association furnishes one of the best-known instances of the direction of educational progress thru organization. At the time of the St. Louis Exposition many visitors from Europe studied the Council] DIRECTION OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 260 schools of the United States. It was a common subject of remark with them that, while the United States has no "system of education" and no state is required to follow the plans used in another state, there is a very general agreement as to plans of organization, administration, subjects of study, and other matters connected with the pubHc schools. The opinion of practically all the foreign visitors who commented upon this fact was that the National Education Association, thru its platform and its publica- tions, had done more to unify the educational system of the United States than any other single influence. b) National, state, and local organizations of teachers furnish a power- ful agency for the personal improvement of those engaged in educational work. These organizations have already done much thru a discussion of the proper standards which should be insisted upon for admission to the profession and the proper canons of conduct on the part of those who prac- tice it. They have discust the means by which the work of teaching might be better systematized and the manner in which better teaching equipment and better illustrative material might be had. They have compared ideas as to the opportunities for self-improvement in the way of increast knowl- edge of the subject-matter to be taught and increast skill in presenting this knowledge. In other words, they have, in these organizations, given serious and fruitful attention to the increase of their own knowledge and skill, improved methods of using this knowledge and skill in the work of teaching, and improved materials with which to work. They have also done much to discuss ideals of accomplishment which they would set for themselves to obtain. c) These organizations have done much and may do more to shape educational progress by means of the discussion of plans for the organization of city, county, and state school systems thru the study of improved methods of administration for schools and the study of better plans of supervision. They may also discuss and influence the provision to be made for necessaries of successful school work: school grounds of ample size, properly equipt, and school buildings properly constiructed and supplied with the requisite teaching helps. They may do a great deal by the discussion and bringing about of better means of financing school systems, so that adequate funds may be had for carrying on the work of pubUc education. d) Teachers' organizations may do much toward shaping the progress of education by studying, and estabUshing and shaping pubHc opinion as to the proper conditions under which teachers shall be expected to do their work, and in suggesting and bringing about such improvement of working I conditions as will secure greater perseverance in the work of teaching on the part of those who enter upon it. They may do much thru concerted action and the cumulative force of public sentiment which can thus be created to bring about a recognition of the importance of the teachers' work, the importance of estabUshing wholesome and comfortable working _._ ._•._...„ .__...„. _.... 210 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National conditions for teachers, the necessity for providing adequate compensa- tion, and the estabhshment of some plan by which teachers whose Uves have been given to the service of the public may be provided for in reasonable manner after they pass the time when their schoolroom service is desirable, or when failing health and strength require them to give up the work. e) It is possible for school organizations — national, state, and local — both those composed exclusively of persons engaged in school work and those in which only a part of the membership is thus made up — to do much in creating public sentiment for, and bringing about the enactment of, proper school legislation. Many improvements in education and much direction of the operation of our educational system can be brought about by the teachers themselves, or by the creation of proper educational sentiment for action under existing laws. Many much-needed improvements, how- ever, are dependent upon enlightened educational legislation. Educational organizations, like the national Committee of One Hundred to Promote the Better Education of Immigrants, and committees of similar character which have been formed in different states to promote sound educa- tional legislation in those states thru statements of principles which should underlie educational legislation, can be made most useful; and educational organizations of various kinds, such as state and national teachers' associa- tions, parent-teacher associations, mothers' congresses, national playground and recreation associations, child-labor committees, and others, can, in this and in other ways, be of the greatest potency in determining the direc- tions in which educational progress shall be made. In order to have their full measure of influence in such matters, however, organizations of school people must put aside timidity. They must less frequently than now hesitate to express themselves upon vital educational questions of the day. Those who are most familiar with school affairs and with the directions in which school progress should be made are entitled not only to express their opinions but to have those opinions respectfully listened to. If they themselves more frequently assumed the right which is unquestionably theirs and took a decided position upon educational matters which are under discussion, the teaching profession and its members would be more respected and the public would frequently have at its service valuable information and suggestions which it now too often lacks. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION THOMAS D. WOOD, CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. The most fundamental and essential qualifications of the citizen and the soldier are physical soundness and efficiency. Nations are appalled at the extent of physical deficiency which is being disclosed by Councill REPORT ON HEALTB PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION 211 national crises. National wisdom, prudence, and thrift point to no more vital essentials in the educational program, in the cultivation of the young, than universal compulsory health education and physical educa- tion for boys and girls in each year of school life. Every state should have a law equivalent in purpose to the Welsh bill in New York state, which requires health and physical training in all the schools of the state. The investigations and reports of our joint committee have shown that a rational program for the conservation and improvement of health is as urgently needed today for the rural schools as for schools in the cities. Our committee wishes to do all that is possible to promote improve- ment in: {a) the sanitation and healthfulness of schoolhouses and grounds, {h) the health and welfare of pupils and teachers. The first pamphlet report of the committee, on Minimum Health Requirements for Rural Schools ^ has been printed in an edition of 800,000 copies, and these have been distributed by the United States Bureau of Education. The printing of this large edition of the first report was made possible by a generous gift from the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund in Chicago. The second report of the committee, on Health Essentials for Rural- School Children^ has been printed in an edition of 50,000 copies, and 25,000 of these have already been askt for by state normal schools for the use this year of their students who expect to teach in rural schools. Dr. Claxton, our United States Commissioner of Education, has askt for 400,000 copies of this second report to supply the needs of the entire country. This large edition will be publisht and distributed as soon as some donor may supply the money for the bare cost of printing. The chart exhibit of the committee has been enlarged and revised, and these charts are being reproduced and will be sold at the lowest reasonable prices. An illustrated chart pamphlet will be printed at an early date as a third pamphlet report of the joint committee to give necessary informa- tion regarding the charts. Your committee is highly gratified at the interest in our work which is exprest by the Department of School Patrons of the National Educa- tion Association, and we accept gratefully the offer of cooperation from the School Health Committee of that department. Mr. Joseph E. Otis, of Chicago, another generous friend of the cause, has recently given $500 for the work of the committee, and this money will be expended in the chart campaign. Our committee recognizes the great need of a national investigation of the health of teachers. This investigation has been approved and will be undertaken as soon as the necessary funds may be provided. 212 i^ATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National We have favorable opportunities for: (a) promotion of state cam- paigns for improvement of rural schools; (b) experiments in, and demon- stration of, measures for improvement of the health of school children; (c) cooperation with other agencies in these health investigations and programs of the schools. The work of our joint committee is done without ''overhead" expense. Grateful recognition is exprest for the continued, generous, tho necessarily limited, appropriations from the National Education Asso- ciation and the American Medical Association. Moderate additions to the funds of the committee from outside sources would increase in geometric ratio the practical and constructive results of the efforts of your committee. DISCUSSION R. W. CoRWiN, M.D., Pueblo, Colo. — Three minutes is a short time in which to tell all you know, but I can do it. It was my privilege to be in the war zone last spring, summer, and fall. I witnest the horrible suffering from loss of life, limb, and property — due, it is said, to unpreparedness. There would have been no war, it is claimed, had all been properly prepared. I am not going to talk about the war over there, but about the fight here. There are 20,000,000 children in the school army in the United States. Of these, 15,000,000 are reported out of health, sick, and crippled, on account of unprepared- ness and lack of protection. The fight is for life, the struggle unending unless peace can be declared on terms that will insure health. Our first and greatest effort should be for health education, even at the expense of other education, for soundness of body is more important than all else. A well person can make a living, but one who is sick has a hard time to keep out of the poorhouse, to say nothing of the grave. Our committees at present are giving special attention to children in the rural districts, where there is more sickness than in the city districts. To accomplish what is demanded, we need better schoolhouses, more sanitary structures, which can be built at less cost than those now constructed. We need teachers especially prepared to teach health sciences — one teacher, ever so well prepared, cannot teach everything. The North Carolinian or Australian method might be introduced, namely, several districts and states unite in defraying the expenses of a teacher, specially prepared, for teaching health sciences in several schools groupt so as to make this possible. In the last few years the mortality from tuberculosis has been greatly reduced, but the mortality from heart disease is increasing — more deaths, we are told, occur from heart disease today than from tuberculosis. We are told that to drink ice-water immediately after drinking hot soup or tea cracks the enamel of the teeth and starts decay. The bubbling fountain, it is said, may be infected by one, and the next drinker may become infected. "What to Teach and How" has been prepared and publisht by Dr. Wood. His admirable charts may be seen on the walls at the entrance of this hall. They should be in the hands of every person, as stated by Commissioner Claxton. That is our desire. Will you help us ? Help to instruct children and parents ? Help the army of 1 5 ,000,- 000 now suffering and the new recruits enlisting annually? Help to protect the next generation ? It is our duty — it is your duty. Will you help ? Councill COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF COURSES OF STUDY 213 REPORT ON COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFICIENT COURSES OF STUDY' DR. A. DUNCAN YOCUM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND PRACTICE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA. In order to economize time that should be devoted to discussion, this report will not be read as a whole or discust in detail. But a preliminary summary of its propositions is essential to the definiteness without which discussion will have little value. As it seeks to determine the fundamental efficiencies by which any course of study can be judged, I beg leave to change its title from "The Course of Study as a Test of Efficiency of Super- vision"^ to "Common Characteristics of Efficient Courses of Study." These characteristics will be more readily held in mind if they are groupt together under the following factors, which together constitute what is most essential to efficiency — de£niteness, selection, inclusiveness, adequacy, and economy. Sections 2, 3, and 8 have to do with the suggestive definiteness which results in educationally useful details and demands a detailing without which it is impossible to judge whether a course is educationally useful or not. Sections 12 and 13 discuss selection — the bases for elimination and the determination of relative educational worth. Sections 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, and 11, respectively, stand for the inclusion of current and institutional as well as scientific standards (4), of a very limited local adaptation (5), of adaptation to individuality checkt by common essentials (7), of every form of mental training or control (9), and of both specific and specifically social (10) and generally useful education (11). Sections 6 and 14 insist upon the adequacy that can come only thru distinction between material that is to be forgotten (impressionistic material), individually apperceived (optional material), or permanently memorized (essential material) (6), and the organization of an efficiency system based upon relative worth (14). I quite agree with the suggestion of Dr. Clyde Furst, of the Carnegie Foundation, and of Dr. Courtis that the efficient course of study should include, not only such tests of adequacy as measurements of skills and abilities, but also tests of impressions and incentives, vocabulary, indi- vidual interconnection and transfer, as soon as they are made vaHd and practicable. I would also add to the original propositions the necessity for an efficient course prescribing methods of instruction in so far as scientific research has certainly and finally determined factors in economy. I have changed from my original intention of presenting the report for adoption, both from my growing belief that formal adoption can add nothing ' Report of subcommittee of Committee on Superintendents' Problems. » See full report in Procudings of the National Education Association (1916), pp. 254-69. 214 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National convincing to fundamental agreements and exceptions brought out in discussions, and out of respect for a traditional viewpoint voiced by Mr. Fitzpatrick that the Council should not arrogate to itself decisions which to be effective require action by more popular bodies. Before proceeding to a discussion I wish to quote a few representative comments received from members of the Council and others, which serve either to make my propositions clearer or to bring out their weak points. Two general criticisms seem to constitute the most appropriate introduc- tion. The first, made by Mr. Deffenbaugh, of the National Bureau, and Dr. Learned, of the Carnegie Foundation, is to the effect that the report will be difficult for ordinary school superintendents to understand. The second, made by Superintendent Chandler, of Richmond, is that even if understood by superintendents it will be difficult for them to carry out. Except for weaknesses in personal literary style, these difficulties are inevitable. Analysis is difficult. Definiteness is complex. The solution lies along the line of the suggestion made by Mr. Chamberlain, Dr. Snedden, Dr. Learned, Professor Suhrie, and others that the propositions must be first carried out in textbooks. As a first step toward concreting and exemplifying them I hope to follow the present report with one on "high spots" in existing courses of study, which will show what is already being done. [At this point Dr. Yocum read letters from many prominent educators expressing favorable opinions of, and interest in, the committee's report — Editor.] DISCUSSION Dr. David Snedden, Columbia University, New York. — The work that Dr. Yocum has done in the course of study as an administrative instrument seems to me to be of the utmost importance. I think we should steadily move toward the time when the courses will be lookt upon as a guide to the teacher in every sense of that word. This does not mean that the teacher shall not be given opportunity for individual expression, but it does mean that the course of study should, in the first place, quite clearly define the boundaries wherein the teacher is expected to work, and, in the second place, should give her a series of very definite suggestions as to how she can achieve results, always with the reservation that if she can devise a better method and defend it she is fully at liberty to use it. I think it is sometimes forgotten by those who make courses of study that a large proportion of the teachers of the country are comparatively young and untrained, and that these teachers can do excellent work if they are given specific directions and help, but that they are not capable to any considerable extent of origination, and that commonly they have not the time to work out new devices even if they had the capacity. Paul EIreuzpointner, Altoona, Pa. — A readjustment of courses of study upon the basis of this report and the practical application of such readjusted courses would go far to reconcile employers with the product of the schools offered to them by the young people in exchange for wages. Section 13, page 267, covers a multitude of ethical, social, and civic forces now waiting development and application in the curriculum of elementary and high schools. It refers to the disorganization of the educational system due to the decentralization of the social Council! COMMON CHARACfERI Sties OF COURSES OF STUDV 215 forces in all industrial countries, by reason of the tendency of society to break up into individual social groups, each of which asserts its own individual interests without reference to the collective interest and welfare of the community as a whole. Industrial education and continuation schools contain within themselves educational elements to the end of training in the moral conception of civic duty and conception of one's rights and responsi- bility for the conservation of individual, group, and national interests. This meeting and report give encouraging evidence that our educators conceive the social value of these latent elements and that their efforts for developing them will fall upon fertile ground and will be appreciated. A. E. WiNSHiP, Boston, Mass. — Dr. Winship voiced a plea for freedom for initiative on the part of the teacher and a condemnation of the autocratic and often mechanical way in which the course of study planned for one locality or region is often adopted for another without regard to local conditions or the abilities and attitude of mind of the teaching body itself. J. O. Engleman, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111. — If most superintendents make courses of study as the preceding speaker has just asserted they do, then as a body of schoolmen we stand condemned, but I do not believe that this is any longer the usual procedure of a superintendent, whatever may have been true in years past. I have known a number of superintendents who have taken the lead in making or reorganizing the course of study for their own schools, and their method was not unlike our own. I have had some experience in this work myself and may therefore be pardoned for telling how it was done. Early in the school year 1914-15 I invited the cooperation of our whole corps of teachers (a little more than two hundred) in the revision of our course of study. Com- mittees were assigned for the study of the various phases of the course, and these com- mittees in turn divided into subcommittees for work upon still smaller units of each subject. Much time was spent by the teachers in the examination of courses of study issued by leading school systems thruout the country. Use was made of the recommenda- tions of many educational theorists as well, to say nothing of the formulations of various committees whose voice has national acceptance. Such portions of Decatur's previous course as had been workt out in detail and had stood the test of the classroom were incor- porated in the various committee reports and used as the nucleus around which certain of our courses were made to develop. Scores of conferences and committee meetings were held during the progress of the work. For one week, during which our schools were closed and under quarantine, our teachers devoted themselves exclusively to this task. By the first of June most of the committee reports were in the hands of the superintendent. The six weeks following the close of the schools were spent in a careful study and review of the committees' work with such eliminations, modifications, additions, and unifications as our viewpoint seemed to make desirable, or the exigencies of the case seemed to require. In this review of the committees' reports the superintendent was given valuable assistance by the principal of the high school and the supervisor of the elementary schools. Criti- cism, sympathetic and constructive, was invited, not only from the teachers, but also from the public both before the work was done and after it had been completed. Early in the year, before the work was far along, the superintendent addrest a letter to each member of the Decatur Medical Society inviting his suggestion as to what ought to be strest in the course in hygiene. Later on, by special request, he spent an evening in addressing the Decatur Medical Society and another one in talking before the Dental Society, to the end that those organizations might know just what was going on in the departments of hygiene in the public schools and that they might, if possible, offer suggestions that would be valuable in formulating an improved course of study in this subject. Robert J. Aley, president, University of Maine, Orono, Me. — I recently had the privilege of meeting groups of college men in Boston, New York, Pittsburgh, and Chicago. These men have been out of college from two to thirty years. They are unanimous in the 2i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National conviction that the course of study in high school and college should result in giving to the students a more definite acquaintance with the fundamentals of knowledge. They are particularly insistent that the work in English, composition, and public speaking is not giving to the students the things they need in actual life. It seems to me, therefore, that in a reorganization of the course of study we ought to give a large place to academic matter. The schools, if they exist for any purpose whatever, exist to acquaint young people with that common knowledge which the world has found necessary and useful. William C. Bagley, dean, College of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. — There is a distinct need for suggestive definiteness in a course of study that is to be maximally helpful to the teacher. Personally I can see no escape from the arguments that favor definiteness. The number of teachers whose initiative is deadened by a definite course of study is negligible as compared with the number whose efforts are confused and ineffective because they lack a definite guide for their work. The argument for "initia- tive," "freedom," and "democracy" in this connection may easily become an argumentum ad hominem, all the more dangerous because of its emotional appeal. "Democracy" in education does not mean that every teacher is to have the liberty of deciding the educa- tional pabulum of his or her pupils; democracy in education is strictly subordinate to, strictly in the service of, the larger democracy of the general social organization; and if it is to discharge this service effectively it must recognize that the aims and materials of instruction (even to the details of the program) exert an influence far too pervasive and fundamental to be determined more or less independently by each one of a half-million teachers. The fate of the larger democracy is to no small extent dependent upon the educational pabulum of each oncoming generation; a specious plea for "democracy" in a small and restricted group may easily become a plea for what is, in essence, a privileged class; in any case it should not obscure the issue or becloud principles and policies that must be determined simply and solely by the broadest heeds of the broadest democracy. But this very intimacy of the relation between educational materials and the fate of democracy imposes a most serious problem upon those in whom is lodged the responsibility for framing courses, curricula, and programs. While an effective course of study must be definitely suggestive, its construction must be governed by adequate principles of educa- tional values and an adequate knowledge of the way in which educational materials influence conduct and character. Section 8 of Dr. Yocum 's report deals apparently with the latter factor. It is a discussion of a problem that is at basis essentially psychological: What conditions within a group of selected larger topics will make the materials repre- sented by these topics maximally useful? It is to be assumed that these larger topics have been selected upon the basis of their probable value. The question then arises, To what extent shall definiteness of prescription or suggestion characterize the relatively more detailed topics? In my opinion Dr. Yocum has rendered a worthy service in emphasizing the need of detailed definiteness with the strict provision that the inclusion of these details be justified psychologically by their effect upon the retention, the recall in appropriate contexts, and the application to appropriate situations, of the materials represented by the larger topics. A course of study in American history that listed only topics as large as "Civil War," "Pre-Revolutionary Period," and the like would be obviously of small value; a course that went farther and listed more specific topics, such as "Monroe Doctrine," "Wilderness Campaign," "Fugitive-Slave Law," would be much more helpful; but the most helpful course of study would be one that listed clearly the associations that should be firmly establisht within each specific topic: with "Monroe Doctrine," for example, such definite "suggesters" as "South American Republic," "European Encroachments," "Bolivar"; with "Wilderness Campaign," such "suggesters" as "Grant," "Lee," "1864," "Flanking Movements," "Wearing Down the Confederacy," etc. There is a rich field here for a very definite kind of educational research. We must have a careful determination of the I Council] COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF COURSES OF STUDY 217 most important associations and the most effective "suggesters"; and we must know how many of these associations may profitably be reduced to that plane of absolute mastery which Dr. Yocum believes (and I thoroly agree with him) to be essential to educational efficiency. I am personally convinst that a careful and intelligent selection of details, coupled with a skilful discrimination among essential, optional, and impressionistic details (as Dr. Yocum suggests in section 6) and combined with a definite requirement for memoriz- ing all important associations, will do vastly more to insure educational efficiency than an overemphasis of "problem" and "project" methods with their inescapable tendencies toward misplacement of emphasis, faulty perspectives, and the enlargement of the imme- diate and the local at the expense of those values that are eternal and universal. Arthur H. Chamberlain, executive secretary, California Council of Education. — Tremendous progress has been made in the character and equipment of school buildings, in school organization and administration, and in training of teachers and quality of instruc- tion. The course of study, on the other hand, has not kept pace. It is too frequently a test of inefficiency rather than of efficiency. Many times the only change in a course of study over that of twenty years preceding is a regrouping of the material and the addition of some of the more recent school subjects — home economics, hygiene, physical education, oral English, nature-study, and the like. The line of least resistance has been followed, and tradition has held the course-of-study maker in a grip of iron. Many a superintendent, confronted with the problem of putting out a new course, sends broadcast over the country for printed courses. These he compares with the courses that have been for years in use in his own system, or in the one with which he was formerly connected. To local needs, social situations, or the particular day in which we are living he gives little heed. The result is a course which is the replica of its forerunner; an echo; a mosaic, with what are supposed to be modem ideas gleaned from systems that are in the public eye thrown in here and there. For surely what is good in one place must be equally valuable elsewhere. And if Evangeline and The Lady of the Lake were used to good effect three decades past in a given grade and at a particular time of year, why change a certainty for an uncertainty ? Other especially good literature may have been written fully as well adapted to the pupils' abilities and needs. But have not the teachers their outlines already prepared on Evangeline and The Lady of the Lake ? And should we do violence to the time-honored custom of the passing of notebooks on to the next class by the members of the class preceding ? As a test of efficiency of supervision the course of study must take into account local conditions and needs of a given community and must provide for meeting social needs. Emphasis is given the first of these tests in section 5 of Dr. Yocum's admirable report, and section 14 develops the principle in greater detail. The second test is dealt with in section 10 and fuller stress is laid upon it in section 13. The present discussion calls attention to the close relation between the meeting of local needs upon the one hand, and adaptation to, or the giving of, direction to social situations upon the other. The course of study must meet local conditions. But local conditions bear a direct relation to general conditions, to conditions pertaining in a locality remote from the one in question. Then, too, courses of study must be fitted to individuals as well as to com- munities of individuals. To rate a course as efficient only when it meets the immediate needs is to narrow and restrict it. The effective course must also reach out to other peoples and other places. For today, more than ever before, are we realizing that no locality, country, or people is independent of all others. It must be admitted, however, that the course of study that does in fact meet immediate needs, that can be applied here and now, furnishes in its broad aspects the material from which to construct the course of general application. The tendency is to ignore local needs in the interest of glittering generalities. 2i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION INational In meeting and giving direction to social situations the course of study plays an equally important part. Children think in terms of the now. They are influenst by the things which they see and hear and touch. Society is intensely interested in the present. Meet- ing, accepting, or subduing those social situations in which they find themselves is a guaranty, so far as there can be a guaranty, that individuals will be prepared to meet or accept or subdue situations whenever or wherever they may arise. It is therefore not simply a matter of what particular subjects to include in the course of study. Of as great importance is the selection of certain units within the subjects themselves. Relative worths must be considered. All subjects may be made to meet a community's local needs. All subjects may contribute toWard coordinating with, and developing and directing, social situations. We can no longer say that certain subjects only are disciplinary; that others make for cultural growth; that others again look toward social development. Mathematics properly taught, and the proper mathematics taught, is culture-producing. History in its human aspects makes for social ends. Home econom- ics, music, nature-study — their kernels, not their husks — are exact in their results. The usable thing is, after all, the practical thmg, the cultural thing. What is needed in courses of study and in textbooks is a keeping in step with the temper of the time. We need to give consideration to development in other fields of human activity. We need to consider community needs and social situations. We need courses and textbooks made by experts possest of educational philosophy and scientific knowledge and organizing ability and teaching power and backbone. We need course-of- study makers and textbook writers who will not be deterred from levying upon the things of the past, from imitating men or following tradition by the fear that they may be considered non-progressive. But we need also those who realize that we are today living in a world of men and things. We need those big enough and wise enough to know that the most scholarly research student, the most skilled superintendent, the most successful supervisor, cannot alone produce a workable and useful course of study. There must be had the suggestion and counsel and criticism of the classroom teachers — those who must follow the course of study or prove its inefiiciency. Theory and scholarship and educa- tional leadership must strike hands with practice and possibilities and needs as they are found to exist. And whether the course be an outline or detailed, to be effective it must be in force, not merely a paper course. If the course of study is organized around selective units that consider, first, local conditions as well as broad generalizations, and, secondly, social situations as they exhibit themselves in all phases of environment toucht by the school, such a course may be con- sidered as offering proof of efficiency of supervision. T. A. MoTT, superintendent of schools, Seymour, Ind. — Of the making of courses of study there has been no end. During the past fifty years every great supervisor in educa- tion has workt out courses of study adapted in greater or less degree to the needs of his school, with or without the cooperation of his teachers. These courses have served an excellent purpose in guiding teachers and students in the character and amount of their work. These numerous efforts in making courses of study have for the most part followed the same general plans and specifications. The paper under discussion this afternoon opens up a new field, or a new problem, in the making of courses of study. Dr. Yocum has set a new standard which all future courses designed really to aid and guide the teacher in his work must seek to attain. The real course of study must not only name extent and limits of work to be accom- plisht and give suggestions as to methods, but also outline in each subject of study (a) the minimum essentials, (b) the optional essentials and details, (c) and the impressionistic details. Every real teacher and supervisor must know in his particular work what are the minimum details which must be mastered by all students in their classes. He must also Councill COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF COURSES OF STUDY 219 know sources and extent of many other facts and details of his subject which may be mastered by different minds in his classes of different abilities and capacities. The real course of study will in the future attempt this most diflSicult problem of the new education. C. E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich. — I am in entire sym- pathy with the various principles laid down in the report under discussion and believe that a detailed course of study, prepared along the lines suggested, is a necessary factor in securing an efl&cient school. The great majority of our teachers need and are anxious to have rather definite statements as to the problem and the best way of securing its successful solution. Our local experience has been that in many cases teachers from our own normal training school who have had the opportunity for much specific instruction concerning methods in use in the Detroit schools and the problems undertaken by our courses of study not only prove better teachers when they begin their work than the average teacher coming to us from other school systems or normal training schools, but seem to possess equal capacity for steady growth in efficiency. I feel, on the other hand, that it is equally necessary that when a principal sees her problem clearly and realizes that she can get better results by modifying radically the course of study as made out, she should be given authority to make such modification. A course of study should never prevent development of individual initiative, but when this opportunity for modification is easy to secure, the fact that the detailed course is available prevents harmful modifications and assures reasonable consistency. Francis C. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111. — Mr. Blair closed the discussion with the warning that a teacher full of confidence and initiative and highly efficient in a particular field of work can be transformed into a dependent and hesitating subordinate either thru a course of study that is ironclad in its prescriptions, or by subjecting herself to a superficial pedagogical training that unsettles her personal convictions without substituting for them a scientific and defimite basis for efficient service. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Georgia A. Alexander, supervising principal of schools Indianapolis, Ind. Vice-President — Grace DeGraff, principal, Kenton School Portland, Ore. Secretary — Lida Lee Tall, supervisor of grammar grades, Baltimore County. .Baltimore, Md. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July io, 191 7 The meeting was called to order by Miss Grace DeGrafiE in the Auditorium of the Lincoln High School at 10:00 a.m. The following papers were given under the topic, "American Efl&ciency thru Educa- tion": "Why Vocational Education?" — ^Mrs. Mary Schenck Woolman, manager, National Society for Promotion of Industrial Education, Boston, Mass. "Why a Visiting Teacher?" — Lydia Herrick Hodge, visiting teacher. Public Educa- tion Association, New York, N.Y. "Rural Education as an Element in the Strength of the Nation" — Adelaide Steele Baylor, state supervisor of household arts, Indianapolis, Ind. "The Public School and the Nation in 191 7" — ^L. R. Alderman, superintendent of schools, Portland, Ore. Discussion — Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, July ii, 1917 The meeting was called to order by Miss DeGraff at 2 : 00 p.m. in the Auditorium of the Lincoln High School. The following papers were given under the topic, "Democracy in the Making": "The Democratic Trend in School Administration" — ^Mrs. Mary D. Bradford, super- intendent of schools, Kenosha, Wis. Discussion — C. R. Frazier, superintendent of schools, Everett, Wash. " Supervision as Liberating the Teacher " — ^Mrs. S\isan M. Dorsey, assistant superin- tendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal. Discussion — Louise Dietz, primary supervisor, Louisville, Ky. "The Enfranchised Woman Teacher, Her Opportunity" — Margaret S. McNaught, state commissioner of elementary education, Sacramento, Cal. "The Democratic Significance of Recent Educational Movements in the Commu- nity"— Horace Ellis, state superintendent of public instruction, Indiapanolis, Ind. Discussion — Gertrude Andrus, Public Library, Seattle, Wash. THIRD SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 12, 191 7 The meeting was called to order by Miss Grace DeGraff in the Auditorium of the Lincoln High School at 10:00 a.m. Joint Session with Department of Kindergarten Education. The following program was presented: "Teachers' Problem of Maintaining School Standards at the Present Time" — Ella Flagg Young, Chicago, 111. Discussion — Kate Devereux Blake, principal of Public School Number 6, New York, N.Y. "Physical Care of Children" — Emphasized by Dr. Caroline Hedger, Americanization Committee Worker, Chicago, 111. i^l ■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary Business Meeting Called to order by Miss Grace DeGraflf. The nominating committee reported as follows: President — Alice L. Harris, assistant superintendent of schools, Worcester, Mass. Vice-President — Dora M. Moore, principal of Corona School, Denver, Colo. Secretary — Alfie O. Freel, principal of Linnton School, Portland, Ore. The report was adopted as read. Thursday Noon, July 12, 191 7 Luncheon, under the auspices of the National Council of Primary Education, was served at Benson Hotel. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS WHY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION? MARY SCHENCK WOOLMAN, MANAGER, NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR PROMOTION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS. (Putline) I. Vocational education helps us to take a step farther in democracy, which is not real until everyone has a chance in life. 1. Leads to efficient self-directed industry. 2. The ranks of the unemployed are filled with those who, unskilled, have drifted from job to job until ambition has gone. 3. To train people to work they must be taught young. 4. Vocational education finds ability, turns it in the best direction, trains it, places the worker where he is likely to succeed, and follows him to see that his chance has come, or to help him to get it. 5. "It is great when a man is in the place he is cut out for." 6. It puts energy and not apology into a man. 7. The child is a dynamg of energy when he gets a chance to do a real job. If you are his teacher in an old-fashioned school, watch him play Indian or war and see if you recognize him. Vocational educa- tion gets hold of that energy and uses it. II. The youth of the nation is more than ever feeling the urge toward active life. 1. How can we give them something to work for? Their families may be poor and they feel that they must help. No wonder they drop out of school so that one-half leave before being graduated from the elementary school and 85 per cent before the age of six- teen. What can they do as they leave a school where no prevoca- tional work has given them a start toward success ? 2. The unskilled job does not give experience which leads to future success. 3.' The ranks of the unemployed are full of untrained workers. Department! WHY A VISITING TEACHER? 223 III. Employers complain of them (especially the girls for being more indifferent than the boys). I. No skill or interest or loyalty, no responsibility, no attention to orders, no sticking to the job. These abilities and qualities can be given thru wise vocational education. IV. The Smith-Hughes bill. 1. For Oregon, salaries of teachers of trades and home economics, $5,000 minimum, $21,600 maximum. 2. For teachers, supervisors, and directors in agriculture, $5,000 min- imum, $22,200 maximum. 3. For training teachers, $5,000 minimum, $10,000 maximum. 4. Training for city vocations has been started; town vocations are following; rural vocations need developing. V. The urge of war conditions. 1. Country needs especially industrial, home, and farm workers. Demand great and training not satisfactory. 2. Conservation of foods. 3. Economy in purchase. 4. Our resources develop t (boys and girls). VI. The regular schools can start this work going. 1. Comparing the ability of workers from two schools (Speyer and Public), industries of New York as a center, academic work adapted, handwork with responsibility, studying neighborhood and practically helping it. ' , 2. New guidance and activities. WHY A VISITING TEACHER? LYDIA HERRICK HODGE, VISITING TEACHER, PUBLIC EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. One of the functions of a visiting teacher is to discover the causes of the child's failure to grasp the opportunities that benevolent school boards have planned. How can we expect Carla, whose family, in ignorance of American ways and of the value of an education for a girl, is requiring her to do a woman's work in the household and is nagging her to get the working papers which the law refuses — ^how can we expect this fourteen-year-old to get the best of all that is offered in the school ? Must we not first see that her difficulty, which is a home problem, is adjusted ? For what type of children is the visiting teacher askt to make available the school's opportunity ? A general classification of the visiting teacher's cases .would include the following: Those who have fallen below standard in scholarship, but who are not subnormal; those whose conduct is below standard and who, more or less. 224 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary show tendencies to delinquency; the over-age, who are restive in the class- room, counting the days until they can go to work; those who, finding it necessary to work, need advice; the adolescent, the indescribable, who are always in need of counsel; and those whose home conditions are so adverse that they need special supervision or guidance. Notes like the following are sent to the visiting teacher, who, being regarded as part of the school staff, should have an office in the school: 1. Joseph, eight years old, poor work in all subjects; indifferent at play and in the classroom; his parents beat him because of his poor reports. 2. John, eleven years, lazy and indifferent, smokes and gambles, sometimes stays out all night. Parents say they can do nothing with him. 3. William, thirteen years, unusual talent in drawing. Is too young for night school and can't afford private lessons. 4. Celia, twelve years, poor work in all subjects, stammers and trembles when called on. Is thought to sew on coats for hours before school, tho mother and child deny this. And why has the help of the visiting teacher been enlisted to supplement the work of the classroom teacher ? In times past, and even at the present time in smaller communities, the teacher knew her Toms and Dicks, both in and out of school, their capacities, their handicaps, their dislikes, their probable outlook for the future. In every large school, where the mass has overshadowed the individual, there should be someone whose function it is to study the individual child in the light of his sociS-l experience, and to understand, therefore, his neighborhood and family background; the tradi- tions, the contributions, and the ambitions of the nationality of his parents. This requires, in addition to a teacher's training, training and experience in social work and time to visit at night and during school hours to see parents alone and above all to get acquainted with the child. The visiting teacher stands not by any means as the only advocate, but as the constant advocate of the whole child. We try to see constantly the child as well as the pupil, the twenty-four-hour a day boy as well as the nine-to-three o'clock lad; to view the child's educational needs as springing, not so much from his more remote need of filling the requirements of a course of study or the demands of a labor law, as from his immediate need of assimilating his school work and of relating it to his own experience, and from his ultimate need of equipment for citizenship. The question con- stantly askt by the visiting teacher is not, "Is this child marching in step now?" but, ''Is he securing the work which will make him later on know how and wish to keep in step with his fellows ?" How does a visiting teacher work ? Her methods are as varied as the situations she finds and the kinds of problems that children meet. The visiting teacher usually learns from the class teacher or principal the appar- ent trouble. Then she sees the child in school or at home alone, and very informally, in order to draw out the intimate facts that point to the hidden causes of many a difficulty. Then follows a visit to the home, to find what light the parents, or an older sister perhaps, can throw on the trouble. Department] WHY A VISITING TEACHER? 225 From these as a beginning the visiting teacher makes a tentative diagnosis and plans a remedy. To assist in the adjustment of the dijO&culty the visiting teacher may call in the librarian, playground director, leader of settlement club, the probation officer, or a tutor from up town, but much of the work is accomplisht by securing the cooperation of the home and by enlisting the child's own energy. Frequently the school possesses the remedy which, having failed to perceive the source of trouble, it had not used, a transfer perhaps to a class where the work seems to the child to connect more definitely with his future work, a giving of responsibility to the boy, or the lifting of an unrealized strain. In Oscar's case it was his old grandmother who proved to be the great- est aid in teaching him to read, altho she could speak almost no English. Words meant to Oscar only units to be sounded and pronounst. The home work required in his school was never done. His orderly grandmother put into the stove the crumpled papers which he brought home. When his grandmother was made to understand in her own language her grand- son's trouble, the lesson papers were preserved and praised, but as to the reading she was sure that she could do nothing, she who could not speak English, much less read the language. The visiting teacher persuaded her to help by requesting the boy to read out loud to her every afternoon. It was with a skeptical smile that the grandmother gave her promise to make Jhe experiment. What happened was that Oscar, to whom the reading lesson heretofore had been but words, in his eagerness to have grandmother understand, translated each sentence of the story into her native tongue, thus for the first time realizing that the printed page had a meaning. The grandmother thus motivated the work for Oscar. What does the visiting teacher do for the school as a whole ? It seems to me that what she should be expected to do would be to assist the school to get a clearer vision of the educational needs of the child. Here we are out in the open, so to speak, seeing the child's home life, with its lacks, its ambitions, and its urge, and realizing the deficiencies, the dangers, and the trend of the neighborhood and the demands that are therefore made on the school for industrial and moral training, for special counteracting or rein- forcing against undesirable conditions. To illustrate, one school, realizing thru its visiting teacher that an unwholesome and undemocratic attitude toward housework was developing in a district where the parents could not be counted on for combating such an attitude, added to its curriculum a special course in housekeeping and for some time put special emphasis on the dignity of housework and home helping for both boys and girls. This work is preventive in character. The public school is our greatest child-welfare agency, since it comes in contact with practically every child. The school, therefore, is the logical place to detect symptoms of future inefficiency, whether they be departures from the mental, social, or physical standards, and to correct the troubles or at least to mitigate the results of 226 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Elementary the handicap. If the next generation is to be efficient we must get in before the trouble is set. To sum up, the visiting teacher's aim, so far as the school children are concerned, is the study of the child's individuality and the adjustment and harmonizing of conditions in the life of the child, so that his full powers may be releast and increast in order that he may reach out for the opportunities that America represents. RURAL EDUCATION AS AN ELEMENT IN THE STRENGTH OF , ' THE NATION ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. A new note in patriotism has been sounded. This convention is ringing with it. Psychology and pedagogy are not overlookt, but an outside motive that sounds like "nationalism" has come to the fore. That is the real force that made possible, at this time, a meeting of educators from all parts of this country, when the present local demand for national service is so urgent. We are trying to formulate a new definition, or restate an old one, that will show the relation of the school to the nation's preservation. An entire session of the National Council was set aside Saturday after- noon for an open discussion on "The Obligations and Opportunities of the Schools during the War," and while the title would seem to suggest that it referred only to a temporary occasion that would mean a readjustment when peace reigned once more, the tenor of every speech indicated that we are awakening to certain needs of our educational work, made apparent thru the present crisis, and that the obligations of the schools during the war may mean the obligations of the schools after the war. The schools have taught patriotism for many years, and yet out of the present dire conflict comes this new note that, while it does not ignore the inculcation of patriotism as a sentiment essential to the best development of the individual, yet recognizes also the necessity for a kind of patriotism that means greater social efficiency, not alone in the immediate group, but for the preservation and growth of democracy in national life. It is a struggle again for the principle on which this nation was founded. It comes after we had become so intoxicated with the wealth of our national resources that we felt that they were inexhaustible, and it has opened our eyes to the truth of our own limitations. We are learning that some of the economic laws steadfastly adhered to and taught since the days of Adam Smith are not all-sufficient, and another factor must come in to regulate prices. It is hinted that the idleness of our great school plants and equipment for one-fourth of the year is waste and extravagance. Someone suggests that we have not educated aright or Department] RURAL EDUCATION AS A NATIONAL FORCE 227 we would not be a part of this war. So we are endeavoring in this meeting to analyze the situation and find out if we can just what education, espe- cially thru the public schools, does mean or should mean in our national life. As an element in the strength of the nation, the education that deals with more than 50 per cent of the school population of this country cannot be lightly estimated. Statistics show that three out of every ten people in the United States are farmers, and that approximately 12,000,000, or three-fifths of the school children in this nation, are attending rural schools. In point of numbers, then, the rural school is the largest single educational force in the United States. The strength of a nation like this one is contingent upon certain con- ditions: a) An abundance of material resources and a proper economic disposi- tion of them. h) Power to create and equitably distribute wealth. c) Good laws and their wise administration. d) A healthy, intelligent, moral, self-supporting citizenship, willing to sacrifice self in the interests of national welfare at home and abroad. e) A high type of leadership among those who administer the law and direct industrial, business, and social affairs. /) A standing, financial and moral, among the nations of the world. All education, to be an element in the strength of the nation, should contribute toward the attainment of these conditions. Education is not a matter of school buildings, equipment, courses of study, and trained teachers; it is a matter of all these as instruments to help both children and adults to perceive the truth thru their environment. The boy and girl in the city who are taught geography and do not know that every day cars and ships laden with useful products are going from their stations and wharves to some foreign port about which they are studying will not comprehend the truths of so simple a subject as geography, no matter how fine the buildings, how costly the equipment, how extensive the course of study, or how many years the teacher may have taken in training schools. Instruction in civics that does not teach the student thru his city environment the actual meaning of civic life, so far as his maturity and experience will enable him tq comprehend it, has not contributed to his education, no matter what the methods used or the equipment in the school- room. The boy in the city who is taught manual training in the schools and is not given the opportunity of connecting his labors, even in a very simple way, with the great industries about him has not profited in a permanent way by his instruction. The girl in the city who is taught home-making in such a way that she cannot turn it to account, if need be, in a three-room flat, with meager 228 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION (Elementary equipment and still more meager income, has not been truly educated in home-making. What has it meant for her to have spent a year in cooking nicknacks in a finely equipt laboratory and embroidering corset covers when she is called upon to plan the work and regulate systematically the household ? What are the features of the rural environment that may be turned to rich account in the education of the rural people ? In the country we find the great centers that produce the raw materials used in the feeding, clothing, and to some extent the housing of people. When the boy uses his home farm to increase corn production, when he is taught to care for the farm implements, packing them away properly for the winter season, and attending to needed repairs, he is getting a basis for economic production; and when he follows thru his study of geography this grain to the great flour mills, and then to the cities to be used in the food of the multitude, he will know the truth of his relation to a larger world so well that he will never allow acres and acres of tillable soil to lie fallow because he happens to have coal mines or oil wells that yield him a handsome income, while the great city populace go hungry. Nor will he rent out his farms to tenants regardless of what and who they are and how the work is carried on, while he retires to the town or city to spend his declining years. Nor will he, if he retires to a village or town, vote against all improvements that will tax his property, because he happens to have no more children to educate and still owns his farm and wants to be left alone with his little all till "death do them part." It is estimated that in the present crisis 700,000 retired farmers in the United States will return to the soil again to help their country, and will become hired men to their own tenants on their own properties. The farmer does not produce something from nothing. He tills the soil and plants the seed and receives the fruits of his labors. He does not live by speculation. This fact in his environment may be utilized to teach a sense of justice, a respect for labor, an appreciation of merited returns — the qualities of citizenship that make for good legislation and its wise administration. Leadership implies initiative, independence of thought, a studied aim, a definite system of procedure and resourcefulness. The isolation in farm life, the problems that present themselves with no one at hand to furnish a solution, create independence of thought and initiative in action. The boy plowing the field must use the resources of mind and muscle at hand in case of accident or unexpected need. The blacksmith-shop, the foundry, the special mechanic, are not at hand. Such a boy may well be left to his own devices m the solution of many problems and given time to think them out for himself. During the busy season of plowing and planting he has much time for uninterrupted reflection and can reach his conclusions independently of others. Years ago Mary Lyon said Department] RURAL EDUCATION AS A NATIONAL FORCE 229 we must look to the villages and rural districts for the future leaders in this land, a statement that is constantly verified by statistics showing that the great leaders in the United States have come in large numbers from the farm. Many of the problems that farm boys and girls will be called upon to solve in mathematics and science they have already applied in a simple way on the farm. Wise indeed is the teacher who utilizes this condition in developing the principles of school work. There is a scientific aspect to every phase of farm production. We speak of farm mechanics, farm mathe- matics, farm economics, farm sociology. These terms are used more frequently in the education of young people who expect to have agriculture for an occupation, but the conditions that make these subjects valuable in the education for any occupation are present in the rural community, and thru the environment the general truths of science, economics, and sociology may be taught so that they can be applied in any walk in life. The great outdoor life in the rural communities, the daily association with growing plants and animals, remoteness from the confusion of the city with its crowded quarters, give a vision and place for ideals that no other situation can offer. These are the possibilities for rural education to become a tremendous force in our national life. But the instrument that will make them real is the rural school, sanitary, provided with necessary equipment, and taught by a teacher who fully appreciates her wonderful opportunity to utilize, untrammeled by the formalities and red tape of the city school, an environ- ment rich in all the needed ingredients for producing American citizenship of the highest order. That the rural child shall have equal opportunities for education with the city child by no means implies that the means and methods are to be the same. When we copy for the rural school the architecture, the course of study, the pictures on the wall, the playgrounds, and use even the textbooks of the city schools, we are making it impossible to utilize the greatest of all resources in the education of the rural child — his environment. When we say that better buildings, libraries, equipment, courses of study, enlarged supervision, and trained teachers are needed for the rural schools, we mean that they should be acquired on the basis of their efl&ciency in assisting the people of the rural communities to perceive the truth thru their environment. Otherwise there is no such thing as rural education. By such utilization of the environment in the education of boys and girls in the rural districts there will be a growing interest in and respect for the occupation of farming. And there will be developt in the education of every boy and girl those essential qualities for successful living in any occupation, in country, town, or city. The American people need to be aroused to the possibilities of rural education as an element in the strength of the nation. When rural 23 O NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary communities are too poor to provide the necessary money for securing equipment to make the right kind of education possible, the state, the nation, and wealthy individuals should supply the need. There should be no delay in making ample provision for the proper physical, intellectual, and moral development of a group of people favorably located to become the greatest factors in America's national existence. THE PUBLIC SCHOOL AND THE NATION IN 1917 L. R. ALDERMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PORTLAND, ORE. Patriotism does not consist of one act — like going to vote, or like paying one's taxes, or even like dying for one's country. It is more like religion in that it requires constant devotion. Some people even think, since we can most effectually serve God by helping our fellow-creatures, that when the time comes that we have a great international state, then religion and patriotism will be in some aspects the same thing and that we can serve God and the nation at the same time. Our patriotism will take in all humanity. An astonishing thing to most people is the voluntary good order in a great school system, even in the turbulent and strongly individual high- school age. The pupils seem to recognize at once that they are a part of a big system, and they subordinate themselves to it. The order and system affect them vitally; records show that there is very little crime among high-school students, whereas there is much crime, proportionally, among boys of high-school age who are not in school. Cooperation among pupils has been encouraged by the schools in activities outside of the classroom, and to some extent in activities within the classroom. The great lesson we need to learn is how to live together and work one with the other, not as master and servant, but as copartners in a firm, working with tireless good will, and that our modern schools will teach. Our schools have helpt the people adjust themselves to many great changes and solve many problems. Thousands and millions of foreigners have been landed at the ports of this country and have been assimilated and made good American citizens thru the public schools. They came and found a strange language, strange habits of work, different standards of living, and new political privileges and duties. To all of these the school has helpt them adjust themselves. The work of the night schools for adult immigrants is becoming more and more important and useful. The story told by Mary Antin of her childhood schooldays in Boston is perhaps the best tribute ever paid to any schools in the world, and every teacher in America should feel that Mary Antin's tribute is one that applies to all the schools in the country. In one of our Portland schools there was a class of thirty-eight foreign children in the sixth grade, mostly Jewish, Italian, and Swedish. Their Department] THE PUBLIC SCHOOL AND THE NATION IN IQiy 23 1 teacher kept them for three years, progressing thru the grades with her class. She became very well acquainted with all the children. She made them see the opportunities that they were to have in life, and showed them that the door to those opportunities is the high school. At the end of their course all of them decided to go to the high school, or the school of trades, and all but one were able to go. These pupils, now in high school, have not forgotten their teacher of the grammar grades and often go to see her. She is their friend and guide. Another change in conditions to which the schools are helping people to adjust themselves is the change from country to city life which has come to thousands of our people. Our schools of trades and commerce prepare directly for city living, and so does much of the work in our other schools. And for city children below the working age schools are almost absolutely necessary. Many problems of parents are solved by vacation schools and supervised playgrounds, and it goes without saying that these problems would be with us the whole year if there were no winter schools. The country schools are beginning to manifest an interest in their own surroundings, and by clubs and prizes and general honor and esteem to make the children's farm and home activities seem worth while. The country school is getting the right attitude, and is beginning to serve the nation by honoring agriculture and country life. There is an apology to be made for the old-fashioned country school, with its cityward trend of thought, that is not, perhaps, so obvious. Has it not, by its very connection with city-school standards, helpt to make us and keep us all one people ? Our local dialects are disappearing; we have no peasant class. Many of our great men have discovered their own talents in the little, old, red schoolhouse and have gone out from it to serve the nation. Our schools have not only helpt in necessary adjustments to changes caused by other forces, but have had tremendous influence to produce changes themselves. When Frances Willard and Mary H. Hunt in the eighteen eighties put temperance instruction into the physiology textbooks, they started something which will end only when every nook and corner of the earth shall be under prohibition. The new generation taught by those textbooks has come into power now, and it votes in accordance with the instructions it received in the elementary schools. Another forward movement is that of hygiene. The schools are teaching the people how to live, how to keep clean, how to keep strong and healthy. There is a great field for activity here, but the schools will cover it. As we watch the diminishing of our national death-rate, it is only just for us to give much of the credit to the schools. Present conditions bring to the mind of every thinking person the fundamental question, "What can I do to serve ?" On the battlefield war is destruction, and most of the ordinary virtues are reverst, but at home in 232 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary war time the ordinary virtues are intensified in the public esteem. Schools are impressing the children with the idea that each one must do his bit, must learn to save, learn to produce. Gardening is not only a pleasure and a source of profit, but also a patriotic duty. To be able to cook well with a minimum amount of waste in these days is a great virtue. Our teachers are not only inspiring the children with a wish to be helpful, which is a great thing in itself, but are showing them how to cook economically, how to graduate in a suitable dress without spending much money, how to start a garden and how to keep it going when the dry days come, how to raise chickens, how to mend shoes, how to make labor-saving devices for their homes. Besides things to do at the present time, there are many things to think about. Our flag and the boys that we have trained to love it and inspired to serve it, our hearts, and our hopes are in the trenches in Northern France. All America is deeply, vitally concerned in the issues of this war. We have been trying to teach the children to comprehend world-issues, because as never before we are citizens of the world. Our borders have extended and our sympathies have overrun all national boundaries. Another way in which our schools can serve the nation during the war is by keeping their own work going. The temptation is for us to let the children drop out. But if education has ever been really needed it is needed now. Our motto ought to be, "School as usual," and, in another sense, ''School as unusual." Now that we are going to need trained men and women more than ever before, to stop our children's training would be a fearful mistake. Democracy means each working for the good of the other. It means that the wealth and power of each individual is ready to defend the rights of even the most humble. It recognizes the worth of human life. Our problem is to put a greater and greater value on human life — not to let this war influence us to hold life in low esteem. We are trying to save even the scraps of humanity because it is humanity. So we try to fit our schools to the needs of every child. We should have special schools, part-time schools for older pupils, continuation schools, and schools for adults. The greatest tax in the world is the tax of ignorance. The time is to come when it will be a disgrace for anyone to admit that he is not studying something. Rich and poor must go to school together and there get the same inheritance. " Our schools should be so good that the rich can find no better; so good that the poor can find in them the open door of opportunity." In a democracy with a great school system there is always hope. The wrongs of one generation can be righted in the next. With a new genera- tion come new ideals and new ability to carry out those ideals. The time is coming when the school will be the battleground of reformers, where idealists, business men, various organizations, will struggle for the reforms they desire. In the schools we are to have the greatest battles of ideas ever Department! THE PUBLIC SCHOOL AND THE NATION IN igi^ 233 fought in the world's history, t^ecause people are beginning to learn that what a nation is to be must be taught in its schools. The indifference that has sometimes been characteristic of the general public toward schools is going to give way to the greatest possible interest, and questions of policy in school administration will be on a par in interest with great political questions. The school administrator will have a greater responsibihty that any other public official, because he is directing the forces that in twenty or thirty years will rule the nation. Years ago there was a group of young men working for freedom in» Germany. These young men were defeated — they found that their case was hopeless in Germany; many of the brightest of them came to America, We have had during these years the benefit of their liberal thought, their influence on education — and Germany has missed it. If these men could have remained in Germany and let their influence be felt there — if there could have been a battle fought for democracy years ago in the German schools — there might have been no battles fought in the last few years on the fields of Flanders. Our freedom-loving nation has made our public schools, but on the other hand the schools have perpetuated and even increast the democratic spirit of the nation. Democracy is what we are going to fight for. It is what we are going to live for — democracy not only here but everywhere. TEE PUBLIC SCHOOL AND THE NATION IN 1917 MARY C. C. BRADFORD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT, DENVER, COLO. The title of the subject under discussion this morning reflects the most vital reality in the life of present-day America. To the inflexible test of results it summons the one public institution in which Americans profess the most profound faith, and which non-Americans have considered the supremely distinctive feature of the national development. A crucial time is this. How is America to meet the testing process? Will the mighty mother of over a hundred million people —America — find her children "arise and calling her Blessed" ? Will she prove to the world of nineteen hundred and seventeen that America spells adequacy, as in earlier years the magic letters of that name were interchangeable with opportunity ? Does she stand as the incarnate will to righteousness of all humanity and the incarnate will to sacrifice for all mankind? Does the fluttering of her flags on the blood-stained soil of France mean the beating of pulses in over a hundred million American bodies — that beating attuned to the victorious music of mankind arising from the sepulcher of dead traditions and molder- ing governmental and social forms into the sunlight of a rehabilitated world ? If so, it will be because the American public school has, in some degree at least, fulfilled the august task confided to it by the commands of 234 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary democratic government. And if, after this great war to end wars shall be over, America functions as the supreme idealistic force in the reorganization of the world, it will be because the public schools of nineteen seventeen have given to the people of the nation a higher vision than the world has ever before seen. The great task of the public school of nineteen seventeen is the mighty effort which must be made by the school people of today. Their work is to demonstrate the sacredness of the intellectual integrity of the nation; to hold aloft the standard of straight thinking, incessant and consecrated work, and to point out the necessity of the incorporation of mighty loving in the legislation and teaching of the present. A new vision must come to the school world of America, a vision that reveals it to itself as the molder of the soul of the nation in the likeness of the ideal humanity, so to fit the framework of educational activities that the translation of the ideal republic into the terms of practical democratic living may speedily and beautifully be made effective. Let us today, in this great meeting of the National Education Associa- tion, acting as representatives of the school people of the whole United States, offer ourselves to the nation as one unit in the great army of those who stand ready to give all at the nation's summons. As the body of people to whom is confided the guarding of the grail of future citizenship, let us urge the President of the Republic to use us in some unified, direct way in the present national crisis. For the public school of nineteen seventeen is the "Casket of the Grail," and the great army of school people forms its bodyguard. Let us examine ourselves searchingly and fit ourselves reverently for the high enterprise of keeping safe and stainless the cup containing the draught commingled of thought and work and love, the immortal draught without which the national ideals must perish. THE DEMOCRATIC TREND IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION MRS. MARY D. BRADFORD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KENOSHA, WIS. A great sentence has recently been spoken, which, caught up by mil- lions of people, is serving to crystallize purpose in the hearts of all lovers of freedom: "The world must be made safe for democracy." Couple this with Lincoln's famous definition of democracy, and that purpose is given a vision of its course and its definite goal. We of America have only partially realized the ideal, but our faith in democracy is shown by the saying that the evils existing in a democracy may be cured by more democracy. That cure, more democracy, is rapidly being applied, and our government by the people is coming to be more Department] DEMOCRATIC TREND IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 23.5 nearly by all the people capable of assisting in it, as is seen by the enfran- chisement of women; and our government for the people is coming to be more nearly for all the people who have a right to its benefits, as is seen by the legislation for a class until recently neglected — the children. The democratic trend in school administration seems to parallel this general trend in civil affairs. In the administration of school affairs the evils may be traced to one of two causes: either to the fact that people who should share in this administration are not included, or to the fact that those receiving benefits are not included. The trend is toward the correction of these conditions. One democratic trend is shown in the extension of the idea and the practice of cooperation in school administration. We will call this trend the democracy of obligation. Another trend for democracy is shown in the effort to include within the benefits of the school all educable people, whatever their physical, mental, moral, or social condition, and to adapt that education vitally to their various needs. We will call this trend democracy of opportunity. The consideration of the first begins logically with the school board. A healthy, vigorous, growing school system demands that an oppor- tunity be afforded all who are working in it to contribute their best to its development, the only restriction being cooperation for the definite ends prescribed by competent educational leadership. An autocratic school board, clinging to the traditional practice of run- ning the schools, instead of getting them run by those prepared to do it, makes such a development as that just described impossible. The assump- tion of authority in educational matters by politically created administra- tive boards deprives the superintendent of leadership; the superintendent without authority is unable to delegate much to his assistants and prin- cipals; and they, afraid to assume too much personal authority, inertly wait. Finally, the spirit is caught by the teachers, and the whole system becomes permeated with weakness, fear, distrust, and indifference. The cure for this evil is "more democracy" — an extension of the sense of obligation and responsibility to more people, and greater freedom to do. The first step toward it is taken when the school board comes to dis- tinguish legislative from executive functions in school administration, stops confusing them, and confines itself to those important duties that are distinctly its own, giving free scope in all educational affairs to the super- intendent, whose professional insight, personality, and force will then impress themselves upon the school system. The second step is taken when the superintendent puts the responsibility for cooperative leadership in their respective districts or in their respective fields of work upon principals and supervisors. Besides the problems common to a school system, each district has its individual problems, and these should furnish to every principal and supervisor stimuli to 236 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementaty independent study and independent effort, the results of which should mean a contribution of real constructive value to the whole. The third step is taken when the principal realizes that he can succeed in making his school serve his district fully only by encouraging initiative on the part of the teachers, each being free to make the best contribution possible to the general efficiency and character of the school. School surveys are giving impetus to this, as are also such inquiries as that conducted recently by a committee of the Department of Superin- tendence upon the relation of superintendents to school boards. Before closing the discussion of this topic I will mention a fourth step which is being taken in many schools, and which completes more fully the democratic trend in the direction we are now considering. The entire body of pupils may be organized under the school-city plan into a cooperat- ing force for the maintenance of order and for furthering the best interests of the school. Cooperation may be made to extend even farther, when parent-teachers' associations are brought into the scheme, thus giving broader scope still to what I have designated the democracy of obligation. My second topic, democracy of opportunity — the ''for-all-the-people" phase of my subject — suggests so many movements in operation today that little of consequence marking real advancement in educational practices and policies seems left out. Higher institutions of learning have felt and responded to the impulse. We of Wisconsin have a notable example of this furnisht by our state uni- versity, which thru its extension division holds out the opportunity for education " to the whole body of people — to the whole period of life — and to all the vital interests of life." The acceptance of this offer by 25,000 people is significant. Communities are fast coming to feel that not only the normal children but all children have educational rights. Hence the various sorts of special schools for the exceptional children. Using the excellent classification given in the Cleveland Survey, there are the schools for the exceptional children who are. socially competent — the blind, the deaf, the crippled, the open-air classes, the defective-speech classes, the retarded, the incorrigible; and there are the schools for the socially incompetent — the epileptic and the feeble-minded — all reacht and included and sharing, according to their ability, the benefits of education. For the children who are obliged by circumstances to enter some field of industry at an early age, the continuation school opens its doors for a few hours a week, and endeavors to furnish them a little further equipment for the battle of life. It says to the boys and girls with working papers, and to older youths whom circumstances have deprived of schooling, " Come in, we will help you, not only to make a better living, but to make life worth the living." R Department] DEMOCRATIC TREND IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 237 Another important illustration of the growth of democracy of oppor- tunity is seen in the breaking away from the traditional plan of organiza- tion of the public-school system, which has given us the new unit, called the intermediate school, a junior high school, preceded by the six-year elementary school and followed by the three-year senior or upper high school. It is opposed to democracy to use the junior high-school organization to hurry the preparation of the individual pupil for his individual trade, instead of using it to furnish the necessary knowledge and intelligence that will enable him to make the right choice of work, and to be self-directing toward that end. But it is not alone in making educational opportunities inclusive that this trend manifests jtself . All along the line from the lowest grade to the highest the aim seems to be to make the opportunity thoroly worth while. Courses of study have been put thru a reformation process with results which can only be alluded to here. The course in English in the elementary school is fundamentally based upon the child's innate desire to communicate to others that in which he is interested; hence the present movement to socialize this line of work and to let the technical phases of it be only such as are necessary to meet the child's language needs. Health lessons must have attention, even if they crowd out arithmetic. This course in its elementary phases is not physiology, but simple lessons in the common decencies of life; not knowledge tested by recital of rule or fact, but habit — real practice of what has been taught — clean bodies, clean teeth, fresh air, good posture. At this time more than ever before we are under especial obligations to see that the coming generation grows up strong and hardy. There is in this democratized curriculum citizenship, — first, last, and always. This has in the primary grades the form of lessons in fundamental ethics, and in the upper grades it takes up the pfoblems of the day. It has been my pleasure and satisfaction during the past year to see the boys and girls of the junior high school become an active influence in the civic, and to a small extent in the political, life in their city. To illustrate, starting with a meat ordinance being considered by the Common Council, the pupils followed out a logical sequence of study that cut a broad swath of information, not only thru community civics, but thru correlated state and national affairs. Besides that, an intelligent interest in a live, imme- diate local question of sanitation was carried into hundreds of homes. Another illustration of how our schools are realizing their "democracy- making" opportunities is the use of the general elections for practical lessons in how this important duty of the citizen is performed. Free dis- cussion and debates of the question of what qualifications candidates for the various officers should possess are fixing notions in the minds of future voters that may cause some trouble to the politicians of their time. 238 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary Practical, constructive activities such as benchwork, basket-making, bookbinding, cooking, sewing, rug-weaving, and printing, are relieving the program of isolated textbook study. These necessitate greater freedom for the pupil, and thus are a positive factor in their intellectual and moral development. The so-called socialized recitation is undoubtedly going to contribute much to the success of our schools in developing those mental habits that are essential in the useful citizen — initiative, purpose, and the ability to think logically and judge sensibly. But real "democracy in the making" is nowhere better exemplified than in the school city or school republic already mentioned. I have taken great interest in watching the operation of an undertaking of this sort in an ele- mentary school of 850 children in the first six grades. It is located in a district largely populated by foreign-born people, where the ideas of Ameri- can democracy need just such concrete illustration and practical demon- stration. Under the skilful direction of the school principal it is doing the thing hoped for. It is promoting the practical training of children in the duties and responsibilities of citizenship, and is, besides this, furnishing moral support to the teachers and principal which greatly reduces the problem of school discipline. No better proof can be furnisht of the success of the school-city experi- ment just cited than the fact that when the principal who inaugurated it, and who has been its chief director, left his school duties two months ago to enter the Reserve Officers' Training Camp at Fort Sheridan, the substi- tute sent to complete the year found herself supported by a pupil organiza- tion ready with proffers of assistance. But more than that, as she has recently told me, she found a body of self-controlled children and the problem of discipline practically eliminated. The Massachusetts law passed in April of this year making "training in the duties of citizensljip " compulsory in all pubHc schools opens the way in that state for the introduction of the school-republic idea on a large scale. Limitations of time oblige me to omit the mention of other illustrations of this topic. I have endeavored to show that the democratic trend in school affairs is, on the one hand, away from autocracy and centralization of obligations toward wider cooperation under leadership, and, on the other hand, away from opportunity for classes toward opportunity for all. I close with this great sentence from Dewey's Schools of Tomorrow. "The democracy which proclaims equaHty of opportunity as its ideal requires an education in which learning and social application, ideas and practice, work and the recognition of the meaning of what is done, are united from the beginning and for all." Department] SUPERVISION AS LIBERATING THE TEACHER 239 DISCUSSION C. R. Frazier, superintendent of schools, Everett, Wash. — At this crisis the world is alert as never before to the principle of democracy, and public opinion is ready to react against anything savoring of the autocratic in school administration. A proper school administration must provide the opportunity for a free exchange of opinion between teachers and executive. Such free conference will remove most occasions for hostility. The school head must be a real democrat. He must analyze his opinions and his actions to see whether deep down in his heart he is autocratic or democratic. The democratic administrator will take account of the sentiment of his community and the opinions of his teachers. Teachers want to work in an intelligent way, hand in hand with the author- ities of the school. They should have a voice in school policies. Teachers will gladly follow an educational leader, but not mere authority. // the man is big enough for his job, he doesn't want "one-man power." As a safeguard to himself, he ought not to want autocratic authority and will not attempt to exercise it. The man who builds up a practice in law, medicine, or dentistry has some rights in the community. The teacher who has done successful work for years has certain claims, and no man or set of men has the right to take them from him without at least a chance to be heard in his own behalf. When a man wakes up in the morning and learns that he has been "fired" without warning or a hearing, he has suffered a gross injustice and per- haps an irreparable injury. Even a teacher is entitled to his "day in court." He must have a hearing. // we teachers are professional, we will rise up as one man and protest against this thing, for our profession is being jeopardized. During the past year I not only askt our supervisors and principals for a confidential rating of their teachers, but also askt the chairman of our board to request a similar con- fidential rating of the superintendent by the teachers. There must and should be authority in the hands of the administrator in order that things may go ahead. But it is the abuse of that power in such a way as to undermine the teaching profession that I protest against. SUPERVISION AS LIBERATING THE TEACHER MRS. SUSAN M. DORSEY, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CAL. Whether supervision liberates the teacher or not depends upon several factors: the supervisor, the teacher, and the character and extent of the supervision. In our large cities there are districts of widely divergent types: some populated by highly intelligent people of the aristocratic and conservative order, others comprising communities strongly democratic and socialistic. In such cases it sometimes occurs that a principal of the really unkempt, almost unintelligent type has crept into a school. He is narrow-visioned, uncultured, more or less good, but quite unequal to the demands of the metropolitan school system. To the corps of such a principal are constantly being added teachers who are trained in the most recent an4 presumably best methods. They come from the great centers of education, are alert and abreast of the latest in pedagogy, are socially efficient, and in a word represent a quite superior class. Imagine such a group of teachers being 240 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary supervised by an unkempt schoolmaster or schoolmistress whose widest acquaintance with the great world of thought and action is covered by a two-year course in a normal school and an occasional trip to the mountains and the beach. Supervision under such circumstances could hardly be conceived of as a liberating process for teachers, and certainly for the poor, bewildered, unequal principal it must represent captivity under torture. Supervision to liberate the teacher must be itself free and generous, given in an ungrudging, open-handed, at-any-time, at-any-place sort of a way. I once heard of a supervisor of handwork who brusquely turned from his office a young teacher seeking help, with the remark that he was not giving individual instruction, that if she had wisht to learn how to apply that particular finishing product she should have been present at such an hour and place. Now it so happened that this young teacher belonged to a remote school and on the evening when that particular lesson had been given she had been detained by a serious case of discipline. She had sought the needed assistance at the earliest possible moment so as not to delay the work of her class, only to meet a heartbreaking rebuff. Such supervisors are petty tyrants, not liberators. It all depends on the supervisor's tact, kindliness, and interest in his work and his desire to have the utmost of technical and inspirational help reach the children thru the teacher. To liberate teachers, supervisors must not be military tacticians or mechanical organizers, but courteous directors, skilful suggestors, inspira- tional leaders, subtle pathfinders. We all know of supervisors who imagine their duty done when the five hundred and fiftieth or any other number statistical report or set of data has been gathered from the teacher to weave into arguments that prove nothing. What slavery for the poor teachers who suffer under such minis- trations! For the teacher to be liberated there must be recognition on the part of the supervisor that the teacher is the administrative head of her class. Everything should be done in a courteous way to strengthen her authority and to increase the respect of the pupils. What a sense of relief, strength, yes, veritable power, comes into the heart of a timid young teacher when she receives that bit of courteous recognition which stamps her as queen in the realm of her own classroom. In the ordinary routine of the day's doings a sense of freedom comes to the teacher if she is relieved from uncertainty as to what is expected in various matters which really demand explicit directions. The supervisor who gives clear-cut, unmistakable orders about many things and offers a great variety of suggestions from which to choose about many others is the supervisor who liberates. A clear-cut order as to time and place for delivering the registers at the end of each month, the precise meaning of each signal bell, the stairs and exits to be used by each room in fire drill, are matters that admit of but one interpretation and, if done at all, should be done according to orders. To carry the same precision into the exact number of pages and paragraphs I Department) SUPERVISION AS LIBERATING THE TEACHER 241 to be covered in a subject in one week is slavish uniformity. In a recent survey of a city-school system an assistant superintendent who was accom- panying,the survey official askt the teacher of a certain class what point her pupils had ceacht in their geography work. The teacher named the exact page and paragraph. "You are behind in your work," said the superintendent. The class should have been working on a paragraph one page in advance of that which they had reacht. And this man was a super- visor! I know a fascinating supervisor of drawing who, in giving lessons to her teachers with crayon, water color, brush, or other medium, hurriedly sketches the model, and, as she sketches, says, "Now, children [she always addresses the teachers as children and in that way tries to imagine that she is teaching the children themselves], you might do it this way, or here is another way, or you might use this for a model or that; you might work it out this way or that way." What a variety of suggestions; what oppor- tunity for experiments; what a great, broad, free world of form, color, design, and material to revel in! "Take your choice, teachers." And teachers do take their choice unconscious of supervision, and all the while contributing to their own supervision by suggestions and experiments, being constantly led into new, delightful conceits as free as the sky they picture. Definite, unyielding prescription where necessary and an endless variety of suggestions from which to choose where possible — these are the features in supervision which liberate teachers. Whether supervision liberates teachers depends also somewhat upon the teachers. There are hidebound, formal, minute-minded teachers who cannot enter into the freedom which wise supervision brings. Such teachers are enslaved to themselves. If by chance they were to reach the end of a ten-foot tether they would fear falling off the edge of the world. It is unsafe to offer supervision to such in the form of a plan, for they follow the plan slavishly as the last word of wisdom. It is unsafe to suggest to such a standard of achievement for themselves or their pupils, for they will sacrifice pleasure, rest, even health itself, to pursue the standard. Mere, hopeless drudges! Some teachers refuse freedom by creating an atmosphere of strife in their own souls against the imagined bondage of supervision. That a super- visor modestly requests them to do a piece of work in a certain way pro- vokes their antagonism and arouses a desire to do it otherwise. I recently had a lengthy conference with such a teacher. She was contentious, self- satisfied, factious about trifles, even to the point of demanding to be an exception to so small a matter as the position her class should occupy in an exercise where lack of uniformity would mar the symmetry of the whole performance, demanding also exemption from following the method pre- scribed in a certain exercise. This teacher imagined she was seeking freedom; in fact, she was the slave of her own whims and caprices, and 242 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [filementary the wise supervision which was helping the other teachers only served in her case to tighten the chains of an unlovely spirit. Along certain lines there are promises of important improvements in the quality of supervision which will lessen greatly the problems of teachers. I refer to the scientific supervision of the psychologist, by whose aid it is hoped to demonstrate more clearly what each child can do and what he cannot do, thereby freeing the teacher from the hopeless task of attempting the impossible. The following account of self-help and self-supervision which has been workt out in a large kindergarten system during the last year might, with certain adaptations, serve well in other grades and subjects where for any reason there is a dearth of supervision. The plan involved the following arrangements for visits and meetings, with emphasis placed upon the advisability of informality and especially upon the cultivation of a spirit of mutual helpfulness and good-fellowship. The kindergarten teachers were divided into eleven groups — each group included teachers in adjacent schools — for convenience in visiting and in holding meetings. The functions of these groups were twofold: to arrange a system of visits within their own number and to conduct a series of round tables, one each month for the entire group constituency. Each of these divisions elected one of its own number as visitor for the respective district, who should also preside at its own round-table meetings. No effort at supervision in the technical sense of the term has been involved in the visiting; much less has any place been given to criticism. The sole aim has been to arouse the consciousness of a common problem and to extend to all thru the medium of the visits and the round table a knowledge of the varying activities, devices, and educational materials in vogue in the several kindergartens of the group. The round table of each district has been held monthly in the kindergarten room of one of the school build- ings in that district, on a date agreed upon by the group. The holding of the round tables in the different kindergarten rooms has resulted in a distinct advantage not at first anticipated, since there has arisen a fine rivalry in the showing of interesting and original handwork and room decora- tions, and in calling attention to new music and story books, with the result that a great variety of suggestive contributions to kindergarten knowledge and practice have been made. In the conduct of its round tables and in its visiting each group has been thoroly democratic. The second feature of this simple organization has been a bimonthly meeting of the entire kindergarten force held in a school auditorium so arranged that floor space for games and rhythmic exercises might be had by removal of chairs. The discussions have ranged from the common problem of the trouble- some child and the perplexities of unsatisfactory materials to reports of serious attempts to adjust the use of equipment to the immediate interest Department] SUPERVISION AS LIBERATING THE TEACHER 243 of the individual child, thereby breaking away from the imposition of too formal and too uniform types of work upon all the children at a given table. There have been earnest discussions on the improvement of equipment without added expense, and the comparative values to the child of certain of the gifts. Excellent suggestions for the adaptation of new varieties of virtually costless "outside" materials have given such an impetus to this t5^e of handwork that a permanent exhibit has been installed in the elementary-library building, to which additions will be constantly made. One of the round-table meetings is here described: "We sat about the low tables with pencils and paper and each made a list of the ten stories she considered the best for kindergarten children. From these several lists were selected the ten accounted best to constitute a recommended list. Whenever a teacher mentioned a story not known to the others she was askt to tell the story as tho to her children." In many instances principals and first- and second-grade teachers have askt to be present and have contributed to the discussions. That the kindergarten teachers pronounce this experiment in self-help altogether successful is evidenst by the many delighted expressions of appreciation of these opportunities for interchange of opinions and experi- ence. The unanimous testimony is that the gatherings have inspired the teachers with a feeling of fellowship and a lively interest in the common problems of kindergarten work. All agree that under the spur of respon- sibility the teachers have workt with gratifying unanimity to improve their schools, and that the habit of waiting for orders from above has some- what loosened its grip. The object of supervision is the enlargement of the teachers, and its aim is the creation of teachers able to supervise themselves because they have a clear vision of things in education as they actually are, and a pre- vision of needed modifications, of necessary growth, and of the final great accomplishment. DISCUSSION Louise Dietz, primary supervisor, Louisville, Ky. — In the discussion of this subject we view good supervision from the same angles as we do good teaching. In the best teaching of today we think not so much of the child as one who is to be liberated, but we consider him in relation to the freedom that is inherently his own. The purpose of the real teacher is to frame a situation in which the child may have the best opportunity to control and use this freedom with the best results for himself and the greatest service for others. The problem of true supervision involves all the elements of the problem of excellent teaching. Supervision should provide that t)T)e of situation in which the teacher realizes the fullest freedom and grows in teaching power and ability to use her own initiative in adjusting and controlling her own situation. A careful study should be made of the problem, How can the most direct help be given to teachers with the least expenditure of time and loss of physical energy ? Li all 244 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary good school management we are dividing the children into groups of many types in rela- tion to varying individual needs, and in constructive work with the teachers individual and group conferences may be used in the efifort to secure definite results. For this reason general grade meetings may be practically abandoned by the super- visor. One general meeting for each grade may be held at the beginning of the school year. -The purpose of this meeting is to forecast the year's procedure. Conferences may be held thruout the year with those teachers who are new in the work of the schools. At these meetings points are frequently reviewed in a more detailed way than is necessary with more experienst teachers. The purpose of conferences of this type is mainly to help new teachers in the interpretation of the present course of study, to assist them in the arranging and management of their individual classroom situations, and to present various methods of teaching and classroom procedure. Illustrative lessons should be frequently given to emphasize the main points of discussion. Groups of teachers having classes with similar conditions may meet in neighboring schools for observation of class work and discussion of problems arising from similarity of environment. As the consideration of a definite problem forms the nucleus of the highest type of teaching, so it is most helpful for teachers' conferences to hold definitely to constructive discussion in relation to a prob- lem recognized by the teachers themselves as one of immediate importance. Because of the fine cooperative spirit of many teachers and the willingness to render a service, it is possible to take the actual work of the classroom, reorganize it into type lessons, and send it out in bulletin form. Schools in different localities may work out interesting situations of mutual helpfulness. TEE ENFRANCHISED WOMAN TEACHER: HER OPPORTUNITY MRS. MARGARET S. MCNAUGHT, STATE COMMISSIONER OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, SACRAMENTO, CAL. The particular theme assigned to me for discussion in this conference is "The Enfranchised Woman Teacher: Her Opportunity." The title implies that the teacher in possession of the franchise has opportunities not open to others. The implication is valid, but rests upon a narrower foundation than is generally believed. Opportunities exist only for those who can profit by them. It is in vain that railways and steamships offer opportunities for travel to those who have neither the means nor the leisure to travel, or that promoters offer opportunities to buy gold mines or gold bonds or gold bricks to those who have no money to invest. Equally in vain is the franchise given to those who have not the fitness to make right use of it. We know that the franchise given to large numbers of men has provided them with no other opportunity than that of banding themselves in gangs to vote as a poHtical boss directs. Therefore, in considering the value of the franchise as an opportunity for any person, the first task is to appraise the fitness of that person to profit by it; and in this case the appraisement should be notably emphasized because the woman school teacher has not only a special fitness for the franchise, but also a special need of it. That fitness is due to many causes. The intelligence, education, ideals, patriotism, and social aspirations that are necessarily associated Department! THE ENFRANCHISED WOMAN TEACHER 245 with the professional duties and ethics, each and all tend to fit the teacher to profit by the opportunities afforded by the franchise. That is as true of men as of women, but the woman teacher of our generation has a special qualification derived from the fact that the franchise did not come to her from old custom as it did to men, nor did it come to her as a gift from poli- ticians seeking a controllable vote. The enfranchised woman has the franchise only because of her own efforts. She earned it from approving communities by arduous service. She compelled it from reluctant poli- ticians by the demonstration of a power they dared not oppose. The franchise was not easily won, nor was it won wholly by those whom the world remembers: the famous few who thru long years of popular agita- tion bore up against both neglect and insult; who were neither fretted by indifference nor frightened by violence. The victory is due largely to an unnumbered host of young women who some fifty years ago resolved to be self-supporting and independent; who entered schools, offices, and shops and not only went to work, but demanded pay for the work even as men were paid. When Mrs. Jennie C. Croly, a few years before the Civil War, under- took to earn a living by writing for newspapers, she found only two papers willing to accept her services. One of these paid her three dollars a week for a column headed, "Gossip with and for the Ladies"; the other paid her five dollars a week for a column called "Parlor and Sidewalk Gossip." Each insisted that she should not write of politics, letters, music, art, drama, or science; that, as she was writing for ladies, she must confine herself to gossip. Mrs. Croly's experience was an illustration of the temper of the time. It took a whole generation of girls fully twenty-five years to win their way from the then considered proprieties of ladyship to the rights of woman- hood. Many of these girls had as hard battles to fight as any that engaged Susan B. Anthony, Mrs. Stanton, Lucy Stone, or Anna Dickinson; and the fact should be remembered, for their unnoted victories or sacrifices are evidences of the truth of the saying of George Eliot, "The growing good of the world is largely dependent upon unhistoric acts; and that life is no worse for you and for me is due in no small measure to those that have lived faithfully their hidden lives and now rest in un visited tombs." Thru the teaching of these independent women all women of open minds learned to take an intelligent interest in the practical affairs of the com- munity in which they lived. They began to look at the newspapers for other things than gossip. They acquired a knowledge of the powers that dominate business and politics, and learned that there were many things which should be reformed, some that should be supported and some that should be crusht. Then came the perception that much of the good and evil of any community is due to politics, and that politics is controlled by votes. A demand for the franchise followed, and as the demand was 246 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary made by clear-sighted, wisely discerning women, who were also in large number self-supporting and independent, it was conceded. Woman suffrage came, therefore, not as a gift to ignorance, but as an imperative call to intelligence to assist in the government of city and county, state and nation. It is then a sure conclusion that since the woman teacher has had the will to gain the right of suffrage, she may be counted on to have the will to use it rightly. We must next estimate the value of the opportunity that franchise offers, and in doing so must guard against the prevalent opinion that in a democracy the ballot is the most potent of forces. Political activities are carried on so extensively that they impress the common mind with an exaggerated idea of their relative importance in the activities of the world. They are in fact but a secondary force, as will be made clear by a study of the progress of any great movement in history. During the past fifty years five such movements have gone forward among us by a progression so steady and so rapid that a distinct advance may be noted in each successive decade. These movements have brought about the emancipation of woman, the organization of labor, the increase of temperance, the extension of public education, and the control of the larger industries of the country by what is known as "high finance." Not one of these movements in its earlier and critical stages was carried forward by voting. Not one was led by a great statesman, not one was advocated by a great newspaper, not one was supported by a great political party. Each was urged onward by the efforts of comparatively unknown people; and if in the end each has come to play a large part in politics and to rely much upon franchise, it is not that politics has dominated the movement, but that the movement has dominated politics. While the franchise does not afford the teacher a means of educating a community in higher ideals of social service, it does afford a means of enacting into law and enforcing in practice an ideal in which public senti- ment has been educated and formed. This service, tho secondary, is not slight. On the contrary, it is of such high value that in many historic instances a great people has given higher honor to a time-serving statesman who, with a year of statecraft, put into effect a needed reform, than to the idealists who, thru a long lifetime of labor and sacrifice, made the reform possible. This power of the franchise gives the woman teacher opportunity, so imposes a duty. It gives opportunity to learn politics by personal engage- ment in their activities. Such opportunity is valuable because so little of actuality can be learned from books. Literature has been carried to a degree of excellence so high that no one can master it unless he devotes his whole life to the practice of it. Thus it comes that the man who writes best about life knows least about it, and the books that most inspire us are least fitted to guide us. The franchise brings the woman teacher from ftepartmenti THE ENFRANCHISED WOMAN TEAC3M 24^ the schoolroom and the library to the mass meeting and the polls. She has to be not only for democracy and with democracy, but a part of democ- racy. She has to note that some votes are cast for a platform, some for a )rinciple, some for a party, some for a boss, and some for a dollar; and all {of them have to be counted equally in making up the total and deciding the 5sue. In the multitude of voting there will be much that is confusing to the icompromising idealist. The teacher may find that a school measure of igh importance is opposed by a highly respected citizen because it will impose an increase of taxation, and is supported by a hoodlum because his boss favors it in expectation of making something out of it. But this must be accepted, not only for the sake of the cause at stake, but for the fact that among the opportunities that the franchise brings not the least valuable is that of learning that the most respected of men is not always respectable in his motives, while the most greedy of self-seekers sometimes serves the public good. The highest opportunity afforded by the franchise lies, however, far beyond any prospect of personal gain. The final goal of all true teaching has never been better exprest than in the words, "Peace on earth, good will to men." Any education that does not tend to that end is false, but in our civilization it can be attained only thru national governments, since only these have sufficient force to check the aggressions of banded despotism. The woman teacher serves humanity by serving the nation thru patriotism. Her task is to teach it in the schools. Her special charge, therefore, is to guard the schools, and since these are ever subject to popular opinion exprest at the polls, the franchise is to the teacher at once a sword and a shield in the exercise of her guardianship. The independence of the teacher is vital to any good system of education and is as necessary as the independence of the judiciary. The franchise affords the teacher. both opportunity and power to be freed from disturbing elements in all classes of society. In a community where every teacher can vote, each has a con- stituency to which appeal can be made on election day. The enfranchised woman teacher has also to guard the school pupil and the school system. Under the pressure of war excitement that guar- dianship should be doubly vigilant. As a matter of course every pupil in our schools should have the fullest instruction in patriotism, and the school system should be directed to that end. In all popular excitements, however, there is always a surplus of panic that tends to hysteria and works harm whenever it is left uncheckt. We should not permit our high schools to be turned into virtual barracks, nor should we permit the rightful needs of our elementary schools and our night schools to be set aside as matters of little moment. Dire as is the emergency pressing upon us, it is not threaten- ing enough to require such sacrifices. The boys and girls now in our schools will have in their generation as hard problems to solve as any with which 24^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [feiementary we have to deal, and it is not right that we should impose upon their child- hood, thru the loss of education, a heavy part of our burden. The war will be doubly costly if we have to pay any considerable part of it by diminishing the school funds. That is a sacred fund; one that a nation owes, not to emergency, but to perpetuity. The enfranchised woman teacher has the opportunity of serving human- ity and of serving the nation by guarding the teacher, pupil, and school system. There will be opportunities for aiding right causes as new issues arise from year to year. These issues will not be solved by academic dis- cussion, but by practical politics. Any teacher who approaches them with pretense or assumption of intelligence or virtue higher than that of the plain people, who have most votes, will lose much of the opportunity of her franchise. Herein a lesson may be learned from of old. When the sons of Jacob went back from Egypt and told their father that Pharaoh's chief minister had charged them with being spies, had held their brother Simeon as a hostage, and had demanded that they bring their youngest brother, Benjamin, as a proof of the truth of their declarations of innocence, Jacob was much disturbed, but perforce consented that Benjamin be taken. He said to his sons, however: "Carry down to the man a present; a little balm, a little honey, spices, and myrrh." Jacob did not intend these gifts as a bribe. He was too wise in the wisdom of this world to suppose that a poor dweller in the land of Canaan- could bribe the chief minister of Egypt with such simple gifts. He intended them merely as evidences of good feeling; symbols and proofs of friendship and of trust. This is a good plan to follow in dealing with all powers that be. A teacher who carries with her franchise a little balm that soothes, a little honey that sweetens, a little spice that cheers, and a little myrrh that charms will win votes that would otherwise be cast adversely. Thus the enfranchised woman teacher has the opportunity, not only of casting her own vote, but of winning other votes as well. The enfranchised woman teacher has not been content to be carried forward by the general tendency, but has taken her place in the advance guard of the march and kept step to the great music with jubilant feet. She has directed democracy by her counsels, encouraged it by her example, and supported it by her vote. From the middle vantage ground of the elementary schools she has, on the one hand, reacht out thru the kinder- garten and the mothers' clubs to the homes and the infancy of the children; on the other hand, thru the high schools and the colleges she has toucht hands with the universities and thru them held association with the highest of philosophy, science, and art. She has become recognized as so important a personality in the national life that in this time of stress and strain she has been called to share in the arduous duties of war; she has her place alike in high counsels of national defense and with the Red Cross nurses along the far-off lines of battle. Department) SIGNIFICANCE OF RECENT EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS 249 The enfranchised woman teacher will always hold her place in the forefront of every liberating war of humanity, and whether the powers that control human destiny grant her a victory or demand of her a sacrifice thru defeat, she will never fail to fight the good fight and keep the faith. THE DEMOCRATIC SIGNIFICANCE OF RECENT EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS IN THE COMMUNITY HORACE ELLIS, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. Movements are more than mere disturbances; they are deep, grand, irresistible. They look toward efficiency; they take no account of individ- ual whims — no more than a tidal wave would stop at a pebble — but sweep forward with a grandeur superb. It is a long way from the tyranny of selfishness to the democracy of charity. In the path of the army of progress one may behold wrecks by the myriads — destroyed individual hopes, blasted individual ambitions, lost individual success — but one may likewise behold other evidences of destruction — forfeited self-aggrandizement, eliminated personal gain, destroyed selfish ambitions. Movements, not mere agitations, have wrought beneficently for. the race. In education these movements have been no less markt than in other departments of democracy. They trend always toward people-rule. They are the hope of the race. It would be impossible, without transcending the limits of this discus- sion, to dwell appropriately upon the importance of the great public-school movement; upon the rise of the high school; upon the trend of vocational education; it is a matter of common knowledge that these factors have stableized communities and states as well. In our own day we have witnest marvelous transformations. There has been a crystallization of the liberal intentions of the people and a sobering of the common judgment altogether beautiful. At this minute there are at work certain school agencies of humble origin which have made such strong appeal to the popular mind as to have affected practically every educational interest of our country. Not the least of these are the parent-teachers' associations. They furnish a shining example of the subtle influences at work in this country to break down the barriers that have so long kept home and school apart. They have demonstrated the feasibility of agreement between teacher and patron and shown conclusively that the welfare of both rests largely in the hands of each, and that cooperation between the two is vital if the dreams of either are to be realized. Statement is freely made that these parent-teachers' clubs are among the most valuable auxiliaries of the school. They challenge the liberal support of school officers and teachers in the development and maintenance 250 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary of the school policy of the community. And why should it be otherwise, when, gathered about the same table, fathers and mothers, superintendents and teachers, trustees and pupils, soberly discuss such matters as the sanitary conditions in and about the school building, the necessity of whole- some lunchrooms and lunches, the desirability of well-balanst lunches for school children, the necessity for a good breakfast before the school day opens, and the cooperation necessary to prevent the spread of contagious diseases? The health tone of a community is manifestly purified when joint committees of teachers and patrons make inspection of walks, water sources, outbuildings, and other places where disease lurks. It is inevitable that patriotism, morality, and efficiency receive new impulse when con- sideration is jointly made by all the school interests of a community, of the problems involved in food consumption, in clothing, in home projects, in domestic duties. In an effective way the parent-teachers' club is utilized to the immense advantage of democracy when superintendents and teachers invite the counsel and the wisdom of the patrons whose children they instruct. Expression of self is natural. The trained athlete must run or leap or wrestle; the gifted vocalist must sing and sing continuously; the artist will express himself tho the opportunities at hand be few and the material afforded meager. It is impossible to prevent some people from dancing, others from playing, others from marching, and others from building. These are their various potentials and must be exprest. The little theater movement, now so generously guarded by its defenders, has secured to communities that form of self-expression and therefore of self-gratification which the race demands. A great religious leader wisely planned that his parishioners, in a strange land, should assemble on each Saturday evening in the church house and spend a few hours in innocent dancing. His young people would have perisht except for this timely action. Genius in rhetoricals, mimicry, pathos, and dra- matics lives in every community, and the little theater movement searches out this genius and uses it for the happiness of its possessor. Naturally church lines disappear, political lines vanish, national lines fall when two or more kindred spirits with similar tastes and similar intelligence come together to express jointly to their fellows the heart throb irresistible. Democracy's hopes rise every time a community centers its attentions upon the effort made by its local playwrights. Men once permitted nothing to interfere with creed bias. Thru the agency of the Httle theater and of the Chautauqua this devotion to creed is minimized daily, and broad charity — a saving factor of democracy — is substituted. Altho meeting with some opposition in local quarters, the Boy Scout movement and the Camp Fire Girls' movement ought to be recognized as among the school's most valuable outside assets. The boy in a uniform, with chivahy and generosity backing the uniform, is newly created. A Department] SIGNIFICANCE OF RECENT EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS 251 girl in a uniform, with gentleness, generosity, and sturdy girlhood back of the uniform, effaces all trace of selfishness. The aristocrat and the democrat stand side by side in these organizations, and the first capitulates inevitably to the second. Democracy always triumphs. I cannot forbear speaking in the strongest terms of approval of the democratizing influence of women's clubs. What a glorious triumph, after all, it is for democracy — this emancipation of women in these great days of ours. It is not claimed by the most ardent advocate of woman's suffrage that all great moral reforms will follow her advent into the affairs of govern- ment, but it is claimed, and well known, that marvelous triumphs for simple justice will ensue. What excuse can longer be offered for placing the right of suffrage indiscriminately in the hands of adults because of sex and omitting the real reason for suffrage — common intelligence? Just because it is right, democracy demands suffrage for women; and, without apology, will take chances for the happiness of the race after women shall have been emancipated. Women's clubs are largely responsible for woman's freedom. Finally, there is the broad philanthropy among big business men which regards employees as men and women rather than chattels. The welfare of the employed suggests to these broad-gauged men the way to eminent successes which they covet. Dormitories that are real homes, libraries, parks, and legitimate provision for lighter types of amusement for their workers spring up as by magic at the command of these pioneers of true democracy. Great concerns like the Conkey Publishing Company, of Hammond, Ind.: the Belding Silk Company, of Belding, Mich.; the Western Electric Company, of Chicago; the National Cash Register Company, of Dayton, Ohio, stand forth as types of modern business establishments whose beneficent educative influence supports the claims of' democracy in the long-standing antagonisms between capital and labor. DISCUSSION Gertrude Andrus, Public Library, Seattle, Wash. — At every meeting the under- lying theme of all the talks has been education for citizenship. The goal toward which the school is working is the education of young people for citizenship in a democracy, a citizenship which demands the greatest personal efficiency and the highest ideals. The goal toward which the library is working is the preparation of all people, young and old, to play their parts intelligently as citizens in the same democracy. Schools and libraries are both headed the same way. Schools catch the citizen in embryo. Libraries take him as he comes to them. But each is doing its work as part of one great movement. The library's share in this movement is large and important, as everyone realizes who thinks for a moment of the percentage of children who leave school at an early age. No authoritative statistics seem to be available, but the United States Bureau of Education makes the following estimate: less than fifty out of each one hundred who enter school go beyond the first six grades, about twenty-five out of each one hundred enter high school, less than eight out of each one hundred finish high school, and less than five out of each 252 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary one hundred go beyond the high school. It is plain to be seen then that for many people all connection with the world of books and the stimulation and inspiration of the printed page ceases before their education is fairly begun. All modem educators agree with Mr. Charles Francis Adams, Jr., that the great end of education is not to prepare a child to answer all the questions in a textbook, as if instruction might be given "thru a perpetual system of conundrums," but to endow him with a "satiable curiosity," an abounding interest in the world about him which will make him, like Rudyard Kipling's impiortal Rikki-tikki-tavi, eager to "run and find out." It is this impulse, given in the schools, toward self-education that makes the library a valuable complement of the public school, for the library fosters and satisfies the desire to investigate and offers constantly new fields for exploration. Education lasts all our life long and we actually should be "never too old to learn." When we are, we are ready to die. The library rightly used is the means for a constant self-development, and if children learn the habit of right reading in their first years in school they are equipt for life with a never-failing source of information, recreation, and inspiration. The public library shares with the public schools the privilege of being the most democratic of modem institutions. It is perhaps even more democratic than the schools themselves, for it is for all the people, old, young, and middle-aged. It is able to present a variety of aspects of many mooted questions which the schools must perforce treat in a diplomatic manner. Like the schools it is a vital force in democracy in that it is a place where each learns to respect the comfort and rights of all, where every comer has a share in the sense of ownership, and where none may have special privileges based upon wealth and influence. More than this the library, like the school, offers to all, with no regard of any of the artificial limitations which modem society has establisht, an absolutely equal chance to develop their abilities and to make themselves into such citizens as we must have if the coming world-democracy shall rest upon a stable foundation. The library needs the school to give the impulse toward that development of self which will make our children truly "men alive" and the school needs the library to con- tinue the work which the teacher has so well begun. The public school and the public library are working to the same end. They are both products of what is best in our democracy; only when they work together can the aims of each be fully realized. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Emma J. Breck, head of English department, University High School. .Oakland, Cal. Vice-President — M. R. McDaniel, principal. Oak Park Township High School. .Oak Park, 111. Secretary — ^Jeanette Taylor, teacher. Girls' High School Brooklyn. N.Y. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July io, 1917 The meeting was called to order in the White Temple at 10 : 00 a.m. by Vice-President M. R. McDaniel, who explained the cause of the chairman's absence. Mr. Herbert Lee, principal of the University High School, Oakland, Cal., was appointed secretary in the absence of Miss Jeanette Taylor. The following program was presented: "Conservation of the Teacher" — Charles E. Rugh, University of California, Berke- ley, Cal. "The Conservation of the Student" — George C. Jensen, principal, Elko County High School, Elko, Nev. "The Girl Problem in the High School" — Elizabeth Rowell, adviser for girls, Broad- way High School, Seattle, Wash. "The Evening High School, Its Needs and Possibilities" — William Q. Osburn, assist- ant superintendent of schools, Tacoma, Wash. SECOND SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 12, 191 7 The following program was presented: "The Intermediate School or the Junior High School" — A. C. Barker, former superin- tendent of schools, Oakland, Cal. "The Junior College" — C. R. Frazier, superintendent of schools, Everett, Wash. "Education thru Socialism" — Ethel Percy Andrus, principal, Lincoln High School, Los Angeles, Cal. THIRD SESSION — Thursday Afternoon, July 12, 191 7 The following program was presented: "The Responsibility of the High School for American Ideals" — Aurelia Henry Reinhardt, president. Mills College, Oakland, Cal. "Sociology in the High School" — William F. Ogburn, professor of sociology. Reed College, Portland, Ore. "Orienting the High School" — E. O. Sisson, state commissioner of education, Boise, Idaho. BUSINESS meeting AT 4:00 P.M. The following action was taken at the first meeting of the session: Resolved, That it be the sense of the high-school principals here assembled that no male member of the teaching corps be exempted from military duty on account of his profession; be it further 253 254 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Resolved, That the proposed resolution as referred to in the press is contrary to the spirit that animates every loyal schoolman, and that we condemn the suggestion embodied in such a resolution whether presented formally or informally. Charles Kirkpatrick, vice-principal, Broadway High School, Seattle, Wash. George De Villber, vice-principal, Lincoln High School, Seattle, Wash. T. T. Davis, principal, Lincoln High School, Portland, Ore. S. F. Ball, Franklin High School, Portland, Ore. D. W. Wollplet, principal, high school, Bremerton, Wash. A. C. Hampton, principal, high school, Eugene, Ore. J. E. MacKown, principal, high school, Bellingham, Wash. A. C. Roberts, principal, high school, Everett, Wash. HoPKiN Jenkins, Jefferson High School, Portland, Ore. Alexander Sproul, principal. Commercial High School, Portland, Ore. H. F. Hunt, principal. Stadium High School, Tacoma, Wash. V. K. Froula, principal, Broadway High School, Seattle, Wash. R. T. Hargreaves, principal. North Side High School, Spokane, Wash. M. R. McDaniel, principal. Oak Park Township High School, Chicago, 111. H. H. Herdman, principal, Washington High School, Portland, Ore. W. T. Fletcher, principal, James John High School, Portland, Ore. ' J. A. Reed, principal, Franklin High School, Seattle, Wash. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE CONSERVATION OF THE STUDENT GEORGE C. JENSEN, PRINCIPAL, ELKO COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL, ELKO, NEV. Long before the materialistic philosophy came to a definite head in the days of the Industrial Revolution educational institutions had, in common with all other human institutions, been moving away from spiritual and toward physical precepts. Our schools, however, with characteristic con- servatism, were ever many years behind the economic world in this mate- rialistic development. So far behind, in fact, that it is very probable that they will never become completely materialistic — that t^ey will be caught in the returning tide which will reestablish the salient truth that spiritual forces are paramount. But while educational institutions as a whole have not entirely lost sight of the spiritual content, yet many schools have come dangerously near to crossing the line. The spiritual forces which are arising out of the present patriotic hour are none too early to save us from the deadening blows of high economic efficiency. In dealing with education as a physical rather than as a spiritual factor, the great fact that personality, character, possibility of achievement, and many other basic elements are innate in humans has been overlookt. An education has far too often been lookt upon as something concrete which can be added to the student — as something which, up to the time when the school functions, is entirely foreign to the pupil. It has pretty definitely been assumed, and many times enacted into law, that it is the business of the state to distribute thru its schools plums of learning. If the child has refused to eat from this tree the fault has been declared his. Department) THE CONSERVATION OF THE STUDENT 255 But if we reverse the process and say that each child is already poten- tially educated, and that the business of the school is to discover to each child his native forces and to discover them in such a manner that he will use them properly, then the school takes on the function of a spiritual investigator and inspirer. Such a school will not lament when the force commonly called mischief appears, but will welcome it as an index of internal forces. It will know that the spirit of mischief flows perfectly naturally from the fountain of youth, and that it will continue to flow as mischief till some teacher turns it to proper use or till some taskmaster dries the fountain head and spiritually assassinates the child. There unquestionably exist in each child great potentialities, great forces that may lead to any height or depth according to their use or abuse. These forces are the child. It is the business of the school to conserve them, for in no other way can the child become complete. A school does not generate forces — it inspires. In the past so much emphasis has been laid upon reasoning as the greatest of human virtues that such great powers as instinct and impulse have escaped us almost entirely despite the fact that their operation has been most evident. It is only recently, for instance, that the need for play has been generally recognized, and even now the athletic department of the usual school leaves much to be desired from the standpoint of play. It is perfectly well known that the play instinct is innate with the child; and we say of the successful man that he has lots of native ability; but still we stubbornly, for the most part, refuse to recognize the need for some expression of the impulses and instincts of the child while he remains in school. And it is perfectly natural that our schools should refuse to make any such recognition — no human institution can escape the pale of a shadow-like materialism. And, too, it is far easier to control the dynamo before it begins running. We seem to fear the product because we have not yet learned how properly to use it — this native current of dynamic youth. It is not sufficient that a school merely conduct recitations, even tho they may be highly efficient and splendid. The school of the immediate future will practice two bits of student conservation which for the most part have been absent in the past: The school will recognize the spiritual forces of the pupils and will adapt itself to the development and unearthing of those forces. It will enter upon a deliberate program to teach thinking and concentration, a program essentially for making latent forces active. The classical student is not entirely wrong when he places a high value upon a classical education. If it is really an education it is all right. Such an education is, however, of spiritual rather than of materialistic content. Cardinal Mercier is a classical student and he holds the' spiritual destiny of Belgium in his keeping. Lloyd- George is a student of the materialistic world and he holds the spiritual destiny of England in his keeping. There is no essential difference in the education of the two men. Each has a red. 256 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary native fire burning in his breast; each knows that he is fighting for the conservation of spiritual precepts and that the only excuse for the physical is that it assists the spiritual to function more fully. Had Lloyd-George been weak enough to fall victim to the school that deadens native fire, he would never have been prime minister of England at a time like the present. The strict materialist overlooks the greater part of man when he criti- cizes the classical education as being impractical, for, even from his stand- point, there is nothing more practical than native forces. Latin is falling into disfavor, not because it lacks in the power of inspiration, but because teachers of materialistic temperaments have tried to make a concrete com- mercial medium out of the soul of a highly spiritualized ancient people. And because oil and water have refused to mix — because each has dared to be true to its supreme nature — we have called Latin a dead language, completely overlooking the fact that the people which generated and developt the language did so under the inspiration of great, internal human forces which sent them to the four corners of the world. Our history, too, has been materialistic in the sense that we have tried to find some direct application of historical facts and knowledge, inasmuch as we have tried to make our learning of history fit into business. History fundamentally deals with motives and internal human forces underlying the motives and is not in the least concerned with how to make money. And even if one were to get from history the lesson of how to make money one would still be driven to deal with instincts, impulses, and reasoning. It is far more fascinating to search the heart of the Norse viking to discover the forces that emanated from that heart than to know that in a certain year he landed on the east coast of America. It is iar more profitable spiritually to travel thru the black avenues of the soul of Nero than merely to know that he burned Rome. Sooner or later we must come to know and teach that great human forces are at the base and behind all historical events, and that physical factors only assist or hinder. Of English, in the absence of the spiritual, there is nothing but grammar, rhetoric, spelling, and composition of a low order. But from the non- materialistic viewpoint English is the individual's best means of recording his individuality and of getting from others the imprints of their personal- ities. In other words, English is a spiritual interpreter. It is for this reason that it is said that one has as many souls as he has languages at his command. It is the medium thru which he comes into touch with forces which would forever remain foreign to him were he unable to use this medium. The English teacher of the future will awaken in the child a knowledge of his native forces and at the same time create an aspiration for the expression of those forces. If we develop in the pupil a desire for self-expression we need not worry about the tools of expression. We have too long neglected the fact that literary style, as an innate force, is native with each pupil, and that if it is good it is his and his alone. It is utterly I Department! THE CONSERVATION OF THE STUDENT 257 impossible to plaster the style of Burke or of Carlyle or of any other writer on to a student and make a writer of that student. At most he could only poorly copy. If he ever becomes a writer, his style works from the inside out and crawls thru his own fingers into his pen. English is fundamentally a development of internal inspirations and only secondarily a course in mechanics. But how, we must ask, is all this to be accomplisht ? and wherein does the present school method fail ? Mention was made above of two develop- ments within schools in the immediate future: the recognition of spiritual forces within the students and the teaching of methods of concentration. The first matter has been dealt with; the second remains. The present school habit is that of assignment of lessons, the studying of the assigned lessons by the students, and the detective teacher whose chief business seems to be to determine how much the student does not know. The evident fallacies of this system disappear along with the system when schools assume the responsibility of teaching the students how to study. At the present time practically all schools throw the responsibility of how to study directly upon the student and berate him roundly if he fails to answer properly the questions that are aimed at him. Many schools say that it is the duty of the home to see that the students get the assigned lessons, while other schools, feeling the first prick of conscience, have provided large study halls. Both of these t5^es of schools are failing in their most essential duty — that of directing study. Most teachers can assign a lesson fairly well, but too few can tell each student his particular best method of mastering the lesson. We shall have a new brand of student when the teacher becomes a student of the student, and her first duty is that of assisting the student in getting the lesson. If the laboratory, for instance, is used by the student as the place where he prepares his science lesson, with the assistance of the instructor when actually needed, then the fallacy of the student sitting amid adverse environment at home or amid a thousand cross-currents of the large study hall is soon apparent. When the chief function of the teacher becomes that of assisting the student in the preparation of the lesson, we shall build our schoolhouses differently and furnish them differently, for we shall see the world from the viewpoint of the student. Then we shall no longer expect a student to make a worth- while recitation when facing the backs of all the other students. Then our student will recite to the class and not to the teacher and will recite because the responsibility of a bit of class development has fallen to his lot. Student conduct will be regulated by group feeling, and the antagonism for teachers will disappear. This must be so, for when one consciously exercises an internal power which he knows is his, and feels that he will be assisted by all the forces of the state to drive that power to its highest pitch, then work becomes pleasure. The sheer love of achievement and of accomplishment becomes the star in the east. There never has lived a high-school boy who 258 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary has not secretly tried to write poetry. But it is always secretly! There never has lived a high-school boy who has not dreamed of great inventions, great achievements, world-sweeping adventures. But where is the school that will light the fires upon these human altars ? Today we are coming to know, and tomorrow we shall know for certain, that in the breast of each pupil slumbers a force as great as any that is known in history — a force so delicate that one single teacher may crush it forever, and yet so over- whelming that, once set going, nothing may check it. In the light of these facts the duty of the school and of the teacher looms large. We are dealing with forces the full content of which is beyond imagination. We stand in the presence of the product of all civilization. In the lad before us are concentrated for an instant all the forces that have moved the world since time began. It is no child's play, this business of best conserving these forces and handing them on to future generations. THE GIRL PROBLEM IN THE HIGH SCHOOL ELIZABETH ROWELL, ADVISER FOR GIRLS, BROADWAY HIGH SCHOOL, SEATTLE, WASH. This is a period of transition in our national life. We are crossing over from one set of conditions and their ideals to an entirely different set. And woman feels this change more than man and the girl more than the boy. The girl is not under the same conventionalities as was her grandmother or even her mother. Her social freedom is evidenst by lack of restraint in dress, in manner, in spending, and by a new tolerance of evil, a graying of her lines of black and white. A number of factors have caused this change in the attitude of the girl toward society and also of society toward the girl. Perhaps the strongest are the complexity of our modern environment and the consequent entrance of women and girls into new industries, together with the withdrawal of necessary household tasks by the introduction " of machinery. Another group of factors is the injection of the immigrant woman, strange to our ways and ideals, and the presence of the second generation, not yet adjusted to the new civilization, as teachers in our elementary schools. And third is the sudden call for woman to take her place in civic life, which began before the war, but which will be strengthened at the close of the war. All this new sense of freedom acts like mountain air; it exhilarates and goes to the head, until the girl is in danger of losing her poise and her sense of proportion. And so the girl problem of today becomes — how to help her to find herself. The problem of two generations ago was to fit the girl of that day to be a mother and a home-maker, to enter the sphere which her mother had occupied before her, and to do the same things in much the same ways. She was molded. The problem of the next generation was to I L Department! THE GIRL PROBLEM IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 259 fit the girl to earn her living in certain limited spheres, or to enter society, in the narrow sense of the term — a class problem. The girl was still molded. In some groups of America today that old idea still prevails. But the question of the present is how to help the girl understand herself and her capacities, how to develop all the possibilities of her nature, to open oppor- tunities, and to aid her to become self-dependent. She is to be edticated, not molded. That is the only way by which she may learn to use her new- found freedom rightly. Now, if the general problem is to help the girl to find herself, there are as many sides as there are individual girls. • The commonest, such as the curriculum as it affects vocations, play, related to the physical and social side, student activities to develop leadership and the disposition and tem- perament of the individual, these are to be omitted. Instead, I would touch on those other four phases which seem to lie outside the province of the school. 1. The high-school age is one of physical change and of preparation of muscle and nerve for the future. In my own experience the following are the greatest causes of poor health : "Nerves," due to the strain of city life; to moving pictures, arraigned by the examiners for the United States Army, who talk of a "movie-eye" in the rejected candidates; to crowded apartment homes, recognized by one school as fertile causes of nervous breakdown, and shown in its demands for a separate room with heat before it places a dependent girl; due also to the larger high school. Anemia, due to poor diet. Candy and other sweets, including French pastry, are used too freely as substitutes for other foods. This is true, not only of the girls who come from homes where money is freely spent, but also of the part-time student who earns her own money down town where food temptations are great. This latter type, if she is wise about food, is often overambitious and cuts off her sleep. Lack of will and the coddling mother. With this last cause often comes : Too much social excitement, such as auto parties, dances, dressmakers, theaters, week-end parties. It is an observed fact in one city high school that Monday has the poorest attendance. 2. When one average high school reports that 20 to 25 per cent of its girls partly or wholly support themselves, when 4 per cent leave this same school in one year for the express purpose of going to work, the problem of finance becomes a very real one. In connection with the necessity for self- support these questions must be settled: What can a girl do to earn her way thru high school ? How can she get in touch with a position ? What conditions, moral, social, and physical, surround this employment ? Who shall undertake to judge of these conditions ? What protection is afforded her? Then, too, the building up of self-respect in this group is another problem. If the girl is not ashamed of having to work — and this shame 26o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary often exists in connection with housework, to which the tradition of inferi- ority still clings — then she may be a meek sister whose backbone needs to be stiffened to resist imposition. Or she may need to be shown the dignity and worth of the work she is to do. These are very vital things. 3. A large question to be faced by any institution or individual seeking to educate the girl is that of manners, by which is meant self-expression, such as dress, deportment, voice. This is a question of ethics, since youth expresses in some form or other what it feels. If manners are the outward bark of the inner man, they are also the protection of the soul. Strip society of con- ventions in dress and deportment and where do we stand ? The girl needs to be taught reserves of manner and dress if she is to be thrown with boys in school and industry. It is one thing, however, to realize this problem — a very pressing one in our larger coeducational high schools — and quite another to solve it. 4. One of the greatest problems we have to face, one that is back of many of the others, is what to do for the girl who comes from the indifferent home or from the unhappy home. It is appalling, when one works with girls, to realize how many troubles are due to the break-up of the home. It is often necessary resolutely to proclaim oneself an optimist to avoid believing with that teacher who said that "the happy home is the rare exception." The mother seems as often to blame as the father when divorce comes. Her economic freedom makes her impatient of her husband's shortcomings, or the great number of household operations now performed for her by out- side agencies, leaving her free for other occupations, makes her frivolous and pleasure-seeking, or the unrest of the outside world calls her. These divorces often result in remarriage, and the situation is complicated by two families. The situation of the young girl who said, "I was the misfit in my family. I had a father and a stepfather, a mother and a stepmother, and a number of stepbrothers and sisters and a half brother," sounds extreme, but is it so uncommon ? If this question, "the girl problem in the high school," means first the analysis of what this problem is, the second point to be discust is the responsibility of the school, why the high school is responsible, and how it is to meet this responsibility. Of course the home is the proper agency for safeguarding and directing the interests of the girl. When the home fails, who should assume this ? Manifestly the institution next concerned with the girl, having much of her time and centering her interests. It is to be hoped that the home will recover its place as the greatest welfare agency in the world, for nothing takes the place of the home, as many of us know by negative as well as positive proofs. But there are certain functions that need to be centralized, and these, in the future, the school will keep with the cooperation of the home. Another reason, besides the breakdown of the home, why the school should be responsible is that other welfare agencies expect this of the school. Department) THE GIRL PROBLEM IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 261 Witness the requests that come to the school from the juvenile court and the protective branch of the police department for information and aid in juvenile dependency or delinquency. Also note the fact that parental schools in close touch with the juvenile court are directly under the super- vision of boards of education. Charity organizations and the Young Women's Christian Association frequently appeal to the school in individual cases, while employers are asking for the school's estimates on ability and character and are dealing with the school representative as a medium of employment. Even the homes themselves turn to the school with the query, "What shall I do with my daughter?" or the stronger, "Will you make my girl do this ? " All of these failures and these expectancies point the way to the assuming of more responsibility by the school. As to how this responsibility may be met — the building up of a working program takes time and experience. Our educational philosophers may urge that we should not waste time in experiments, since careful theory formulated before we begin is cheaper. Yet we cannot forget that changed and unexpected environment often nullifies the most beautiful theory. Especially is this true in these days when the war alters the factors of a problem in a night. Still there are three suggestions that should hold good as fundamentals. 1. Sympathy with, and understanding of, the girl's interests should be the settled policy of any high school. This means setting the standards when new teachers are engaged and insisting on the following of these standards by the old corps. 2. The high school should have definite aims in aiding the girl to find herself. An editorial writer in a school magazine aptly says, "What the administrator now needs and wants is the establishment of goals towards which he can work." 3. This work of the girls needs organization and leadership. It is not anything that can be successfully done in a spasmodic or disjointed fashion. Definite duties to definite teachers with time and funds for each to carry- out her part of the program. A school doctor and an attendance officer for physical problems, a school visitor for home and employment questions, a school aid fund, and a teacher in charge of the girls' club as the working body. And all this in order that each year's methods and plans may not be tried and thrust aside, but that a growing organism may be created where one generation is associated with another and the failures of one year are turned into the successes of the next. This can be and has been accomplisht thru competent leadership, tho some of us maintain that that leader is best a woman. Call her principal or vice-principal, dean or adviser, as you will, but give her sufficient position and time and salary, in order that her tenure of office may be long, that she may speak with authority, and that her interests may be closely bound to her work. Select her if possible from the class of the youthful-hearted, for 262 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary she must follow Miss Tarbell's law, "Think, feel, do in the term of your day if you would keep your hold on your day." Endow her with the phi- losopher's gift, if she hasn't it already, of being able to piece together the threads of the incidental, the specific into the cloth of the fundamental, the general. Demand of her personality and womanliness that she may per- suade the board of education and her own fellow-teachers of the other side of the house. But above all she must walk by the light of truth. For how otherwise can she lead the girl of today, the woman of the future, into the use of her new-found freedom under the hard conditions which will surround it in this our world's crisis, if she cannot start that leadership clear and honest- eyed as to the good and the evil she must face in her work ? And, finally, she must have love and faith, love for the young creature for whose interests she fights, faith in the future of American womanhood, whose burdens are to be so great, but whose capacity to bear these burdens is to be so much greater. THE EVENING HIGH SCHOOL, ITS NEEDS AND POSSIBILITIES WILLIAM Q. OSBURN, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TACOMA, WASH. The opportunity for work in an evening high school should be extended to everyone beyond the compulsory school age. As someone has facetiously remarkt, the evening high school is for everyone between the ages of fifteen and one hundred. In other words, there should be no age line beyond which the privileges of evening-school instruction are denied a single American citizen who really wants to improve himself. The evening high school should make a universal appeal. I wish to suggest a few reasons for the existence of the evening high school. We have in every community a considerable number of boys and girls between the ages of fifteen and twenty-one years who have been denied the privilege of attending high school. Some of these boys and girls should be given an opportunity to do regular high-school work in the evening. You will note that I am limiting this statement to some of the boys and girls, because the vast number of boys and girls of this age who are not in our secondary schools are out because the school has failed to make the proper appeal to them. This group should not be taught the regular high-school studies in an evening school. This would only be adding insult to injury. There is, however, a limited number of pupils in every community who for some reason or other have been unable to do regular high-school work, and for these people the regular courses should be offered. There are a number of persons in every community who are actively engaged in business who feel the need of more training in one or more prac- tical branches. It should be the business of the evening high school to make itself familiar with these needs and, whenever a sufficient demand is noted, I Department! THE EVENING HIGH SCHOOL 263 to establish one or more unit or group courses which will give the special help desired. We have in every community a considerable number of women and girls who are engaged in the care of the home and who wish special help in such subjects as cooking, sewing, dressmaking, tailoring, millinery and remodeHng, embroidery, knitting, crocheting, tatting, darning, home nursing, dietetics, home industrial arts, home-craft, household physics and chemistry, marketing, mother-craft, architectural drawing, and home decoration. The home-economics department of the high school should meet these needs. Evening high-school courses should be offered for all persons who wish to prepare themselves for civil-service examinations or other forms of service of a public or quasi-public character, or who wish to improve their knowledge in literature, art, history, and science. In the broadest sense of the word the educational purposes of the evening high school may be listed under the following heads: first, those purposes which will promote the physical efficiency of the individual — health, endurance, right modes of living, and ability to meet emergencies; secondly, those which have a direct bearing upon the vocational efficiency of the individual — activities and exercises which increase his capacity to earn a living; thirdly, those which promote the social efficiency of the individual and make him a better member of society and a better citizen of our country and of the world; fourthly, those which add to the individual's general culture. Some of the needs of a great many of our evening high schools are as follows: 1. We need a more workable scheme for the admission of students who attend our evening high schools. We have a number of young people and some older ones, who might be termed curiosity seekers, who come to school for three or four evenings, possibly only one or two evenings, to satisfy a certain morbid curiosity and to have some place to go. On the opening evenings of the term they swarm thru the buildings, clog the ma- chinery of organization, and are more or less in the way. Because of the limited time of the sessions an evening high school should work at its maxi- mum efficiency from the very start. A uniform enrolment fee which is not returnable will keep these people out of the classes. 2. Another need of the evening high school is some scheme for compel- ling the attendance of students beyond the compulsory school age who are not regularly employed in business. I am thinking now not of those boys and girls who are at work in the trades but rather of a class of loafers or idlers which exists in every city, who work at odd jobs and apparently have no definite aim or purpose in life. It seems to rrie that our compulsory- education laws are defective in that we have not made adequate provision for compelling this class of ne'er-do-wells to submit themselves to further 264 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary education. Evening-school work that will fit them for greater usefulness in the trades should be the minimum requirement. 3. The evening high schools of the country need teachers of vision and endurance. The average high-school teacher does not make an effective evening-school worker. The presentation is likely to be too labored and not sufficiently to the point, and in the case of men and women of only normal physical endowment the element of fatigue disqualifies them for this important class of work. The evening-school classroom is the most difficult place for a teacher to make good in the entire school system. The instruc- tion must be given at night to a group of people who also are frequently tired. This instruction must be alive, and in the case of commercial, industrial, and special subjects should have a direct bearing on the work being done by the majority of the class. One great need then is competent instructors, men with experience in business or the trades who have teaching ability and can give instruction in their special fields (these by the way are very rare); day-school teachers in secondary schools who possess more than the normal physical strength, who have the right vocational and social outlook and initiative, make our best evening-school teachers. 4. Some evening high schools are in need of a more economical adminis- tration. The per capita cost of evening-school instruction in some cities of the country is exorbitant. This was very clearly pointed out in the Cleveland Survey. The duplication of courses in high schools in adjacent parts of the city should not be permitted. It is much better to have one fair-sized class in one subject than it is to have two struggling classes. The pay of teachers in evening schools should be within certain limits com- mensurate with their ability to hold their classes. 5. A constant need of evening high-school work is vision on the part of those in charge. They must keep their hands on the public pulse and offer those courses that appeal to the popular demand. This does not mean a fixt curriculum. The courses that were large last year may be small this year. New industries coming to a city may make a demand for new courses. New conditions arising in the affairs of the world may make it imperative upon the evening high school to make some attempt to meet these new conditions. I refer to the war conditions. The evening high school, perhaps first of all of our institutions, is in closest touch with the people and can be of most service in giving the proper physical training to our prospective soldiers and in teaching them French, in teaching our women how to economize, in giving necessary instruction in first aid. Red Cross work, and the hundred and one other necessary activities that will be undertaken in this country before the conclusion of the dreadful holocaust upon which we have just entered. The chief reason for the existence of any educational agency should be that it performs a real service to society. In order that we may look clearly at the educational possibilities of the evening high school for the Department! THE EVENING HIGH SCHOOL 26s next five or six years, let us look at the social conditions which confront us. What are to be the results of this war? Unbelievable numbers of the strongest and best men of this nation will be killed. Untold numbers will be wounded, many permanently disabled. Many will be blinded or made deaf for the remainder of their days. The birth-rate will decrease and continue to decrease so long as the war shall last. The death-rate of the civil population will increase at an alarming rate. Tuberculosis, t3^hus, cholera, gas poisoning, and nervous shock will soon be in our midst. Venereal diseases, never under efficient control, are likely to overrun our armies and training camps. Illegitimate children will be borji in unheard- of numbers. Prostitution will increase. Insanity will increase. Orphans will be multiplied, juvenile crime will increase, and education will be neg- lected. The testimony of Canada is that educational work supported by public funds has been quite generally starved during the war. The same conditions will undoubtedly prevail here. Children and women will be permitted to work too hard. The standards of living will fall. Provision for the future will be almost entirely forgotten. All of the best brains and resources of this country will be centered on destruction. Freedom, nationality, respect for treaties, the great principles for which our fathers fought, we are now called upon to sustain. If we thought that they were secure forever we have been dwelling in a fool's paradise. Until freedom and respect for treaties have been establisht, the efforts of every agency of our government must be enlisted in their behalf. Here then is the great opportunity of the evening high school in the years which are immediately before us. If we are to win this war our men and women must be physically fit for the duties that will befall them. Physical education in its broadest sense should be one of the first of aims of the evening high school. Some of the courses of our evening high schools should be as follows: personal hygiene, including health habits in eating and drinking, choice and preparation of food, care of the mouth, skin, and clothing, how to protect the body's health; courses in swimming; courses in first aid for both men and women; courses in domestic science in connection with the director of food which will tend to promote rigid economy; courses in nursing; short courses in French and German; practical courses for relief workers both at home and abroad, and especially courses for those who volunteer to perform the delicate task of dealing with the dependent families of our soldiers and sailors; preliminary courses in military instruction for candidates to our officers' training camps. Later, short trade courses should be establisht for those who return from the battlefields wounded and no longer able to perform their former tasks. The great possibility of the evening high school is to be thoroly alive to conditions as they exist in the world, and to provide courses that will help as many people as are able to take advantage of its service. 266 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL OR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL A. C. BARKER, FORMER SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CAL. Twenty-three years have past since the classic report was made by the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies, of which ex-President Eliot of Harvard acted as chairman. Its recommendations, so far as they pertained to the elementary school, were revolutionary, as the Committee advocated the introduction of foreign languages, concrete geometry, ele- ments of physics, chemistry, natural history, ancient history, and physical geography as a part of its curriculum. The intermediate school retains the traditional studies of the elementary school, often with a reduced time allotment, and endeavors to teach them more effectively by the departmental method with better- trained teachers. But the plan also admits to the curriculum of the seventh and eighth grades such subjects as general history, science, and modern languages, heretofore reserved for high schools and colleges. The intermediate school endeavors to combine in one institution the common school and the lower classes of such higher European schools as the French Lycie and the German Realschule. In other words, it partakes of the nature of both the elementary and the high school. Tho originally establisht as an academic or school of general education, of recent years several variations have appeared, as boys' industrial or prevocational, girls' trade or home economics, commer- cial, and cosmopolitan, which combines in one school all the foregoing types. The establishment of the intermediate school means an abandonment of the existing system and substituting for the present elementary and high schools a threefold division with six years for the elementary, three for the intermediate, and three for the high school. It demands also a redistribu- tion of the school population at least of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, and a more extensive building program with new structures planned after the models of high schools, with locker systems, science laboratories, auditoriums, shops, and gymnasiums. It requires the adoption of the elective principle and the departmental method of teaching, a new and enriched curriculum for the seventh and eighth grades, new teachers with special preparation in the subjects they are to teach, higher salaries for seventh- and eighth-year teachers, and a very considerable increase in per capita cost of maintenance. It is apparent that these changes can only gradually be effected, even if the board of education and the community favor them, because of the outlay involved for new buildings and the very obvious difficulty of securing an efficient intermediate-school faculty and at the same time making a satis- factory disposition of the existing faculties of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. Most cities desiring to establish intermediate schools will face problems similar to those that confronted Oakland, Cal., in 19 13. The Department] INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL OR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 267 majority of the board of education favored establishing independent inter- mediate schools, but this could be accomplisht only by constructing new- buildings, or by remodeling and using some of the elementary buildings for intermediate schools. The former method was impossible then, as several million dollars had been already expended for buildings for the traditional type of schools, and also as at that time there were enough classrooms to accommodate all the pupils in the city. The latter method, approved by the board of education, was opposed by a large majority of both elementary- and high-school principals because it would reduce the size of their schools, and by civic and improvement clubs of the community on the grounds that it would be necessary for many small children to travel longer distances from home, that it would require considerable expense in remodeling elementary buildings, and finally that it would involve a breach of faith with the people, as the bonds had been voted for elementary and no intermediate schools. Owing to the serious opposition encountered, the board of education abandoned the plan just before I became superintendent of schools. Realizing the necessity of adopting a policy that would conform to the best modern practice in training seventh- and eighth-grade children, I decided to introduce as much as possible the spirit, methods, and curriculum of the intermediate school into the upper grades of the elementary schools and wait until the growth of population would justify submitting a bond issue for separate intermediate schools. There are two things that the intermediate school stands for that seem to me to be fundamental: first, opportunity, or a richer and broader curriculum, providing not only prescribed but elective subjects; secondly, specially trained teachers and the adoption of the departmental method of instruction. Acting upon this conclusion, it seemed best to revise the curriculum, introduce departmental teaching, and secure as in high schools specially trained teachers. Curriculum. — Before introducing the new plan the following time allot- ment, with five daily periods, two of which are fifty minutes in length and the remaining three, sixty minutes, was adopted as the standard course of study for the seventh and eighth grades: Required Subjects Subject Periods per Week English 8 Music 2 History and Geography, seventh grade 1 Civics and Hygiene, eighth grade J Mathematics S Manual Training or Home Economics alternating with Drawing 5 Prescribed for all pupils 25 268 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Secondary Elective Subjects (Optional) (Offered in one or more schools, sometimes as an overtime subject from 8 : oo to 9 : oo a.m.) Subject Periods per Week Foreign Language 5 Tj^ewriting S Extra Drawing, or Music, or Hand Work, or for backward pupils, English, Arithmetic, etc 5 Physical training and playground courses, to which attendance has been voluntary, are given after school. That the opportunity for choosing an additional subject has been readily accepted is shown by the fact that of the 3,623 pupils enrolled during the past year in the departmental classes 2,712 have taken one or more elective courses, viz. : Latin 133 Extra Vocal Music 206 German 274 Typewriting 115 French 202 Science 90 Spanish 271 Prevocational courses 260 Instrumental Music 576 Extra Drawing, freehand 108 Total 2,712 Extra Manual Training 477 Departmental teaching. — In order to carry out the plan successfully it was necessary to adopt the departmental method of instruction. Five classes of the seventh and eighth grades have been recognized as the minimum number justifying the introduction of departmental teaching. The following has proved to be the most satisfactory distribution of subjects to the teachers of five departmen tally organized classes: I teacher, English 1 teacher, English and Music I teacher, History and Geography, or Civics and Hygiene I teacher, Mathematics I teacher, half-time Drawing I teacher, half-time Manual Training I teacher, half-time Home Economics As the program on page 229 provides for four full-time and three part- time teachers, it has seemed better to seat the five classes (usually number- ing from 150 to 175 pupils) in four classrooms for the roll-call and attendance records, the drawing, manual training, and home economics teachers having no responsibility for the records except for their own classes. The part- time teachers usually teach in two schools, two or three hours per week for Department! INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL OR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 269 each class. Tho the schedule provides that one teacher shall give instruc- tion in music two periods per week and in English three periods, in practice it has been found advisable to divide the period with twenty minutes daily for music and the remainder for English. Where the demand for foreign languages or other elective courses has been sufficient to justify the employment of additional teachers for full time, it has been necessary to increase the length of the daily session to six hours or to increase the number of periods by shortening them, in order to include these additional subjects; but the seven-period plan has not been so satis- factory, as It has not permitted sufficient time for supervised study. TYPE PROGRAM FOR SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 8 to 9 A.M. Period I 9 to 10 A.M. Period II 10:10 to II A.M. Period III 11:10 to 12 M. Period IV I to 2 P.M. Period V 2:1s to 3:1s P.M. 3:1s to 5:1s P.M. 8B Elective Courses in Foreign Lan- guages, Hand Work, etc. Optional English English and Music Hist. and Geog. Math. Hand Work 8A Hand Work English English and Music Hist. and Geog. Math. Physical Training 7B Math. Hand Work English English and Music Hist. and Geog. or Play- 7A Hist. and Geog. Math. Hand Work English English and Music ground Optional 7A English and Music Hist. and Geog. Math. Hand Work English Since the California state law prohibits the assigning of work for home study to pupils under fifteen years of age, the periods of the daily program are divided into two parts, one for recitation and one for supervised study. The following is the procedure in the supervision of study in one of the schools, and the method here pursued is fairly typical. Each period is divided into twenty-five- or thirty-minute halves. The first half is devoted to oral discussion of work studied in the second half of the period of the day before and to the development of new work arising therefrom. The second half of each period is given to study which is supervised by the teachers with as much attention to individual needs as is possible in the time. The plan of supervised study has the unanimous indorsement of the teaching and supervising force. Teachers. — The revision of the curriculum and the introduction of electives and departmental teaching necessitated that the teachers be 270 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary selected as in high schools by subjects and not by grades. At the present time one-half of the teachers in the seventh and eighth grades, where the departmental method is employed, are college graduates with sufficient graduate training to meet the California state requirement for high-school certification. Of course, the superior qualifications of the departmental teachers have resulted in more intelligent and more thoro instruction. Many of the graduates of the eighth grade enter the high school with one or two high- school credits and frequently enter second- or third-term high-school classes in drawing and foreign languages. The instruction in seventh- and eighth- year foreign language corresponds to the first year of the high schools, and uniformity of results is obtained by providing for the same supervision for language teaching in the elementary and high schools. The scope of the teaching in English, music, drawing, and foreign languages represents about the equivalent of the instruction usually provided in the first year of the high school. While a limited number of electives is offered, the instruction in the departmental grades is as thoro and advanst as usually given in similar grades of independent intermediate schools. The elective system, one of the possibilities of departmental organiza- tion, in my opinion, marks a distinct advance in the elementary school. As has long been recognized in the best schools of Europe and America, it is the only method of securing teachers with special training for each subject in the curriculum. Obviously, no teacher can be equally well prepared to teach all the subjects in the course of study nor to attack difficulties in the teaching of all these various subjects with equal skill and enthusiasm. Perhaps the largest but least tangible effect of the departmental school upon the pupil is the opportunity for contact with several well-trained teachers. It is inevitable, nevertheless, that no one instructor, however capable, will make a corresponding appeal to all her pupils, or be capable of arousing equal interest in all lines of work. Hence the departmental school affords a wider* horizon, and thus renders possible more general interest and larger enthusiasms. Course of study — The course of study now in use is not an ideal one. It could have been greatly improved by requiring elementary science and physical training, but for these subjects neither laboratories nor trained teachers have been available. Tho credit has been given many pupils entering the high schools with one or two years' study of a foreign language, it has not always been possible, on account of conflicts in programs, for them to enrol in advanst classes. After several years' trial 95 per cent of the principals and teachers have been enthusiastic in commendation of the adults obtained. As a result of three years' experience, I would recom- mend that the session be lengthened to provide six or seven daily periods, and that the course of study outlined below be adopted for the seventh and eighth grades. It would, however ^ require an increase of 25 per cent in the Department] THE JUNIOR COLLEGE 271 teaching force or approximately the same per capita cost for instruction as an economically organized intermediate school of the academic type. Recommended Course of Study Subjects Periods per Week English and Penmanship 5 (Pupils deficient in English should be required to take five periods extra in place of the elective.) Music 2 History and Geography, seventh year \ ] Civics and Hygiene, eighth year Mathematics 4 Physical Training 2 Elementary Science 2 Manual Training or Cooking and Sewing, alternating with Drawing 5 25 I Elective 5 30 In the traditional organization a teacher is required for every class, and one-tenth of the time of two additional teachers for home economics and manual training, or twelve teachers for ten classes. Under the departmental plan as operated in Oakland ten classes require only eleven teachers, or twelve teachers if an elective is offered, viz., three for English, one for music, two for mathematics, two for history and geography, one for art, one for manual training, one for home economics, and one for an elective sub- ject. The course recommended for the future will require three additional teachers, one for science and two for physical training, but the physical- training teachers would be able to devote part time to other classes in the school. To secure the best results one room should be properly equipt for science and two for gymnasiums, tho in the California climate the latter, altho desirable, are not a necessity. In establishing separate intermediate schools there would be distinct additional advantages, such as superior housing facilities and equipment, even a wider range in choice of subjects, a discipline and spirit closely approximating that of the senior high school, with the consequent greater independence and individuality of action on the part of the pupils. It has been my purpose to show what has been possible of accomplishment in the elementary schools under present conditions and limitations and without additional expense. THE JUNIOR COLLEGE C. R. FRAZIER, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, EVERETT, WASH. Fifteen years ago Joliet, 111., added two years to its four-year high- school course. This it did in recognition of the theory then advocated by Professor Edmund James, of the University of Pennsylvania, President 272 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Angell, of Ann Arbor, and officially recognized by President Harper and the faculty of the University of Chicago— the theory, namely that the thir- teenth and fourteenth years or grades of work should be regarded as secondary rather than collegiate or university work. Then followed the high schools of Goshen, Ind., Grand Rapids, Mich., Detroit, Chicago, and others, so that in 191 5 there were in the jurisdiction of the North Central Association of Schools and Colleges eleven high schools reporting six-year courses above the eighth-grade elementary school. Ten years ago, five years after the inauguration of the eight-six plan at Joliet, the California legislature authorized the extension of the high- school courses in that state to include the thirteenth and fourteenth grades. The great distance of many of the populous centers of the state from the great universities seemed to be the conclusive argument in behalf of the innovation. It was in California that the term "junior college" as applied to the first and second years of college work was popularized. It is also only fair to say that the best development of junior colleges in connection with high schools has been made in California. So true is this that in the popular mind it is regarded as a California institution. Almost invariably thus far this junior college addition to the secondary schools has included two years of work. With distance from universities a prime consideration and with two years the recognized length of the courses, the Washington movement may possibly be considered an innovation so far as high-school junior colleges are concerned. So far the first and only one is located only thirty miles from the state university and covers one year instead of two, with no present plans for extending to two years. In a school of somewhat over a thousand pupils, a gifted faculty, and a rich course of study many pupils seek the privilege of returning to school after graduation to take certain courses much desired by them. The fact that many of the classes in the Junior and Senior years are not so full but that postgraduate pupils may be allowed to join them is a condition favorable to receiving such students. Finding a steady growth in such a demand in our high school and having especially well-qualified teachers, we conceived the plan of offering special college courses in Freshman English and mathematics and so organizing other courses as to make it possible for those who wisht to plan a year's work which might be offered as college work. Altho cordially welcoming the junior college, or, as we call it, the college-year, idea, the university first proposed to accord our students only tentative credit. The courses were organized and we invited inspec- tion looking toward actual unqualified credit. After a very thorogoing inspection by a quartette of deans and heads of departments appointed by President Suzzallo, our one-year offering was readily accorded full credit at the state university without any embarrassing conditions. And of Departmenti THE JUNIOR COLLEGE 273 course this action by the university insured full recognition by other col- legiate and normal institutions. Our "college year" therefore consists of two kinds of offerings: first, new courses, limited for the present to English and mathematics and designed only for college-year people; and, second, upperclass high-school courses, to which sufficient additional work is added to make it rank as college-grade work. To be eligible for any course offered as college-year work one must have satisfied the full university-entrance requirements in that subject. Work carried for the purpose of removing college-entrance conditions cannot be counted as college-year work. Each full subject carried counts as four semester hours, and therefore four full subjects carried successfully thru the year earn thirty-two semester hours of university credit. As an illustration of the second kind of work, one who has taken a year of ancient history may in his college year schedule for mediaeval and modern history with the regular class and cover the same field, but with one thousand pages of additional selected readings assigned by the instructor and reported on by the pupil. In German he may take third-year work with one drama and reports additional, or fourth-year German with one hundred and fifty pages of modem prose with reports additional. Under similar requirements and after offering prescribed prerequisites he may take: astronomy, chemistry, electricity, hygiene and sanitation, foreign languages, commercial Spanish, commercial law, accountancy, elementary and advanst cabinetmaking, forge, foundry, and pattern making, art metal and design, mechanical and architectural drawing, advanst ma- chine design or advanst courses in foods and dressmaking. Those postgraduates who do not wish to achieve advanst university or normal-school standing may, of course, elect any subject where they can be enrolled without overcrowding classes already formed. The greatest danger of abuse in connection with the junior-college movement, as pointed out by Professor J. R. Angell, is the spending of money needed for the regular high and elementary schools. It certainly is poor policy to spend at the top money which is needed below. If you have followed me in the foregoing, it is apparent to you that by our plan the college year costs us but two periods per day, i.e., one period of an instructor's time in English and one in mathematics. In all other subjects the college-year people are distributed thruout the several depart- ments, fitting into classes already required and formed to meet the needs of the regular high-school students. As our high school is operated on the ninety-minute, supervised-study basis with four periods and a six-hour day, this means the equivalent of half the time of one instructor. Not counting overhead, our additional outlay for the education of a half-hundred young college folk is little more than 274 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Secondary half the salary of one instructor. By filling up the sections already estab- lisht, much coveted educational opportunity is thus provided at almost no additional cost. For those districts with abundant funds to establish a junior college on the excellent California plan, I have no message but one of Godspeed. For the small but ambitious high-school district, tempted to give its young people this splendid privilege of one or two years of college work at home, my only message is one of caution. Go slow, count the cost. If you can afford it, well and good, but do not weaken the foundation work because of your ambitious and laudable plans for a well-rounded superstructure. But for the high school having several hundred pupils, with rich courses, and with some higher degrees or their equivalent in the faculty, I hope you may not hesitate to offer your graduates this privilege of at least one year of college education at home. It will not weaken your finances, but will give you greater return for the extra planning and extra work than any other innovation is likely to do. It means recognition of the fact that the thirteenth and fourteenth years are really secondary. It means that your young people who are too young or too straitened in their circumstances need not go from the shelter- ing rooftree quite so soon. If you are a parent of a sixteen- or seventeen- year-old high-school graduate, you will appreciate more than money the privilege of allowing that child to develop under your eye a little longer. This innovation also makes possible a safer and saner passage between the Scylla and Charybdis of the fateful Freshman year at the university, a passage attempted in too many instances in a boat captained and piloted by ofl[icers who have never guided craft that way before, or, to change the figure, this plan saves your youth from wholesale slaughter at the hands of axmen who have small use for Freshmen, anyway. The plan aims at nothing in the way of a separate institution. Indeed the very essence of our plan makes it a part of the high school. It .is simply a device whereby educational opportunity such as is constantly going to waste in many similar communities is conserved. It is economy displa- cing waste; it holds out the torch of learning to ambitious young Americans. It means a little more American opportunity. It sounds so easy and costs so little that you may challenge the results. To forestall this, let me remind you that four of the most scholarly mem- bers of our state-university faculty spent an entire day in our classrooms challenging the plan, and were convinst of its soundness, and of the first class the five who have now completed their Sophomore year at that insti- tution have all earned Phi Beta Kappa standings. Department! EDUCATION THRU SOCIALIZATION 275 EDUCATION THRU SOCIALIZATION ETHEL PERCY ANDRUS, PRINCIPAL, LINCOLN HIGH SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CAL. When I came to Lincoln High School I found a beautiful building uniquely placed on a slope one hundred and forty-seven steps above the North Broadway hill on the very outskirts of our district in northeast Los Angeles. Ours was once a fashionable part of town. Rambling man- sions of the late eighties and nineties, sometimes with the original house- holders here and there, tell the tale of departed grandeur. The school site itself was the home of a wealthy French baron and later a prominent banker, anxious to leave the Eastside for the more popular and growing west and southwest. To the north, northeast, and south for a radius of a mile, except for fifty scattered homes, the land is still unoccupied and in part not subdivided. Below us to the west and northwest is this old residence district, once aristocratic, now modest and in part poor, the homes of industrial workers, the parents of our twelve hundred boys and girls. So inaccessible was the Lincoln site considered that the protests of parents were always expected and regularly heard against the girls climbing the hill. Then there was the general impression that the hill was unscalable to the grown-ups, and that we on the hill were equally removed from their interests. And yet Lincoln High School enjoyed the rare advantage of being situated in a section of the city that is, because of its very location arid isolation, a community in itself with all the activities and interests tshat this implies, and yet an old community with no pivoting thought and no zeal. But we had much to start with, a Board of Trade, a Federal Bank, an Improvement Association of fifty members, a local ministerial associa- tion, The Wednesday Morning Woman's Club, Eastlake Park, a Carnegie Library, and a local pride. That pride included the sense of ownership and appreciation of the beauty of Lincoln High School. But we were not a community. We were merely a neighborhood. I early learned that the three real, live men of the community were the young manager of the local bank, who was also the president of the Board of Trade, the middle-aged billiard-hall keeper, and the old newspaper editor and publisher. None of them lived on the Eastside. The two wealthy men who were residents of the district I considered — foolishly as I afterward learned — unavailable. They have since become my right- hand helpers, the more influential not missing one of the meetings. And so I went to my three commercial friends and inspired them, as I thought, with an ideal of community unity. I suggested that Lincoln High School become a community center, and that by so becoming we should be able to focalize our neighborhood in effort, unify it in action, and so work to- gether for community good and neighborhood welfare. On this we were all agreed. Then imagine the surprise and self-righteous wrath of us at 276 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Lincoln when our three friends requested us to send down some music to the beginnings of the community center. Lincoln High School was abso- lutely out of the question as a meeting-place, for no one would attend, no one would climb the hill. They cited as evidence how quite recently certain optimistic souls had conceived the wild idea of using the building for political meetings. A total of four meetings brought out, they remarkt, thirteen as audience. There were, on one memorable occasion, forty-odd in the gathering, they assured me, but everyone was a candidate for office. Then they went to work. They hired a hall in the center of the section, planned a rather trashy program, for my friend the poolroom manager has not always the most restrained of tastes, and besides it wasn't bad enough to be too attractive. They spent what was to us untold wealth, forty dollars, in advertising, and failed. They tried it again and failed. And so, being discouraged, they tried to discourage us. The Eastside was dead, they said. Nothing could galvanize it into action. The people were sore, mossbacks, petty, and uninterested. But we at Lincoln were undeterred. We recognized that the school, especially a high school like ours that has an intermediate in connection, reaches into every home in the com- munity. We knew that we could make the school the pulse of the com- munity, and so we advertised community singing. Miss Ames, our leader, is herself a dynamo of good nature, resourcefulness, and magnetism, and together we women met and graspt hands with our gardener, our janitor, seven pupils, and one man and his wife who responded to our call. The next meeting brought out fourteen, six adults, the men refusing to be separated from their wives, and singing soprano with them. When after repeated meetings our janitor counted forty-one in our audience, he called me aside and advised, "Why don't you tell'm this will be the last? You've wdrkt so hard at it they can't say you gave it up till you made it a success." Then came a bit of sage counsel from our student yell leader, "People won't come out just to sing. They'll sing after you get 'em there, but you will have to advertise something else to bring them." And what he said I found to be true in our community, for the subject, unless the speaker is world-famous, is more important than the speaker — the instrument than the musician. When I say this I give you the key of our community, and on this theory we went to work. We mimeographed an invitation, sent it to the members of the Improvement Association, the churches, the prominent storekeepers, the newspapers, and the schools. We went before the student body, we advertised our wares, we urged their attendance, our boys made the blueprints which we posted in the stores on the main streets. We had as our speaker a celebrated lecturer, so I excused all upperclassmen from preparation of their English and history lessons for the next day. With this bribe, discontinued after the third meeting, we filled our audi- torium. A thousand people sang and listened, at least eight wild-eyed socialists talked, and the success of our meetings was assured. I remember Department! EDUCATION THRU SOCIALIZATION 277 the lecturer gasping in consternation as the curtain rose, "Why they are from eight to eighty! I haven't anything for a crowd Hke this!" I com- forted him, " This is the problem every country minister faces every Sunday; only there the parents try to keep the kiddies quiet, and here you have to. That's all." And that brings me to the question of discipline. The rowdies from *'Dog Town" tried to break up the meeting, and for a month one of our good friends on the police force posted himself where he could best advertise the majesty of the law, while his companions did yeoman duty on the out- side. The order in the balcony was a real problem until the newness wore off. The rowdies ceast noticing us. We had become establisht like a church and were therefore uninteresting. But for a while we didn't even dare darken the room to throw on the slides for community singing, but had to give each a mimeographed copy of the songs. And so we built our thriving community nights, which bring out regu- larly eight hundred to a thousand citizens — some alone, some with babes in arms, some with little ones holding to their clothing, they come by the hundreds. We have proved that the hill is not so high, and that, since we are lowly in spirit, our friends will climb the hill to meet us. In an arc of forty-five degrees with a mile and a quarter radius from the school are the industries employing seventy-five hundred workers: three thousand in car barns, four hundred in carpentry trades, seventeen hundred in metal trades, four hundred in canning, and four hundred in laundry. These workers are the parents of our boys and girls. For their children we in the industrial district were offering only cultural courses with no other shop equipment than woodwork. The result is this: Those students who came to us were singularly earnest and conscientious. Their parents were eager that they should have the traditional educational advantages. Those who stayed away were the motive-minded, and those we planned to have. Even when we began to add vocational equipment we found that we had no demand for it. Aristocratic Hollywood numbers by the hundreds the girls enrolled in home economics; we at Lincoln were last year running two courses in second-year cooking with a total enrolment of ten. The same held true in other branches. We had the sons of hard-working mechanics who thought that they would rise by becoming clerks. They seemed firmly to believe that it was more honorable to spend one's life sitting on a stool or standing behind a counter becoming soft and ease- loving and shirking work than doing the skilled work of the artisan and the mechanic. We have learned that before we can train industrial workers we must train our boys and girls to believe in an industrial future. The first step toward this was to gain the support of the tribu- tary schools and then to inspire confidence in the minds of the parents so that they would be willing to listen and weigh our advice and perhaps follow it. 278 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary We met in conference and individually with teachers and principals of neighboring schools and explained to them our socialized courses in arith- metic, our exploratory courses in preparatory mathematics, general history, and community civics, our sheet-metal work, cement-work, and electrical wiring taking the place of woodwork, and our special study helps. We told of our plan for mothering our incoming Bfs with the same teacher for English, geography, classroom, and study, of the speed classes for the accelerants, opportunity classes for the slow, the division according to the dominant interests and powers. We told them of our thirty-nine acres in home gardens, our vocational work, our part-time work, our vocational counselor, and our ambition to fit our school to the needs of the community. We felt that we knew these needs, for we had made a survey of our neighbor- hood. We had visualized these results of eighteen months' study on a many- colored map with many colored pegs showing industries, social activities, nationalities, etc., until now we have so gained the sympathy of the neigh- boring schools that the educational guidance given to the boys and girls of Lincoln High School by the elementary, grade, and high-school teacher is an intelligent guidance. The young people themselves would undoubtedly consider the school activities as the most characteristically social work. The self-government committees of the boys and girls have become so worth while according to their standards, and so desirable the post of president, that four candi- dates entered the field this June for a hotly contested campaign, whereas the student-body president brought out only three. Then, too, there is the Girls' League, an organization of all the girls in the school, something on the order of the older-sister movement, with the slogan "Nobody lone- some at Lincoln." It is in connection with the Girls' League that Lincoln High School is doing perhaps its most formative daytime work. The social life of the school, when I came to it, was divided sharply into the classes which indulged in that most easily arranged of all pastimes, dancing, and all that it implied, the dancing frock, snobbishness, heartbreak, a clique spirit, and the personnel of each party decided entirely by the boys inviting, and the masses which once a year had a rowdy good time in the high jinks. We workt on the theory that many a young person would behave well in society if he knew how, and knew that it was the thing to do. We decided first of all to make the effort to show him how and to make it the thing to do. Civilization, I have heard, is the art of playing, but play we will whether we do it artistically or not. The school cannot suppress the social instincts, altho it has tried to do so. It has maintained an open feud with the social hunger of its students, and the daily and nightly grind demanded by it has not left much time or opportunity even out of school for legitimate social experience. Therefore, to control the social activities of our young people we remodeled a cottage on the grounds into a two- room clubhouse, and there we hope to center the social life of the school. Department] EDUCATION THRU SOCIALIZATION 2^0 The rooms are arranged in homelike fashion, the institutional air is gone, only small groups of fifty can be easily handled, and there on Friday after- noons we shall have our social hours, the girls not going home to dress, an early adjournment doing away with the question of chaperonage home, and all learning the observances and forms of good society, and how to give, as well as how to act at, a party. In this connection it might be well to say that while our aim has been to cut down the cost of party dresses by persuading our young people to come in school dress or middies, we are convinst that occasionally a party should be given in which the young people wear their best raiment, altho not necessarily party dresses. For we have learned that there is a direct relation between dress and manners in young people whose social standards are still unformed. Even the Senior party following graduation, to which the girls wear their five-dollar commencement dresses, because of the dress become dignified affairs. And in all of this we have more than the support of the parents. The com- munity has become interested. It feels as we do that the best guaranty for a good social life in the school is a good social and civic life in the com- munity. Moreover, the young people are becoming interested in their com- munity. There has developt from the school spirit a good community spirit. The big school pageants have become community affairs. Twice on May Day this section of the city has joined in merrymaking in a com- munity festival with the boys and girls of all the schools, the crowning of the May Queen and the attendant May Day festivities in which the girls shone, the track meet and contests for the boys, and open-air dancing for all. Last June the commencement play was a community pageant, rehearsing the history of this section of the city and the school site. Last Christmas thirty-five hundred people gathered to see on the stage dug by our boys out of the hillside the "Winter Festival" with its story of the Greek "Observance of the Winter Solstice," the Roman "Saturnalia," the Scandinavian "Mother's Sacrifice of Her Child to the God Thor," and the "Coming of the Messengers of the White King," the German " Tannenbaum," the copy of Murillo's "Adoration of the Virgin" for Spain, the French "Scene of the Manger," the English "King of Misrule," and America's "Santa Claus," with a wonderful Christmas tree seventy feet high which our boys had cut from our own grounds and which later we gave to the Salvation Army for their Christmas tree, and over all illuminated by a huge electric star. And we of all creeds in our community chorus sang the "Sanctus" from St. Cecelia's Mass, which we had practist for many weeks at our community nights. Which brings me back to our community nights. For whatever the entertainment, and the program is always well planned, we hope to include an activity of a school other than ours. So well known have our gatherings become that we dare to ask and are granted programs by noted musicians and lecturers. Indeed we have learned that the bigger 28o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOC! ATtON (Secondary the man the more eagerly he shares. It's only the mediocre or petty man who refuses to give his gifts to those who cannot pay. We have also our community discussions in which good friends arise and say of each other that if anyone but a fool were talking — or, "I have heard a lot of talk, but nothing has been said here tonight." And they lead somewhere, for already by force of these meetings we have been able to change the objectionable name of our section, Eastside, to the more impressive Lincoln Heights, and of our adjoining park, the biggest under cultivation in the city, from Eastlake to Lincoln. And even there we kept up our community feeling. We as a school have cooperated in the community singing there of a Sunday, we as a school have officiated at the changing of the name, we as a school are just recovering from participation in the Fourth of July exercises, for now, in a section in which formerly there were no community efforts, we have had in the last month two community undertakings from the outside — a patriotic rally, a benefit for the mess fund of a company of Lincoln Heights boys, and this Fourth of July celebration, and on each committee can be found my friend the banker, my friend the poolhall manager, my friend the editor, our wealthy citizen, and the principal of Lincoln High School. For they have learned their lesson — that it is thru the young people that the community life must come, for thru their interest they draw their parents and friends to us, and they are interested, for here they meet other boys and girls — and unlike some schools, where women look with concern on much mingling of boys and girls, we believe that considerable and wide acquaintance among boys and girls is the best guaranty for happy homes. I know that the separation of the home after the evening meal, by reason of the cheap shows, the dance hall, the auto joy rides, the movies, where all frequently go in different directions, can be met only by a social center where, like ours, every meeting is a social reunion, a civic gathering, a rally for our section, and a good time. Now even the young people attend with their parents, share the same recreation, and are interested in the same activities, have the same experience, and something of worth for discussion. We have now a community drama club, which plans to put on a play next Monday evening, a community chorus, a community orchestra, a member of which introduced herself to me a week ago as I bought the trimming for this dress. And they plan to keep right on thru vacation, once a month, with our community dinner with its attendant speeches and toasts, its good will and fellowship, parishioners hobnobbing with their pastors, teachers with the patrons of the school, and all learning tolerance and good-fellowship. We have put this emphasis on social training and upon vitalizing the motives of students because we realize that the inertia of the parents and the indiffer- ence of the school are the roots of most trouble in adolescents, and that there are new breeds of social evils with their unblushing degeneracy with which Department] THE HIGH SCHOOL AND AMERICAN IDEALS 281 we must do battle, that we must fight these social activities having harmful associations by activities having helpful associations, that thus we bring the evil within bounds, yield to the impulse but control its expression and thru self-responsibility and by controlling the social and civic life of the community we weld standards of right living, wholesome recreation, and a civic conscience. THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE HIGH SCHOOL FOR AMERICAN IDEALS AURELIA HENRY REIISIHARDT, PRESIDENT, MILLS COLLEGE, OAKLAND, CAL. The high school is not yet crystallized. The length of its course is still unsettled, varying from three to eight years. The number and kind of its departments differ widely. Curricula vary largely. The requirements for graduation are changing. The high school is striving to meet the most important demands today in modern public education. It is a good thing that the high school is thus in a state of flux. It bodes well for our future. What then is the definite relation between this evolving institution and the formulation and inculcation of American ideals in American children in their teens ? American high schools are using, more now than ever, Ameri- can content in literature and history. At the same time, while we thus teach nationalism, we must maintain a proper perspective by the study of the language,, art, and literature of other peoples. Mental isolation is fatal. In the eighteenth century men generalizing broadly exprest their ideals oratorically. Today, while in spirit we still cry, " Give me Uberty or give me death," we express our ideals ever more simply, soberly, and con- cretely. We are the outcome of a noble past; we come of a people of large ambitions and large opportunities, but today our life is becoming more intensive, and each one must do his part with less waste and greater efficiency. Eternal vigilance for the preservation of the large view and the wide perspective is necessary to preserve in the individual essential sanity of mind and nobleness of attitude toward life. In all schools, in all variations of all schools, there are two stable factors: first, the open-minded teacher, so truly patriotic that he needs not talk about it and so patient that he strives ever to lift up the student to the best American ideals; second, the oncoming generations that are to be future American citizens. It is the chief business of the public school to provide an atmosphere and environment in which the fine personality of the teacher may best develop an intelligent world-enlightened patriotism in the minds of American youth. 282 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary ORIENTING THE HIGH SCHOOL EDWARD O. SISSON, PRESIDENT, MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Here and there in the United States modern high schools are already to be found; but the majority are still far in arrears. For the vast majority of our million and a half high-school students the ''prescribed nine units" are still dominant: three units of English, two of mathematics, two of foreign language, one each of natural science and the social sciences, includ- ing history. For the vast majority likewise physical education and voca- tional training simply do not exist. We teachers are living in a fool's paradise if we think such a condition is going to be tolerated much longer. The fiery crucible of the war era is trying all things, and will choose and reject ruthlessly. The natural sciences embody the total result of man's penetration into the essence and laws of the material universe in which he lives and of which his own body is an integral and related part. On the natural sciences rest the industry, the commerce, the sanitation which mark off the modern material world from the ancient. Jt was this world of matter which Socrates set out eagerly to study; he turned aside only because he found it veiled in impenetrable mist and confusion. We moderns, who profess to admire the old Greek sage, have no such excuse; natural science is now a model of clearness and accuracy. The attitude of the high schools toward science, as shown by all kinds of data, is utterly inexcusable and belongs to the Middle Ages. No small share of the blame falls upon the teachers of the sciences themselves, who know no methods suited to the secondary student, but can only thrust university topics, notebooks, and methods upon minds unfitted to receive them or profit by them. High-school teachers are the direct offspring of colleges and universities. What could be more naively irrational than the frequent insistence of the university professor of chemistry, for example, that he prefers students who have had no chemistry in high school, when the high-school chemistry department is the very product of his collegiate instruction ? We need in the high schools more natural science, better suited to high- school students, aimed at the scientific and industrial fields of actual life, studied by far more students. The absolute minimum should be two units: one year to furnish a general introduction to the sciences and the scientific method and one to deal with one of the great special sciences. The conditions of modern life and thought will soon demand even more than this. The social sciences are both more ancient and more recent than the natural sciences. When Socrates regretfully abandoned his quest into natural science he turned to the study of man's own life; his greatest work, the republic, in ethics, politics, sociology — with the requisite treatment of educational statesmanship. Since his time Christianity and its poHtical Department] ORIENTING THE HIGH SCHOOL 283 embodiment, democracy, have begun and carried far the regeneration of human institutions; the science of this new humanism belongs to our own era; it is the dominant note of modern thinking; particularly it forms the most intimate bond between the scholar and the social world. Social science in its present form is the newest of the sciences. Dr. Ogburn's address, just presented to this section, on " Sociology in the High School" points the way; surely no one can listen to his facts and argument without being convinst that high-school students must study sociology, and will pursue it with that eagerness which is the very soul of study, as it is the original meaning of the word. It would be both unneces- sary and presumptuous for me to discuss this subject at length after Dr. Ogburn's address; instead, let me register my approval and admiration for his proposals and the facts and illustrations with which he so richly proves and illuminates them. From an earnest study of secondary education in relation to national and human life for the past twenty-five years, I do not hesitate to say that social intelligence and social sympathy are the most vital of all the aims of the American high school. Social and economic problems lie athwart the path of national and human progress; social and economic evils loom most threateningly on the horizon. The present high-school course is almost totally barren of any culture which fits the student for the solution of these problems. The high-school graduate has usually never been invited to consider the nature and human function of money, the relation of capital to labor, the existence, causes, and terrible results of poverty. Nothing is more significant than the quick and lasting response of high- school students to vital social studies, as shown by Mr. Moore's experiment in Portland, referred to by Professor Ogburn, and many other isolated but demonstrative achievements. The high school is the golden oppor- tunity to open the eyes and lift the heart on social questions. The high- school boy who knows that a dollar is simply a symbol for human labor on one side and human welfare on the other is safer and wiser in business; the young man who has obtained even a glimpse of unemployment and poverty, of the grinding hardships of industrial situations, can see that I.W.W. and sabotage are the ulcerous symptoms of deep-seated evils in the body politic, and cannot be solved by jails and machine guns, but will yield only to the keenest and yet most human intelligence, pene- trating to the underlying causes and providing a rational and effective remedy. Even the little attention the school does give to social science is devoted too largely to the abstract and philosophical aspects: the high-school graduate who has been lucky enough to get a course in government has learned something about the constitution of the United States; but when he gets into a county political convention, where the real government is actually going on, he finds himself in a world of which the school knows 284 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary nothing. So he either shrinks away and becomes a non-political citizen, or drops his academic politics and starts over again. The high school is the golden opportunity; college would be too late, even for the few who reach its halls. The brain and heart of the early adolescent are ripe for impression; hardening sets in usually before the end of the high-school course. There is for the high-school teacher no substitute and no release; he must step forward and meet the need. We are living in a twentieth-century world: our civilization has taken the currents of the Old World into its very being; valuable as may be the culture of the ancient world, we may not safely neglect our own world to study the ancient world. Myriads of high-school boys are spending time on Herodes Atticus and other classical mediocrities when they are grossly ignorant of Abraham Lincoln, George Washington, and Columbus. The high school must move forward; it must move decisively; and in the essentials of American citizenship it must move en masse. A curriculum which neglects physique and vocation and relegates natural science and social science to the bottom of its list is mediaeval. Four lines demand and must have far more attention: physical education, vocational training, natural sciences, and social science. If the high school can not or will not meet this demand, it will dwindle or be thrust aside for some other form of school. Happily there are good signs of advance; some schools have already moved far in the right direction, while most schools feel the impulse and are trying to act upon it. DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Edward C. Elliott, University of Montana Helena, Mont. Vice-President — Charles H. Johnston, professor of secondary education, University of Illinois Urbana, 111. Secretary — ^John E. Rouse, head of School of Education, James Milliken University. Decatur, 111. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday, July io, 191 7 The meeting was called to order at 10:00 a.m. in the Main Building, Reed College. The following program was given: "War Measures of Higher Educational Institutions" — Charles R. Van Hise, presi- dent. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. "Relation of the Governor to the Oregon Public Educational System" — ^His Excel- lency, Governor Withycombe, of Oregon. (Read by title.) His Excellency, Governor Stewart, of Montana, sent the following telegram which was read and which the department desires incorporated in the minutes: Helena, Mont., July 10, 1917 Dr. Edward C. Elliott, National Educational Association, Portland, Ore. Please present to the N.E. A. my sincere regrets at my inability to be present and take part in the program. Oflficial business of urgent character absolutely prevents my leaving the state at this time. I am very much disappointed, as I would like to hear the discussion of " Relation of the Governor to the State Public Educational System." In my four years of service as governor I have had to deal constantly with the different phases of this question. All other things aside, it appears to me that the facts that the governor of the state is the executive head of the affairs of the state and that the educational department is one of the most important of the state functions make it absolutely necessary that the governor should give to this subject his very best talents. At the same time there is always the danger of the injection of politics. The question then is how to bring to bear the very best executive ability in behalf of the educational system of the state without commingling the same with partisan affairs. When that problem can be solved, then educational affairs will have achieved something higher and better than now obtains in any system in vogue in the states of the Union. I sincerely hope that the consideration of the question by the Association may be enlightening and practically beneficial. S. V. Stewart Governor of Montana "Educational Institutions" — ^J. W. Crabtree, president. State Normal School, River Falls, Wis. A committee was appointed to draft resolutions setting forth the importance of high- school graduates of 191 7 entering higher institutions next fall for training in American citizenship. SECOND SESSION— Thursday, July 12, 191 7 The meeting was called to order at 10:00 a.m. in the Main Building, Reed College. The following program was presented: "The Four-Quarter Plan of University Operation During the War and After" — John A. Widtsoe, president. University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. ' 28s 286 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher "Critical Present-Day Issues in Administration of State Higher Education "^ — B. R. Buckingham, educational statistician, State Board of Education, Madison, Wis. "Administrative Responsibility and the Current Doctrines of Academic Freedom and Academic Tenure" — Edward C. Elliott, chancellor, University of Montana, Helena, Mont. Discussion — C. A. Duniway, president. University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo.; dan J. M. Hamilton, president. College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Bozeman, Mont. The following officers were elected for the year 191 7-18: President — William T. Foster, president, Reed College, Portland, Ore. Vice-President — F. L. McVey, president. University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, N.D. Secretary — Edward L. Schaub, professor of philosophy. Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. John E. Rouse, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS RELATION OF THE GOVERNOR TO THE OREGON PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM HIS EXCELLENCY, GOVERNOR WITHYCOMBE, OF OREGON If there is any one lesson that this World War is teaching people it is that every man must be trained especially for the work he intends to do; that every boy and girl shall be so educated that he will know how to do at least one thing well. That is the primary secret of modern efl&ciency. Oregon, in establishing her system of public schools, wisely recognized this principle and has ever held it sacred. An examination of the laws of this state shows that, while the governor is chairman of the State Board of Educa- tion, his duties are largely advisory, and the duties of administration are left to a superintendent of public instruction. Even if the governor should be a man pre-eminently fitted by training and occupation to direct the schools of this state, his duties are such that he could not well give the schools more time without neglecting many vit3-l interests of the state to which by virtue of his office he must give daily attention. In many of our states, during the early history, the governor has also been the superintendent of public instruction. Today, often the superin- tendent of public instruction is directly responsible to the governor, being appointed by him or by a board of regents appointed by the governor. Thru such a system the public educational system is brought directly into close relationship with the political system and, to a certain positive degree, is afifected by the political changes from term to term. Where the superintendent is elected by the whole people he is directly responsible to them; he is expected to formulate a policy, to lead and direct the education of the state; and it is coming to be recognized by the American people, at least in this state, that when a school superintendent is efficient, is working unceasingly for the benefit of the schools, and is accom- Department] THE GOVERNOR Al^D THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 287 plishing that which he has undertaken to perform, the people ask no ques- tion as to his politics, but return him to office as long as he continues to serve them wisely and well. That you may see just what we consider in Oregon a proper and suc- cessful limitation of the governor's power in the administration of the state public school system, I will relate somewhat in detail the educational duties of the governor of this state. They are divided into two classes: he is ex officio chairman of the State Board of Education, and as governor he appoints several important boards. The State Board of Education is autliorized by law to prepare a state course of study; to prescribe rules and regulations for the general govern- ment of the public schools; to enter into contracts with the various school- book companies for the books adopted by the State Textbook Commission, and to authorize the use of such books in the schools; and to hear appeals taken from the decisions of the state superintendent. By virtue of his office as chief executive of the state, the governor appoints the members of the State Textbook Commission, the members of the Boards of Regents for the three state educational institutions — the University of Oregon, the Oregon Agricultural College, and the Oregon State Normal School. It will be seen, therefore, that aside from the appointive power of the governor his duties are largely advisory. While technically the State Board of Education is required to prepare the state course of study for the public schools, in practice this duty is left to the superintendent, and the governor's duty is simply a formal approval. The duties of the State Board of Education are not to be considered, however, as entirely perfunctory. Many important and valuable ends are attained by having these three state officials compose the educational board. That there is such a statute is a suggestion in itself that there should be a close relationship between these offices. The practical working- out of this theory of the law is shown when the governor prepares his message to the legislature. It contains usually strong indorsement of the measures proposed by the superintendent of public instruction for the betterment of the public schools of the state. For example, the state superintendent has been for the past four years working out a definite policy for increasing the efficiency of the rural schools. Many improve- ments have been made thru a scheme of standardization, but the superin- tendent realized that the short term of many of the rural schools was hindering the work of the entire system. He proposed a law requiring each district to have not less than eight months of school each year. The governor as a member of the State Board of Education was in a position to know the educational needs of the state, and to give the policy of the State Department of Education an intelligent and effective indorsement when the whole matter was presented to the legislature. 288 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Higher One of the most important duties of the governor is that of naming the members of the State Textbook Commission. This commission selects books for all grades of the public schools for all schools of the state, excepting the city of Portland. Every family is affected. The children purchase their own texts, so the cost of the books is of vital interest. Secondly, the character of work done in the schools is more or less governed by the quality of the material which pupils and teachers must use. In order that the prices of books and excellence of workmanship may be examined with a view to protecting the school patrons from a financial standpoint, the governor always appoints some successful business men as members of the commission. The other members of the commission are men and women actually engaged in educational work. Again the governor is called to preside at the meetings of the state board when appeals are heard. If it should appear that the certificate laws, for example, were not being fairly or impartially enforst, he has here the opportunity to call this to the attention of the superintendent, and thru his power as a member of this board to insist upon a correct adminis- tration of the law. Perhaps the best illustration of the coordination of the office of the governor with that of the superintendent of public instruction is our certifi- cate law. In Oregon each teacher must have special preparation for the work he wishes to do. If he desires to teach any of the regular courses in a standard high school he must hold a diploma of graduation from a standard college or university and must have completed at least fifteen semestral hours in the department of education. All the standard colleges now maintain departments of education for the express purpose of training young men and women to teach in high schools. They usually secure the cooperation of the public school system where the college is situated so that practice teaching in the public high schools may be given the candidates thruout the last year of their course. A student completing such a course receives from the superintendent of public instruction a certificate to teach in any of the high schools of this state. He is not given a certificate to teach in the elementary schools because the colleges and universities are not prepared to offer special training for the elementary courses, and they do not find it of economic value to the state to establish such courses. This work is left to the normal schools, and their graduates receive certificates to teach only in the elementary schools. Those who have completed special courses in technical schools are granted certificates to teach the special subjects, such as manual training, domestic science, domestic art, stenography, etc. This in brief is our plan of certification. It declares that each person must be prepared for the work he expects to do. It is a part of the educa- tional policy of the State Department of Education and the details of such a program could be orkt wout only by an educational expert. Department! TEE GOVERNOR AND THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 289 Professor Henry Holmes, during a recent visit to Oregon, met with the members of the State Board of Education for the purpose of studying our educational system. Speaking of oifr certificate law, he stated that it was correct in principle and that its requirements were absolutely in accord with the policy of Harvard and the other standard universities of the country. The enforcement of this law and assurance that all applicants are treated alike are guaranteed, however, by having the governor of the state chairman of the Board of Education. As chairman, he may summon the members of the Board at any time; as chief executive of the state, he is bound to con- sider the grievances of any citizen. This as well as his other educational duties the governor can perform wisely as they require simply good business judgment. But the formulation of school policies, the details for creating in each community a healthy interest in better educational facilities for the boys and girls, the technical work of preparing the courses of study, the advising of the various school officers of the state in a proper performance of their duties, all these are pedagogical, requiring the attention of a trained and successful expert in school administration. They are, as I said at the beginning of this paper, wisely delegated by our laws to one who has been especially trained for such work. In closing I would recommend the Oregon plan to those states having large and unwieldy educational boards. I would suggest that the responsi- bility be fixt, that power be centralized with proper safeguards, and that one man be held responsible for the educational welfare of the state. At the Panama-Pacific Exposition, representatives from many states, after making a careful study of our plan of industrial clubs for boys and girls and our standardization of rural schools, recommended them to their home states for adoption; during the past year a number of states, notably among them Washington, our sister state to the north, enacted laws for the certification of teachers and the establishment of a high-school tuition fund based upon our Oregon laws. To all of these states I would state that whatever they have found in Qur laws worthy of adopting has been placed upon our statute books because our schools are free from politics as such, our educational poHcies are pre- pared by educational experts, and our State Board of Education is so formed that it has always harmoniously supported effectively the plans of the one chosen by all the people of the state to head the school system of the state. 2go NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITY AND THE CURRENT DOCTRINES OF ACADEMIC FREEDOM AND ACADEMIC TENURE EDWARD C. ELLIOTT, CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA, HELENA, MONT. 1. Memorandum. — The greatest enemy to education today all over the United States is the small bore politician who, as a member of an educational board, is bent on serving himself and his prejudices rather than the schools and the ideals of democracy which these institutions stand for. The outstanding need of education is for some effective machinery for distinguishing between the competent, the half -competent, and the incom- petent teacher. This machinery must be created and controlled by the profession of teaching itself, entirely apart from the agencies of political government. Until this is an accomplisht fact, schools and teachers will be constantly exposed to invasion by self-seeking personal and political interests. We cannot maintain a free school system for training children in the fundamentals of freedom with teachers who are tongue-tied as to the vital social and economic issues of modern life. Real education is possible only in a school so organized and governed that the job holds the teacher, and not the teacher the job. It is wholly futile to set up the indefinite goal of " taking education out of politics." The public school in all of its grades and varieties is part and parcel of our political system. The need of democracy is not less politics in edtication, but more education in politics. 2. Preliminary. — The present occasion does not permit of any thoro handling of the theme assigned by the program. I will attempt merely a brief, and more or less disconnected, comment upon certain aspects of what appears to me to be a preeminent problem for every American school, whether it be of elementary, secondary, or higher grade. This problem is especially significant for higher institutions during this day, when the whole of the social organization and ideals of the world are undergoing revolution- ary reconstruction. In substance, this problem is how best to provide for all schools that type of government which constantly promotes, and which cannot pervert, their purposes as educational agencies, at once free and responsible. This freedom and this responsibility can be guaranteed only thru the teacher. The status of the teacher is the measure of our progress toward the social ideal of democracy, and no permanent progress is possible with either an unfree or an irresponsible teaching class. 3. Education and its control. — Among the social inventions of the nine- teenth century which we pridefully credit to this American democracy of ours is that of the free public school. In these latter years a testing of the quality of this boasted school has revealed so many serious limitations of its Department] DOCTRINES OF ACADEMIC FREEDOM AND TENURE 291 opportunities and its accomplishments that thinking men have learned to become more and more cautious when casting up the account of public school systems; more and more critical in their attitude toward the output of democracy's free school; and more and more conscious that the inherent character of education is directly proportional to the inherent character of the forces by which it is administered. Indeed, it may be defended that there is no such institution as a "free" school; for all schools are regulated by administrative agencies outside of themselves, representing class or caste, section or sect, religious or political organization. The promotion of education seems to demand a far-reaching diagnosis of its controlling agencies. In the case of all public educational systems this means a rigid examination of a politically constituted administrative system in all of its relations to education; and the elimination of those influences that inter- fere with the fundamental processes by which an individual is educated. If we recognize as inevitable the subordination of educational institu- tions to some form of government from without, and if we recognize that the constant tendency of such government is toward conservatism and repres- sion, the question to be answered then is that of adjusting and restricting the field of direct influence of the political instruments of government so as to interfere least with the essential conditions making for education. These essential conditions are, first, the unhindered opportunity for the action and reaction of the personalities of teacher and pupil; and, second, the fixing upon the teaching profession of the full responsibility for attaining this freedom of opportunity. Here, it may be asserted, is the crux of the whole problem of academic freedom and academic tenure as found in schools of all grades. Democracy, thru its constituted agencies of government for education, has sought to treat with the teacher as an individual and not as a member of a profession which must sooner or later take the responsibility for maintaining standards of conduct and of achievement for all of those who may be admitted. 4. Illustrative cases. — For the purposes of illustration attention is called to two recent happenings, the far-reaching significance of which entitle them to the serious consideration of the entire teaching profession. Eighteen months ago the newly formed American Association of Uni- versity Professors issued thru its Committee on Academic Freedom and Academic Tenure a report which may be regarded as epochal for all Ameri- can education. This report made a declaration of principles asserting absolute freedom of thought, of inquiry, of discussion, and of teaching of the academic profession. The Association sought to give reality to these principles by certain practical proposals, providing for faculty participation n actions relating to reappointments and refusals to reappointment; iproviding for a clear definition of the meaning of tenure as applied to the members of college and university faculty; and providing for the formula- tion of charges and judicial hearings before the dismissal of faculty members. 292 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher "Every university or college teacher should be entitled, before dismissal or demotion, to have the charges against him stated in writing in specific terms and to have a fair trial on those charges before a special or permanent judicial committee chosen by the faculty senate or council, or by the faculty at large. At such trial the teacher accused should have full opportunity to present evidence, and, if the charge is one of professional incompetency, a formal report upon his work should be first made in writing by the teachers of his own department and of cognate departments in the university, and, if the teacher concerned so desires, by a committee of his fellow specialists from other institutions, appointed by some competent authority." Now the contrast: Six weeks ago the Supreme Court of Illinois rendered a final decision in a case arising within the public school system of Chicago. It will be recalled that the Board of Education of that city some time ago past a rule forbidding teachers to be members of the Chicago Teachers Federation or similar organizations. The case in question arose from the effort to invalidate this rule. The merits of the local controversy are of no par- ticular concern at this moment. However, the pronouncement of the Supreme Court upon certain principles of sound government of public educa- tional institutions is of possible consequence to the teaching profession in every city. In its decision {People vs. City of Chicago ^ ii6 N.E. 158) the Court said: "The board [of education] has the absolute right to decline to employ or to reemploy an applicant for any reason whatever or for no reason at all. The board is responsible for its action only to the people of the city, from whom, thru the mayor, the members have received their appointments. It is no infringement upon the constitutional rights of any- one for the board to decline to employ him as a teacher in the schools, and it is immaterial whether the reason to employ him is because the applicant is married or unmarried, is of fair complexion or dark, is or is not a member of a trades union, or whether no reason is given for such refusal. The board is not bound to give any reason for its action." In other words, this court declared against the fundamental principle of tenure for teachers; declared that a public school teacher is an employee, to be hired and fired at will; declared that the board is "responsible for its action only to the people of the city." As to the professional principles determining the status of the teacher, the principles of the report of the American Association of University Pro- fessors are directly antagonistic to those enunciated in the recent decision of the Supreme Court of Illinois. The Court says that a body of laymen is responsible for the profession into whose hands the work of education has been given. The University Association maintains that the profession of teaching is primarily responsible for teaching. The question before tJie American teacher now is whether a pernicious principle of action, having the supporting authority of law, is to be pre- ferred over a soui^d principle which, under the existing situation, cannot be enforst. Departmentl WAR MEASURES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 293 WAR MEASURES OF HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS CHARLES R. VAN HISE, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS. Among educational men there will be general agreement that the first duty of the higher educational institutions is to continue the regular work of those institutions with full efficiency along all lines. Whether the war continues for a long or a short time, this statement is alike true. If the war lasts only the present year, there will be no occasion to add from the schools to those who have gone or soon will go into the ranks of the army and navy. If, on the other hand, the war should last two or three years, there is no better way for the boys and girls just out of high school to pre- pare to take their share in the great burdens of the future than to spend the years until they reach twenty-one in higher educational institutions. The second great duty of the higher educational institutions is to do their part, indeed, take a position of leadership in all movements necessary to successfully prosecute the war. Naturally, first among such steps is the military training of men, either for privates or for officers. In many institutions of the country, and notably the land grant colleges and the universities in which land grant colleges are parts of the universities, military training has long been required for all male students during the first two years. In nearly all of these institutions this work has been supplemented the past year by intensive courses for the training of officers. The endowed institutions, under the stimulus of war, have also participated in this work. In some of them, indeed, illustrated by Virginia and Princeton, all or a large proportion of the men have taken military training. Others of the large eastern universities. Harvard, Yale, Columbia, etc., have been scarcely less alive to the situation. While military training should be encouraged and required of all in the universities, it is my conviction that only a fair proportion should enter the army or the navy at the first call. One of the most profound mistakes which England made was to deplete Oxford and Cambridge of their students for her first 100,000 men, or if not for the first 100,000, for the contingents following shortly thereafter. The result has been that the death and dis- ability among the best of England's sons has been appalling. England is suffering today from a lack of officers. She will suffer thru future genera- tions because these first contingents, which have been shot to pieces, were of the best of England's youth. They have been destroyed out of all propor- tion to other classes. We in America should not repeat England's mistake. We should have the wisdom to follow the aphorism of Bismarck that, " It is wiser to learn from the experience of others than to learn by our experience." Holding the foregoing views, the faculty at the University of Wisconsin took an active part in restraming' general enlistment by men of the 294 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher university. The War Department announst that it expected the universities and colleges to furnish 10,000 officers. The share of the University of Wisconsin would have been 150; 300 volunteered. We were glad to have the number requested respond, indeed, twice that number; but we are glad also that we were able to prevent the number of 300 from being largely exceeded. If the war continues, we shall expect to furnish next year another con- tingent, and continuously from time to time our full quota. These views I know are those which are held by the presidents of a number of institutions. Also, I know that for some of the largest universities of the country the presi- dents and faculties have actively participated in the campaign to induce the students to enter the army, with the unfortunate, indeed, as I believe, the disastrous result, that these institutions are depleted of their men; and if the war long continues, the losses among them will be far beyond a fair proportion. We shall have repeated in part the same mistake that England made. At the University of Wisconsin, in order that there should not be a con- tagion of enlistment in the war service, it was pointed out in convocations and other ways that the production of food and munitions was as necessary to the Allies as men and that it was also honorable to enter the agricultural or industrial service. Men who entered this service before the closing of the last semester were given full credit for the year, and, if seniors, were graduated. All that entered any service relating to the war, whether in the ranks of the army or navy, or in agriculture or industry, were given a medal, showing they were in the University War Service. Another line of service which the universities and colleges have per- formed extensively is in regard to the increast food production. In this service the students of the colleges of agriculture have gone out from the universities as farm laborers, in some instances from the senior and junior classes, and varying from those to practically the entire body of male stu- dents of the institution. Indeed, I believe in one or two states the agri- cultural college, so far as the men were concerned, was closed at the time of the spring seeding. The reduction in teaching work, in consequence of the students entering the food production service, has enabled the staffs of the agricultural col- leges to go out into the counties and take positions of leadership in securing a larger acreage of food products and a wise distribution of that acreage between the different cereals and other crops. While perhaps the agri- cultural colleges have been leaders in this movement, they have not been alone. Many of the students in the universities not in agricultural courses and in colleges not teaching agriculture have entered the food production service. Another great group of students have gone into manufactures of various kinds, including the manufacture of war munitions, or industries relating Department] WAR MEASURES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 295 to the war, such as shipbuilding. This contingent has been more largely furnisht by the colleges of engineering than by others, but also into these lines of work students from all colleges have gone. The food problem has two sides, that of food production and that of food conservation. In many of the colleges and universities special courses have been and are being given in the conservative and wise use of foods. This is a very great opportunity in all institutions in which there are many women, for if the students in the higher educational institutions know the principles of wise and conservative uses of food, they will be in a position to effectively assist in the food conservation program of Mr. Hoover. Those colleges and universities which have extension divisions, whether general or agriculture, have an amazing opportunity, which they may take advantage of, indeed, are taking advantage of in almost innumerable ways. Only a few of these can be cited. Special courses of lectures are given upon increasing the food supply; upon the storing, drying, and canning of vegetables; upon the cooking of vegetables; upon the conserva- tive use of foods; upon food substitutes. Other courses have been given for the men who are contemplating entering the army service, adapted to their needs — courses in automobile engines, courses in topography, courses in elementary mathematics, etc. Time does not permit me to go into the various lines of work in which the extension divisions have been or will be able to assist in other ways than by formal courses. The existence of the extension organizations in many of the states makes it unnecessary to create new organizations for many purposes; and, in consequence of this fact, the extension divisions have been called upon by the federal and state authorities in many ways. They are assisting in the registration of different classes of men required by the nation or by the state; they have assisted in the organization of the county councils; they are assisting the Red Cross in their educational campaign. Also, thru the publication of special circulars, posters, and lantern slides, the extension divisions are furnishing the people information in regard to every aspect of the war, from food production to social service. To a surprising extent the faculty of the universities spent their summer in assisting in some aspect of the war work. To illustrate, almost every member of the faculty of the Engineering Department of the University of Wisconsin is engaged in some work relating to the war, teaching war courses, serving on state or national boards or commissions, or in the shops and factories. Likewise, the medical faculties are carrying on instruction thru- out the summer in order that the shortage of physicians may be made good. In a smaller proportion the faculty of other colleges are engaged in war work of various kinds. One of the greatest opportunities of the universities is to carry on the necessary researches to gain the new knowledge demanded by the army 296 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher and navy and by the submarine menace. The Council of Scientific Men from England who visited this country said that if these problems are to be solved during the war this must be done in America. In England the research assistants have t>een taken away, the optical glass has been with- drawn from the physical laboratories; indeed, the professors cannot even get copper wire for their experimental work. In consequence of this situation, the full facts in regard to the many problems relating to the submarine and the many points at which improve- ments should be made in the war vessels have been placed before the National Research Council. This Council has parceled out this work among the colleges and universities; and a considerable portion of the staffs of many of the chief universities in which there are facilities for research are giving their undivided and concentrated attention to the solution of these problems. That important contributions will be made to the pressing practical problems is certain; also significant advances in principle are probable. One of the great gains which in part will compensate for the fearful loss of the war will be the increast appreciation of the yalue of research in the universities. The above is but a skeleton outline of the opportunities for service which are being taken advantage of by the higher educational institutions. The outline is so generalized as to almost have lost the necessary detail to make it effective, but to have attempted to give the detail in regard to any one of the aspects of work mentioned would require my full time. To the mind of each of those in the audience will occur many things which the higher educational institutions have been doing or have an opportunity to do which have not been mentioned. In conclusion, I think it may be said that the higher educational institutions are keenly alive, faculty and students, to the vast possibilities to perform service for the nation. They are taking their rightful positions of leadership as never before. If they meet their full opportunities, the mighty service which they can and will perform for the nation at this great time of emergency cannot but enhance the opinion of people in the value of the higher educational institutions and thus give them an even more secure position in the structure of the state. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS j. W. CRABTREE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, RIVER FALLS, WIS. I am requested to present reasons for the claim that the state normal school should be rated as a higher institution of learning. Educational institutions are clast as elementary, secondary, and higher. In which of these classes should the state normal school be placed ? Is there really any Departmenti EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 297 question as to where the normal school should be placed ? The elementary school consists of the work below the high school. The secondary school consists of the work of the four-year high school and academy. The higher institution consists of work beyond that of the secondary school. The grades of the city school represent the elementary school; the high school and academy represent the secondary school, and the college and university belong to the class of institutions known as higher institutions. There is no question as to the proper classification of these schools. The question arises as to the rating of technical and professional institutions. This question is raised, not so much by the technical and professional schools as perhaps by the colleges and universities. While the important question for these technical and professional schools is not whether they are higher institutions, but whether they are rendering a high quality of service, yet there can be no harm in attempting to determine where the extent and quality of their work would place them in the general classification, ele- mentary, secondary, and higher, and, even tho there is only one view of the question, as stated by our chairman, to give some of the reasons for that view. In the first place, the students who enter state normal schools have com- pleted the work of the elementary and secondary schools, that is, they are graduates of high schools and academies. Whatever time they spend in the normal school is in addition to the time spent in the high school. What- ever work they take in the normal school is in addition to that required for high-school graduation. In cases where the subjects are the same, the work goes more deeply into the subject and is presented from the teaching viewpoint. The graduates of the two-year courses in state normal schools who enter colleges and universities receive credit year for year for the work completed in the normal school. Those who complete four-year courses in normal schools have no difficulty in gaining admission to leading universities for graduate study. In Missouri and some other states the full four years takes the place of four years in the university. A large number of these normal- school graduates who afterward are graduated from the university receive Phi Beta Kappa and other scholarship honors. These men and women, after graduating from the normal school and after having had experience in teaching, are, as records will show, in demand for scholarships and fellow- ships in the universities where they are continuing their education. The investigations which I made when inspector of high schools, and the informa- tion which I have gathered from higher institutions since I have been engaged in normal-school work, lead me to believe that normal graduates make better general averages in their work in the university than are made by those who have come up thru the Freshman and Sophomore years of the university. This is in part due to the additional points in mental attain- ment gained thru teaching experience. Yet no one would attribute these 298 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iHigher high grades and good records to the one fact of teaching experience. The quaHty of the teaching in state normal schools must also be of the highest type. The work of the normal school therefore follows the completion of the work of the secondary school, and it has been accepted year for year in place of work done in all leading higher institutions thruout the country. The record made by normal-school graduates fully justifies the acceptance of normal credits at face value. There is still another point which may be mentioned. The professional work of the law school, of the medical school, and of the school of education, whether the courses cover one, two, three, four, or more years, when this work is done in the university and when entrance is based on high-school graduation, is never rated as work of elementary or secondary grade. It hardly stands to reason that when the same work is given by other institu- tions it should because of that fact receive any different rating. Of course we all know that there are college professors who do not believe in professional training for teachers at all. The teachers' college runs up against this prejudice continually. Ever since Horace Mann and the Harvard professors had their battles over the question as to whether normal training was of value, there has been strong college opposition to all teacher- training work. By means of logic and unanswerable arguments, Horace Mann won out, ancj the state normal school was establisht, yet, because of the bitterness of the contest, he left at Harvard a feeling which developt into a prejudice and spread to other colleges, and which has not only opposed normal training on the part of normal schools up to the present time, but even now handicaps the work of departments of education in colleges and universities. I heard a prominent professor of a leading uni- versity say not long ago that there was nothing but "bosh and rot" in the work of their teachers' college. That man would not even rank the normal school as being on a par with the secondary school. The number of pro- fessors filled with Harvard prejudice against normal training is diminishing gradually year by year, but there are still enough of these men to retard more or less the development of professional training in both normal schools and universities. It is a serious mistake for either the normal school or the college to proceed on the theory that it possesses a complete monopoly on good teaching. As a student in a normal school I was in the classes of a pro- fessor of botany who allowed a student only two and one-half hours' credit for five hours in botany taken under Professor Bessey, of the university. I was in the classes of a professor of history in a university who refused to accept five hours in modern history taken under Professor Hart, of Harvard University, in lieu of a similar course offered by himself. Most of the knocking on the work of the normal school or of the college has about as much reason or justice about it as these men had in their Department! FOUR-QUARTER PLAN OF UNIVERSITY OPERATION 299 attitude toward the work of others in botany and history. It may not be a matter of concern to normal schools whether colleges rate their work as that of higher institutions or not; it may not seem to be important to the college whether it has the good will and the fullest cooperation of the normal schools or not; yet it is of vital importance to the welfare of the youth in our country to have harmony and team work on the part of both the teachers and the institutions. The quiet fight between normal schools and colleges, between colleges and universities, between universities and state departments, and so forth, is not in the interest of efficiency, is not to the advantage of any institution, and it is against sound educational policy. It is easy to start a fight, but it is a difiicult matter to stop it. We have invented the self-starter for automobiles, but we have yet to invent the self-stopper in wars between nations and between institutions. But just as the biggest thing in the world for the individual is for him to get along well with other people, so the biggest thing in the world for an educational institution is for it to have harmonious relations with other institutions. Perhaps this section of the National Education Association breeds the spirit of understanding and cooperation, and perhaps, as both colleges and normal schools respond to the new demands made upon them and as they assume the heavier responsibilities being placed upon them by new conditions, they may forget their ancient differences, lay down their threadbare prejudices, and unite as never before in doing good in the world. These meetings are certainly helping to develop a more cordial spirit between both men and institutions. I have attempted to give a few reasons for calling the state normal school a higher institution, and I have ventured to make a plea for harmony and team work among our higher educational institutions, which I am sure meets with your own views and fullest approval. THE FOUR-QUARTER FLAN OF UNIVERSITY OPERATION DURING THE WAR AND AFTER JOHN A. WIDTSOE, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH The four-quarter plan of university operation implies the division of the calendar year into four terms of instruction, each of approximately twelve weeks. The fall, winter, and spring quarters cover the school year as at present understood in most American colleges. The summer quarter includes the six weeks of the usual summer school and six weeks of addi- tional work for students who desire to do a full quarter's work during the summer. This division of the year is already in operation m the University of Chicago, Leland Stanford Junior University, Massachusetts Agricultural 300 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Higher College, Lincoln Memorial University, George Peabody College for Teachers, Indiana State Normal School, Cornell University, Department of Agri- culture, and possibly in other institutions which, however, have not reported to the Office of the Commissioner of Education. The plan, at least the division of the present academic year into three terms, was very common in many schools of the country a quarter of a century ago. My own first college teaching was done in an institution that divided its school year into three terms, and it was only in obedience to the practice of the larger institutions that the semester plan was adopted. One of the resolutions agreed upon by the convention of 187 American colleges and universities, held at the instance of the National Council of Defense in Washington last May, reads as follows: We believe thiat all colleges and universities should so modify their calendars and curricula as will most fully subserve the present needs of the Nation and utilize most profitably the time of the students and the institutional plant, force and equipment. With this end in view, we suggest, as an emergency measure, the colleges consider the advis- ability of dividing the college year into four quarters of approximately twelve weeks each, and that, where necessary, courses be repeated at least once a year so that the college course may be best adapted to food production. As a result a number of institutions intend to adopt the quarter plan beginning with the coming school year or the one following. The list of these institutions is not yet complete, but includes a large number of col- leges and universities under state and private support. The present importance of this subject is, of course, a result of the desire on the part of the educational institutions to be of the largest possible service during this time of great national concern. Many of our young college men have gone into the service of the army or navy; many of the others are rendering equally large service in the agricultural and industrial army. Our first great national duty is the production of an abundance of food. Crops must be sown and harvested on larger areas than before, and new labor must be secured to take the place of the men who are serving in the army and navy. Factories and other commercial enterprises will demand more service than ever before, and in large part from men and women who in normal times could devote their full time to educational work. In conse- quence of these demands, our young men and women will not be able to enter or leave college on the dates set arbitrarily by college authorities. The call for help at seedtime and harvest will take precedence over the call of the educational institutions. The four-quarter plan possesses the flexibility needed at this time, because it provides the beginning of classes in the fall, early winter, and early spring, which may be completed with the securing of proper credit after approximately twelve weeks of study. The student who is obliged to remain on the farm in the fall, to harvest crops, may, under this plan, enter upon his school work at the beginning of the winter quarter. Should the planting season begin early, he may leave at the beginning of the spring Department] FOUR-QUARTER PLAN OF UNIVERSITY OPERATION 301 term, having a third of a year's work to his credit, but should the spring season be late, he may continue to the end of the spring quarter, and com- plete two-thirds of a year's work. Ultimately this man will win his educa- tion and his degree, tho it may take him six years or more. Similarly, a student who desires to secure, as quickly as possible, training for the leadership that our country needs may easily, by making use of the summer quarter, complete his college course in three years. The four-quarter plan, because of its flexibility, seems exceedingly well suited to meet the present needs of our country. It is, after all, a relatively small sacrifice for our institutions of learning to make this adjustment at least during the war, to give the largest service to our young people, and thru them to our country in a day of need. Other reasons make the four-quarter plan of university administration seem desirable at all times, whether of peace or war, and help to quiet the misgivings which some have had regarding the adoptiqn of the recommenda- tion of the Washington convention. The plan implies that the majority of the subjects of instruction offered by a university or college begin and end in one quarter. Should a class continue thru two or three quarters, a definite division of the subject would be concluded at each quarter, and every student would receive proper credit for the work so far done. The beginning and ending of a subject in a term of approximately twelve weeks requires, practically, the daily recita- tion and study period for a small number of subjects. The recess periods between the applications of the student to one subject will be short and uni- lorm except for the week-end break over Saturday and Sunday. Students of the subject insist that this method of study secures the greatest concentra- tion of attention and the largest grasp of the subject-matter studied. Indeed, learning experiments have shown that the greatest possible appropri- ation of material occurs when the periods of application are separated by a recess of twenty-four hours. This principle, which bears out the practical experience of many of us, might of itself be a justification of the adoption of the quarter plan of operation. Further, when a student carries a small number of subjects at once — say three, as in the Chicago quarter plan — there is very small interference among the subjects. Unquestionably, several subjects carried at the same time will always interfere with one another, but the interference becomes less with the decrease in the number of habits which are being perfected at the same time. This principle seems also to be borne out by practical experience; and, in view of it, it is difficult to defend the semester plan, which too often permits a student to carry as many as sixteen hours of work in two-hour subjects; that is, to study eight different subjects simultaneously. Several investigators, notably Professor George S. Snoddy of the University of Utah, have shown that the largest possible understanding of a subject is secured by continued application over a period of time which is 302 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher followed by a recess as long as the total time of application, as in a three months' application and a three months' rest. The quarter plan secures this possibility, as a student at the end of one quarter may drop even a continued subject, which may be resumed at a later quarter. The maturity of thought which comes from this practice has been observed by all who have dealt with students after vacations or with graduate students who have returned to the university after a period of time spent in teaching or in vacation from school work. Students of psychology and education insist, therefore, that the quarter plan is better than the semester plan if we wish to secure the best returns from our educational efforts. This makes it likely that, if the quarter plan be adopted, it will be continued after the war, when the period of recon- struction will require from all public institutions quite as great a flexibility as the present great struggle demands. Certainly, whether in peace or at war, we desire to secure the largest returns from our educational efforts. It must also be remembered that as our attempts to educate all the children of all the people become more and more successful, larger classes of people will demand from our educational institutions greater and greater flexibility. The demand for help on the farms, whether the time be one of peace or of war, is largest at the time of planting and harvesting. There is no good reason why universities and colleges should refuse to heed the needs of this large group of our people. In other branches of business there are likewise periods of activity which require the use of many men and women who later may spend a large part of the year in study. In this day there should be no hesitation in adapting the college curriculum as far as may be possible to state needs. Normal schools and university schools of education demand, as part of the regular preparation of teachers, that the students do a certain amount of practice teaching. When the student is engaged in practice teaching, he cannot well carry on any other university work. For that reason many training-school institutions have been forst to divide the regular academic year into three parts, one or one-half of which is devoted wholly to practice teaching. The quarter plan would, therefore, be very acceptable at all times to normal schools and schools of education. There is also a very great, growing, and praiseworthy tendency to make education more effective by making use of existing commercial and industrial plants as laboratories which may bring home to students the practical meaning of the doctrines laid down in the classroom. In some institutions a group of students is placed in actual industrial service, while a corresponding group is securing instruction in the classroom, and after a given length of time the groups are interchanged. This method of instruc- tion, which is proving most acceptable in its results, really presupposes that the school year, by shortened terms, shall become more flexible than it has been. By this method, also, new opportunities for self-help are afforded Department] FOUR-QUARTER PLAN OF UNIVERSITY OPERATION 303 those who must work their way through college. The quarter plan always makes the college struggle less precarious for the poor student, as he may drop out any quarter for increast money-making efforts, without loss of college credits. It has always been a matter of very great regret to all of us that a student who enters college late in the fall does not have a fair opportunity to take up satisfactory work, or if he leaves before the end of the spring semester he finds it difficult to secure credit toward graduation for the work he has done. This class of young people, which will always be large, would be greatly benefited by the adoption of the quarter plan. It is evident, also, that as the summer quarter develops, the college plant is better used than at the present time. There is a very general feeling, based on sound thinking, that our public service plants should be used as continuously as possible. There are, therefore, multiplying reasons for the adoption of the quarter plan of university administration, derived from our present needs, from our larger knowledge of the learning process, and from our better understanding of the need of the schools to dovetail their work into the existing pursuits and conditions of mankind. It is very certain that if a fairly large number of the institutions adopt this plan during war time it will be continued after the war. The first objection that is raised against the quarter plan is that it is expensive. Whether a nine or a twelve months' session is more expensive depends entirely upon the work done during the year. The question is not as to the quantity of the work of an institution, but concerning its availabil- ity to all classes of people. Under the new, as under the old, plan the college authorities must be the masters of the financial situation. The objection has been raised, also, especially by the registrars, that it is difficult to convert the credit marks of the quarter plan into those of the semester plan and that, consequently, students are handicapt when they move from one institution to another. This objection is largely based on the fact that at the University of Chicago the courses of instruction are denomi- nated major and minor. Three major subjects constitute full work for a quarter; a minor is one-half of a major. There is no need in the adoption of the quarter plan to accept also the credit terminology of the University of Chicago. The present system of giving credits on the semester basis may be retained under the quarter plan. The fractions which might result would look threatening to the bookkeeper, but it might not be an unwhole- some practice for university registrars to review their fractions until all institutions come to a unity of practice. Another objection to the quarter plan comes from the technical schools where the courses of instruction are nearly all prescribed. These schedules of studies, carefully arranged, are often the result of many years of develop- ment on the part of the school. They represent, in nearly all cases, the 304 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IHigher best judgment of those who have in charge the training of the students. In fact, so convinst are many of the technical faculties that the schedule of studies just fills the bill that they are inclined to look upon their work as something superior to ordinary man-made products, and that it would be akin to sacrilege to tamper with the arrangements and sequence of the courses of instruction outlined. We all sympathize with the zeal and sincerity of the deans and professors who so look upon the fruits of their labor; yet we know that the conversion from the quarter to the semester plan can be done with no violent jar to existing prescribed outlines, and that no evil will result from the change. The essence of converting a semester plan (each semester of i8 weeks) into a quarter plan (each quarter of 12 weeks) is condensation. A three- hour semester course having 54 recitation hours becomes a five-hour quarter course having 60 hours, or a four-hour quarter course having 48 hours. A two-hour semester course having 36 hours becomes a three-hour quarter course having 36 hours. Summarizing the matter: First, nearly two hundred universities and colleges in convention assembled last May advocated the adoption of the quarter plan, at least during the time of the war. Secondly, students of psychology and of education are insistent in their statements that the quarter plan furnishes the learner a better opportunity than the semester plan. Thirdly, the present trend of education, which leads to a greater association of the work of the school and the work of the people, requires the greater flexibility of the college year that comes from the quarter plan. Fourthly, students who are obliged to work their way thru college are likely to find the quarter plan to their advantage. Fifthly, the college plant is utilized more fully thruout the year. Sixthly, there is no serious difficulty in transforming prescribed courses of study from the semester to the quarter plan, since the whole matter is one of condensing the material given infrequently in many weeks into classes given frequently over a shorter number of weeks. Above all things, however, we need to remember that the schools are made for man, and not man for the schools. Our schools should meet quickly and fearlessly the new needs of the people that may arise from time to time. What man has made is not too good to be unmade, if out of the change something better comes. We all recognize the conservatism of our educational body, but just now conservatism can well be laid aside in favor of a larger service to be rendered to the people and the country. 1^ Department] PRESENT-DAY tSSUES IN BIGBER EDUCATION 305 CRITICAL PRESENT-DAY ISSUES IN ADMINISTRATION OF STATE HIGHER EDUCATION B. R. BUCKINGHAM, EDUCATIONAL STATISTICIAN, STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION, MADISON, WIS. It cannot be said that the issues of state administration of higher edu- cation are being squarely met, or even consciously understood. I propose to sketch what I conceive to be some of these issues. At the outset I may say that a statement of the critical questions and the formulation of answers to them cannot be derived from the acts of the state legislatures. The body of laws is one thing and the procedure under them is quite another. We are likely to think that because a law exists its administration coincides with its provisions. This may be only approximately true, and in many cases is not true even in a general way. Schemes for the administration of higher education by state authority have their inception largely in the growing expensiveness of such education. An uneasy feeling that all is not well, that greater sums are being expended than are required by good business management, is more or less common in every state. The problem then is to constitute an authority which, after finding out what the facts are, shall either reveal the suspected mis- management or allay the suspicion that it exists. Such an authority should represent both the people who furnish the money and the educational officers who spend it. A board, however con- stituted and selected, cannot be thus representative unless the experts who serve it are well chosen. Such experts must above all things be sympathetic to the needs and opportunities of higher educational institutions. They should not, however, serve the interests of the educational institutions with- out considering also the rights of the people. They will be called upon to decide many questions where the issue is sharply drawn between the educa- tional institutions and the representatives of the people. Oftener than not these questions will involve some form of economy at an institution. If the evidence is not conclusive, the experts should decide in favor of the status quo. Ordinarily this will be favorable to the claims of the educa- tional people. But a mistake in this direction involves no more than a money loss; while a mistake in the other direction would almost certainly involve losses of a more hurtful character. When, however, the evidence is clear, the expert must decide with courage. He must face the displeasure of the educational people without bitterness and without resentment. The one big critical issue in the matter of the state administration of higher education is the issue of proportional treatment of existing institu- tions. For example, in Wisconsin four institutions are entirely supported by the state, except for student fees and revolving funds, namely, the state university, the state normal schools (of which there are nine), the Stout Institute, which is essentially a technical normal school, and the Wisconsin 3o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iHigher Mining School. The state extends aid to numerous other educational insti- tutions, including the elementary schools and the high schools. About $2,400,000 are available yearly as the common school fund. Including this, the state expended in 1916-17 about $6,500,000 for education, of which the university received about $2,000,000, the normal schools about $1,000,000, the Stout Institute about $150,000, and the Mining School about $13,000. In other words, the university received about 30 per cent of all the educa- tional money, the normal schools about 15 per cent, the Stout Institute 2 J per cent, and the Mining School ^ oi 1 per cent. These figures raise the question whether the system, as it has grown up under the influence of more or less energetic and successful educational officials, each pushing for appropriations, has workt out so that each type of institution is being given equal opportunity to realize its mission and to accomplish the work it was created to do. It is against public policy that one institution should be generously finanst to the detriment of another. The question of whether the state is distributing equitably its educa- tional money requires the most delicate handling and is likely to stir up opposition. The institution which has been receiving large supplies in comparison with other institutions will hold tenaciously to them and offer many specious arguments for their continuance. In order that any central authority may equalize opportunities for all educational institutions, it must first be able to appraise their work accu- rately and convincingly. It will at once find that there are no acceptable units in terms of which such an appraisal may be made. The money side of the question is easily stated because we have a satisfactory monetary unit. The amount of service rendered, however, cannot be so satisfactorily stated, and until, after numerous trials and many errors and with many people cooperating, acceptable units are devised the administrative control of higher education will be precarious. It will oscillate between unneces- sary liberality for one item and destructive parsimony for another, with the tendency for both conditions to be self-perpetuating. The teaching-hour as a unit of work is obviously unsatisfactory. Clearly it is not the same with a class of five as it is with a class of twenty-five. No less clearly an hour of laboratory teaching is unequal to an hour of recita- tion or lecture work. Moreover, it is not customary to require the same number of hours of teaching in different subjects. There is, for example, a tendency to require from one-third to one-half more hours per week of teaching in mathematics and foreign languages than in English or history. Doubtless this difference is a rough expression of the fact that an hour of teaching in mathematics entails less work than does an hour of teaching in history. Again, the number of students taught is an unsatisfactory expression of the amount of a teacher's work, altho it is used as such in some institu- tions. A student may be a graduate student or a Freshman. He may be I Department] PRESENT-DAY ISSUES IN HIGHER EDUCATION 307 doing two hours of work a week or twenty. In using the number of students as a measure of teaching, we neglect the fact that a student may recite in a given subject five times or only once a week; in using hours of teaching as such a measure we neglect the fact that classes may consist of five students or fifty. The best unit so far devised is a combination of the hours of teaching and the number of students, i.e., the stiident-hour. It may be defined as one student taught one hour a week for a semester. According to this, a class of twenty students, taught one hour a week for half a year would yield twenty student-hours, while a class of twenty students taught three hours a week for a semester would yield sixty student-hours. The student-hour, however, in its crude form, is itself far from ideal as a unit. The most obvious difficulty is the undoubted difference between laboratory student-hours and non-laboratory student-hours. I have counted two laboratory student- hours as equal to one non-laboratory student-hour. The scheme of weighting whereby this seems to be justified is an illus- tration of the type of statistical work which must be done before valid determinations may be made concerning higher education. The student- hour for German may be equated with the student-hour for philosophy, or animal husbandry, or torts, or methods of teaching arithmetic in normal schools, by obtaining constants to be used as weights for each of the different subjects. Moreover, the work which a faculty member does in lines other than teaching must be capable of being exprest in equivalencies of the same standard units. Research, extension, administration, model teaching, field work — all these must be brought into line before we can speak with con- fidence of service received for money spent. These refinements have not yet been made by anyone; they are not, however, impossible. For example, in determining the constant to be applied to non-laboratory teaching in order to equate it with laboratory teaching, one first ascertains the average hours of teaching of science and of non-science teachers. I found that at the University of Wisconsin Col- lege of Letters and Science the average in the science departments was 6 . 6 non-laboratory hours and 9 . i laboratory hours per week. The average in the non-science departments was 1 1 . 4 hours per week. Assuming that a rough equality of service grows up naturally as departments develop side by side, and that the hours of teaching as found are a fair index of such equahty, we may conclude that the men in the science and non-science groups work equally hard. Now the 11 .4 hours of recitation work of the non-science men exceed the 6 . 6 hours of recitation work of the science men by 4 . 8 hours. If the men in the two groups do the same amount of work, this 4 . 8 hours of recitation teaching must be equivalent to the 9 . i hours of laboratory teaching done by the science men, i.e., one non-laboratory hour equals i . 9 laboratory hours. I have therefore used 2 as a substantially accurate constant and have divided the laboratory student-hours by it. 3o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher This will serve as an instance of one rather simple determination of a statistical constant for use in higher education.^ The lack of such work has caused higher educational institutions to neglect the lessons which they might derive from each other. There is no body of data concerning uni- versities, colleges, technical schools, and normal schools which commands confidence. Whenever a comparison is made between one institution and another, those who are interested in controverting the conclusions reacht are easily able to show that comparison has been made between things that are not strictly similar. The differences may not be significant, but by directing attention to them rather than to the similarities, confusion may be created and the conclusion may be unjustly discredited. The derivation of units and the equating of them in different fields of work by methods which are fair and convincing lie at the basis of any inter- pretation which may be made of educational facts. Such work will require time and cooperation. Various universities and colleges, the Carnegie Foundation, and the Bureau of Education, have sought with little success to formulate statistical systems. The need is felt, but the difficulties appear to have been insurmountable. I have stated that I consider the greatest single issue to be the giving of equal opportunity to all state educational institutions without favoritism to any. By "equal opportunity " I do not mean that the salaries of normal- school teachers should equal the salaries of university teachers; I do not mean that the hours of teaching or the sizes of classes should be the same in different types of institutions. I mean that it should be the duty of a state administrative authority to see to it that its normal schools as normal schools have an equal chance with its university as a university; that its agricultural college shall have the same opportunity to be a good agricul- tural college that its mining school has of being a good mining school. Another important issue and one which is involved in that of giving equal opportunity to all institutions is the issue of duplication of effort, e.g., the question of the extent to which different types of institutions should be permitted to teach the same subjects. No one questions that a certain amount of duplication is desirable and necessary. The question, however, of the amount of it has not been settled, and from the state's point of view there is every reason why it should be settled. The recent surveys of state institutions by the United States Bureau of Education have set up the doctrine of "major and service lines" of work, and altho this distinction has been vigorously assailed there is no doubt that it is significant and suggest- ^ ive. A major line of work is one which an institution is expected primarily to emphasize and develop. Service lines of work involve such subordinate subjects as are essential to the development of the major line. Thus engi- *I owe to Dean E, A. Birge, of the University of Wisconsin College of Letters and Science, the suggestion for the method, altho I alone am responsible for the con- clusion. I Department) PRESENT-DAY ISSUES IN HIGHER EDUCATION 309 neering subjects are major lines in an engineering college, and service lines would be such subjects as English and modern languages, so far as these are necessary to support the major lines of work. Such a college, however, would not be justified in offering courses in its English department in Anglo-Saxon, or in its language department in Provencal lyrics. Such courses would involve a duplication of work properly done in a college of liberal arts. The question of duplication of effort in the training of teachers is being vigorously discust at present, and we may consider it in this connection as affording one type of duplication. On the one hand, we have the undoubted fact that in most fields the state is not providing a sufficient number of trained teachers. On this account the tendency is to encourage or permit any educational institution which can do so to equip teachers for various lines of work. On the other hand,--we have the equally undoubted fact that each kind of teaching service requires specific training; that, for example, prospective country-school teachers need a specialized course of study differ- ing from that for prospective city-school teachers, and that training for high-school service should be differentiated from training for elementary- school service. If it is admitted that such specialization is desirable, then it becomes the part of good administration to adopt any means which will secure it. If it is thought that better rural-school teachers, better teachers for city grades, and better high-school teachers will be secured by selecting specific institutions whose special concern it shall be to train for these types of service, it is an administrative blunder to allow several different kinds of training to be done in each institution. In many states county training schools organized to train students to become rural-school teachers are now aspiring to become normal schools; normal schools are likewise advancing to the status of colleges or schools of education. It is necessary for a state administrative authority to reach a decision on the question of how far such movements should go. In doing so it must resolutely take the point of view of the educational needs of the state irrespective of personal or institu- tional ambitions. It must balance the needs of the state for trained teachers and the need of utilizing every existing agency to meet the demand against the fact that when an institution pursues a major line, with service lines subordinate to it, it gains greatly in definiteness of aim and precision of method. The question of expense is also involved. The training of rural- school teachers, for example, will no doubt be more expensive in the long run if scattered among several types of institutions than it will be if con- fined to one type of institution especially selected for this kind of work. I am suggesting, let it be understood, that this is an issue. I am not attempting a solution, but a state educational authority which fails to attempt a solution is either blind or timid. It should be the duty of the state to interpret the educational institu- tions to the people and to their representatives in the legislature. A central 3IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher authority is in a peculiarly favorable position to do this, since it may act with knowledge of all the institutions and from a detacht point of view with respect to each of them. When a single institution seeks to interpret its work and to express its needs to the people, it does so from a partial and interested point of view. The function of a state central authority in rendering, in readable form, reports on the work, the needs, and the oppor- tunities of the educational institutions under its control is important and should be definitely provided for. The state administrative authority must take into account the relation of the educational institutions to the needs of the state. It is significant that recent surveys of city school systems have laid considerable emphasis upon the industries of the cities in question. Similarly, there should be a keen realization of the relation between the occupations of the citizens of the state and the schools which the citizens maintain. I do not, however, advocate a narrow provincialism in the. administra- tion of state institutions. It seems foolish from every point of view to discriminate against non-resident students. While it is the first duty of the state to give its citizens the best training for the work they will have to do, it ought also to be the pride of the state to maintain institutions so attractive that students beyond its borders will attend them. Such stu- dents should be made welcome. Many of them will become residents of the state and will contribute to its welfare. Others will carry the prestige of the institutions abroad, and this will react favorably upon the institu- tions themselves. Certain tendencies are observable in state educational administration and these should be given consideration in making any administrative program. Thirty-eight of the forty-eight states have state boards of educa- tion, and it may therefore be said that the trend is strongly toward placing authority in the hands of boards rather than of individuals. The tend- ency likewise is to give to these boards greater powers as the years go by. Examples in support of this statement may be taken from the legislation of New York in 1914, of Massachusetts in 1909, of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Arkansas, and Oklahoma in 191 1, of California and Idaho in 1913, and of Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, and Vermont in 19 15. "There can be no doubt," says President Butler, "about the general tendency being toward greater centralization. Not only are its advantages quite apparent, but the overwhelming current of legislation and the decision off the courts is making it imperative." With this added responsibility and power must of necessity go a permanency and a continuity of policy. In many states there is con- tinually manifested a restless desire for a fresh start. Each successive legislature modifies the educational administration as different interests secure control of it. If the chief purpose of administration with respect to higher educational institutions is to be carried out — the purpose, namely, of securing for each institution an equal opportunity to realize itself and Department] PRESENT-DAY ISSUES IN HIGHER EDUCATION 311 to meet the needs of the state — then those who are charged with this work must feel that they will not be discredited and their motives impugned at every turn. Each time a new set of officers is installed, these officers must learn, and they will make mistakes as did their predecessors. Nor is it in human nature that they should be impartial when they know that by decid- ing against powerful interests they themselves will be sacrificed. There ought to be a chance for a board of education, or other state authority, to benefit by its own experience. There ought to be a realization that under almost any circumstances a continuous authority is better than a succession of authorities. There ought also to be recognition of the fact that those who do anything will arouse opposition. If you want to find officers who have no opposition, look for those who are doing nothing. There is another question which a state authority in charge of higher education must inevitably encounter. It is the question of standardization. I know that among educational people there is a feeling that standardiza- tion is something hostile, something which represents ''factory methods." This is an unfortunate error. These institutions are handling millions of dollars annually, and there is therefore every reason why business methods should apply to them. If some form of standardizing has workt to ad- vantage in other lines of business, it may be expected to do so in education. Those who decry this sort of thing think much about academic freedom and spiritual values. But there is a material as well as a human factor in every successful concern, and in the rapid growth of educational institutions the mere mechanism has failed to meet the requirements. Recognizing scholarly and spiritual leadership as the highest manifestation of efficiency, one may, without being a Philistine, take the attitude that where scholarly and spiritual leadership is genuine it will not be injured by free and fair trial of some of the principles of organization and administration which large enterprises everywhere are finding so helpful in carrying out their purposes. I am suggesting that it is a vital issue in state administration of higher education that there be an open-minded attempt to apply such principles. In his report to the Carnegie Foundation on "Academic and Industrial Efficiency," Mr. Morris Llewellyn Cooke concludes: "As a result of this inquiry, the writer is convinst that there are very few, if any, of the broader principles of management which obtain generally in the industrial and com- mercial world which are not more or less applicable in the college field, and, as far as was discovered, no one of them is now generally observed." It is impossible to speak of all the ways in which standardization, or what Cooke calls in another connection "business practice," may be applied. Just as I used the method of equating laboratory to non-laboratory work as a type of the way in which different lines of work may be brought together into a single statement, so in the application of standards I may use the matter of class size as an example of what I mean. Several investigators have emphasized the fact that no factor entering into the cost of instruction 312 NATlOlVAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher is more significant than that of the number of students who are taught together. A substantial increase in salaries or a decrease in the hours of teaching may be more than offset by a moderate increase in the average size of classes. For example, in the University of Wisconsin Law School the average hours of teaching are low and the average salaries are nearly twice as high as in any other faculty of the University. Yet, because of large classes, the cost per student-hour is less than it is in three of the other six schools and colleges of the University. Another of the colleges with hours of teaching the same as the general average for the University, with salaries lower by more than three hundred dollars than the average for the University, but with classes unusually small, has a unit cost about 70 per cent higher than that of the University as a whole. A president of a university recently told me that in his judgment the small class was "the wickedest waste in education." If this is true, we have no excuse, except our timidity, for failure to regulate it. It is true that a greater number of small classes should be expected in university work than in collegiate work or in normal schools. Much of the work which differ- entiates a university from a college must necessarily be done in small classes. In our state universities, however, more than half of the teaching is of collegiate grade. Such teaching should be done as colleges do it and not as universities do graduate work. A professor who directs the research work of graduate students and who is expected to contribute by his own investiga- tions to the sum of knowledge in his field should do relatively little teaching; but the organization which permits the teacher of undergraduates to do the same amount of teaching because he is in an institution called collectively a university is making an extravagant mistake. University teaching does not become such because it is done in a university; and it requires some- thing more than a name to justify the application of university standards. There are two kinds of small classes: (a) those in courses elected by but few students, and (b) those made by sectioning in courses taken by many students. As to the first kind, the tendency in universities to offer a multi- tude of courses ought to be checkt unless there is enough demand for the courses to furnish classes of, say, eight or ten students. I do not mean that classes as low as four or five ought not to be permitted; what I mean is that the number of these classes should be small and the reason for them should be definitely known and approved. In many cases, especially in graduate work, a course may be offered in alternate years, or even every third year, instead of annually; or a semester course which is being offered twice a year may be offered once. In other words, courses which do not attract many students may be given less frequently than are courses in which large numbers of students enrol; while it may sometimes be good policy to discontinue courses for which the demand is small. In courses enrolling large numbers of students the decision as to class size rests upon quite different ground. Since the students are available, I Department] PRESENT-DAY ISSUES IN HIGHER EDUCATION 313 the classes will be small only because their smallness seems desirable. The question, however, is one of policy. Its answer is the answer to the question of how large a class should be in order to be economically and effectively taught. Again no general answer is forthcoming; but a number of answers may ultimately be given, each applying to a type of institution, or a subject, or a kind of teaching. It is significant in this connection that every study of the efficiency of teaching in relation to size of class, except one, has shown that there is no advantage in small classes. It is true that these studies have related to elementary schools. On a priori grounds, however, it does not appear that there is any reason why children in elementary schools may be well taught in large classes while students in higher educational institutions may not. In my own judgment — a judgment which is frankly tentative — for most kinds of recitation work in courses elected by large numbers of students a basis of sectioning involving less than twenty-five students to a class does not justify its cost. I have not entered into the work of the so-called business manager. His work is being standardized and he is getting results. I assume that everyone is sympathetic to the idea of buying in large quantities, to obtain- ing cash discounts, to good accounting systems, labor-saving devices, and the employment of sufficient clerical help to relieve higher-paid officials from routine work. These are not critical issues. It is rather when we enter the field of hours of teaching and research that we raise critical issues. The information is not at hand, however, for making final determina- tions concerning these issues. It is necessary to proceed slowly and, above all, not to be destructive thru the application of crudely made standards. The immediately necessary thing to do is to make an intensive and exten- sive study of university, college, and school economics with a view to furnish- ing a just basis of control. State boards of education should, in my judg- ment, for the next few years be largely investigating boards; they should do what the presidents and trustees of educational institutions have con- spicuously failed to do — they should base educational policies upon ascer- tained facts and principles as these are found to exist in successful practice. The state authority should see that no institution monopolizes an undue share of the public money. It should make plain to the people the signifi- cance and the value of their institutions. In order to do this, it should be continuous and reasonably unaffected by the veering winds that blow about the state capitol. Its employees should be carefully selected and well enough paid to insure their competence. Their tenure should be such that they may have the courage of their convictions without the necessity of protecting themselves personally. They should be men of broad and Uberal training, capable of appreciating to the full the educator's point of view, while, at the same time, they should not forget that they exist in order that the people's point of view may likewise be taken. DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — A. H. Sproul, principal, High School of Commerce Portland, Ore. Vice-President — ^H. R. Hatfield, University of California Berkeley, Cal. Secretary — Mrs. G. Holmes Lawrence Portland, Ore. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July io, 191 7 The meeting was called to order in Room C of the City Auditorium at 10 a.m. by President A. H. Sproul. The following program was presented: "Pan-American Relations" — U. G. Dubach, Oregon Agricultural College, Corval- lis. Ore. "Adjusting Ourselves to a New Era in Business" — Harry C. Spilbnan, New York, N. Y. "The Teaching of Salesmanship to High-School Girls" — Cassie L. Paine, Woman's Educational and Industrial Union, Boston, Mass. "Modification in Commercial Training Suggested by Present World-Conditions" — E. F. Dahm, assistant director. Extension Division, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. SECOND SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 12, 1917 The following program was presented: "Vocations for High-School Girls" — Mary Schenck Woolman, manager. National Association for Promotion of Industrial Education, Boston, Mass. " How to Teach Salesmanship in the High School " — F. H. Young, head of commercial department, high school, Pendleton, Ore. "Expert Training Methods, Their Necessity and Application in Your Typewriting Department" — H. F. Smith, State College of Washington, PuUman, Wash. "How Can the High Schools of Commerce Best Serve the High Schools?" — Dean J. A. Bexell, School of Commerce, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore. During the business meeting which succeeded the program the following motions were adopted: On motion of Dean J. A. Bexell the committee appointed at the last meeting to investi- gate and report on courses of study was urged to complete its work during the coming year and to enter a report at the next annual meeting. On motion of Mrs. Francis Effinger-Raymond the new oflficers of the Business Section were urged to see to it that the Business Section be recognized on the general program of the Association, and that ample time be provided on the regular program for general dis- cussion of practical problems. On motion of Dean J. A. Bexell, associate members were urged to become active mem- bers so that the Business Section may acquire greater influence thru its voting members in the Association. On motion of E. F. Dahm the Department of Business Education of the National Education Association appointed a War Emergency Committee to determine how the 31S 3i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business commercial-teaching brain forces of this country can help business in its larger emergency task. The Committee on Nominations recommended the following officers and they were unanimously elected: President — G. P. Eckels, department of commercial education, University of Pitts- burgh, and Westinghouse High School, Pittsburgh, Pa. Secretary — L. G. Hartley, conmiercial department, Schenley High School, Pitts- burgh, Pa. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS VOCATIONS FOR HIGH -SCHOOL GIRLS MRS. MARY SCHENCK WOOLMAN, MANAGER, NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR PROMOTION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS. {Outline) I. The ideals of vocational education are permeating the high schools. 1. The young people are remaining, for they feel that something worth much to them in their future life is being offered. a) Secretarial, commercial, and library training have been begun. h) Dressmaking and millinery of a more or less tradelike character are being tried in many schools and business shops. c) The advantages of working for customers or sale are greater than those of the laboratory method. d) Trade judgments show what a garment is really worth. Less danger of swelled heads. e) Opportunity of knowing what trade wants. /) Time element. g) Families do not have to buy expensive materials and the standard of living is not injured. 2. "Accommodators" (girls who must support themselves). The girls are trained to work correctly. a) Housekeeping. h) Special cooking. c) Care of children. d) Shirtwaist-making. e) Laundry. /) Waiting on table. g) Seamstress work. h) Getting a meal. Department] VOCATIONS FOR HIGH-SCHOOL GIRLS 317 i) Placing the girls and seeing that they are of service. j) Power coming from it. Girls doing work in institution and gain- ing from it. k) Other girls who have not had to work asking for the training. /) A method of guidance. 3. Rural high schools. a) The farm home with ideas of management, sanitation, economy, and accounting, (i) Gardening. (2) Dairy work. (3) Poultry-raising. (4) First aid. (s) Simple nursing. (6) Care of children. (7) Cooking. (8) Preserving. (9) Canning. (10). Cleaning. (11) Garment-making. (12) Assistants to county agents. 4. Salesmanship courses. a) In one high school the third and fourth years utilized for two kinds of salesmanship. b) Training regular salesgirls and the milliner for selling goods in slack seasons. c) The future of the well-educated girl in this field looks bright, as there is considerable chance of advancing to buyer or other well- paid positions. PAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS U. G. DUBACH, OREGON AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CORVALLIS, ORE. Today we are forst to see that our splendid isolation as a nation is gone. The world, once tremendously large, has become small; as it were, a great neighborhood in which each neighbor is vitally concerned with the doings of every other neighbor. As a nation our opportunities and responsibilities demand an aggressive participation in the direction of affairs in every part of this world-neighborhood. No relationship is of greater importance to the United States than that of Pan-America. Nothing could be of greater value to the United States in her leadership in the present 3i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Business world-crisis than a solid backing of all America, and this can be secured only by an intelligent cooperation in the solution of problems of mutual interest. In population, Pan- America numbers something over 175 millions, over 100 millions living in the United States, and over 75 millions in Latin America, 25 millions being in the North American group, and the remaining 50 millions in the South American group. All America with its wealth of natural resources has a population density about the same as Africa, one- tenth that of Europe, one-fifth to one-fourth that of Asia, and five or six times that of Australia and Oceanica. The population of Latin America alone is seven- tenths as dense as the rest of America, including Canada, one-half that of the United States, four-fifths that of Africa, one-sixth that of Asia, one-twelfth that of Europe, and five times as dense as Australia and Oceanica. The Latin American states are as a whole producers of raw materials. They manufacture but little. Experts tell us that in the natural course of events this status will continue for some generations. And yet these states could, by certain readjustments, become self-sustaining, as proved by the period at the beginning of the present war when the regular channels of import were blockt. On the other hand, we and other nations need the output of Latin America. Among their leading products are coffee, rubber, minerals and metals, fruits, extracts, hard woods, grains, and animal products. Properly developt, the output of several of these can be multiplied. The United States is rapidly becoming a manufacturing nation, and our exports will more and more consist of manufactured goods. What could be more sane than to develop this great field for our manufactured goods from which we must draw imports of raw goods ? Thus far we have successfully competed in the sale of certain goods in all fields. In metal goods, certain machinery and tools, wooden manufac- tures, leather and rubber goods, we have been strongest. Our greatest weakness is shown in textiles, "particularly in cotton, linen, and wool; in porcelain, china, earthenware, and glassware; in toilet preparations and accessories; or in wines, liquors, or other beverages." The big question is, How can we strengthen our grip on this commerce ? First and among the leading questions frequently raised is that of pro- duction, particularly for the Latin American market. What will the peoples of Latin America buy ? Those in a position to know most about the people of Latin America tell us that they want what others want. To be sure, in every case this statement is qualified by the fact that they want the same commodities, but adapted to theu: needs industrially and climatically. A sane study of Latin American markets by our producers or their agents would open a vast field of opportunity. Department] PAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS 319 A second point of attack on foreign trade in any country is the credit which exporters are able to extend to purchasers. In this particular the exporters of the United States have workt to a very decided disadvantage, owing to lack of banking facilities. To illustrate, German banks exist in many of these states. They know the financial status of importers. When the exporter sells to the importer he gives the terms desired, 30, 60, 90, or 180 days. Then the exporter discounts the paper at the local bank and has money for further investment, and the importer is happy over the terms extended to him. On the other hand, the exporters of the United States have been forst in most cases to do whatever business is done in these markets either thru foreign banks or their own resources. If credit is given on the resources of the exporter, that credit, for its term, ties up the capital of the concern by just that much. If credit is refused the advantage goes to the exporter of some European state who is able to arrange the credit. This disadvantage will be obviated now because of the fact that our banks are enabled to establish branch banks to advantage under the Federal Reserve Act. A third obstacle to the development of our trade in Latin America has been shipping facilities. Undoubtedly this feature of disadvantage has been overworkt. I quote John Barrett: It is fiction that a considerable portion of the United States mails to Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay are sent via Europe. It is another fiction that there are no good passenger vessels sailing from New York to Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, and Buenos Aires. In fact, there are now several large passenger boats on that regular route which provide as good accommodations as can be found on most of the European vessels. The steamship service on the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea is as fine as that on the Mediterranean, and here many American flags are seen ... Of freight vessels and lines flying foreign flags, there were abundant offerings for charter and cargo, up to the outbreak of war, thruout the Pan-American seas {Saturday Evening Post, October, 19 14). . It is manifestly impossible to secure regular routes until there is ready and regular freight to carry. Both must be developt together. Otto Wilson, of the Latin American division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, in a recent personal letter says: I should say that while shipping and banking facilities are, of course, essential in building up our trade with South America after the war, the emphasis should perhaps be laid on the educating of our manufacturers in foreign-trade processes. As matters stand now, we either have, or are in a way to obtain, American banking facilities in South American markets which will be adequate to handle a large part of our trade. While there has undoubtedly been a need for better shipping facilities, it is nevertheless true that until the outbreak of the war our shipments to South America did not suffer as much from lack of cargo space as was generally supposed. It is always to be remembered that shipping facilities can not be establisht until ship owners are assured of immediate cargoes with which to fill their space. In one or two instances shipping lines have started up and have been obliged to discontinue because full cargoes were not immediately available and 320 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business it was out of the question for them to run ships in ballast. "We shall, of course, need full transportation facilities, but it seems probable that these will be provided by agencies now at work. The emphasis, as stated, should therefore be laid on instructing our manu- facturers how best to use shipping and banking facilities and lead them to orient them- selves on the subject of foreign trade in general. No attempt to secure the cooperation of Latin America in trade and government can be entirely successful without a more thoro understanding of the peoples of these states. It is helpful to remember the conditions of their settlement and development: that Latin America was in possession of peoples under organized government when our country was first settled; that the European settlers of Latin America were adventurers seeking wealth, possest by a destructive spirit, with no permanent interest in the new country. Many of the leading settlers were men who had failed at home, or the sons of leaders at home desirous of securing wealth and power easily. These overran the existing government and establisht bureau- cratic rule. The natives were crusht. A mixt population resulted. Revolts against the ruling classes were common. Suddenly the oppor- tunity for freedom from the European powers came. Without proper groundwork, unstable governments were the logical result. The leaders were idealists instead of practical men. It is no wonder that frequent revolutions developt under these conditions. And yet, when compared with the rest of the world, the situation is not so bad as it seems. Two- thirds of the area and population has known no revolution in the last thirty years. Mexican troubles and those of some Central American states overshadow the long period of peace in most of the Latin American states. An honest attempt to understand these peoples and to show them in our dealings that the United States has no desire to direct and control their affairs will go far toward creating right relations. The growing number of Latin American students attending colleges and universities in the United States is a most encouraging fact. Based on figures of the Bureau of Edu- cation, Bigelow estimates the number of Latin American students in the United States at 1042, which is more than in all Europe. An exchange of professors with Latin American institutions is being practist in a very few instances. An increase in this practice would be most helpful. With European travel eliminated for a time there will be increast travel in the Americas. This should react favorably. The greatest agency tending to a mutual understanding between these nations is the Pan-American Union, an organization with headquarters in Washington, in which the states are represented by their diplomatic representatives at Washington. The Secretary of State of the United States is chairman. This organization has held regular monthly meetings except during the summers for nine years. The representatives sit about a table, the ambassador of Brazil at the right of the Secretary of State, anH the ambassador of Chile at the left, Department! TEACHING SALESMANSHIP TO HIGH-SCHOOL GIRLS 321 and the others in the order of their rank. They carry on a full and free discussion of all questions of common interest. These meetings are a great force in removing any element of distrust existing in the minds of the representatives of any state. Working together, all these factors should bring the peoples of Pan-America to such a mutual understanding of their common interests that the Monroe Doctrine may develop in reality into a Pan-American doctrine. THE TEACHING OF SALESMANSHIP TO HIGH-SCHOOL GIRLS CASSIE L. PAINE, WOMAN's EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL UNION, BOSTON, MASS. The introduction of every new movement into our educational system is always in answer to a recognized need. Not so many years ago it was discovered by our active business men that the young people who were freed from our public schools with the intention of entering the business or industrial world were in no way fitted to do so. They were in many cases inaccurate, irresponsible, unreliable, and totally ignorant of business con- ditions or methods. When they entered a position they were unable to interpret the job, to discover upon what it was built, to what it would lead, or how it could be developt. They usually had a fair amount of book knowledge and facility in manipulation of school materials, but they had no power to transfer the principles of this training to the everyday business of life. It was known, also, that the parents who had sufficient means and authority over their children to keep them in school did so, and exposed them to large doses of book learning. By so doing they felt satisfied that they had performed their highest duty to their children. The parents who had neither the money nor the power to keep their children in school often saw them leaving the grades or high school as soon as allowed by law to do so, and accepting any of the poorly paid positions in industry. We have had two types of young people entering our social community. One type was totally ignorant of life's activities, often with fixt habits of idleness and occasionally with an attitude of disdain toward all kinds of productive labor. The other great class consisted of the workers who left our public schools before completing the regular course, and who were usually so limited in their educational background that they were handi- capt for rapid advancement or high promotion. If these young people recognized their lack and again attempted to learn from books, it was gen- erally because of their individual initiative and not because of any strong influence of our public schools. It was evident that the products of our public schools too often developt into inefficient and unstable members of society. Educators lookt to other k 322 NA TWNAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Business countries for means to correct this serious condition, and slowly the different manual arts began to make their way into our public schools. Manual training in different forms, domestic science in its various phases, and busi- ness subjects of selected kinds entered the curricula. Investigators began to follow the lives of the young people who left our public schools, and to study the character of the positions they entered. This study revealed many hitherto unnotist truths, among which is the fact that many kinds of occupations into which our young people just out of school entered were positions that in themselves had no definite line of progress either in wages or in opportunities. They could be undertaken by anyone, they could be quickly learned, they carried only a small maximum wage, and they really ended near their beginning. The average young person falling into one of these positions without training, without direction, without advice, had only one of two alternatives: either to stay in the position because he was sure of steady work and a regular wage, or to leave his present occupation and seek another. If he followed the first course, his ambition flagged, his hopes and ideals died, his initiative had no chance for exercise, and he became a dull, routine wage-earner, whose development was limited by the very situation which should have taxt at every turn his highest ability. If he left his first position for another, his second one was usually similar in character and also led nowhere. It was a change, however, and a little satisfaction came to the worker because there was something new to under- take and to achieve, both in his work and in his environment. It was natural that he should quickly desire that satisfaction again, so he either decided to or was willing to seek a new place in a short time. Therefore we had (and still have) a large body of young people who drifted about from place to place wasting time, losing opportunities, becoming unhappy and dissatisfied — a condition resulting in unstable characters, decreast produc- tion, and an economic loss to society. In our eastern cities many of our boys and girls get their first positions in mercantile houses either before they enter high school, during their course, or upon graduation. The large stores in our country have grown up overnight, as it were. They are the immense distributing centers for the rapidly increasing population of our country, and the proprietors have been taxt to their utmost to select, transport, and store the vast variety and amount of merchandise required to meet the growing needs of the people. These merchants have studied ways and means to make this mer- chandise fill every need of every individual within reach, and so they have lookt after the factory, the buying, the transportation, and the storing departments of the business with infinite concern. In order to let the community know the resources of their store these men have carefully organ- ized the advertising, the system, and the delivery departments. It is only recently that they have begun to realize that there is another important Department! TEACHING SALESMANSHIP TO HIGH-SCHOOL GIRLS 323 factor in the make-up of their stores — the personnel of the employes. These merchants had hitcht their wagon to a star, but, as someone has said, they lookt after the wagon and they lookt after the star, but they failed to look after the hitchy and the hitch in the store business is the connecting link between the merchandise and the public — the personnel of the salespeople. It is easy to understand how this condition came about. In the small store where the merchant was the proprietor, he not only waited upon his customers, who were also his neighbors, but he did all the other work con- nected with the store. When his business increast, he had assistants who were members of his family or young people of the neighborhood, and they followed his methods. As he needed more help he hired strangers, but he stayed among his employees and gave them individual instruction. If one had suggested to this man a school of salesmanship for his people, or a course in salesmanship for boys and girls in the high school, he would have been amazed at the idea. What was there to selling merchandise that could make a course of study in the high school ? One must have the goods, one must know the price, and one must be accommodating. What else was there to selling ? Therefore, as society grew in size and demands, and as our social, industrial, and business systems grew in complexity, the impor- tance of the work connected with selling did not grow accordingly. Until suddenly the merchant found that he had a big group of people in his store who handled his merchandise and represented him to his customers, but whom he did not know and in whom he had no special interest. These people were frequently unbusinessUke in dress, uncouth in speech, ignorant concerning the use, value, and suitability of their merchandise, careless in their use of the store system, indifferent to the store's policies, and loyal, in the highest sense of the word, neither to the merchant nor to his business. I am not selecting store employees as being in any way different from other kinds of people. These characteristics are to be found in any group in any community who have a small background of education and little knowledge of their specific employment. Perhaps these conditions do not obtain to any great extent in your western stores, but they are sufficiently conspicuous in the eastern stores to cause our merchants there to give serious thoughts to the problem of the improvement of their personnel. With the increase of population and prosperity in our country have come an increase in knowledge of merchandise and an increase in demands on the part of our buying public. The courses in domestic science and the practical arts now given in all our good public schools, and the lectures on home economics and other practical subjects offered in our women's clubs and our college extension courses are educating women in the general uses and values of what the stores carry. Customers therefore have a right to expect the salesperson to be a specialist in her particular line of merchandise, and have expert advice to give, Our great interest at the present time in the study 324 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business of efficiency is educating our public to look for rapid and convenient methods of transacting business. The stores have deliberately educated the public to expect and demand service at every turn. Do the customers find these expectations fulfilled among the salespeople in the stores thruout the country? Do the employers as they investigate the conditions in their stores find that they have a loyal, stable, ambitious, intelligent force of people by whom they are represented to their customers ? In a store where the labor turnover is 400 or 500 per cent during the year, this is not likely to be the case. In a store where a woman has been selling for six years and never has received more than seven dollars per week, there must be little exercise of initiative. In a store where a woman is kept as a bundler year after year simply because she can do that well, there is little incentive for ambition. In a store that looks outside first for people to fill all the higher and better positions, there is little encouragement to loyal service. It has been found in Boston, where the movement is now five years old, that the introduction of salesmanship as a course of study in the high schools has helpt to correct some of these undesirable conditions found in business. There has been a commercial course in our Boston high schools for a much longer time than that, but it was found upon investigation that, while 13 per cent of our young people went into commercial positions, 60 per cent went into industrial and mercantile positions. If our public-school educa- tion is to be of the greatest service to the individual, to industry, and to society, this large number of workers should not be neglected by the courses offered in our schools. It was also found that a large percentage of our young people left school and went to work because they were not interested in the study of abstract subjects. The content of the course in salesmanship is sufficiently concrete to hold the interest of these concrete-minded stu- dents. It was found that many pupils left school to add their wages to the family income. The earnings from their store practice, which is part of the course in salesmanship and which is paid for by the stores at a rate of a dollar to a dollar and a half a day, is frequently sufficient to allow these pupils to complete their high-school course. In 191 6 the high-school pupils in Boston who were taking salesmanship earned over eight thousand dollars during their school year. The practice work of these high-school pupils in the stores is all done under supervision, both by the proper people in the store and by their regular high-school teacher. This necessitates a high standard of store work to be maintained. In this way these students are brought to the attention of the employment manager and their names are added to his list of resources for employment. A number of our high- school graduates are always permanently hired by the stores before or at the end of their high-school course. It may be interesting to know something of the history of the movement to train salespeople and other department store-workers as it has developt Department] TEACHING SALESMANSHIP TO HIGH-SCHOOL GIRLS 325 in Boston. Instruction of various types has been given to store employes in different ways for a long time. Perhaps John Wanamaker stands as a pioneer for recognizing the value of a larger education to store employes. There have been and still are many kinds of business schools that give courses in salesmanship either by correspondence or by classroom lectures. But too often the emphasis in all this instruction has fallen either on the book-learning side as an end in itself or on the commercial side as an end in itself. It remained for a unique institution in Boston, ''The Woman's Educational and Industrial Union," to develop the subject of salesmanship and department-store study in such a way that it would prove at the same time of both educational and commercial value. The movement began in 1905 with a small group of saleswomen in one or two Boston stores, and was at once put into the hands of an unusually able w^oman, Mrs. Lucinda Wyman Prince, who has developt it along pedagogical lines. At the present time this school of salesmanship, taken over by Simmons CoUege, and constituting one of its regular departments, is for the purpose of training teachers of salesmanship. The laboratory or salesgirls' class is still continued at the Union. In 191 2 the school board of Boston and the community had become so convinst of the value of this new phase of practical education that salesman- ship was introduced into the Girls' High School, our largest general high school, under the leadership of one of these trained teachers. The experi- ment was watcht with interest by the educators, business men, and general public, and it was seen that all claims of this new work were substantiated. The pupils were enthusiastic, the business men were delighted, and greater cooperation between the stores and the schools took place to their mutual advantage. Other Boston high schools wisht to enter into the scheme, and were allowed to do so rather slowly, a few being added each year. At the present time salesmanship is taught in ten high schools of Boston, or in all of the general high schools of the city, the teacher always having had the special training for the work in the Woman's Educational and Industrial Union. The course consists of textiles, merchandise, hygiene, color and design, salesmanship, and general store subjects, such as store organization, store system, etc. Arithmetic, English, civics, commercial geography, and industrial history are closely related to store work. The course is made up of two kinds of work, that done in the classroom and that done in the store. The pupils work in the stores in their vacations, on Saturdays, and on other days of the week if their classroom rank will permit of their absence. Much of their classroom work is based upon their store experience. The course is offered as an elective to Juniors and Seniors, and successful work is awarded by a special certificate in addition to the regular diploma. The awarding of the certificate is determined fully as much by the quality of work in store practice as by the grade in classroom exercises. 326 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business It was early found that the best results of such a movement could only be attained by having a general director of the work who could unify the system and be the official connecting link between the business houses and the schools. Mrs. Prince was the first director of salesmanship in the Boston public schools. As her duties in connection with the spread of the move- ment thruout the country increast, she was obliged to give up the active work with the schools and has kept only an advisory connection with them. Miss Isabelle Craig Bacon, a graduate of the School of Salesmanship, is now the director. To her ofiice go all the requests of the stores for the younger employes, and from her office go demands to the schools for suitable people to fill these positions. In every case the employment managers are expected to describe their needs definitely, and Miss Bacon, with the assist- ance of the classroom teacher, attempts to find just the right gurl for the described position. The closest kind of vocational guidance is thus con- nected with this course in salesmanship. Last June there were graduated from the salesmanship department of the Boston high schools 475 pupils. Each one of these girls had received specialized training in department-store work and business principles for one or two years. Each one had practist in various stores, under the closest supervision from the educational as well as from the business standpoint. Each one had to attain a rank of B in all her salesmanship work in order to receive a special certificate. Each one earned considerable money during the year, as a previous statement has shown you. Each one is familiar with retail stores, with the particular kind of work into which she will probably enter, and with the demands met in business. Each one either has already obtained her position with a store or has her name on the list of available resources for employment. Some of the results of the teaching of salesmanship to high-school girls can thus be seen. For society it means a larger group of intelligent, efficient, well-paid workers. For the stores it means a greater interest in their personnel. For the girl it means that work in a department store is no longer routine and drudgery, but a wonderful opportunity to a larger life in all directions. In other words, when a graduate of our high-school course in salesmanship begins her store work, she realizes that she has not simply taken a position but has entered a profession. MODIFICATIONS IN COMMERCIAL TRAINING SUGGESTED BY PRESENT WORLD-CONDITIONS E. F. DAHM, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, EXTENSION DIVISION, UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, SEATTLE, WASH. War cannot be left out of account from either our associations or our individual daily affairs, or else we fail in our citizenship. War service of an indirect and direct sort must be accounted for in our daily time schedules. Department] MODIFICATIONS IN COMMERCIAL TRAINING 327 America's business men are shouldering many war duties other than increast taxes. The commercial teachers of the country, in their individual capacity at least, are carrying some of the war's burdens. Are their efforts in this respect linkt up with the carrying on of those duties for which their training and ability fit them? In the consideration of our subject com- mercial teachers will find it advisable to change not only schoolroom conditions but also their relationship with the world of business. This subject, to be treated thoroly, must be taken up in several divi- sions: (i) What is the status of our commercial training ? (2) What are the general changes to be desired irrespective of any emergency situation? (3) What special concessions or shifting or changes must be made because of war ? 1. Our present high-school commercial training too often trains for the drudgery of business — it actually aims to produce clerks! Collegiate commerce training, on the other hand, trains for the poetry of business. The methods and the contents of the curricula of both is much too local. Twenty years ago a retail merchant who could honestly say that he knew his customers and their habits from morning to morning was rightly accorded to be a success. Today such knowledge is insufficient. National advertising is standardizing qualities, prices, values, and channels of distri- bution; and tastes of buyers have been led to a higher level. Your modern merchant must therefore watch national tendencies, for today no local community is untoucht by either national or world influences, and so it is with courses of study outlined by boards of education. The general lines of study cannot be laid down by local conceptions. A general plan suitable for general needs and obtainable only thru wider cooperation should be in force. Recently President Wilson said to Congress: "We should desire nothing so much as the early establishment of intimate relationships of mutual advantage between us." He was speaking of international relationships now and after the war. Business must be organized to distribute the wants called for by this enlarged scale of living. Business training in the schools must produce a human product that can eventually take a place in inter- national markets to both the country's and the individual's profit. 2. Subjects found in high-school commercial work are bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, penmanship, shorthand, typewriting, etc.; the history of commercial economics, commercial geography, commercial law, English, letter- writing, and secretarial work. The preponderance of enrol- ment and emphasis is placed upon the first group. These two groups of studies are given in one-, two-, three-, and four-year courses. It seems that the aim for the first year's work is to graduate an office boy, for the second year a shipping clerk, for the third year a private stenographer, and for the fourth and final year a potpourri. The majority of our commercial teachers are not graduates of commercial schools; few of them have had 328 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business business experience. Women commercial teachers are in the majority. It is not possible for women with the same amount of study or the same amount or kind of business experience to make as good commercial teachers as men. Since the age of barter, when business had its inception, men have been the traders. There are generations of men backing up the present-day man and giving to him thru heredity and instinct a commercial ability. It is very desirable that we haye more men teachers, but it is even more desir- able that women be especially well trained to teach business thru special courses given more in detail and covering a longer period of time. Parents and business men consider high-school commercial training more or less as a measure of last resort. Their conception of this training is gained thru both an inspection of the courses offered and a knowledge of the accomplishments of commercial students. Our commercial courses seemed to accomplish very little until within the last two or three years. Business men preferred the generally trained high-school students to the commercially trained, as a census of their employes shows. We have trained a majority of commercial students for clerical work, yet there is no more than one-sixth of all business activities which are clerical, and the people required to fill this one-sixth are not drawn in large numbers from the ranks of our commercial graduates. As a result, our commercial courses have attracted a rather poor grade of student and have had a high mortality as to com- pletion. Those commerce courses, which should be most attractive, espe- cially the best, show approximately a 25 per cent loss during the second and third years. 3. It is appreciated that changes to be effective should be made thru and by a large committee of both business men and teachers of various parts of the country. Business has been considered by communities as a thing of distaste, but one which must be tolerated. Merchants in the Middle Ages were not accorded high rank socially or otherwise, but business today is a different thing. Business is the satisfaction of man's wants. It is accomplisht thru organized production and distribution of commodities. An efficient business organization has two major parts: internal machinery and external equipment. Internal business may be divided into three functions: administering, producing, and distributing. External business must study and know society thru sociology, must comprehend law and be in conformity with it, must participate in government and absorb the results of such government. Then there are certain phases of business which outside institutions are organized to care for. There are the bank, the rail- road company, the public accounting firm. There is such a bulk of this type of work in the carrying on of business and so much of it is semipublic that business houses do not find it profitable to care for it all themselves. Courses of study must be arranged with this so-called double conception of business. A scientific course in commerce consists of fundamental studies, such as economics, commercial history, commercial law, selling and Department] MODIFICATIONS IN COMMERCIAL TRAINING 329 advertising, factory efficiency, factory business, combined with courses in sociology, law, and civics. Stenography, bookkeeping, penmanship, and commercial arithmetic are the practical tools to the carrying on of business and should be placed in the hands of commerce students, but only as a means to an end. We need these one-, two-, three-, four-, and five-year courses more clearly self-dependent, for economic conditions take from high-school ranks many students who have completed sometimes only one year of study and in other cases only the second or third year. There should be one practical course begun from the very first year of instruction, so that students can help themselves while they are going to school. It seems desirable that boys and girls, for instruction purposes, be segregated, and that boys be given more of the executive-training subjects, while their interest is held with practical instruction in one or two courses. Teachers should have held business positions. It is not possible in a one-year course to give anything but clerical sub- jects. A two-year course can contain some secretarial instruction with the introduction of an elementary course in economics. Business men prefer women stenographers and secretaries. A three-year course provides enough time for training of a specific business activity, which must be considered also from two angles. There have grown up in this country institutions and professions which handle certain parts of general business, such as bank- ing, transportation, public accounting, advertising, agency work. This requires a more concentrated training perhaps than is called for by business positions in private business houses. Training for banking is training for business activity of the professional sort. Finance and accounting for the man in business requires different preparation and instruction. A four-year course in business gives an opportunity for stildy of some of the external problems in business, insurance, shipping, or merchandising. With a five- year course young people may be trained for executive ranks. A five-year course prepares most economically perhaps for higher commercial training. The contents of business courses must be changed. Salesmanship too often fits for spiritualistic seance work rather than for the intelligent market- ing of goods. Grammar-grade physiology has been given many bruises of late by shouldering upon it explanations of physiognomy, phrenology, and corrupted psychology. A course in salesmanship would better include a few lessons on personal analysis and training, a few lessons on business organizations and merchandizing, and a considerable number of lessons on the laws of selling. Bookkeeping students go thru several months' work seeing nothing but one detail after another, when they should be given from the first instance the expected results accomplisht thru the handling of the following details. More courses should start out with the "Why," rather than the ''How. " Courses in advertising have enjoyed mushroom growth. Some courses have aimed at Ethridge artistic accomplishments, expert 330 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business engraving results, and Jamesonian psychological copy. It is enough in high-school advertising courses to teach the careful writing of simple copy; give some attention to the value of art work, with a study of the laws of psychology governing copy. Students can also be instructed in the proper selection of advertising media. Text-matter must be supplemented with talks by business men and collateral reading-matter from business and trade publications, with laboratory work both in school and in the field. The technical equipment for commercial instruction is limited and ancient. On the other hand some courses depend entirely for routine equipment on office machinery. Books of business forms for different activities should be acquired. Students should be assigned to help business managers for civic and commercial organization affairs. Credit must be given for out-of-classroom work. Placement services that place months and years in advance must be organized. A central clearing committee should handle this in large cities. Schedules of study must be arranged to permit students to work afternoons, evenings, Saturdays, holidays, and vacations. The following additional subjects now being taught in some schools in the country should be included: selling, business methods, advertising, commercial mathematics, transportation, merchandising, commercial teaching, elementary principles of finance, preliminary study of psychology and logic, public speaking, commercial languages, and organizing of busi- ness. Industrial subjects should be coordinated with commercial training. The student in chemistry should be given something of the economic resources of the country, of finance, and of the organization of business. Practically one-half of commercial instruction should be acquired and given credit for outside of the classroom thru study, reading, and field work. Four "M's" make War: men, money, munitions, morale. Two types of men must be trained: the military man and the war man at home. The latter must be assisted in this training by commercial educators. High- school commercial training has little directly to do with the other two "M's" of war — money and munitions. Rather must high-school commer- cial teachers train their students quickly and capably to take the place of absent business men and train them for executive positions. There are five new groups of courses that must receive increast emphasis, in all cases beginning in the high school. They are: foreign trade, public business administration, statistics, secretarial, commercial industrial work, and commercial teaching. The statistically trained man is in demand now for government and commercial organizations. Business executives have their time taken up by increast duties in their own institutions and by public service. New markets abroad are being establisht for American goods. The government must be more than usually efficiently managed after the war because of the financial drain of the war. I Department] MODIFICATIONS IN COMMERCIAL TRAINING 33 1 A particular emphasis should be given some courses as to subject- matter. In typewriting, copy of United States history and of present war conditions should be included. In economics, taxation, insurance, price, valuation, and markets must receive a different and a stronger emphasis; the subject-matter of business organization and management, seldom pre- pared as a separate course, should be one of the chief subjects given for those who contemplate three years or more of study in a commercial course. The physical and social factors which modify management of business must be given consideration. This, the first large presentation of the subject, should then be followed with subject-matter along the following lines: statistical and communicating organization policies, administrative help, the manager's relation to production as it relates to both capital and labor, and his relation to the market, both as to direct agencies and as to social modifications of other agencies. This is a hard course to present for it must be distinctly elementary. Directive personal management needs consideration. The chapter in commercial law on principal and agent should be ampli- fied. The principal, because of the extra demands of his time, will be further removed from the agent and his activities. We should clearly show in the study of commercial law that the chapter on contracts must not be divorst in the student's mind from the chapter on partnership, which is also a chapter on contracts; students ought to have it clearly presented to them that all commercial law is a study of types of contracts. Because of the rather uncontrolled teachings of people, it seems wise to offer a simple course in psychology during war times with special application on how people's minds are influenst by activities and actions of which they have no apparent knowledge. A course of industrial history should include that of child labor and its cost. The strength of womanhood and manhood for the next twenty years will rise to several hundred per cent premium. All courses of the mathematical trend should daily present means of economies, whether it be the carrying home of goods, prompt payment of bills, intelli- gent payment of bills in advance, or refusing to sign too many instalment contracts. Schedules must be rearranged so that a better balance will obtain. We should not give, even to those students going on to college, exclusively foundational work during the first two years. Human beings are not constituted that way. Complete morning schedules, partial morning schedules with evening programs, straight evening schedules, and after- noon schedules must be supplied. In the schoolroom there is scholastic economy that can be practist. Along with this there are part-time teachers' combination schedules as men- tioned before, students' help, other school cooperation, junior high-school- and college-plan, reserve list for applicants in advance, personal placing of students by teachers who know or are in conjunction with business men. 332 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iBusmess Action on these expressions can be obtained by the formation of: 1. A committee represented geographically to study out a course of study that will put the subject in the professional class and will result in a cohesive, broader course. The business man's help in this war today gives the opportunity for this as well as furnishing a reason for so doing. 2. A committee to prepare short bulletins which can be used by cities of more than ten thousand population, which bulletins shall aim to tell the business man how he can use the schools' work and how he must help to conduct the schools' work as it relates to him. Commercial teachers are securing only a scattered cooperation in this respect, yet commercial teachers are practically powerless to make most effective their own specialty, since they are not taking the initiative in carrying their message to the business parent and owner as well as to the one studying business. 3. A committee of a war-emergency nature to work out ways in which the commercial teacher can help in schoolroom instruction and in personal field help in the working at business problems and conditions today; teachers for the time being should turn their attention from the working of sociological problems of business to the carrying on of business itself. Finally, this committee could render a service if it would attempt to itemize the ways in which a commercial teacher can be of service to the business man. We cannot get far either in the war-emergency plan or in the plan of general rehabilitation in the commercial curricula unless commercial teachers as a body see what their training and experience have given them that will help the man in business as well as the student in school. HOW TO TEACH SALESMANSHIP IN THE HIGH SCHOOL F. H. YOUNG, HEAD OF COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT, HIGH SCHOOL, PENDLETON, ORE. Salesmanship as a course of study in a secondary school we understand to be that of retail selling as found in our shops and department stores, and not specialty salesmanship. Life insurance and the selling of one or two articles by a traveling salesman are illustrations of specialty selling, which we will agree should be the subject for advanst study. Let me emphasize too the difference between salesmanship and mere order- taking ; the former, according to Charles M. Schwab, master- salesman of the steel trust, is "making the buyer understand the true merit of the article you are seeking to sell"; the latter is filling orders from customers whose minds are already made up, and as such requires little if any attention in a course in salesmanship. A good salesman needs no training in order- taking. Having defined the subject, and before discussing directly the method, I think it is proper to recognize the possible doubt in the minds of many as to why salesmanship should be taught at all in our high schools. Has Department] HOW TO TEACH SALESMANSHIP IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 333 it a place in the average high-school business course ? The doubt may be justified, considering that only three Oregon high schools offered such a course last year, and while I have not had time to obtain the exact figures, I am informed that the subject is not found in all of the larger high schools in Washington and California. It is evident then that salesmanship is perhaps the newest vocational subject in our schools. I would explain its rather slow introduction in this state, first, by a lack of appreciation of its need and value, and, secondly, by the scarcity of prepared instructors. Let me emphasize also, to those who are contemplating introducing this subject, that selling ability can never be acquired from a book — but experience behind the counter (or elsewhere) is, in truth, the only teacher. For how many of us have tried in vain to sell our first life insurance prospect a policy, or the neighboring housewife a piece of kitchen ware, by repeating the selling talk from the instruction book ? The reasons I advance for offering retail selling in a high-school course are these: Salesmanship is in the air — what we eat, wear, drink, and see depends in a measure on salesmanship of some kind. The press is full of articles about successful salesmen, and of the high-salaried corporation managers who were once salesmen. Salesmanship is the life-blood of busi- ness, the power that turns the wheels of industry. Older students have caught this spirit and readily enter salesmanship classes. The profession, as well as that of the stenographer or accountant, must be recognizee! by the schools. In Oregon, according to the last census, there were 12,861 people engaged in selling occupations, compared with 2,992 stenographers, and the same ratio is true in Washington and Cali- fornia. In the three department stores in this city, 940 boys and girls of high-school age are employed. In a town of 7,000 population in Oregon there are 40 young people engaged in some form of selling. Look around in your own city and notice the number of young people engaged in this work. A vocation that claims this large number of young people should not be overlookt when the school seeks to adjust itself to local needs. Again, salesmanship, next to debate, offers the best training in extem- poraneous speaking, quick thinking, and the development of a good spoken English. This subject brings the school into closer touch with the business life of the city and offers the best means of interesting the business men in the school's work. Salesmanship has a distinct moral value which should appeal to those who weigh the value of a course by something other than the mere content. There is no better place to drive home the modern business doctrines of truthful advertising, honest representation of mer- chandise, and the fact that merchandising now is not done on the old basis of ''let the buyer beware." Also, when salesmanship includes the careful detailed study of articles of merchandise, their origin, manufacture, or growth, and their use, the 334 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business subject can be linkt up with, practically every other course in the school. Chemistry, home economics and domestic art, history, English, and physics all have some relation that will serve to make separate facts in each of these branches have a wider application for the student. And, finally, retail selling should aid the student in solving his greatest problem — that of selling his own services at the best price. For in that sense we are all salesmen of ourselves. As to the method of teaching retail selling — above all things make it practical and bring to the class as much of the atmosphere of the store as conditions will permit. Select a good text, of which there are a number, to serve as a background aAd as something to which you can anchor. Get a reference book dealing with raw products of commerce and the elementary processes of manufacture. Then go down to the stores in your city and ask the cooperation of the busmess men with your class, at the same time securing permission to borrow articles from their stock. Start your class sales talks at the very outset. At first select some simple, advertised article, and with students as salesman and buyer, your desk as a counter supplied with wrapping-paper, twine, change, and sales book, start your sale. Never substitute articles or play selling. Do not represent a box of candy by a book or an umbrella by a yardstick. It takes the life and interest out of the sales talk. At first the students' efforts may be weak and the talk rambling — then act yourself as the salesman, bringing out carefully and with constant reiteration the four principal steps in a sale, namely, attracting attention, arousing interest, creating desire, and bringing the sale to a close. Bring the article to class the day before it is to be sold, and let the stu- dents examine it, determine its talking points, and then sell the article the next day. If some small article is selected, as Ivory soap, bring another kind of soap, so that the salesman must develop a choice in the buyer's mind. Every sale should be carried thru to completion, to the extent of making change. This daily retail selling is one phase of the work. Another is the detailed study of merchandise, taking one article of some size each week, as an automobile tire or a suit of clothes. The students should make a careful study of the material, fabrics, and manner of construction, and examine particularly any special points of excellence which are claimed for the article. Bear down on this work in order to develop in the students the habit of examining and investigating every article that they may be selling. By taking each week one article which represents a distinct class of merchandise, and following this by a written report, you will establish in the students the ability to analyze merchandise — and knowledge of what one is trying to sell is the cornerstone of salesmanship. The third and last phase of classwork is the outside activity. Secure business men to speak before the class. Put on demonstration sales. Let Department] TRAINING METHODS IN TYPEWRITING DEPARTMENTS 335 the students observe sales being made by experts in your city. Secure holiday work for the best students. Secure prizes from merchants for the best sales talks. For the final examination, let the thing to be sold be worthy of the student's best effort — as an automobile or lady's suit. Be free to criticize, but only when you yourself can improve. Strive to develop in the students the power to think and observe keenly, and, let me repeat, introduce into the class sale as far as possible the atmosphere of a store. I have given briefly the reasons as I see them for the teaching of sales- manship in high schools, and in a sketchy manner, realizing that each instructor must work out details of class administration for himself, a simple method of handling a class in that subject. EXPERT TRAINING METHODS— THEIR NECESSITY AND APPLICATION IN YOUR TYPEWRITING DEPARTMENT HAROLD H. SMITH, INSTRUCTOR IN SHORTHAND AND TYPEWRITING, STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON, PULLMAN, WASH. For many years the speed records and demonstrations of the expert typists have stood before us as constant reminders of what is being done by properly trained specialists. The great disparity between their accom- plishments and the accomplishments of the average stenographer whose training has extended over an equal period of time has made many of us wonder what we can do to increase the efficiency of our students. The business public is rapidly awakening to the fact that students from our schools are not as capable as they should be in t3rpewriting. Things have come to such a pass that young people, on being graduated from our college courses, when called upon to teach commercial subjects sneer at the idea, belittle it, and as one of our graduates said this year, " Oh, high- school commercial courses aren't supposed to amount to anything anyway." The only remedy is to make typewriting and other commercial subjects real courses, and get away from the practice of permitting them to be self- taught. My experience has been that any speed writer with ordinary common sense plus his extraordinary skill can, within a short time, equal and sur- pass the output of the average stenographer, depending only upon the technicality of the work to be learned. I have seen speed writers who had never workt in an office pick up dictaphone work, form-letter work, or other t5^ing within a few days, and surpass the combined efforts of two or three experienst stenographers. The moral to be gathered is that, possessing skill, one can soon adapt himself to any form, but lacking skill, even a wide knowledge of forms will not enable him to equal the output of the skilled worker. 336 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business We must have competition. One or two operators practicing ever so faithfully cannot accomplish what a class can. That was one of the first lessons learned by all speed departments. Apply that to your school, and you will immediately see what comes of the idea of individual instruction, which in typewriting is a hoax. I have made some interesting experiments in this connection. Last year at the State College of Washington sixty pupils, divided into three classes, working for one semester of eighteen weeks, accomplisht by the class method of instruction more than another class of but twenty-five students who put in the same amount of time daily and weekly for thirty- six weeks (twice as long) by the half-class, half-individual instruction method. Not only were the best students in the one-semester class better than the best students in the two-semester class, but the average of the entire larger one-semester class was better. Hundreds of pupils in schools and stenographers in offices have told me that when they went to school typewriting was not taught, and what they learned they had to find out for themselves. I do not blame the teachers, because I know that they do not have access to any reliable, means of information, and I am aware that many of our speed experts can give no intelligent explanation of even such fundamentals as their position and technique. Few of them possess that scientific turn of mind which makes introspection possible. But investigation is on foot, and it will not be long before teachers may gain this knowledge at first hand. Experts find that in order to make the fastest progress it is necessary to have a complete record of every test. Such is man's nature that he easily forgets his poor work and flatters himself with his good work. But if you have a record sheet and compare your work today with that of yester- day on the same piece of matter, you will quickly be able to decide whether you are moving backward or forward. The proper place to commence the development of skill is at the very start! Time will not permit' me to explain here my particular method of starting a class, but briefly it is this: to give an intelligent basis for the pupil to work on; then, by means of class drills in mental gymnastics and hand gymnastics, and finally by dictation of the exercises themselves to the class, to develop concentration, rhythm, and independent finger control. After the keyboard has been learned, commence the intensive develop- ment of skill by means of speed tests. These have been found by the experts to be the best skill developers. Do not permit students to copy even letter forms, to say nothing of envelopes, bills, statistical, and legal matter. In- sist rather on the development of a certain speed with high accuracy to insure a minimum amount of skill. Put a student on practical work and you force him to form habits of unevenness, hesitation, and more or less inaccuracy. He can't help it. Department] TRAINING METHODS IN TYPEWRITING DEPARTMENTS 337 because his attention is fixt on the arrangement of the work and there is nothing to urge him to put forth his effort steadily and continuously. Let him develop a certain amount of skill first, and when he comes to the practical forms he will save time because he can write faster and with less attention to his technique, thus devoting himself entirely to producing better-arranged and more evenly typed work. I have been able to get the best results by making the week a unit — commencing on Monday with a long test of about thirty minutes on new or slightly familiar matter, asking the class to write for accuracy. This develops endurance. Tuesday the monotony may be varied with a series of minute tests. Here we try for speed, accuracy, steadiness, and rhythm. Wednesday the class writes at least a fifteen-minute test on some straight-away matter, and on Thursday a twenty- or twenty-five-minute test is written with a view to steadying down for the weekly competitive test on Friday. This competitive test is the big event of the week. It is only fifteen minutes in length, but the same matter is repeated every three or four weeks, and every pupil is anxious that the results of these com- petitive tests posted on the bulletin board may show a gain on each succes- sive writing. Students enter into this work with renewed enthusiasm and conse- quently with better results. After a certain amount of skill has been attained — from thirty to forty words a minute net for fifteen-minute tests — advanst commercial forms may be undertaken, but weekly competitive tests should be continued thruout the course. Require students to correct their papers rigidly according to some well- defined standard. The International Contest Rules, publisht in pamphlet form by the Underwood people and distributed upon request, will furnish a very complete and dependable guide. Strict adherence to these rules will put the accuracy of any typist on the highest possible plane. I have never seen a speedist or student who unintentionally or purposely allowed himself to overlook errors of any kind who could make satisfactory progress. There is always a time for disillusionment, and the habit of not observing errors closely results in inaccurate work all around. The sloppy typist who is too lazy to correct errors and the careless one who does not know he makes them are on a par so far as business men are concerned. I am sure you will agree with me that seeing the error is the first step in the process of eliminating it. Let us cultivate accurate observation that we may reap accurate execution in ourselves and our pupils. The typist's state of mind is another very important factor. There are times, such as in learning the keyboard and when writing for accuracy, when the teacher should suggest to the student to exercise care, practice constant relaxation, and control every movement intelligently. There are other times, as in writing minute tests and competitive tests, when one must / 338 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Business put forth every ounce of effort in a strenuous attempt to attain results. Then an intensely active state of mind should prevail. If teachers do not suggest these points, pupils will commence writing tests without any definite mental attitude, and under such conditions, having no aim, they cannot secure results. The general policy of the speed writers is always to write intelligently, sometimes stressing evenness, sometimes steadiness of writing, sometimes intensifying the effort to write with a little faster cadence, and sometimes particularly emphasizing accuracy. Progress in the whole is always the result of intensive development of the several parts. Typewriting taught in this way would speedily become recognized for its character-building features. There are many other things of vital interest which may be learned from the work of the experts, but I have reserved for the last that phase of type- writing which I consider the most important, namely, the question of proper position and technique. I cannot think of anything of more importance in the art. It determines, not only one's efficiency, but his endurance, and therefore his salary, and in some measure his opportunity for advancement. The ideal position is one in which the chair is as far from the floor as the distance from the back of the knee to the heel; the chair being pusht back far enough from the table to permit the upper arms to hang somewhat forward from the shoulders when sitting perfectly erect; the forearms slant- ing upward toward the keyboard at an angle slightly less than the plane of the keyboard; and the hands slanting upward from the forearm and on a plane approximately parallel to the plane of the keyboard. The fingers should be curved naturally over the guide keys and should never be extended in writing or cramped up tight as one clenches his fist. If the table cannot be adjusted in height, we must remember that the important part of the position is the holding of the hands on a plane approxi- mately parallel to the plane of the keyboard. Starting at this point, we can easily work backward until we find the correct height of the chair. This will sometimes necessitate an uncomfortable position of the knees and lower leg, but the relative position of the hands and arms at the keyboard should be as described. In the correct technique the fingers "reach" from the home keys to the upper and lower rows. The hands move up and down. The wrists must always be loose, but practically stationary in their relation to the keyboard, so that the hands may deliver a quick, staccato blow with a sharp get-away. From the wrists back there should be no movement except as the muscles of the hands and fingers drag into action other units to which they are attacht. All parts of the body not engaged in operation should be as nearly relaxt as possible. Without this technique accuracy and good presswork are mere matters of chance, and speed is always an uncertainty. Worst of all, when the Department] HIGHER SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE AND HIGH SCHOOLS 339 typist finds that he is not doing his best he has no way of dispelling the uncertainty, because there is no intelligent basis for his writing. Someone has said, "There is no good substitute for intelligence" — in typing as in everything else, and may I add that it holds true in the teaching as well as in the execution of the art. I hope that these lessons gleaned from a double experience as speedist and teacher may prove helpful to some of you, for I am sure that had I known them they would have saved me many a bitter knock since I have taken up the study of typing. HOW CAN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE BEST SERVE THE HIGH SCHOOLS? J. A. BEXELL, DEAN SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, OREGON AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CORVALLIS, ORE. In attempting to answer this important question, I shall emphasize the idea of service. Three parties are interested in the high schools who may be served by the higher schools of commerce: the administrative authorities, the commercial teachers, and the pupils. The school authorities are obliged to consider the questions of finance, of teaching force, of courses of study, and of equipment and facilities for the work. These questions affect the school permanently. The instructors come and go, but these fundamental questions remain the same from year to year. Large correspondence with school authorities relating to these questions convinces me that these are practical and not theoretical problems. The high-school authorities are calling for aid, and it is the duty of the higher institutions to come to their assistance. One of the most effective aids the higher schools of commerce can render the high schools is to assist in the preparation of standard courses of study. The colleges and universities are usually equipt with large libraries, and their faculties usually have had a greater opportunity for observation than the average instructor in the small high school, hence the higher institutions should be clearing-houses for information regard- ing the most advanst thought in every field of education, and they should be in a position to extend this knowledge to high-school authorities. The college instructor is often found impractical and knowing less of the needs of the outside world the longer he remains at college. But while this criticism may be fair respecting the old-time college man, I do not admit that it is true to the same extent at present, and it should be still less true in the future. I wish to emphasize that in the preparation of courses of study the aim should be vocational guidance rather than preparation for college. Unfortunately the percentage of high-school graduates who enter college is so small that it would be unwise to emphasize the college or university courses rather than the practical needs of the student. 340 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business Two methods have been suggested as finishing courses for practical pursuits. One is the Oregon course of study, a semester or two of apprentice work for which credit is given, and the other is to insist on at least one year intervening at practical work between the high school and college. It is claimed that this would be a great aid for the students in selecting the proper course of study. I doubt seriously the advisability of the latter plan. The first would doubtless be a greater stimulus to continued studies, while the latter would be a more effective method of elimination from advanst studies altogether. The next field of service of the more advanst institutions is in the study and dissemination of information regarding room and equipment. One of the first questions for consideration in the development of a new depart- ment is the facilities for work. Since a well-equipt commercial department is one of the most expensive in the average high school and since an unwise selection of equipment and planning of room will retard the progress of the work, it is of the utmost importance that reliable information be obtained from disinterested sources before costly mistakes are made. This relates to desks, chairs, typewriters, copy-holders, office equipment, and material of great variety. Too little attention is paid to standardization of this equipment, with the result that a lot of hit-and-miss material is accumu- lated only to find its way to the scrap heap after the costly experiment. The higher schools of commerce should cooperate with the department of public instruction in a thoro study of these problems and give the high schools the benefit of their research. An interesting illustration of this came to my notice in an eastern city last summer. The city superintendent stated that one of his greatest problems was the selection of equipment, since every principal had well-nigh complete control of his own school, and standardization was next to impossible. Too great importance is often laid on elegance of equipment rather than on serviceability. Very satisfactory desks, filing cabinets, shelves, and so forth, may be made in the high-school manual-training department, or by some of the most enterprising boys, at exceedingly low cost to the school. Besides, elegance and extravagance in equipment is likely to lead to waste- ful habits which must be overcome before the student has proceeded far in his business career. And everyone knows that there is often a compen- sating advantage in working against and overcoming difficulties. Another most fruitful field of cooperation lies in the selection of text- books and laboratory material. The lack of standardization of textbooks and laboratory material is conclusively shown in three of the leading high schools of the state. In Jefferson High School, this city, Goodyear-Marshall bookkeeping texts are used; in Franklin, Miner, and in the High School of Commerce, Rowe. This condition is fairly typical of other high schools thruout the country. That the preparation of textbooks and laboratory material is a fundamental iieed is shown by the efforts of such agencies as Department) HIGHER SCHOOLS OP COMMERCE AND HIGH SCHOOLS 341 the Harvard University, Bureau of Business Research, the United States Bureau of Markets, and the Federal Trade Commission. The name of every teacher should be on the mailing list of these organizations. Every high-school commercial department should develop a business man's library, which should be selected with great care. The combined experience of the higher schools of commerce and the collected information and experience of the more advanst high schools should be placed at the disposal of the instructor in a small high school. A circulating library may also be de- velopt, which would add to the effectiveness of the work. The most important service the higher schools of commerce can render the high-school authorities is in training teachers who shall be not only competent instructors but who shall thoroly understand the conditions of the state and be in hearty sympathy with every movement which makes for industrial development and social uplift. Few people realize that of the entire enrolment of over a million high-school pupils, at least one-fourth of their teachers must be trained for their profession by the higher school of commerce. The importance of the summer schools at the state institutions is often overlookt by both the authorities and the teacher. Equipment of great value and a large teaching staff are devoted to a comparatively insignifi- cant attendance, when the halls of learning should be crowded to the limit. Inducements should be offered to the ambitious teacher to avail himself of these opportunities. This would probably have to take the form of indirect recognition and advancement rather than direct financial aid. How can the higher schools of commerce best serve the teacher ? The first assistance the advanst schools can render the teacher is in adequate preparation. The average applicant for a high-school position is deficient in one or more of three fundamental requisites: (i) intensive training in a specialty, such as accounting, office training, stenography, commercial law, or economics; (2) insufficient fundamental training in English, mathematics, and science; (3) insufficient training in student activities and leadership. It is the duty of the higher schools of commerce to watch the progress of prospective teachers with a view to correcting these defects. The college or university can be of great service in conducting reading courses for the benefit of the commercial teacher. Correspondence study lends itself peculiarly to the teacher, because in the course of his daily work his shortcomings and difficulties are discovered and emphasized. And the instructor is obviously better fitted to pursue self-study than any other class of students. Many correspondence courses are offered, but in many cases they are too expensive and ill suited to the needs of the student. No institution should be better fitted to furnish the assistance to the high-school teacher than the state colleges and uni- versities. 342 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business Very effective service can be rendered to the instructor by the prepa- ration of bibliographies on special topics. This is of great assistance to the high-school instructor in preparing supplementary material in the various courses. It is daily becoming more apparent that the man who knows the fountain of knowledge and can draw from it as occasion demands, is stronger and more versatile than he who depends largely on memory for his material. Another very effective method of service is by extension lectures and conferences. Many of the defects of our system of business education are due to a lack of knowledge of conditions outside of our own school. The higher school of commerce can be of very great assistance to the college graduate and to the commercial teacher by conducting a placement or reference bureau. Many teachers, as well as the schools, would profit by making changes, provided the exact condition of the school and the qualifications of the instructor were thoroly known. Often this can be done by a disinterested state institution more effectively and reliably than by a teachers' agency. The service which the higher school of commerce can render the pupil is less definite, but no less important. Among the most difficult and vital problems in education, especially beyond the high school, is educational and vocational guidance. Who should be encouraged to pursue a college course? Who discouraged? Who should pursue law? Who agricul- ture? Who commerce? These questions are of tremendous importance to the commonwealth as well as to the individual. I am not ready or com- petent to lay down specific rules to be followed, but I would say that as careful methods should be used in determining fitness for position as in the selection of proper equipment for our factories, or stock for our dairy farms. If the colleges and universities gave more serious attention to the study of the prospective candidate before he leaves the high school rather than during the college course, there would be far less educational and vocational misfits. This cannot be done without serious, painstaking investigation any more than important results can be achieved without research and scientific investigation. This slow and often costly investiga- tion should be performed by the local authorities in cooperation with the colleges and universities. The inauguration of prizes and scholarships by public-spirited citizens for superior work in the high school gives promise of excellent results. This discussion would not be complete if I did not say a word regarding the correlation of the courses of study of the higher schools of commerce and the commercial departments of the high schools. What should con- stitute the end of the high-school course and the beginning of the college course? Under what circumstances may college credit be granted for high-school work ? What is the distinction between higher and elementary work in commerce ? The quantity of work required for graduation from I Department] tilGHBR SCHOOLS OP COMMERCE AND HIGH SCHOOLS 343 the high school is measured by fifteen units and may be readily equated with college credits. If all high-school graduates knew exactly what course to pursue and all college preparatory courses were standardized in high schools of equal facilities, the problem would be easily solved. A high- school student pursuing the classical course often decides to enter the college commerce course, and a high-school graduate from the commercial course as often chooses the university course in liberal arts. Under either circumstance the college or university generally offers beginners courses which are just as elementary as courses offered in the best high-school Junior and Senior years, the only difference being in the measure of the work spent on the course. This has been recognized by the Oregon Agri- cultural College, so that two years spent at stenography or accounting in any of half a dozen Oregon high schools entitles the student to register in the Sophomore office-training or accounting course, provided, of course, that he must make up an equivalent number of credits in electives before he can graduate. The same rule is followed in modern languages and in some of the sciences. In most subjects, however, an examination is required besides the certificate of the high-school authorities. I must make the practice of the Oregon Agricultural College perfectly clear by two examples. Take, for instance, the department of mechani- cal engineering. The first semester of the Freshman year in that depart- ment requires a two-credit course in mechanical drawing. This means six hours of work per week for eighteen weeks. Many of the Portland high-school graduates come with a year's credit in the subject, and it has been found ihat this work, usually given in the last two years of high school, is fully equivalent to the college courses of half a year. Hence, mechanical drawing is credited in the Freshman year, but the student becomes deficient in an equal number of entrance credits unless he has finisht more than fifteen units in the high school. These may be made up by taking any work for which the student is prepared during the college course, usually in English, modern languages, mathematics, science, or commerce. Referring again to the Oregon Agricultural Col- lege commercial courses, it is generally conceded that a very good ele- mentary course can be given in the high school in both stenography and accounting, but that the advanst courses in both subjects are out of the question in high schools, owing largely to the immaturity of the student. Hence, if a student has finisht two years of either stenography or accounting in the high school, he may register in the Sophomore year in either sub- ject, deficiencies being noted in entrance requirements if he does not enter with more than fifteen units. This correlation is typical of all other departments. In other words, a total of fifteen units of high- school work plus 136 credits of college work must be completed before a student can obtain a degree in any course at the Oregon Agricultural College. 344 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Business In my judgment there is no reason why this principle should not be establisht for all high schools reaching a certain standard set by first-class colleges and universities. Here is an opportunity for real constructive work on the part of the higher schools of commerce. The distinction between higher and elementary commerce lies both in the kind of work and in the intensity and extent of the work. Latin may be begun either in high school or in college, and advanst work may be pursued both in the college and the university, and yet Latin is Latin. The same is true of accounting, of economics, of commercial law, or of English. A splendid example of foolish distinction between subject-matter in commerce is the contention by some accountants and educators that bookkeeping should be taught in the high school and accounting in the colleges and universities. As if it were possible to get away from book- keeping in the study of accounting, or vice versa! This does not mean, of course, that there should not be a markt differ- ence between the college and university work and that of the high school. But this difference is most markt in the character rather than in the kind of work. This is true mainly because of both the preparation and the greater maturity of the student and the superior facilities of the college and university. DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President— O. M. Plummer, Board of Education Portland, Ore. Vice-President — Frank D. Wilsey, Board of Education New York City, N.Y. Secretary — Frank M. Bruce, American School Board Journal Milwaukee, Wis. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July ii, 1917 The Department of School Administration met for its first session in Room A, Municipal Auditorium, on Wednesday, July 11, at 10:00 a.m. Mr. O. M. Plummer presided. Addresses were made as follows: "Court Decisions versus Social Progress" — Ella Flagg Young, Chicago, 111. "Some Problems in School Administration" — E. Shorrock, president of the Board of Education, Seattle, Wash. "A Principle in School Administration" — Carroll G. Pearse, president, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. "Salary Schedules" — Mr. Durand W. Springer, president of the Board of Education, Ann Arbor, Mich. "Administration Safe for Democracy" — Mrs. O. Shepard Bamum, vice-president, California State Board of Education, Alhambra, Cal. "The Teacher and the School Board"— Rt. Rev. W. T. Sumner, bishop of Oregon, Portland, Ore. At 12:30 P.M. the annual luncheon of the department in honor of the president of the National Education Association was served at the Multnomah Hotel. Mr. Plummer acted as toastmaster. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, July ii, 191 7 The department reassembled at 2 : 30 p.m. to receive the report of the Committee on the Standardization of Schoolhouse Planning. Mr. Frank Irving Cooper acted as chair- man. Papers were read as follows: "Report of the Committee" — Frank Irving Cooper, Boston, Mass. "Some Essentials m the Planning of School Buildings for Community Use" — William C. Bruce, editor American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis. "The Relations between Boards of Education, Their Superintendents, and the Architect"' — John J. Donovan, school architect, Oakland, Cal. "The Necessity of the Adaptation of the Building to the School Organization" — S. A. Challman, state commissioner of school buildings for Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. "Standardization of School Buildings" — ^WUliam B. Ittner, school architect, St. Louis, Mo. The general discussion was opened by Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, who read a paper prepared by Dr. Albert Shiels, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal. Mr. F. A. Naramore, architect of the Portland Board of Education, discust "Com- petitions for the Selection of Schoolhouse Plans." 345 346 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration President O. M. Plummer now took the chair and appointed as members of the nomi- nating committee, Mr. John J. Donovan, Oakland; Mr, Elwell H. Hoyt, Tacoma; and William C. Bruce, Milwaukee. The committee after some deliberation announced as nominees: President — Mr. O. M. Plummer, Portland, Ore. Vice-President — Mr. Albert Wunderlich, school director, St. Paul, Minn. Secretary — William C. Bruce, Milwaukee, Wis. These ofl&cers were duly elected. THIRD SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 12, 191 7 The final session of the department, which was held Thursday, July 12, at 10:00 a.m., was entirely patriotic in character. Addresses were made as follows: "Why I Love America" — Dr. Robert J. Aley, president of the University of Maine, Orono, Me. "The Problem of the Adult Immigrant" — Dr. Caroline Hedger, Chicago, 111. "Problems of the Present" — Hon. Charles Lister, governor of the state of Washing- ton. "Conservation of National Ideals in War Times" — ^William T. Foster, president of Reed College, Portland, Ore. William C. Bruce, Secretary pro tern. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF STANDARDIZATION OF SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION BY THE CHAIRMAN, FRANK IRVING COOPER, ARCHITECT, BOSTON, MASS. At the 1 9 16 convention of the National Education Association held in New York City, the Department of School Administration appointed a Committee on Standardiza- tion of Schoolhouse Planning and Construction. The committee publisht in its first bulletin a statement of its proposed work. 1. To select from details of construction pertaining to schoolhouse architecture standards which have already been determined upon by the various states and which are in general use by the various trade organizations. 2. To select from standard details those usually accepted by educational authorities. 3. To fix standards of schoolhouse planning. The committee had not progrest far in its work before it felt the need of the advice and cooperation of other societies working on similar lines, and with the permission of the Department of Administration we added, and have continued to add from time to time, societies and individuals, experts in their particular lines, who will serve as associate mem- bers aiding our Committee with counsel and advice. Bulletin No. 2 presented to the committee members tentative tabulations of a group of New England schoolhouses and asked each member for his criticism. Members sug- gested that more points should be included in the tabulations and proposed methods for doing the work. Bulletin No. 3 was on the line of Bulletin No. 2 and carried out criticisms and sug- gestions offered by members of the committees. Bulletin No. 4 suggested ways of meeting the building problem of the rural school and was written as an incomplete answer to requests for assistance which had been sent to the Committee by people from all over the country who were engaged in meeting this problem. Bulletin No. 5 was a tabulation of certam Massachusetts high schools undertaken at the request of agents of the Massachusetts State Board of Education. They defrayed I Department] SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION 347 the expense of tabulators who performed the work under the guidance of the chairman of this committee. In January, 191 7, Mr. Baldwin, of the Committee of School Accounting Officers, and the chairman of your committee attended the convention of the American Society of Heating and Ventilation Engineers. The work of your committee was discust and we were assured of the help and cooperation of the Society. On February 12 the chairman of the committee of the National Education Association on standardization, the chairman of the committee of the American Association of School Accounting Officers on measur- ing the school plan, the chairman of the committee of the American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers on measurements held a joint meeting in Boston and decided to cooperate in the work of formulating rules for the measurement of the school building. Bulletin No. 6 stated the rules for measurement and tabulation drawn m cooperation with the associated societies. It gave a list of departmental divisions of schoolhouses which were to be measured and tabulated, and covered suggestions made by all members of our conmiittee in response to Bulletms 2 and 3. The chairman of your committee attended the convention of the superintendents at Kansas City and gave to the secretary a report of the work of this committee up to that time. The work of your committee was discust and many suggestions were received as to findings that would prove helpful to the superintendent. In pursuing the work of tabulation and in the correspondence that was necessary, the chairman of your committee had personally expended about four hundred dollars, as there were no funds from which to draw. As a result of meetings arranged by Dr. Ayres, the General Education Board appropriated six thousand dollars for the work of this com- mittee for one year, believing in the importance and usefulness of the work, and imprest by the fact that it was carried on in the interest of the whole nation. The money from the General Education Board is deposited in the Federal Trust Com- pany in Boston in the name of the committee and it will be spent approximately as follows: draftsman and assistants one year, measuring and tabulating data from plans of buildings, $2560; stenographer and file clerk, $1000; computer, $360; rent of comptometer, $60; typewriter, $72; tabulation sheets, stationery, printing, etc., $300; postage, express, etc., $300; travel, $1000; incidentals, $348; making a total of $6000 for this work. Office space, light, heat, together with the direction and supervision of the work is to be furnisht gratis by the chairman. We have developt an organization containing some of the most experienst men in the country interested in school problems, and we have workt out practical and satisfactory methods of procedure and are making a comparable basis tabulation of plans of school buildings which have been sent to us from various architects and school authorities. The committee believes that it should get technical information on such matters as the lighting of schoolrooms, minimum space required for physical education, including organized play and the various industrial activities which now demand space in the modern school plan. In our first bulletin we said that our first work would be to select standards which have been determined upon by the various states and which are in general use. To accomplish this work we are making a comparative parallel tabulation of school-building regulations in force thruout the various states. This tabulation now consists of nearly one thousand cards under one hundred and twenty-five headings. It covers sites, planning, construction, fire protection, heating and ventilating, illumination, sanitation, equip- ment, and the authority in whom the control is vested. In the work of planning and construction of school buildings such investigation as has been done shows that here as in other branches of educational work there exists an astonishing variety in practice and very little reliable information as to what constitutes wise and economical procedure. For example, it is found that some buildings devote twice as large a proportion of the cross-section area to flues, walls, and passageways as do other similar buildings planned for a corresponding number of pupils. The same 348 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ' [Administration situation is found in respect to the amount of space devoted to stairways, wardrobes, storerooms, administration, etc. Schoolhouses in great variety have been built, but until recently practically no effort has been made, except in a few of our large cities, to reduce schoolhouse construction to scientific principles. All great business enterprises which have to do with construction seek to plan duplicate operations by standard forms, and they thus reduce their under- takings to a science. The parts that go into the plans of a schoolhouse can be reduced to a standard by the methods found applicable in other undertakings. Can we reduce the component parts that go into the making of the building and have them meet definite conditions for each class of school ? When we accomplish this we have made a beginning toward establishing standards for the planning of school buildings. A review of publications devoted to school problems shows that many comparisons have been made based on the cost per cubic foot; variations in the unit cost, however, are so great that the same rule of measurement could not have been used in the different buildings. Comparisons of parts of school buildings based on cost units, however, do not bring about improvement in the schoolhouse plan. No one would undertake to decide the mini- mum space to be devoted to a toilet-room by considering its cost per square or cubic foot. If the size of a toilet-room could not be determined by its cost per cubic foot, why should such a unit of measurement be applied to the size of a classroom, laboratory, or room for manual or industrial training ? Comparison of parts of school buildings based on cost is not the road by which to improve schoolhouse planning and construction. The planning and construction of a schoolhouse is a complex undertaking; it includes the design and arrangement of the plan, the art of construction, the sanitation, heating, ventilation, illumination, and varied electrical work; indeed, it includes the work of nearly all the crafts. The architect who is to be successful in the execution of schoolhouse commissions must be a man given to research, looking toward the development of new ideas which are constantly presented by the changes in the curriculum and in the administration of school activities, and he must do constructive thinking and constructive planning. It is seldom that the personnel of the committee appointed to erect a new school building includes a member well informed as to the problem and details involved in the planning and construction of the new building. Each committee repeats the mistakes that have been made for years. Furthermore, it frequently happens that committees insist on using ideas that have been tried elsewhere and have failed. Competent observers are convinst that the loss to the country by this method of procedure runs annually into the millions. Many of our cities have departments with architects at their head, who have developt eflScient methods of schoolhouse planning and have establisht certain standards for guidance, but these standards are unknown to other communities because no central authority has recorded the facts to make them available to all. Few persons realize how small a percentage of the floor area of the modern school building is used for actual instruction purposes. The agents of the Massachusetts Board of Education selected five of the best types of high-school buildings in the state for tabulation and comparison. In these modem buildings the floor area used for actual instruction purposes is only 31 to 37 per cent of the total area. Further study of schoolhouses may show how this percentage may be increast, and how the taxpayer, when he erects a new building, may secure more than thirty-seven cents on the dollar for direct educational work. The school architect should know standards of safety as well as of installation for the mdustrial units that enter into the planning of school buildings. To illustrate — The machine-room in a school building, equipt only a year ago, had the lathes so crowded that there was great danger of injury to the pupil operatives. Another had the horns of the anvils wrong way to with respect to the forges. I Department] SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION 349 Further study will show what minimum floor spaces are considered practical, what is the minimum lighting standard, and what should be the minimum spaces for setting up machines of various kinds and the safety devices that should be used. If this Association should adopt minimum standards of space for classrooms, laboratories, coatrooms, toilet- rooms, storerooms, machinery, etc., and should base the standard in each case on the num- ber of pupils to be provided for, it would not cause all new school buildings to be cast in the same mold. Each architect would still attack his problem of school planning in his own way. The adoption of minimum standards would, however, furnish him with that informa- tion which he now seeks from scattered and unrelated soxirces. He has no comparable data, and unless he is already an expert and can analyze and classify his information he is likely to use space standards which should not be applied to the problem he has in hand. Further, he has no standard of percentage area by which to judge the economy of his plan, and some of the tabulations which we have made show a surprising waste of floor space in the buildings considered models. If the architect or superintendent had had available accepted minimum standards by which to test his plan, he would have sought out the cause for any wide departure from the accepted minimum standards, to the benefit of his building and the public. Having presented to you this outline, let us consider how the school superintendent or committeeman who has to carry out the erection of a new building will use the stand- ards found thru our research. Having determined the number of pupils to be accom- modated by the proposed new building, the next question to be settled will be the size of the building, and then its probable cost. The required number of classrooms will be derived from the number of pupils, since the standard classroom should accommodate 40 pupils. The number of classrooms will then fix the related space. By related space is meant the space required successfully to carry on the various activities included by the type of school which is to occupy the proposed new building. For example, a school of a known number of pupils will include, besides its classrooms, wardrobes for clothing, corridors and staircases for communication, toilet-rooms for the pupils, rooms for the heat- ing apparatus, and others according to the type of school. These are the related spaces, and their area has definite relation to the number of pupils in the school. The area actually required for each, as found by our investigation, we tabulate as a minimum standard. The superintendent, knowing the type of school he requires and the number of pupils to be accommodated, will turn to the chart for build- ings of similar type and requirements and find workt out the percentage areas required for the various departments that go to make up the entire building. Having obtained these percentage values he can begin with the total classroom areas as a unit, and calculate the probable total area of the building. For example, number of classrooms times the area of standard classroom equals the percentage valut, found by the chart for classrooms of the buildmg of the type required. The sum of the total square feet in classrooms divided by percentage found for that type will give the square-feet value of i per cent. It is then only a matter of computation by the percentage values apportioned to the various departments and the addition of the amount of square-feet areas to give the total approximate area in square feet required for the building. Reversing the foregoing method will show the investigator whether a plan which he is inspecting conforms to standard types in economy of plan. -The per- centage area in square feet may be multiplied by probable height of stories to obtain an approximate of the number of cubic feet in this proposed building. The superintendent may also use these standards as an aid in the determination of areas required for the various departments in a type of school building with which he may not be familiar. For example, what would be the probable area required for home-making rooms, auditorium, play space, gymnasium, shops, and laboratories in the new type of school building planned for the duplicate-school program? The superintendent will 3SO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration turn to the chart for buildings of that type and find the various activities tabulated in the percentage area that had been found occupied by these activities in buildings already erected and used by duplicate or rotational schools in various parts of the country. The amount of study that can be put into this task is beyond measure. We shall carry on the work this coming year with the aid and counsel of leaders in school work who have freely placed their services at the disposal of your committee. I take this opportunity to urge all members of this Association to write us of any school building whose plan appeals to them as worthy of study. We believe that the results of this research will be of great benefit to the school superintendents and architects of these United States and will enable them to plan more efficient buildings, and toward this end we shall bend every energy. Frank Irving Cooper, Chairman Architect, Boston, Mass. Leonard P. Ayres Director of education, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y. Charles E. Chadsey Superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich. S. A. Challman State conunissioner of school buildings, Minneapolis, Minn. Rowland Haynes Secretary, Committee on Recreation, New York, N.Y. C. B. J. Snyder Architect, Board of Education, New York, N.Y. Lewis M. Terman Professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. Commitlee COURT DECISIONS VERSUS SOCIAL PROGRESS ELLA FLAGG YOUNG, CHICAGO, ILL. In 1857 people living north of the "Mason and Dixon Line" were startled upon reading the opinion rendered by the Supreme Court -of the United States in what is known as the "Dred Scott case." The opinion, concurred in by six associate justices, was rendered by the Chief Justice. The two remaining associate justices presented dissenting opinions. Dis- cussions ran high on the streets, in the homes, in the daily papers, and in assemblies. In the discussions it seemed as if only two persons were involved in the case: the negro, Dred Scott, and the Chief Justice, Roger B. Taney. A most interesting phase of the Chief Justice's opinion was his review of public opinion in 1775 and 1788. It seemed a strong argument with the Chief Justice that it would be difficult in 1857 to realize the atti- tude of the public mind toward the negro when the Declaration of Inde- pendence and the Constitution were adopted. The attitude of the public toward slavery when the decision in the Dred Scott case was rendered had no weight apparently with the Chief Justice. The leading line of his argu- ment was that the civil rights of negroes were not mentioned in the Con- stitution. William H. Seward, the Secretary of State at the time when I Department] COURT DECISIONS VERSUS SOCIAL PROGRESS 351 President Lincoln was assassinated, met that argument with his famous saying, "There is a higher law of right and morality than that of the Constitution." The decision of the Supreme Court settled, however, for the time being the question of the social welfare of a race; but it burned into the memories of thousands the quoted expression which was accepted as Chief Justice Taney's own attitude of mind: "They [the negroes] had no rights which the white man was bound to respect." You are all familiar with events which, beginning three years later, followed the decision: the Civil War, the Emancipation Proclamation, the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery, the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteeing civil and political rights to all citizens, native-born and naturalized. It was the irony of fate that Chief Justice Taney lived as chief justice to witness the promulgation of the Emancipation Proclamation, and also action by Congress, preliminary to the adoption of the Thirteenth Amend- ment. Here was a man with an intellectual grasp that enabled him to hold the highest judicial position under the Constitution until his death at the advanst age of eighty-seven years; and yet with his intellectuality, his training in the law, and his experience, he was unable to break away from the bondage of race antipathy and race superiority. No vision of the rights of another race beside the one to which he belonged had influenst his conception of the meaning of humanity. Sixty years after the opinion in the Dred Scott case was rendered there was delivered an opinion on the rights of public-school teachers in the state of Illinois, by Chief Justice Cooke, of the Supreme Court of Illinois. Tho the language in the decision presented by Chief Justice Cooke is not identi- cal with that in the Dred Scott case, yet there are resemblances that suggest the subject of this paper in relation to an important question in school administration — the reemployment of teachers. Chief Justice Taney said, "The right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed in the Constitution." Chief Justice Cooke says, "The Board has the absolute right to decline to reemploy any applicant for any reason or for no reason at all.'^^ If to dispense, /(tt no reason at all, with the services of a teacher, thus casting that teacher, discredited and dishonored professionally, into the open market is not an exercise of property rights, then, I ask, what are property rights ? Both chief justices saw organ- izations superior to the supreme courts; Chief Justice Taney held that " this Court has no jurisdiction to revise the judgment of a state court upon its own laws " ; Chief Justice Cooke held that " questions of policy are solely for the determination of the Board, and when they have once been deter- mined by it, the Courts will not enquire into their propriety." As Chief Justice Taney failed to recognize the force of the strong undercurrent of public opinion that was to change the legal status of a race, so Chief Justice ' All italics are mine. The court did not italicize. 35^ ^A TIOJSfAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION tAdtninistration Cooke failed, even by reference, to recognize the current that had caused the Board itself, in Chicago, in the latter part of the nineteenth century, to adopt a rule guaranteeing a statement of cause, thirty days' notice, and a trial, before a refusal to reelect was enforst, thus trans- ferring teachers from the property class to that of human beings with legal rights. In the Dred Scott decision. Chief Justice Taney wandered from the point at issue and took occasion to express personal opinions on other points. In the decision in Illinois, Chief Justice Cooke said, "This leaves, then, as the sole question to be determined, whether the Board of Education has the right, in the selection of teachers, to discriminate between those who are members of a federation or union and those who are not members of any such federation or union, and whether its action in this regard violates any constitutional or statutory provision." Here is stated definitely the ques- tion before the court. Chief Justice Cooke wandered from the point at issue, to present obiter dicta on other issues. I am not asking you to con- sider the question of membership of teachers in a federation or union; I am presenting for your consideration the remarkable personal opinions of Chief Justice Cooke and their out-of-date attitude toward teachers as an efficient force in human welfare and therefore in the social progress of this nation. If all boards of education should have, as he says the board in Illinois has, the absolute right to decline to reemploy any teacher for any reason whatever or for no reason at all, the question arises, In this land of increasing opportunities what kind of men and women will eventually be found choosing teaching as a life-work ? The Chief Justice borders on the garrulous as he adds, *'It is immaterial whether the reason for the refusal to employ him is because the applicant is married or unmarried, is of fair complexion or dark." The Chief Justice does not state which he, if a member of a board of education,- would refuse to reemploy, the blonde benedicts or the brunette bachelors. In recognizing the power placed in the hands of the board as discre- tionary, common sense should be used by the court in its interpretation of the term discretionary. The restriction to the exercise of discretion and judgment, as set by the plain citizen and the great American and English dictionaries, should be recognized. A lawyer and statesman, John C. Calhoun, said, "There is no power of government without restrictions; not even the so-called discretionary power of Congress." Another lawyer and statesman, Alexander Hamilton, in writing on taxation said, "The genius of liberty re-reprobates everything arbitrary or discretionary in taxation." What would he have said about discretion in reemploying teachers ? Two associate justices dissented from Chief Justice Taney's opinion, and two in the Illinois court from Chief Justice Cooke's opinion; they "did not concur in all the reasoning of the opinion, but they concurred Department! COURT DECISIONS VERSUS SOCIAL PROGRESS 353 in the conclusion! ^^ They dissented from the ohiter dicta. Here is their language : The board of education is charged with the maintenance of the public schools and the employment of teachers therein. It may enact all reasonable rules for the promotion of the efficiency of the schools under its control. This power does not, however, include the power to adopt any kind of an arbitrary rule for the employment of teachers it may choose to adopt, for a rule can easily be imagined the adoption of which would be unreasonable, contrary to public policy, and on the face of it not calculated to promote the best interests and welfare of the schools. In our opinion courts would have the power, in the interests of the public good, to prohibit the enforcement of such an arbitrary rule. The decision of the Supreme Court of the United States affected a race many of whose people nurst and cared for the children of the dominant race. The decision of the Supreme Court of Illinois affected the men and women who are charged with the education of those future citizens who are receiving their training in the public schools, elementary and high. If the law as interpreted by the Illinois court were to apply to all public schools in the United States, there would have been at the close of this school year as many men and women teachers liable to ejection from their positions in the public schools, for no reason at all, as there were soldiers who died in the Union and Confederate forces in the Civil War — about 600,000. As in the days of slavery a negro might be separated from family and home for no reason due him or her, so under the decision rendered by Chief Justice Cooke, men and women public-school teachers might be dropt from their positions all unexpectedly, and for no reason due to them or for no reason at all. The records show that it has been done in cities in Illinois having 100,000 or more inhabitants. Turning to social progress in this country let me ask. What has been the tendency, the direction of legislation on questions involving human welfare ? It has been to give a sense of freedom from the terrors that accompany the fear of unseen malignity. England is a more conservative country than the United States. I will quote from the official report of a debate lasting three days in the House of Lords in July, 19 16. Lord Sheffield: In local activity another element to which I look for securing the real growth of our public education is a great respect for the freedom and the individuality of the teachers. If you are to get the best out of your teachers, you must encourage them to think for themselves, and to have freedom in their methods, and for that you must secure that those who have the appointment and promotion of teachers shall be so con- stituted that they have regard only to the character and efficiency of teachers as teachers in appointing and promoting them. I wish for no subsidiary aims of another character. The Marquis of Crewe: If the training of the nation is to be advanst, there must be greater honor for the teaching profession in the different grades Nor do I forget the necessity of maintaining and safeguarding the independence of the teacher in leading the life and expressing the opinions which he or she is entitled to hold. Compare these opinions with that exprest by the Chief Justice of the Supreme, Court of Illinois. 354 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration I infer that Chief Justice Cooke and the associate justices do not indorse this statement in the Ritchie case, Supreme Court of lUinois, 1909: "What we know as men we cannot profess to be ignorant of as judges." I infer this because of two events that occurred on two consecutive days in Spring- field, 111.: On April 19, 1917, Chief Justice Cooke presented the decision containing his obiter dictum that the board has the absolute right to decline to reemploy an applicant, /(7r no reason at all; on April 20, 191 7, Governor Lowden of Illinois signed a bill that had been adopted on the third reading in the legislature of Illinois and contained this amendment: No teacher or principal who has been or shall be appointed by said Board of Edu- cation shall (after serving a probationary period of three years) be removed except for cause, and then, only by a majority of all members of the Board, upon written charges presented by the superintendent of schools, to be heard by the Board or a duly authorized committee of the same, after 30 days' notice, with copy of the charges, is served upon the person against whom they are preferred, who shall have the privilege of being present with counsel, offering evidence and making defense thereto. It may be objected that the Court does not, as did the Boards possess discretionary power; that it must interpret the law as it is written, not in combination with present-day understanding of human welfare. Justice Brewer, of the Supreme Court of the United States, stated in the Muller v. Oregon case, 1907, that "the Court took judicial cognizance of all matters of general knowledge"; he admitted the empirical evidence presented by Mr. Louis D. Brandeis, then attorney, now associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, whose argument bound together the welfare of the workers and the welfare of the nation. The Illinois chief justice would have done well to recognize conditions that make for the welfare and efficiency of teachers and consequently of the state, instead of injecting into his decision his obiter dicta that would terrify and unnerve teachers. Speaking about the decision in the Dred Scott case, Abraham Lincoln made many telling points, a few of which I quote: Judicial decisions are of greater or less authority as precedents according to circum- stances. ... If this important decision had been made by the unanimous consent of the judges [you may recall that in Illinois two did not concur in all the reasoning] and without any apparent partisan bias .... it might be factious not to acquiesce in it as a precedent. But when, as is true, we find it wanting in these claims to public confidence, it is not factious, it is not even disrespectful, to treat it as not having yet quite establisht a settled doctrine for the country, or if, wanting in some of these, it had been before the Court more than once, and had there been affirmed and reaffirmed thru a course of years, it then might be, perhaps would be, factious, nay even revolutionary, not to acquiesce in it as a precedent. Following Abraham Lincoln's line of reasoning, I conclude that it is not factious, it is not even disrespectful to treat the decision and the obiter dicta of Chief Justice Cooke of Illinois as not having yet quite establisht a settled doctrine of school administration in democratic America. Department] UNSOLVED PROBLEMS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 355 SOME UNSOLVED PROBLEMS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION E. SHORROCK, PRESIDENT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, SEATTLE, WASH. It is a well-known fact that not only with regard to education itself but with regard to the administration of the school system generally there are not a few unsolved problems. Much of the time of this Association is continually being given to educational problems, but apparently very little to the share which school boards must have in their solution. I propose to refer briefly to some of these problems. Primarily comes the question of the constitution of a school board, whether, for instance, the true basis is elective or appointive. The tend- ency thruout the country seems to be decidedly to the elective plan. There appears to be almost every reason why this is so. Of all the subjects in which the public is or should be interested, surely the care and education of the children comes first. We are therefore justified in assuming that a greater and more intelligent interest will usually be taken in the election of school directors than in many other elections. The main objection to the method seems to come from the large cities, in which it is too often assumed that it is impossible for the people at large to be familiar with the qualifications or otherwise of candidates. This objection can be well met by one or more public bodies aiming to advise the electors of all facts in connection with the candidates which will enable them to form an intelligent opinion of their fitness or otherwise for the position. An objec- tion to the appointive plan — and it is a serious one — is that1:he mayor, in whose hands appointments are usually placed, is elected without any reference whatever to his interest in education, and not infrequently his appointments are likely to be made with quite other considerations in view than fitness. Where candidates are elected, it is very desirable that they be elected at large and not by wards or other subdivisions. To the objection which is again urged that the public cannot be well advised of the personality of candidates in a large city the same suggestion as I have made above will apply, and certainly it must be admitted that it is far better to secure men who have a broad outlook and who can be intrusted with decisions afifecting a city as a whole and not merely districts or wards. Manifestly, of course, there is less liability of logrolling than by the ward method. The plan has been in operation in the state of Washington for many years, and in general has produced very satisfactory results. This is shown, in part at least, by the fact that this state is in the front rank in public approval of school policies and of amounts set aside for school purposes. The number of members to constitute the board is another problem, tho it is now very generally admitted that a small body makes for efficiency in every respect. There is no doubt that the smaller the body the sooner are decisions arrived at. Nevertheless a school board should be large 3S6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration enough to insure a fair representation of public opinion. Practice has shown that five, or at most seven, is a suitable number. The very smallness of the board renders necessary the selection of capable executives, which is, of course, most desirable. It also results in most of the work of the board being done by the board itself and not by committees. The Seattle board has only two committees, one on buildings and grounds and one on finance and auditing. All other matters are dealt with by the board as a whole, with occasional reports or recommendations from committees specially appointed as the need, in the opinion of the board, may arise. The only objection to the plan is that it involves a greater knowledge of the general operations on the part of individual members, which, in turn, demands a greater sacrifice of time on their part. No one, however, who is not fully prepared to make a substantial sacrifice of time so that he may be sub- stantially familiar with details ought to allow himself to be elected. In matters affecting their children parents are not disposed to allow members to shield themselves behind executives, while, on the other hand, a large discretion may be given to the latter in investigations and recommenda- tions thereon. This brings me to the next problem, that of the board's executives. Generally speaking, these consist of the superintendent, the secretary (or business manager), and the architect, with the addition occasionally of a chief engineer (who has charge of heating, plumbing, etc., and also of the janitors) and chief of the repair department. Needless to say, the superin- tendent must be vested with virtually the full responsibility for the selec- tion and employment of teachers. At the same time the members of the board must take suitable steps to satisfy themselves that his duties in this and other respects are being performed with judgment and discretion. I doubt whether the method adopted in Seattle in the selection of teachers can be improved upon, which, in brief, consists first of the examination and grading of all applicants independently by at least three assistant superin- tendents, the ranking of applicants in accordance with the examination thus made, and the election by the board based upon such ranking. As a means of checking the basis upon which the grading is made, members will take a batch of applications and themselves examine them, comparing those who are recommended with those who are rejected, and in this way will satisfy themselves as to the principles of selection. It has been recently suggested in high quarters that the superintendent should be the sole executive, responsible directly to the board, all other officers being subordinate to him. While in theory it is good for one individual to bear all the executive responsibility of an organization, the nature of the operations of a school district is so varied that it is too much to expoct one man to be capable of supervising intelligently all of them. A superintendent who will, with full satisfaction, handle a large corps of teachers, keep abreast of educational developments in all parts of the Department] UNSOLVED PROBLEMS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 357 country, giving time to discuss them with his assistants and to form a judgment upon them so as to be able to recommend them to his board of directors or otherwise, will have no time to spare for other duties. He should, it is true, keep in touch in a general way with the type of school- houses, the general financial policy of the district, etc., but nothing beyond this. One of the important questions on which there is some difference of opinion is the tenure of board members. The state of Washington makes a limit of three years; Oregon five years. No one who is able to give only a part of his time to the work of the school board can become really effective by reason of fairly complete knowledge in less than two or three years. It follows that five years should be the minimum. The various business, financial, and educational problems with which he should be familiar leave little doubt on this point. The time has doubtless gone by for discussion as to whether women should be members of school boards or not. Everything depends on the women themselves. The fact is, of course, that almost inevitably by far the greater part of the time of the board must be devoted to business and financial questions. It is not necessary, presumably, to deal at all with the question of payment of members. The evils of payment are so great that they seem largely to outweigh the inability of the average member to give more than one or two hours a day to the work. Assuming a proper method of selecting teachers, two or three other problems have proved difficult of solution. For example, no satisfactory plan has yet been devised for accurately grading teachers as to salary. The universal plan — ^presumably because it is the simplest — is that of fixing classes in accordance with length of service. Up to a certain point this is good, but it cannot go very far, or the highest salaries may be paid to teachers who are by reason of age becoming ineffective. Superintendents and teachers themselves are apparently loath to suggest I any change, largely, no doubt, because of a feeling that it would be Easy to make a charge of favoritism if grading were to be based upon a inerit plan. [ Another problem is the relation between the salaries of high-school lieachers and elementary-school teachers. The variation in this respect between different cities is very great. It is doubtful if a variation of more than three or four hundred dollars a year can be defended. The strain upon an elementary-school teacher is certainly as great as that upon a high- school teacher, for while the latter has only one subject to teach, the former has many. In general, also, the high-school teacher has fewer pupils than the elementary-school teacher. And finally, the preparation required by most districts to secure election as an elementary-school teacher is not much less than that required in the case of a high-school teacher. The increasing demand for men teachers for high-school boys is a factor which must be 358 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration taken into account, and in my opinion it justifies a higher scale for them than for women. An examination of the sums spent by different cities upon their schools reveals a wide discrepancy, and an investigation here is also much to be desired, with the object of determining what is a fair amount to be spent upon a city's educational system. According to the last report of the Bureau of Education the proportion spent by the cities in the state of Massa- chusetts to other municipal outlays is 23 per cent, in New York state 24 per cent, in the state of Oregon 21 per cent, and in the state of Washington 36^ per cent. If the relation is based upon the proportion of expense to wealth. New York state expends 23 cents per hundred dollars, while Massa- chusetts spends 35^ cents, Oregon and Washington 31 and 32 cents respec- tively, while the city of Seattle spends 50 cents. These figures indicate a great variety of opinion as to expenditures. If New York state spent as much on its schools in proportion to other municipal outlays as the state of Washington, it would increase its expenditures not less than 50 per cent. On the other hand, the state spends $52.00 per pupil per annum, which is surpast by only one or two other states. I do not presume to interpret such figures as these, but simply give them to indicate the nature of the problem and the necessity for close examination of it. These are only a few of the problems with which school boards have to deal, and time does not permit of my referring at all to such questions as the extent of the installation of manual training, schools for the blind, deaf, or defective (physical or mental), the introduction of medical clinics or departments of vocational guidance, and, last but not least, the ques- tion of separate high schools for boys and for girls, which, in my opinion, has not had anything like the careful consideration that it deserves. It may be said that these are matters for the superintendent and his staff, but clearly, unless boards of directors can be convinst of their utility, they can never be installed, and the director who is not willing to give serious thought to these subjects as well as to those which are supposed to concern him more immediately is not properly filling his high position. There is virtually no position which a man or woman can hold which has greater responsibilities and greater opportunities for real service to a community. The school director is the link between the public — the parent and the business man — and the school and is bound to study the relation between active life and the educational system for which he is responsible. If this relation is to become closer, if the demands of life are to be more fully met by our schools, it must be largely thru his efforts, and he should be able to supplement and correct to no slight extent the educational theories which are from time to time promulgated, and also to advance some of his own. Department! A PRINCIPLE IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 359 A PRINCIPLE IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION CARROLL G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. Certain delicate and special processes of manufacture must be carried on under special conditions. The manufacture of sensitive plates and films for photography must be carried on in the absence of sunlight. The manu- facture of certain delicate fabrics, especially fabrics of cotton and linen, require special conditions of temperature and moisture. Lines of manu- facture of these fabrics have grown up in localities where these conditions of climate exist naturally. Manufacturers in other localities who wisht to produce similar goods, but were not able to do so, made a study of the surrounding climatic conditions in the localities where the manu- facture was successful, and in some cases were able to produce, in an artificial manner, the conditions necessary, and so were able in their plants to weave successfully the fabrics which before had been beyond their skill. In the same way the delicate and special processes of education require that certain surrounding conditions exist. There are many of these neces- sary conditions which are material. In the rural schools these necessary surrounding material conditions are simpler and fewer; the numbers in the schoolroom are smaller ; the out-of-school life of the pupils gives much that children in city and town surroundings lack. In the town more care must be taken to give fresh air and outdoor physical exercise and hard work, if the bodies are to grow to strong and vigorous maturity, fit dwelling-places for the spirits of free and efficient American citizens. But education is not merely a matter of the bodies. It is even more a matter of the mind and soul. It is largely personal, and proceeds in the best manner when the human element in our educational system — the teacher — is best prepared and experienst in the work, and is the kind of person who has the most potent and inspiring influence upon the young people who make up the school. To have the best schools, therefore, we must have the best teachers, physically fit, well prepared, and possest of a proper spirit toward life and toward their work. The shop or the factory may be supplied with all the necessary material conditions. It may be warm, or cool and comfortable. Its workrooms may be properly constructed and arranged and lighted. There may be all the necessary equipment of tools and machinery, there may be men, the necessary complement of qualified workmen; but if the power for operating the machinery be insufficient, if the steam pressure be low, or the electrical current weak, the product will be insufiicient and unsatisfactory. And if the rooms are cold so that the workmen's fingers are stiff and clumsy, or if there are loose joints in the shafting or leaks in the wires that bring the power, or if the floors are weak so that the workmen fear the building may collapse, or the situation is such that danger to life in case of fire is great, 360 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION {Administration and for these reasons the workmen labor in an atmosphere of worry or apprehension, the output can never be satisfactory. It is true in a far greater degree that the work of public education, a process more complex and delicate than any material process of manu- facture, to be carried on aright must not only have in its equipment a proper physical plant and equipment and materials and a sufficient quota of well-trained workmen — teachers — but must also be carried on under circumstances and in an atmosphere which give substantial physical and mental comfort and reasonable peace of mind. For this reason, waiving entirely the interest of the teacher, and waiving further the fact that worry and anxiety wear out teachers in too short a time, thus giving the state a minimum return on the investment it has made in the education of the teachers, and looking at the matter entirely from the standpoint of the public interest — the best possible instruction of the children — teachers should enjoy reasonable security of tenure. This tenure ought not to be such as to affix a teacher for life to a particular position regardless of efficiency or suitableness; but after a reasonable trying out, the public's employe who teaches its children should be sure that during good service and good behavior the means of livelihood will not be taken away. The occasional difficulties which may arise in removing an unde- sirable will be more than counterbalanst by the greater courage and con- fidence and cheerfulness and spirit with which freedom from anxiety will enable the teachers to do their work. For the same reason, disregarding wholly the teacher's personal interest, the public's educational servant should be as well paid as possible. A scant salary stints the teacher in food; an undernourished teacher is never the best teacher. Such a salary limits the quality of the teacher's residence and the quality of the material comfort of the home. It makes possible few books and periodicals and lectures and means of professional improve- ment. It is not possible for the teacher to enjoy desirable and improving recreations and pleasures. The best medical attention is not available in time of need. Inability to pay for insurance against illness and accident and against loss of income to the family in the event of the teacher's death all add to the instructor's load of anxiety and render the best service out of the question. A constant struggle to make ends meet wearies and harasses the teacher, and consumes energy and thought which should be devoted to the instructor's work. The teacher's salary is not large ; the opportunities for acquiring worldly wisdom are not numerous; and the employes in the nation's instructional force seldom accumulate the competence necessary for maintenance in comfort after teaching days are over. It is true that worn-out teachers can be displaced and left to shift for themselves. But, aside from the cruelty of this plan and aside from the teacher's interest, it is a poor plan for the state. Sympathy often keeps teachers in active service when the I Department) A PRINCIPLE IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 361 interests of the children require their retirement, which would easily be accomplisht were a retiring annuity available. It is true also that lack of such an arrangement sends out of the profession constantly great numbers of teachers whom the state has spent money to train, and whose services are thus lost to the public because they feel that they must go into some business in which they can lay away something for a rainy day or for old age. The effectiveness of numbers who remain in the work is impaired by worry over the future, and their cheerfulness and courage and confidence are gnawed daily by their fears of the catastrophe in the not distant future. All that has preceded has been written to provide the setting for the principle of administration which I wish here briefly to discuss. Teachers see the dangers and difficulties which I have previously sketcht, and frequently they are moved to take up these questions with their employers. Sometimes this is done thru regular and permanent organizations of teachers; sometimes it is done thru temporary committees appointed for' the purpose; sometimes the movement is thru individuals. It is true that sometimes these matters are presented in an unfortunate or tactless or belligerent manner. Teachers are not trained diplomats; they often lack skill in preparing their cases for presentation and in the selection of their representatives. But, regardless of any lack of tact or good judgment on the part of the teachers, it is worth while for the employers to receive these appeals (even tho occasionally coucht as demands) in a sympathetic spirit. And it is of the first importance that the employers strive to see the situation, not only from the standpoint of employers representing the taxpayers who supply the funds, but also from the standpoint of the teachers, who have no other method of obtaining relief than thru an appeal to their direct employers, the members of the board of education, and the pubHc whom those members represent. If the schools are to prosper and the work of education is to go on efifectively, there must be good feeling and harmony between the board and its employes. And as the officially superior body, it rests most heavily upon the employers to see that these good relations are maintained. There should be no feeling of antagonism because such a request comes from the teaching force. Teachers are, in general, reasonable, and may be dealt with frankly and reasonably. There are a number of situations in the country today where the board and the teachers are at loggerheads and the schools are suffering. In most of these cases, I believe, the bad situation might have been avoided if each party, but especially the body officially in charge of the situation, had exercised forbearance and tried to see the thing from the other's standpoint. I am well aware that there are cases in which the quarrel has been pickt by the unwise leaders of the teachers; if I were addressing teachers I should discuss this point at greater length. Not only is it the part of the employers of teachers to meet their employes in this good-tempered way, but it is also and equally their duty 362 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration to concern themselves with the situations which from time to time arise, and to proceed in these matters of tenure and salary and, so far as can be done, of retirement annuity without waiting for demands or requests from their employes. The best service, even in factories and places where the product is merely material, comes in those plants where the employed work under good conditions and are comfortable and as well paid as may be. It is quite as much in the interest of the public and the children, for whom the schools are operated, as in the interests of the teachers that the board of education be alert and interested to make working conditions as good as possible and to have the school employes well paid. That board of educa- tion which has a notion that the first duty of such a body is to cut down the expenses of the schools to the lowest point has a very narrow and incomplete conception of its duties. It is the prime duty of such a board to get for the public the best service in the education of its children. And if conditions are such, as they often are, that a greater expenditure is a good investment, their highest duty is to find how they can wisely spend more money. Such a study may show, what is true in a good many school systems in the country today, that an increase of 10 or 20 per cent in salaries would make 25 or 50 per cent better teachers. At any rate, a board whose members approach the consideration of these topics in the spirit suggested will much less frequently than is the case at present find the board and its teaching force at loggerheads or upon bad terms. ADMINISTRATION "SAFE FOR DEMOCRACY'' MRS. O. SHEPARD BARNUM, VICE-PRESIDENT, CALIFORNIA STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION, ALHAMBRA, CAL. It affords a board member rare pleasure and comfort to attend a meeting of the Department of Administration and be with others of like circumstance and experience. A democratic or "lay" board may be defined as a small body of plain citizens entirely surrounded by experts, and a member thereof must learn to see himself as experts see him and usually feels like a lion in a den of Daniels. If there were time, it would be a relief to roar a bit and swap growls over our difficulties, such as the difficulty of detecting super- experts among a plethora of candidates. Of course your board and ours are infallible in this respect, but others complain of surprises similar to that of the small girl's paraphrase. She meant, "And Enoch was not for God took him," but said, "And Enoch was not what God took him for." Since we have reacht this administrative Mecca, I take it that we are all perfectly good board members and know our catechism; we know that the first duty of democratic lay boards is to obey our experts and back them forever. (I feel safe in stating this precept, for it is admitted by the experts themselves and is one point on which they always agree.) Department) ADMINISTRATION "SAFE FOR DEMOCRACY" 363 Educational efficiency demands that professional educators determine such technical matters as choice of studies, selection of textbooks, appoint- ment and promotion of teachers. If we cannot understand recommenda- tions at first, we should serve as a laboratory or testing solution in which they may try their ideas — sort of stir us up until said ideas are precipitated in plans clearly crystallized for popular presentation. Then, to make their improvements effective in our democracies, we must support them manfully, in season and out of season, before legislatures, supervisors, councils, and the public generally, until they are establisht in the schools. The psychol- ogy of this delicate relationship is interesting. It often reminds me, in its opposite phases, of the predicaments of two bridegrooms. One was detained by a railroad accident and telegraphed frantically, "Don't be married until I come!" The board's presence really is necessary to the ceremony. On the other hand, the second bridegroom ventured too far; he began telling his dusky bride how the ceremony should proceed and was promptly reminded: "Now, Sambo, Ise wants you to stinctly unerstand dat you is entahly incidental to dis emergency, sah; entahly incidental." Since our country is in a titanic war " to make the world safe £or democ- racy," we should promote liberal methods of administration in our nation's greatest democratic institution — the public schools. Liberal principles should prevail actually, never as a complacent abstraction, in schoolroom relationships and administrative councils. For sound democracy there should be in school conferences, large or small, systematic representation of the citizens of the system — the children. Manifestly, the direct repre- sentatives of the children are the teachers, who are in daily contact with them and have fresh and vivid impressions of their needs. As constituted at present, have the members of educational conferences, in which far-reaching administrative policies are determined, actually taught children during the week, or month, or year, or decade ? Does it really happen that nearly all of them are separated from actual teaching by several years of time and several degrees of station in the school hier- archy ? Another poignant question, is there any resemblance between non- representative conferences, school hierarchies, and — "autocracy" ? In the second place, are conclusions scientific which are reacht without the voice of the teacher — which is our nearest approach to the voice of the child — and consequently without first-hand evidence, up-to-date observation, and authentic testing of results ? The interesting developments of this depart- ment might well include conferences where board members could counsel directly with teachers. Like all boards of strategy, as distinguisht from tacticians, boards of education deal with general policies and plans for occupation, defense, and support. A democratic board must be deeply concerned over the dreary and dangerous stretches of "No Man's Land" as yet unoccupied by educa- tional forces. There is the vocational "No Man's Land" — the long and 364 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION lAdministration sadly observed stretch "after fourteen," when a host of children leave school and relatively few are profitably or educatively employed. At length, in California, as in some other states, with the full strength of the federal Smith-Hughes law augmented by state laws, with plans for voca- tional teacher training and for continuation day and evening classes, the educational forces are ready to "go over the top," to help each child gain some useful trade or occupation, for his own industrial salvation and for the industrial and military efficiency of the nation. There is the "No Man's Land" of the adult immigrant in labor camps and in the foreign colonies of cities. In California we have a real start "over the top" toward them, in suitable evening classes and home teachers and other results of the superb work of the State Commission of Immigration and Housing. There is the " No Man's Land" between home and school — a hotly contested region occasionally occupied by both, commonly by neither. Some of us are conservative (or prophetic ?) enough to wish that the home would reoccupy large sections and resume its age-old responsi- bility for child- training in several essentials: e.g., discipline, manners, religious training, thrift, home industries, vacation activities, evening activities, and social relationships. As boards we must realize, in defense of the schools, that if homes do not conduct these marginal activities they must cooperate generously with the agency that does; neglected, these marginal activities are a social menace; conducted in mass, they are extremely expensive. Strategists sometimes note a region that educational tacticians overlook as axiomatic, according to the youngster's definition: "An axiom is some- thing so plain that it doesn't need to be seen." Plainly, in a democracy the elementary schools and the subjects taught therein are of paramount importance — the subjects being the "three R's" and "then some" as added by successive legislatures and waves of reform. Just where, in the tactics of teacher training, are elementary subjects taught to prospective ele- mentary teachers? Not in the university, engrost in advanst subjects, original research, and high academic standards that are not to be jeop- ardized; not in the high school, which is engrost in preparation for the university; not in the normal school, certainly not, for that is a "strictly professional school," and reviews of elementary subjects would, we are told, jeopardize its professional standards. Two other subjects cause strategic concern, because of apparent need for more vital content and more practical application: United States his- tory and government and English. We must not invade the sacred pro- fessional precinct of "subjects taught," but we may quote, since quoting and asking questions are recognized safety valves for board members. There is no one more worth quoting than Professor John Dewey: We have now reacht a point where we have to take more conscious and deliberate thought respecting these matters; where we need a more carefully thought-out Department] ADMINISTRATION "SAFE FOR DEMOCRACY" 365 constructive policy regarding public education and the duties and responsibilities that fall upon it in connection with our national life. It seems to me that the excellence, the virtue, which we need to develop as the analogue of the trait of intelligent trained obedience of which I have spoken, is essentially responsibility — organized and intelligent responsibility. We cannot give up the policy of depending upon voluntary and private initiative and efifort; upon the processes of persuasion and conviction, discussion, publicity, and exchange of ideas so as to form public opinion. But we need a greater recognition of responsibility to the common weal in carrying on these operations. May school courses in citizenship soon give each pupil a responsible love of country; and may school courses in EngHsh help him .... to find his love a language Fit and fair and simple and sufficient. As regards strategic defense, Bishop Sumner says truly that we should defend the schools from unfair criticism. Some few critics have practicable suggestions, which teachers welcome; many critics are pure theorists; and most demand near-miracles from the educational forces at the front, while remaining preoccupied, indifferent, or overindulgent at home — in the word of the hour, "slackers." When we see our system of public education " steadily and see it whole " we realize that nothing of like extent and oppor- tunity has ever before been attempted in the history of nations. His- torical information, world perspective, as well as heart loyalty should always prompt us to give due meed of praise. Finally, as democratic boards we must actively support the schools and prevent shortage of funds, especially in war time. During this conven- tion of the National Education Association we have applauded eagerly when every possible patriotic duty was urged. For the sake of the nation our teachers will devotedly strive to form character, instil fervent loyalty, train accuracy of judgment, strength of body, and skill of craft. But these school activities, urged^by our patriotic speakers and demanded by the national crisis, are very costly, and in all the National Education Associa- tion meetings I have heard no mention of ways and means for securing adequate funds, except yesterday in the Department of School Patrons. Fortunately that department represents some two million organized women and has definite plans for enlisting pubHc support for increast school revenue during the war. What more important expenditure of treasure can there be, whether for peace or war ? If we make the world safe for democracy, as God grant we shall, we must keep the future citizens of democracy safe in the inner stronghold, the public schools, and we must loyally and generously strive for their support. "Democracy First," or "Safety First," or "America First" all mean "The Children First!" 366 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION lAdministration SOME ESSENTIALS IN THE PLANNING OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS FOR COMMUNITY USE WILLIAM c. BRUCE, American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, wis. When the history of school architecture during the last decade of the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the twentieth century is written, the most important advances that will be noted will be those which have resulted from the changed function of the school in providing for the industrial and physical education of children, and from the movement which has been currently spoken of as the "wider use of school buildings." The latter movement, altho it is barely fifteen years old, has brought the schools nearer to the adult population of the cities and villages of the United States than any purely educational work among the children, and it has made them more nearly than ever before schools for all the people. It should be said at the outset that the use of school buildings for social and civic purposes by adults, while it is of extreme importance, must neces- sarily be secondary to the primary function of the school, which is the edu- cation of growing children of legal age. As a secondary purpose, however, the use of buildings for adults is such a vital factor in the development of constantly growing numbers of cities and villages that it cannot be trifled with or minimized by school boards even in these times of high costs and enforst war economy. Primarily, the present plans for financing the schools did not anticipate the elaborations of schoolhouse plans for adult use, and the moneys which are levied by taxation belong to the children. The plan- ning of features in schoolhouses for community use must not interfere with any educational or hygienic interests of the children, and had better be omitted if the children must suffer in the accommodations afforded them. Large obstacles from the financial standpoint are not in the way in planning schoolhouses for community use. The great majority of buildings which are now open for recreation and civic purposes are serving quite satisfactorily, altho the architects who originally designed them did not have in mind the specific uses to which the buildings are now being put. The reasonably complete elementary school with a good auditorium, a gym- nasium, a kindergarten, playrooms, a manual- training shop, a school kitchen, and one or two classrooms fitted with movable desk chairs has met nearly all present social-center demands. The high school, with the rooms just enumerated and with laboratories, a cafeteria, a society meeting-room, a swimming-pool, and those many additional special rooms which the best type of high school contains will meet every reasonable expectation of even the most advanst community-center leader. The completer the modern school for the education of children, the more nearly is it satisfactory for the recreational and civic use of their elders. In the planning of schools very little additional expense need be involved for making a schoolhouse a community center, if the architect will in a true Department] SCHOOL BUILDINGS FOR COMMUNITY USE 367 spirit of research familiarize himself with present practice in the community and with the best practice thruout the country, and will conscientiously so plan every detail for school use that it may at some time be used for adults. The problem is one of refinements in plan and of coordination of educational opportunities with community needs. If this be kept in mind, the schoolhouse can be made to meet its new opportunities at an expense not exceeding 5 per cent of the original cost of an ordinary building. In fact, if the work of Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, of New York, in planning the new PubHc School No. 28, Brooklyn, is to be taken as a criterion, the school on the strictly community plan may be found more economical than the usual complete school. Of the general types of schoolhouse plans, the school of the so-called open type adapts itself best to community use. The open plan makes it possible to place more easily assembly rooms and gymnasiums where they will be independent of the building as a whole, to provide separate entrances for libraries, gamerooms, etc., and to make independent provisions in the heating and ventilating plant. The one-story schools have similarly proved themselves adaptable, as is evidenst by the recent examples in California ^and in the North Central states. The group-plan high-school building is perhaps the ideal solution of the community school for the small or medium- sized city, where the cost of ground does not make this arrangement pro- hibitive. In the large city the school planned for duplicate or platoon organization is well adapted for community use. A cardinal principle in the adaptation of schools to wider use is that of accessibility. The closer the rooms to be used are to the entrances and the fewer the stairs and corridors to be traveled, the more valuable they will be. Directness and simplicity of plan make themselves felt here. Men and women, particularly of foreign birth, are likely to be sensitive and timid in entering schools, at least for the first time. Incidentally, the grouping aids economy in the use of the plant, in that it permits the shutting off of all parts not directly in use. The expedient of separate entrances to audi- toriums and gymnasiums has proved its value. Much friction between the community director and the day-school principal can be avoided if the architect gives due attention in his plan to the possible common use of rooms and to the introduction of means which will facilitate the routine of both departments. Lockers in special rooms or in the corridors obviate any misuse of children's books and supplies by adults. They will also serve to store the books and materials of the evening teachers, play directors, shop instructors, etc. Of the three or four well-defined lines of community use of schools, the evening school is the oldest and most widespread. In recent years it has taken the form, not only of a continuation school for adults in the academic subjects and of a beginners' school for foreigners, but also of a vocational school for men and women in the trades, and as a home-making school for 368 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tAdministration women who are preparing for the duties of housewives. The strictly academic work of the evening school makes little demand for architectural adaptation. The average classroom, which measures 24 by 32 by 12 feet, is entirely satisfactory for the typical evening class of 20 to 25 members, if it is seated with chair desks and is provided with adequate illumination. Manual-training shops will be similarly valuable for evening use if they are equipt only with benches of proper height and with standard mechanics' tools. The domestic-science room is perhaps more useful if it is arranged on the household-unit plan, that is, if each group of three or four students has a small standard cooking-range for cooking and a small table. Primarily, an assembly hall, to be useful for evening use, must be located on the first floor and must be as directly accessible from the front of the building as is possible. The experience of Chicago and of many other cities shows that an assembly hall in the front of the building can be made an interesting architectural feature that will in no way interfere with the general uses of the school and will at the same time be doubly useful for outside activities. Under general conditions, in small buildings, the plan of placing the assembly room on the first floor directly back of the front entrance is quite satisfactory. The stage must be enlarged over the ordi- nary platform and must be accessible from adjoining classrooms or corridors for those who take part in pageants or theatricals. Two or more dressing- rooms are desirable. If extreme economy is desired, the scheme developed by Mr. D. H. Perkins of making the stage serve as the kindergarten room or as an auxiliary recitation room is exceedingly valuable. Except in large buildings, where special rooms can be provided, the assembly room should have a flat floor that may be cleared for dances and similar activities where large numbers of people must have broad, open spaces. A fireproof booth for projecting motion pictures and for slides in connection with illustrated lectures greatly adds to the usefulness of the room. Local conditions may suggest a movable or permanent ticket-seller's booth and two wardrobes for receptions and dances. The basement rooms for children's use can be similarly adapted to many evening uses if the architect makes them regular in shape, eliminates pillars, which interfere with free movement, and provides seats along the walls. Such basement rooms are more useful if storage space is provided for movable seating and small apparatus. They may be used readily for small political gatherings and for polling purposes. The latter use requires movable booths for the voters and some simple railings and tables. A small storeroom in the basement of the school can be arranged to hold all the special paraphernalia of the social-center director and of the election commissioners. A great number of recreational opportunities for small groups with similar inclinations in the direction of music, games, debating, and mis- cellaneous club activities can be provided in classrooms if these are equipt Department] BOARDS, SUPERINTENDENTS, AND AkCniTECTS 369 with movable chair desks or tablet armchairs, and if storage room is provided for the necessary equipment. A small room but little larger than an ordi- nary cloakroom can readily be adapted for storing game tables, games, etc. If a folding partition is provided between two classrooms on the first floor of a building, the increast uses for larger groups will grow out of all propor- tion to the doubling of the space. Many of the community uses of a building which cannot be clast as strictly recreational or strictly educational, such as political gatherings, meetings of parents' and teachers' associations, can be realized if the school is planned for the recreational uses only. For larger gatherings the assem- bly room will serve nicely; for smaller ward gatherings, a basement play- room or two classrooms opened into one will suffice. The greatest present need for further developing school architecture in the direction of making schoolhouses more valuable for wider use lies in closer cooperation of school authorities and architects. The men and women directly in charge of the social and community centers must have a voice in the councils of the school board and its executive officers. Their experiences and plans must become a part of the architect's working knowl- edge and must be evaluated in relation to the complete problem of plan and construction, sanitation, lighting, etc., of the school building. Both the architect and the school board must hold themselves in a sympathetic attitude, so that the community school building of the future will be a school for all the people. I I TEE RELATIONS BETWEEN BOARDS OF EDUCATION, THEIR SUPERINTENDENTS, AND THE ARCHITECTS JOHN J. DONOVAN, SCHOOL ARCHITECT, OAKLAND, CAL. I come before you as an architect with a keen appreciation for his pro- fession coupled with a profound respect for the educators of our country. From my varied experience in the design of school buildings I realize, per- haps more than a great many, how badly you are handicapt in your great work by improper housing. The school-building problem is most intricate and complex, with many conflicting requirements which demand for their proper adjustment the fullest possible cooperation between educators and architects. It is with a sincere desire to help in some measure to bring about such cooperation that I present this paper. The United States Bureau of Education has publisht a report of the state school systems for the year ending June 30, 1916, listing the enrolment for several years and the amounts of moneys expended. From this report we learn that the emolment for 19 14, the last recorded, between the ages of five and eighteen years, was 26,200,153, and the average daily attendance was 14,216,459. Also that expenditure for sites, buildings, and equipment 3 70 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Administratlod for 1914 was $91,606,460, and that the estimated value of public property used for school purposes was at that time $1,444,666,859. My object in presenting these data to you is to point to the tremendous expenditure in moneys yearly for school buildings, grounds, and equipment, and to show the very rapid increase in the. enrolment of our schools, which makes it likely that within ten to fifteen years the number of school buildings will have to be double that of the present time; also to point out in this paper the necessity for the practice of wise economy and the elimination of waste and duplication by earnest collaboration between boards of education, the superintendents of schools, and the architects who design the buildings. There has been a markt improvement in the design and planning of school buildings during recent years. As methods of education have changed, the architects have in many instances risen to the occasion, and the new buildings show many improvements in freedom and openness of circulation, provisions for safety, sanitation, heating and ventilation, and for the accommodation of the many rapidly developing departments such as those for vocational work, physical training, music, and kindergarten. Modern educators recognize the fact that proper provision for recreation is essential to obtain the best results from the student, and architects have been called upon to devise playrooms, lunchrooms, and gymnasiums as well as rooms for the many student activities, such as clubrooms, newspaper rooms, wireless and photographic rooms, etc. To obtain directness and freedom of circulation and such a correlation of departments as to save all unnecessary steps as well as to save all waste space and needless expense requires a simple and often a bold handling of the plan. This can be accomplisht only thru an intimate knowledge of the workings and requirements of the school. The greater the architect's knowledge of these matters, the happier the result will be, but, in any case, he should hold the fullest possible conference with those who are to occupy the building, as well as with experts in the various special branches from other parts of the country. No matter how wide his personal knowledge and experience may be, he can always learn something of value from those who are actually using the buildings. Collecting data for your committees is almost entirely an architect's problem, and is a simple but laborious one. But the correct deductions from these data and the recommendations to present to the educational world for consideration and adoption must be the joint work of the educators and the architect. Let us take one or two concrete examples to illustrate this point: Our committee undoubtedly will present drawings showing classrooms workt out economically for both high and elementary schools, giving the right dimensions for various seating capacities. They will take up the size of science laboratories, giving correct sizes for these rooms for certain fixed enrolment in science work and indicating what increment in size is required for additional numbers. Department] BOARDS, SUPERINTENDENTS, AND ARCHITECTS 371 The dangerous side of this standardization work is worthy of con- sideration, and all these data are as likely to prove as dangerous as they are advantageous unless their use is accompanied by intelligence and under- standing; and herein lies the opportunity for good teamwork between the school superintendent and the architect, for it will require the intelligence and ability of both to be able to select from the data which are presented that which is applicable to the problems. The day should never come when the committee would attempt to standardize other than parts or units of a school; for to encourage a standard type of school to be scattered broadcast thruout the country would aid and abet some of the wretched work so characteristic of the paucity of imagination exemplified in many of the late periods of American architecture, particularly in a great deal of our present school architecture. Therefore I take it upon myself to sound this word of warning in order that the work of the Committee on Stand- Iardization of Schoolhouses and their parts may be taken and used for the exact value it possesses and for no more; and that value will mean much toward economy, sensible design in our school buildings, and avoidance of a great deal of waste. Altho the progress in school architecture has been markt, the general results are yet far from satisfactory, and you have a right to expect far greater progress in the future than has been shown in the past. Our schools should be examples to the country of efficient and economical planning and design with a chaste and inexpensive beauty obtained thru pleasing propor- tions and a pleasing use of materials and color rather than thru the use of ornamentation or useless accessories. They should do their part in educating the parents as well as the children to a proper appreciation of true beauty d true architecture. Each school should possess an individuality of which the community and the public may feel proud. A board should select an architect because of his work, rather than ecause of some clever picture he may draw. If an architect is fully com- petent to perform school work, and his work proves pleasing to the board, t would be better to select him without competition and to study the problem with him rather than to ask a number of architects to submit competitive schemes without the opportunity of collaborating with the oard and with the school superintendent. There should be nothing known to the architect which is not known to the board. The confidence existing between them should be that of the family. Without it miserable results in execution are bound to follow. It behooves the board to stand right back of their man in all of his efforts, and it behooves the architect to stand up for the rights and interests of the board. He should be the first to advise them of an error on his part, and he should always be man enough to admit it and not conceal it at the expense of the contractor or by compromise which may mean a direct loss to his clients either in workmanship or materials. If this is done, the board is in a position to correct the error, 372 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration and the slate is kept clean, with both board and architect free in conscience to solve each and every new problem on its own merits. In return for the ethics, the competency, the desire to cooperate, and the devotion to this special work, the architectural profession has a deep and serious request to make to all boards of education, and they would ask that they harken to that request for the mutual welfare of both, but especially for the general good and benefit to the schools. That request is that the boards of education adopt and adhere to a code of ethics in selecting an architect for their work. The American Institute of Architects frowns upon competitions in general, and censures and penalizes its members who may take part in unauthorized competitions. This has proved to be a wise policy, favorable to the members of the profession in that it protects them against the cheat, and favorable to the public in that it protects it from being cheated, and protects the man of ability from flagrant misrepresentations and favoritism. The Institute recommends that its members be chosen for work of this character just as you would select an attorney or a surgeon to render their respective services. The men of standing will not enter into a wild scramble for this work, submitting sketches, individual estimates, and logrolling for commissions. Neither will these men compete by cutting rates or by other unprofessional tactics. The Institute recognizes and steadfastly advises that a client is almost at the mercy of the architect who unscrupulously solicits work; while the man of standing has much at stake in performing every piece of work. Each production of the architect's office is closely followed by his confreres, and, unless each building is an improvement over the preceding one, he suffers in standing and in the good opinion of members of the profession. There- fore he cannot afford to slight even the smallest of his commissions if he wishes to be successful and to maintain an establisht success. We wish to impress upon you our desire as architects to deal fairly and freely w;ith you, to give you the best of our talent, judgment, and experi- ence. In return, we ask your cooperation in lifting this important feature of your duties out of the quagmire of sharp trading and political logrolling. You and your people are the gainers by it, and your finisht work will show a dignity and charm when done on ethical lines. In conclusion, I beg to say that with the tremendous expenditure of money which necessarily must be made in the succeeding decades, a great economy will be exercised by selecting men to perform your architectural work who have the interest of the school at heart, who desire to make each building an asset to its community, and who will go to no end of thought, study, and labor to avoid and eliminate waste; for, as Dr. MacLaurin has well said, the training of technical men is such as to lead them to look naturally for means of saving waste, so that waste becomes a hateful thing in itself and men will put forth their best energies to avoid it. I I Department! ADAPTATION OF THE BUILDING TO THE SCHOOL 373 THE NECESSITY OF THE ADAPTATION OF THE BUILDING TO THE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION S. A. CHALLMAN, STATE COMMISSIONER OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS FOR MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. The conditions of today both as to forms of school organization and economy of construction of school buildings are much more complex than they were less than ten years ago. Even the small elementary-school build- ing, which at one time consisted almost wholly of a number of schoolrooms of uniform size opening from a common corridor, is as antiquated today as the one-cylinder automobile, tho not so rare. High-school buildings have undergone such a transformation that comparisons are well-nigh inapt, and it is difficult to make even a satisfactory classification of the different types that have been evolved. Variations occur constantly, and many buildings merge the features of one type into those of another. We recognize today that all schools, whether elementary or high, must provide, not only for the intellectual needs, but also for the physical develop- ment and the industrial training of the children as well as the social activities of the community. This implies for elemen<^ary schools, classrooms and wardrobes, playrooms or gymnasiums, which may also be used for com- munity purposes, kindergartens, lunchrooms, showers, swimming-pools, open-air rooms in certain centers, and in each case a nurse's room, a prin- cipal's office, and a library. For the high schools it means not only study- rooms, recitation rooms, laboratories, and administration rooms, but also shops, rooms for home economics, cafeterias, commercial departments, art departments, music-rooms, auditoriums, gymnasiums, and other rooms for recreation purposes. To provide in each case the most convenient interior arrangement with a proper amount of floor space for the number of pupils who can most advantageously occupy the rooms at the same time is a task of no mean proportions. But when added to this the architect must also adapt the plans to some particular form of school organization, the special problems which arise complicate the situation. In view of the extensive educational program to which we are committed and the limited financial appropria- tion to which we are generally restricted, the adjustment which must necessarily be made taxes the ingenuity of every conscientious architect. But these problems have had their beneficial results. We are now better prepared to eliminate waste in floor space, to agree upon certain reasonable standards as to rooms, and to insist upon a declaration of educa- tional policies as to the daily use of the various rooms of a school building. We have already begun to reduce the width of corridors, to standardize the width of stairs and exits, to limit the number of sittings in rooms used for study and recitation by fixing the capacity of the room as to number of pupils, to determine the amount of space needed for each pupil in labora- 374 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration tories and shops, and to adjust the sizes of industrial rooms to the number of pupils who can be conveniently instructed at one time. We have also come to realize the necessity of determining the number and size of accessory rooms which would add to the efficiency of each department, and we are gradually learning that for schools of various sizes we should incorporate only such features as are vital to the school organization. In all elementary schools the classroom is naturally the imit which governs the general features of the building. The number of such rooms with adjoining coatrooms will determine the width of corridors, the number and location of stairways, the size of playrooms, lunchrooms, and other rooms for administrative and social purposes. In a building of not more than eight classrooms a general assembly room may be secured by connect- ing two schoolrooms separated by a movable partition. In larger buildings an auditorium or a combination of an auditorium and a gymnasium is virtually a necessity both for school and for community purposes. In high schools four generally recognized forms of school organization affect the planning of the interior arrangement. These are all based upon the provision for seating pupils for purposes of study and recitation: 1. The familiar plan by means of which pupils are seated in one or more large assembly rooms used primarily as study-rooms, presided over by a principal or teachers in rotation as their recitation periods will permit. All recitations are then conducted in special rooms assigned to the various teachers of the high-school corps. This form gives to each pupil in attend- ance the same seat, where he is expected to be studying during school hours when not otherwise assigned. 2. The well-known plan of providing small study-rooms to seat from fifty to seventy pupils, and using these rooms for recitation purposes in connection with auxiliary recitation rooms. These study-rooms are in charge of a room teacher whose recitations are all conducted in the room assigned to this teacher. Each pupil secures by this arrangement a seat which he retains most of the time, when not reciting in another room, except when classes having recitations in this room make it necessary for him to vacate his seat, especially if it is in the front part of the room. 3. The more economical plan which provides seats in study-rooms for about 40 per cent of the pupils of the school and still has the usual number of recitation rooms. The idea underlying this plan takes cognizance of the fact that about two- thirds of the pupils are reciting in their classes during each period of the day, and only those who are not attending recitations are provided for in the study-room. By this plan a pupil selects any vacant seat he may find in the study-room and is not expected to reappear on each succeeding day in any particular seat. 4. The more recent plan of combined study and recitation rooms, according to which pupils pass from room to room during the day and occupy seats for purposes of study in the rear of any room which affords an I Department) STANDARDIZATION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 375 opportunity for study. In actual practice the plan gives to each pupil a definite seat during each period of the day and he is expected to arrange his program in such manner that he may be found at his accustomed place from day to day. The first of these plans requires the largest building and the largest annual cost of maintenance. The last requires the smallest building and the most economical outlay for maintenance. As to advantages from a pedagogical standpoint these are debatable. The first type has a study- room which during the regular recitation periods is occupied only to about one-third of its capacity. It is, however, quiet during recitation periods and affords opportunities for undisturbed study. The second and also the fourth type make it necessary for pupils to concentrate their attention on their studies while classes in other subjects are reciting in the same room. The third type gives the same opportunities for study as the first, but gives seating capacity only to the number who are not actually reciting at each period. Considering only the academic work with which the school organization is primarily concerned and making a careful estimate of the amount of floor space required per pupil for each type of building, including outside walls, partitions, corridors, coatrooms, libraries, laboratories, recitation rooms and study-rooms, the amount in square feet per pupil for each type would approximate 52 for the first, 47 for the second, 45 for the third, and 42 for the fourth. In laboratories and departmental rooms the maximum size of each group which is to carry on its work at the same time should first of all be determined. The type of equipment should then be considered. With these two factors in mind, the size and shape of the room best adapted to the work that is to be done can be readily ascertained. The diflaculty in ost cases is that neither one of these factors is definitely settled in advance of the drawing of the plans, and as a result many such rooms are unsatis- factory when put to the test of actual use. In order, therefore, to work out a satisfactory plan, it is essential that the superintendent of schools prepare a schedule outlining the various rooms needed and the specific features to be incorporated. With this must go a descriptive outline of the school organization, so that the architect may be able to arrange rooms and fix sizes of rooms to advantage. STANDARDIZATION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS WILLIAM B. ITTNER, SCHOOL ARCHITECT, ST. LOUIS, MO. In his report to the last convention of the American Institute of Archi- tects, Mr. George B. Ford, chairman of the Institute Committee on Town Planning, tells us, after an extended study of the situation, that *' the whole 376 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration idea of city planning has grown up in France since the war, and, as they frankly tell us, it is a matter of preparedness — ^preparedness for peace, because they realize that when the war is over they must be ready to meet the economic competition of the other countries of Europe. They are planning great port developments, great terminal yards, great arteries of travel, and, in fact, making complete, comprehensive plans for the con- struction of their towns and cities, so as to handle traffic in a way that will mean the least loss of energy and time. If the French nation in time of war can have the vision to carry out such ideas in the big, broad way that they are doing today, is it not all the more reason that we in America, with all our prosperity, should work out our own problems in a like scientific and comprehensive manner? "In England, town-planning work is further developt. They have had a compulsory town-planning law for eight years, and the town-planning institute for three and a half years. The architects are working out wonder- ful plans now for London; not only for London proper, but for the whole surrounding area of 1,500 square miles, by bringing the transit facilities, boulevards, streets, parks, playgrounds, public buildings, etc., all into one great comprehensive plan." Recent reports tell us that in southern Albania the Italians have already organized public service, built five hundred miles of excellent roads, and opened one hundred elementary schools, with Italian and Albanian teachers, and are giving special instruction in agriculture. In Germany these principles have long been the rule; not only have cities been planned along the most scientific lines, but the whole system has been linkt together by a wonderful system of intercommunication. This, coupled with a wonderful system of industrial education, making everyone a skilled worker in some field, has made the country almost invincible in its fight for the domination of the world. Our country, tho only upon the threshold of a great struggle, is already alive to its economic shortcomings. If, after almost three years of the greatest struggle known to history, France and England find it necessary for their preservation and existence to carry forward extraordinary plans for the improvement of their cities, as a national policy, is it wise on our part to abandon or postpone the very things which seem most vital to our own success ? Is it going to require bitter loss and untold agonies to bring us to a full realization of our responsibilities, or are we to profit by the les- sons which have been so dearly bought by others ? What has been said of city plans and public improvement apphes with equal or greater force to our schools: if the one is necessary for our economic well-being, the other is absolutely indispensable, for upon it rests the very foundations of our government. And never before in the history of this country was there greater need or a more serious crisis than at the present moment. I Department] STANDARDIZATION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 377 There must be no halt in the onward movement. Not only must school building continue unabated and the schools be brought to the highest efficiency, but the whole scheme of industrial education must be organized in a manner to make up for the depletion of the world's skilled workers. The apprentice system is gone. Immigration of skilled workers is at an end. Where, then, can we look for relief except thru the schools? A great constructive work lies before us, not only in the readjustment of our educational system to meet the new conditions, but in the buildings to house it as well. When President Wilson issued his war proclamation and called upon the people of the United States to conserve their resources for the struggle ahead, he did not mean that they should stop spending money. There is every reason to the contrary. The markets of the world are opening to our fields and industries and the demand is growing with every passing hour. There should be no curtailment of building enterprises, and least of all of schoolhouses. These are both consistent with the maintenance of our prosperity, and the country is and will remain prosperous. Building costs are high, but they will remain so regardless of the period of the contest in which the country is involved, and a restoration of former building costs, in my opinion, cannot be expected. We are face to face with a new, disturbing readjustment. We are upon a new basis of values, which is making itself felt in all activities, and in the main this readjustment has come to stay. It is recognized that food, fuel, and government supplies must take precedence over anything else in the trasportation facilities of the country, and the inadequacy of this agency is one of the principal reasons for the, high building costs, but surely this cannot be to the extent of paralyzing public work and improvements. If, after proper investigation, these agencies are found to be inadequate, steps should be taken at once to bring them into harmony with the greater demand. If an industry so funda- mentally important as the building industry is crippled by unwise trans- portation regulations, or unsound public sentiment, there is serious danger of an early surplus of unemployed labor and a genuine embarrassment to the government in obtaining from the business interests of the country the funds with which to finance the war. School-building practice is constantly changing with the course of study and the enlarged uses of the plant. Schools can no longer be trans- planted. A successful building in one community may be entirely out of place in another. They are individual, and a standardization which would discourage the free exercise of individuality, both in plan and exterior treatment, would be lamentable in the extreme. We have just fairly emerged from the time when all school buildings were the same the country over. They were mere buildings, and, while they fulfilled their function in providing a place in which to teach, they 378 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration were devoid, in most instances, of good taste, to say nothing of architecture. We have come to the realization that a school building is a living, vital thing, and have begun to invest it with an architectural dignity befitting its importance. In so far as is possible, then, our standardization should encourage a free handling, enabling school buildings to be fitted into local school and community life with due regard for those essentials necessary for safety, light, and sanitation. Safety is an important consideration. A law which requires all school buildings to be of fireproof construction, without regard to their size, loca- tion, and general plan, is unwise and places an unnecessary handicap upon the development of schools in the smaller communities. While it is splendid practice to build school buildings of fireproof construction, and while this should be encouraged, fireproof buildings are unnecessary in small com- munities, if proper plans and methods of construction are employed. Of the high-school population of the country, 50 per cent is found in cities of less than 8000 population. Such communities are generally unable to provide the necessary accommodation, along with generous sites, and erect their buildings in fireproof construction thruout, within the limits of their taxing or bonding power. Such a provision, then, must needs discourage the building of new schools, and means the continued use of old, worn-out, and otherwise undesirable buildings. Where funds will not permit the erection of a fireproof building, it will require but a small additional outlay to fireproof corridor, floors, and stairways, and if the building is properly located, limited in its height, planned with due regard to circulation, stair- way, and exit, and proper methods of construction are employed, it can •be rendered eminently safe without the further use of fireproofing methods. Equally important as safety is the general plan scheme to be adopted for the building, and no matter how modest the beginning, a school building should be laid out so that its accommodations may be increast without im- pairing its natural lighting, or without serious alterations. This point seems to have been overlookt generally thruout the country, and much waste has resulted therefrom. Not only should a building be planned with a view of its future extension, but it should be of such character as will permit of the extension of any of its departments from one to two or more units, and the unit should be such as to accommodate a normal class and no more. In other words, the plan should be elastic to the highest degree, and capable of easy adjustment to overcrowding or to changes in the curricula. There is a wide divergence of opinion as to the open or closed plan for a school building, and where the closed plan has some advantages in first cost, it is at the expense of perfect natural lighting, ventilation, and maximum safety. The safety of a school building depends in a large measure upon the location and number of its stairways. Many buildings, altho offering adequate corridor space for proper circulation, fall short of standard require- ments in their stairway and exit capacity. The location and number of Department! STANDARDIZATION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 379 stairways in a building is a matter of calculating accommodations for the number of persons and the number of floors to be served. It is a problem for the individual building, and wise standardization rules here may result in improved school conditions as well as economy. Fire escapes, tho required by law in many states, should not be found upon school buildings designed for the highest degree of safety unless they are planned as inclosed stairways and the pupils are required to use them at least once a day. Much has been written on the subject of proper lighting of schoolrooms. There is a fair unanimity of opinion as to from which side light should come, but there is a wide range on the quantity to be admitted. It is obvious that a window surface necessary for a school in the northern and eastern latitudes will be entirely too great for schools in the south. State legisla- tion has generally been in the direction of fixing a certain percentage of the floor area for glass area, regardless of other considerations. The strict enforcement of laws requiring an excess of window surface has, in some instances, not only given a harmful quantity of light, but also demanded the adoption of excessive story height, or special methods of construction, placing an unnecessary burden upon the cost of buildings without commen- surate result. A law fixing the size of classrooms upon an arbitrary number of square feet per pupil, or number of cubic feet of air space, cannot be depended upon for the proper dimension of rooms, and much waste in floor space has resulted therefrom, as such rules generally require a floor space far in excess of the actual requirements, in some cases as much as 20 per cent. Surely a law which requires floor space to that extent over normal requirements does not make for economy. It will perhaps be impossible for the committee to enter into detail as to the various methods and technical processes involved in heating and ventilation. Some general suggestions, however, should be included, to the end that the required space is provided to house the system in order to insure its proper working. The foregoing are the fundamentals as to plan, and these, coupled with suggestions as to rational methods of construction, should provide a basis for the satisfactory standardization of schools as far as we may ever hope to carry it. And, finally, the committee should determine some uniform system of computing cost data determining the items which should go to make up the cost of a school building, in order that comparable data, as between various communities, may be compiled. Realizing the importance and value of such data, this work was initiated by the National Association of School Accounting Officers, and a preliminary report was made at their meeting in May, 1916. Now that the work is to be taken up by a joint committee composed of school experts, accounting officers, and architects, conclusive and valuable suggestions may be hoped for, for settling this much-abused question. 380 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration CONSERVATION OF NATIONAL IDEALS IN WAR TIME WILLIAM T. FOSTER, PRESLDENT, REED COLLEGE, PORTLAND, ORE. This national convention of teachers in this, the first year of our entrance into the world- war, is dedicated to the general subjects conservation, patriotism, and nationalism. In this connection I ask you to consider with me the school as the only agency of society able to reach virtually all the next generation, which is fundamentally devoted to the conservation of national ideals. We are all aware that the outstanding tendency of our schools for a generation has been toward the immediately practical. The so-called man of common sense has scorned the idealist. He has been inclined to ridicule everything beyond the range of his imagination, an imagination that has never been permitted the impractical exercise of climbing snow-capt mountains. He understands a silver dollar, a bushel of wheat, a stock certificate, a load of bricks, a yard of linoleum — these are real. But beyond such tangible commodities he sees nothing but delusions, speculations, theories, superstitions — ^mere dreams. Yet in a vital sense there is nothing real but dreams, there is nothing substantial but ideals. Nothing else ever makes a conquest; there is nothing else that cannot be conquered. The history of the Greeks, of the Romans, of the Jews, and of every other people is the history of the triumph of ideals and the futihty of arms apart from the ideals they defend. Force of arms is physical — transient; the force of ideals is spiritual — eternal. Universities should be high towers of vision. Yet in their plans for housing, our universities have traditionally lackt vision. Even Harvard University, when we consider the size, location, and architecture of its buildings, seems to have erected each one as tho it was supposed to be the last. The trustees of Indiana University, having spent the sum of $2400 on a building to house the entire university, in their report to the legislature, in 1820, apologized for their extravagances and said, ''We are aware that the plan proposed may be opposed to on account of its magni- tude." The regents of the University of Illinois, in dedicating a central building, about a generation ago, said, "This building will meet all the needs of the University for a century to come." This year their immediate successors have proposed and the state legislature has adopted a program for buildings involving an expenditure of a million dollars a year for ten years. Even in the Far West we lack vision. We do not see the future large enough. We have too few descendants and too many ancestors. It is all well enough, as Dr. Lindley has said, "to take off our hats to the past, but we must take off our coats to the future." Already the history of these Pacific Coast states shows that those who told the biggest lies a generation ago about the future of this country told the most truth. Those who dared, i Department! CONSERVATION OF NATIONAL IDEALS IN WAR TIME 381 a generation ago, to predict for the University of California a growth half as great as it has already attained, were laught at as typical western vision- aries. In time of war the university, true to its function as the conservator of all that is best in the nation, must remain a cool and lofty place of ideals. First among its cherisht and protected ideals must be that of truth, for "truth is the first casualty of war." The nature of the assault upon truth is shown in the proposal that this national convention of teachers pass a resolution in favor of abolishing the study of the German language and literature. This is nothing less than a proposal that the very institutions which are dedicated to the discovery and preservation of truth should now, in the blindness of race hatred, endeavor to cut themselves off from all truth that finds utterance in the German language. How great the calamity will be if truth is among the casualties of this war we can only realize by trying to understand fully what we mean by declaring that we have entered the war for freedom and are therefore finan- cing it with Liberty Bonds. ''Ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free" must be said to nations as well as to individuals. "A man that is afraid of the truth," says President Wilson, *'is afraid of life; a man who does not love truth is in the way of decay and of failure." The war thrusts upon the nation the need of burnishing ideals as well as armaments. There is always danger, thru the bitterness and sacrifice of conflict, of falling to lower planes, of doing violence to the very ideals that we started out to exalt and defend. Armies and navies and aeroplanes alone cannot make the world safe for truth; and the world cannot be safe for democracy until it is safe for truth. Democracy is a body of ideals. Its last citadel of refuge from the enemy, therefore, must be an institution dedicated to the conservation of ideals. Such an institution is the school. Thousands of the noblest young men of America are now on their way from the universities to the front trenches of the fight for ideals. Some of them will never return. That will be a loss beyond the power of imagina- tion; but it will be a greater tragedy if, while they are dying at the front, we who are intrusted with the conservation of national ideals fail to do our part in making the world safe for democracy. We shall fail unless we make our schools and universities safe places for continuing — even under stress of war — to inculcate the principles for which we went to war. For what shall it profit us if we gain the whole world for democracy and thereby lose the soul of democracy ? I DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS SECRETARY'S MINUTES PORTLAND MEETING OFFICERS President — J. Asbxjry Pitman, principal, State Normal School Salem, Mass. Vice-President — Natalie Thornton, dean of women, State Normal School. .Moorhead, Minn. Secretary — John F. Sims, president. State Normal School Stevens Point, Wis. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, July ii, 191 7 In the absence of the president, J. Asbury Pitman, principal. State Normal School, Salem, Mass., the meeting was called to order by the secretary, John F. Sims, president. State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis., and James Bever acted as secretary. The following program was presented in Room B, City Auditorium: "How Far Should the Principle of Standardization Be Followed by the Normal School?" — C. G. Pearse, president, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.; J. G. Crabbe, president, State Teachers' College, Greeley, Colo. "The Responsibility of the Normal School for Training Teachers for All Lines of School Work"— G. W. Nash, president, Normal School, Bellingham, Wash.; J. W. Crab- tree, president, State Normal School, River Falls, Wis. A spirited discussion followed in which many members participated. The discussion brought to light the extreme displeasure of the members over the treatment of the normal schools in the surveys conducted by the educational foundations and by Commissioner Claxton. SECOND SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 13, 191 7 The following program was presented: "The Normal School and the Demands of Industrial Education" — H. H. Seerley, president of the State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. a) "The Practical Arts" — Frank E. Barr, director, Manual Training Department, State Normal School, Cheney, Wash. b) "The Household Arts" — Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum, State Board of Education, Alhambra, Cal. c) "The Commercial Arts" — A. H. Sproul, principal, High School of Commerce, Portland, Ore. "The Claims of Scholarship upon the Normal School" — ^William T. Foster, president. Reed College, Portland, Ore. "America an Unstratified Democracy" — John R. Kirk, president, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. The nominating committee appointed at the first session, consisting of J. G. Crabbe, F. A. Cotton, and A. J. Matthews, presented the following nominations: President — D. W. Hayer, president, State Normal School, Peru, Neb. Vice-President — G. W. Nash, president, State Normal School, Bellingham, Wash. Secretary — H. A. Schofield, president. State Normal School, Eau Claire, Wis. These nominees were elected by a unanimous vote. 383 384 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS HOW FAR SHOULD THE PRINCIPLE OF STANDARDIZATION BE FOLLOWED BY NORMAL SCHOOLS? CARROLL G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. The conditions in the different states of the Union are so varied that no standardization of courses of instruction in normal schools seems possible until conditions in the different states become more nearly similar. A normal school is for the purpose of training the teachers who are to work in the public schools of the state. It is strictly voca- tional, and is not to give a general education. Its purpose is to fit the students whom it trains for specific work. Therefore, so long as one state is liberally supplied with high schools while another has very few schools of the secondary class ; so long as one state is purely agricultural and another chiefly manufacturing or mining; so long as the educa- tional facilities of the states, as well as the social and industrial conditions within the states, differ so greatly as they do at present, it does not seem practicable to attempt to train teachers in the same way, or even in courses of the same length, in all the states. One kind of standardization, however, seems possible; that is, a standardization of the terms or names which are applied to courses of different kind and extent; also the names or terms describing the con- ditions of entrance into the normal schools. If the normal schools would agree upon a system of descriptive terms showing under what conditions normal schools admit pupils, also a set of terms to show the length of course which the normal schools maintain, there might be an agreement upon standards, and material help might also be given in the way of inducements to schools to reach as speedily as possible standard conditions of admission and courses of standard length. Perhaps as good a plan as any would be to adopt a system of terms of rating similar to those used in describing the hull, rigging, and equip- ment of ships. If, for example, a normal school which required as a condition of admission graduation from a four-year high school and which maintained a four-year course of instruction and training should be described as an A-i school, an agreement upon similar terms of designation for schools having different requirements would enable anyone who saw the name of a school followed by the characters indicat- ing its rating to know exactly the standard to which it had attained. A school which admitted students after three years of high school and maintained a four-year course might be designated as B-i; a school admitting students after two years of high-school work to be followed by a four-year course, C-i; a school admitting students after one year of high-school work to be followed by four years in the normal school, Department) STANDARDIZATION OF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 385 D-i; a school admitting after completion of the eighth grade to a four- year course might be designated E-i. In the same way a school admitting after the completion of a four- year high-school course to be followed by a two-year course of instruction might be designated as an A-3 school; one admitting after three years of high school to be followed by two years of normal-school training, a B-3 school. A plan of standard terms or characterizations of this sort would enable every school to meet the conditions or to adapt its work to the conditions under which it must exist. It would be possible for it to exact such entrance conditions from its students as the general condi- tions and progress of education in the state made possible. It could fix as high an admission standard as possible without rendering it im- practicable to get and train enough students to meet the needs of the schools. It would also make it possible for any normal school to adopt a course of two years, or three years, or four years, based upon such admission requirements as seemed necessary, and to do this without sailing under false colors, or under a flag the significance of which was not clearly understood. The plan would also have the advantage of indicating the standards which the normal schools consider normal and desirable for such schools to fix, when surrounding conditions permit this to be done. It may be that in the misty future, at a time when the citizens of the republic of Central Africa sit upon the ruins of London Bridge, or upon a milestone marking the course of the deserted Unter den Linden, the normal schools of the United States will be working under circumstances sufficiently similar so that they can establish uniform conditions of admission and uniform courses of instruction thruout the country. It is likely, however, to be at a time when those now engaged in normal- school work have been absolved from their responsibilities. I HOW FAR SHOULD THE PRINCIPLES OF STANDARDIZATION BE FOLLOWED BY THE NORMAL SCHOOLS? J. G. CRABBE, PRESIDENT, COLORADO STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, GREELEY, COLO. The state normal schools of this country are not standardized. There is real need for some rational, helpful scheme of standardization that may be accepted by all these schools. At Kansas City last February, before the National Council of Normal School Presidents, I said: The normal schools of the country are just beginning "to vision" the great work of these teacher-producing institutions. Not all the states will have the ideal normal school. But there can be standards, ideals, unity of purpose, and a constructive program that will 386 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nonnal put to rout the fears of the conservative; that will quiet the reactionary; that will put out of business the outside agitator. In order to project forward the work of the ideal normal schools, the nonnal schools must get together. What have the normal schools done in the way of meeting the problems involved in standardizing state normal schools ? The creed of the Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association promulgated in 1908 declared for: high-school graduation for admission to normal schools; the training of teachers by the normal school for both elementary and secondary schools, two years' training for the elementary course, four for the secondary course; the establishment of departments of special research; courses of training for educational leadership; opposition to the domination of the colleges in making the secondary courses of study preparatory to college; and a broadening of the normal-school curriculum to meet the needs of the broadening curriculum of the public schools. This was probably the first definite attempt to standardize normal schools. Nine months before the 19 13 meeting of the National Education Association the Committee on Resolutions was appointed, and in an unusual way it was instructed to formulate a "Declaration of Principles" to be presented at Salt Lake City. For months the members of this committee met and discust freely " the scope of American educational activities and the agencies thru which we aim to achieve the ends visioned in our educational endeavor." The real fight in the committee was on the place of normal schools in our educational economy. After a series of strenuous sessions the normal school won its rightful place by unanimous vote, except that on page 10 of the report you may find a footnote saying: James H. Baker, a member of the Committee on Resolutions, called attention to the opposite view of the universities, colleges, and high schools, and to the fact that this statement raises the question of the place for the preparation of high-school teachers, involving costly duplication by normal schools of the colleges of liberal arts — whether separate institutions or departments of universities — the function of university depart- ments of education, economy, scholarship standard of secondary teachers. In this publisht "Declaration of Principles" are found briefly the following fundamentals of the standard normal school, and these were unanimously adopted by this department at the Salt Lake City meeting: 1. The twentieth-century normal school is dedicated to higher education, with the special function of supplying teachers for the rural schools, the elementary schools, and the high schools. 2. Its entrance requirements as to scholarship will be practically the same require- ments that are now demanded by the college — graduation from a four-year high school. 3. It will extend its course of instruction and practice, as conditions may demand, to four-year courses, thus giving.it as high a standing in the way of discipline and scholarship as the college now possesses. 4. It will widely extend the field of professional experimentation and investigation. 5. It will try out its graduates as to their ability to teach and manage schools by such a period of practice-teaching as will settle the case beyond peradventure. Department] STANDARDIZATION OF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 387 6. It will plan effectively to train teachers for rural schools, to stimulate and foster every educative agency toward the development of rural community life, and to elevate the professional position of the rural teacher. 7, It will set up definite ends of education that will relate themselves to the life of the people in all departments of human interest and will thus become a great social energy. As the public school is going to become, next to the family, the most potent social agent, so the normal school is going to fit teachers to perform this educative function. These pronouncements of the normal schools of this country accepted by this widely representative national committee and unanimously adopted by the normal schools themselves has put forward the normal-school movement twenty years. Here are a few of the resolutions passed by the National Council of Normal School Presidents in 191 7: Whereas, In making up the committee to conduct the surveys the normal schools of the country have been uniformly ignored, and Whereas, In the report of every survey recommendations have been made, which, if carried out, would result in limiting the development of normal schools, and Wetereas, In the two instances in which the states have had time to consider the reports the recommendations were so opposed to the accepted policy of the states toward their normal schools that the states declined to follow the recommendations, and Whereas, The general distribution of the reports of said surveys has had a tendency to discredit the work and the standing of the normal schools in their respective states; be it therefore Resolved, By the National Council of Presidents and Principals of State Normal Schools that we disapprove of surveys made by committees constituted as have been the committees herein referred to; that we find it impossible for us to recommend the reports of said surveys to the people of our respective states as safe guides in dealing with their educational institutions; that we question the wisdom of expending public money for surveys so conducted, and that we sincerely hope that if the Bureau of Education should conduct surveys in the future that the composition of the survey committees will be so representative in character as to command the confidence of all classes of educa- tional interests. Early in the school year at Colorado State Teachers College I appointed a committee of faculty men to consider the matter of the advisability of seeking admission to the North Central Association of Colleges and Second- ary Schools. This department may be interested in a part of the report of this committee, since its arguments vitally touch the problems of standard- ization of normal schools. The committee says in part: We find that teachers' colleges now members of the North Central Association are in doubtful standing with the Association. We regard the Association as one out of harmony with the purpose of a state college. We believe that it is a passing movement rather than a growing one. We believe that the purpose of this college can be attained thru legislation and the organization of the teachers' colleges which we suggest. I accepted the findings of the committee without hesitation. Colorado State Teachers College maintains an ungraded school of adults without worrying much about entrance requirements and caring much more about 388 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal the ''power unit" of the mature student's growth than about the ''time unit." The genuine service of this school of adults can scarcely be over- estimated. I am of the opinion that the service of one ungraded school of adults is worth more than all the memberships of the beneficent associations that would overstandardize us. Do you remember what Dr. Winship, our seer and loyal friend and fighter, said at the Cincinnati meeting ? The chief mission of an educational institution of learning, as of every teacher and educational leader, is so to inspire young people with a desire to learn, that they will make great sacrifices for the opportunity to learn. Standardization may be a measuring rod or weight, it may be a rallying point, but it is never a barbed- wire fence for the keeping of anybody away from any good thing. THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL FOR TRAIN- ING TEACHERS FOR ALL LINES OF SCHOOL WORK G. W. NASH, PRESIDENT, NORMAL SCHOOL, BELLINGHAM, WASH. {Abstract) What is the proper function of the state normal school ? Granted that its chief work is the preparation of teachers for the elementary schools, must its labors end there ? Is there any good reason why an institution maintained by the state for the sole purpose of preparing teachers should regard itself subordinate to the colleges, that count teacher-training as merely incidental to their larger work, or to the departments of education that are usually despised — but tolerated — by the general faculties of the universities ? I believe that the state normal school is peculiarly commissioned by the Commonwealth to prepare teachers for its schools. It is alleged that universities and colleges have lookt upon the state normal school with changing sensations — first with contempt, next with interest, and finally with alarm. "The normal school is becoming too popular, too important, is assuming rights and privileges sacred to the institutions higher up," declares the spokesman for college and university. In the face of dust thrown up to blind the public, the state normal school must boldly take its stand for educational leadership and maintain its right to train all kinds of teachers for the common schools. By making normal-school work severely practical and suited to the needs of the public, we may eventually bring to the institution the complete recognition to which it is entitled. Department] THE NORMAL SCHOOL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 389 THE NORMAL SCHOOL AND THE DEMANDS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, IOWA STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA The present trend. — Modern education finds itself compelled to recog- nize the demands of industrial education and training as a major question that has past the point of discussion and is now by state and national legislation to be introduced as an effective part of public-school work. It has been decided that educational organization and management must provide such instruction as the masses need to enable them to lead a pro- ductive and an efficient industrial life. It is stated that this condition must be met without delay, and that the schools now in existence must be so reorganized that the work of education shall be industrialized and voca- tionalized in all respects that are possible to be accomplisht. The passage of the Smith-Lever bill by the United States Congress was a first step to suggest that a reform in education must be undertaken as soon as adjust- ments could be made, and the passage of the Smith-Hughes bill has so fully completed the movement for industrial education that there is no problem left to the educator but to seek the ways and means by which this remarkable accomplishment is to be realized. The normal schools. — These recent developments leave no possible reply to the normal schools but that of acceptance on their part of the work to be done. They are institutions founded by acts of legislature to perform special services to the several states in the preparation of teachers. They are expected to respond to public demand and thereby cooperate in helping in every way they can to make progress possible and the competency of the masses more a certainty. Their function is that of getting into inunedi- ate action and so developing their plans and their facilities that the legisla- tion that has been made will reach immediate results and attain the objects that are deemed essential to civilization. For more than twenty years these phenomena of coming new developments have been .constantly appearing in recommendations and propositions that could not be ignored. The normal schools have recognized the importance of most of these departures from the old-time standards of the public-school curriculum, and were the first to accept them in good faith. Their administrators have realized that the education of the people implied more than the programs of studies that had been adopted, and hence they have accepted as their first duty the preparation of suitable teachers to meet the demands as soon as they appear in public requirements. A study of the announcements and circulars of information as to the opportunities offered at the normal schools for the past quarter of a century shows a constant njodification and expan- sion that is always some years in advance of the privileges and training anted by the standard liberal-arts colleges to those who wish to prepare i^^ranl 390 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal for the enlarging service of the teacher. This is so true that the province of the normal schools has been under discussion in educational associations and in educational literature because it has been hard fully to appreciate the fact that the normal schools were so much influenst by public sentiment regarding progress that they can never be charged with conservatism or with inability to meet the public needs. Every meeting of a general assembly of every state gives the normal schools an opportunity for readjust- ment, it determines for them some modifications of standards and equip- ment, and it decides for them the problems that are to be next solved in the commonwealth. The Tightness of this attittide. — Civilization properly demands that there should be some institution that must make the experimental and the theoretical practical and valuable. The educational proving-ground in the United States is the state normal school. Without this, legislation on public education would not be able to make any creditable progress, since there are no institutions in American civilization that are harder to reach, to reorganize, and to reform than the common schools of this democratic people. Such a political organization demands demonstration, exemplifica- tion, and illustration in all changes for improvement and enlightenment that are undertaken. The normal schools were founded for this very purpose. They were created by the people and not founded by the aristoc- racy of talent; they were legislated into existence for a purpose and not establisht by decrees of conventions, faculties, and organizations to carry out any preconceived ideas. They were commissioned to study the imme- diate needs of society and to endeavor to meet those needs by discretion and application. They were so constituted that they had no precon- ceived ideals to urge and no positive standards to enforce, and hence they enjoyed a freedom from the decrees of the centuries and from the phi- losophies of the past that has given them abundant opportunities to serve society. This has not always been realized or appreciated. If this view of the province and status of the normal school is reasonable and just, then it is the only present-day educational institution that is so closely in touch with our democracy, that is so free in initiative and motive that it can save industrial education in the public schools from failure and extravagance, because all others are hampered by tradition or else are hindered by lack of equilibrium and experience in education as a general problem rather than as a special problem. The limitations of endeavor. — There is more need for sanity and for dis- creet judgment in conducting wisely this modern movement than has ever before been necessary. This is naturally true, because it will be easy to destroy what has already been attained in public-school development and also be unable to .provide a satisfactory substitute for that which is destroyed. In attempting to take care of vocational instruction and training, it is not necessary to rob the pupils of the absolute essentials Department] THE NORMAL SCHOOL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 391 of intellectual and practical education. The time will never come when the fundamentals of scholarship, elementary and secondary, will not be essential to success in industry, to intelligence in personality, and to true interest in right living and thinking. There are limitations that must be conceded a place in all progressive education and civilization, limitations that accept as a definite conclusion that human life demands for its welfare many varieties and kinds of capability and activity. Material prosperity is important to happiness and efficiency, but material prosperity is not so all-important that there is not plenty of place left yet for the other realms of thinking and living. It is here that the normal schools find a great opportunity to conserve and preserve the legacies of the past without destroying or minimizing the practicahties and the necessities of the present. The key to the situation. — In attempting to determine a solution to the problems and avoid the chaos that could easily obtain, it is safe to recog- nize the fact that the preparation and developing of the qualified, well- balanst teacher is the key to the situation. If the normal schools realize the greatness of this opportunity they will at once accept the challenge of society and find the happy medium geniunely possible of accomplishment in the work of industrial education. In no other way can they exalt their service or reach their place of large and effective usefulness. The prepara- tion of teachers will decide the outcome, as without intelligence and capabil- ity in the classroom, the laboratory, and the lecture-hall all schemes for the betterment of training and the securing of efficiency will not be half material- ized. The normal schools serve their day and generation when they rise to the magnitude of the demands, comprehend the forces that are to be employed, and assert their capability and practicality in helping a long- suft'ering public reach a sensible and an effective destination in its struggle for permanency of progress and freedom from handicaps. Industrial education has become a great reality when its obligations are assumed by well-poised, self-sacrificing, thoroly trained teachers who are ready and willing to give a lifetime to such accomplishment. The modern demand. — With the present conditions of civilization, with the instrumentalities in modern education, it is certainly impossible for the true normal school to remain a silent organization overlooking oppor- tunity and not recognizing its province for vigorous and projective action. The normal school should be true to its history, it should be scientific in its aims, it should be positive in its leadership, and it should be master of its capabilities in every sense of the word. 392 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal THE PRACTICAL ARTS FRANK E. BARR, DIRECTOR, MANUAL TRAINING DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CHENEY, WASH. That the training of those engaged in industrial work in this country is defective is evidenst by the report of the Committee of the National Association of Manufacturers on Industrial Education. In this report, made in 191 2, the statement is made that we are, on industrial training, twenty-five years behind most of the nations which we recognize as our competitors. Among the great educational movements of the present is the tendency toward the development of a great national system of educa- tion in the practical arts. This system must in all probability be developt as a part of our present public-school system, bringing with it such changes of curricula and of administration as seem necessary in order to give to the practical arts the emphasis which is needed if our country is to maintain a position of impor- tance and power in the field of commercial activity among the great indus- trial nations of the earth. It may possibly be developt, however, partly as an element of our present school system, or perhaps independently of that system. Before we can determine upon the best plan for establishing a great system of practical education we must make a thoro and careful survey of the field to discover what has been done and what is being done. What are the needs of the field ? As a basis for a glimpse of the needs of the field I shall make use of a part of the data found in United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1916, No. 32, entitled Some Facts Concerning Manual Art and Home-making Sub- jects. These data were gathered by means of questionnaires extending over 39 states and embracing 156 cities. The purposes of the investigation which are of interest in this discus- sion are: the nature and character of the work now given in the schools as work in the practical arts or as training which pertains to the work in the practical arts; the distribution of that work in the grades and in the high school; the nature and amount of correlation with other subjects; dominant aims in the teaching of this work in the practical arts or work pertaining to the practical arts; the cost per pupil; percentage of pupils entering the lines of work for which the practical-arts work is supposed to have pre- pared them; time given to the work, as an indication of the importance attacht to that work as compared with the importance of the other school work. Tables have been prepared showing principal aims and relative impor- tance, which may be summarized as follows: Greatest Secondary Least Importance Importance Importance Vocational 11% 40% 49% Prevocational 50 38 13 Cultural 39 22 38 a t Department! THE PRACTICAL ARTS 393 The methods of approach are systematic graded exercises, individual projects, cooperative projects, correlated projects, or combinations of two or more of these methods. Where a single method is used it is most frequently that of systematic graded exercises. Combinations of two or more methods are more fre- quently used than any single method. Each method is made use of to some extent in every grade, but systematic graded exercises are used most frequently in Grades 6, 7, and 8, and individual projects in Grade 8 and the first two years in high school, cooperative projects in Grades 7 and 8 and thru the high school, and correlation work in Grades i to 4. The sub- jects with which the practical arts are most frequently correlated are history, geography, reading, language, arithmetic, etc. (It is doubtful, however, whether any great amount of real correlation work is done.) Nevertheless I believe that when the system of practical training is finally perfected the key to its effectiveness will be proper correlation with the subjects which are necessary to the building of good citizenship. The time given to the practical-arts work varies greatly in the various grades and in different schools. The average is about 5 per cent in the first six grades, 6 per cent in the seventh and eighth grades, and 25 per cent in the Senior year of the high school. The kinds of work offered are not very extensive. Most of the work is not distributed over many grades, and it is insufficient to produce anything like industrial efficiency in any line even tho the work should be given to all. The time allowed for the work is not sufficient to cause even such work as is given to function to any great extent as practical or industrial training. There is another great movement in education which will ultimately have for one of its chief functions the work of determining a sound basis for vocational-guidance work. I refer to the system of mental tests just now coming to the attention of the public. And I am firmly convinst that the impetus and stimulus which this system of mental tests will give to vocational guidance will be lasting and great, and that vocational guidance is essential as the basis of any system of practical education can readily be demonstrated. The effect of the mental-intelligence tests is more far- reaching and fundamental than wfe might suspect at first glance, because it ultimately will not only affect our schools and school system, but reach out into our great system of organized industries and work for the economy of material resources and of human effort. It will go into our prisons and reformatories, and with accurate and scientific certainty will point out better methods of administering the affairs of these institutions. But, best of all, it will reach out into our social life and will enable us to lay a restrain- ing hand upon the propagation of our deficients, of our criminal class, and will thus enable society to guard and protect itself against the criminal and the potential criminal — the mentally deficient — and will protect the poten- 1 criminal from himself. 394 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Normal I need tell you nothing further about the existing conditions with regard to the lack of preparation of the workers of this nation for the work which they are doing, of the resulting inefficiency and loss of time to the indi- vidual, to his employer, and to society at large. We all know that of our i4i millions employed in the various industries less than i per cent have had or do have at the present time any opportunity for specific training for the work which they do, prior to their entrance upon that work. We are just now beginning to realize fully that we need trained work- men on the farm, in stock raising, in shops, in factories and stores, in trans- portation, in our homes, and as heads and teachers in our schools. Even now the idea is not entirely definite in the minds of the public that it is not enough that the individual who is to teach be trained in books and in subject. The public does not realize as do you, the leaders in education and the training of teachers, that the teacher must be educated, not alone in the subjects of which the schoolbooks treat, but also in the nature and workings of the mind of the child, that he must know the elements which go to make up character, that he must be taught to realize the need of the community and to minister to it; that he must be taught to teach, in the highest sense. These and other occupations are the practical arts. Now if science can go into a great industry in the shape of a trained psychologist and save that industry many times his salary; can save thousands of dollars spent each year by the industry thru the employment of inefficient workers, or of efficient workers who are not qualified for the work for which they are employed, but who are valuable in some other department — is that science not worth looking into? This is exactly what some increasingly great concerns are doing. Tests for many types of mentality have been devised, and tests which will determine with a fair degree of accuracy the general mental level of any individual have been workt out. If the psychologist by careful study and observation can determine what qualities of mind are necessary in order to enable an individual to perform in a satisfactory manner a reasonable amount of the work of any department, he can then, by the application of the tests for the qualities of mind necessary, determine the fitness of all applicants. If this can be done in the industrial concern it can be done in the school, and it can be done in the school early enough to enable the individual during his ordinary school career to go far toward preparing himself for the work for which his natural abilities and inclinations best fit him — for the work in which he will be happiest, in which he will serve himself and society best. Before we can establish a great system for the training of the 90,000,000 of people — our great working population — before we can prepare the million recruits per year needed in our various industries to take their places in those industries and to do their work efficiently without the great economic 1 Departmentl NORMAL SCHOOLS AND THE DEMAND FOR EDUCATION 395 waste made necessary thru unavoidable adjustments and readjustments of the individual until he finally finds the place he can fill or shifts about from this job to that until he one day finds himself without a job and becomes a member of that great class of undesirable individuals, the hobos and the tramps, a burden to himself and to society because society has failed to do her duty in finding out where he belonged in her great system of industries and in fitting him to fill that place — before we can do these things we must find out what type of work the mental, moral, and physical make-up of the individual will best fit him to undertake; we must examine the mental and moral fiber of the individual; we must know what can best be done to develop his natural powers to their fullest usefulness; we must guide him vocationally. I maintain that great as was the victory scored when we secured the passage of the Smith-Hughes bill, and great as are the advantages of secur- ing a practical education for the youth of our country made possible by the passing of that bill, we shall find ourselves handicapt, uncertain, ineffective, in much of the training which we shall provide, unless we first establish as a point of departure a thoro and complete system of vocational guidance. If we attempt a system of vocational training not based upon, and working in harmony with, such a system of vocational guidance we shall waste millions of dollars, years of time, and priceless human effort before ,we shall finally make that system what we hope it shall become — the [source of fitting every normal individual to become a conscious factor in "society thru the preparation of that individual for the place of highest use- fulness which he is capable of filling. \THE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND THE DEMAND FOR EDUCATION IN THE HOUSEHOLD ARTS MRS. MARY G. BARNUM, VICE-PRESIDENT, STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION, ALHAMBRA, CAL. The demand for training in the household arts has changed since the war from a theory to an acute condition. The roar of guns that has awakened mankind from dreams of a civilization quite above mere physical force and necessity has demonstrated the grim truth that "the world is always within a year of starvation." In particular, it has shattered the 1" feminist" fancy that modern women are or can be — Too free and smart For human nature's daily art. General conviction that training in household arts is imperative has :ome from many public arraignments such as the following: "Conserva- ive estimates .... indicate that we now throw away $700,000,000 worth [of food each year thru stupidity or ignorance in the home."^ 'From "Literary Digest" of Chicago Daily News, April 21, 1917. 396 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal "If America will only eliminate waste and extravagance in food it will go far to help the whole problem" (Hoover). "The waste in even our thrifty country homes is enormous. It is the great American crime. If our women learn to check it — and I believe they will learn — the war will have taught them a wonderful lesson and done them and the country an inestimable service."^ In short, as Mary S. Woolman said here in Portland this week: "Con- ditions arising from the present war call for economy, but the principal consumers of the country, the women, are not in general trained to meet the emergency." It hurts to hear these truths, but the shock should not destroy our balance, either as American women or as normal-school workers; altho women as home-makers and as normal-school teachers can undoubtedly do most to effect a rescue, they should not meekly assume an undue share of the blame. In the first place, extravagance is a general American fault, affecting both men and women. In the second place, the aberration is only temporary — two or three generations back most of us have the sober sense of thrifty stock, either New England or Old World. In the third place, the normal schools of America have been doing more than most other institu- tions for the last two decades in the matter of proper training in household arts. In the fourth place, rapid gains have been made in the last four years, notably in certain states, so that normal schools are a great resource and element of "preparedness" in the present crisis. Concerning general extravagance, the observation of Sir Rabindranath Tagore has a figurative as well as a literal appHcation. He says, "Of all the lands that I have visited^ the United States of America is the only one where a person eats the inside of a slice of bread and throws away the crust." Side by side with reports of ignorance and waste in homes are serious accounts of unskilled and spendthrift men, wasted natural resources, and of the gambling spirit in business. The lack of skilful thrift on the part of American women is often due to the example and mandate of the men of the family. Friend husband wants what he wants on the table when he wants it. He frequently conducts his business and his recre- ations on a lavish scale. Many a wife gets tired of saving dollars by long-drawn-out and painstaking economy, only to see the results riskt and lost with the jovial mascuHne excuse, "I am willing to try anything once." The modern American girl does not take up household economy at home or at school, because she is marrying the modern American get-rich-quick young man and both are more interested in luck and vocational adventure than in sound toil and training. One interesting, ultra-modern type of young woman does realize (from observation or "sociology") that no probable mere man can earn enough to set her free from home cares; she is, however, * Miss Gertrude Lane, Editor of Woman's Home Companion. Department! NORMAL SCHOOLS AND THE DEMAND FOR EDUCATION 397 curiously confident of a brilliant financial career for herself that will drive dull care away for the whole family. When urged to prepare for home- making she asserts, " I shall make enough money to employ real speciaUsts in all phases of home-making" — ^presumably a trained nurse, a kinder- gartner, a dietist, a sanitation engineer, a laundress, a seamstress, and assorted maids. Sheer mirage and magic! In truth, the milhons of women actually in business and industry earn — on the average — so limited a wage that they must add to their ofiice or shop specialty assorted household tasks done "nights and Sundays" to make ends meet. Americans have really known better, from family tradition and reflection on frequent failures, and the war has now made them face the facts. "Therefore we conclude" — with apologies to Browning — "that the real (war) function is to furnish motive and injunction for practicing what we know already." The normal schools are doing their best to meet the sudden demands of an awakened nation. For nearly twenty years they have been doing more than most other institutions to provide scientific training in house- hold arts. Their graduates have carried the work just as far as communities would support it — not perhaps in sentiment and discussion, but in actual expense and equipment. An idea of the rapid growth of home-economics training in normal schools can be obtained most quickly perhaps by con- sulting Bulletin, 1914, No. 37, of the United States Bureau of Education. Investigations there reported show that prior to 1900 only twelve normal schools had introduced the work, and all but four of those were in the South. [-Note the contrast in 19 14. "Home-economics courses are now offered in [practically all .... public normal schools" (p. 127). On page 136 occurs a [significant statement. Of the schools reporting, "the median percentage [of students electing household arts was 16 per cent." Such an unduly small percentage is at once the result of the popular attitude noted above, [and the cause of the limited harvest reapt in this field. The normal schools [offered instruction in the indispensable arts of life, but, as Mark Twain has [it, "The superciUous girl acted with vicissitude when the perennial time le." Since 19 14, developments in the household arts departments of the normal schools of the United States have been too many and varied to summarize in the brief time allowed me today. Btdletin, 19 14, No. 37, outUnes "a State Program of Education for the Home," containing twelve essential features. To compare that 19 13 cross-section with a 191 7 cross- section would be illuminating — and iUimitable. Perhaps one illustrative instance may be permitted showing the progress made during that period in the one state that I know and love the best — California. The first essential indicated is "a requirement that household arts be taught in every elementary school, city or rural." In 19 13 the California law was permissive only. The new 191 7 law is mandatory "in school dis- tricts employing six or more elementary-school teachers." 398 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal Requirement No. 2 stipulates: "State supervision of household-arts education by an expert inspector, preferably an assistant attacht to the office of state superintendent of schools." In California there was no such officer when Bulletin, 19 14, No. 37, was compiled; now there is, in the person of the commissioner of vocational schools — with further expert inspection in prospect. Requirement No. 6 deals also with supervision. Requirement No. 3 : " Home economics included as a part of the normal- school preparation of every grade teacher — so that household-arts teaching may be included in the grade work of every teacher." On this point the bulletin reports for California as follows: "The Joint Board of Normal Schools is directed to make for the normal schools a uniform course of study which shall include manual training, domestic science, agriculture, physi- ology and hygiene, and the methods of distinguishing physical defects." This requirement was only partially accomplisht by that board. Courses were not made uniform; the normal schools did not include all the list of subjects specified; and normal-school students were allowed to elect these and other subjects. The result was that part specialized, and part gradu- ated without one or more of the prescribed practical branches. In 191 5 the legislature past an amendment intrusting the state board of education with the problem of standardization, after conference with the presidents of the normal schools. One of the resultant regulations adopted in 1916 and now in effect is that every graduate of a California normal school must have had, either in high school or in normal school, a full year course in household arts or manual training. No. 4 advocates "a certificate for special teachers of household arts requiring not less than two years of professional training beyond the high school, and for supervisory teachers a three-year or, preferably, a full four- year course." In 1913 there was no state regulation; county boards granted special certificates on examination or "any credentials." In the fifty-eight counties there were some "fifty-seven varieties" of standard. In 191 5 a new law placed the regulation of special certificates in the hands of the state board of education; this board has adopted, and put in effect thruout the state, standards even higher than those indicated. Three years' training above the high school is required for an elementary certificate in household arts — or any other special subject — and four years for secondary. Requirements Nos. 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10 refer to state grants and state- wide arrangements for vocational education. In these directions the 19 13 summary reports nothing for California. Now all are making a vigorous start under the federal Smith-Hughes law and its California counterpart, just enacted. No. II refers to instruction "on a higher level," and the establishment of the Santa Barbara Normal School of Home Economics in 1909 is cited. Departments in five other normal schools are now accredited for secondary credentials. I Department] THE COMMERCIAL ARTS 399 Finally, No. 12, "The program of extension education to reach home- makers of the present generation to be carried out both in city and country." There is nothing reported for 1913. In 1917 the normal schools were all requested by a committee of the State Council of Defense to provide such special classes and extension courses and home-teacher work. Nearly all have responded valiantly. I will not recapitulate these rapid and important gains; as usual, a terse, true statement of California conditions would sound like boasting! Assuming equal progress in other states, we certainly have reason to be proud, as normal-school workers, and confident that a degree of "pre- paredness" has been reached in household-arts education that will stand our country in good stead. The war has crasht thru artificialities and brought the world abruptly to a sense of real values. Isn't it Stevenson who says that man doth not live by bread alone, but also by catchwords ? And doesn't Mr. Crothers say that words are known by the adjectives they keep ? In this awesome time let us get the delusions out of our catchwords and fix right relations in true phrases. Let us move away from "household" over to "ofiice routine" and "industrial machinery" — where they often inexorably belong — all such adjectives as "dreary," "narrow," "stupid," "meaningless," "monoto- nous," "confining," "humdrum," "tiresome," "unwholesome," "never- ending," "back-breaking," "deadening," "thankless," "parasitic." Let us move back from the office and shop — where they are frequently "mirage" — and join forever to "housework" and "home-making" all such adjectives as "varied," "interesting," "remunerative," "well-ordered," "useful," "hygienic," "liberating," "dignified," "scientific," "artistic," "honorable," gracious," "worth-while," "indispensable." Our philosophy of existence has been clarified — even by cataclysm — and now reveals, at their true value, .life and the simple things that sustain life — food, shelter, clothing, comfort, (security; now exalts supremely those spiritual things which bless Hfe — ^service, sympathy, sacrifice, companionship, righteousness, worship. Let us give this clarified life-philosophy to every student in every normal school; then tomorrow it will be in every public school, and thereafter in every home thruout the nation. 1: I THE COMMERCIAL ARTS H. SPROUL, PRINCIPAL, HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, PORTLAND, ORE. From 30 to 60 per cent of the pupils in the high schools are today nroUed in the so-called commercial courses. Their teachers are usually persons with collegiate training and little else, or they are persons with a limited amount of scholastic training supplemented by a modicum of specific training and experience in some definite field of business endeavor. 400 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Normal In the first group the teachers may have had a college course or two in general education; in the second group it is rare to find any pedagogical training. Either group should be materially strengthened by specific normal training, while a union of the three forms of training — academic, normal, and practical experience — should be combined to give the ideal commercial teacher. In an effort to provide for the proper training of high-school commercial teachers a number of state normal schools have establisht distinct com- mercial departments. Massachusetts, New York, Wisconsin, Illinois, Connecticut, and Arizona are instances. The courses of study in these schools vary in almost every conceivable particular, and the motives under- lying their administration seem equally diverse. The courses vary in length from one to four years. In these special departments there exist confusing and conflicting ideas respecting commercial education. There is no unanimity of thought as to what constitutes commercial education; there is little evidence of definite, settled conviction as to the purpose of commercial education. School officials and commercial teachers have not definitely decided whether their commercial courses are intended to be vocational or cultural. Usually they dodge the issue and befog the problems by claiming that they are both, yet lacking logical hypothesis or argument as to how they are either. A National Education Association committee on vocational education has made serious efforts to induce educators and teachers generally to set up a course of orderly thinking about vocational education as contrasted with other forms of education, and in the course of their work they have tried to differentiate between the forms of commercial education. According to the formulation of this committee, "vocational com- mercial education" includes those forms of vocational education which instruct for some recognized commercial calling; while "commercial-arts" education, speaking from analogy with "practical-arts" education, "in- cludes these studies which are designed to give liberal or general education and to contribute to vocational guidance and vocational ideals in the field of commercial occupations." The committee further observes, "Unfor- tunately, no clearly defined line is yet drawn .... between commercial studies that are expected to function vocationally and those which are designed as a part of a general or liberal education. This is a source of much misdirected effort, and probably many young people are perma- nently handicapt by the failure of schools to distinguish between these two objects." If commercial subjects are not directed exclusively to acquiring voca- tional efficiency, they possess value only because they are elements in a course of general or liberal training, and we must not mislead ourselves, the pupil, or the public by claiming for them any direct vocational value. It is right here that much confusion has occurred. Commercial teachers Department) fS^ COMMERCIAL ARTS 4oi spend much time in conventions and elsewhere defending the cultural value of such subjects as stenography, typewriting, and bookkeeping, and in an equally strenuous manner they plead for the teaching of such subjects as commercial geography, commercial law, and economic history on the ground of their practical vocational value. College-entrance requirements are responsible for the cultural cry, and an anxiety to convince the man of affairs of the practical nature of the course is responsible for the extension of the vocational plea. An examination of typical commercial courses indicates that most of the subjects therein are taught as "commercial-arts" subjects — that they are not taught for vocational use. Stenography is perhaps the single exception, for it has no real appeal except in vocational use. Typewriting may be pursued either with a vocational aim, or as giving the ability to use a com- mon social instrument, with corresponding differences in methods and standards of instruction. Penmanship is taught for its reputed general value rather than as leading to a specific vocation. This is likewise true of arithmetic. An extended observation of the teaching of bookkeeping shows that it is not taught vocationally; instead it is taught as a course in general information regarding business matters and methods. Just as in civics- teaching we are shaking loose from the "bone-dry" ft courses in civil government and taking hold of "red-meat" courses dealing with the community and the citizen, so in our commercial training we must depart from rote and routine, giving instead instruction and training in economic thought and thrift. Such training should be for all pupils, whether they are differentiating into lines of industry, home science, or business. The present " thrift" movement is a step, but only a step. The economic phases of all the surroundings of the pupils should be discovered and presented to the child. Courses in community arithmetic, studies of local industries, personal and home record-keeping, school savings, voca- tional guidance are contributions emphasizing the economic phase. ^^ In addition to revealing and developing economic aspects existing in ^m the subjects of the present courses of study, someone will presently formulate ^^ a systematic treatment of the economic field capable of appreciation by pupils of grammar and junior high-school age. Dealing as it will with » phases of business and with business problems, such a course, or such courses, will be an element of liberal education, increasing the pupil's imder- standing and appreciation of his environment, and serving to create and direct his vocational ideals. 402 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Normal THE CLAIMS OF SCHOLARSHIP UPON THE NORMAL SCHOOL DR. WILLIAM T. FOSTER, PRESIDENT OF REED COLLEGE, PORTLAND, ORE. The war has brought out in sharp relief the characteristic shortcomings of the schools of the United States. Our people, as a whole, are prone to contentment with mediocrity and avoidance of the discipline of prompt, thoro, and exact achievement. In these respects the schools of the United States reflect the people. Our schools, as a rule, do not make necessary the prompt and complete performance of duty. They do not cultivate the habit of ''being there." As challenges to the powers of the majority of the girls and boys of the United States they are absurdly inadequate. The high-school diploma is no guaranty to the employer or to the college that the graduate has ever been required to do his best at anything. In this respect a college degree is no better. Indeed, it may stand for four years of irresponsible and headlong pursuit of the joys of college life, during which the youth has formed the habit of "getting by" with a minimum of effort. Thousands of boys in our training camps are experiencing for the first time the necessity of performing assigned tasks promptly and exactly day in and day out. Thus they are having the benefits, for the first time, of a discipline from which there is no escape. All of them know it, and most of them enjoy it. They would be the first to acknowledge that they would be far better off now had they been obliged thruout their school days to toe the mark. The teachers of the schools and colleges of the United States, them- selves, as a rule, products of easy-going institutions, are not likely to make the rigorous demands that are necessary for the cultivation of character. When they do begin to tighten the screws, objections are raised at once by parents and politicians. Students themselves do not offer serious diffi- culties. In the long run they prefer the hardest taskmasters. This school contentment with work half done is reflected in our industrial world. What consternation there was in all our laboratories where accu- racy is imperative as soon as the supply of instruments from Germany was cut off! In opposition to the proposed adoption of the metric system by manu- facturers in this country, Mr. Halsey said in the American Mechanic: "Those who make things instead of merely measuring them regard the argument for the system as without weight." This scorn for the man who merely measures things is a natural product of slipshod school methods. What inaccurate measurement may mean in a crisis we are discovering by means of bombs that explode a few seconds before their time, shells that almost fit, target-finders that are sometimes dependable, and machine guns that only approximate the specifications. The unreliability of American- manufactured products is said to be a by-word in Europe. Some grounds Department! NORMAL SCHOOL FOR TRAINING TEACHERS 403 for this suspicion of our products are likely to remain as long as school diplomas, college degrees, and teachers' certificates are no guaranty of respect for scientific accuracy or of habits of painstaking and sustained effort in the performance of duty. I THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL FOR TRAIN- ING TEACHERS FOR ALL LINES OF SCHOOL WORK J. W. CRABTREE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, RIVER FALLS, WIS. The normal school was established for the purpose of training men and women for efficient teaching in the public schools. Its purpose was not to train only a portion of the teachers, leaving the training of other teachers to other agencies, but its purpose was to train all the teachers for all teach- ing positions in all the public schools. I see no reason why that broad pur- pose should be changed. Our public-school system, since the establishment of the normal school, has been expanded to cover the work of twelve or more years, and to cover work in many additional subjects and departments. But has not the normal school increast its facilities and has it not had a development corresponding to the development and growth of the public- school needs and demands? Does anyone question the wisdom of the normal school's training teachers of domestic science simply because colleges and imiversities have special departments of domestic science? Does anyone question the advisability of the normal school's preparing teachers of agriculture in the public schools because we have agricultural colleges thruout the country ? If we were to cease preparing teachers for a subject as soon as that subject becomes a special department in a college, there would soon be no place for the normal school, for specialization is taking hold of every line of effort during this generation. Then I wish to raise the question as to whether the normal school should not itself do its work chiefly by means of special departments, segregating as far as may be the work of students of such special depart- ments. Of course there will always be some work open to students of all special departments. But should not the one preparing to teach in the primary grades be trained for that particular work rather than to receive a general training which applies equally well for teaching in the grammar grades and in the high school? Indeed, normal schools thruout the country are now taking this step. In many of the leading normal schools we find at the present time the special kindergarten department, the special primary department, the special grammar department, and the special high-school department. We often find the special department for training teachers of agriculture, 4^4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal the special department for training teachers of domestic science, the special department for training teachers of commercial courses, and so on. Let the development of the normal school continue. Let its work cover, not only the preparation of all the teachers for all the grades, but also the preparation for positions in the high school. At the same time there should be no objection to the college and university sharing in the preparation, not only of high-school teachers, but also, when advisable, of teachers for grade positions. The normal school should not limit its work to the preparation of teachers for positions in the grades in city schools. One university made an effort last year to take over the preparation of the rural teachers of the state. Another asked the passage of a law requiring that the teachers of all special subjects be graduates of the state university. Let the college and university share in this work, but do not approve of that kind of a division of labor. The normal school should be ambitious to remain the strictly professional school for teachers of all grades. Unless the normal schools appreciate this right and advantage of leadership, it is certain that other ambitious agencies will quickly respond to the call which will certainly come from the public schools. To normal-school presidents and pro- fessors let me say again, hold your ground and retain your teacher-training leadership. KANSAS CITY MEETING, FEBRUARY, 1917 A SYSTEMATIC PLAN FOR THE AFTER-TRAINING OF NORMAL-SCHOOL GRADUATES CHARLES C. MCCRACKEN, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, WESTERN COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, OXFORD, OHIO I To assume that the graduate from the normal school possesses all the qualifications that characterize the thoroly competent and successful teacher is so unreasonable that we might be justified in considering it absurd. True, she may have acquainted herself with the best methods of instruction, the most workable schemes of discipline, and the necessary content of the subjects to be taught. She may have learned how to develop, to the point of nicety, lesson plans to suit the critical critic teacher. She may have the traits — tact, sympathy, thoroness — that are essential to the good teacher; yet, possessing all these things, she will certainly lack the judgment and seasoning which mark the teacher of successful experience. Until the time of graduation she has been under the direct and thoughtful supervision of training teachers. Now she goes out reliant upon her own initiative, to meet her associates in the teaching world, and make a show- ing comparable to theirs. Having had some experience under these new I Department] THE AFTER-TRAINING OF NORMAL GRADUATES 405 conditions, this graduate is better able to profit by, and to appreciate, the aid given her by the normal school. It was with the preceding thoughts in mind that the speaker made a study last year of "The After-Training of Teachers in Cities." The con- ditions found were quite chaotic. There was no uniformity either as to locality, as to size of cities concerned, or as to the teachers involved. In a few places schemes are in operation that seem to be meeting with a degree of success, but are recognized as not fully satisfying the needs. The study covered one hundred and twenty-six cities, seventy of which were of less than one hundred thousand population. The activities reported as direct factors in the after-training of teachers were divided for convenience into twelve groups which are presented here with the percentage of cities involved. The seventy cities under one hundred thousand population cause a decided lowering of the percentages. They are as follows : Number of cities studied 126 Percentage Supervisors of departments 50 . 8 Meetings; institutes 48 .4 Sabbatical year 5.5 Promotional examination 7.1 Extension; summer schools 42 . 8 Teachers' associations 35 , 8 Professional reading 23 . 8 Visiting; demonstrations 19 . o Teacher-training school 46.0 Cooperation with training school 6.3 Salary schedule 29 . 3 Merit 16.6 It will be noticed that while 46 per cent of these cities have their own teacher- training schools, only 6.3 per cent report any cooperation existing between the training school and the teachers in service. All of the cities, eight in number, represented by the 6.3 per cent, are of more than one hundred thousand population. This would indicate that the after-training of teachers, thru the instrumentality of the city normal schools, is almost a negligible quantity. One city replies that while they would like to arrange such cooperation, yet the financial situation will not permit it. Another city, in response to the question of whether the normal school might assist in after- training of teachers, replied that "so much money has been required for sites, buildings, and additional equipment and salaries as to make it necessary to curtail expenses in matters not absolutely essential." Three principles are operative in determining the after-training of teachers. Some cities place a specific requirement on the teacher, such that the teacher must read or study a certain amount per year in a manner satisfactory to the superintendent of schools and board of education in order to hold her position. Some of these provisions are very reasonable; others 4o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal are so heavy and so rigid that teachers could not satisfy them without dis- content and consequent dissatisfaction in their work. A second group rewards teachers for a reasonable amount of time and energy spent in self-improvement. Notably Cincinnati advances the elementary teachers on a regular salary schedule until they reach $950. After that time the teacher may be advanced to $1,000, provided that she does certain pro- fessional work at least once in two years. All promotion is conditioned on professional growth. A third group makes the after-training of the teacher strictly voluntary. There is no return in compensation except as the teacher shows better results in actual classroom work. This group is typified by St. Louis, where, according to Dr. Withers, 1400 teachers out of about 2100, are enrolled in the evening or Saturday extension courses of Harris Teachers College. Unfortunately there are some teachers always in the corps who seemingly have to be compelled to make advancement, and it seems difficult to put into operation any scheme that will not have in it certain elements of unfairness, either to the teacher who is quite willing to advance or to the one who is there merely to draw her monthly check. However, we cannot but commend the plan which St. Louis has in operation, whereby the teachers go voluntarily and gladly to an institution where they can better themselves professionally. II In proposing a plan for the after-training of normal-school graduates, the speaker recognizes the difficulty of presenting any scheme which can be applied or even adjusted to all teachers. The primary aim of the pro- posed plan is (i) to make available to all teachers of the corps, and espe- cially to the normal graduates, a model observation school to aid in solving the many problems which the new teacher must meet; (2) so to correlate the activities that are possible in the after-training that the teacher may not be unduly burdened by requirements on time and energy which should be devoted primarily to the class with which she must deal; and (3) to further cooperation between the normal-trained teacher and some par- ticular normal school. We shall consider first the conditions in the city. One of the aims, as exprest, is the establishment of a model observation school that shall serve as a pedagogical laboratory for the teachers in service. In order that this may be secured, there should be a separate school for observation and minor experimental purposes. If there is a practice school, both the practice and the observation schools may be under one principal, (i) No practice teaching shall be done in the observa- tion school. (2) In order to make it available to the teachers of the city at large it shall be in session five days of the week with vacation Monday instead of Saturday. (3) The teachers for this school shall be chosen because of {a) exceptional teaching ability, {b) thoro preparation, (c) sympa- thetic insight into the needs and difficulties of other teachers, {d) good J Department] THE AFTER-TRAINING OF NORMAL GRADUATES 407 health. (4) Experimentation in method may be conducted in so far as it does not prove detrimental to the welfare of the school. (5) Any teacher of the school may, when deemed advisable by the director of teacher- training, after consultation with regular supervisors or principals, be required to con- fer with other teachers of the corps to aid them in solving personal difficulties. There should be one teacher for each of the eight grades. If the size of the city permits, observation schools should be placed in different sections of the city, where they may draw on different environments. The advantage would be that each teacher would have greater opportunity to see the type of pupils with which she has to deal. In smaller cities it might be necessary to place more than one grade under a teacher in order to put this scheme into operation. The extension of the plan depends upon two things: (i) the additional financial outlay, which would be small; and (2) the attitude of the com- munity toward sending children to such a school, on the days specified. Neither of these objections seems vital. Four qualifications have been set for teachers in the observation school. These are self-explanatory, but it ought to be added that to secure such teachers it would be necessary to allow them an increast salary. Two sources will be available for supplying such teachers: (i) they may be taken from the city at large, preference being given to those teachers who can best satisfy the requirements stated; and (2) they may be drawn from the normal schools and colleges that meet with the approval of the superin- tendent. In the latter case the teacher should have demonstrated in suc- cessful experience her teaching ability. In order that sympathetic cooperation may be obtained between the teachers of this observation school and the teaching corps at large, instruc- tors in the observation school may be required to confer with graduates of the normal school at the suggestion of the director of the training school. In order that he may be able properly to arrange such conferences, he must cooperate with supervisors and principals of the regular corps. Such conferences could be held in the various buildings on Mondays. Thus the specially trained teacher may be able to follow up the graduates of the normal school and aid them in solving their individual difficulties by meeting them in their own environments and bringing about a more prac- fcal and sympathetic understanding of conditions. On the other hand, this observation school shall be in regular session on Saturday when other teachers of the city are at liberty. This will allow other teachers to visit the observation school and see the usual work. In case some method is under experimentation, it can be very easily sched- uled so that it may come on Saturday, when it may be observed readily. Possibility of congestion at the observation school would be decreast as it would be in session every Saturday. The primary purpose, however, of this observation school on Saturday is that the teacher may better her own 4o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iNonnal _, classroom work by seeing what may be done by well-prepared and skilful teachers. In short, this model observation school should be a pedagogical laboratory for the entire city where new methods may be tried out. Con- stant cooperation, both of teachers and of supervisory officials, should be sought by the training school. To increase the worth of such observation, there should be an institute once each month. At this institute there should be sectional meetings according to grades or subjects or policies of the school, where points may be discust in round table so that information gained in the observations may be clincht in the minds of the graduates of the normal school. A graduate of a normal school does not always need continued work in methodology. It may be that this teacher needs a course in literature, mathematics, or history, for example, where the actual content of the subject to be taught is involved, or where her own breadth of view is in question. If this be the case, it may be determined that this teacher should enter extension work in some near-by school, or under the tutorage of some capable person. The -reading of good books, the taking of occa- sional trips, may do such a teacher more good than sitting in a school- room for half a day. Such advisement should come as a result of careful supervision of the regular teaching force. The rural condition remains to be considered. Many of our state normal schools are concerned with the training of rural-school teachers. It is at once evident that these normal schools cannot maintain one obser- vation school to serve all the teachers who go out from their doors. How- ever, the same general principles as advocated for the city might apply with some degree of adaptation. The Connecticut plan of having one school in each town having twenty teachers or less "as the model school for obser- vation and instruction of the training class conducted by the supervisor'* has workt very satisfactorily. Where there are several state normal schools, the territory might be divided equitably among them, and each school might be made responsible for the after-training of normal gradu- ates within its own territory, regardless of whether the teacher comes from that particular school or some other. The plan is to establish a series of model observation schools. In general, these would be one-room rural schools, but the small village must not be entirely neglected. One such model school might easily be made to serve not less than forty teachers. This, in the state of Ohio, would repre- sent an area of from 150 to 175 square miles, considering rural teachers only. With all schools under the supervision of a county superintendent, specific standards as are defined by Connecticut might be prescribed to govern these model schools. Some of the most vital of the Connecticut provisions are as follows: The rural model school should be a one-room school in a situation accessible to all teachers of the town. Department) THE AFTER-TRAINING OF NORMAL GRADUATES 409 The building must be in good repair with sufficient blackboard space. There must be ample equipment of aids to teaching, including a hektograph and a complete set of wall maps. There should be not less than fifteen pupils registered and five grades represented to include one first grade and at least one grade above the fifth. The teacher must be able to secure results with well-defined and approved methods. She must prepare in some detail one model-lesson outlme each week for the instruction of visiting teachers. Standardization could be determined thru the cooperation of the normal school, the county superintendent, and the state superintendent. The salary paid to teachers in such schools should be at least $10.00 per month in excess of the prevailing salary, and it would be advisable and just if at least one-half of this teacher's salary were paid by the state in order to encourage the establishment of such schools and thus afford higher stand- ards and ideals for the teachers at large. Any teacher who is in charge of such school ought to be a normal-school graduate. If no graduate is available, then let it be some especially capable person who has the neces- sary ability and sympathetic insight into the needs of other teachers. It is essential that the county superintendent give this school very careful supervision, and that he suggest to the normal school in that section the needs and possibilities of normal-school graduates who are teaching there. This would necessitate on the part of the normal school extension courses and inspectors who could keep in touch with the situation in their par- ;icular districts. As many of our normal schools are now arranged, the [tension courses would not be an additional burden, and the inspectors ^ho are already going out from many of these schools could handle the situa- tion with the aid of the extension professors. Pressure should be brought to bear upon the teacher of this model school so that she would be a constant lid and adviser to those teachers who need help in gaining their standing the profession of teaching. The fact that a great many state normal tools now are establishing model one-room rural schools over sections *of the state to which they especially contribute teachers, would indicate that some such plan as outlined might be put into operation thru careful and sympathetic cooperation. Present conditions of after-training are in a state of uncertainty. The emphasis on this phase ranged from pronounst laxity on one hand to an overburdening on the other. There has been, and evidently is, a desire on the part of school officials to find a satisfactory answer to the question. In the foregoing discussion, certain aims and methods of procedure have been outlined. How extensively these can be put into operation will depend largely upon local conditions and the initiative of the officers in charge. A mechanical application without adaptation of the principles involved would mean the defeat of the plan just as it does in any other line. Pro- fessional advancement should result from the voluntary desire for self- improvement. Combined with this must be an ideal to make one's self 410 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal worthy of the profession of teaching — an ideal which the successful normal school must and will inculcate. GROWTH IN SERVICE CHARLES MCKENNY, PRESIDENT, NORMAL COLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICH. A few years back, when our country was in the midst of one of its periodical discussions of our military eflftciency, the phrase "the man behind the gun" was in popular favor. Business and administration took it up, and ''the man behind the gun" came to stand for personal efficiency in any calling. There is a wealth of meaning in the phrase. It implies that greater than any mechanical invention is the brain that uses it, and more effective for results than any plan of organization is the mind that directs it. If the philosophy of this phrase applies anywhere, it certainly applies in the teaching profession, the essence of which is the personal rela- tion of teacher and pupil. We might properly modify and appropriate the phrase and speak of "the teacher behind the book." The reason for normal schools lies in the fact that the ever-pressing need in education is to get teachers equal to their tasks. The superintendent in one of our great cities a few years ago made the statement that "the great problem before school superintendents is the galvanizing into life those teachers whose brains are ossified." If by "the great problem" is meant the most difficult, I indorse his proposition; but if the phrase means the most impor- tant and vital, I feel inclined to dissent, for to my mind the problem of most concern, the solving of which will eliminate the other, is not the resurrection of those who are dead, but the keeping alive of those who might die. One of the big concerns of superintendents is to prevent brain ossification. It may be thought by some that this "soul saving" is peculiarly a problem of the public schools and has little application to the so-called higher institutions of learning. But I venture that we who know some- thing about colleges, universities, and normal schools will agree that brain ossification is not confined to elementary and secondary education. Even in the university, over which the spirit of pure scholarship is thought to pre- side, and in the normal school, which is supposed to be the habitat of the genius of effective teaching, intellectual death at a too early age is far from unusual. Now there are several conditions that make the normal schools especially subject to intellectual sleeping sickness. In the first place, normal-school teachers are selected primarily for their human qualities. I mean by primarily, that no matter how great the scholarship a person may have, if he has not the human touch, if his interest in human life is not keen, if he does not love contact with human character and has not a desire to influence it, he is not likely to find a place on a normal-school faculty. And this is as it should be. I Department! GROWTH IN SERVICE 411 But the great danger in stressing the human relation is to slight the spirit of scholarship — that eager desire to know, to investigate, to discover, and to create which are essential to continued intellectual growth. It is not always easy to find persons with a human interest and at the same time a love of scholarship. The person of strong human interests loves people; he delights to be with them; his heart is in human relationships. Love of knowledge for knowledge's sake, the thirst to know for the sake of knowing make no appeal to him. The scholar loves knowledge; he worships at her shrine; he is her slave; and no man can serve two masters whole- heartedly and unreservedly. It is notorious that the greatest scholars in our universities are generally the poorest teachers. The ideal combina- tion of scholarly tastes and human interest which make the great teachers is a commodity rarely in the market. It has been my opportunity to be connected with four college and normal-school faculties and in all there have been conspicuous instances of large human interests associated with comparatively little aggressive scholarship. Rare were the cases of scholar- ship without human interest. Then, too, it must be noted that there is a tendency on the part of normal schools to draw to their faculties men from public-school adminis- trative positions. Such men are desirable from many points of view. They have practical touch with the public-school work, for which the normal schools are preparing teachers. They have acquaintances and influence. They are social in temperament and keenly interested in the life of young people. They are men ,of affairs. But scholarship and administration are distinct and separate fields, and come dangerously near being mutually exclusive. Most persons who are capital superintendents have no great amount of scholastic ambition. The painstaking, delving, grubbing, reflective, attitude of mind which is necessary for scholarship is quite apart from that type of mind which can handle expeditiously a multi- tude of details and organize them into a working machine. I am not discrediting executive tastes and capabilities in so saying. I am not pronouncing on the relative ranks of scholarship and executive ability. I am only saying that they are rarely found in the same individual, and that men who have made a name in public-school administration, if called to a college faculty, rarely^win scholastic leadership. Their brains have become grooved in administrative ways. You must catch a man young to make a scholar of him. For these two reasons there have come to normal-school faculties in the past, and I am inclined to think there are still coming to the normal-school faculties, a fair percentage of teachers who, because of temperament and training, are especially liable to intellectual sleeping sickness, at least as far as scholarship is concerned. It is less true now, tho emphatically true of the past, that the normal schools do not insist on graduate preparation on the part of their teachers. The report of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary 4lt NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal Schools shows that a too large percentage of normal-school teachers have little or no graduate training. This fact is significant, for, generally- speaking, people of scholastic tastes and ambition will get graduate train- ing sooner or later. It may be considerably later than sooner, but get it they will. The presence on a faculty of a large number who have not done graduate study and thru it developt a specialized interest, and who are attempting nothing in the field of productive scholarship, lowers the scholastic tone of the institution and creates an atmosphere in which creative effort finds it hard to live. It is in the graduate school more than anywhere else that a man develops that specialized interest and the habit of work which are essential to scholarship. I am well aware that in making these remarks I subject myself to the criticism of being a degree worshiper. I am not willing to plead guilty to the charge, but I do want to register my appreciation of what the academic degree stands for, at least what it should stand for. I am not at all in sympathy with the attitude too commonly found in normal schools that degrees count for nothing. I am quite opposed to the sentiment which I have heard expressed frequently that a Doctor of Philosophy has no place in a normal school. In my connection with four separate faculties it has been borne upon me that, all in all, by far the best teachers, the most inspiring and constructive, were the men and women of graduate prepara- tion. It was that fact which has led me in two instances to adopt the policy of requiring graduate study on the part of all new teachers added to the faculty. Could I find them and- afford them, I would have a Doctor of Philosophy in every department of the normal school, but he would be a Doctor of Philosophy who had the human touch and who could teach. This combination is not so rare as it used to be, but is not yet a drug on the market. Again it must be frankly admitted that the grade of teaching which the normal-school teacher is called upon to do is not of itself intellectually stimulating. To teach the same elementary courses year after year, to break human knowledge up into bits so that it may be taken and digested by relatively immature minds, is not an intellectually stimulating process. The lawyer is daily pitting his knowledge and acumen against an antagonist probably his equal, possibly far his superior; the doctor is grappling with problems intricate and vital that challenge all his resources no matter how ample they may be; the minister and the engineer do not lack incen- tives that stir to activity every latent power of their minds; but the teacher in the junior college finds one of his most difficult tasks that of simplifying knowledge and bringing it within the range of the abilities of his classes. He must talk down rather than up. In a certain sense he must shrink rather than expand. This fact alone makes productive scholarship difficult in a normal school and conduces, it may be said, to brain "ossification." Department] GROWTH IN SERVICE 413 Still another factor that makes against scholarship in normal schools is the heavy teaching load. In few normal schools is the load less than sixteen hours a week, in many it is twenty, and in some twenty-five. It is practically impossible for a teacher putting twenty to twenty-five hours in a classroom, with all that implies of individual conferences and review of students' work, to do any consecutive study in a particular field. After a few years of such teaching the habit of cursory reading rather than con- centrated study is establisht. The ambition to do creative work gradually wanes, and the comfortable adjustment to the day's work as it comes and goes is made. One other condition that enters into the problem is worth consideration, and that is the location of normal schools so generally in small towns remote from intellectually stimulating centers. There is no denying the mighty influence of intellectual surroundings in stimulating men to intellectual effort. There is not the slightest doubt that a normal-school faculty located in a relatively small town far from the stimulation of great libraries, great preachers, great lawyers, great doctors, great men of affairs, and great human activities has to fight to maintain its intellectual alertness. I agree with Dr. Judd that the states have made a serious mistake in locating so many normal schools in small towns, but not simply because training- school facilities are limited in such towns, but also because there is a lack of intellectual stimulation both to teachers and students. So far I have been discussing the conditions which militate against aggressive scholarship in the normal school and which tend to retard growth in service. What are the remedies? 1. First of all there should be judgment and insight in selecting teachers. A teacher should not be chosen simply for what he is now, but for what he is likely to be ten or twenty years hence. Quite as important as a teacher's present eflGiciency is his power of growth. In fact, I think there would be a general agreement that the power of growth is the more important considera- tion. Personally, in interviewing the new teacher I try to satisfy myself on two points: First, has this candidate human interest? Does he love humanity more than he loves books? Is he ambitious to help develop and shape human character? Secondly, has he scholastic ambitions? Has he habits of study? Has he interest in creative scholarship? A negative answer to either of these two questions would in my judgment disqualify a man for a place on the normal-school faculty. If he loved research work more than teaching, I should fear him. He might do for a university, but he is not the type that a normal school could afford to take, at least no school could afford to take many of that character. A person who has academic preparation implied in a year or more of graduate work, intellectual ambitions, and human interest ought not to fail as a teacher. 2. The normal school should lighten the teacher's load. It cannot expect to drain the nerve energy out of its teachers from year to year and 414 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal still have them buoyant and keen either for scholarship or for teaching. Any number of hours above fifteen or sixteen a week constitutes a burden that sooner or later will bend the intellectual back of the one who tries to carry it. I know that teachers can teach twenty or twenty-five hours a week, but they cannot teach and grow under these conditions without a sacrifice of health. 3. The normal school should stimulate scholarship. The spirit of the normal school should be the spirit which fosters and encourages productive activities. The strength of the university, so far as productive scholarship is concerned, lies in the fact that it expects its teachers to be productive. The normal schools have been too complacent in this respect and have been too willing to accept the principle that a normal school is the place to train teachers, largely for the elementary schools, and that the whole field of productive scholarship should be left to the university. I am pleased to say, however, that there are gratifying evidences that the normal schools are changing front in this particular, and that from the normal- school faculties are coming publications which show the purpose to help solve the education problems in the particular field ministered to by normal schools. The normal-school faculty should be encouraged to write. Writing not only makes an exact man, but has a tendency to make a broad man, for few people are willing to go into print until they have mastered the subject which they are treating. I see no reason why every member of a normal-school faculty should not write at least one paper a year. A large number of these papers could find publication in educational journals of the state, or could at least form the basis of discussion in the faculty or depart- mental meeting. 4. Then, too, the teachers of normal schools should be encouraged to organize and present new courses, and earnest effort ought to be made by the administration of the normal schools to make a place for such courses. Such courses could be used as elective during the regular year, or in many schools could find a place in the summer school. The summer school offers a peculiarly good place for such courses, inasmuch as it calls back to school many graduates who desire the refreshing stimulation which comes from undertaking new lines of study. 5. Much more than is now true our normal-school faculties should be encouraged and urged to attend the various educational conventions and conferences. In addition to attending educational conventions, state and national, there are conferences representing every department of normal- school work— mathematics, EngHsh, history and pohtical science, natural science, rural-school education, and so on thru the list. Here gather the choice spirits engaged in teaching these particular subjects. Here experi- ments which have been tried are elaborated and discust. These con- ferences are sources of inspiration and power to all who attend, and yet to Department] GROWTH IN SERVICE 415 my personal knowledge comparatively few normal teachers attend them. A teacher ought to attend a conference in his particular field at least every other year. 6. I am inclined to think that much good might come by the exchange of teachers by normal schools. I know it would be difficult to do this during the regular year, especially in the case of married teachers, but in the summer schools the plan would be possible, since the term is short. The institutions having the larger summer schools are obliged to employ teachers outside of their own faculties, and here is an opportunity to invite members of faculties from schools less large, or the larger schools could effect an interchange of teachers. It would do any teacher good to teach in another institution and get the stimulation of a new environment. For my part, I should be glad to see this experiment tried and I would do what I could to bring it about. 7. Without question one of the most important means of preventing intellectual sleeping sickness is the permitting of teachers to have a semester or a year off for academic study. The plan of the sabbatical year is in operation in many institutions. From the point of view of the institution I think it less desirable than a semester every three or four years. The sabbatical year comes but a few times in a teacher's life. It seems to me far better to reduce the length of time of leave of absence and to increase the number of times. It will be a great day for the normal school when I the custom of granting a leave of absence for study will be general thruout the country. It is very evident that the remedies which I have suggested spell more revenue. Better-prepared teachers, lighter loads, time for study mean more money, and that money the normal schools should have. Without question they are not receiving their share of the money given by the state for higher education. What the normal schools lack is political finesse. For twenty years I have discovered that the popular sentiment in legislatures is cordial ^^ to the normal school, but too frequently other institutions get the appropria- ^B tions. The graduates of the university are largely men. These men enter ^Hthe professions; they have political ambitions; they get to be political ^■leaders in the state; their influence counts in the legislature and naturally ^^goes for Alma Mater. The graduates of the normal school are largely ^" women, and these have been, and largely are today, excluded from politics. They have relatively little political influence. With such conditions pre- I vailing, it is easy to see which appropriation will be dipt by the legislative committees. I am not arguing that the university should get less, but urging that the normal school should get more. In order to get more, the normal school must have friends at the places where influence is exerted. Let me close by voicing the opinion that from the educational point of view, from the effective- teaching point of view, the problem of the normal 41 6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal school is to keep intellectually alive the members of its faculty, for the soul of teaching is the personal contact between teacher and student. DISCUSSION STANDARDS IN TEACHER-TRAINING P. P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of Education, said, in part, that the great function of democracy is to train teachers, as what shall be done in a school depends on the teacher. If teachers are not strong, the machinery is no good and money is wasted. All teachers should have professional training, but the number of trained teachers varies largely in different sections of the country. The rural teacher needs a higher grade of education and professional training than the elementary or high-school teacher because of the element of leadership involved. Education has a threefold purpose: (i) to make the child of the growing generation familiar with fundamentals in the way of reading, writing, arithmetic, etc.; (2) to prepare him for citizenship; and (3) to train him to make a living. The rural child needs as broad and thoro an education as does the city child. The farm girl needs training as well as the farm boy, and today less than i per cent of the rural people are to be found in agricultural schools and colleges. What the farmer and his wife know affects the farm home. The rural school must give this knowledge and normal schools must prepare the rural teacher, while the state must make liberal provision for such training. The normal schools must adjust themselves to the service of the elementary and rural schools. All institutions of education belong to the state and each school has its function to perform. There are no high and no low in any service. School officials should magnify, not their schools, but service. Above all institutions are the people of the state, who expect service and are willing to pay for service. They do not want duplication of service, but do want each school to serve well in its own field, whether elementary school, high school, normal school, or university. Superintendent F. L. Keeler spoke briefly of the service of the Michigan county training schools in preparing rural teachers for that state. State Superintendent Cary, of Wisconsin, believed in the lengthening of the courses of study in the training schools and normal schools, saying that "graduates of these schools were interested in teaching because of their special training. The normal schools should organize four-year courses beyond a high-school course, as teachers of all schools need more preparation." A. E. Winship, of Boston, criticized the Bureau of Education in the matter of making surveys. "It is not the business of the Bureau," said he, "to save money, but it is the great business of the Bureau to inspire the greatest number of students to secure the best possible education, and it is its further business to promote educational progress by making use of all the available means." DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Elizabeth A. Woodward, supervisor of Brooklyn Free Kindergarten Society, 67 Schermerhom Street Brooklyn, N.Y. Vice-President — Gail H. Calmerton, supervisor of Primary Instruction Fort Wayne, Ind. Secretary — Clara Meisner, State Normal School .Ellensburg, Wash. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July ii, 1Q17 The department was called to order by the president, m the Auditorium, Lincoln High School, at 10:00 a.m., and the following program was presented: "The Unique Function of the Kindergarten in the Modem School" — Albert Shiels, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal. Paper read by Susan M. Dorsey, assistant superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal. "The Kindergarten as an Organic Part of Every Elementary School" — Anna L. Force, principal, Denver, Colo. "The Peculiar Fitness of the Trained Kindergartner for Effective Work among Foreigners"^ — Caroline Hedger, Americanization Committee worker, Chicago, 111. Discussion — E. O. Holland, president, Pullman College, Pullman, Wash. In the absence of Dr. Acher, Miss Helen Sullivan, assistant superintendent of schools, North Dakota, spoke a few words of interest in kindergartens on behalf of her state. At the close of the meeting, Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of edu- cation, Denver, Colo., was called upon to speak. The following committees were appointed: COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS Miss Mary Adair, Philadelphia, Pa. Miss Edna Baker, Chicago, 111. Miss Maud Stevens, Portland, Ore. Mrs. Harriet Heller, Portland, Ore. COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY Miss Grace Brown, New York, N.Y. Miss Georgia McClellan, Chicago, 111. Miss Clara Meisner, Ellensburg, Wash. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, July 12, 191 7 A joint meeting with the Department of Elementary Education was opened by Miss Woodward in the Auditorium of the Lincoln High School, and the following program was presented: "The Teacher's Problem in Maintaining School Standards at the Present Time" — Ella Flagg Young, Chicago, 111. Motion Pictures Illustrating Kindergarten Activities: Pratt Institute Kindergarten Activities; Hospital Auto Bus Excursion of the Brooklyn Free Kindergarten Society, Brooklyn, N.Y,; Kindergarten Games Festival in Schenley Park, Pittsburgh. Stereoptican Slides of Kindergarten and Elementary-School Activities. "The Teacher's Problem of Maintaining School Standards at This Time" — Caroline Hedger, Americanization Committee worker, Chicago, 111. "The Teachers' Responsibilities during the War" — Kate Devereaux Blake, principal, Public School No. 6, New York, N.Y. 417 4l8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten THIRD SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 13, 191 7 The meeting was called to order by the president at 9:00 a.m., and the following program was presented: "The Dramatic Arts in the Kindergarten: Game, Song, and Story as the Basis of a Democratic Education" — Edna D. Baker, National Kindergarten College, Chicago, 111. "Play Materials as a Stimulus to Self-Direction and Social Cooperation" — Grace L. Brown, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Discussion — Mary A. Grupe, State Normal School, EUensburg, Wash,; Louise Dietz, kindergarten-primary supervisor, Louisville, Ky. "Pictured Stories" — Mary Adair, Normal School, Philadelphia, Pa. Stereopticon Slides of Kindergarten Activities in Denver, Colo. The report of the Necrology Committee, expressmg appreciation of the services of Mary D. Hill and regret over her death last fall, follows: Since the last meeting of the National Education Association, the Department of Kindergarten Education has sustained a profound loss in the death of its secretary. Miss Mary D. Hill, of Louisville, Ky. We cannot more fittingly express our appreciation of Miss Hill's exceptional character and work than by quoting from a personal tribute by Miss Annie E. Moore, a friend and coworker, publisht in the November, 1916, number of The Kindergarten and First Grade. "On the morning of September the i6th. Miss Hill slipt away from the busy world which the day before had been filled with the engrossing duties of her position as Super- visor of Kindergartens and Training Teacher in the City Normal School, Louisville, Kentucky. "For nearly thirty years. Miss Hill had been closely identified with the kindergarten movement. After serving for several years as director of the free kindergartens in Louis- ville, she succeeded her sister. Miss Patty S. Hill, as supervisor and had held this position for ten years. Her kindergarten was always a sort of experiment station for trying out new ideas and her sound judgment made such experiments of great professional worth. During Miss HUl's administration, the training class which had been under a philanthropic board was incorporated with the public-school system and she directed that delicate adjustment with great skill. "The life of Miss Mary Hill offers a beautiful and striking example of the profound and far-reaching influence of deep sincerity, loyalty, and unobtrusive perseverance. She was a staunch friend, a kind but searching critic, and a clear-visioned counselor. Her leadership rested upon these sterling qualities." Grace Brown Clara Meisner Georgia McClellan Committee Upon recommendation of the Committee on Nominations, the following officers were unanimously elected: President — Miss Netta Fans, Cleveland, Ohio. Vice-President — Miss Gail Harrison, Berkeley, Cal. Secretary — Miss Lillian Poor, Boston, Mass. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE KINDERGARTEN AS AN ORGANIC PART OF EVERY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ANNA LAURA FORCE, PRINCIPAL, DENVER, COLO. The kindergarten is a selected environment in which children may dis- cover themselves and their relations to life. The kindergarten, as the name implies, is a garden of little children. The conception that it is an organic part of the elementary school is based upon the true idea of educa- I Department] THE KINDERGARTEN AND THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 419 tion. During recent years critical study of kindergarten methods by experts has proved that the work has exceptional educational value. "The reconstruction of the elementary curriculum in the United States on the basis of the child's developing powers at different periods is largely due to its influence." The kindergarten practice has been the leaven that has gone thru the elementary school and vitalized the teaching. A new conception of method has changed the spirit of the elementary school. On the old basis little was askt of the child. The teacher did the work and the child was passive. According to the new order the "child makes his contribution of self-activity and efifort before the teacher can furnish interpretation and guidance." The kindergarten demonstrates that activity based upon the stage of the child's development forms the basis of education. Such a method calls for more than sympathetic insight. The teacher seeks to secure from the children original expression upon which she may exercise the function of guidance for the purpose of leading them thru to higher levels of insight and power. Froebel has said that "the plays of childhood are the germinal leaves of all later life. Let us learn from chil- dren. Give heed to the gentle admonition of their life, to the silent demands of their minds, then will the life of our children bring us peace and joy. Then shall we begin to grow wise, to be wise." The habits formed in activities such as self-expression, observation, imagination, judgment, thinking, and initiative carry over to the first grade, and the child has increast power to take up the work in reading, spelling, numbers, and construction. He already has learned to concentrate and keep at his work until he has mastered it. His power to attack new prob- lems has been developt and he makes rapid progress. He presents a more alert, ready, and responsive attitude toward the new requirements of the first grade than the child who has not had previous training. His vocabu- lary is increast by his work in oral expression, dramatization, and story- telling. The foreign child especially needs this preparation. Games, folk-dances, and rhythmic exercises develop the body and give mental and social training. Exercises involve the larger muscles. It is better for the child to drive a nail than thread a needle. The kindergarten child is given sense training in drawings, study of color, and handwork in sand, clay, paper, and wood. Original independent work will increase power to carry out ideas. No attempt should be made to teach phonics, but attention is called to clear enunciation, and some words are emphasized as they are needed in the daily lives of the children. Reading is taught incidentally by the use of the printing-press. Sentences and words in connection with all activities in the kindergarten are printed on paper or objects. The social aspect of the work is highly essential. Social training is emphasized in making the child acquainted with the work of the farmer, 420 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten miller, cobbler, policeman, and mechanic. The child needs to get early the group idea. The socializing influence of the kindergarten carries over thru all the grades and relates school activities to life. The visiting kinder- garten teacher has brought the mothers to the school. The parent-teacher movement was started in this way. The timid foreign mother learns the English language and becomes acquainted with American ways. Nature gives the program to the kindergarten. The seasons furnish material for lessons the year round. Autumn is the time to study the preparation for winter; when the snow and ice come, protection, clothing, and food; in the springtime, the return of the birds, the development of buds, leaves, and flowers, and the planting of seeds. In discipline it is expression not repression. The children do as they please as long as they do not interfere with their neighbors. "The right to extend my hand stops where your nose begins." Cooperative work stops quarreling. The educational value of toys cannot be overestimated. " The tearing down of the constructive toy is followed by building up a re-creation of the toy. This process of destruction and construction leads the child to under- stand man-made things in the world about him. The best toys are made of wood cut in simple design and put together with bolts. Three questions should be asked before a toy is given to the child : 1. What is it made of ? 2. What will the child do with it? 3. What will it do for the child ? The toys should be strong and durable. The thing to be guarded against in securing constructive toys is fragility. Toys bring children together in a group and help them to imitate the social life about them. These factors in the life of the child are greater than any formulated system of education. In a kindergarten where this kind of toys is used, the con- struction of a windmill illustrates the application of educational principles. In the process group work is spontaneous. The children gain power in observation and concentration, muscular control and coordinating coopera- tion, then group control. The windmill functions in the life of the children when they all climb up on it, oil it, and turn it around as the wind does. They make it useful by laying pipe to the house to connect it with the sink. In the same school the many different toys illustrating all phases of life are carefully labeled and put away in perfect order. The children take them as they please and when they are thru with them they are put away and very seldom, if ever, is a part of the toy or a bolt lost. The children put toys together and fasten the parts with bolts. They stay put. Anything good in construction stays put when put together. The main object in the construction of toys is to give the children something to do. The child who builds a wagon learns that certain laws govern its con- struction. A large tailless kite made of red and white cloth fastened on a light wooden frame is durable. The winds picks it up §,nd carries it high Department] THE DRAMATIC ARTS IN KINDERGARTEN 421 into the air. The air currents make it fly first in one direction and then another. Such toys as Little Red Riding Hood, the Three Bears, the Three Goats Gruff, and the Three Little Pigs place before the child a clear image of the story he is telling, causing him to forget his self-consciousness and in no way hindering his imagination. They help him to picture more clearly in his mind the stories and to reproduce them in words and play more intel- ligently. These toys are used for self-expression. An audience is not needed. The child is constantly experimenting. Rhythm is caught from piano or victrola. The girls dance, the boys prefer marching. A band is easily organized. This is the beginning of an orchestra in the school. In this school kindergarten practice extends thru the grades. All the teachers and pupils believe in the work. It is the make-believe world, the fairyland of the school. Every child in the building considers it a privilege to be invited to take part. Older children want to watch and assist the teacher and children when it is necessary. The work reflects the activities of the outside world in imagination thru toy and story. The creative power developt in the kindergarten is the foundation for constructive imagination, a quality so rare when formal work is emphasized. The educational values of the kindergarten work can leave no doubt in the minds of the teachers that such training is an organic part of the ele- mentary school. THE DRAMATIC ARTS IN KINDERGARTEN: GAME, SONG, AND STORY AS THE BASIS OF A DEMOCRATIC EDUCATION EDNA DEAN BAKER, NATIONAL KINDERGARTEN AND ELEMENTARY COLLEGE, CHICAGO In the familiar A Child's Garden of Verses by Robert Louis Stevenson, there is one poem describing "A Good Play," We built a ship upon the stairs All made of the back bedroom chairs, And filled it full of sofa pillows To go a-sailing on the billows. We took a saw and several nails And water in the nursery pails; And Tom said, "Let us also take An apple and a slice of cake"; Which was enough for Tom and me To go a-sailing on till tea. We sailed along for days and days, And had the very best of plays; But Tom fell out and hurt his knee, So there was no one left but me. 422 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kindergarten Stevenson, Riley, and Field, as well as many another interpreter of child life, have written stories and poems redolent of their own childish adven- tures. These bear witness to a universal recognition of the child's tendency to dramatic play. Even in a collection of the Indian poet Tagore a delight- ful little gem on "Playthings" appears: Child, how happy you are sitting in the dust, playing with a broken twig all the morning. I smile at your play with that little bit of a broken twig. I am busy with my accounts, adding up figures by the hour. Perhaps you glance at me and think, "What a stupid game to spoil your morning with!" Child, I have forgotten the art of being absorbed in sticks and mud-pies. I seek out costly playthings and gather lumps of gold and silver. With whatever you find you create your glad games. I spend both my time and my strength over things I can never obtain. In my frail canoe I struggle to cross the sea of desire, and forget that I, too, am playing a game. In spite of this universal recognition, however, there is the more or less common misunderstanding of the child's imaginative and dramatic play by those adults who have had no touch with child study or child psychology, humorously and pathetically chronicled in the "Billy Brad" stories and others not so well known. Commonly misunderstood as is the child's play by many people still, it is universally tolerated — more than tolerated in the usual community, as the public parks, gymnasiums, and playgrounds testify, as well as the stories, songs, and games in the school courses. We are surprised, in fact, when Dr. Montessori in an address before the New England Montessori Association foretells the coming of the time when toys will be unknown and children will find enjoyment in useful things adapted to their mental level. We are so surprised that the Cleveland Plaindealer after acknowledging our indebtedness to Dr. Montessori in many ways, states the general faith in no uncertain terms : If there is going to be such a prosaic and totally utilitarian age as Dr. Montessori predicts, let us give thanks that we shall not, in all probability, live to see it. When children are taught to find all their pleasure in doing "useful" things this world is going to be a pretty drab old place with dolls and kites and woolly lambs and hoops and jump- ing jacks abolisht. Santa Claus will shut up his shop for good, Christmas trees will become obsolete, the glaring sunlight of realism will drive the elves and fairies and soft gray shadows from the wonderland of childhood; the imagination will be strangled at its birth, and the very springs of poetry and fancy will be drained dry to clear the ground for a turnip field. With such sentiment in regard to the value of play abroad in our land today, we have little conception of what it meant to the educational world when Froebel, less than a hundred years ago, announst a new system of education based upon or utilizing the play activities of children, and there- with declared his belief in the educational value of play. As Dr. William T. Harris states in his commentary on the education of man, " Much had been said concerning the value and importance of play by educators at all times, Department] THE DRAMATIC ARTS IN KINDERGARTEN 423 but to Froebel belongs the credit of having found the true nature and func- tion of play." Froebel tells us that play is the self-active representation of the inner and that the child who plays thoroly, with self-active determination until physical fatigue forbids, will surely be a determined man. This calls to mind many a picture of children engaged in real play. I remember a certain game in which Dolph figured, on his own solicitation, as policeman at the Fountain Square Crossing in our town. The position was an exceed- ingly difficult one, as cars, autos, and pedestrians clamored to pass. Dolph stood well in the center of the room, figure full height, tinsel star exposed on his proud chest, blue eyes gleaming, one hand raised in stern prohibi- tion to street cars and general traffic, while the other invited irresistibly the timid woman and her flock of children to cross. When the play was over Dolph was so warm that he had to remove his coat, and so satisfyingly tired that he needed to rest. Froebel then considers play both the necessary self-expression and the serious business of childhood which may be regulated in such a way as to lead gradually and naturally into work, securing for work the same joy and freedom and spontaneity that characterize play. In How to Teach by Drs. Norsworthy and Strayer we find much that is suggestive in the chapter on play as to the meaning of play in education. Under popular misconception play is often captioned as the aimless, trivial, physical activities of the child. This chapter points out that "any activity which in itself satisfies, whether it be physical, emotional, or intellectual, is play." I saw a little boy the other day seated on a wooden horse of his own construction, who sat absolutely motionless for all of fifteen minutes. He made no effort to produce action in his silent steed, nor did he himself attempt to gallop. With head upon his hands, and far-away look in his eyes he was riding fast and furious into parts unknown. He had mounted ''Pegasus"! His was intellectual play. "It is only in the play spirit that the full resources of child or adult are tested," the chapter continues. From experience we know that it is never under the lash of duty or necessity, but always at the spur of keen interest and pleasure that the quality as well as the quantity of our work reaches the maximum. Again this chapter affirms that "the play spirit is the art spirit," that "no great result was ever achieved in any line of human activity without much work, and yet no great result was ever gained unless the play spirit controlled." Demosthenes never delivered a great oration, Raphael did not paint the "Sistine Madonna," nor does Julia Marlowe relive Shakespeare without that same play spirit, the same joy and spontaneity in the activity as the little child reveals who paints a yellow ball and calls it dandelion, or that other child who re-creates "The Three Bears" as we listen. If in work we have the spirit of play we are artists; if we lack it we are drudges. 424 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten It is then clear that there is a relation between the child's play and art, between his dramatic play and dramatic art as developt by the race. This tendency to play, to dramatic play, on the part of the child is paralleled by the same tendency on the part of the race, and the dramatic arts, the game, the song, and the story, or the dance, music, and literature were developt from earliest times under the impulse of a need for expression such as the little child feels when he dances spontaneously around the Christmas tree, or reveals his understanding of a bird in joyous flight. In other words, primitive people were interpreting life in terms of feeling as they danst, sang, and recited; they were translating their experiences into meaning. Here comes a group of men home from the fight impelled by the desire to tell their experiences to those who have stayed behind, as well as to inter- pret for themselves. They form a rude circle, and partly in pantomime dance, partly in tonal cries and rude ejaculations they depict realistically the day. As they go on, the best story-teller takes the center of the circle and gives the leading events while the others join in the refrain. Gradually the whole approaches a great climax and everybody, decked in paint and feathers, joins in the ecstatic dance of triumph. Here we have the crude beginnings of dramatic form in the circle dance, the division into actor and chorus, the portrayal of character, the weaving of plot, the use of setting in the paint and feather costume. The everyday occurrences of the hunt, the fight, the funeral, the marriage, the feast, furnisht the threads of light or of shadow which were woven into the tapestry and finally from those early dramas developt the play, the festival, and the pageant of later days. That the little child's tendency to dramatic play is prompted by the same need to interpret the life about him and his own life in coherent meaning is undoubted. As Luella Palmer says in Play Life in the First Eight Years, ''Everyone, the little child as well as the philosopher, is engaged in the struggle to understand the mysterious power which directs organic activity. The little child, in repeating the actual expression of the life which he sees comprehends it; he becomes possessor thru imagination of the thoughts and feelings which give rise to the activities about him." He patronizes the corner grocery with his mother. One day he fits up a corner grocery in his back yard with old tin cans still bearing their brilliant tomato, corn, and peach labels; with clay loaves and cakes and pies; with sacks of sand flour and green vegetables from the weed patch. The neighborhood children come to buy these necessities of life with coin of their own making, and he delivers the goods in his little red wagon. What is the value of this play to these children ? In their imitation of the grocer are they not entering into the experience of the grocer, the understanding and emotional signifi- cance of what the grocer means to the support of the community ? When the child with his tendency to dramatic play arrives with thirty or more other children in the kindergarten, how shall the kindergartner direct this activity of theirs so that they shall dance and sing and tell stories Department) THE DRAMATIC ARTS IN KINDERGARTEN 425 as a means of expressing thought and feeling? How, as Miss Caroline Crawford says, may they ** translate fact into value" ? The facts about a house may be four walls, a floor, a roof, three windows, and a door, but the value of that house, in terms of a home, these lovely lines from the " Cotter's Saturday Night" express: At length his lonely cot appears in view, Beneath the shelter of an aged tree; Th' expectant wee things, toddlin', stacher thro' To meet their dad, wi' flichterin noise an' glee. His wee bit ingle, blinkin bonnily, His clean hearthstane, his thriftie wifie's smile, The lisping infant prattling on his knee Do a' his weary, carking cares beguile. An' mak' him quite forget his labour an* his toil. The facts about a bird are a head, a body, two feet, and two wings, but the value of that bird is a free thing which darts across the blue like a shaft of light from morn till night — "Hail to thee, blithe spirit, Bird thou never wert." In order to help children in their dramatic play to express such feeling, we must be certain that we do not expect them to dramatize without definite images gained thru experience, thru contact with that which they seek to express. We must endeavor to enhance these images for them by observation of the real thing, by play with materials, by pictures, by tone of voice, by word if they lack vividness — in any, or sometimes all, of these ways. One morning in the fall a little boy appeared in my kindergarten with a radiant face and a closed fist. He told me to hold out my hand, which I did, and he dropt into it three fuzzy caterpillars. After this spectacular entrance the children's attention was focust upon the caterpillars. We put them in a wire basket with netting over it and twigs woven across, fed them with leaves and watcht them make cocoons. All thru the winter we wondered and waited, and when the first sign of life appeared in one of the dead gray things we watcht expectantly until a butterfly slowly emerged. We saw it stretch its wings until finally it lifted itself and fluttered gaily across our room. Our delight knew no bounds. We sang *'Roly, poly t caterpillar, wakened by and by, found himself a thing of beauty, changed into a butterfly! " with perfect understanding and real feeling. Then some of the children exprest the value of that symbol, the spirit of life, in its ethereal beauty of color and movement, as they too flitted to and fro like the butterfly. To force little children to carry thru the forms of a drama when the spirit is absent is to stifle the true art impulse at the very beginning. It is time for games. The teacher steps forward. " I have a new game for you today," she says. "Divide the circle here and here; now the 426 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten two sides may face and take partners; stamp your feet twice, clap your hands twice, and then skip." The children looking thoroly bewildered and embarrasst seek to carry out her injunction, but there is totally lacking any of the joy, spontaneity, or real fun which such a dance should suggest, did it come as the expression or the recall of a happy experience. When once the teacher is assured of the vivid imagery which results in actual dramatic expression, when the children have seen the fire engine every day, have made it clear with their blocks, or drawn it with their crayon, and then have burst into rhythmic tone and action as they themselves become fire engines, how may she help them to take the next step in art form ? To continue this particular illustration: the fire engine is running, running, running down the street without beginning or without end; to suggest starting somewhere (at the engine house) and running somewhere (to the fire) and stopping there, is to help the child throw this rhythmic activity into a very simple but true plot. In general, the teacher who desires to know how to lead a little child's crude expression into elemental but true art form must know the beginnings of the dramatic arts in the history of the folk, for the development of these arts in child life follows the development of these same arts in folk life. The teacher must find her guiding principles for construction in the folk-game, the folk-song, and the folk-story which set the standard for the true and the beautiful in art at this period of a child's development. These gan^, songs, and stories are, as Mr. Surette tells us in an article in the Atlantic Monthly^ straight from immediate contact with life in its elemental forms, and are filled with true pathos, joy, and martial spirit very different from many modern artificial products for children, packt as they are with adult sentiment concerning life. Often, however, the folk- game, with its present form and content, is built upon experiences that chil- dren today do not have, and there is need of adaptation or selection of new material with the old as a standard for quality. Some of our recent modern writers of children's drama are doing this beautifully. To change somewhat the last sentence in the chapter on play quoted before — to influence while effacing oneself, to guide while being one of the players, to have an adult's understanding of the needs of child-nature and the development of art, these are the essentials in supervision of dramatic play whether in kindergarten or the grades. In a group of kindergarten children where the dramatic arts are used in the way suggested, there results a development in creative imagination and in appreciation for the beautiful in nature and in life — on a little child's plane, of course, but a basis for higher forms. As a little kindergarten child said one day, "You ought to have been down to the lake last night. The sky was all pinky and the water too. Gee, but it was swell!" Or, as another kindergarten child questioned when looking at Raphael's " Madonna of the Chair," "Where was the mother when he painted her?" "She Department! CONTROL OF PRESCHOOL WELFARE AND EDUCATION 427 was nowhere," was the literal reply of the teacher, "he thought of her." " Couldn't he see her ? " *' No," said the teacher, " he had to imagine her." "Oh," continued the child with a big sigh of admiration, "he must have thought she looked pretty." There is also a growing power on the child's part to express every thought and feeling, his joyous emotions, fully and unconsciously thru the medium of the body. No one doubts the value of such power in influ- encing others as well as in fulfilling the ideal for the self-active, creative individual. Dramatic play, on the other hand, provides social situations which call for the finest cooperation, for courtesy, consideration of others, and fair play in the group. Think of the cooperation demanded in one performance of "Billy Goats Gruflf," the courtesy and consideration for others involved in supporting the other child as leading character when you ache to try the part yourself, the fair play constantly shown in "taking turns." These secure, not an external semblance of unity, but the inner bond of a common feeling and purpose. Watch a group of children when four of their number are dramatizing "The Three Bears." Every member is living that drama with the principal actors, as their tense bodies and expressive faces reveal. By such imaginative play a sympathetic under- standing, not only of those in the group, but also of all life and a sense of kinship with it develops, which enables the individual to adjust himself to others. The child who now is beast, or bird, or bee, again mother or doctor, sailor or grocer, is more at home in his world and more easily finds his place. Hence, as one educator points out, "A normal balance between the indi- vidual and society will result." It is evident that these values, including tas they do a rich development of the individual in relation to the social whole, are essential requirements of an education that is democratic. 1 THE KINDERGARTEN AS AN AGENCY FOR THE CONTROL OF PRESCHOOL WELFARE AND EDUCATION MARY A. GRUPE, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, ELLENSBURG, WASH. In the Pedagogical Seminary for March there appeared a stimulating article by Wm. L. Dealey, of Providence, R.L, in which he gives a summary of agencies at work for the physical welfare and the education of children of pre-school age. Very recently has come the announcement that the University of Iowa intends to establish a child-welfare station under the direction of Dr. Seashore, which will undertake investigations with regard to the proper development of the child of pre-school age and the education of parents concerning this matter. The unification of the kindergarten and the primary grades has occupied considerable attention and was handled at last year's meeting by Messrs. 428 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kindergarten Chambers and Meriam from the proper standpoint, i.e., that of the physical and mental growth of the child. The unity and continuity of home and school life is of as great, if not greater, importance. The latter will be harder to bring about because of the lack of expert control of the pre-school age. When education is based on principles of physiological growth and sound psychology of the child, the question of unification will not exist. May not the kindergarten for the present at least be the best agency for the control of the pre-school period? Mothers and even fathers are not yet weaned from their children. At this age children are still rather strange beings and not understood. Parents follow them to school now as they forget to do later, and even ask advice of the kindergartner. The freely exprest love of the child for his teacher at this period easily wins a place in the home for her. While the importance of the early life of the child has been recognized for years, we have not had until recently specific data, nor have we had organizations for the control of pre-school education. Care of the physical child has been scientifically developt, and valuable information has already been spread by means of dispensaries, nurseries, etc. Even health, however, seems to be an educational problem and should be handled thru educational agencies. Parents need to know that physical conditions from conception thru the early years make or unmake happiness and efficiency, perhaps for life. They do not yet generally realize that physical defects and lack of a healthful environment at home are back of much poor school work, delinquency, and failure to measure up to social standards in general. Suppose the kindergarten had among its corps an expert in child health who would not only examine the children entering the kindergarten, but also visit the homes in her community, examine the children there, and give instruction concerning them or those not yet born. Such work would not only make the school more effective, but would improve the health and efficiency of the community as a whole. Altho our psychological knowledge is not yet so definite as our medical, we have any amount in the hands of experts that ought to be made common knowledge among parents, and to that purpose the kindergarten health expert should also be a psychological and educational expert. The importance for later life of mental growth in the tender years has also been long recognized and has been taken advantage of by religious orders, who have long workt on the theory that children trained by them for the first five years would remain with them. We all know that habits of speech are set early, and tho later control may be comparatively easy under normal conditions, when under stress mistakes crop out, and they also appear again in senility. We do not so readily recognize that Democrats and Republicans, Methodists and Baptists, are often made before the age of three or four. I Department] CONTROL OF PRESCHOOL WELFARE AND EDUCATION 429 Opinions, superstitions, fears, sentiments, and attitudes which carry thru life are fixt now. If they are not in harmony with social standards, the individual is likely to lead a life of mental conflict. Much of the tumult of the adolescent period may be due to a prematuring of habits which cannot function later. The question of what habits should be early establisht and what in mental life should never become mechanized needs to be workt out for the parents. Thorndike's analysis of original nature, the need of perpetuating some of the tendencies and of bringing about associative shifting with others is all-important to understand, even from the first day of the child's life. Healey charges the home with the making of most delinquents thru repression of instincts, too many final "don'ts," too fast a piling up of inhibitions for the maturity of the child, too little opportunity for free expression of ideas and feelings to parents. The interpretations of Freud and Adler that attitudes and dispositions of later life are traceable to influences of early childhood simply emphasizes the foregoing. Attitudes of jealousy, submission, aggression, etc., Adler traces to some felt deficiency which often, results from defective organs and which might have been ''covered up" if the defects had been detected early and the proper environment supplied. He says that the attitude of an overbearing parent who makes the discrepancy between the child's strength and his own so apparent may emphasize the child's inferiority so that harm may result. He especially cites the case of the girl who wishes to become like her father, and because there is so little chance of such realization, nervousness or worse follows. Someone has reported an association test in which the word "poor" appeared an unusual number of times, and an analysis brought to light the fact that the subject had been taunted with his lack of ability and slowness during his early childhood. This rather sketchy account has been for the purpose of indicating that we are in possession of enough data to warrant the statement that the pre- school period is of immense importance and that the work of the school will be fruitless or at best re-educative instead of truly educative unless the previous period is scientifically managed. Re-education is possible, as Swift points out, but it is very expensive. Educational control of the pre-school period must come, and it seems to me that the kindergarten is the best agency that we now have for the starting of this work. The kindergarten could easily become the center for demonstrations, exhibits, pictures, and talks for parents along lines of health and mental development, and for work in the homes themselves. DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICAL ARTS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — William J. Bogan, principal, Lane Technical High School Chicago, 111. First Vice-President — Ellsworth Woodward, director of School of Art, Tulane University New Orleans, La. Second Vice-Presidenl— Isabel Bevier, professor of household science, University of Illinois Urbana, 111. Secretary — Anna H. Talbot, State Department of Education Albany, N.Y. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July ii, 1917 The meeting was called to order by the president in the First Methodist Church at ro:oo A.M. The secretary, Miss Talbot, being absent, Frank H. Shepherd was appointed secretary pro tem. The following program was presented: President Bogan spoke briefly on the past work of the department and on the outlook for the future. He emphasized the great importance of the work of the teacher of voca- tional and practical-art subjects at all times as a factor in developing eflficient citizens of a democracy. He placed particular stress on the demands of the nation at this time for a united effort on the part of all phases of educational activities to be directed toward the conservation of all our resources and the development of a more efficient school system. "Vocational Guidance a Distinct Function of the Public School" — ^Lester W. Bart- lett, vocational adviser, city schools, Pomona, Cal. "Training of Girls and Women for Trade and Industry" — Mrs. Mary Schenck Wool- man, manager. National Society for Promotion of Industrial Education, Boston, Mass. " Extension of the Field of Home Economics in the School Curriculum" — AUce Raven- hiU, formerly lecturer on hygiene. University of London, London, England. An interesting open discussion followed, and many members of the section gave testimony as to the demands for the extension of vocational education. President Bogan appointed Benjamin W. Johnson, Seattle, Wash., Arthur H. Chamberlain, Cali- fornia, and George Fred Buxton, Menomonie, Wis., as a Committee on Nominations to report at the session on Friday afternoon. SECOND SESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July 12, 191 7 The department met in joint session with the department of Science Instruction. The meeting was called to order in the First Methodist Church at 2:00 p.m., .. R. Alderman, superintendent of Schools, Portland, Ore., acting as chairman. The following program was presented: "Vocational Guidance — Problem of Organization and Administration" — Anna Y. Reed, Seattle, Wash. "The Training of Teachers for Vocational Schools" — Frank H. Shepherd, associate professor of industrial education, Oregon State Agricultural College, CorvaUis, Ore. A general discussion followed. 431 432 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL [Vocational THIRD SESSION— Friday Afternoon, July 13, 191 7. The meeting was called to order in the First Methodist Church at 2:00 p.m. by Arthur H. Chamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education. The following program was presented: "Industrializing the Manual Arts" — George H. Jensen, director, department of mechanic arts and Prevocational School, Stockton, Cal. "Practical Fine Arts — Emergency Art Courses for War-time Service" — Arthur Wesley Dow, professor of fine arts. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "The Relation of Art to Vocational Education and Manual Training" — Benjamin W. Johnson, director, department of manual and industrial education, Seattle, Wash. "The Betterment of Homes in Urban Communities thru Extension Work in Home Economics" — Mary F. Rausch, assistant professor of home economics. Extension Divi- sion, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash, After an enthusiastic discussion. President Bogan took the chair and called the active members into a business session. The Committee on Nominations submitted the following report: President — Frank H. Shepherd, associate professor of industrial education, Oregon State Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore. Firsi Vice-President — Arthur Wesley Dow, professor of fine arts, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Second Vice-President— Adelaide Steele Baylor, state supervisor of household arts, Indianapolis, Ind. Secretary — ^Lester W. Bartlett, vocational adviser, city schools, Pomona, Cal. The report of the committee was adopted by a unanimous vote, and, there being no further business, adjournment was taken until 19 18. Frank H. Shepherd, Secretary pro tern. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE A DISTINCT FUNCTION OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL LESTER W. BARTLETT, VOCATIONAL ADVISER, CITY SCHOOLS, POMONA, CAL. My experience as vocational adviser in the Pomona schools during the past three years has convinst me that school systems should assume the responsibility for the guidance of youth into their life-work. In the new purposeful and democratic system which will come from the renovation and reorganization of educational institutions and curricula vocational guidance will be the directive force. It will be vocational guidance in the broader aspect, one that concerns itself, not only with youth employment, but with the personal factors of the pupil; with all the elements that enter into the selection of a vocation, the preparation for it, and safe entrance upon it. It will be a guidance, not of a single interview only, but of one that will extend thruout the school career of the pupil and into his life-work. And it will give fair treatment to all the lines of activity from which the pupil may select his work, whether in the fields of commerce, agriculture, industry, or the professions. Such a guidance will satisfy the demands of the state that our schools prepare the young people to serve the state, to I I Department! VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL 433 advance its social interests, and to participate in its productivity. It will be democratic to the extent that it offers opportunity to all — those who do not enter the professions as well as those who do. It will be purposeful in so far as the pupil's selection of subjects leads to some definite end. To show that vocational guidance is a distinct function of any scheme of education it will be necessary to grant that vocational guidance is valuable as a social and economic necessity, and that education is preparation for a life of service rather than a life of leisure. When I speak of the inter- mediate school you will understand that it is also the junior high school. Can vocational guidance be handled best by the school or by some organ- ization apart from the school ? The first agencies that undertook guidance concerned themselves with the problem of employment and were not connected with the school system. This was true in England and Germany as well as in the United States. Before long, however, they cooperated with the schools and broadened their duties along the line of investigations and giving information to the youth. Several schools attempted guidance with markt success. The general trend is that schools are assuming the responsibility of guidance. A glance at the history of the innovations in education within recent years, such as playgrounds and clinics, shows that they, too, started as philanthropic movements under the auspices of some organization not connected with the schools, but as soon as their value was proved they were taken over by school authorities. We may argue by analogy, since the value of vocational guidance has been unquestionably approved, that the time is ripe for the schools to assume that too. In the first place, th-e schools have the better opportunity to become acquainted with the abilities, interests, and limitations of the pupils because of the long personal contact with them while under the stimuli of different lines of work. Secondly, it is easy to introduce vocational guidance into the school^, since funds are already provided, and no new organization is necessary. It becomes a department organized and conducted on the same basis as the other departments of the system. Thirdly, voca- tional guidance under the direction of the schools would probably be freer from selfish interests and commercialism. Teachers, as a rule, have no other interests to serve than those of the pupils. There is a danger of the two motives mentioned creeping into the transactions of bureaus whose boards of directors are composed largely of employers. There is a danger that the point of view will be too much that of the business and too little the welfare of the individual. The recent attempt of certain manufac- turers to repeal the child-labor law as a war necessity is an indication of the possible danger. Fourthly, the school system is better adapted to furnish the pupil with information about vocations from which he needs to make a wise selection for his life-work. While in school the pupils may be reacht easily and for long enough periods to enable them to grasp the 434 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Vocational chief characteristics of the vocations. Then, too, the schools are in a position to offer opportunity for experience and preparation in several of the vocations. Fifthly, it may be mentioned that generally the vocational- guidance department will be self-supporting. In California each high-school pupil is worth $70 per year to the school. I do not hesitate to speak from personal experience that thru efficient guidance a sufficient number of pupils will be saved in school to pay the salary of the adviser. Twenty saved for one year or five for four years would mean a saving of $1,400. We should not hesitate therefore to introduce vocational guidance. I have given five reasons why the schools could handle vocational guidance better than some outside organization. There is an objection, however, that teachers are not practical and are not familiar with the factors of the different vocations. There is some truth in the criticism; but it is equally true that people who are not teachers do not have this information. Yet I think that the men in the school faculties represent vocations widely, both in the subjects they teach and in their experience apart from the school. That so many, both in the school and out, do not know the factors of the different vocations is decided evidence that a survey of industries and occupations is necessary. Fortunately such surveys are being contemplated to meet the needs of the pupils. The Southern Section of the California Teachers' Association has one under consideration. The present trend toward the more practical in education will gradually reduce the strength of the criticism that teachers are imprac- tical. I wish to show now that the problems with which vocational guidance is concerned are also the problems of education, and necessitate that guidance be a function of the school. It concerns itself with: gathering information about the pupil — ^his interests, abilities, characteristics, and limitations; gathering information about the various vocations, arrang- ing this in a convenient form, and imparting it to the pupils; making out the courses of study for the pupils who are to enter the senior high school and the junior college; introduction of vocational courses in the high school and the junior college in which the pupils may receive specific preparation; organization of vocational stimuli, such as trips, speakers, vocational library, department assemblies, visual education; prevention of leakage from schools; employment and follow-up work among pupils and graduates. It is very evident without argument that these seven prob- lems are distinctly educational problems in an efficient school system. One can easily see, also, that they may be handled more satisfactorily by the schools than by outside organizations. Vocational guidance does not belong to any one department, but is equally interested in every depart- ment. There is a tendency to couple vocational guidance with the manual arts, and it often appears in that connection on programs. It is true that it bears a close relation to these subjects and insists upon them Department] VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL 435 as a part of the school curriculum, but the young people in selecting a vocation and preparing for it do not confine themselves to the manual arts. Guidance must be concerned with all the fields of activity whether agricul- tural, commerical, industrial, or professional. It is a phase of education apart from individual departments, and it should be so organized. Voca- tional guidance exists thru all the school years, but especially in the inter- mediate school just before the pupil reaches the work age or passes into the senior high school. This is the period when the pupil is most likely to go astray, to form wrong ideals and companionships, and to yield to the lure of the inviting world. If ever he needs the sympathetic outlook upon life's problems it is at this time. Another place where vocational guidance should be emphasized is in the Senior year when the pupil is again face to face with the situation of work or continuance. He is forst then to make more definite selection of his vocation and courses, if he has not done so before. There are vital questions which arise at this time which the pupil cannot answer alone. The gathering and recording of the information about the pupil are one largely in the elementary and intermediate schools; the imparting f the information occurs thruout all the years either in class work or by terview — in the Pomona schools this information is given in the class in ocational information and guidance in the ninth year, and again with the eniors in connection with civics and economics, compulsory for all pupils; e courses for the senior high school are made out in connection with the inth-year class already mentioned; the organization of vocational stimuli s a matter for all the years; and the problems of leakage and employment continue thruout the intermediate and senior high schools and the junior IBcoUege. I^K This brief outline of the scope and nature of the work is sufficient to I^Hmpress us with the necessity of a definite department of vocational guid- I^Kince to do the work with any degree of efficiency. The complexity of the I Wbrganization will depend on. the size of the school system. In sniall schools of about two hundred the principal may be responsible for the guidance, or he may delegate it to some one of his faculty. When the size of the city reaches ten thousand in population, a bureau of vocational guidance should j be establisht, consisting of an adviser given full time, the principals of the several intermediate and high schools, the truancy officer, the chairman of the employment committee, and the advisory committee. The employ- I ment committee will consist of members of the faculty, and the advisory committee of five or more representatives of vocations. The last com- mittee acts in an advisory capacity only, but it may be of distinct service in suggesting lines of activity and in bridging the gap between the schools and industry. The bureau just described is similar to the one which exists in the school system of Pomona. In larger systems the problems and function of vocational guidance are the same as in the smaller ones; the 436 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational work of the bureau is of the same nature also, but more complex because of the larger field of work. There would probably be a supervisor or director who would have under him advisers in the several schools. Each bureau would have an office centrally located where the records could be kept, the pupils could be interviewed, and the administration of the work could be done. The bureau should be organized on an efficient basis directly responsible to the superintendent. I wish to express my grati- fication for the rapidly increasing sentiment in favor of vocational guidance, and my confidence that the time is at hand when schools will assume definite responsibility for the guidance of the young people into their life- work. And I look forward to the time when schools in cities of ten thousand or more will organize vocational-guidance bureaus, and, in so doing, make education more practical and serviceable to the public. TRAINING OF GIRLS AND WOMEN FOR TRADE AND INDUSTRY MARY SCHENCK WOOLMAN, MANAGER, NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR PRO- MOTION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS. Women and girls are entering wage-earning pursuits in constantly increasing numbers, at present approximating ten million. Those who have been watching this growing army during the last two decades and who are considering the causes of it have little doubt of the permanency of women in industry. Important occupations require the skill and deft handling of women, for men have been unable to succeed as well. Women's clothing trades are rapidly increasing all over the country. Prior to 1890 there was little of the dress and waist manufacturing; since 1900 it has grown so rapidly that it has become one of New York's leading industries. Today there are more than three thousand establishments with a hundred thousand wage-earners and an annual output of about three hundred million dollars. Of the workers in these establishments 84 per cent are women. While New York is the center, other cities, such as Boston, Minneapolis, and Chicago, are rapidly following. In 19 14 Boston had eight thousand workers and twelve millions invested. As New York onlyi supplies large-quantity orders, retail stores in other cities are finding iti necessary to urge small shops in their localities to provide them with small ] lots of special garments. It was in this industry in New York that aj significant step was taken for women in industry. A protocol of peace was made, after long discussion, between employers and employes, byi which differences would be submitted to arbitration. There are, naturally, . difficulties to overcome, for human nature adjusts itself slowly to new points of view and workers overburdened with their hardships forget thatj Department] TRAINING OF WOMEN FOR TRADE AND INDUSTRY 437 capital also has its trials. The action is promising, however, for the improvement of conditions of women in industry. The youth of workers in the dress and waist industry indicates that training must be given early if it is to be of service, for one-half are below twenty years of age; one-quarter between twenty and twenty-five; and only one-quarter above twenty-five. A large number marry and leave wage-earning for a time. As tlie majority of young wage-earning men are untrained, they are often unable to support families adequately, and their children must work as soon as the compulsory school years are over. The wife, also, often returns to her trade. The latest report of the Industrial Commission asserts the economic need, in the big industrial cities, for the majority of the daughters and even wives of wage-earners to work. If girls of fourteen or fifteen are left untrained, the unskilled industries alone are open to them. To make compulsory laws keeping girls in school when the family income is below the possibility of adequate support to the family is a hardship unless courses of work can be given them which will directly help them to earn the money needed for maintaining a decent standard of living. This can be given in part-time courses while they are employed, or in all-day courses. To give them home-making courses, alone, as is constantly suggested, when years must pass before they are directly interested in marriage and home- making, is not only wasting valuable time, but is also taking from them the chance of being trained to immediately enter the better class of occupa- tions and is risking their moral and physical development. The time for home-making courses is not at fourteen years of age for the girl who must work for her own and her family's support. Such courses can and should come later, when she is older, as a part of continuation work or in evening classes. Every elementary and high school should have household-arts courses as a part of general education. The influence of the dull, unskilled task on the untrained girl worker is frequently pernicious. The blight of over-fatigue is especially unfortu- nate. The natural impulse of youth is to go to the extreme of excitement. To safeguard the country we must protect tliese girls and see to it that their lives as wage-earners are lived in as wholesome a way as possible. Train- ing of an adequate kind will not only enable them to rise to better positions with higher wages, but may be a distinct help to them as home-making women and citizens. It is deadening to the spirit of youth to feel that there is no chance to get ahead. At the present time, with the war upon us, women are entering occupations new to them and having often heavier tasks than they have been accustomed to. They are succeeding beyond all expectations. It is even more necessary than ever before to train them to do intelligently the work immediately before them. The follow-up systems in such schools as the Manhattan Trade School in New York and the Boston and Worcester Trade Schools show that the 438 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Vocational education of fourteen-year-old girls to wage-earning positions in worth- while trades has been successful, enabling them to enter, at a fair wage, the trades best suited to them, giving them instruction which will eventually help them to rise to better positions and salaries, and developing in them qualities needed in trade and of equal importance in the homes. They have become more earnest, helpful home-makers as daughters and finally as wives on account of the trade training and the use of academic teaching to develop industrial and civic interests. Many of these girls have risen to very responsible positions in trade or have entered the field of teaching vocations. The influence of the trained workers on the trades themselves has been commented upon by employers and by the trade unionists. In the gar- ment trades the tendency has been away from over-specialization in that the trained workers are depended upon to make an entire waist or gar- ment. New branches of trade have been more readily introduced, for the worker has not been afraid to try new tasks as her training enables her to swing more readily from one occupation to another than is possible for the untrained worker. So clearly have the many-sided advantages of vocational education been shown in the schools already opened that it would seem that girls who are not forst to work would be benefited by such early training. They would understand the valuation of a dollar. They could be of greater civic service before their marriage. If reverses came they would be pre- pared to meet them, and in middle life, when their families are grown, they could again enter the wage-earning or social-betterment fields as skilled workers and be a resource to the state. EXTENSION OF THE FIELD OF HOME ECONOMICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM ALICE RAVENHILL, FORMERLY LECTURER ON HYGIENE, UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, LONDON, ENGLAND Education is the lifelong process of human "adaptation to environment, thru self-development. Appropriate nurture, the development of char- acter, and skilled service are its objects; its methods are the fortification of health, both of body and mind; the cultivation of fine qualities, physical, mental, and moral; and the discovery and training of individual aptitude; so that the resources of the world may be intelligently utilized and conserved. The means to these ends should exist in the home, in all educational institu- tions, and in the control of the conditions of life. If economic use is to be made of human progressive possibilities, if individual efficiency and achievement are to be increast, more enlightened Department] HOME ECONOMICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM 439 thought and systematic training must be given within and without the home to the cultivation of body, intellect, and morals. The general level of skill can be raised only by checking needless dissipation of energy, mainly the result of the misconduct of the detail of life. Organized training is needful to secure concentrated, cooperative efforts in the development and con- servation of world resources, human or otherwise. Naturally, these methods of education must be initiated prior to the age usually associated even with prevocational training; they demand their consistent employ- ment from birth onward. They must be as conscientiously applied by parents as by teachers; tho the more specialized and technical handling of many subjects must always rest with the expert instructor. The steady growth of parent-teacher associations demonstrates that this ideal has started on the road to realization. I desire to emphasize the fact that education as here defined calls for trained parents and begins coincidently with pre-natal life, as emphatically I also maintain that schools must bear a more practical part than hitherto in the adaptation of their pupils to their environment and in developing a keener sense of obligation to social service. It is with these objects in view that I ask your attention to my suggestions for the extension of the field of home economics in the school curriculum. Our common object is to awaken in the impressionable minds under our direction a more vivid interest in the conditions under which they live; we aim that their curiosity to gain a general conception of physical laws and processes should culminate in direct and intelligent applications; we labor that they should perceive that man has progrest just in proportion as he has first discovered, then availed himself of, ethical and scientific facts. But to a large extent our desires remain imperfectly gratified. Interesting experiments, designed to attain these ends more rapidly, are now being carried on in certain schools in Great Britain. History is being taught in them as the record of the interplay of nations to build up the fabric of civilization. Stress is laid on the social and domestic customs of the different periods; while illustrative and stimulating connections are indicated with what are now recognized as associated geographical data and physical facts. Use is made of the resources of our museums and local evidences of the past, dating back even to the Stone and Bronze ages, to cultivate some sense of the perspective of man's life on this earth. Atten- tion is drawn to the motives which first knit together families and tribes as human beings. Thus a general review of the helps and hindrances to social evolution is in these schools superseding the older method of more intensive instruction of selected historical periods. Among other objects for these experiments is that of paving the way for improved industrial organization. It is realized that there must be definite instruction, because, as a rule, only the perilous half-truth is perceived which permits the dangerous translation of liberty into selfish license. Children must learn the whole truth that liberty carries with it weighty 440 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational obligations, among which are the duty of service and of training for effi- ciency. As a recent writer on "Industrial Training" aptly says: A man's vocation is not merely his means of earning a livelihood; but it is his most efiEective way of rendering to society the life-service that all men owe to their kind. As a means of acquiring great wealth the professions of physician, clergyman, and teacher are acknowledged a failure; but their significance lies in the fact that they offer to men opportunities of rendering service to their fellows of the noblest order. Never again must the trade of the machinist, the electrician, or the carpenter be regarded solely as a means by which wages are to be obtained; they shovJd be considered as modes of serving the best interests of the community. Since vocational education is responsible for the inculcation of other facts than the benefit of training as effective producers, young people must also study the duty and responsibility to the world of maintaining a high standard of health. This thought of the duty of physical fitness as an important element in vocational training lies behind the English custom, in all vocational and trade schools, which has always required that a third or a fourth of the hours per day or per week shall be given to physical education and to the practice of the domestic arts. For, seeing that the object of training is to make work more economical and productive, if a worker damages himself in the process, his service is to that degree damaged. A mass of invaluable evidence on the connection between the health and habits of the worker and his worth to the world as a producer are now being collected in Great Britain. Interim reports show the frequent dis- inclination of workers to profit by the opportunities provided for their benefit. Injurious habits or ignorant standards fortify opposition or militate against anticipated response. The conception is still unfamiliar that a worker owes it to his employer to be in vigorous health; the idea that a deficit of productive energy in any form of occupation reacts disastrously on the world is often of startling novelty; to press home the doctrine that no individual is free to undermine his efficiency by his mode of life outside working hours savors to the majority of an infringement of liberty. This stumbling-block to progress must be removed by growing a higher conception of liberty and of communal duty; and, when suitably adapted, home economics offers the medium required to cultivate this attitude toward life. It appeals to the interests of young people; utilizes their experience; offers immediate opportunity for the application of knowledge; links learning with life; has its interest enhanst by association with history, geography, civics, elementary science, and art; and has for its objects those motives which we desire to keep ever before our pupils — ^a high standard of well-being; the benefits which follow efficient training; and the duty and joy of service. To gain these ends was the object of my best efforts in Great Britain; and I advocated the advantages of prolonging the school course of nature- study to include not only a brief review of man's place in nature and of his i Department) HOME ECONOMICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM 441 subordination to the physical laws which govern all life, but also of the power associated with his mental status to control conditions to his own advancement. The activities of human life can be demonstrated as groupt into two large classes, one of which is concerned with care for self (food, shelter, and environment), the second, with care for others (the young, the helpless, relatives, neighbors, and fellow countrymen). The introductory matter of such a course may well be identical for boys and girls, but, as the course proceeds, divergence becomes desirable in view of the varied functions of man and woman. Among the claims of the whole subject is that more than any other subject in the educational program it links school precept with home prac- tice. To utilize it, however, for this purpose, two readjustments in con- ventional usage are necessary. Boys must no longer be debarred from their share in training for home duties, or as factors in parental obligations, as agents in industrial efficiency and civic service. Neither can the subject be isolated from the rest of the school program and too often confined to a proportion only of the girls, and then for a relatively short period of school life. That both these readjustments can be made and that the ends can be gained is demonstrated by the practical experience of twelve or fourteen years in two or three districts in Great Britain. As long ago as 1902 the principal of a large city school in England organized practical weekly lessons in health and home management in every grade, given by the class teachers, under her supervision. She is now inspector (supervisor) of home-management classes over a large area; the movement is active in hundreds of schools in England and, in response to urgent requests, its subject-matter has been for a long time past adapted also for the special needs of hoys, under the title of "Lessons in Personal Health and Helpfulness in the Home." Thirty- to forty-minute lessons are given to boys each week, just as they are to girls, sometimes in mixed classes, sometimes to boys and girls apart, in which case the boys' lessons are given usually by a male teacher, in order that they may be tinged with a man's tone and touch. Everywhere the boys evince just as great an interest as do the girls. Miss Helena Hitching is now engaged in the preparation of a manual especially for the use of boys; she contends that the main secret of success lies with the teacher. Miss Hitching is convinst that this training for home duties must begin early and must be as prolonged as possible in order that it may form habits and raise standards. She lays great stress too upon visualizing the teaching to the children at all ages; each lesson must be associated with a practical demonstration. All the necessary material is brought by the children; tooth and nail brushes, soap and towels for the simple instruction on personal cleanliness given to the youngest pupils; blacking, brushes, and polishing cloths when the care of clothing in relation to cleanliness is under discus- sion; a little milk, an egg or two, a piece of bread, when preparation and 442 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational service of food is the subject-matter; a card or light wooden box, some muslin and nails, when furnishing a girl's room is the topic, and so on. It is wonderful what the teachers do with the aid of an alcohol or oil lamp to show good methods of making tea or the effect of heat upon meat or an egg. The effect of different homemade polishes on specimens of wood; the correct method of dressing a bad cut; why potatoes are cooked before they are eaten, are among these demonstrations. Year by year eager children have a happy, weekly half-hour of observation tested afterward by home practice with loving, helpful service always as the motive. "More than ever I am convinst that home management must be taught by the ordinary teachers as part of the curriculum," wrote Miss Hitching in a letter received a few weeks ago. "The great thing is to get the teachers themselves interested and the school trustees." "I wish," she continues, "you could have seen the look of pleasure on the lads' faces at a 'mixed' school last week, who were being shown how to wash a shirt; because a former schoolboy had written from the trenches to say how thank- ful he was for this teaching; he was able 'to give ever so many wrinkles to his comrades.'" The appended outline has been prepared for the lessons given to boys, who do a great deal of manual work in connection therewith. They make knife boxes, window boxes, bookshelves, stools, etc. They learn how to put new washers onto faucets, how to put up window shades, how to mend a broken blind cord, etc. Miss Hitching holds meetings for teachers over a large area, where she gives her suggestions on these and many other points. All her scheme is based upon the dignity and impor- tance of the home and its management. For the boys the lessons include "Courtesy to women and girls," "How a handy boy may prepare his own breakfast, dinner, and tea, when mother is ill or away," "How boys may help with spring cleaning," "What a boy may do for his sick mother," "How to make a homemade bed-table, medicine chest, and first-aid case," "The refining influence of a well-kept garden and of tasteful window boxes." Practical lessons on simple ailments are given and some knowledge of the cause and treatment of adenoids, mumps, measles, etc.; incidentally instruction is given on the home care of sufferers from consumption. A woman teacher gives the elder lads three lessons on how to put on buttons and how to darn socks. Great stress is also laid before these boys on the duty of right employment of the years of adolescence, and this leads up to the industrial and civic duties of the inmates of the homes of a nation. The course for girls culminates in simple lessons on infant management, and toward the close of a course one of the mothers is invited to bring her baby in order that the girls may compare their doll practice with actual needs and required delicacy of the handling of the living infant. Experience demonstrates that this course does not interfere with the conventional instruction in the domestic arts; rather it stimulates the Department) VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 443 zeal of the girls for these chances of more intensive instruction and of more extended practice. It is impossible for me to enumerate more than very briefly the claims for more general recognition and adoption of these exten- sions of the field of home economics. To associate teachers with an intimate knowledge of life's difficulties, as seen by their pupils, as well as with its highest ambitions, strengthens their good influence. It assigns to the functions and duties of the body and of family life an honorable position in the curriculum, on a level with other studies held to be important to "getting on in life." It emphasizes the fact that these same duties and functions have equal claims upon a careful study by both boys and girls. This fact also affords the useful opportunity to stress the vocational aspects of housewifery and the dependence of success in any position outside the home upon the efficient performance of daily duties within the home. Custom has too long permitted the application of the term "vocation" to all other occupations but that most exacting one of household management. This method of teaching the duties of family life and the crafts of the housekeeper serves also to set both boys and girls in their correct relation to the outside world, social, industrial, civic, and national, of which their home is a unit. It indicates the influence on many of the conduct of the few. It traces for these immature minds connections their inexperience is too restricted to suggest. It trains in good-natured cooperation for a common advantage. It leads the young citizens on from the homely duties with which they are familiar to the worth of the faithful performance of these duties as a factor in progressive and prosperous industrial and civic life. It stresses the obligation of such civic duties and emphasizes the ethical fact that it is by faithfulness in little things that the great achieve- ments of noble and successful lives become possible. Finally it trains boys and girls to the thought that it is by cooperation in the home, by a fair division of its labor, by a sharing of its responsibilities, by the exercise of mutual sympathy and assistance that they become fitted for that highest of all vocations — the parental, which, as Bacon quaintly said, must be laudably fulfilled " to the glory of God and the relief of man's estate." I VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE— PROBLEMS OF ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION ANNA Y. REED, PH.D., SEATTLE, WASH. The vocational-guidance movement was not started by the public schools, nor have they done very much to foster its growth or to test its practical application, and it is still an open question whether the schools are going to be both able and willing to respond efficiently to this new demand in education. 444 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational The passage of the Smith-Hughes bill indicates public interest in, and willingness to be taxt for, vocational education and also emphasizes the belief that such education must be offered only by duly qualified teachers. Will our conception of vocational guidance demand careful, scientific research as the basis for deciding what types of vocational education are best adapted to community needs, or will it be that all too prevalent type of guidance which is nothing more nor less than free employment? Is vocational guidance to be the Alpha or the Omega of vocational education ? In either case, is it going to be incorporated in the public-school system, or is it going to remain largely under the control of other agencies ? My experience in vocational-guidance-department work is based on three years of personal research followed by the fourth and present year which has been devoted to studying the various conceptions of vocational guidance which prevail in twenty-four other cities. I found the free-employment conception of vocational guidance so common that it has influenst me to feel that it would be helpful for those who are especially interested in this field to take a little inventory of our assets and our liabilities. From educational reports and replies to questionnaires I infer that about thirty cities claim vocational-guidance departments. I found only about a half-dozen where a good foundation for genuine vocational guid- ance had been laid. The trouble is that there is no uniform standard by which to decide what systems have vocational guidance. Moreover, most of our information comes from correspondence or from the printed page. Some of our superintendents write like angels, others are unfortunate enough to be in the "poor poll" class. Quite frequently poor poll is richer in actual accomplishments than is his more fluent and more imaginative brother. Glowing descriptions came to me often during my three years of local service when I was entirely dependent upon this class of information. Too often the conclusions drawn from such information did not check with the first-hand information secured during my visits. Four agencies are responsible for the different systems of vocational guidance in vogue in the country altho in some cities a sort of partnership has been formed between two or more of these agencies: (i) commercial organizations, (2) social and philanthropic organizations including women's clubs and college clubs, (3) private individuals, and (4) public-school systems. Commercial organizations furnish the best business background and make the connection between schoolroom education and business life more real. They afford an opportunity for boys to meet different types of men and, thru personal observation, to form some conception of the local occupational field and the type of man who represents each occupation. They demand high-class directors and are willing to pay for the rare type of man who combines efficiency in business and education with ability in vocational research and vocational guidance. Business men take pride Department! VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 445 in the success of their undertakings and are more likely to contribute time and advice voluntarily and to open the avenues thru which vocational information is secured than would be the case were the vocational depart- ment under other auspices. Junior chambers of commerce are quite com- mon in connection with such organizations and are of value for guidance. Another advantage of commercial organizations is that their policy is likely to be more stable than that of any other agency. One disadvantage of the commercial organizations is that their housing arrangements have been made with reference to the convenience of adults, and the passing in and out of school pupils is more or less of an annoyance; also there is the tendency of a certain portion of the pubKc to feel that any guidance offered in connection with business organizations means guidance in the interest of capital. There is also a third disadvan- tage which appeals strongly to those who realize that educational guidance and vocational guidance cannot be separated and that the foundation for vocational guidance must be laid in educational guidance. Commercial organizations emphasize vocational elements and as a rule do not welcome the youthful job hunter who is still in the grammar school; they appeal to, and are equipt for, high-school boys. Unless the public schools work in very close co-operation and use the research material for the school cur- riculum the very pupil who needs help the most gets the least. The disadvantages of social and philanthropic organizations far out- weigh their advantages. Lack of funds for properly financing, too much untrained volunteer service, and too great uncertainty as to per- manency of the work are the sources of most of the disadvantages. Large sums donated by individuals are being used in various vocational- guidance experiments. In many cases, because trained students are not available, the funds are wasted. Under certain conditions there are great advantages in the use of strictly private funds, but first-class directors usually prefer to work under other auspices. The three great advantages of organization under the public-school system are: The incorporation of a vocational-guidance department in the educational system is a public recognition that such guidance is a legitimate function of education. The public schools are not criticized for favoring either capital or labor, for they must act in accordance with the best interests of youth. The influence of a wide-awake vocational department is decidedly beneficial to the teaching corps. The serious disadvantages of organization imder the public schools are all traceable to one fact — the character of public education contrasted with the char- acter of business life. Whenever a vocational-guidance department has been organized in connection with the public schools we have the forces of tradition and conservatism hned up in opposition to the forces of progress. Education, which is based on tradition, follows conserva- tively and at a safe distance. It almost never leads. It reorganizes the 446 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational content and method of its curriculum, not by leadership from within the system, but after other agencies have demonstrated beyond a doubt that its methods and material are antiquated. On the other hand, business and labor organizations are progressive. Both study their problems from within and both anticipate change. The vocational director must under- stand both viewpoints altho he cannot often hope to please all factions. The introduction of this new element takes the teacher from her tradi- tional position of unchallenged authority and forces her to establish and maintain a new relationship to the various points of contact which are thereby brought within the educational horizon. The "what and how" of education has received its first serious challenge! Other agencies are also experimenting with this same "what and how" and they are fast learning to test the validity of our choice by the results of their own. Rough knocks, rude awakenings, and much re-adjustment are bound to follow in the wake of this new movement. Some educators, I dare not say most or even many, welcome the change and are ready to fight for a newer and higher educational position. Others cannot see the vision and are engaged in their death struggle to preserve the status quo ante. There is always a certain element in every teaching corps which will be opposed to the introduction and centralization of vocational guidance. The reasons are many, are likely to be personal, and must be considered, but they should not be allowed to stand in the way of educational progress. Opposition of this minority element is found in every city and is the first stumbling-block for superintendents. The second is their tendency, in season and out of season, to rely on the Fabian policy. Pedagogical work- ers seem to have entirely forgotten that this form of tactics originated in weakness, and that its very use was an admission of inability to control the situation in a better way. This ever-present policy of the school- master is very galling to the wide-awake business man who thinks and acts quickly in his own business. He does not, it is true, always realize that public education is not a private business, and that time must some- times be taken for consultation and advice, but he does realize that procrastination beyond the point of obviousness is inexcusable and unneces- sary, and he blames vocational directors for delays which they cannot always control. Business men, several members of boards of education, and two city superintendents have, in conversing on this subject, called my attention to an article appearing in one of our weekly periodicals last October, "The Man Who Tried to Be It." This article, they all agreed, should be help- ful to city superintendents who are finding it hard to delegate authority. The fact that superintendents cannot or will not delegate authority is the real reason why in all lines able men prefer to work with business houses. Of course no superintendent can be held responsible for present conditions in this respect, unless back of him he has a board which permits I I I Department) VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 447 perfect freedom in the appointment of experts and equal freedom in the discharge of failures. No matter what agency is responsible for the support and supervision, a director stands at the head, reporting to the supporting organization or to the superintendent of schools. Directors, co-ordinate with superintend- ents and reporting to boards of education, are not favored, altho I found one such department. It is useless to explain that any vocational director who works under the supervision of an assistant superintendent acknowl- edges his incompetency by so doing, and that any board or superintendent assigning him to such supervision acknowledges thereby its lack of under- standing of the functions of vocational guidance and the difficulties and dangers of too many supervisory agents acting as a go-between when the cooperation and respect of business houses are sought. There are a few cities where such a system prevails, but it is usually where vocational guid- ance means free employment. Occasionally a vocational department does nothing but guidance. This is the case under commercial or private organizations, but never the case under the school system. In nearly every public-school department I found the attendance office in combination with vocational guidance. In some cases the school census was included; and in one case the assistant vocational director was supervisor of evening schools. Combination of vocational guidance and attendance is universally popular. It is the logical outgrowth of the changed conception of the duties and methods of attendance officers and the close relation which exists between school elimination and occupational life. I found but one city in the twenty-four where the old police type of attendance officer is still in use. If the change was made prior to the introduction of vocational guidance the new officer usually included vocational guidance of his own volition. If the change came as a result of vocational research the depart- ment was usually incorporated with the vocational department. Thus far we have assumed that vocational departments are all central- ized, i.e., one department for the system, and research, advisory, or place- ment work carried on under its direction and supervision. There is another system of vocational guidance of the free-employment type which is very common among high schools. Each high school, independent of all others, seeks business opportunities for its pupils. This is usually done thru teachers or girls' and boys' advisers. Of all the forms of vocational guid- ance investigated this is the most pernicious. The business man has nothing but contempt for the inexperienst, uninformed, or, worse still, misinformed, pedagogical workers who frequent his office, wasting his time to no better purpose than to betray their own ignorance and discredit the system which he is taxt to support. If annoyance to the business man were all, we might condone it, but I know of no better opportunity to commit crimes against childhood in the name of education than this 448 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational same random system of advisory work. It is impossible for teachers who do this type of placement to know anything about occupational guidance, impossible to teach all day and keep up with the industrial world. Some of you have doubtless had the same opportunity as I to know how the business world rates teachers who run about from house to house soliciting positions, asking all kinds of absurd and personal questions and expressing their opinions freely" on business management and policy. In nearly every city visited I heard remarks of this class, "some days these pedagogs fill up my office until I wonder who's left to do their work." I attempted at one time to explain why a certain house had askt me to see that all placement was negotiated thru the central office, only to be told that Mr. Blank was always courteous and pleasant. Of course he was. He was paid $10,000 for being so. If business houses are going to give us their assistance they have a perfect right to expect us to centralize our negotiations. Right here, lest I seem to be seeing but one side of this problem, I want to say that it is not one bit worse for classroom teachers to be doing this sort of thing than it is for vocational departments to be permitting assist- ants to go into individual high schools, or individual homes, and presume to advise pupils what course to take, or what subjects to drop and when. Observations and research have led me to the following conclusions: There is a chaotic conception as to what constitutes vocational guid- ance and even greater chaos in practice. The public-school system is the logical agency for conducting vocational guidance. We must have carefully organized departments under the direc- tion of competent directors to whom it will be safe to delegate authority and who will be able to win and hold the confidence of the public. We now lack competent directors and stability of policy in our school admin- istration. A number of very able men have declared that no good direc- tor would be willing to accept a school position unless he could make a five-year contract. The best form of organization seems to be a combination of school attendance, vocational guidance, and census, under one director respon- sible to the superintendent. The functions of most of the school departments are largely free employ- ment; there is not enough high-class vocational research, not enough vocational information for classroom use, not enough emphasis placed on character development, and not enough individual guidance. Our own department in Seattle was not an organized department, but comprised vocational and pedagogical research as the basis of vocational guidance and as a means of ascertaining what form of organization and adminis- tration was best adapted to Seattle needs. The conclusions reacht at that time do not differ materially from those presented. Now, national study has served to emphasize local conclusions. Department) TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 449 Altho our department has failed of realization I do not feel disappointed in the results of the research for, as the President of the Board well said, it has indicated what can be done and has set a standard below which the Seattle public will never be willing to go. The passage of the Smith-Hughes bill forces each state to decide whether it will use state and national funds to institute a type of vocational education which is self -analyzing and capable of growth from within, or whether we shall merely organize a new type of public school. Shall vocational guidance be the Alpha or the Omega of vocational education? THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS {A hstract of A ddress) FRANK H. SHEPHERD, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, OREGON STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CORVALLIS, OREGON A vocational teacher must be trained to teach before he can be con- sidered eligible. The claim that any person attempting to teach a vocation should have special aptitude and skill for that vocation is in no way a denial of the necessary preparation for teaching. We should be able to show that each is the complement of the other. There is some confusion of these two requirements. This confusion seems to revolve around the meaning of the word education. Why should the way be made difficult to many by disputes between education and training? The two words, by actual usage and general acceptance, are synonymous. The aim of education or training is to reorganize and enrich the mental life of the individual so that he can make such responses as will fit him for his environment and secure life, satisfaction, and efficiency. The individual who makes a study of the basic principles of carpentry, forge work, or printing may as truly apply the principles of education and make his work as generally cultural as he who devotes years to the study of philosophy, ethics, Latin, or Greek. So let the two fraternize, discover the harmonies of their aims, and together open and guard the way to universal education. There is very Httle opposition to the demand for a more elastic curriculum in our schools. From different members of the body, pohtic or social, comes the cry for a universal education. Tho our clashing aims have been harmonized in theory, we have not obtained complete harmony in practice when we consider qualifications of teachers for vocational schools. On the one hand we have the statement that the vocational skill is the important factor, and on the other that teaching is the major consideration. Therefore we ask the question. How shall those who teach be trained ? 450 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational Can vocations be taught only by practical men ? Or must vocations be taught only by those persons trained to teach ? Can we show each claimant that he needs the aid of the other to support his own efforts ? The theorist is easily confuted by the fact that a person cannot teach what he does not know. He who would teach a trade must know his trade. What has the practical man to learn? The history of the world, sacred and profane, is filled with examples of those who have been crucified, in spirit or in fact, by practical men. The practical educators of the days of Pestalozzi, Rousseau, and Froebel are dead and forgotten, but today thousands of the impractical, "theoretical school teachers of the United States are working along the lines suggested by these men of visions to make education universal. Every day of a child's life should be a part of his training for his vocation, not merely in the sense of learning the details or technic of some special trade or occupation, but in the broad sense of fitting him to be, in later life, a master-mechanic, fitted to take his place in a world-wide democracy as a peer of any other man. The boy of fourteen who produced 153 bushels of corn on an acre won the championship in his state and taught the practical men of his neighborhood, including his father, how to produce a large yield of corn. It is something beyond the merely concrete, the tangible, the rule of thumb, that inspires progress. Scholarship and method are the two things necessary in the training of the teacher. Scholarship, the reserve force of the successful teacher, may be acquired by experience, by conversation, or by reading. It is self- evident that it should be acquired thru a judicious blending of all three. Every educational agency, the home, the church, the school, and the state, should be levied upon for its contribution to this fund of scholarship. Of all these agencies the state has by far the most extensive and most exclusive interest in the efficiency of the individuals or members of its body, and hence before it can make its contribution serve most efficiently it must have direct supervision and general control over all schools. The passage of the Smith- Hughes bill is a great leap toward the much-desired goal of vocational efficiency, and is perhaps the immediate cause of the present nation-wide interest in the training of teachers for our vocational schools. In the evolution of society, scholarship became the dominating factor in the equipment for teaching; but it was soon demonstrated that not all scholars were successful teachers. It seemed, perhaps, that all scholars were possest of equal knowledge, technic, or skill, but in some cases the scholar failed to function as a teacher. After years of thought, study, and obser- vation, that which distinguisht the teacher from the mere scholar became known as the skill, the technic, the special scholarship of the successful teacher and was past on to posterity as Method in teaching. This method in teaching may be learned by experience just as is the technic or skill necessary in any other vocation, but it usually takes years of time and perhaps makes a bungler or third-rate craftsman out of material I I I Department! TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 451 that should become, if properly trained, a master-mechanic. It should be acquired the same as other forms of scholarship, by experience, by con- versations, and by reading. Those who proclaim that a vocation can be taught only by a practical man, or a man who has had practical experience in that vocation, should, as citizens of a democracy, be fair enough to apply the same truth to the other fellow. They should know that teaching is a trade, occupation, calling, or profession fully as old as that of brick-laying and far older than machine-shop work, and, if practical experience is an essential to the successful imparting of vocational knowledge to other indi- viduals, so is practical teaching experience an essential to successful teaching. The time has come in the evolution of society when we are ready for universal education. The day has past when a pair of shoes is made by a shoemaker. No longer is the apprentice taken into the home and shop of his indentured master to learn the trade in all its details. The entre- preneur is seldom found in this age of specialization, and the general manager of one of our great manufacturing plants must have highly special- ized workmen if he may run the plant at a profit. In establishing a national system of education to insure to the nation an efficient citizenship, the spirit, purpose, and aims of education must direct the details of the process. Specialists must be prepared to take their places in carrying the plans to fulfilment. Where shall these speciahsts be obtained ? Can teachers for vocational schools be trained in the shops as they are managed today? When it is known that in a great printing-plant, for instance, a pressman attends only to the press and its work, and that in a shoe factory a man who has workt at his trade for seventeen years knows only how to cut vamps and counters, it may well be inferred that very few of the men who are working in shops under actual trade conditions are trained in the vocation represented. In a certain city a practical man is employed and holds a certificate to teach cabinetmaking. He has workt in a great manufacturing plant for the past fifteen years, but in that time he has workt in the wood-turning shop. He has never workt for as much as fifteen minutes in the cabinetmaking shop in his life, and furthermore he has never had any training or experience as a teacher of anything. When the problem of training teachers for vocational schools is seen from these different viewpoints, it dawns upon the individual who thinks along this line that the question of preparing teachers for vocational schools, teachers who can teach young men in such a way that they may be efficient workmen and worthy citizens of a great republic, is a problem that deserves the united effort of all members of the body politic to find and carry out the solution. What shall be the requirements for teaching in a vocational school? For a specific illustration, follow this development of a boy from youth to manhood as he was prepared to teach the vocation of printing. 452 . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational The boy attended public schools, and on entering the junior high school followed the regular course which offered different types of industrial work, such as shop drawing, bench work in wood, forge work, and printing. He was given this work in connection with the regular academic subjects thru the three years of the junior high school, carrying one of the subjects mentioned for one-half of the year, one hour and a half each day or seven and one-half hours each week. He entered the senior high school at the age of fifteen, and, having shown exceptional ability and being interested in printing, he elected the industrial course and made printing his major subject. This course was arranged with special reference to printing, that is, with such subjects as English, art, design, composition, and related subjects. Thru the years of the junior high school he had been delivering papers for the daily publisht in his home town and thru vacations and all possible time thru the school year he did piecework in the jobroom of the same daily. At the age of eighteen he determined to continue in school, and entered a university. On account of his past experiences and his inter- est in printing he registered as an industrial-arts pupil. In addition to the required subjects in this course he elected such subjects as his advisor thought would balance his work in printing, as English, art, design, history, economics, and related subjects. He had an interest in all work connected with printing, and on account of this interest was chosen to a minor place on the staff of the university paper in his Junior year. In his Senior year he was elected as business manager of the daily paper publisht by the student body of the university. Thru his Junior and Senior years he workt as a student laborer in the printing-plant of the university, where all the pub- lications for the school of agriculture, the experiment stations, and other university publications were printed and bound. During his vacations he continued his work with the home daily and became local reporter for one of the metropolitan papers. After graduation from the university he taught printing for two years in a small city high school and was then elected as teacher of printing in a vocational school. If this illustration may be taken as an example of a desirable preparation to teach a vocation, the essential elements of preparation may be determined by analysis. Test first for scholarship, both particular and general. His special scholarship in printing, the trade he is to teach, is assured by his instinctive but well-considered choice of printing as a trade, his long period of instruction and apprenticeship thru the secondary school, his work as a tradesman under actual shop conditions, and his study and practice of such related subjects as would offer special opportunity and attraction for the widest development and application of his chosen art. And, finally, he has no doubt learned much from the mistakes of others, in the way of refining his skill, in his work as a tradesman and in his two years' teach- ing experience. He can do well this special work that he is to teach to others. Department! TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 453 His general scholarship is assured by the general fundamental education received in his early training in the public schools, his special training in the use and practice of the English language thruout his high-school and univer- sity years, and the extension of his interests to art, literature, journalism, and probably widely different subjects incidental to his schooling. He has an accurate estimate of the value of his trade to the world, of its relation to other occupations and to the life of the people, and therefore can estimate its educational value to the persons who are his pupils. He has the invaluable inside view secured by actual contact and experience with the trade in commercial operation, and the equally invaluable outside view developt by his study of educational principles and history, and the subsequent considera- tion of his trade as a factor in education. To summarize, his own education or training has been broad enough and yet has been specialized enough to develop in him broad views of life and accurate knowledge of the special elements which make up an education for life. Now at the same time he has acquired method — that second indispens- able requirement of the well-equipt teacher. He has been well taught by instruction, by reading, and by experience, so that he has acquired correct methods of work. But in addition he has studied the art of teaching and especially the teaching of his special trade. He has studied the child to find out how and why he learns, in addition to studying his trade to find out what there is to learn. He has prepared himself for the vocation of teaching, in addition to the vocation of printing, and knows that to be educational his printing-trade must be, not merely a mechanic art, but a vitalized and inspirational interest. He has learned by instruction and experience that to educate a human being he must inspire him to think and to do, and he is prepared to make his chosen trade function as a factor in education. He is a successful vocational teacher. The vocational teacher must have skill plus teaching ability — education plus the power to inspire educational activity. He shall not be eligible to teach until he shall have had preparation in the trade in teaching. He shall not be eligible to teach a trade until he shall have acquired skill in that trade. Vocational teaching must be no contradiction of terms. Universal education must be no paradox. Vocational education is only an attempt on the part of the teacher to have done in the right way things that have to be done in one way or another. It is to be desired that in the administra- tion and supervision of our national school system the administrators may be big and broad enough to realize that a teacher in a vocational school must have a conception of the vocation greater than the purely materiahstic; that teachers in our vocational schools while aiming to teach the vocation may aim also to develop men competent to grapple with the civic and social problems that must be met in the development of an efficient national Ufe, 454 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational INDUSTRIALIZING THE MANUAL ARTS GEO. HENRY JENSEN, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANIC ARTS AND PREVOCATIONAL SCHOOL, STOCKTON, CAL. It is not my purpose to prove to you that manual training must go "by the boards" to make room for vocational education; indeed there must be more added to our earher conception and content of manual training. A newer conception must vitalize the work and give the hoys along with their manual training the elements of practical training for industrial pursuits. The work at first consisted of isolated exercises, or the working drawings were prepared by the instructor. A little later we conceived the idea that students should not work on isolated exercises, but should always be making something which had a practical value and use. This still included working drawings carefully prepared by the instructor in blueprint form, and little by little leaders in manual training adopted the idea of having each boy prepare his own working drawings. Not only does the boy secure better technic from this procedure, but it has made it possible to get individual work and vary the details in a class where all are making out the same projects, by suggesting elements of design and variation, which helps to develop initiative and lay the foundation for industrializing the work. Study of construction and standard technic has been an ideal from the very inception of manual training. The development of the bench projects with isolated exercises, emphasizing technic and construction, was without practical application until late in the course. These have experienst the same changes from time to time which have characterized the develop- ment in the teaching of mechanical drawing. Fundamental tool processes were analyzed and from the very beginning made a part of the course of study, consisting largely of exercises, but later of live projects which made the work more interesting. As a result of the Russian and Swedish practices, methodical doing has been one of the distinguishing earmarks of manual training from the time we first began to work. In spite of the fact that we must indus- trialize our manual training, we shall never realize our ideal unless we keep strictly in mind that methodical doing must always be a vital considera- tion, and I wish to state that in my estimation types of construction must have as much right of way in the course of study as a sequence of tool processes. Having acknowledged the earlier ideals and practices of manual train- ing, we must now give to this work a new vitalizing conception which will include the elements that give the foundation for practical training in industrial pursuits. This means that our work must be planned. Students and authorities from the vocational and industrial educational departments are unanimous in their plea for more time. One of the most authoritative statements in this connection is that reported by the special Department! INDUSTRIALIZING THE MANUAL ARTS 455 committee of the Eastern Arts Association at their Springfield meeting a httle over a year ago. It said in part: The time allotted to the manual arts in Grades i to 5 should not be less than 15 per cent of the entire school time .... to accomplish this purpose our subject-matter must be reorganized and industrialized so as to give a wide variety of experiences that reflect the vast industrial and social life of our country. It is this plan that this Asso- ciation presents as a justification for its demand for at least 20 per cent of the school time for the manual-arts subjects in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Mr. James W. Van Cleave, formerly president of the National Associa- tion of Manufacturers, says, "Attach a manual-training department to every public primary school in the United States. Begin the training just as soon as the boy can hold tools in his hand or, say, at the age of nine or ten. Give an hour every school day, under a competent instructor, to the use of tools thru all the primary grades. Make this instruction compulsory for every boy." We do not need to make shops or factories of our schools; but the fundamental processes which we are developing must be in keeping with commercial standards. The shop method must be modified to meet the needs of the individual, and so arranged as to economize time and effort in order to secure lasting and individual progress. In my estimation our greatest weakness has been that we have paid too little attention to the technical side of our subject. It is desirable that a child should know more than the mere doing of a thing which requires the use of tools in working up materials, whether it be for vocational or educational purposes. It is not surprising that under the pressure of limited time allotment our work has been narrowed down to the' completion of the project itself without having taught the phases of industry which are vitally more important than the technic involved in the school shop. The supplementary knowl- edge of materials must form a part of the course; tool processes and the historical, industrial, and geographical bearing are most important. One author has said: "It is a case of the survival of the fittest. The boys that get into the trade are those that we have killed off in the grades. Those who go thru high school can get better jobs." There is a whole sermon in this quotation; but I do not concede that the manual training we have had has not contributed to vocational preparation. I say this in spite of statements of men who are considered authorities. On the contrary, I feel positively that it has contributed and will contribute more and more to industrial efficiency. The courses in manual training have been limited to the seventh and eighth grades. Dependable industrial surveys show you that in the low-grade industries, where most of these have been made, the children are from fourteen to sixteen years of age. Statistics show that these children have left school without completing the seventh grade, and in the majority of cases without completing the sixth. Consequently they have not had any manual training. Yet we are told that manual training has not contributed to their efficiency. Most assuredly 456 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Vocational it has not! Neither has the high school, nor the university, nor the gradu- ate school, because the child has not had access to them. Again quoting Mr. Van Cleave, who says: As compared with the average, the boy who gets rudimentary instruction in the manual-training school, who has served an apprenticeship in the regular way, supple- mented by a short period of shop work, has greater initiative, alertness, and versatility. He is quicker in grasping new ideas. He has greater skill in meeting new conditions, and greater power in shapmg them to his purpose. He rises faster and farther, and wins higher positions and commands a larger salary. One of the vital considerations from the industrial and vocational stand- point which should be contemplated to enliven the manual-training pro- gram is that of drafting; it must assume a definite part in the program and, with more time devoted to manual training, should be taken up as a special subject in the seventh grade. I have made a careful study of reports from a number of cities where mechanical drawing has been a real part of manual training, and while it is true that pupils should make their working drawings from the very beginning, even tho this be in the fifth and sixth grades, the consensus of opinion is that in these two grades the work should be as simple as possible and may be done with the use of rulers instead of using tee-squares and triangles. It is not necessary for me to set forth the reason why it is impossible to teach pupils to read working drawings with- out having learned to make them. The plan just stated is a debatable one, and I shall watch with interest our experiment as well as those in other cities in order to determine whether mechanical drawing as a course should be extended lower down than the seventh grade. In connection with the drawing much more should be done to encourage and develop initiative than has been done in the past. In the fifth grade we do what is called play-project work. The first piece which is made is a small tool the dimensions of which are absolutely fixt and do not permit any variation by way of design. Material which has all been squared to size is used, the top needs only to be notcht and the legs cut to length. The material which has been squared to width and thick- ness so that every corner is ready for a working face and working edge affords the opportunity for teaching the pupil to mark face and edge so that he will learn from the very beginning that he must do the laying out from the working face and working edge. He does this laying out with a knife so as not to be obliged to change the method of laying out for squar- ing ends later on. The second piece which the pupil makes is a stand which is like the stool except that it is taller and a shelf has been added; this is the first opportunity for individuality of design, and the pupil is taught that varia- tion consists in the placing of the shelf. Thus the pupil is urged from the very beginning to make his drawing "different," yet at the same time he is constantly reminded that being "different" is not enough and that it does not reflect good taste on his part unless the piece, tho "different, ' ' Department] INDUSTRIALIZING THE MANUAL ARTS 457 is pleasing to the eye and fulfils the requirement of the purpose for which it was designed. After the working drawing has been completed, the individuality may be further shown by choosing the color of stain as well as the method of finishing. In this connection approximate dimensions are taught about real furniture. The student is encouraged to visit furniture stores, or at least to visit the windows and then report to the class. The instructors say that when you tell the students about real things they are more interested than in the shop work itself. In the high fifth a particular effort is put forth to develop initiative. In the days of yore every boy had some opportunity for this at home, but in our highly specialized scheme of elementary schools the pupils have become automatons. Even in the handwork in the lower grades, which is supposed to develop initiative, he does his cardboard work from dictation, and weaves a rug on a ready-made loom instead of being permitted to make his own design and then make a loom to fit the design. Our plan is that toys, models, and machines are made, and the pupils are given freedom in choosing what they wish to make; however, they are not permitted to change to a different toy after they are well started unless there is a very good reason. They are taught in this connection also that when they decide . to do a thing they must persevere and complete their task, and in this way they lay the foundation for one of the essential characteristics of success in life after leaving school. They make such objects as wagons, wheelbarrows, trucks, delivery autos, racers, windmills, sand wheels, boats, yachts, U-boats, steamers, pile drivers. Now you will ask how a boy can make a working drawing for pieces like these. He cannot. We require a sketch of some kind, a photo- graph or a magazine illustration or some model that he works from and improves; this opens a vast field for the study of industry. Take the auto- mobile, for example — I have yet to find the boy who is not interested to the extent of Ustening with eyes, ears, and mouth wide open. Without much special effort the instructor can trace the development from the gasoline buggy to the highly ejficient motor car of 191 7. The effect of vanadium steel on the automobile industry, the modern ingenious time-and labor-saving devices in the manufacture of the automobile, and no end of similar industrial studies are at once made vital. Moving pictures and slides are to be had from the extension departments of the universities and from various manu- facturers. This is but one of the projects made in this connection. By be- ginning the development of initiative in this way, the student forms a habit which will do as much as anything else to help him succeed in life. It lays a foundation at once for individual work in the succeeding grades. In the past we workt out our course of study on the basis of a stated group of problems representing a series of tool processes as opposed to this 458 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational industrial viewpoint, and types of construction which are common and essential to the industry. We have done this to the extent that succeeding types of construction determined our course of study, for example, one of our eighth-grade projects is a mortise and tenon construction such as a tabouret, umbrella rack, plant stand, telephone stand, or any other similar projects so long as it involves the use of the mortise and tenon, along with a similar amount of surfacing, laying out, etc. The student is shown various methods of constructing the tabouret as suggested by a blueprint or drawing on the board. The instructor exercises tact so as to have the slow workman select a construction requiring minimum time, while the boy who is always ahead of the class is encour- aged to choose a construction which requires greater skill and more time; both beget a product which is of considerably more value than the dif- ference in time represents. In the case of the dresser box, any box involving the butt construction may be substituted in order to get the industrial insight. Various kinds of joints used in making boxes are used in dem- onstration; this box-making is considered from the industrial standpoint. Industrially this should include such work as has already been sug- gested for the fifth grade, and should go farther. The manufacture of the various tools used in the shop forms a very interesting and instructive study. Boys come to high school without knowing the names of more than one or two of the tools which have to be used, and unfortunately have no idea of their material value. In connection with the hardware a study should be made of its manufacture, as it affords a study of iron, steels, etc. In connection with finishing materials a study of stains (water, alcohol, and spirit) is made. It is not possible to make a thoro study of forestry, but every boy should have a simple vocabulary of woods. The school shop always furnishes from two to a half-dozen kinds, if one will but look aro\md and examine the benches and other pieces of equipment which are necessary in every shop. From a commercial standpoint every boy should know the retail prices of the various supplies which he uses. He should be sent to buy half a dozen screws of a certain size and then later to buy a gross of the same size and thus learn the lesson of quantity buying. Manual training, for the most part, has meant woodworking, and that only cabinet-making. Many schools have made an interesting industrial departure by having the boys in the high seventh or eighth grade do prac- tical work in carpentry. If the school does not need arbors, toolhouses, etc., patrons of the school who live in the neighborhood are glad to have the schoolboys work on similar buildings for them. The charge, in every case, is for material and supplies only. Nearly every school has a working laboratory for concrete work such as steps, sidewalks, lawn benches, etc. The school instruction in this work requires but a minimum outlay for equipment. A few shovels and trowels Department] INDUSTRIALIZING THE MANUAL ARTS 459 and a watering-pot are all that are needed. Wheelbarrows and additional shovels may be borrowed from the janitor. In the beginning tee tiles form very interesting projects. This leads readily to jardinieres, made in small rectangular forms, and should, of course, include a study of composition, testing, and industrial applications. There is an immense possibility for development along the lines of concrete pottery. Printing as a subject from an industrial standpoint is conceded to be vitally worth while. The composition of ores, such as iron, copper, zinc, and lead form excellent industrial material and are used in connection with printing. The study of alloys and learning how they are used to harden type metal fascinates a boy more than does a dime novel. Then there is the study of chemicals used in printing-inks. If we go into physics, excellent examples of mechanical motions and friction are to be found on the printing-press. Allied industries, such as bookbinding (which can be given practically), photo engraving, stereotyping, and electro t3q)ing can be studied at first hand in the larger cities. Even where it is not possible to visit these industries the instructor can bring the industry to the class by means of books and illustrated lectures. If a school has but two shops, one of these should be a printshop. Education is expression (hands, words spoken, and words written). The school printshop does more, with less effort, to teach written English, spelling, punctuation, and construction than anything of which I know. Boys and girls whom the teachers have never been able to interest "wake up" when they realize that what they write will be read by the public. Have a school paper and make the English work interesting and practical. The equipment is by no means prohibitive. I know of many schools that have made a splendid beginning for less than $500.00. Buy only one family of type if you must economize in this equipment, and start with but one size of body type. Sheet metal can be made very interesting and can be provided at a minimum expense. A few snips, soldering irons, and furnaces are all that are necessary. Much good work has been done using wooden blocks in place of stakes for bending. Tin cans will provide material for all light work — the five-gallon oil size, thousands of which are thrown away every day. We must get busy and look over our own community and discover in- dustrial substitutions and additions to our universal manual- training (woodworking) courses. We must give the pupils some contact with a variety of fundamental industries. I know of what you are thinking, both as supervisors and as teachers, that it takes money and equipment, which are not available, to live up to what you consider ideal courses. With due respect to your own convictions, I wish to say that you are wrong, and that it is set convictions of this kind that have long interfered with indus- triahzing manual training. Very Uttle literature and textbook material is available, and in every case it means hours, days, and weeks of hard, 46o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational patient "overtime" to work out real industrial departures in manual training. It is possible to industrialize manual training with but very little outlay for equipment in addition to that which is included in a well-equipt manual- training woodworking shop. In connection with the electrical work, if you merely make a motor which runs, you have failed; to succeed you must industriahze the instruction, tho it will not be possible for you to do all of the suggested correlated work unless the motor actually runs. The aim in this project is to enrich the pupils' idea of electricity in modern life; to acquaint him with the parts of simple motors and their functions; to teach the principles of electromagnetism and polarity as illustrated by the motor ; to furnish elementary experience in hunting electrical trouble, etc. A boy gets this if he, and not the teacher, adjusts the motor and makes it run after it is assembled; first-hand experience with electricity is essential because it is so important in industry and because, by trying, the pupil can really find out whether he is fitted for, and feels that he would Hke to take up, electrical work as a life-work. Where can you get a better form of prevocational training? I would remind you that deeds are needed more than words. Go back to your school and make your board and your community realize this while industrializing the work already provided for by adding other courses possible with your "Hmited" equipment. Preach, teach, and Uve industrial efiiciency, which to be genuine includes conserva- tion and economy. PRACTICAL FINE ARTS— EMERGENCY ART COURSES FOR WAR-TIME SERVICE ARTHUR WESLEY DOW, PROFESSOR OF FINE ARTS IN TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y, The teaching of art suffers at present thru a division of forces, but the time has come when teachers of the arts must work together. Our country needs the united effort of all who look for a growth in public appreciation of art — an appreciation that will enrich home and city life, that will demand good design in building and manufactures, that will banish hideous advertise- ments and protect from defacement our scenic and historic landmarks. We have made good progress thru education and the public gifts of citizens, but the world of business and manufacture does not recognize art as a human necessity. Art is too often regarded as a luxury or as something added to the useful. We have said that industry without art is barbarism, but in these days we begin to wonder what barbarism really is. Three years ago we called certain nations barbarous, yet we were accustomed to buy of them large quantities of art products. To say that industry without art is savagery will hardly do, for the savage sometimes surpasses the civilized in art works. We are now looking back to the art of our American Indians — a people we once called savage — for motives r Department] EMERGENCY ART COURSES FOR WAR-TIME SERVICE 461 and color schemes to be developt in our textile design. The Peruvians, a thousand years ago, had mastered every form of the textile art known to us now. It would be better to say that industry without art is stupidity. It is sheer waste to produce things that go shortly to the rubbish heap, ox if they last are nothing but eyesores and nuisances. There is a popular understanding or rather misunderstanding of the word "art." When we speak of art as a school subject we are commonly supposed to refer to picture-making — a pursuit not considered as "useful" or "practical." People seem afraid of the word "art" as denoting some- thing beyond the bounds of everyday life. A distinction is made between "fine" and "applied," "decorative" or "industrial," art. We have lately invented a new term, "practical arts." It was fear of the unpractical and non-useful that brought this name into being; but now the word "prac- tical" is ceasing to have a definite significance. When you vainly try to open a car window, when the handle comes off your new desk, when you read that "the fire was caused by a defective flue, or poor insulation" you know that you are on the trail of the practical man. When we have art-trained craftsmen car windows will open easily, handles will stay put, chimneys will be tight, and wires will be safe. Stu- dents share the popular impression regarding art-school work. An applicant for admission to art courses often says that the work must be "practical" as a living is to be made from it. A teacher of the graphic arts in one of our new vocational schools wishes that the boys would not so constantly think of art work as a "job" that will help bring a little higher wage; shows them that it is a training for power and efficiency — something that will give superior quality and higher values to their output. The fact is that these young people have not been taught the meaning of art, and are using "practical" as a mere catchword. It is unfortunate that the academic people divided art into "fine," "applied," "industrial," "decorative," and even "practical," and so have caused divided effort. Such classifications may be useful administratively to distinguish different departments of a school, but they are, on the whole, vicious as they imply differences that do not really exist. That they are not actual differences is shown by the coming together of drawing and manual training associations under the single name, "arts association." In the art-producing countries of the Orient there is no distinction between artist and artisan, nor was there any in Greek or Gothic days. Anyone who creates a fine arrangement of line and color is an artist, no matter what material he uses. If the public could once understand this, the terms "fine and applied art," "decorative art," "industrial arts," and "practical arts" would disappear, and art study would take its proper place. To make useful things without considering shape and color is an offense against good taste. Santayana holds that the beginning of art 462 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational appreciation is the desire to make things look well. A workman may not be able to control the shape or color of the machine he is building, but if he takes an interest in its appearance he is on the way to appreciating art, even to becoming a creator of art. As Mr. Flexner classes art and literature together in the modern school I will quote him, with one word changed, as saying, "Art is to be taught in the Modern School primarily for the purpose of developing taste, interest and appreciation We hope to train persons .... to care vitally for art ... . tho not perhaps without a suspicion that this is the surest way of liberating creative talent." The cause of the misunderstanding of the nature of art may be due to the persistence of seventeenth-century academic ideals in our art teaching; from that period we inherit the theory that correct drawing of nature's forms is the first requisite in an art course, and that design is an inferior subject. It is a common error in art teaching to mistake a part for the v/hole and put the emphasis in the wrong place. That glorification of nature-copying suited the taste of a past age when kings and their ministers dictated to the artist how and what he should produce. The modern art teacher faces different problems and abandons the seventeenth-century dictum. Teaching by drill is not in favor with modern educators. While favoring a departure from tradition I cannot sympathize with anarchists in art who say, "Away with the past." Any attempt to ignore race experience is contrary to the principles of evolution in human progress. Let us rather profit by what the past has accomplisht, and build upon it. However, the jolt that has been given us by Cubism and modernist art is sure to do us good in the long run. The question of devising an art course that shall be of great use to the whole community, shall meet modern needs, and shall enlist the interest of other educators is the task before us now; whether our theories are work- able we cannot know until they are tried out. I can speak only of a theory of art teaching which by experience I have found workable. A work of art is produced by one who has a vision, an image of excel- lence, and can give it visible form. The teacher's part is to help the pupil to see, not nature, but visions of excellence, and to find a way to give them outward form as design, or construction, or painting. This outward form is created by choice and arrangement, using brush, pencil, charcoal, modeling tool, chisel, loom, or even a machine. Compare different forms of art, in cathedrals, houses, statues, carvings, landscape gardens, pictures, designs, lettering, and you will find that what I call structure is funda- mental to all. They all consist of lines, masses of dark and light, and colors built into fine relationships. The art course should give definite experience in building up art-structure progressively from simple begin- nings. This will develop appreciation and will encourage individual ex- pression which alone makes art works worth anything. With such 1 Department] EMERGENCY ART COURSES FOR WAR-TIME SERVICE 463 experience we should combine freehand drawing, mechanical drawing, museum studies, and observation as helps in applying creative powers. An art course with this broad foundation should and does give definite help in the problems of everyday life: in planning a house, its interior and surroundings; in arranging things in the house, furniture, pictures; in buying the floor and wall coverings, dishes; in making articles for the household, for use or wear; in planting the garden and park; in judging pictures, sculpture, buildings, handicraft, art manufacture, dress. That such help is given I could prove by the testimony of those who have had the experience and found it serviceable in their life-work. From this point of view we can say that the fine arts are, in a high degree, practical. Last month each department of Teachers College, Columbia University, was asked by Dean Russell to state what service it could render the nation in these days of war. What could an art department do in war time ? Art belongs, so we supposed, to times of peace. Art is the one influence that binds all nations of the earth together. Art rises above hate and strife. Even if we hate a people we cannot hate their art. Following the advice of the President we felt that art teachers who could not serve in field or hospital should keep to the work for which they have been trained. They must find ways in which their profession could serve the nation. Ways were found, and emergency courses were at once organized. Here is the list of what was done and what was planned to be done if needed: Fine-arts courses for those who volunteer for the nation's service; occu- pations and industries for home, camp, and hospital. These courses are of two kinds: (a) instruction in the teaching of occupations involving line and color and the use of art tools; (b) instruction in simple art work that might be useful to soldiers and nurses in the field, to the disabled, to con- valescents, to children, and to those who are suddenly thrown upon their own resources for earning a livelihood. 1. Drawing with pencil, chalk, and colored crayons for field work and demonstration teaching. 2. Painting: camouflage and protective coloring for naval and military purposes. 3. Publicity: war. Red Cross, and Liberty Loan posters; thrift and garden posters; postcards and color work. 4. Stenciling and dyeing: decorations, banners, signals, and flags. 5. Clay and papier mache modeling for hospitals, pottery substitutes for metal; making of cheap plates and dishes; plaster-casting models of trenches showing the method of construction. 6. Tin-can work: making, from used tin cans, camp utensils, coffee pots, kettles, dishes, candlesticks, hot-water bottles, and many other useful articles; soldering and repair. 7. Home furnishing; room coloring; interior painting. 8. Window gardens; table gardens; flower arrangement. 464 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational 9. Wood-block printing on fabrics. 10. Weaving: improvised looms, grass curtains, mats, rugs, baskets; rush weaving for chairs and stools. 11. Designing of costumes for service; painted hat trimmings; design- ing for embroidery and lace. 12. Handicrafts for those unable to walk: painting boxes, cards, and toys; linoleum printing, stamp printing, cut paper, colored paper beads, wood toys, etc. 13. Photography: the camera, developing and printing, making of blue paper. One would not ordinarily think of fine arts as related to war relief, yet here is an example: Lace making is one of the arts for which Belgium is famous. The late Madame Van Schelle conceived the idea of gathering upon her estate in Belgium a large number of the destitute and starving women and children, and of providing them with shops and material for the making of lace. These families are to have healthful surroundings and to be made as comfortable as possible. But such an industry must have a market in America. This could be secured from the large department stores provided that the designs could be adapted to American needs. Our Columbia design students undertook these adaptations, following instruc- tions from the large dealers. After months of labor in preparation and as she was bringing her plans to completion, Madame Van Schelle was taken from us. But others will continue the work and it will succeed. Many people in the war zone have been trained in handicrafts or practical fine arts and can, with our help, turn their skill to advantage. They only need our interest and appreciation. THE RELATION OF ART TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND MANUAL TRAINING BENJAMIN W. JOHNSON, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, SEATTLE, WASH. Not very long ago I had to make adjustments in the individual programs of some of the students desiring changes in their studies. At this time the home economics course had a minimum of art requirement for those electing this course. The conviction of those responsible for this requirement was that every girl needed to know something of the principles of art as applied in the home and to the person. While the claims of the home might be a remote interest for the girl's realization now, there was no doubt of the immediate interest of the young lady in herself. Sweet sixteen has a beauty and a charm that easily defy the analysis of art principles and need no aid of embellishment to delight the eye. Department] ART AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 465 The instructors in the art course of the school did not realize their opportunity of beginning at this point of interest with the instruction. The technique would be too faulty. Brush and colors must be preceded by tracing in line, sketching, perspective, and still-Hfe studies. So these students sought reUef from "art" and gave as their reason that they had no talent for art, and anyway they didn't see what use it would be to them. Of course, they couldn't explain why they studied Latin or any of the standard scholastic requirements of the school on any such basis of its use to them now or hereafter. This experience was a beginning in the changes made to put the art instruction of this school upon a new basis of application, for which a young girl could see some use. It is an interesting story to tell how it was done and the effect it had upon these same girls of later classes, who flocked into the art classes delighted to discover that art was the making of things beautiful as well as painting pictures. My topic, I take it, is that of art classified as the special art. Tho this classification considers art on the basis of the product, the acquiring of skill in production, and the principles underlying beauty in form, shape, line, light and shade, and color, it seems to me that the esthetic and social basis of art is also included. Esthetic appreciation, the sense of beauty, grows out of artistic expression. I shall not attempt any extended classification of the different arts. The "art" referred to in my story, that the girls wished to omit, had not a qualifying adjective. Art there was misunderstood and represented a kind of "educational luxury and superfluity." The art course was for the study of the beautiful with the limited conception that beauty lay in repre- sentation only and was divorst from any other use and service. The newer point of view is now generally accepted that art is not a pastime, and that when applied in enriching the practical needs of Hfe it serves in its right function as a means of expression and for the development of appreciation of the finer feelings and emotions of Hfe. The terms "major" and "minor" are sometimes used to classify two kinds of art. The major arts are those capable of giving expression to the great emotions of life, such as sorrow, repentance, and the sins and virtues of Hfe; while the minor arts give expression only of joy in accomplishment thru materials fashioned primarily for service to man. Service first, and then a refinement of the service thru a more perfect adaptation to the end. The minor arts, then, embody the idea of man's activities, and the materials of wood, clay, stone, textiles, etc., are the means to give expression to the emotional and imaginative impulse in forms having a social value. Th.ese distinctions are interesting to follow and may help in clarifying our ideas. I doubt, however, the wisdom of the implication conveyed in the terms "major" and "minor" as applied to art. The conviction is growing 466 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational that ideas, thoughts, emotions, as exprest by the craftsman thru materials and forms serviceable to man are as valuable to him in his spiritual and cultural development as any exprest thru the so-called finer arts of hterature, poetry, and music. This distinction is an academic one. Dr. Dewey says, "What we call art springs from a desire to make things 'look well.' The raw materials may be put together in a rude way for mere use, or may serve a higher use by being put together in a fine way, satisfying a strong desire of human nature." What then is the relation of art to vocational education and to manual training ? Vocational education is differentiated from general education by its aim and purpose. Dr. Bagley states that vocational education is for specialized efficiency, that general or liberal education is for adaptability to changing conditions. Dr. Snedden characterizes the two types of education, the one for production, the other for consumption. The part that art would have in such specialized training, would depend entirely upon the vocational objective of the training. A recent bulletin issued by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, entitled Art Education, an Investigation of the Training Available in New York City for Artists and Artisans, gives some interesting information upon the indus- tries in which art, line, mass, and form play a part. The hst of industries was made after a careful study of the numerous vocational surveys and other reports, and by special investigation. This list comprises about 250 different industries, from advertising design to wig-making. The number of those engaged in the professions in which art plays a part is something over 100,000. The conclusion here seems to be that art in relation to voca- tional education has rather a limited field. Taking the other side of the question, what are the conditions in the other fields of work and labor? Dr. Prosser states, in an address, "The Place of Art in Industry," "It is probably safe to say that today under the conditions which surround the workers of our day few of them have a chance to exercise ingenuity and esthetic sense and individuality in the making of things, save those who are employed as designers in the office of the concern making blueprints, which the worker is required to follow carefully. There are about ten milHons employed in the distributive callings of transportation, trade, clerical occupations; thirty millions in mining, agriculture, domestic, and personal service. In none of these vocations is there any need of training in art as a tool or a trade." So on thru a long enumeration the sum of which is that of the forty millions engaged in gainful occupations less than a miUion have any opportunity for self-expression in the things they do. In addition to these facts about the workers, there is the further fact of the replacing of the hand with the machine and with factory production, which still further eliminates art as a means of expression in the work done. I I i Departmentl ART AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 467 That all these workers have a need for art appreciation to become better and more discriminating consumers of the arts is unquestioned. Such art training in appreciation should be and is a necessary part of liberal educa- tion, but not of specialized vocational training. The relation of art to manual training is, or should be, very close indeed. Manual training is here used as applying generally to all forms of constructive handwork when used as an agent in general education, and is in sharp distinction to speciaHzed tool instruction for vocational ends to selected groups. The growing significance of the social meaning of education, that the child is to participate in the various constructive activities in response to his natural interests, but that these are to be guided and selected to give him typical expression in the fields of art and industry adapted to child Hfe and the school conditions, has given the manual arts a new meaning in education, with a subject-matter far wider than the teaching of tools and materials. In this enlarged field of service manual training is the vehicle for the instruction in art applied to industry. The power and the desire to do and the appreciation of what is done by others cannot be better developt in the growing child than by the manual arts. Whether we take the subject- matter for the manual arts on the material side, such as work with clay, wood, metal, etc., the productive side, or on the utilities side, the work and study about man as a worker and his needs in food, clothing, shelter, etc., the consumption idea, the very fundamentals of good art must be followed. The adaptation of materials to purposes with an ideal in mind makes for developing taste. Skill is also developt, the beginning of craftsmanship with reference to a standard of excellence. The adaptation of forms to spaces, using tool, pencil, and brush, will start the interest of every child toward appreciation and will awake the exceptionally gifted one to the possibiUties of the fine arts in architecture or painting. In any event the great majority of the pupils are to be apprecia- tors of art rather than producers in any technical sense. But only by taking some part in creative production, not solely for the production of beauty, but for the expression of strong desires or feehngs, can a wholesome and natural attitude of appreciation be developt. Good manual arts should be good industrial design, for the object should adequately fulfil its purpose; its workmanship should be skilful and its construction consistent; the materials should be adapted to the end sought, and their qualities for beauty in form and color and arrangement be fully utilized; and, when consistent with the service, ornament may be devised so as to further reinforce the service of the object. Such a consummation of art and of manual training as educational means is not magnifying the one above the other, but is the correlation in the spiritual unfolding of the child to the world filled with beautiful things. In fulfilling such a function they will be restored to the all-important 468 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational place in the curriculum that they occupy in the scheme of the things of life. The relation of art to vocational and manual training is determined by our conception of art. If it has to do with the luxuries, the super- fluities of life that the leisure class only can enjoy, we need spend Httle, if any, time upon it in the public school. If it is what I believe it is to be in our schools, a fundamental factor in every individual's living, a means of expressing thought, emotion, ideals, the individual's desire to communicate and cooperate with others, then it deserves to be given very much more consideration in the school curriculum than it now receives. The vocations requiring art training are comparatively limited, but there is the more need for art instruction to give appreciation of, and enjoyment in, the work of others. Manual training as a part of general education is the best means for giving a beginning in art instruction as applied art or industrial art. Finally, the value of these applied arts is not to be measured in intellectual terms. Thought, feeling, the emotions, if you please, having an ideal and striving to realize it, are possible of expression in the work of the hands without any other intellectual expression. The clothes we wear, the homes we make for ourselves, the work we do, the recreations we seek, are all evidences of our standards of art, of esthetic refinements. Thru these things we also express our desire for the approval of others, to please others. Our motive is in its last analysis social. Art, then, is for the very great majority the simplest way, more so than thru the written or spoken word, for self-expression to others. THE BETTERMENT OF HOMES IN URBAN COMMUNITIES THRU EXTENSION WORK IN HOME ECONOMICS MARY r. RAUSCH, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HOME ECONOMICS, EXTENSION DIVISION, UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, SEATTLE, WASH. What is a home ? Is it just a place to eat and sleep ? Does it take money to make a home ? Does the woman who has a mansion always have a homelike atmosphere? The things that live longest in the memory of most of you are the things you remember in your own home when you were a child. The real home must come from within, that is, it must have a sound heart, and the home should create relationships. It can still be a home even if the bread be baked in a bakery and the washing be done in the laundry, or the house heated by a municipal furnace or hghted by a municipal lighting plant. I hope every man and woman here today takes an interest in the home. If you love your home each flower that blooms has a sweeter perfume, each bit of furniture has a deeper meaning, and everything in the home seems richer. Department) THE BETTERMENT OF HOMES THRU HOME ECONOMICS 469 There has been very Httle done to help the women who Kve in cities, and it is the purpose of the University of Washington to carry this message of better homes into such communities. Conditions have changed so tremendously that we must readjust ourselves in order to enjoy the modern home. The first thing the woman of today wants to learn is to do things in the shortest way, to take the short cuts. A girl is not born with the ability to make a dress, to furnish a house, to get up a good dinner, any more than a man is born with the abiHty to build a magnificent church, or to argue a case in court, or to treat a very sick patient. All work in the home should be directed toward making a home attractive, and should be con- ducted with the maximum amount of comfort and convenience and the minimum of expense. The really vital needs are very few and simple — the sanitary home, good, pure food, good, healthful clothing; these are vital in order to attain our best growth physically, morally, mentally, and spiritu- ally. Most people spend the greater part of their income for these. There is a great big difference between need and want. One woman will tell you she cannot live decently on ten thousand a year, another can just exist on five thousand, still another is actually happy and feels that Ufe is worth living and that she can save on one hundred dollars a month. The woman of today must know how to have a restful home. She realizes that color, form, and arrangement have much to do with happy home life, and that the comfortable chair, good reading-light, and good wall paper have much to do with the comfort of the family. She must also know the right kind of food to give her children so that they will become efl&cient men and women. She must also know something of finance, and she must know something of the value of materials; she must have a convenient as well as a comfortable house. The woman of today must put away what is unimportant; she must know good literature, must wisely and carefully select friendships for her children, and must use the influence of personal effort for humanity that is so widespread in this day and age. In the next fifty years we shall see a tremendous change in the home. There will be fewer servants and the woman of the home will have to do things. She will have every convenience, and she must learn to five more simply, to eat more simply, and to let the unimportant things go. No matter how many obligations and responsibilities she may have, no matter what size her income is, the woman of today ought to bring her brain to bear so that she will be a satisfactory American mother and a successful home-maker. Every young child has a right to the home environment which will give chance for the best development. Human values receive their just recognition in the home. That there is great need of science applied to household management is evident. It is not only a knowledge of •music, Hterature, and history, but it is the practical things, the everyday life that the new woman needs, and you cannot separate science and practice. No proficiency in Hterature will compensate a mother whose child has been 470 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational taken away thru germs that have been brought in in the milk bottle. No skill with brush or pencil will compensate her for the loss of a child who brealjs down and is delicate because he did not sleep with open windows, or eat the right kind of food in the first few years of his life, or because he was not properly attended to. Will the greatest efficiency in Greek help the young mother who is far away from home and her mother, whose husband is sick with tuberculosis, whose children delicate, and who knows absolutely nothing about the feeding and care of the sick? In the next twenty-five years our schools of home economics and sociology will do wonders for the home. One thing must be taught, and that is the principle of cooperation. I am convinst that many people are failures in life because they do not know how to cooperate with others. The woman is the purchasing agent; she spends most of the money, and if she fails insolvency will result. We have hardly dreamed of the possibihties of the woman of the future. House- keeping, Hke everything else, is either a pleasure or drudgery, according to the brains and the knowledge that we put into it. Many American house- keepers consider the details of real economy beneath them. The extension worker must show that it is not easy to run a home, but that it is the details that make the real home. There never was a time in the history of the world when the housekeeper had such tremendous responsibility placed in her hands as she has now. There are eighty thousand homes in the United States. Twenty miUion women are joining the ranks of the G. A. W. We have an added task, and the woman worker in the home must render expert service to the nation. We Americans love our homes and we want to make them the best homes in the world, but no matter how good a housekeeper a woman may be, if she interferes with the comfort of the family and the development of the home she is a poor mother. Sometimes we say that a woman is a very good housekeeper. We may mean that she can make good bread or coffee, but we may also mean that she has no idea at all of the real needs of the family. It is the elimination of. waste in the industrial world that produces great results. It will be the same in the home, but it is not done by magic, but by steady, careful thought and good hard work. All work becomes a pleasure when we have a special education for it. The geologist breaks a rock all day and is happy, the laborer breaks rock and is unhappy doing the same work; but the geologist has the broad vision and the laborer the narrow one. After all, daily duties and earning daily bread are about the sweetest things in Kfe. No one loves to mop the kitchen, or wash the dishes three times a day, or do the rough, dirty work, but we must not forget to teach our girls that cleanliness is a form of beauty and that we want beauty in everything in our homes. It is beauty to make a bed properly. I believe that you can pray better at the side of a bed that is well made. I think that the only true culture is that which comes thru a real love for good. Department] THE BETTERMENT OF HOMES THRU HOME ECONOMICS 471 honest work. When you teach a woman to set the table properly, to put the cloth on so that it hangs evenly, to put the knives and forks where they belong, are you not teaching fine art? The esthetic side of the home is necessary for refined people, and it must be considered. Do not sacrifice health for pleasure, the higher Hfe for fancy dress. In our housekeeping there must be sacrifice and there must be love and faith. Economy, if properly directed, is a valuable asset. It does not require much intelligence to spend five dollars but to spend five dollars and make it do the work of ten dollars requires a great deal of intelligence. Extension workers have the happy privilege and duty to carry these different messages to the house- keepers, to break thru the jungle of prejudice, for there are still people who believe that fish is a brain food and that molasses will make your hair grow. For patriotic reasons the housekeeper should strive this year for the highest efficiency in housekeeping and in the study of conservation of food and elimination of waste. If possible, pay cash, for it is hard to pay for bread or meat that has been eaten. Try to get along with as little as possible — a good driver can turn in a small space. It is just as necessary to know how to select food or clothing as how to prepare or make it. The extrava- gance in most homes, I believe, is caused by the food and the running expenses. Commercial value is now placed upon proper feeding by man- agers of large groups of people. Give up prejudice — skim milk is cheap and very nutritious, valuable food and might well be used in making soups, puddings, bread, etc. Time, trouble, skill, and knowledge are necessary to use cheap things and make them valuable. Save food, do not put too much on the plate. Cut bread on the table as it is needed. If you burn food, or half cook it, or season it badly, you are wasteful. Remember that high price and high nutritive value do not go hand in hand. It is easier to cook certain high-priced things, but every woman of small means should be willing to take extra trouble and to learn how to do things right, now more than ever. Do not be ashamed to economize. Help to set public opinion against waste in public places. Ask yourself. Do I get good return for every dollar spent? Is this a wise purchase, are the utensils well selected, with intelligence, or are they old-fashioned, heavy, and hard to manipulate ? Do not be ashamed of saving the pennies. More business is done with five-cent pieces than with twenty-dollar gold pieces. Every woman ought to know whether the food she buys will increase the efficiency of her family, or whether there is something else which would give just as good results at lower cost. I believe that every woman ought to know how to do something useful. Today no woman need be ashamed about telling other women what Uttle economies she is practicing. She must not be ashamed of it any more than she would be ashamed to be seen in a good washable dress or a clean gingham apron doing her housework. Every family should spend a certain portion of the income for what we call the higher hfe. Its members ought to have a vacation, they should 472 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational enjoy a good picture, or a play, or the purchase of a new book or picture — everything we call the higher life. It is important to lay stress on the cultivation of good manners. Some- times success in Hfe depends on this. Courtesy is a contagious disease, and the child should be taught to say "good morning" and "thank you." A woman of good manners is pretty certain to be a person of power. You cannot measure manners by the amount of silver on your table, for the poorest people sometimes have the finest manners. Do not have " company manners." Keep your manners polisht as you keep your face clean. First, because self-respect demands it; and secondly, because respect for your neighbor demands it. These are a few of the many questions that the extension worker deals with. The housekeeper of today stands face to face with a tremendous task. The work that is being done in the homes will shape the lives and health of the coming generations. We must learn to leave out the drudgery, and substitute wholesome, happy labor. We must have a restful home. We must know the relation of good food, proper exercise, fresh air, recreation, good clothing, to health and growth of mind and body. In England, under the stress of war, old ways have been broken down and things have been done in two years that, without the war, would never have been accomphsht. Every woman is confronted with a big problem in her home, and it means as much to her as the problem that the big leader has to solve for the state. Let us get rid of all false estimates and decide to have a real home, a quiet home with some good books and pictures, a few friends, with our own garden if possible, and with some pleasures that bring no pain, for all this will more than make up for anything you may have to sacrifice in the way of wealth or the empty joys of the world. After all, is it not the happy home life that makes life worth living to all of us ? The world is a busy place, full of bustle and hurry, but in the home we should find rest and peace. In the real home we meet sorrow as well as joys, and we find time for the pressure of a loving hand, a smile. The extension worker must help to inspire the doer of the daily round of tasks. She must think, try, hope, and pray. Take a deeper thought for the home, with your head held a little higher and your heart beating a little faster as you think of your own home, and use your influence to see that every young woman in your school this year carries home the thought that it is a wonderful privilege to help to make a home and to do the plain, common things which are really the grand things in hfe. Do not be afraid to live simply. You can always influence those around you for better things. Remember that the tall mast on the big vessel often goes to all ports of the world during the lifetime of the boat, but it was born and grew up quietly in some far-away forest. I MUSIC DEPARTMENT SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — A. J. Gantvoort, teacher of public-school music and sight reading, College of Music Cincinnati, Ohio Vice-President — Herman E. Owen, supervisor of music San Jos6, Cal. Secretary — M. Teresa Finn, supervisor of music St. Louis, Mo. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July io, 191 7 The meeting was called to order by A. J. Gantvoort in the Unitarian Church at 10:00 a'.m. President Gantvoort welcomed the department with an excellent address, after which he introduced Mr, W. H. Boyer, music supervisor of Portland, who greeted the musicians with enthusiasm. The regular program was then presented: "The Place of Music in the Public Schools" — A. C. Barker, former superintendent of schools, Oakland, Cal. "The Music Preparation of the Grade Teacher as Provided in Teachers' Colleges" — Laura J. Soper, Harris Teachers' College, St. Louis, Mo. "Music Appreciation in the Elementary and Grammar Grades" — Kathrjoi E. Stone, supervisor of music, Los Angeles, Cal. The report of the Committee on Standardization of Songs for the Grades was pre- sented by A. J. Gantvoort, chairman: At the National Education Association meeting in New York last summer Mrs. Harriet Baker-Low read a very informative and suggestive paper which caused the appointment of a committee of ten which was instructed to do the following things: 1. To prepare a list of six songs for each grade, especially to be used in schools where music has just been introduced. 2. To prepare a list of twelve artistic unison songs to be sung from memory by high schools, with the idea of their being used in the social circle. 3. This committee was to work with two similar committees appointed by the Music Teachers' National Association and the Music Supervisors' National Conference. The latter body met in March in Grand Rapids, and appointed five of the National Education Association committee and five new members. The Music Teachers' National Association did not appoint a committee. Everybody seemed to be afraid of this work, and after many letters and some personal interviews, I finally received four lists of the two sets of songs mentioned, the last of the four reaching me here yesterday. A close scrutiny of the four lists submitted shows a wide divergence of opinion in the songs for the grades, but quite a unanimity in the songs (unison) for high schools, which I therefore submit as far as agreed upon or suggested by Messrs. Eamhart, Dykema, and Dann. Messrs. Dann and Dykema agreed on the following eleven songs: (i) "America," (2) "Star-Spangled Banner," (3) "Old Folks at Home," (4) "Old Kentucky Home," (5) "Annie Laurie," (6) "How Can I Leave Thee?" (7) "Love's Old Sweet Song," (8) "Silent Night," (9) "Sweet and Low," (10) "Home, 473 474 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music Sweet Home," and (ii) "Auld Lang Syne." Mr. Eamhart's list contains only Nos. 5, 6, and lo, and Mrs. Low's list is wholly different. It is evident from this that the committee will need more time for deliberation, and since some of the members of this committee have not answered repeated letters, the chairman would like to be empowered to select those who will work. Respectfully submitted, A. J. Gantvoort SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July ii, 1917 The meeting was called to order in the Unitarian Church at 10:00 a.m. by President A. J. Gantvoort. The following papers were presented: "Music a Required Subject in the High School and Patriotic Music in All Grades" — Herman E. Owen, supervisor of music, San Jose, Cal. "Music Appreciation in the High School" — M. Teresa Finn, supervisor of music, St. Louis, Mo. President Gantvoort appointed the nominating committee as follows: chairman, Kathr5ai E. Stone, Los Angeles, Cal.; Laura J. Soper, St. Louis, Mo.; William B. Kinnear, Lamed, Kan. He then announst for the audience a surprise, consisting of a new poem, set to the tune of "Marching thru Georgia," that would be the "Soldier Song" of our American boys and would rival "Tipperary." Mr. Gantvoort led with enthusiasm the several hundred singers in singing "Canning the Kaiser," by Upton Sinclair. This song was sung at the evening session with great enthusiasm by the entire audience. The words of the song will be found in the secretary's minutes of the evening session, July 11, General Program. THIRD SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 12, 191 7 , The meeting was called to order in the Unitarian Church at 10:00 a.m. by President Gantvoort. The nominating committee reported as follows: President — Osbourne McConathy, professor of public-school and community music. Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. Vice-President — M. Teresa Finn, supervisor of music, Soldan High School, St. Louis, Mo. Secretary — Philip C. Hayden, editor of School Music, Keokuk, Iowa. These officers were unanimously elected. Then followed a most interesting Round Table discussion on "Courses of Study and Credits for Music in High Schools." The leader was Miss Finn, of St. Louis, Mo. Three-Minute Discussions — Miss Holman, McMinnville, Ore.; Miss Magers, Salem, Ore.; Mr. Owen, San Jose, Cal.; Miss Hefner, Pittsburgh, Pa. Sight-Reading Discussion — Leader, A. J. Gantvoort; Mr. Kinnear, Lamed, Kan.; Major Clancy, Muncie, Ind.; Miss Minnie Wolfe, Miss Caroline Copple, Miss Tila Ransome, Miss Kirkup, Portland, Ore. Miss Ruth C. Pepper, Seattle, Wash., askt for a discussion on allowing the sub- stitution of orchestra work for singing. Mr. Findley, of Oregon, and Mr. Hicks, of Vancouver, B.C., led in the general discussion resulting in the unanimous vote that singing was the more important and nothing should be substituted for it, but that all additions were most useful. Mr. Owen moved that Mr. Gantvoort and his chosen committee continue the work of "Standardization of Songs for the Grades." This was seconded by Mr. Kinnear and carried. The meeting closed with the singing of songs from Child Life by the composer. Mrs. H. H. Lemmel, Secretary Department] PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 475 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENTS ADDRESS A. J. GANTVOORT, COLLEGE OP MUSIC, CINCINNATI, OHIO We have met here today to discuss those things which are of vital interest not only to ourselves as music teachers but also to the social life of the nation. Time was, not so many years ago, when music in many pubHc schools was grudgingly given a place in the curriculum, but that time has happily past. The thinking educator of today is beginning to realize that the value of instruction in music to all children is equal to that of the fundamental "three R's." In the last ten years the civic and social life of the nation has demanded music, both vocal and instrumental, as a necessary psychological factor in the acquirement of general happiness, a factor far more important than many of the studies taught in the public schools, which are rather generally discontinued after the child leaves school. We are not warring upon these subjects, for we are aware that the training, whether cultural or disciplinary, thus received bears fruit some- where in the life of the child; but we feel that proper musical training is at least of equal value and therefore deserves at least equal support. We spoke just now of proper musical training and this statement requires some explanation. Proper musical training is not merely a matter of method, the use or non-use of the syllables, from the exercise to the song, from the song to the exercise, etc., but that greater, higher something that brings the soul into direct contact with the beautiful. The love of the beautiful is inherent in us all, and the soul needs but this contact with the beautiful in song and instrumental music to desire and seek expression in tone. Tone in music and even in speech draws heart to heart and soul to soul so that they melt into one another and thus become a powerful expres- sion for the brotherhood of man, unequaled by anything except possibly the great messages of the Master. But even those messages become more effective when uttered by the experienst singer, who thoroly grasps their meaning. Some years ago I had the pleasure of hearing the great baritone, Santley, in the part of the narrator in Bach's passion music. Never shall I forget the pathos that he put into the words, "And Peter went out and wept bitterly." The great audience was moved to tears. We have all read these words and have felt their meaning, but when a great artist with heart and mind and soul expresses this pathos in melting tone, we can see and hear Peter and weep with him. The demand for community music which has swept over this broad land of ours in the last few years has made some of us see that many of the songs which we taught to the children did not take root in the home and in the hearts of the parents. For this we are partially to blame, but only partially. Some of the songs taught to the children were taught but for an occasion 376 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration idea of city planning has grown up in France since the war, and, as they frankly tell us, it is a matter of preparedness — preparedness for peace, because they realize that when the war is over they must be ready to meet the economic competition of the other countries of Europe. They are planning great port developments, great terminal yards, great arteries of travel, and, in fact, making complete, comprehensive plans for the con- struction of their towns and cities, so as to handle traffic in a way that will mean the least loss of energy and time. If the French nation in time of war can have the vision to carry out such ideas in the big, broad way that they are doing today, is it not all the more reason that we in America, with all our prosperity, should work out our own problems in a like scientific and comprehensive manner ? "In England, town-planning work is further developt. They have had a compulsory town-planning law for eight years, and the town-planning institute for three and a half years. The architects are working out wonder- ful plans now for London; not only for London proper, but for the whole surrounding area of 1,500 square miles, by bringing the transit facilities, boulevards, streets, parks, playgrounds, public buildings, etc., all into one great comprehensive plan." Recent reports tell us that in southern Albania the Italians have already organized public service, built five hundred miles of excellent roads, and opened one hundred elementary schools, with Italian and Albanian teachers, and are giving special instruction in agriculture. In Germany these principles have long been the rule; not only have cities been planned along the most scientific lines, but the whole system has been linkt together by a wonderful system of intercommunication. This, coupled with a wonderful system of industrial education, making everyone a skilled worker in some field, has made the country almost invincible in its fight for the domination of the world. Our country, tho only upon the threshold of a great struggle, is already alive to its economic shortcomings. If, after almost three years of the greatest struggle known to history, France and England find it necessary for their preservation and existence to carry forward extraordinary plans for the improvement of their cities, as a national policy, is it wise on our part to abandon or postpone the very things which seem most vital to our own success ? Is it going to require bitter loss and untold agonies to bring us to a full realization of our responsibilities, or are we to profit by the les- sons which have been so dearly bought by others ? What has been said of city plans and public improvement appHes with equal or greater force to our schools: if the one is necessary for our economic well-being, the other is absolutely indispensable, for upon it rests the very foundations of our government. And never before in the history of this country was there greater need or a more serious crisis than at the present moment. J Department] STANDARDIZATION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 377 There must be no halt in the onward movement. Not only must school building continue unabated and the schools be brought to the highest efficiency, but the whole scheme of industrial education must be organized in a manner to make up for the depletion of the world's skilled workers. The apprentice system is gone. Immigration of skilled workers is at an end. Where, then, can we look for relief except thru the schools? A great constructive work lies before us, not only in the readjustment of our educational system to meet the new conditions, but in the buildings to house it as well. When President Wilson issued his war proclamation and called upon the people of the United States to conserve their resources for the struggle ahead, he did not mean that they should stop spending money. There is every reason to the contrary. The markets of the world are opening to our fields and industries and the demand is growing with every passing hour. There should be no curtailment of building enterprises, and least of all of schoolhouses. These are both consistent with the maintenance of our prosperity, and the country is and will remain prosperous. Building costs are high, but they will remain so regardless of the period of the contest in which the country is involved, and a restoration of former building costs, in my opinion, cannot be expected. We are face to face with a new, disturbing readjustment. We are upon a new basis of values, which is making itself felt in all activities, and in the main this readjustment has come to stay. It is recognized that food, fuel, and government supplies must take precedence over anything else in the trasportation facilities of the country, and the inadequacy of this agency is one of the principal reasons for the, high building costs, but surely this cannot be to the extent of paralyzing public work and improvements. If, after proper investigation, these agencies are found to be inadequate, steps should be taken at once to bring them into harmony with the greater demand. If an industry so funda- mentally important as the building industry is crippled by unwise trans- portation regulations, or unsound public sentiment, there is serious danger of an early surplus of unemployed labor and a genuine embarrassment to the government in obtaining from the business interests of the country the funds with which to finance the war. School-building practice is constantly changing with the course of study and the enlarged uses of the plant. Schools can no longer be trans- planted. A successful building in one community may be entirely out of place in another. They are individual, and a standardization which would discourage the free exercise of individuaUty, both in plan and exterior treatment, would be lamentable in the extreme. We have just fairly emerged from the time when all school buildings were the same the country over. They were mere buildings, and, while they fulfilled their function in providing a place in which to teach, they 478 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Music of the grade teacher in a teachers' college necessitates a clear idea of what we mean by teachers' college. Perhaps a college in which teachers in particular are trained, might better express our meaning. The more entirely society demands that the public schools shall take over all the training of all the children (including those who may be mature in years, but are still in youth in habits of study, knowledge of the English language, ideals of democracy, or adjustment to institutions), the more must be demanded of the man or woman who is to become the guide in this increasingly diversified social existence. We fully realize the growing responsibilities placed on the teachers of America. Even greater responsibilities are placed on those of us on whom devolves the planning of courses for the coming teachers. We must look ahead with a broad enough vision to meet the present need of our democracy and to create a deeply grounded, persistent determination in every new teacher constantly to add something definite each year to his or her equip- ment. The time is past for an acceptance into the profession of any but the very best obtainable for the teaching corps. For entrance to teachers' training work, we must require at least graduation from an A-class high school. Even from this we should accept but the best of each class. We are accepting only those graduating in the upper two-thirds of the high-school classes, or those who pass an examination equal to this standard. This brings to us students who have already formed the habit of success. This means much to the prospective teacher. While we are limited to the normal courses, where the choice of electives was very restricted, this demand for the highest in rank not infrequently eliminated those students who spent considerable time on any particular study not required and not credited. This many of our more progressive educators are realizing, and our better schools have adopted systems of credits for a number of studies, among them music, pursued outside of school. Many schools, and we are glad to say that we. are of this number, are not only giving credit for outside study, but are inaugurating courses includ- ing definite and accredited training in any medium of musical expression that may be deemed practicable. In St. Louis the regular grade teachers' course covers a period of two years. During this two years' course, one hundred and five hours of class work is given in music and is divided as follows: during the first twenty weeks much of the time is devoted to the study of the reading and analyzing of the material used in the St. Louis schools; during the second twenty weeks the work includes study and discussion of methods, children's voices, theory and technique of music, and preparation for the apprentice term; during the third twenty weeks the student is an apprentice and tries out the plans suggested or studies the work of experienst teachers; during the fourth twenty weeks much of the work is cultural. Believing thoroly that Department] MUSIC PREPARATION OF THE GRADE TEACHER 479 the teacher who loves music understandingly and believes it to be one of the potent factors in making her teaching intensely interesting will instinctively put all her best spirit into the teaching of music, we have planned to have this term one of inspiration. We use every mechanical device obtainable, put every interesting music book that is practicable into the library, secure any talent possible, and discuss all musical events as they occur. The coopera- tion between the physical-education department and the music department is very close. When the grade teacher is actually in the work, one of her problems is usually to adjust her ideals to those of the subject supervisor. Too often this form of leadership became a blind following of the, at least partially, blind. So long as we demand so diversified a program for the grade teachers we cannot hope that every grade teacher will become a brilliant teacher of every subject. In fact, if we could only forget objects and say she is a brilliant teacher, and then have her teach intensively all subjects, we would not need to worry about the adjustment between supervisors and teachers. To help in increasing the interest thru knowing more about the subjects we started extension classes. These are open to all teachers and are planned to meet any needs as they arise. During the regular training course in music every possible phase of this subject should have been made so clear to the grade teacher that her selection in extension work may be such as will make most effective her work with the children. What has music to offer that can help me in geography, would not then be asked, because the answer is a part of the regular course idea. This idea was that thru its origin in folk song and dance music became the expression of the emotions of the peoples. These were emotions, many times the outgrowth of their occupations or geographical situations, and therefore the repetition of this folk music leads to the most intensive study of present commercial and national investiga- tion on the part of the child-singer. As to the history — how can we present the dominating emotions and conditions of a people to children unless they feel something of the conditions and emotions of those people; and how can that be done better than thru this emotional expression? Either to hear played or sung or to sing or play themselves these folk feelings understandingly means real comprehen- sion. As to the nature-study — do we see, do we hear — how do we know that we hear or see ? Each teacher should be helpt truly to see and hear and to know that this hearing and seeing are accurate. This conscious power to hear is the direct duty of the music department of our training schools for grade teachers. We are offering between 191 6 and 1921 the following extension courses in music: primary methods, intermediate methods, upper-grade methods, junior high-school methods, high-school methods, voice culture, appre- ciation based on the music in the grades, the phonograph as an aid in grade 48o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Music teaching, development of music beginning with the Netherlands school, ancient and mediaeval history of music, modern history of music, harmony, chorus, organization and conducting of orchestras, teaching music to foreigners, orchestral instrumentation, cantata, theory of music, great form in music, teaching music appreciation, chamber music, supervision. The live grade teacher who has the possibiHty of the pursuit of as many of these courses as she can plan to study can but have her outlook on all subjects considerably broadened. Under this arrangement it is now, without ex- pense or loss of time, possible for a teacher in the grades to take sufficient extension work to give her the required credits for her degree in education, thus insuring us teachers of the selective classes and of leaders who have broad vitalizing interests. The greatest work that can be done is the broadening of vision. The broadening of the teacljer's own vision and of that of some fifty developing child-minds is a keen pleasure to any teacher. The planning with purpose- ful teachers for this broadening of their own visions and of that of the hun- dreds of others with whom they come in direct contact is undoubtedly the supreme joy of teaching. When we are confident that the subject we are dealing with is one of, and possibly the most vital, of all subjects in the making for worthy world-citizenship, we plan, we work, and grow to feel that we are, ourselves, a part of this wonderful climax of universal brother- hood that is sweeping away the wrongs of the untrained and placing the selector and selected in a comradeship that means mutual understanding and universal peace. MUSIC APPRECIATION IN THE ELEMENTARY AND GRAMMAR GRADES KA.TKRYN E. STONE, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, LOS ANGELES, CAL. Music teaching in the public schools of today is being influenst by various tendencies in modern educational thought. Social needs are being discust in order to determine what the curriculum shall present. Super- visors are awakening to a broader conception of their work and are realizing more fully the important place music occupies in the field of education. A course of study for elementary schools has generally been planned to give the child a rich song experience, and out of this to develop the under- standing of the elements of music. Little stress, if any, has been placed on the training that leads to general culture. In the high school, college, and university of today the reverse is true. Music appreciation is receiving a great deal of attention in these advanst schools. We must acknowledge that this phase in music education, so obvious in an American audience, has been neglected. Department! MUSIC APPRECIATION IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES 481 The ultimate aim of music teaching in the public schools is to lead the child to love, to know, and to appreciate music in as many phases as possible, that he may have a big, broad interest in the subject, and thus make life fuller and more complete. From the beginning, music should be a part of the child's daily life. Beyond question, his ear and voice must be trained to appreciate melody and rhythm. He must be taught a list of choice songs, a conception of beautiful tone, and a sense of interpretation that calls forth his spiritual nature. He must grow in power to think and to do for himself in all sub- jects, and music is no exception; therefore he needs to sing alone, unaided by instrument or voice. The teacher may say, " We haven't time to train the individual pupil." Oh, yes, we have. Follow the plan suggested by Mr. Giddings, and see how feasible and practical it is. The individual method of sight-singing is the only method that develops real thinking and doing. Be that as it may, technique must not be confused with music nor substituted for it. If a song vocabulary of 'perhaps thirty or forty time-honored folk-songs and standard unison songs could be taught thru- out the grades and reviewed in chorus from time to time, pupils would be ready to take part in home, social, or community singing. When the hearts and souls of men are poured forth in song, community music, beyond doubt, is one of the highest forms of art manifestations. If "our boys" in the camp are able to sing the patriotic songs and songs of home, think of the cheer, courage, and enthusiasm that will be aroused anew. Peter Dykema, of Wisconsin, and Harry Barnhart, of New York, are certainly bringing about a new patriotism, a new religion, the religion of humanity. Conceive, if you can, the wonderful moral uplift and the great unity of soul that is brought about when thousands of men and women unite in a patriotic song. Someone has said, "A nation can be psychologically made or doomed in a song." To be sure, there must be part-singing in grammar grades, that the natural love of harmony may be satisfied. Mental power should have been acquired, in order that the part-songs may be learned with little or no difficulty. What can the elementary schools do to stimulate a greater appreciation of music in general? Is it possible to improve or perhaps create a musical atmosphere in the school ? Would not a new interest be awakened by the introduction and discussion of a picture, perhaps of a familiar song composer or a visiting artist or some orchestral instrument? From the earliest school years the child should be given opportunity to hear good music. What about the school marches ? Are they chosen with care? Let us remember they should be musical, no matter how simple. If the "Soldiers' Chorus" from Faust, or perhaps the "March" from A'ida were to be played on the piano, or by the school orchestra, I am sure that the marching would improve and the music would be stimulated. Would it not be well to register the name of the march, the source, and the 482 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music composer on the bulletin board, then play it over and over in order that pupils might grow familiar with it ? Suppose we familiarize the child with six splendid marches a year thru the eight years; surely this would strengthen appreciation. Would not the "Star-Spangled Banner" and other patriotic songs mean more to the child if he knew the stories that inspired them ? Let us not forget that this is the psychological hour to inculcate patriotism, and that inspired song offers one of the greatest opportunities to awaken it. Can we not encourage better music in the home? Many parents give their children private music instruction and fail to surround them with good music. Do they fully realize the effect of beautiful music on the child? What about the Victor records played in the home ? Are they choice bits of musical literature ? Let us, as music teachers, seek cooperation in the home, and thus unite home and school in building ideals in music. Is it possible to arrange school concerts and present artists ? Doubtless many a child has received inspiration thru the real art of a live musician. If concerts are impossible, the Victor in the schoolroom can do much to create a lively interest in the best music. I hear you say, " But we have no Victor." If not, give a song-fest, and invite every class to sing a song. Parents will flock to your performance and gladly pay the admission price, which may be only ten cents. This concert will perhaps enable you to pay the first instalment on a Victor, if not to meet the entire cost. Records could be bought on the instalment plan, or perhaps be borrowed or donated, or better still, the school library might establish a circulating library of records. Let us take fifteen minutes each week for a month, and give a Victor program, playing three records within the child's capacity of appreciation. Let us write the program on the board, briefly explain the records, and direct pupils to listen to certain features. A good plan is to play the record to the close, then in fragments, and then repeat it, keeping in mind the points of the lesson. Next month let us give a contrasting program in perhaps the same way. In these listening lessons pupils may be led, little by little, to note and discuss voice, instrument, rhythm, tempo, pitch, power, theme, modulations, and accompaniments. They should be encouraged to talk freely of what they hear, and to state favorite records and their reasons for choice. If a list of ten records, to illustrate definite points, could be studied in every grade each year, the results, I am sure, would more than compensate for the time expended. Folk-songs and national songs, the orchestra, the instruments of the orchestra, the opera, the oratorio, and the symphony may be brought to the schools thru the Victor. Interest in the composers and artists may also be awakened. Stories of the operas, oratorios, or the symphony may be briefly told. These lessons should correlate with English, spelling, geog- raphy, history, and literature. The use of the Victor in preparing pupils Department] . MUSIC IN THE HIGH SCHOOL AND GRADES 483 to appreciate a concert program cannot be overestimated. In our city we have proved that much can be accomplisht in this way. We endeavor to have two or three splendid concerts each year, and make effort to prepare pupils beforehand for the program. This year we were fortunate in secur- ing the Flonzaley Quartet, also the New York Symphony Orchestra, at reduced rates. The former attracted about twenty-seven hundred pupils, and the latter forty- two hundred; which filled our largest auditorium. Programs and program notes had been sent to the schools, and lessons were given which enabled the pupils better understand and appreciate the music they were to hear. The various instruments were discust; the classi- fication and seating position were noted. Mr. Damrosch, the leader of the Symphony Orchestra, in a very happy way gave a brief explanation of the orchestra and the various numbers, and thus added to the general knowledge and appreciation. If this or a similar plan could be carried on, year after year, the public- school pupils of today would grow in musical intelligence and in higher ideals of living, and the audiences of tomorrow would demand the greatest and best. MUSIC, A REQUIRED SUBJECT IN THE HIGH SCHOOL, AND PATRIOTIC MUSIC IN ALL THE GRADES HERMAN E. OWEN, HEAD OF MUSIC DEPARTMENT, HIGH SCHOOL, SAN JOSE, CAL. Since its introduction in the Boston schools by Lowell Mason music has advanst rapidly. It is no longer considered a ''frill," as evidenst by the hearty indorsement of our foremost educators, but is recognized as one of the leading subjects in the curriculum. The introduction of music in the schools, both city and country, has progrest until there is scarcely a city of consequence in the United States where it is not a required subject in the grades, and in several of the states it is required in all of the country schools as well. Music developt later in the high school than in the grades. Until within a few years it consisted almost wholly of desultory chorus work. At present, however, the progress of music in the high schools, where it receives reason- able and consistent support from school officials, seems limited only by the number of well-trained teachers of music that it is possible to secure. All the arguments put forth in favor of music as a required subject in the grades are of equal force as a high-school subject, and many more may be advanst for the high school which do not apply necessarily to the grades. Since at least two or three years of study in English composition and literature are required in the high school in continuation of the reading and grammar begun in the grades, does it not seem reasonable that a limited amount of music should be required to round out the mu.sig l;)egun iii tl;e 484 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music grades ? At present most students drop their music on entering the high school, at the very time when it should mean most to them. Since music and literature contribute largely to the spiritual side of life, the neglect of either subject will tend to dwarf this side of the youth's life. The reasons for making music a required subject in the high school may be groupt under three heads: those relating to the pupil, to the school, and to the community and the nation. Music serves, not only as a means of moral training to the pupil thru the judicious use of good songs, but also as a disciplinary subject of the first rank. The fact that chorus and ensemble work demand the subordination of the individual to the group, and further require that all participants be in harmony, not only in rhythm and tone, but in spirit as well, has a good influence upon the individual. The value of such a study as harmony purely from the intellectual viewpoint is equal to^that of algebra and demands the same definite, logical reasoning. We have come to believe that a man's life is influenst to a great degree by the use of his leisure. The choice of one's entertainment will depend largely upon the ideals fostered in youth, and if the student has never pro- grest beyond the ''ragtime" stage, be it in music, in literature, or in any other subject, he is not likely to have large ideals when he enters the public life of his community. Even a limited amount of instruction in the appreciation of music and contact with the higher forms of music cannot fail to have a beneficial effect upon the pupil in forming a correct taste and in counteracting to an extent the influence of the cheap, so-called "popular" music which abounds on every hand. It is quite natural that the people should wish to be entertained, and one of the chief reasons for the study of music is its value as a recreation. In a subject Uke music, however, which may give such a large degree of pleasure, it is easy to overlook the building of a careful foundation in giving temporary enjoyment. Hence the insin- cere teacher is tempted to neglect this fundamental training for the more superficial, which may make an immediate and somewhat brilliant showing, but which can never produce the best permanent results. Let us now turn to a consideration of the benefits which come to the school from making music a required subject. '' School spirit," that elusive but important thing of which we hear so much these days, is best fostered by the singing of good school and patriotic songs. Assembly singing is a source of pleasure and an important force for good in the schools, but unless the majority of the pupils are able to read simple music somewhat readily, the list of songs is limited to a small number which have been pickt up more or less at random. It is impossible to teach many songs by rote to the entire assembly of a large school; hence assembly singing is a thing of the past in most city high schools. But this would not be true had the pupils been taught to read music. The inclusion of music in the list of required subjects would aid the earnest, conscientious teacher of music to place music Departmentl MUSIC IN THE HIGH SCHOOL AND GRADES 485 on a correct basis. The different musical organizations of the school, such as the band, the orchestra, and the glee clubs would be benefited by a musical requirement. Many students who are eligible to these organizations do not enter them for causes which this requirement would correct. Often only a little impetus is needed to influence a careless, or perhaps a timid, pupil to take up such work to his own advantage and that of the school. The music department is called upon many times during the year to assist other departments and organizations of the school in various programs. The teachers of the department would find it much easier to serve these various interests if a larger percentage of the students was prepared to take part. The minimum requirement for music in the Polytechnic High School of Los Angeles is two recitations each week for one year. This ruling has been in force a number of years and has proved very satisfactory. In a large high school, where music is well establisht there are so many different music courses and activities open to the student, both during school and after school, that it should work no hardship to any pupil to meet the music requirement. Even the frankly unmusical pupil will find his place in the "music appreciation" class, where he will find pleasure as well as profit in learning better how to listen to music. Other work which might be available is: sight-singing, theory, harmony, history of music, and chorus; also the band, the orchestra, the glee clubs and mandolin club, as well as class lessons in voice, in piano, in violin, in clarinet, in cornet, in mandolin, and in ukelele. The last part of my general subject, " Patriotic Music in All the Grades," furnishes one of the strongest reasons for making music a required subject in the high school. Unless some definite requirements are made in con- nection with the study of patriotic songs, the few songs which are known are generally learned in a haphazard way with little attention to the meaning of the words. The singing of patriotic songs is spasmodic in most schools. There is an over-indulgence on patriotic days, such as Washington's and Lincoln's birthdays, then these songs are forgotten for the rest of the year. The value of singing such songs would be greater, and the results would be more permanent if the songs were first studied with sufficient care to be learned thoroly, then sung often enough for the children to become familiar with them. The excessive drill necessary at times to get up a program for some special occasion not only interferes with the regular work, but causes the children to become so tired of these songs that they lose altogether the joy of singing. This condition would be obviated and the singing would be much more spontaneous if there were a definite place for a careful and system- atic study of our leading national songs. Pupils of the schools should be required to commit to memory two or three stanzas of a number of the best patriotic songs and folk-songs. It is easy for young people to memorize songs, and it is unfortunate that any should be allowed to go thru school without storing their minds with some of the gems of song and poetry. 486 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music Many men and women who are now barred from singing at social gatherings regret that in their youth they did not learn the old songs which are the common heritage of the race and which are enjoyed by all. Many look upon community music as a fad, as it is conducted at present, and believe that it will soon run its course. The revival of community sing- ing, however, as a nation-wide movement is on the whole hopeful, not only for the cause of music, but for a deeper, purer patriotism. The thoughtful singing of songs of a high type which breathe spirit of a true, unselfish devotion to home and country cannot help having a very great influence for good. A little pamphlet containing fifty-five songs and choruses com- piled and edited by a committee from the National Conference of Music Supervisors, and published by C. C. Birchard & Company will prove a veritable boon to the people interested in community singing. A committee from the National Education Association on the revision of some of our national songs has recommended arrangements of the follow- ing songs: " Star Spangled Banner," "America," " Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean," and "Hail Columbia." A committee appointed by Honorable P. P. Claxton is now considering the same question. It is to be hoped that the action of these committees may result in an official version of these songs which will be accepted by all. It then will be possible for the people in a great convention like this, representing all sections of the country, to sing our national songs in musical and spiritual harmony without being annoyed by having their neighbors on either side singing the song in a different way, according to the version accepted by the various localities. Having establisht a definite, official version of our leading national songs there still remains an important duty before the question of a correct singing of these songs is finally brought about, and that is the placing of this correct version and only this version before the people. This will require the cooperation of the music publishers in furnishing correct copies, especially in new books. Also the host of teachers and musical directors thruout the country will need to hold strictly to this version. It is regrettable that we have so few patriotic songs of real merit, and, in the case of the more important of these, the music has been borrowed from other nations. We have no song approaching in musical worth and patriotic fervor "La Marseillaise," but this war may bring out such a song. When such a song is produced it will be less boastful and less militaristic, and it will breathe a higher form of patriotism with a larger vision of the brotherhood of man than is exprest in the songs of the nations of today. MUSIC APPRECIATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL M. TERESA PINN, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, ST. LOUIS, MO. The youngest nation, our own United States, noted for its marvelous commercial enterprises, now ranks as the most prosperous and wealthiest nation in the world. Pursuant with its policy of aggrandizement in the Department] MUSIC APPRECIATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 487 commercial world the arts have not flourisht. However, the strong love for literature, sculpture, and music has been in the hearts of the Americans, and with the cultivation of our land, the peopling of our states, and the extension thru the west in these last three decades we have added many- names to the lists of great composers. Instrumental and vocal music has been taught by teachers of known (but more frequently unknown) ability, and comparatively few were reacht. A thoro knowledge of music and the equipment for musical writing was not taught even to the most talented pupil. Music in the public school from a crude selection of songs fifty years ago has advanst in a marvelous degree, and we now have a wealth of material that inspires love and desire for a knowledge of music. The glee clubs and orchestras of the high school have always been in favor, and we find a persistent demand for the founding of orchestras in the smaller towns. Only in the last few years have high schools added a music course that allows the talented in music to remain in school and follow their chosen avocation and yet receive a thoro elementary education. The general idea of appreciation in music has been an ear-training knowledge of rhythms and standardized works of great musicians, a recognition of their style, and from that the composer's name. We often find this knowledge in people of no musical attainment, who have attended concerts frequently. Music in its classic form is as definite as architecture. This form must be corre- lated with theory, harmony, and history, as they are all closely affiliated. In order to accomplish this we now have a four years' course of study in our high schools. With the marvelous educational records in the mechanical instruments at our command, and a talented supervisor, this work may be readily exemplified to the student. Appreciation of music is a subject of such magnitude that in this discussion we must only sketch the main historical development. Reverting to the music of the savages as the oldest type, we find a reiteration of monotonous and rhythmical repetition, and later peculiar melodies in endless, insistent recurrence, the notes on the reed furnishing the melody and the percussion instrument the rhythm. The folk-songs appeal to all classes and may be taken up as one of the earliest steps in instruction. Folk-songs are the spontaneous efforts of nature to give utterance to the need of poetry and music, giving the heart emotions and soul aspirations. As early as 1087 a.d. we find a school for folk-songs; there were morning songs, love songs, dance songs, battle songs, serenades, and roundelays. The rope dancers or jongleurs of France, the strollers of Italy, the vagrants of Germany, carried these songs from coun- try to country. As their skill grew, so their musical lore increast, and from their association with their noble patrons we find an added refinement and their names changed to troubadours in France, minstrels and waits in England, meistersingers in Germany. From being accompanists, they became teachers. In the folk-songs we generally find the subject, 488 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music development, frequently transposition, and recapitulation. Many interest- ing examples of these rare songs (found in all modern songbooks) should be played, sung, and taught in the grammar grades, and are delightful for analyzation. These songs of natural origin, ballads, serenades, and rounde- lays, were most popular, and our earliest Flemish schools made use of their untrammeled melodies for contrapuntal development. Every high-school student in the gymnasium studies more or less of the folk-dances, and it is a matter of absolute interest to introduce the old homophonic dances. Orientals, our own Indians, and even our schoolboys, need only a markt rhythm on a tom-tom or drum to start their dancing feet. Balance your phrases, have positive accents, and you have the oldest dance form, and also our present-day type of music. Our great composers early adopted the old folk-songs and primeval dance melodies, or tunes, and by the aid of an exquisite finish of trill or appoggiatura, transposition of theme from tonic or keynote to the fifth or dominant, contrasted phrases, major reverting to minor, and a skilful inversion, have evolved wonderful pieces. Illustrations may be drawn from Corelli and from Bach's exquisite gavottes, and Mozart's and Beeth- oven's minuets. A polonaise of Chopin will inspire any young heart, and even those ignorant of music will listen enthralled to this martial and ani- mated Polish dance. The saraband, originally a peculiar oriental dance, was introduced by the Moors into Spain, and has become one of the favorite Spanish dances. Purcell was most effective in this style and Handel's aria ^'Lascia ch'io Pianga" has attained a marvelous popularity. Bach's sonata in A minor introduces four dances, the saraband, courante (now obsolete), allemande (also obsolete), and gigue. The gigue, a dance of endless repetition and positive accent, we have retained in all countries as our jig. By the combination of several dance forms, all in the same key, were evolved compositions called in Germany the "Suite" and in England "Lessons." One of the most famous examples of these "Lessons" that can be shown the student of music is Handel's "Harmonious Blacksmith," com- posed for Princess Anne, daughter of the Prince of Wales. With the mechanical perfection of the violin by Cremona and Brescia in Italy, com- position of this style of music became most popular, and early in the seven- teenth century these composers and Corelli arranged church chorals and madrigals misnaming them sonatas, viz., "Sonata da chiesa," "Sonata da ballo," "Sonata da camera." These were afterward given their logical place with the suite. As music it was monotonous on account of being written in one key, and with the rivalry between the improved violin and the introduction and gradual perfection of the harpsichord (whose strings were plucked by quills), instrumental compositions were demanded and great technique was required of the performer. Thus the rondo form became the style. The word "rondo" signifies "round" and denotes Department] MUSIC APPRECIATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 489 constant repetition. One of the most worthy specimens of the rondo form is Henry Purcell's wonderful song, "I Attempt from Love's Sickness to Fly" (constantly heard on the concert stage today). Contrast that with Beethoven's finale, the rondo of the "Waldstein" sonata, and realize the great advancement in construction. The rondo is commonly used as the finale of the sonata form. The sonata form, which was the sequential development of the suite and the rondo, is often called ''developt ternary" (or three-part form): the first part, the exposition or announcement, written in the tonic trans- posed to the dominant, the development and elaboration, and last, the recapitulation. Beethoven's "Sonata Pathetique" exemplifies this beauti- ful form. The sonata form may be used in any part of the sonata, but is usually the last, the rondo, or finale. The Church of Rome in its steadfast adherence and search for system in music had retained a chant used at the Last Supper until the year 180. Constantine, in the year 300, tried to systematize the scale. Ambrose, early in the fourth century, developt from a heterogeneous mass of music borrowed from all nations a rhythmic system, and later Gregory evolved the church music used for many centuries and revived this twentieth century. Early music was written in pothooks, hangers, and straight lines, but gradually improvements and spacing were used: colored lines, red for the key of F, and later yellow for the key of C ; and in 1050 Guido made use of a four-line staff. The intervals of the fourth and fifth were advocated five hundred years before Christ; it was only in the Christian era that the third was considered other than a dissonance. To Palestrina, 1528-1594, a talented melodist and also a contrapuntist, we owe the marvelous church music whose masses to this day have never been surpast. His great develop- ment of system and modes gave this period the name of the Renaissance. Italy at this time stood for the best and greatest in music. The nobility had studied the Greek tragedies enacted before Christ in the time of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and wisht to revive the choruses, solos, and orchestral accompaniments of the ancients. All had followed the rules of church music, the result being somber, with funereal arias and choruses. Finally Peri succeeded in giving to the world its first modern opera, Eurydice, which was performed in Florence in 1600 and in 1894 was revived in New York. Its melodic sequences are vastly strange to the modern ear, and its harmony, while thin, is still most interesting. Opera progrest rapidly, and this needs little exposition, as our American nation is more interested in opera than in any form of music. A drama with musical setting and action appeals to all, and our highest exponent, Wagner, calls to his aid imagination, intellect, and soul in his marvelous creations. The oratorio, a religious musical drama without action, had its origin about the same time (1600) in Italy and has attained eminence thru Bach's Passion Play, Mendelssohn's Elijah and greatest of all Haydn's Creation 490 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music and Handel's Messiah. Bach, noted for his polyphonic writings, was a great harpsichord and organ player, and up to his time the thumb had not been used in playing harpsichord, clavichord, or organ. Handel made use of the thumb, but to Bach we owe our present hand position and the systematized use of the thumb in his two- and three-part inventions and other great works. Haydn and Mozart had supreme genius, but to Beethoven, the most incessant worker, with his heaven-born inspirations we owe the greatest in music. His works are vaster, more archaic, broader and more individual, more concise and unified, and his nine symphonies (for we all know the symphony is the orchestral sonata) are the criterion of excellence. The de- velopment of the orchestra is interesting alike to the musical and the non- musical. Our great American composer Horatio Parker says that "the orchestra speaks in a living, growing language. It is by far the most eloquent of the tongues by which composers can express themselves." A. E. Winship writes: "The cabaret sweeps the multitude within its net, because it is known that all ears will swing and sway with rhythm. The ear needs to be aroused, stirred, and thrilled. No other sense has been so neglected." And again, "There are some in every school who can only have melody stirred in them by the melody of song and there are few if any who will not respond to melody." We know that this is so, therefore let us give to the pupils in our grammar schools melody of the best and song of the simplest and the highest, and, having attuned their ears, we shall find many in our high schools who will elect the music course, realizing that knowledge of form causes an enthralling interest in each movement, development, connection, and continuity of the whole; that counterpoint is the con- structing of several melodies that can be sung or played simultaneously without breaking rules of harmony. The inhabitants of all regions sing spontaneously and naturally; and if appreciation of music is fostered and taught in the schools there will be listeners who are an inspiration, and many inspired composers developt, for music is inherent in us. Let our American boys and girls in these United States give new life to the songs of joy and peace to gladden the home; songs of effect and endeavor to gladden their labors; songs of martial uplift and bravery to stir our nation; and songs of praise to our Creator that we may attain the highest and best. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — L. N. HiNES, superintendent of schools Crawfordsville, Ind. Vice-President — Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. Secretary — C. Ward Crumpton, director of physical training New York, N.Y. The Department of Child Hygiene held two sessions at the Shattuck School in Port- land, The first session was held at 2 : oo p.m., Wednesday, July 1 1 , and the second at 9 : 00 A.M., Friday, July 13. The president of the department, L. N. Hines, superintendent of schools at Crawfordsville, Ind., presided at both meetings. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, July ii, 191 7 At the Wednesday afternoon session, the program was as follows: "The Tacoma System of Health Supervision" — E, A. Layton, Director of Health, Tacoma, Wash. "Sanitation of the Rural Schoolhouse in Oregon" — Marvin S. Pittman, Oregon Normal School, Monmouth, Ore. "Physical Training versus Athletics" — Charles H. Hunt, director of physical educa- tion, Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash. "Some Factors in Human Efficiency" — Miss Alice Ravenhill, fellow. Royal Sanitary Institute, London, England. Ira C. Brown, chief medical inspector, Seattle, Wash., and N. K. Foster, chief medical director, public schools, Oakland, Cal., could not be present on account of duties con- nected with the war. The topic treated by the former was "Getting Results in Medical Inspection." The paper by the latter was on "Preventive Medicine in the Schools." These papers were read by title and were sent in for publication in the Proceedings. SECOND SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 13, 191 7 The program for the second session was as follows: "A State Program for School Health" — Horace Ellis, state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. "Some Phases of Child- Welfare Work" — Martha Randall, assistant in Department of Public Safety for Women, Portland, Ore. "The Work of the School Nurse" — Emma C. Grittenger, superintendent. Visiting Nurses' Association, Portland, Ore. "Oral Hygiene — Its Relation to Economic and Educational Efficiency" — Henry Cline Fixott, Lecturer, North Pacific College of Dentistry, Portland, Ore. "A Suggested Program for Sex Instruction" — Bertha Chapman Cady, Berkeley, Cal. Dr. Walter B. Swift, Boston, Mass., was prevented by sickness from being present to present his paper on "How to Prevent Speech Defects in Public Schools." The nominating committee, with Dr. Wm. Burdick, superintendent of physical edu- cation in Maryland, as chairman, reported the following persons as nominees for the offices of the department: President — Dr. E. A. Peterson, head of the Department of School Hygiene, Cleveland, Ohio. Vice-President — Dr. Arthur Holmes, dean of faculties. State College, Pa. Secretary — Mary E. Lent, Public Health Nursing Association, New York, N.Y. The report of the committee was adopted. There being no further business the department adjourned. 491 492 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Child Hygiene PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS SANITATION OF THE RURAL SCHOOLHOUSE IN OREGON MARVIN S. PITTMAN, DEPARTMENT OP INSTITUTES AND RURAL SCHOOLS, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MONMOUTH, ORE. Teachers, preachers, reformers, creators of whatever sort, have learned that to proclaim the evil, to describe the ugly and foul, to portray the pitiful and poor mean only ill-will of the guilty, brutality to the pure and the innocent, and depression for all. They have learned, therefore, to work on the creative, constructive side, to paint health and strength, to portray beauty and goodness, to laud the great and the true, to make the mean, ugly, and unworthy appear all the worse in comparison with the worthy, the beautiful, and the good, rather than to reveal faults by directing attention to them alone. The school authorities of Oregon, following this psychological principle, have selected a number of points which are fundamental in a good rural school, stated them briefly, clearly, and printed them upon a card which is entitled, "Requirements for a Standard Rural School." This card is put up permanently in some conspicuous place in every rural school, where it may be seen constantly by teacher, pupils, and patrons, and thus serves as a constant reminder to them to live up to its ideals. This, supplemented by the enthusiastic boosting and constant encouragement of the county superintendent and rural supervisor, stimulates active cooperation on the part of the entire community to high educational ideals. Five of these requirements look to the sanitation of the school and the good health of the children. The fact that attention is called to each of these phases is an ever-present precept teaching its own truth and inviting further investigation. More than five principles of sanitation are treated, tho they appear under only five heads as follows: proper lighting, equip- ment, heating and ventilating, grounds, and sanitation. It is left for the local authorities to determine what proper lighting is. Investigation reveals the amount of light required, the direction of the compass from which it should come, how it should fall upon the child and the teacher best to protect their eyes, the sort of window shades that are most suitable, the tint of the schoolroom walls and ceiling, and other features which affect the proper lighting of a room. In this particular the card is deficient. There should always accompany it a booklet which would clearly explain in terms not too technical the scientific reasons for each and every point required in the standard. As to the equipment the standard requires: teacher's desk and chair, desks for the pupils properly adapted and placed, suitable blackboards, and window shades in good condition. All of these requirements look to the sanitation and good health of the school, but such large hberty in interpre- Department] SANITATION OF RURAL SCHOOLHOUSES IN OREGON 493 tation is allowed that many times they fall far below the health-giving standard. Quite specific advice should be given to guarantee the sort of chair and desks for teacher and pupils to be restful, bracing, health-giving. Care in the selection of the blackboard and in the placing of it is of no less importance. The grounds are to be kept clean and free from papers. At least three pieces of play apparatus are to be provided. Walks are to be provided if necessary. This at first glance seems to have little to do with sanitation, but upon closer investigation we can see how vital it is. Clean play- grounds mean that they must be, not only free from rubbish, but also drained, free from water, and provided with the necessary walks to guarantee dry feet. A very large part of the sickness of children comes as a result of wet feet. The play apparatus emphasizes the necessity for activity and happiness which are necessary elements of good health. Heating and ventilating have received a great deal of attention in the the Oregon rural schools in recent years. The standard calls for a jacketed stove properly situated, as a minimum requirement. It calls for window boards or some other approved method of ventilating. This requirement has led to a very general investigation of this problem by practically every school board in the state. As a result, furnaces, Waterbury, Smith, and other approved types of heaters, properly installed, have been put into hundreds of rural schools, and but few schools in the entire state still have the old, unjacketed stove with its radiated heat, democratically situated in the middle of the room with no special privilege to any and with death- dealing danger to all. Ventilation, the natural adjunct of heating, has received an equal amount of attention, and the wholesome atmosphere which greets one as he enters the Oregon rural school testifies to the changed order of things since the days "when the air of the schoolroom smelled not like itself, I swear, but of the children there." Under the subject of sanitation are the following provisions: Pure drinking water, either drinking fountain or covered tank, individual drinking-cups, and individual or paper towels. Outbuildings, at least two good ones, to be sanitary at all times and free from marks. This has led to the installation of water systems, bubbling fountains, and other sanitary means of securing water free from contaminating sources, to the careful analysis of water supply annually in many cases, to a closer supervision of the health of the school, and to the prevention of the spread of contagious and infec- tious diseases. As a helper to the teacher in doing this work and also in keeping the grounds clean and the outbuildings in good condition, a health officer has been appointed or elected from among the children. This advice has done much to stimulate the pride of the children in cleanliness and sanitation. Sanitation, in the judgment of the Oregon school authorities, is the important phase of medical science. While it may be wonderful to 494 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene cure, it is more wonderful to prevent. They believe that this is to be accomplisht, not so much by law as by education, not so much by forbidding as by inspiring. This explains the Oregon standard school card and the effort which Oregon is making to teach every day to all of the children the laws of good health in a simple guise that all can understand and in a form that all will be inspired to obey. THE TACOMA SYSTEM OF HEALTH SUPERVISION EDWIN A. LAYTON, M.D., DIRECTOR OF HEALTH, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, TACOMA, WASH. The purpose of this paper is not to discuss ideals, but to describe a program of health supervision as it is being carried out in the Tacoma schools. The aim in the health supervision is preservation and promotion of health and prevention of disease. In this time of vast destruction of human life and impairment of health, there is no more patriotic service nor greater economic necessity than child conservation. It is a positive move- ment, and the endeavor is to make health more contagious than disease and good health as "compulsory" as school attendance. In the Tacoma school system hygiene and physical training is a distinct department. It is recognized that every educational effort has a health aspect, but the supervision of health, as here outlined, includes in its scope: health examination at school entrance, annual inspection of all pupils, systematic effort to obtain relief for remediable defects, free dental service and vision tests in worthy cases, special examination of pupils, the control of communicable diseases, school sanitation, care of accidents and minor aihnents in schools, nurses' home visitation, and the supervision of school lunches. "System" is necessary in order to discover just what one should do and to enable one to get it done. In this work there is danger of distraction and great need of concentrated effort. Health work must be both generalized and speciaHzed. It is largely supervisory and advisory. It is essentially educational, and results depend upon compelling people to take voluntary action for the improvement of health. ADMINISTRATION The health activities are under the direction of the educational depart- ment of the schools. Health work is closely articulated with the school system and bears its proper relation to the whole process of education. The present force consists of a director of health, a medical inspector, a dentist, two nurses, and volunteer workers in special lines. The work is continued eleven months in the year. The cost is about forty cents for each enrolled pupil. Department! THE TACOMA SYSTEM OF HEALTH SUPERVISION 495 The director of health is head of the department and devotes full time to the work. The medical inspector, a woman physician, is employed for part time and is special examiner and advisor of high-school and older girls. The dentist gives part time, which is confined to the dental chair at the central office. The nurses are assigned to districts and each follows an itinerary in visiting schools. Offices are establisht in the central building in connection with other administrative offices of the schools. Hours are 8:30 to 9:30 and from 3:00 to 5:00 every school day and on Saturdays from 9:00 to 12:00. The nurses assist in office and clerical work, keep records, etc. An aid in administration is a Health Bulletin, issued at the opening of schools. SCHOOL SANITATION It is regarded as fundamental to see that school children are provided with healthful surroundings and that the health is safeguarded in every way under the conditions of school life. Every effort is made to maintain the highest standard of sanitation. The following are some salient features of the sanitary supervision: Buildifigs and grounds. — ^The grounds for twenty-five permanent buildings average about one hundred and twenty-five square feet of play- ground space for each pupil. One high school has nine acres and a stadium seating approximately forty thousand; the other has ten acres of ground. Most of the buildings are modern, brick, two-story structures. Floor space and air space per pupil, Hghting, etc., are according to accepted standards. Floors are oiled. Walls are finisht in neutral or buff tints. The buildings are kept in good repair for sanitation and safety. Heating and ventilation. — Naturally various kinds of heating and ventilating systems are in operation. Whatever the system, however, stress is laid upon service, and in such an equable climate, with a humid atmos- phere, absence of strong winds, etc., it is found that satisfactory sanitary conditions can be maintained. Drinking water, lavatories, and toilets. — Water is pure and supplied by adequate and accessible drinking fountains in every building. Paper towels are provided. Toilet facihties are: boys — one seat for each twenty- five and adequate urinals; girls — one seat for each fifteen. There is frequent inspection of plumbing and of ventilation of toilet-rooms. Service. — This includes practical talks to janitors on sanitation. There is insistence upon cleanUness as the basis of sanitation, and the best service possible in the particular plant. Dustless sweeping and careful dusting is he rule. Swimming-pools. — The sanitation and safety of the four swimming- pools has two aspects — the purification of the water and their influence upon the health. The first includes bacteriological analysis, filtration and chemical purffication, change of water and disinfection as necessary, exclusion of persons having any communicable disease, and shower baths 496 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ChUd Hygiene before using. The second includes temperature of the water at from 74 to 78 degrees and of the air a few degrees higher, window ventilation, careful laundry of towels and suits, keeping girls' hair dry, and finishing with cold showers. HEALTH EXAMINATIONS Health examination at school entrance. — The supervision of health begins with an examination to determine the physical fitness of the prospective pupil to undertake school work. As far as possible, these examinations are made in the early summer before entrance, and are completed during the early days of school. After the school census is made, a circular letter is sent to those parents whose children have reacht school age, suggesting that such an examination will be of mutual benefit and naming the time and place, etc. The value and some of the results may be enumerated: (i) pa- rental cooperation is solicited at a most opportune time, more or less of an impression is made at the very beinning that there is a relationship between health and education, and, whether or not the parents respond, they must admit that the schools are concerned with the child's welfare; (2) those who naturally take advantage of such an examination are those who have some reason to question the child's preparedness or to be concerned about the effect of school life upon his health; (3) the possible early discovery and timely relief of physical handicaps to normal progress in school avoid unnecessary, inevitable, and humiliating failure of the pupil and save futile effort of the teacher at the expense of normal children. Health inspection in the classroom. — Nurses make a routine inspection of all pupils during the first month of school, and at other times as there may be occasion. With the aid of the teacher, all conditions are noted which require attention according to fixt standards. Broadly speaking, this means any condition which may affect the health and progress in school, or conditions which affect the welfare of others. Briefly, these are: defects of sight and hearing; diseases of eye, ear, nose, and throat; decayed teeth; malnutrition; mental, nervous, and speech defects; organic diseases; tuberculosis; and all communicable diseases, etc. The value of health inspection depends upon the powers of observation and intelligent discrimination of nurses and teachers, and an effort is made to instruct both very specifically in this respect. Nurses and teachers use great care and tact in expressing opinions as to physical and mental con- ditions or suggesting forms of treatment. Even the physician is very dis- creet in making a positive diagnosis, and makes recommendations advisedly. Special examinations. — By a superficial examination in the school, of those referred to, there is still further sifting, and special cases are segregated and studied, and systematic effort is made to obtain relief. In many cases the parents are askt to bring the child for a health conference to the central office, after school hours or Saturday morning. No apology is made for putting the parents to a little trouble. Physical examinations, therefore. Department! THE TACOMA SYSTEM OF HEALTH SUPERVISION 497 are made only with the consent and in the presence of parents or guardians and when there is ample time and adequate facilities. It is specifically stated that these appointments are for advice and not for treatment. This arrangement is eminently satisfactory. It is regarded as being "half the battle" to get those responsible to recognize the need and to understand the benefits that may be secured. With the desire created to do something about it, ways and means may be devised; and with parental cooperation gained thru this personal consultation, results are sure to follow. Special examinations are made of teachers, of candidates for such athletics as football, and of juvenile-court cases. DIVISION OF REUEF Cooperation is the keynote in getting things done for the relief of remediable conditions. Relief is afforded by the schools and thru coopera- tive agencies: Relief afforded by the schools. — The system of health supervision con- templates the fullest cooperation of all concerned with the well-rounded development of the child. Helpful suggestions are made to principals and teachers concerning the health of pupils, and right motives and methods secure their cheerful cooperation. The following are the principal forms of relief: (i) Nursing, which embraces those conditions and minor ailments for which it is not necessary to exclude the pupils from school and which can be cared for satisfactorily by the nurse, as infected wounds, uncleanli- ness, pediculosis, scabies, impetigo, ringworm, toothache, and first aid in injuries. (2) All accidents occurring on the grounds during school hours are reported immediately to the director of health, who renders first-aid service, makes investigation, and assures himself that the child will be given proper attention. (3) The school dentist treats those who are considered deserving and for whom it is likely that nothing will be done unless it be by the schools. Full consent of the parents is obtained. Dental work is confined to extrac- tions, treatments, and cement and amalgam filHngs. Special emphasis is placed upon dental prophylaxis. (4) Teachers are instructed to make an annual test of sight and hearing of every pupil. Parents are encouraged to pay for glasses, but frequently they are furnisht free. (5) Lunches are served in six schools on a cooperative plan and are self-supporting. They are important factors in the promotion of health. Lunches are often pre- scribed for the malnourisht, and many pupils are fed free. Relief thru cooperative agencies. — While remedial measures are employed to a certain extent, what the schools actually do is insignificant compared to what they succeed in getting done thru sympathetic cooperation with the home and the various health and social agencies. The Home : The first step after the discovery of any defect is to notify the parents. The matter may be allowed to rest here, or is followed by a home visit by the nurse, or an appointment with the school physician. The 498 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene spirit of cooperation is cultivated thru parent-teacher associations, etc. A markt result of the work is the more hearty response of the home. The Professions: It is the aim to conduct the health activities in such a way as to merit the good-will and cooperation of doctors, dentists, and specialists. As a matter of fact, there is but little difficulty in making ar- rangements for professional services according to the patient's circumstances. Hospitals and Sanatoria: Private hospitals generously provide their facilities for half-price to children recommended by the schools as deserv- ing consideration. Real charity cases are urged to avail themselves of the services of the county hospital and medical staff. There are reciprocal relations between the schools and the tuberculosis sanitarium and the anti-tuberculosis league. Provision is made for children unable to attend school, and a most important cooperative work is in keeping the children who have been at the sanitarium under observation. City Health Department: To avoid overlapping and to secure better cooperation it is agreed that the director of health in the schools shall have special jurisdiction in all pubHc-health matters touching the public schools and be regarded a member ex officio of the city health department. In the matter of communicable diseases it is understood to be the function of the schools to exclude and to report all cases, while the city health department shall place these cases under quarantine, or isolation, and release them at the proper time for re-admission to school. RECORDS AND REPORTS Records are designed to be a help and not a hindrance, and to show the needs as well as the accomplishments with the least time and trouble. Care is taken that records do not become bulky and burdensome, that the system is of service, and that one in no sense becomes a slave to the system. Health record. — ^This is a 4 X 6-inch card in two colors on the face of which are enumerated the usual defects and diseases of school life, with spaces for eight years' record. On the reverse side findijigs are noted and efforts and results are recorded. This card is made and kept only for pupils who are under observation. The chief feature is the system of filing. A covered box, with a capacity of 1000 cards, is provided for each school. There is an alphabetical guide; a guide card for each grade or room; and special guides, as "new cases," "school nurse," "physician," "dentist," "notify parents," "visit home," "excluded," and "contagious diseases." Thus, instead of writing, cards are simply shifted. The method of use is somewhat as follows: At the opening of school, all cards carried forward are filed alphabetically. As pupils are referred to by rooms^ record cards are found or new ones made. Cards for those kept under observation are filed by rooms or under special headings. Cards Department! PHYSICAL TRAINING VERSUS ATHLETICS 499 kept for reference only are returned to the alphabetical Ust. At the close of the year cards are gone over and if of no further use are destroyed. Register of defects and diseases. — This is a sheet SjX i3§ inches with lines for twenty-four names. There are forty-one columns under the six head- ings, "History," "Diagnosis," "Effort," "Treatment," "Results," and " Remarks." There is a sheet for each grade in each school, and every pupil having a record card is registered according to his classification at the beginning of the first semester. This register has great possibiUties. It is at once an accurate system of accounting, a record and tabulation by grades of health conditions, a ready index of all pupils under observation at a given time, a convenient classi- fication of defects allowing special investigation, and a permanent record of needs and results by the year. Special. — Records of special cases and investigations are. kept at the central office. Reports and recommendations concerning health matters are made to the superintendent as there may be occasion. A table of contagious diseases is corrected daily, and a monthly report is made by schools. A monthly summary of nurses' reports is also made. Finally, a semiannual statement is made of all work done, so far as it can be tabulated. Limitations of the system are recognized, and such subjects as better provision for defectives and open-air schools are being approacht from the health side. The Tacoma public schools are disposed to provide the very best in sanitation and health, and by prevention and correction, by teaching and training in right habits of thought and action, to bestow good health as the better part of wisdom. PHYSICAL TRAINING VERSUS ATHLETICS CHARLES H. HUNT, DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, LEWIS AND CLARK HIGH SCHOOL, SPOKANE, WASH. Seldom, if ever, in the history of the world has there been such an awakening as that which is calling the American people to preparedness. Developing from fanatacism filled with wild and impossible schernes, there has gradually grown a real desire to understand and achieve by careful study and personal sacrifice a real national preparedness. The percentage of rejections of those applying for enlistment in our Army and Navy have appalled us. Altho statistics have been available for many years, we failed to give them any attention until the Great War and its attendant horrors made vivid our real need of physical preparedness. The nation is no stronger than her men, and the men are no stronger than their bodies. When from 72 to 83 per cent of the men applying for service were rejected, is it any wonder that the aroused public sentiment 500 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Chad Hygiene has askt the educational world the questions: Why have you trained the mind and neglected the body? Why have you taught so diligently the "three R's" and allowed faulty posture to cause spinal disorders and in other ways incapacitate the student physically for the battle of life ? The public is no longer indifferent; the preparedness issue has accomplisht that much. The people are caUing for action, and they seem ready to sup- port a reorganized and adequate physical- and health-education program. As long as school administrative heads and the public consider ath- letics, as commonly conducted, physical education, just so long will we as a nation lack physical preparedness. The average high-school physical director is told that winning teams are desirable, and if he accomplishes this and gets thru his gymnasium work some way or other he is a suc- cess. But this is not the true function of the director. Athletics are worth while when properly conducted, and winning teams are good things, but are really only a small part of a strong physical program and conse- quently should not be given the place of first importance. The coaching of winning teams takes much time and energy, and naturally that time given to a few, usually the best physical specimens of the school, robs the bal- ance of the student body of that which they so much need. In a study of the students of the Lewis and Clark High School, of Spokane, Wash., covering a three-year period, some interesting facts have been disclosed. Of the fifteen hundred male students examined, the exami- nations coming at the beginning and the close of each semester, about 38 per cent were what I called below normal in strength for the age. About 8 per cent of these were excused from regular gymnastics and given orthopedic or corrective gymnastics in small groups with special work for each case. Out of the 38 per cent below normal which included a large portion of the 8 per cent corrective students, thirty-two and a fraction left school before the second examination at the close of the semester. Some of these left for economic reasons, and others because they were unable to do the school work required; but giving due allowance for this fact, there are a great many students leaving high school because they are physically unfit. I feel certain that the number leaving school from this group could be cut down considerably by examining the students in time in the elementary schools and giving corrective gymnastics. Of the students taking general gymnastic work, which included a pro- gram of apparatus work, calesthenics, maze running, and recreative games, the average gain in strength for the first semester's work was 278 points. Eleven students showed no gain, probably owing to rapid growth or illness. Among the 8 per cent corrective students, the increase averaged 409 points. The highest strength test made by a beginning Freshman was 1447 points and the lowest test totaled only 196 points. The average for Freshman in this school for the three years was 7S7tV points. The Sever formula for strength test was used. t Department] PHYSICAL TRAINING VERSUS ATHLETICS 501 A test given to a group of thirty representative athletes who partici- pated in the major sports showed the following: eighteen gained an aver- age of 208 points, seven lost an average of 179 points, five showed no appreciable change. While this group is small and many contributing in- fluences must be taken into consideration, still they demonstrate the fact that from the physical-hetterment standpoint regular gymnastics are superior to competitive sports. During the examinations of the teeth I found that a large percentage used a toothbrush but seldom, and over 90 per cent were troubled with constipation and knew of no rational method of doing away with this trouble. We need more health talks straight from the shoulder, and we need to teach a practical physiology in the elementary schools and follow it up in the high school where the student will take a more active interest in the subject. No program of physical education is meeting the needs of the student that does not have as its foundation the teaching of the rudi- ments of health education. The fact is well known that much physical disability might have been corrected or prevented had the student been examined soon enough and the proper orthopedic work given. I cannot help believing that our tendency to overemphasize winning athletics has had something to do with the case. During the last school year the spectators' gallery in our g5minasium was condemned, making it advisable to dispense with a representative basket- ball team. This is what resulted. We formed an interclass league of eight teams with ten or more players on each team, giving us a squad of over a hundred in place of the usual fifteen or twenty. So successful was this league and so strong the interest that we formed a second league of thirty-eight teams with some four hundred players. We played the game in two ten- minute periods or ten minutes on the floor and ten off. While we were handicapt by lack of playing space, as only space for one game at a time is usually provided for in our gymnasiums, our results were well worth while. Not one scheduled game was forfeited. The boys learned the rules and played better and faster basket-ball. Fair play and strict adherence to rules and officials' decisions were the result, and, better than that, almost every boy in the Lewis and Clark High School, whose physical examination showed him fit to play the game, had some part in it. We followed the same scheme for field and track and had equally good results, incidentally winning every meet we entered with a well-balanst team. Instead of having one one-miler we had thirty-four who could do it in fair time, and six who could do it in very good time. We had a greater percentage of men on the scholastic honor role and a better school spirit. Our teams were made up of all the students and represented students interested and active in every school activity. We had fewer spectators, but more performers. Never have we had a better opportunity to put our ideas into actual practice than that which the preparedness agitation is now giving us. We 502 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [ChUd Hygiene shall need money and equipment. We shall need a much larger force of trained directors. We must have the even more liberal support of the boards of education, and they must think twice before appropriating on so small a scale for physical education as to cripple if not defeat it in the first place. Administrative heads must insist upon and encourage a rational program of work in preference to the developing of winning teams. We need more health instruction and physical examination thruout the students' school life. Such a program conscientiously followed would soon do away with a large part of our so-called physical disability, and American efficiency would be increast in every line of endeavor. It would mean a tremendous eco- nomic saving, but better than all it would give every American boy and girl a chance to meet life physically as well as mentally equipt to take up the duties of life. SOME FACTORS IN HUMAN EFFICIENCY ALICE RAVENHILL, FELLOW, ROYAL SANITARY INSTITUTE, LATE LECTURER ON HYGIENE, UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, KINGS COLLEGE FOR WOMEN A most important factor in efficiency has been hitherto regrettably obscured by the omission to revise well-intentioned dogmas of the past in the fuller hght of later learning. Even now the community at large seems reluctant to accept what the late Sir Francis Galton insisted should animate conduct with all the force of a powerful religious motive, namely, a general realization of the unutihzed, inherent capacities in human nature coupled with the noble and patriotic duty of their development thru the multiplica- tion of thrwing, gifted famiUes. After fifty years, this teaching is still a closed book to the majority. It behooves the more thoughtful, therefore, to inter- est the rising generation in the promotion of conditions for themselves and their successors corresponding to those which have contributed in the past to the high standards of achievement among such of our predecessors as were conspicuous for their abiUties; who attained to standards of conduct which modern youth must be fired to emulate and surpass. Ignorance is no plea for the disregard of these truths. The factors which characterize the finest quality of human material have long been tabulated for our informa- tion, based upon evidence collected over many years with all precautions necessary to scientific accuracy. Human nature varies in its grades of capacity over a relatively wide range. A study of the family history of several hundred world-renowned men shows conclusively that power manifested in some form of rare ability in these selected individuals was reflected in a higher general level of attainment among a striking proportion of their relatives in preceding and succeeding generations. And there is a sufficiency of evidence to justify the conclusion that, given favorable con- Department! SOME FACTORS IN HUMAN EFFICIENCY 503 ditions plus a good quality of nature, the proportion of such gifted mem- bers of any nation is susceptible of great increase. Unquestionably the representatives of these selected families possest quite definite characteristics — characteristics which manifested themselves to a greater or less degree in every case past in review. First and foremost among these comes energy, or fulness of vitality — energy, however, so con- trolled that its exercise always results in achievement. Next in order comes capacity for keen perception, for accurate observation, for fine distinction in the field of senses. A third distinguishing quality is initiative coupled with industry and associated with perserverance. Then follows a markt power of adaptabiUty to unfamiliar conditions; a love of liberty; an ever- present courtesy, or consideration for others; and always good health over a considerable period of Hfe. Is it not time that our young people were acquainted with these facts ? Is it not time that they were trained to trace the connection between these factors in human efficiency and the responsi- bility of parenthood ? Would not two essential foundations for the goal we have in view be by these means well and truly laid ? The pubHc conscience must be awakened to what one writer calls the "holiness of generation," and equally must it be trained to realize that the purpose of education is the utilization of knowledge for the welfare and advancement of the race. If this premise be accepted it becomes necessary to re-adjust a prevalent misconception as to the significance of that unpopular and much misunder- stood subject, economics. If the history of the word be traced onward from the meaning attached to it by the Greeks to that assigned to it today by a nation most precise and apt in its vocabulary, the French, we shall perceive that, far from being confined solely to the right regulation of house- hold affairs or to the restriction of expenditure, it is now employed to signify the wise and judicious use of all or any of our resources, and covers the intelli- gent planning and correct arrangement of work to this end. To many minds the thought will be unfamiliar that this word "economy" applies also to the wise and judicious use of human material, and that an important factor in efficiency is such wise arrangement and judicious control of condi- tions that the highest quahties of nature are the product. Perhaps this aspect of our subject will be more famiUar if designated by the name assigned to it by the pioneer of eugenics, who classified under the designation "nur- ture" the numerous factors under our control by means of which the resources of nature can be quickened into activity. These multiple agencies in vital development may be again subdivided into two main groups: those associated chiefly with environment and those rankt under the head of education. To the first group belong food and cleanliness, air and sleep, conditions of light and warmth, occupation and companionship. To the second is assigned the formation of habits, the development of latent gifts and of the power to use them, the acquirement of experience thru a study of the arts and sciences, and, generally, the adjustment of self to society. 504 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ChUd Hygiene But the following quotation from a recent writer indicates how well- nigh impossible it is to separate successfully and accurately into water- tight compartments these multiple factors in efficiency, interwoven as are nature and nurture by countless intricate threads. He writes: Education, by which is meant not merely school instruction, but the influence of home and the surrounding society, is not a less necessary condition of national vigor than wages, sanitary regulations, and the like; the spiritual as well as the physical training of children, the nature of their amusements, the bent of their interests, the character of their aims and ideals at that critical period when the boy or girl is growing into manhood or womanhood — all these are things which conduce directly, as well as indirectly, to the vigor of the race. So, if nature is to be sound and luxuriant, if nurture is to be intelligent and well adjusted, we find ourselves called upon to cultivate a more intelli- gent public opinion and to expend the conception of parental responsibility on the one hand, and on the other to extend our own sphere as educators until it embraces the uttermost ramifications of our complex social consti- tution. Take, for example, the formation of good habits as one of the most potent factors in human efiiciency, indispensable to the harmonious working of the individual mind and body, essential to the happiness of the family group, and influential in the maintenance of the right relations by society. The process must begin at birth and be systematically continued for many succeeding years. It demands of both parents a general acquaintance with the order of development of the physical and mental functions and of the conditions favorable to the acquirement of a sound and balanst nervous system; well nourisht, suitably stimulated, and abundantly refresht by sleep and exercise. Upon such a firm foundation the teacher, skilled in his craft, should be able to superimpose his edifice of physical, mental, and moral training and instruction; but, unless he be assured of parental cooperation, his efforts may be frustrated by needlessly accentuated and detrimental inequalities of growth, nutrition, and consequently of develop- ment, in the pupils to whose interests he devotes his powers. Combination of forces is here again an integral factor in achievement. For example, it is an accepted physiological fact that the actual quality of brain tissue is determined before birth; for this our ancestors are responsible. But for control of the bodily functions from early infancy; for opportunity to exercise all the fundamental muscular coordinations; for the habit of prolonged, quiet sleep; for a sound digestion; for the experience acquired by means of ample, free play; for prompt obedience; for courtesy to com- panions; for a thirst to learn what, why, and how, before school days begin; for all these habits parents are responsible. On the other hand, for abihty to concentrate attention; for training in the correct methods of study; for the spirit of ready cooperation and a respect for the rights and wishes of others; for a sense of obligation to train L Department] SOME FACTORS IN HUMAN EFFICIENCY 505 for effective self-support; for the realization that opportunities for personal advancement carry associated responsibiUties for public service; all these and many more factors in human efficiency call for the united, sympathetic influences and example of home, school, and community. Coordination and cooperation are recognized as the keynote of success by those interested in the promotion of efficiency in agriculture, in com- merce, and in sport. How much more should they ring out loud and clear to insure corresponding harmony of methods and ideals in the educators, active in home, school, college, workshop, and office. Is it too much to hope that coincidently with these prerequisites to the economical rearing of an efficient race the mutual suspicion may be banisht which too commonly prevails among taxpayers, parents, educational and medical experts, and school trustees ? I reiterate these facts at the risk of wearying my hearers; for the date at which this active cooperation between the man in the street and the specialist shall merge from the stage of pious aspiration into that of productive practice depends largely upon the teaching profession and its ally, the press. We all know that human existence rightly regulated could be one of har- monious equilibrium. We all agree with Francis Bacon that "knowledge is first to be acquired and then put in action, in order that the harp of man's body may be tuned to harmony." But do we sufficiently impress upon the pubHc, and more especially upon the young public with which we are so closely associated, that it is, as Bacon pointed out, our duty to "gather this excellent dew of knowledge," because it "is a rich store for the relief of man's estate"; the word "estate" being employed, as was customary in those days, to include man's physical condition as well as his personal property. We have gathered a sufficiency of that "dew" to understand that costly disharmonies in our human economy result from a faulty quaUty of inherited nature; from detrimental conditions before and after birth. We all know the importance of suited food, exercise, rest, occupation, and surroundings. We all know that the body is furnisht with a marvelous system of defensive agents against disease and misuse. We all know the direful effects of neglect, of insufficient training, vocational or otherwise; we all know that even such details as a habitually asymmetrical posture hampers mental and physical efficiency. But convention, inertia, absence of a health conscience, failure to grasp the responsibility of knowledge, contribute to two disastrous results. Few who possess this knowledge exemplify it by personal practice perhaps the most potent channel of influence, and few feel it incumbent on them to preach the new gospel to the unlearned at all ages. In some cases moral, religious, or scientific arguments would carry the most weight; in others, more stress must be laid on the economic aspects of the matter; but to all the light of right knowledge must be brought. It can now be demonstrated to taxpayers, as a result of carefully conducted investigations, that public funds are grievously wasted when So6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene schools are ill lighted, poorly ventilated, or inadequately cleaned, because of the detrimental effects upon the pupils. That large classes, long lesson periods, and overworkt teachers are the falsest possible economy can also be demonstrated. Or to turn to another far-reaching agency in human efficiency — there is no further excuse for public ignorance of the fact that to permit conditions which encourage the multiphcation of the poorest quality of human material, and to accept, without giving careful heed to possible re-adjustment of controling factors, the steady limitation of families among the most desirable elements in the population is cutting at the very founda- tions of national stability and progress. Society at large must compre- hend the extent of the moral and economic crime which leaves the youth of a nation untrained in a sense of racial responsibility. The educational expert must come more out into the open and preach his revised conception of his art, which he has permitted too long to be tinctured by mediaeval limitations. It is he who must point out at all times that the end of learning is the betterment of life, not merely personal enjoyment or advancement. He must take a firmer stand on the revision of methods and subject-matter within his province; his appeal to parents and public must be framed on fines which compel their attention. Finally, he must enfist in his support a press which will present facts with becoming gravity and insistent emphasis, so that the national attitude toward the quality of human life and the standard of achievement of each individual unit may become one of individual responsibility — a responsibility based upon a sense of the reverence due to humanity at its best, and characterized by united and vigorous activity in raising the standard of efficiency to levels hitherto unattained, because detrimental, but preventable conditions, sluggishly and most uneconomically condoned have been permitted to inter- fere with those primary factors, a sound inheritance, good nurture, intelli- gent education, and a highly developt sense of personal responsibifities, domestic, social, and racial. A STATE PROGRAM FOR SCHOOL HEALTH HORACE ELLIS, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, INDLA.NAPOLIS, IND. First and foremost in any rational program of reformation must be a campaign for education. The popular mind must be urged to activity, because voluntary action is rarely possible. In a state program for school health this campaign for education must be insistent, scientific, continuous. Righteous movements, like the progress of the world at large, have their periods of Dark Ages when all that is known and all that is felt which tends to the upward impulse slumber. The fires of intelligence can be kept aHve only by constant exhortation to alertness on the part of the fire-keepers. Department! A STATE PROGRAM FOR SCHOOL HEALTH 507 The old adage "Health is wealth" is true. Health is happiness, also, and efficiency in living as well. When the poet sings, I'd like to be a boy again, A care-free prince of joy again, I'd like to climb an apple tree, Just like I used to do, he emphasizes a health condition in childhood, which, if guaranteed to the school children of today would give ample assurance of a stalwart sturdiness in the race. This campaign of education for our schools should set forth thru public discussion, thru the public press, thru the parent-teachers meetings, thru the institute, in a concrete, sane, and scientific way the factors entering into health, its conservation, and its protection. In a general way teachers should be advised to take particular charge of children when they arrive at the school buildings in the morning or after the noon recess. They should guard against wet feet, damp clothing, or extremes of heat or cold. Thirstiness, depression, nervousness, and even hunger are some of the things which will appear in any group of children newly arrived at the school, if proper inquiry be made. Just here the teacher, in a complete sense and in a legal sense, stands in loco parentis. How can she hope for a successful day if she neglects these fundamentals ? Negligence is inexcusable and will cause great suffering among the children and thwart the noblest academic purpose of the future. The teacher's care should be as watchful when pupils return from play. Far more impor- tant than conducting recitations is this regard for the health and comfort of the pupils of the school. But the teacher's special obhgation comes in the afternoon when the pupils make ready for the homeward trip. Plenty of time must be allowed to prepare every child for the outdoor experience. The energies are at low tide, wherefore the danger is intensified. Children may not be trusted to robe themselves for stressful weather conditions. The personal attention of the teacher is absolutely vital in every case. The success grade of a teacher should be determined very largely by her efficiency in these particulars. But this campaign of education should go much farther. Concrete instruction must be given teachers, school officers, and pupils on how to keep well as well as on how to ward off disease. Upon careful inquiry it has been determined that instruction of the most elementary character is needed. Some first suggestions here follow: There are four groups of organs of elimination of the waste products of the body: the skin, the lungs, the kidneys, and the intestines. If these four organs be kept in normal func- tioning condition, children will have rugged bodies and be able to with- stand the attacks of disease germs surprisingly well. If these organs be neglected, school children succumb speedily to the slightest attack. The skin. — Much nonsense and foolishness have been indulged in, in the matter of bathing. Promiscuous bathing may be very dangerous. 5o8 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Child Hygiene Not all constitutions are able to withstand the shock of a daily cold bath. Bathing in water is not a guaranty against filth. Be rid of the thought of a daily water bath. The proper bath, which all people young and old should take daily upon rising in the morning, is the frictional bath. Five minutes each morning, devoted to the vigorous rubbing of the body with a moderately coarse towel without water, will insure the opening of the pores of the skin and thus allow the skin to perform the normal function of carrying off the waste products of the body, which, if allowed to remain in the body, poison and destroy the tissue. Children should be urged to use the little rubber Japanese mitts. The lungs. — Deep breathing is not chest breathing — it is abdominal breathing. Watch a baby breathe and you will understand what is meant by deep breathing. Chest breathing means constriction of the diaphragm which in turn means the utter expulsion of all air from the lower lobes of the lungs; and when this air is kept habitually from certain portions of the lungs, those portions become enfeebled and form a certain abode for tuber- cular and other germs. Let the children have plenty of fresh air, teach them deep breathing and nose breathing, and the lungs will guarantee purity of the blood thru nature's process of osmosis. The kidneys. — Here again is the source of great danger, because teachers shyly avoid discussion of the subject. There is a popular notion that diabetes follows in the wake of riotous living or drunkenness. It is not uncommon for men and women aUke, whose lives are above reproach, to suffer from this sad affliction. If the skin be neglected and the lungs be neglected, then a triple responsibility falls upon the kidneys, and dis- aster follows. They cannot do their own work of eHmination and the work of two other vital organs of elimination. Urge children to drink large quantities of water daily; not less than three pints, probably more. In case of violent playground exercise they ought to drink much more than this. It is vastly more important to wash the body frequently and thoroly with water inside than outside. Those strange acute pains in the back, of which many good people complain, suggest unerringly kidney trouble. These will all disappear — in fact will never occur — if care in the safe- guarding of the kidneys be exercised. The intestines. — This question about the intestines is thought to be of such a deHcate character that no word may be spoken concerning it, and yet the fact is that most of the diseases, excepting contagions, follow as the result of the neglect of the intestines. Intestinal sluggishness means the storing up in the system of all the violent poisons of the foods taken into the body after the nutritive parts have been separated out. Troubles inevitably follow. Constipation is a crime to childhood and is utterly unnecessary if care be exercised on the part of parents and teachers. Children and adults too, particularly teachers, should drink much good water daily; drink two glasses of warm water before breakfast; eat Department] A STATE PROGRAM FOR SCHOOL HEALTH 509 sparingly of meat; eat much fruit and green vegetables; eat whole- wheat bread. If care be exercised in the matter of diet, irreparable injury to the body will be prevented. If disregard of these simple suggestions be allowed, dire consequences ensue. Why should parents and teachers neglect this all- important matter ? The day for pills and castor oil and those other horrible nostrums, once regarded indispensable, is gone. One or two ripe, juicy apples for each school child is worth vastly more than all these old-time poisonous stimulants. In this state program for school health the second campaign is the campaign of action — concerted action. The schools, the city clubs, the municipal officials, and state authorities must do team work. A little spasm of voluntary effort here, and a little one there, by any one of the agencies here named, yields small results. The movement must be general. When Boulder, Colo., was told frankly by a distinguisht biologist of her state university that there existed in her municipal limits a positive menace to every life within the city, young and old ahke, thru the rats which infested the dump heap — a bubonic plague menace, a diphtheretical menace, a typhoid menace — forthwith the City Council, the University, the Woman's Club, the public schools, the state Board of Health, organized a sensible campaign against the danger and speedily eliminated it. This team work in action means success, just as team work made the Panama Zone the most healthful locality in the world. So will concerted action yield similar returns to any community. This state program of health would be incomplete without a third cam- paign— the campaign of appreciation. Here the pubHc press, the platform, the pulpit, the round table, the open forum, play their important role. A "well done," after a campaign of education and action, freely bestowed upon those making the campaign satisfies a soul naturally hungry for some sort of appreciation. But it does vastly more than that. It guarantees against retrogression, stagnation, and a recurrence of old-time conditions. It is not the little bronze badge that is valuable, but if voted by a city council to a club for its services in upholding a valuable ideal, its value may not be estimated. So also of the loving cup, the banner, or the statue; a city, a school, an individual, displays with conscious pride the little trophies won by its citizenship in defense of good things. When men seriously give attention to these three factors in a state program for school health, length of years, efficiency in service, and happiness undreamed of attend its citizenship. 5IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Child Hygiene SOME PHASES OF CHILD-WELFARE WORK MARTHA RANDALL, ASSISTANT IN DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC SAFETY FOR WOMEN, PORTLAND, ORE. I propose to give some concrete cases illustrating different situations which have a vital bearing upon the lives of children, and to tell you of some efforts which are being made to improve conditions. These cases, with their contributing causes, have come to my personal attention in my work as nurse in the Women's Protective Division of the Department of Public Safety of the city of Portland. I shall tell you, without any attempt to gloss over the bald facts, some of the more aggravated and recurrent cases, and I trust you will not accuse me of overdrawing my picture. I say recurrent, not in the sense that the same girl returns often, but referring to the type of case. An orphan girl, eleven years old, was placed with a man and wife having no children of their own. The husband within a few months began to take indecent liberties with the child, cautioning her not to tell his wife. He finally seduced her and continued to mistreat her for years. A short time ago the wife went away for a visit, leaving the defenseless girl alone with this man. His conduct became so unbearable that the girl left his house, took refuge with a neighbor, and confided the whole story, which was in turn brought to our ofi&ce. She is an innocent, sweet, normal girl. If some sympathetic woman, her teacher, for instance, had encouraged the girl's confidence and had observed her in her deprest mood, she might have been saved much. Again, a foster-father seduced his thirteen-year-old daughter. She was a mother a few days before her fourteenth birthday, which was spent in a rescue home. The family consisted of an aggressive fire-eating mother, a colorless, inefficient father, whose only solace was this girl, and a brother, a weak, tractable boy of twenty. The mother and the boy paired off; this left the father and the girl to do likewise. I investigated the case, which was reported by the neighbors. I brought the girl to our office where, with- out coercion, she told the whole truth, and said that mamma had told her if she told anything on papa they would take him away and the family would starve. This girl is mentally subnormal. She lived in the shadow of the school building and did not return to school at the opening of the second term. A keenly interested teacher might have called or inquired and reported to the attendance department and thereby have saved the girl's reputation in the neighborhood and lessened the opportunity of the foster- parents to wreck the Uves of the children they had pledged themselves to protect. I agree with some of our most progressive social workers that girls from eight to eighteen should not be placed in famihes. The state or community, as you please, may furnish schools or academies where these girls can develop as normally as the more fortunate girl does in her L Department) SOME PHASES OF CHILD-WELFARE WORK 511 boarding-school. There should be no stigma by institutionalizing attacht thereto. Another type is the stepfather. A degenerate, shiftless sort of man married a woman of weak intelligence who had a ten-year-old girl. The mother allowed the stepfather to take the girl about with him, and he took advantage of his opportunity. These cases point out a fact that is borne out by my observation of numbers of cases coming thru our department — a yearly average of 650 girls — that frequently the seducer of the very young girl is a man years older than herself. The most serious phase of the bad-housing problem, from our point of contact, is the man boarder in the family of adolescent girls, especially among our foreign population. This man often occupies the best room in the house, frequently the parlor, and receives the most attention, by virtue of his addition to the family treasury. So it is small wonder that the growing girl mistakes her relationship to him. A promise of marriage sometimes quiets every fear. I am developing a wholesome respect for the interested, not meddle- some, neighbor who demands a high moral standard for her neighbor's children as well as for her own. Make note of the old mother-hen when danger to her Uttle brood is near. Here are some examples of ignorance of parents and poor nutrition of children: A mother called to know if it would be safe to bathe for the first time her four-months-old baby. Another mother brought her three-year- old child to find why he did not grow strong and walk. Upon questioning, she admitted that she had never given him any solid food. The other extreme is a mother who fed her new-born babe Eagle brand milk from the can with a spoon, and continued until the seventh week, when the babe was examined by a welfare organization. A month-old babe was fed scraped bacon fat in soup. The child was all broken out, and the mother took alarm. A father phoned to know if it were not time that his six-months-old babe should begin to lose the thick crust formed on its head. A three- year-old child walked crooked from the time he began walking. Examina- tion revealed a dislocated hip. The mother had not observed anything wrong. A six-months-old child had curvature of the spine from constant propping up in a gocart. A four-year-old child has twelve decayed and three ulcerated teeth, and his mother wonders why he is weak and poorly nourisht. A boy seven years old has enlarged liver, decayed and ulcerated teeth, and adenoids. As a fitting climax to this depressing recital is the picture of a man, tubercular for seventeen years, married for twelve years to a courageous little woman, who has five children, three of whom have tuberculosis. This man boasted that he would marry and show the world his healthy 512 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [ChUd Hygiene offspring. The burden of his mistake falls heaviest upon the children, and fails to prove his contention. I was privileged to serve for one year in social work in a neighboring town, and my most serious problem there was the broken home. Of the eighteen mothers on my calling list at one time, fourteen had been deserted by their husbands; forty-nine children were left to these mothers to provide with home, food, clothes, education, companionship, and recreation. And what of the girl in industrial life ? There is a definite and traceable connection between the girl's wage and her morals. It is absurd to say that it is altogether the cause, and equally absurd to say that it has no bearing on her morals. It is not alone the low wage paid the girl, but rather a part of the low-wage system which gives the girl crowded rooms, poor sanitation, narrow and cheap amusements. This system made her father poor and unhappy, irritable and stern; made her mother hurried and weary, and a poor guide for young life; made the home dirty, crowded, and dis- agreeable. In this age of personal appearance you may readily see why shoplifting enters largely upon our records. Most frequently it is some article of adornment — cheap jewelry, cheap perfume, powder, rouge, manicuring articles, silk hose, etc. I might say in passing that the merchant has some responsibility on this point when he displays his merchandise so temptingly on open counters, where the child has only to pick it up. What can we say to warn the too-trusting mother who knows that her daughter is innocent of any misconduct, simply because she is her daughter ? What can we say of the mother who accompanies her daughter to the public and the high-school dances for the only apparent reason of defying the dance-hall inspector, who attempts to maintain decent decorum on the floor ? Do not imagine that the poor girl is the only recreant and her mother the only failure. I know of no one who knows so much of the social evil in the schools and dares say so little as the teacher. The policy of most school authorities is to cover these things up rather than to admit their existence and fight them. But the teacher should take an intelligent interest in the laws which protect our workers. What do you know of the laws which protect women and children in industries, and what is your interest with labor laws, minimum-wage laws, child-labor laws? What influence are you exerting to see that women shall be represented on all boards which have to do with woman and girl wards of the state? If you believe in training for your own profession, why not train workers for our dependents, delinquents, and defectives ? Oregon has recently enacted a law for the compulsory commitment of feeble-minded children; a law compelling the father to support his illegitimate child; an improved mothers' pension law; a law creating a F Department) THE WORK OF THE SCHOOL NURSE 513 hospital for diseased congenital cripples. In the city of Portland we have many splendid organizations for the betterment of conditions for mothers and children where information and materials are gladly furnisht. The Congress of Mothers alone has examined over 6,400 babies, has given lectures, and has distributed Uterature broadcast. Our parent- teacher groups are doing a great work, and our present juvenile court is cooperating effectively to prevent deUnquency rather than to rescue the child. We believe we have in Portland one of the most efficient child- labor organizations in the country. We have medical inspection of schools under the city health department. The work is splendid, tho the force is inadequate. We have in Portland over 43,000 grade pupils — and but one school nurse. THE WORK OF THE SCHOOL NURSE EMMA C. GRITTINGER, SUPERINTENDENT, VISITING NURSES' ASSOCIATION, PORTLAND, ORE. The work of the school nurse as a definite factor in our educational system is no longer a matter for discussion. It is true that it still has many limitations and defects, but one need point out only a few of its results in order to prove even its present value. Briefly, the school nurse serves to increase both school attendance and school efficiency. She also reduces the school expenses for the education of "repeaters" — the children who take more than one year to make a grade — by discovering and securing the removal of health handicaps which retard the child and keep him from doing his best work. In fact, the result of the work of the nurse reaches farther than the school; for protecting the health of the child at school also protects the health of the younger children at home. It brings the home and the school, the parent and the teacher, closer together; it makes the schoolhouse a safer, more healthful place for the boys and girls, who are the community's most valuable asset, and who, during their period of development, spend so large a proportion of their time in school. The duties of the school nurse may be divided into two groups: her work at school with the children, together with that of her assistance to the physician and teacher in all matters relating to the health of the child; and her work with the parents at home. Where medical inspectors are employed, the nurse usually assists with the physical examinations. Some- times, especially in the smaller communities or rural districts, the inspec- tion becomes the duty of the nurse. But in either case it is always her work to "follow up" the children to their homes and assist them in every way possible to obtain the necessary treatment and help. Routine examinations of classes are made at frequent intervals for the early discovery of signs of scarlet fever, diphtheria, whooping cough, 514 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [CMld Hygiene measles, mumps, and other infectious and contagious diseases. The child showing symptoms of any one of these is excluded from school pending examination and diagnosis by a physician, and a child thus excluded is not readmitted without a physician's certificate of health. Strict adherence to this rule has proved the most effective way of protecting the schools from epidemics. The earlier system of school inspection — the aim of which was chiefly to detect contagious diseases — has gradually developt into a form of medical examination which takes into consideration the whole physical condition of the child. This makes possible the early discovery of sus- pected or undiagnosed cases of tuberculosis, or symptoms which indicate the presence of a chronic ailment. Tuberculosis specialists lay increasing emphasis on the susceptibility of children to this disease, in conjunction with the value of early diagnosis and treatment. In the larger cities, with their greater faciHties for caring for such children, suspected cases are placed under special medical and nursing supervision and, if physical con- ditions admit, sent to a fresh-air school. In the smaller communities the exclusion and care of the tuberculous child is a more difiicult problem, and the school nurse is frequently called upon to include the duties of the tuberculosis nurse with those of her own. The children are also examined periodically for defective eyesight and hearing, diseased teeth, adenoids, enlarged tonsils, or other diseases of the nose and throat, as well as for pediculosis and infectious skin troubles, such as ringworm, scabies, and impetigo. The teacher can give much assistance in the treatment of these defects, by reporting to the doctor and nurse such cases as apparently need attention. The nurse, on her visit to the home, explains to the parents the defect and its result on the health of the child, and urges that proper medical or dental care be provided. The method of treating pediculosis is routine and is usually left entirely to the nurse. Pediculosis is rarely confined only to the child in school, and the effort to clean up the family in the process of curing the child involves much time and patient teaching in the home. The treatment for ring- worm, scabies, and other skin infections is generally ordered by the examin- ing physician and carried out by the nurse under his direction. The pupils are instructed in the simple rules of hygiene, and special emphasis is placed on the care of the mouth, use of the toothbrush, and cleanliness of body and clothing. The formation of health leagues has been the most effective help to the nurse, particularly in this part of her work. In the matter of detail, health leagues vary in different locahties, but the underlying principle is always that of self-government, placing on the child itself the responsibihty of lack of cleanliness. The nurse should include in her duties inspection of the school buildings, with reference to sanitary conditions, covering such points as the water supply, heating, ventilation, lighting, toilets, and the general cleanliness of the school and yard. Con- Department] THE WORK OF THE SCHOOL NURSE 515 ditions requiring attention should be reported, not only to the school authorities, but to the public directly interested. If the nurse's time will permit, classes in home nursing and little mothers' leagues can be formed for the girls from twelve to fourteen years of age, and the boys of like age can be given lessons in first aid. The httle mothers' leagues not only teach how to care for the babies at home, but help prepare the girls themselves for future motherhood. The visits of the nurse to the homes is by no means the less important part of her work. It is there she finds the problems of social conditions that affect the health and morality of the child. And while it usually is not within her province to give material help, she should be able to cooperate intelligently with parent-teachers and relief associations in order in some measure to relieve the situation. All cases needing attention should be followed up in the homes, and the reasons for the needed treatment carefully explained. It frequently takes several visits, particularly in the homes of foreign-born parents, to persuade them that the care recommended is for the best interest of the child. In dealing with the health of the child the question of insufficient and improper food presents another phase of the problem. The difficulty of remedying home conditions that tend to send many children to school with no break- fast, or perhaps a poor one, has rather forst on the schools themselves the necessity of supplementing the child's meals. Many schools serve hot lunches either free or at a nominal cost — some furnish only milk, either in the middle of the forenoon or at noon; but in all cases the improvement in the health of the child shows the relation of sufficient food to progress in school. The nurse shares with the doctor the responsibiHty of keeping the records of the examinations and physical condition of the children. She also makes a daily report of the work she herself has done both in the school and in the homes. It is essential that the nurse is not given a larger number of children than she can well take care of. Authorities in the matter seem to agree that one nurse should be provided for about every three to five thousand pupils — taking into consideration, of course, the physical con- dition of the children as well as the distance she is expected to cover in con- nection with her work. Miss Gardner, in her recent book, says: The school nurse is not a passing experiment. She is a vital part of one of the most important of our national institutions. Thru her work American citizens are physically fitted to receive the education which in its turn is to fit them for the responsibilities of citizenship. It is her duty to so teach the value of health both to children and parents as to make them realize that its attainment is worth some real sacrifice on their part; it is her duty to strengthen parental responsibility in new directions. It is her duty to strengthen the hands of teachers and physicians, and also to do her part toward making the American school an institution where bodies as well as brains are developt for a life of usefulness. 1^ Si6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene ORAL HYGIENE: ITS RELATION TO ECONOMIC AND EDUCATIONAL EFFICIENCY HENRY CLINE FIXOTT, D.M.D., LECTURER, NORTH PACIFIC COLLEGE OF DENTISTRY, PORTLAND, ORE. [This abstract for want of space omits the record of a series of interesting and sci- entific tests conducted in the Buckmann school, Portland, Ore., which added much to the paper as read.^ — Editor.] The subject, "Oral Hygiene," has been given a place in your program under the Department of Child Hygiene. In a way I regret this, because oral hygiene covers so much more ground than can be brought out under that heading that it should more properly have been considered among those subjects that deal with the economic and educational efficiency of a people from childhood to old age. Oral hygiene is of such inestimable value to all people and of such vital importance to you as educators that it behooves you to make a place for its study as an integral part of the curriculum of the schools. H. M. Barr, principal of the Buckman School, in which the omitted tests were made, says: "We have long felt that health is just as important to the individual as knowledge. Who that is sick would not give up his knowledge of Latin or history or algebra in return for good health ? And with children, above all, growth is more important than education. Retardation in growth is almost always accompanied by retardation in intelligence. "Consequently, what has delighted me more than improvement in the tests has been the improvement in health, in color, in vivacity, in interest, in life, that every teacher has notist in the children who have been treated. Children who were never known to show any interest in class recitation or even in games are beginning to wake up. Once the body is right and the attitude toward mental work is right, I have little fear for the result in the majority of cases. It is some such consideration as this that has caused such a phenomenal growth in the number of cities undertaking medical and dental inspection of schools and clinical treatment of school children." Medical and dental inspection, like public education, was first estab- lisht as a means of relief for the poor. Later, like public education, it became free, democratic, and even respectable. The fight is not yet over. The League for Medical Freedom and the parent who lays the responsibility for the cure of pus-laden adenoids and teeth on the Lord are still with us. However, we must not forget that there was a time when compulsory education was considered by a majority of people as an invasion of their rights. There are a million or more illiterate adults who are victims of this mistaken theory. No one disputes the right or justice of compulsory educa- •A complete record of these tests has been printed, and copies may be obtained by addressing Dr. Fixott, Morgan Bldg., Portland, Oregon. Department! ORAL HYGIENE: ITS RELATION TO EFFICIENCY 517 tion today. The time is coming soon when people will be clamoring for compulsory health education as well. Boston was the first American city to establish a regular system of medical inspection. That was in 1894. In 191 1, according to Leonard Ayres, out of 1046 school systems examined 443, or 43 per cent, had medical inspection of school children. Out of these 443 cities, 354 employ school physicians. The kind of medical inspection ranges all the way from the Portland type, which can hardly be termed comprehensive or efficient, to the New York, Boston, or California type which aims to find out as much about the child's body as the teacher does about his mind. But even the best type of medical inspection will fail to do very much good unless it is backt up by a school cHnic for free medical and dental treatment. All that medical and dental inspection can do is to notify the parent of the existence of some disease in his child. And there it usually ends. The child is directed to the family physician, but in the majority of cases, to use the words of Artemus Ward, "there ain't none." Terman reports that the early New York inspectors found that 94 per cent of their notifi- cations failed to bring results. And that is to be expected. Poverty and illness work around in a vicious circle. It is estimated that one-fourth of all poverty is directly caused by illness. The illness causes the poverty and poverty in turn prevents the cure of the illness. Dr. Haven Emerson, examining 1478 poor children admitted to Sea Breeze Sanitarium, Long Island, found 1200 or 81 per cent with an average dental decay of 4 . 7 teeth each. What is to be done for these poor children ? To allow their physical ailments to go untreated is to bring to manhood a host of weakened, diseased young men. And it must be remembered that an uneducated person may be less of a menace to society than a diseased person who has had the ordinary schooling. To many of these children the cost of private treatment is prohibitive. The only way out is to establish the school clinic, which not only cures the child's ailments when they are most easily curable, and does so at a fraction of the cost of private treatment, but also gives practical instruction in hygiene to both children and parents. Practically every civilized country in the world has establisht these clinics. Germany, England, AustraUa, Russia, Japan, and South America have found them practical and valuable, especially in giving dental treatment. In 1913, 198 American cities reported dental inspection and treatment. The cost is infinitesimal. The cost of educating one repeater for a term in Portland would pay for the dental treatment of at least fifty poor children. In the Strassburg clinic in Germany the per capita cost of treat- ment was at the last report about twenty-five cents. In Hamburg it is about twenty-six cents per child. Rochester, N.Y., showed an annual cost ranging from fifty-seven cents to sixty-nine cents per child treated. 5i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene Neither inspection nor clinical treatment can get along without the other, and both should be under the control of the school board. This has proved the most satisfactory way in the great majority of cases. Medical- inspection laws are in force in nineteen states and in the District of Colum- bia. In seventeen out of these twenty cases the administration of these laws is placed in the hands of the school boards. In one case it may be in either, and in the other two it is entirely in the hands of the health depart- ment. In American cities all medical inspection was originally in the hands of the local boards of health. Now only about one-fourth of these cities are so situated. The other three-fourths have changed. And that is as it should be. Exclusions for contagious disease are only a small part of the work of medical inspection. In New York City in 1909-10 they numbered only I per cent of the school population. Health inspection, to be suc- cessful, must be closely related to school work and to school aims. It must take its place in the school curriculum, but to do so it must be backt by the same authority as the rest. If health work is to be educational in its outlook, if it is designed to prevent as much as to cure, if it aims to develop the individual child into healthier, cleaner-living citizen, and finally if it plans to make the school machine run smoother by elimination of absence and retardation because of sickness, then the work must be under the control of school authorities who are striving for the same ends. Have I given you food for thought ? Have I proved my assertion that oral hygiene is of very, very great importance? If by the expenditure of five thousand or ten thousand dollars you can save from twenty thousand to fifty thousand dollars — if the cost of educating one repeater for a term in the Portland schools would pay the dental treatment of at least fifty poor children, is not the economic value of oral hygiene alone worth your earnest thought and action ? How much greater than its economic worth is its value as a health giver. I ask you to study this problem, to think about it, and to act when opportunity offers. In closing let me read a few verses that appeared in the June, 191 7, issue of Oral Hygiene: It Might Have Been Oh,[the cry of the child that's so needless! The pain that should never have been! If only we'd guarded the gateway Where disease germs came flocking in. The uncleaned mouths of the children Give them moisture and warmth and food, Where, in only a few short hours, They have grown to a motley brood. Department] ORAL HYGIENE: ITS RELATION TO EFFICIENCY 519 So the teeth, with their spaces and hollows, And the throat, with its tonsils as well, Shelter families and tribes of disease germs; (How sad is the tale we must tell). They work, and they dig, and they burrow, The children's white teeth to destroy; Till Mary stays home with the toothache, And Johnnie can't be a good boy. But that's not the end of our story, For into the body they go, And cause many achings and ailments That make our small folk suffer so. Then, one day, the dread Epidemic Had closed even schools in its wake. Till parents, and doctors, and nurses Were called in, before 'twas too late. Oh, the cry of the child that's so needless! The pain that should never have been! If only we'd giv'n them a toothbrush Those disease germs might not have gonejn. I DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MiNUTES PORTLAND MEETING OFFICERS President — Baroness Rose Posse, president, Posse Normal School of Gymnastics, Boston, Mass. Vice-President— C. Ward Crampton, director of Physical Training, city schools, New York, N.Y. Secretary — E. H. Arnold, director. Normal School of Gymnastics New Haven, Conn. I I FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Morning, July io, 191 7 The meeting was called to order by President Baroness Rose Posse in Room D, City Auditorium, at 10:00 a.m. The following papers were read: "What Should Be the Outcome of Physical Training in the Public Schools?" — C. R. Frazier, superintendent of schools, Everett, Wash. "Preparedness thru Physical Education" — A. C. Strange, superintendent of schools. Baker, Ore. "School Spirit" — Ethel Percy Andrus, principal, Lincoln High School, Los Angeles, Cal. "The Physical Bases of Character" — C. E. Rugh, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. SECOND SESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July 12, 191 7 The meeting was called to order by President Baroness Posse at 2 : 00 p.m. in Room D, City Auditorium. The following paper was presented: "Intercollegiate Athletics and the War" — William T. Foster, president, Reed College, Portland, Ore. A business meeting was then called, when the following officers were unanimously elected: President — George Ehlers, director of physical training. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Vice-President — Mary G. Long, supervisor of physical training, public schools, Everett, Wash. Secretary — Jessie Bancroft, assistant director of physical training, public schools, Brooklyn, N.Y. The department of physical education of the Portland public schools showed work each day of the convention, under the direction of Robert Krohn, of the public schools, and James O. Conrill, superintendent of parks and playgrounds. 521 522 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Physical PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS WHAT SHOULD BE THE OUTCOME OF PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS? C. R. FRAZIER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EVERETT, WASH. Physical education has not been taken seriously in this country. In only a few of the most favored and most progressive centers has it been accorded adequate recognition. Many communities have in the last few years recognized the educational value of play and have indorst the move- ment for pubUc playgrounds. The response, however, on the part of the children and youth has been rather discouraging. They still attend movies chronically even during the hours when the playgrounds are open. The old-fashioned calisthenics, or rather the new-fashioned, old- fashioned, schoolroom physical training, is making an unusual contribution with increasing regard for the desirable outcome of physical education. Gymnasium work in college, high school, and in grades is doing good for those whom it reaches. Public-school athletic associations, which provide a series of competitions for elementary-school children, are full of promise in that they make their appeal so unanimous by setting standards of accomplishment which any normal child can attain. But as for a national or American system of physical education we have far to go. The mode of procedure made fashionable by the famous reports of the National Society for Study of Education would be to determine the minimum essentials of an adequate system of physical education. As the first step in this process we should endeavor to formulate the desirable results to be obtained, and then the determination of equipment and procedure might follow. Scholarship is already attacking this specific problem from the standpoint of public-school education. Professor Lewis Rapier, of the University of Pennsylvania, contributes a thoughtful and suggestive discussion of it publisht in outline form in the Sixteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. I shall state in an empirical manner the practical aims that guide us in the public schools, until the way is pointed out more clearly by the com- bined findings of science and experience. The children of all the people must be put into the way of possessing good general health. If general healthfulness is accepted as the big aim, then the mental attitude toward the exercises offered becomes important. If pleasurable relaxation of the mind and nervous system is accepted as desirable, then mental strain is an undesirable accompaniment and should be avoided. The second great outcome should be real vital and physical efficiency. This must include the development of lung and heart capacity. Department) PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 523 "Athletic training is mainly heart training."^ And R. Tait McKenzie says in his incomparable treatise on Exercise in Education and Medicine that "to exercise has been assigned the role of cause, as well as cure, in most of the disorders peculiar to the circulatory system." "The heart," he says, "is a muscle capable of development and liable to overwork, and the arterial system shares intimately in changes taking place in the central organ of circulation." It is important that we should have in mind the high development of the heart stopping this side of overstrain. Quite as important is lung development. The heart and lungs are the most vital of the organs, but as a contribution to general health the regular and healthy working of the stomach and organs of excretion is as important. Physical training by inducing regular habits of exercise and temperate practices in eating has done much, but must do more. The third outcome is good position and easy dignified carriage. Watch people walk! You can easily detect the trained from the untrained. The training in the schools should form the habits of life. It should not be necessary to provide a course of dancing lessons in order that your son or daughter may become graceful. The practical accomplishments of swim- ming, running, and rowing should be guaranteed to all youth as an essential part of its education. Certain mental qualities should come as an indirect result of physical education, such as the ability to cooperate, leadership, and willingness to practice good posture, good hygiene, and good, clean living. Every person should when he leaves school carry with him a love for good health-giving games, such as tennis, swimming, hiking, rowing, and golf, and should be sufficiently addicted to one or more of them as to insure his keeping at them all thru life. Can you imagine a better life insurance policy ? Calisthenic exercise taken once each day or more often under the direc- tion of a supervisor who recognizes the real aims of such work is a very important factor in physical education. It provides systematic training in the direction of all the aims set forth. It co-ordinates the powers, it induces correct habits of position and walking, it contributes to the develop- ment of muscle, lungs, and heart. Thru the use of folk games especially it develops gracefulness. And at the same time it should provide relaxation from mental and nervous strain. One of the special aims in this work should be to make physical exercise pleasurable and attractive to the child. Children should look forward eagerly to this period. It thus serves the immediate end of aiding in the wholesome discipline of the school and the remoter aim of bringing children to adult life with a love for physical activity. The great danger in this form of work is that it may become stereotyped and conventionalized. The moment this happens the value of the work is * Roy and Adams, British Medical and Surgical Journal. 524 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical gone. There must be the live, human teacher playing upon the growing bodies of these children in such a way as to bring springing joyously to the surface the rhythmical play of correlated motion, now taking one form or combination and now another, with little surprises introduced and some of the poetry of motion evolved; it goes without saying that this should be in the open, or as nearly so as can be. While we are trying to correlate history and geography into closer relationship, I would suggest that we join music and physical training in a way which may enhance the results of both subjects. You have frequently seen physical drills on the same program with choruses as separate numbers. Why not combine them, not only on the same programs at entertainments, but in the daily work of the school ? Breathing exercises are required in both singing and physical training and both develop the lungs. Will it not be a better test if children march and sing at the same time, or even run and sing, and do it often enough to develop that vigor of lung power that can scarcely be attained in any other way, while at the same time giving a zest to the marching ? Let the children sing while taking their calisthenics, while sitting, while standing, while walking or running. To be sure the big values resulting from this may not be simply lung and muscle development nor even musical skill; there may be emotional values. Try to analyze, if you choose, the different values resulting when groups of sturdy-bodied youth turn out of doors and march around the schoolhouse or the block singing lustily the words of "America" or that international song of democ- racy, "The Battle Hymn of the Republic," or "Tenting Tonight on the Old Camp Ground," or perhaps "Onward Christian Soldiers, Marching as to War," or "A Mighty Fortress Is Our God." "The fool profits by his experiences, the wise man by the experiences of others." And even in this fateful and tragic year of 191 7 I would glean a lesson from our enemy across the water. We must not taboo physical education or song or sentiment because they excelled in them, but being powerful factors in civilization we must develop them around right ideals. An inspiring incident is related by Mr. Bullet, editor of the Philadelphia Ledger, who saw company after company of German soldiers march to the cemetery in Berlin where they were to memorialize their soldier dead, and as they marcht they sang, with the tears streaming down their faces, "Ein Feste Burg 1st Unser Gott," "A Mighty Fortress Is Our God," and the rows of prisoners of war who lined the way on either side broke into cheers, so great was their admiration for this combination of emotional expression and physical strength. I would have all that strength of body and that power of sentiment developt and conserved in our American youth, attuned to America and her humane ideals, and at the service of our country and humanity. Department! PREPAREDNESS THRU PHYSICAL EDUCATION 525 PREPAREDNESS THRU PHYSICAL EDUCATION A. C. STRANGE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BAKER, ORE. Napoleon once said that an army advances on its stomach. This is merely another way of saying that the soldier must have a strong, enduring, efficient body, otherwise he cannot advance to victory. Have our pros- pective soldiers of today strong bodies? We have lately conscripted 10,000,000 men, an enormous army, more men than any single nation has yet called out in the great world-war. However, we are told that probably half of these men have obligations at home which may exempt them, and Dr. Sargent tells us that only 50 per cent are physically fit for military service. Consequently, instead of 10,000,000 men we have 2,500,000. And suppose our need was very great and it became necessary to call out men up to forty-five or fifty years of age. If only 50 per cent are fit during their most vigorous years, is it not probably true that a much smaller per- centage could be called out among the older men ? Under the circumstances I doubt if in this great nation of 100,000,000 people we could raise an army of 10,000,000 fighting men. We should all like to shoulder a rifle and do something toward teaching our opponents a wholesome respect for the American ideals of government, but could we? Is it not true that our muscles are flabby, our breath short, and our endurance lacking ? We have done something of recent years thru boys' clubs, city athletic societies, and municipal gymnasiums, but how small a percentage of our boys and men we have reacht. England furnishes us a striking example of this condition. We are told that the recent recruits from London are undersized physically and defect- ive mentally, that they will make poor soldiers, and yet a great nation must lean upon such a feeble staff. They had no physical education and no physical ideals. Consequently these men fell into habits of physical inac- tivity and habits of living which have brought them weakness of body, disease of organs, and feebleness of intellect. Do you not think that we can avoid this condition in America — a condition which unquestionably prevails? Alcoholism, cigarette smoking, excessive use of tobacco, coffee and tea, venery, lessen physical efficiency, and there is no better means of preventing these defects than thru physical education. The physically trained man has too much respect for his body to abuse it. Why does it take so long to get an army in shape ? It is not merely the drill. It does not take six months to teach the drill, to give soldierly ideals, to teach obedience or discipline. It does take six months at the least, however, to make men physically fit, to give them endurance, to remedy the effects of poor feeding and vicious habits, to give strong bodies. That is why the young men are chosen. There is a probability of getting them sooner into physical condition. There is less to undo. Preparedness demands an enduring body. One might take as a sort of text for an 526 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical address of this kind William James's statement that "intrepidity, con- tempt of softness, surrender of private interests, obedience to command, must remain the rock upon which states are built." How shall we give our children the enduring bodies, the contempt for softness ? Our first work must be with the parents. The child must have a fair start. The father must be protected by the government in his right to earn sufficient to feed, clothe, and shelter his children properly. To that extent we must be factors in the nation's political life. We must take steps to teach the parent thru school-extension work, community-center work, extra-school activities, newspapers, circular letters, public talks, the choice of proper food, its proper preparation, the dangers of alcohoHsm and venery, the necessity of pure air, of exercise, and of proper clothing. Parents must be led to feel deeply their obligation to their children. Our greatest responsibihty comes when the child enters school, and here we need the cooperation of the physician. No finer blessing was ever brought to the child than this medical inspection. The child ought to be examined periodically as a means of prevention and preparedness for life's struggles. There can be no doubt that many children are tubercular and they should be placed in sanitary environment and properly fed. What greater service can the school render than to teach the parents what to do ? This is typical of other conditions which the school thru its medical examination can find and remove. The child ought to have from the beginning physical training. The play activities do not take its place. Both planned and spontaneous play are valuable, physically and morally, but children need systematic instruc- tion which will remedy defects, correct faulty posture, deepen breathing, strengthen little-used muscles, and produce better physical condition. Such exercises should be continued until after puberty; then every boy should be given two things — the mihtary drill and systematic athletics of such character as his body fits him to take part in. I believe in the drill. The cadet must early learn to surrender his private interests and obey commands. Coordination and obedience are two of the rocks upon which soldierly ideals are based. Softness, lack of intrepidity, are soon taken out of the cadet, or he must leave the ranks. He must be a real fellow among real fellows. Can any father doubt the value of this discipline to the boy ? The American boy needs discipline. He has had too Httle training, he has been babied too much. He needs disciphne, and cadet-corps training is a remarkably effective way of giving it. We used to have a severer home discipline. The Puritan idea, prevaiHng in Colonial, Revolutionary, and early national days, was "spare the rod and spoil the child," and the child learned earher and better the mastery of self. But thru the influence of Rousseau, Froebel, and Herbart we changed from the old form of disciphne and began to study natural instincts, to utilize as was fit and proper the I Department) PREPAREDNESS THRU PHYSICAL EDUCATION 527 child's love and his desires. Unfortunately we have swung to an extreme and are getting along without much discipline. The boy is allowed to con- trol himself while he is still the creature of impulse. Can we wonder at the great increase of juvenile vice and crime ? He is exposed to these things before the development of his powers of self-control has made him in any measure immune. We need to get him past the impulse-governed period of his life into the age where he is controlled and discipHned. This the drill will accomplish. I believe that athletics are of great value. Boys who pit muscle against muscle, quickness of thought and judgment against quickness of thought and judgment, who without retort, with mastered temper, receive the jeers of their fellows and the rebukes of the coach, who also learn to take blows and pains without whimpering, who learn to take their medicine, even if that medicine be undeserved defeat, are receiving valuable moral lessons. It is unfortunate that so few boys get this athletic training today. We need to provide for all boys such athletic life as their bodies will enable them to endure. The boy who has not developt in markt degree the muscular sense, who has not learned to take care of his physical condition and to look after the hygiene of his surroundings, is not prepared. It is true that athletics can be carried too far. I knew two young men, one a star football player, the other a teacher of boxing. Each should have been in perfect physical condition, but both failed to pass the physical examination necessary to enter the Army. They had been overtrained. We need drill and athletics for another reason. Both give traditions, and you cannot overestimate the force of traditions. When a cadet puts on a uniform he is not merely putting on a garment of khaki cloth, he is putting on the professional garment of the men who have won for us the birthrights we value most highly. Across the Atlantic they have a prin- ciple, a tradjtion, they call the ''noblesse oblige,'' the obligation of nobility. At some time in the past an ancestor has worthily served the state, and because of this his king has given him rank or nobility. In so doing the ruler not only rewarded him for his service, but he placed on him and his heirs the obligation to show themselves worthy by deeds of intrepidity and self-sacrifice and gentlemanliness. Because of this tradition thousands of young men are today serving well and dying bravely. A traditional prin- ciple with the Englishman is that he must be a true sportsman, he must "play the game." And today, altho the enemy has been guilty of many acts which are contrary to the principles of civihzed warfare, and in the belief of many calls for retaliation in kind, yet he says, ''No, so long as I play the game, I shall play it fairly and above board." In our athletic work we are trying to give the American boy such principles, to build up such traditions, and we believe that here is one of our greatest sources of value. Let me summarize by saying that physical education will contribute to preparedness, by giving the boy an enduring body, sound lungs, erectness 528 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical of posture, a better knowledge of how to keep himself fit. He learns prompt obedience, the basal habits of system and order, a love for fair play, and a higher measure of courage. These are some of the things that physical education in its broadest sense teaches. And in this sense our schools need young men and women in the work who are well prepared, who are clean cut, who are manly and womanly, whose ideals are high, who will take athletics out of the influence of the sporting class and place it on the higher level where it belongs, who will emphasize the ideals of true sportsmanship, who believe in, and hold before their associates, the fact that playing the game is a thousand times better than merely winning. True preparedness then covers much, and physical education has an important part in the work. I trust that in this time of need we may give closer attention to this type of education. SCHOOL SPIRIT ETHEL PERCY ANDRUS, PRINCIPAL, LINCOLN HIGH SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CAL. When Lincoln High School of Los Angeles, in September, 1916, was received into the high-school major league as one of the "big five" there was much rejoicing at this unexpected honor. Tho badly handicapt, with no gymnasium, athletic field, nor equipment, and a new physical director, yet the boys themselves felt that their greatest drawback was the fact that their new principal was a woman. Such an unusual distress of circum- stances proved an athletic blessing. Fortunately success in the competitive aspect of the work was impossible. After ten months of athletic storm and stress we are still in the cellar. With the exception of basket-ball and baseball, we have consistently lost every contest. Yet I, being the woman principal, know that the splendid school spirit that Lincoln Jias developt this year has come largely thru this athletic experience. Forst by circum- stances to see and make the best of it, the student body as a whole have profited physically, and as for competitive teams they have learned the greatest lesson of good sportsmanship — to be good losers. We were a school twelve hundred strong, a young school which had not yet found itself. I was told that it was not an uncommon occurrence to have a game played to a rooting section of twenty and no one on the bleachers. It was whispered that repeated cases had been known where our boys and girls cheered the opposing team because they had not learned the lesson of school pride and loyalty. The situation was a grave one. We were without a school spirit, and a school spirit is to a school what patriotism is to one's country. With it comes life — the word itself means breath — the God in us. With this spirit the school is vibrant, constructive — without it a mere aggregation of boys and girls. But our problem was how to get this school spirit that would hold, unify, upHf t, and sustain us, that would be our unifying religion. I I Department] SCHOOL SPIRIT 529 We have in Los Angeles a baseball team once knovm as "Venice." Often it did not wi^, but nearly always on Saturday and Sunday Los Angeles baseball fans yelled themselves hoarse for Happy Hogan and the losing team against the city home team — the "Angels." The reason for that was Happy Hogan. He was one of those living, vigorous men, his blood ver- mihon red, a dynamo of energy, magnetism, and power. People cheered for Happy Hogan. That was spirit, that was the kind we wanted. It was based on personaHty — but the mental state was catching. Happy Hogan had our allegiance because he radiated confidence and cheer. And now that he has gone from us we still cheer for Vernon because that spirit which he engendered is self-perpetuating. I reasoned that although the office could not possibly be more eager, the faculty must be, and then the student body would necessarily follow. We should all be Happy Hogans. I knew that right here was the remedy. A school can be no greater than its faculty, have no more spirit, have no higher ideals of conduct and life. So to the faculty I went and from them I received the eager response I had hoped for. Together the fifty-seven of us went on the job. We agreed that all natural impulses are an outgrowth. The difference between an animal and a machine consists in the fact that in the machine force is applied externally, whereas in the animal there seems to be a center of Ufe and impulse. The animal acts from within, the ma- chine is moved from without. And so we reasoned that the lack of expres- sion as school spirit came from lack of impulse. We must therefore create and stimulate for them an ideal and develop, secure, and control it. We decided that our educational aims were seriously hampered by the weak- ness of family life in the community, by the lack of positiveness of parents, who were too indulgent or too indifferent, and also lackt interest in the school. Our greatest asset at this time was a physical director, not a mere gymnast, altho he was that too, not a mere track gamester nor a college athlete, but a man, alive, intelligent, fair, a manly man, awake to the world's needs, with the best civic, social, and moral ideas. He knew that the arguments for athletics upon the theory of health were overworkt. He knew that exercise with a hoe was probably as healthful and certainly more profitable. He placed importance upon athletic activities for boys because boy nature seems to put importance upon it. If the boys do not find an outlet for athletic impulses under school jurisdiction, they will find an outlet for them where there is no jurisdiction — where bad habits and bad morals verge. For athletic activity from the beginning of time tends to develop tendencies toward the brute — so our athletic coach made it his aim to keep athletics distinctly and vigorously under the influences that are fair, manly, and civilizing. My own experience helpt a little. I remembered that in my own school days I had very little interest in football because I did not know the S30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physica game, and I could not intelligently root for the home team because I did not know the yells. So I decided that before the month was out every Lincoln student should know both the game and the yells. Our assemblies became fields of instruction. We divided the pupils into those who did not know the game and those who knew a Uttle about it. We used those who knew it well and who played it for instructors, with the director first at the blackboard and then on the field with a megaphone. It was not long before every football player on the field knew that every Lincolnite on the bleachers appreciated what he was trying to put over. Then we took up the yells. For now our yelhng meant something. As I remember, our first real game found most of the Lincolnites on the bleachers rooting so vigorously that the team on the field tied the score with the team which seemingly had entirely outclast them. We next ran across that ever-present problem of developing brain and brawn in the same fellow. We met it in this way. The first faculty meeting after the football season had begun brought out its quota of teachers' criti- cisms on the scholarship of the boys. Thereupon I read to the faculty the list of fifty boys out for football and askt them to adopt the one whom they disliked the least, loved the most, despaired of the worst, or believed in the best. I auctioned off every boy of the fifty — the sponsors adopting were sometimes unanimous in their wishes for a certain boy. That boy of course needed no one — but some I had to put up three or four times before I could get a bidder. They were the ones whom we had to save. And the boys knew nothing about it, weren't at all suspicious of the suddenly heightened interest of some faculty friend. So with spurring, inspiration, and perhaps nagging a bit now and then, every one of our boys made his grades. Two of the letter men in athletics were letter men also in scholar- ship. This year Lincoln has boasted the superior mentality of the athletic mind, and we teachers smile covertly, but are silent as befits good pedagogs. The social and community activities are perhaps the biggest objects that the Lincoln spirit has achieved for our boys and girls — all brought about more or less thru the cooperation, enthusiasm, and pluck of the physical-training department. THE PHYSICAL BASES OF CHARACTER C. E. RUGH, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL. All educators are now giving at least intellectual assent to the doctrine that the end and aim of education is character. Some of the means and methods employed, however, indicate that deeper and fundamental char- acteristics of character are not understood. The elements of good character are power, good judgment, and good- will. The word "power" must not be used as synonymous with energy. I Department) THE PHYSICAL BASES OF CHARACTER 53 1 The tumbling river is energy. Dammed, controlled, directed to do work, it is power. The human body is, first, a reservoir of energy; secondly, a machine for storing energy; and thirdly, a means of transforming this energy into power by directing it to personal ends. Each cell of the body is a veritable magazine of energy, but its function and use for life and power depend, on the one hand, upon how it is related to the other cells of the body and upon, on the other hand, how far it is under the control and manage- ment of the mind. Life and character are best conceived as a harmony of rhythms. Length and strength of life are determined by how well the different organs and functions fit into and support one another. And, Hke a chain, life and char- acter are just as strong as the weakest organ or rhythm. These life-rhythms may be divided into three series: (i) dynamic, (2) kinetic, and (3) psychic. The dynamic rhythm is the one by which the body appropriates energy from without. It consists essentially of digestive, circulatory, respiratory, and muscular systems. The harmony of this sys- tem of rhythms is illustrated, first, by the ratios between heartbeat, respira- tion, digestion, and action, and secondly, by the fact that if one of these rhythms, the digestion, for example, is disturbed it very readily disturbs the others. The kinetic system consists essentially of the brain, the thyroid and adrenal glands, the liver, and the muscles. The harmony of this system is seen in the process by which energy is released. An emotion in the brain causes secretions from the adrenal and thyroid glands which set free energy from the liver, made available for the rest of the body, especially the muscles. The psychic rhythms consist (i) of the impulses, general and special, that arise in the daily routine of life and by certain stimulations; (2) of the accompanying emotions; and (3) of the sentiments toward which or away from which these impulses may be directed. The significance of this analysis lies in the fact that if physical education is an aid in the development of character it must obey, first, the laws within these rhythms themselves, and secondly, the laws of the relations between these rhythms. Dr. Crites's experiments, now corroborated by others and by many observations during this war, estabHsh beyond any doubt the significance and importance of the character of the emotion that sets free and directs energy. Here we begin to have a scientific explanation of why one teacher, or coach, or captain can develop so much more power in the same person or in the same team than can some other teacher or coach or captain. Herein lies the importance of a school's reputation and spirit. The amount of power a pupil or a team can develop is dependent, not only upon diet and regime, but also upon the emotions developt. The reputation and 532 - NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iPhysical spirit of the school as interpreted by the pupil become a potent factor in storing energy and a more potent factor in releasing it. The feeling of possessing power plus the feehng of the ability to control and direct it is a known requisite for continued efficiency or success. Suc- cess and the feeling of succeeding is an indispensable factor in that energy and stability that make it possible for the individual, or others, to predict what can and will be done. Here we come upon the life-cycle by which this aspect of character develops. Power develops character, and the character in turn develops more power. INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS AND TEE WAR WILLIAM T. FOSTER, PRESIDENT, REED COLLEGE, PORTLAND, ORE. The emergency. of war has thrown a new light on the problems of physical education in American colleges and has justified anew the most persistent of the many charges brought against intercollegiate athletics during the past ten years. As the president of WiUiams College says, "We are annually graduating a few men of extraordinary athletic ability and many men of undevelopt intellectual power. In athletics, a few only are highly trained, the majority not at all." Reed College in the first month of its existence seven years ago declared its belief that intercollegiate athletics are antagonistic to the physical development of the student body and adopted a policy of no intercollegiate games whatever, but "athletics in moderation and at Httle expense for all students, especially those in greatest need, instead of excessive and costly training for a few students, especially those in least need." By the customary pohcy of vicarious athletics no college can fully meet its obhgations as an agency for national defense. The experiences of the past three months in raising an army have driven this truth home as never before. The first call of the government was for thousands of college students and recent graduates to enter at once the training camps for officers. The immediate need was for men with minds and bodies disciplined by persistent physical training under trained leaders and by regular participa- tion in rigorous athletic games. There were not enough available intercol- legiate athletes to meet 20 per cent of the need. Thousands of the college Seniors and recent graduates were unable to pass the physical examinations. The universities and colleges had not adequately provided for this part of their preparation. A majority of these men had been without incentives and equipment for regular athletic training. Statistics furnisht the National Collegiate Athletic Association by 143 universities and colleges engaged in intercollegiate athletics show that only about 17 per cent of the total male students participated in the games, and that not half the students in these institutions engage in any form of systematic or organized exercise. Department] INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS AND THE WAR 533 Of these institutions, all of which promote intercollegiate athletics, 37 per cent are reported as "doing nothing to foster and encourage the types of physical exercise and healthful recreation that a student is likely to use in after-college life." These colleges spend about sixty times as much money for each member of an intercollegiate team as they spend for the games of each of the other students. Thus our universities, taken as a whole, have failed to conduct their athletics in such a way as to achieve all that the nation has a right to expect of them as agencies for national defense. To what extent intercollegiate games are responsible for vicarious athletics it is impossible to determine. But two facts are indisputable: (i) intercollegiate games are the dominant influence in the entire life of some of these institutions; and (2) nearly all of them have had twenty years or more of experience to demonstrate whether this dominant influence tends to bring everybody into the games. The net results, as reported to us by the promoters of intercollegiate athletics, are not encouraging. Unfortunately we have had little experience with athletics conducted solely for all students, entirely free from the good and bad influences of intercollegiate athletics, whatever they may be. Reed College has now had six years of devotion to its athletic policy — six years with no intercollegiate athletics whatever. Careful records for these six years show that from 93 to 95 per cent of the men students participate in athletic games at least once a week. Every student in the institution is expected to participate in athletic games thruout his entire college course and to have frequent examinations for the discovery of physical defects and the prescription of a corrective physical regime. Partly as a result every undergraduate except one who applied for admission to any branch of the Army and Navy past the preHminary physical examinations. ^ I DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION OFFICERS President— W. H. Timbie, head of applied sciences, Wentworth Institute Boston, Mass. Vice-President — Chester B. Curtis, principal, Central High School St. Louis, Mo. Secretary — Fred D. Barber, professor of physics, State Normal University Normal, III, PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE LEGITIMATE VOCATIONAL CONTENT OF THE INTER- MEDIATE HIGH-SCHOOL COURSE CHARLES KIRKPATRICK, VICE-PRINCIPAL, BROADWAY HIGH SCHOOL, SEATTLE, WASH. How much time is expended in self-education ? Have you ever stopt to figure it out ? If you have not, you will be surprised at the amount when ou figure that education begins at birth and incidentally some generations efore birth, and continues thru our natural life, and we hve in the hope of ts being part and parcel of the future Hfe. Is there one here who thinks his education is finisht? With this colossal and staggering effort put into ucation of oneself, let us stop to inquire,What is the purpose of education ? Schools are for training for living today and for preparation for living morrow. This living is inclusive, physical, intellectual, emotional, and piritual. The foursquare man must be educated to live with his body, mind, heart, and spirit. Neglect the education of the heart, and the pas- sions become rampant. Neglect the training of the mind, and you pass back to the civilization of the cave men. Neglect the care of the body, and you become a physical wreck. Neglect the encouragement of the spirit, and you are as one without hope. This training for living today and prep- aration for living tomorrow is industrial, social, political, religious. As it was foursquare, now it is eight cornered and a perfect cube. The first ^four were his relationship to himself, the last four his relationship to others. ^^BConnecting the two squares and thus forming the cube makes the concep- ' tion of life one of service. The schools are training for Hfe today and pre- . paring for life tomorrow by training and preparing our boys and girls for iH^rvice. If we miss this conception we miss our own opportunity for service. ^^ What then is the intermediate-school problem ? It is the most impor- tant problem of the whole line of educational problems, because it takes the ■boy and girl at that adolescent age when they are full of energy and action. It is the age of discovery, the age when things new and strange occupy the thought and attention. It is the period when the child is beginning to get confidence in self. It is the age that we have treated as being of the same type and having the same desires as that of the fifth- and sixth-grade pupils, 535 536 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science and we have continued to give to it some of the same predigested educational scraps that it has chewed over for the past six years. What kind of an appeal has it made to the live boy and girl ? The same appeal that would be made by a wax doll to a boy when he is ready for baseball. The nature of the problem in the intermediate school is to provide something for these adolescents that is directly related to their Ufe and action. The old milk food for the baby will not do unless there is something else along with it that tastes so good that they want more. New things are demanded and interesting things as well. They are after expression of their action in some tangible way because of their confidence in their abiUty to produce. But this desire for the new and interesting in action needs to be directed along channels that will not only train them for living today, but will prepare them to live tomorrow. The things they do must have an outlook into the future. They need to be prevocational in nature so as to open up the vista before them. These things also need to show the necessity for further education in preparation for the greatest service. By permitting different lines of activity to be tried out, their possibilities are tested out and their capabilities determined. Enghsh is necessary in every content for expression of thought and social living. History and geography are needed to understand the great living world-problems, our living relationship to the world at large, and our own government. Mathematics is required in all business transactions of life. Physical training is required because health is essential to complete living. What now shall we add to give the new interest ? First, science becomes indispensable for it reveals man's relationship to natural law and order and makes it possible for him to hve by principle instead of impulse. Next, commercial work may be added to give the future outlook on life, and might even be called vocational excepting that business houses do not care to employ such youthful prodigies as bookkeepers and typists and clerks. Finally, the manual-arts work with its wood-turning and cabinet-making for boys and sewing and cooking for girls has a prevocational appeal that can be rehed upon to add new interest to hfe. We can hardly call this a vocational content, but it certainly has a prevocational outlook. The High School Masters' Club of Massachusetts in its report on the junior high school, issued in March, 1917, after an exhaustive survey of 250 junior high-school cities, offers the following suggestions for the industrial- arts curriculum of the junior high school, besides the regular academic work in English, history, geography, and mathematics: Seventh grade — Physiology and Hygiene, 3 periods. Manual Training, boys, 4 periods. Sewing, girls, 4 periods, first semester, and Cooking, girls, 4 periods, second semester. Eighth grade — General Science, 4 periods. The same requirements of time for Industrial Arts as in the seventh grade. Ninth grade — General Science, 4 periods. Manual Training, boys, 6 periods. House- hold Arts, girls, 6 periods. Elective in all three years, Agriculture, 4 periods. This report states that "it is prevocational rather than vocational." Department] VOCATIONAL CONTENT OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL COURSE $37 The report also declares for three courses: academic, commercial, and industrial arts. All these courses demand the same amount of science. Why is there this demand for science in all courses ? The English, history, geography, and mathematics are needed because they are part of everyday living. Science is necessary because of its interpretation of nature, life, and living. Science gives a new attitude toward nature and life. Science explains nature and life. Science reveals principles which are the basis of nature and life. Science makes the success of life and living more easily attainable. For all prevocational training science is necessary because the attitude of the student becomes fixt. This attitude is that all phenomena or action is subject to law. He understands that there is a rational explanation for everything. He establishes the habit of analyzing everything to its fundamental principle. His success is assured because he acts upon prin- ciple. What is the effect of this type of mind upon prevocational or voca- tional commercial work ? Penmanship becomes, not simply writing, but a set of principles for movements. Arithmetic establishes itself upon the basic principles of number instead of mathematical juggling for correct answers. Bookkeeping translates itseK into principles of business practice instead of ledger balances. Typewriting becomes the practice of finger movements based on scientific principles. What is the effect of the scientific type of attack upon the problems of the prevocational manual arts? Wood-turning becomes a knowledge of the action of certain principles, and skill for applying these principles to the job. The David Rankin Junior School of Mechanical Trades has a course in first-term science which fits into its first term of manual training. It consists of ^' General mechanical principles. Laws of simple machines — lever, bracket, scaffolding, block and tackle, inclined plane, Ufting-jack, derrick, etc., centrifugal force, and energy of revolving machinery. Energy in its different forms. Energy units, horse-power, watts, and British thermal units. Machines for the transformation of energy, heat engines, gas and gasoline engines, turbines. Pumps and the hydraulic press. Machines for the transmission of energy, gears, sprocket and chain, trams of gears, shafting, belting." Whoever takes this course is getting a genuine education based upon principles and applied in practice. Sewing may become knowledge of principles and their application, not frills and orna- mentation. Every girl who takes sewing should have a knowledge of mechanics. Cooking is based on principles of food analysis and health conservation, and is not the creation of deUcacies that tickle the palate. Every girl who cooks should have a knowledge of the chemical action of foods, the conservation of waste foods and the needs of the human body with the economical methods for meeting these needs. Today more than ever before girls will be interested from a scientific standpoint in all these questions. Today boys and girls have a duty to society because of what society, the state, the school, the home, does for them. In democratic society this 538 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science is overwhelmingly true. Because of the President's messages, because of the many appeals that have been recently made, because of the great and manifest needs, the boys and girls are quick to recognize this responsibihty in larger, fuller measure than ever before. Just as they enter the inter- mediate high school they are ready to assume larger responsibility. Instead of having only one teacher, they may have two, three, or four. Their oppor- tunities for service here are also larger than before. If in the intermediate high school they can be taught to tackle a job, analyze it, work hard, enjoy the success of it, and give others of its fruits, the intermediate high school will have reacht a goal that will be of tremendous import in the lives of the boys and girls it touches. They will come to know the necessity for, and the glory of, service — service to industry, service to society, service to the state, service to God. Teachers in the intermediate high school have the privilege of training these students to live so as to have healthy bodies, alert minds, loving hearts, and triumphant spirits — every department of their lives ready to respond to the call of service. They not only will be trained to live today, but will be prepared for Hving tomorrow. If the intermediate high school can do this, it will have measured up to its legitimate vocational content. BIOLOGY IN THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL MABEL B. PEIRSON, HEAD OE BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, HIGH SCHOOL, PASADENA, CAL. The first aim in all elementary-science teaching should be the develop- ment of the pupil's power to see things for himself and to think for himself. This is especially true in the intermediate school, where the child comes to us with the idea firmly fix t in his mind that nothing is to be seriously considered study except learning what is set down in some textbook. It is our first and hardest task to get him started really to study the thing itself and to depend on his own reasoning powers to get at the facts and principles involved. Biological science furnishes the ideal means for this purpose, as material can be selected which will not be too difficult, while it is vitally interesting on account of its close relations to human life. By learning for himself how scientific truths have been discovered he will gradually gain something of the scientific point of view and learn to discriminate between truth and falsehood, learn to accept the truth wherever he finds it without hindrance of fear or sentiment. No one can doubt the cultural value of biology who tries to put himself back into the attitude of mind of the Middle Ages and to imagine the immense difference in his thinking without knowledge of the cell, fertiliza- tion, physiological processes, disease, heredity, evolution, and natural relationship of organisms. The whole fabric of historical and social sciences is founded on biological principles. IK ideas Department) BIOLOGY IN THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 539 The pursuit of any of the natural sciences gives one much healthful pleas- ure and enjoyment, as it takes him into the great outdoors and puts him into closer touch with nature. But the greatest value of biology lies in its application to Hfe. A knowledge of the laws of hfe, health of body and mind, the causes and prevention of disease and premature old age, reproduction and heredity, is the most valuable foundation which we can possibly give to the individual for health, morals, and good citizenship. The child must have ingrained into his very being the laws of life as reveuled by science, so that they may become habits of right thinking and acting. He will then have a philosophy of life that will be a never-failing guide in his own Hfe and will make him most useful in the highest forms of social service to family, community, state. While investigators delve more deeply into the mysteries of life, we biology teachers have a mission that is equally important in bringing this knowledge to the general public and in making it a controlling factor in the Hfe of the nation. We have great need in this country for trained investigators in agri- culture, foods, organic chemistry, public health, sanitation, and heredity. A recent report from a bureau which places the graduates of our eastern girls' colleges complains that it is overwhelmed by appUcations for editor- ships, while there are not nearly enough trained scientific workers to supply the demand. One great function of our work should be to call the attention of our best students to this need. It was interesting at the two recent expositions to see what efforts were made by the government to educate the pubhc along these lines. Biology should follow an introductory course which deals with the physical environment and requires at least a year with full provision for laboratory periods. It would be better if the plant work could be given during the spring term of the previous year according to the plan of the Biology Committee, and if we can have a three-year science course in the intermediate school, why not divide equally with the physical and give plant work in the spring term of the second year ? Or if it is desirable to make the second year purely physical, much of the simple observational work of biology can very readily be given in the first year. After five years of the biology requirement in Pasadena we have found that the second year of the old high school is a very satisfactory place for the course, but that as far as the intermediate school has become estabHsht with preliminary general science, it can be taught very effectively in the third year of that school. In the period of early adolescence when the child is full of curiosity, it is easy to arouse enthusiasm and to make impressions which will shape the after-Hfe and thinking of the man. This is what makes our problem of intermediate science more fascinating than that of any later years of school or college. The child at this age has an amazing faculty for grasping broad ideas and theories and gaining inspirations for life. He sees things in the 540 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science large, and too much insistence on fine details strains his attention and destroys his enthusiasm. In Pasadena we have segregated the boys and girls under men and women teachers. The work is better, special vocational topics can be strest, while the spirit of confidence and friendliness between teachers and pupils becomes more firmly establisht. All kinds of personal hygiene can be taught without embarrassment, while we have never had the least difiiculty in presenting the facts concerning the beginnings of life as freely and frankly as any other topic. The fact that no distinction is made between this and other subjects robs it entirely of sensational interest and removes one of the causes of abnormal psychology. There are certain principles of science teaching which must never be vio- lated in the intermediate school, however much they are sometimes neglected later. Every topic should first be presented by the laboratory method, the difference between this and other methods of study being carefully pointed out. There should be a great abundance of living material and only a small amount of dissection. If work with the compound microscope is introduced only when demanded and not too much time is spent in detailed drawings, the pupils are wildly enthusiastic about it and become quite adept in its use. A laboratory manual has absolutely no place in elementary-science teach- ing, as nothing is more deadly to all spontaneous enthusiasm. The teacher should explain the work to be done, get the pupils themselves to suggest the questions and methods of attack, aid them to observe accurately and to draw conclusions. While our goal should be the power of independent work, we must give help in the beginning. It is wrong to let the child flounder too long with a hopeless problem. Personally I believe that much of the work should be oral and that the laboratory mark should depend upon actual power of accomplishment and thinking as observed by the teacher in class. The notebook, tho necessary, is only a secondary consider- ation. The textbook should be used mainly for reference and only after the laboratory work is completed. We have found the department Hbrary the only method of giving sufficient reference work to large classes. By this means each pupil has the use of texts in biology and physiology and several books of special interest as well. This can be acquired by annual subscriptions from the class in- stead of by purchasing texts. Lantern lectures and motion pictures are used most successfully to supplement the reference work. Field work and a trip to a zoological garden are managed after school, but one full day is devoted to a trip to an aquarium and to beach collecting. But the real value of the excursion lies in showing children how to find material and to observe wherever they may be, and after getting them started by class work, individual collection and observation should be encouraged. The apparatus needed may be very simple in the beginning, but there is no good reason why a school which can afford to equip a physics laboratory Department] BIOLOGY IN THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 541 should not do as well in biology. Compound microscopes, some at least with oil immersion objectives, bacteriological apparatus, charts, models, museum specimens, and lantern sUdes add much to the effectiveness of the course. We have found that flat-topt tables not over twenty-nine inches high, supplied with gas and a sink for each two pupils, are most satis- factory, as it is easy to turn informally from experiment or microscope to recitation. In the arrangement of the course there must be a rigid selection from the vast mass of material to fit the needs of the locaUty and the aims of the course and to secure economy of time in order that the most vital topics in our one required biological course shall have adequate treatment. The main purpose in presenting each group of facts should be clearly kept in mind. For instance, plants are especially useful for teaching physiological processes, as they are well adapted to experimental study by elementary pupils, while the absolute dependence of the animal world upon them for food is a fact of fundamental importance. Bacteria should be taught on account of their vital relations to human Ufe and should become just as real to the child as the cow grazing in the next field. Animals are of greatest value for teachii^g the evolution of structure and function, natural relationship, and reproduction. If the school is near the ocean, sea forms are intensely interesting; in agricultural regions insects may be of first importance. We believe in giving much attention to mammals, using the rabbit for dissection, as it is so much better prepara- tion for human physiology than the frog. The ancient history and the adaptation of Umbs and teeth in this group are fascinating studies. In taking up biology after such a careful observational basis has been laid, more time can be given to lecture and discussion. Emphasis should be laid on amount and proportion of foods, digestion and elimination, causes of auto-intoxication, immunity, effect of exercise on body and mind, effect of mental states on bodily health, and drugs. The subject of reproduction should be illustrated by incubating hen's eggs and by study of mammaUan embryos which can be preserved in museum jars. Experience has shown that it is necessary to make hirnian applications of this as well as of all other topics in order to get results in Ufe, hence models are shown and hygiene explained. The results of such a course have exceeded our expectations. The majority are very enthusiastic, while only a very few dislike the work when they see what it really is. Many say that they get more from it than from any other course and that all should know these things. School heads, parents, and institutions such as the Y.M.C.A. consider that we are giving the pupils a necessary foundation for Ufe and morals, and they gladly cooperate with us. IL 542 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science GENERAL OR ELEMENTARY SCIENCE IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS ARTHUR DEAMER, SUPERINTENDENT, CITY SCHOOLS, FARGO, N.D. The title of this paper is slightly misleading. It implies a distinction between general and elementary science that is often overlookt in discussing this subject as appHed to work in the junior high schools. A careful reading of the Uterature on the subject reveals the fact that many writers use these terms synonymously. However, for the sake of discussion let us assume that there is a distinction that is very well exprest in the titles named above. We speak of elementary arithmetic, elementary geography, ele- mentary history, having in mind the simple, basal, fundamental facts or principles of each. We can think of elementary science in the same way, having in mind the organization of subject-matter ot each special science according to its logical development, upon which a more complete and richer conception is built later in our senior high school or university. General science gives less attention to organization and development of the particular science from whose fields the subject-matter is selected. In fact, it feels perfectly free to break up all natural connections of the par- ticular subject under discussion wi-th facts that ordinarily precede or follow it, if in doing so the facts can be related to the environment of the pupil. It aims to develop a more usable fund of knowledge about common things, to give abihty in interpreting common problems, and to connect the school more closely with everyday problems of life. Thus pupils are urged to bring their home problems to the school for consideration and discussion — such problems as heating, ventilating, analysis of food, detections of adulter- ations, selections of paints, oils, varnishes, examination of different kinds of fuel, use of simple machines as labor-saving devices, fertilizers, conservation of soils and trees, and in general the larger problems of human con- servation. It often gives introductory notions of physical and chemical phenomena especially and their relation to scientific discovery. The topics selected are closely related to human affairs and include none that cannot be shown to have this bearing. No attempt is made to secure a logical development or to give an exhaustive treatment of any topic in its scientific aspect. It aims to deal with the large and concrete things which surround boys and girls and in which they are naturally interested. There should be little abstract theory, the work being based fundamentally on those things that can be seen and appreciated. In general science the pupil is taken as he presents himself, usually with little acquaintance, if any, with science and scientific methods of study, and is generally turned over at the end of the year with something of both. The course is not synthetic, but mainly analytical, since it attacks directly the pupil's environment and attempts to break it up into some of its I I I Department) SCIENCE IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 543 chief elements. As a subject it is mainly informational, but each fact is related to the real world in which the pupil lives. After a number of years of experimentation with the special sciences in the high school, such as botany, chemistry, zoology, physics, and agri- culture, it is seriously questioned whether the results in information, scien- tific habits, and character are commensurate with the time, efifort, and expense involved in presenting the course. Certainly all of these courses have been determined from the standpoint of the development of the subject rather than from the needs of the pupil. In fact, the treatment is such as to appeal to the mature rather than the adolescent mind. These courses are really highly specialized and prepare directly for further work in the college. Compare the course and the laboratory equipment in a good modern high school with the course and equipment in any college of twenty years ago and it is at once evident that the work has been pusht down into the high school directly from the college. The college graduates as teachers of science in the modern high schools have developt the courses from the adult point of view only. Then too there is no apparent relation existing between these sciences that is recognized in the high school. They are taught in almost any conceivable sequence. One school has physical geography in the ninth grade, another in the twelfth, and the same may be said with reference to botany, zoology, or agriculture; physics and chemistry are usually taught in either the eleventh or the twelfth grade. It is because of the lack of appeal in these sciences in the senior high school, due to the highly detailed organization of the subject-matter and the need for close cooperation between the schools and society, that interest has lagged in the sciences and thoughtful school people have turned their minds to a reorgani- zation of the whole field of secondary science. It is indeed strange that after all these years of experimentation and study no one has been able to devise a high-school course in science that is so graduated in its arrange- ment of subject-matter and material as to hold the interest of the pupils over a period of three or four years. It seems to me that the science that Spencer had in mind when he wrote the essay, "What Knowledge Is Most Worth," in 1859 should come under what we would now call general science; at least he had in mind the applica- tion of its principles to the activities of men. His position is well illustrated in the following quotation from that essay: Pass next to science. Joined with mathematics it has given us the steam engine, which does the work of millions of laborers. That section of physics which deals with the laws of heat has taught us how to economize fuel in our various industries; how to increase the produce of our smelting furnaces by substituting the hot for the cold blast; how to ventilate our mines; how to prevent explosions by using the safety lamp; and thru the thermometer how to regulate innumerable processes. That division which has the phenomena of light for its subject gives eyes to the old and myopic; aids thru the microscope in detecting diseases and adulterations; and by improved lighthouses prevents shipwreck. 544 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science Still more numerous are the bearings of chemistry in those activities by which men obtain the means of living. The bleacher, the dyer, the calico maker are severally occupied in processes that are well or ill done according as they do or do not conform to chemical laws. The economical reductions from their ores of copper, tin, zinc, lead, silver, and iron are in a great measure problems of chemistry. Sugar refining, gas making, soap boiling, and gunpowder manufacture are operations all partly chemical, as are also those by which are produced glass and porcelain. Glance through any work in technology and it becomes at once apparent that there is now scarcely any process in the arts or manufactures over some part of which chemistry does not preside. Possibly the most gifted teacher of physics that ever lived was Tyndall. In a lecture on "Physics as a Means of Education" he suggests his mode of approach to the subject thru the spirit of wonder, the fostering of which is so important for the science teacher. He made a rather random selection of questions from those his boys askt him, which show clearly the things he thought should be emphasized in his course. The following are suggestive of his point of view: "What is frost?" "Why are thunder and lightning more frequent in summer than in winter ? " " What occasions falling stars ? " "What is the cause of the sensation of pins and needles?" "What is the cause of hiccoughs ?" "If a towel is wet with water, why is the wet portion darker than the dry?" "Does dew rise or fall?" "What is the principle of the hydraulic press?" "What are those rings we see around the gas jet?" "Sun?" "What is thunder?" "What is the cause of perspiration, etc.?" This same idea is presented in an article by Barber. He contrasts the treatment of the subject of light, as presented in the special science physics, where we have such subtopics as "Its Rectihnear Propagation," " Shadows," "Refraction of Light," "Color and Spectra," "Nature of Light," "Inter- ference and Polarization," with the treatment of the same topic in general science adapted to the ninth grade, where the units of instruction would be something of this character: "Primitive Lamps," "Candles," "Discovery of Petroleum," "Kerosene Lamps," "Illuminating Gas," "Acetylene Lighting," etc. A course in general science can be conceived so that it will possess unity and also have educational value of the highest type. Possibly it will not accomplish some of the results hoped for today by many of our secondary teachers. It will, however, be an open sesame to the actual environment in which the pupil must Hve. Pedagogically this is sufficient justification for the introduction of the subject in the junior high school. A course in general science after all must depend, not only upon the information given, but also upon the permanent interest stimulated and the initiative aroused. It must consequently make a broad appeal to the student body and not merely to those who wish to enter college. It must be presented from the broad, humanistic viewpoint and not from the standpoint of formal discipHne. It must appeal to both boys and girls thru some differentiation of work for each group. As applied science it will be Department! PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 545 full of life and variety. It will be recognized as worth while, and from its application the essential laws and principles may be developt. I I PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY CHARLES KIRKPATRICK, VICE-PRINCIPAL, BROADWAY HIGH SCHOOL, SEATTLE, WASH. Suddenly in August, 1914, a large part of the world was plunged into the greatest war in history. Directly this affected our nation as the greatest of the then neutral states. Slowly but surely since then the atmosphere has been clarifying until we have come to see that this war is the great war of autocracy against democracy. To uphold the cause of democracy that it "shall not perish from the earth," we have entered into the conflict against autocracy. Nothing since 181 2 has stirred and soHdified this nation. North and South, Hke the call to service uttered by our President. He has called upon our democracy to show the true spirit of brotherliness by everyone doing his bit to win the war — on the battlefield and in the stubble field; on the firing Hne and in the cooking line; by artillery and in industry; by the floating mine and in the copper mine; by the aeroplane and with the joiner's plane; all are to do and dare. It means for us a new spirit of democracy, one that sweeps away discord and submerges the interest of self in the common interest of all. It means an industrial awakening that will be as far-reaching in its effects as "was the industrial revolution. Today we, as a nation, reaUze our shortcomings in industry, and we are setting about to remedy the lack. It means a stimulus to invention in a more far- reaching manner than has been experienst for decades. American genius will meet the issue and succeed. Do you realize that we have as yet reacht only the infinitesimal when compared with the discoveries bottled up in the great storehouse of God ? J. J. Thompson estimates that "there is enough energy stored in one gram of hydrogen to lift a million tons 100 yards into the air." What a field of possibilities for discovery and invention we have placed at the very feet of the greatest inventive geniuses the world has ever known. What a field for the life-work of a determined embryo Marconi or Madam Curie. What things today are the environment and interests of the boys and girls to a larger extent than the things which the war has forst upon our attention? There is the chemistry of foods and, what has been more largely in our minds because of its pubHcity than the question of foods, food production, food analysis, food distribution, food waste, food economy. There is the chemistry of textiles, and when we come to understand it fully it will have as large a place in our thinking as the chemistry of foods. The mechanics of machines, labor-saving machines, power-producing machines, machines that lower the cost of production and spare men from the industries for the front, is vital to an understanding of life today. 546 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science Power and its application to industry loom larger than ever before in our history. Then we have the twofold appeal to the youth of our land. On account of the war there is need of stimulating thought along lines that are in the immediate environment of the adolescent. His interest is there because of his environment and because of the awakening the war has brought. How then shall he tackle his bit of the great Hfe-problem ? On the way in which he attacks it and masters it will depend in large measure the success of his life. If he takes toward his environment the scientific attitude for its explanation and interpretation, he has made a long step on the road to ultimate and worthy achievement. If he learns to analyze his environment and trace situations back to the fundamental principles and laws which govern all action, his progress is rapid. If this becomes the habit of his life, and he strips occurrences of their alliances and traces them down to essential causes, his decisions are sure because founded upon* principle which is unchanging. There is a tremendous appeal to the girls in the cooking classes if the chemistry of foods becomes thoroly understood by them. Pure foods, tests for purity, pure-food laws, common adulterants, substitutes for certain foods, analysis of foods, can well occupy a considerable amount of time and prove of great benefit. Carbohydrates, proteids, fats, minerals, acids, bases, and stimulants in their relationship to digestion and body-building are of supreme interest and may be made the source of much investigation and thought. The cost of foods with an understanding of the constituents of the different varieties, the waste of foods which could be saved and utilized, the economy in the selection of foods, the cooking, canning, and preserving of foods with special reference to pressure cookers, refrigerations, cooking uten- sils, thermos bottles, and fireless cookers all have a direct and pointed appeal today and can be made into a most desirable course of study for girls of the intermediate high school. In connection with textiles science can offer courses in fibres and their weaving into cloth, purity tests for woolen, linen, and silk, bleaching and dyeing. The war has made dyeing one of the great problems of today. The prospects are that the problem is to be even more serious in the near future. Laundering without injurious effects, removing stains, soaps, etc., offer chemical fields for investigation that are rich in content and usefulness for the intermediate high-school girl and are directly in touch with her environ- ment. In mechanics the girls of the sewing classes should study simple machines and the principles of machines, lubrication, mechanics of fluids, etc. The home is the immediate environment of the girl, and whatever relates to it will be of supreme interest to her. Science can place before her the principles underlying the heating of the home by hot water, steam, hot air, gas, and electricity. In connection with this she should be taught venti- Department) PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 547 lation, automatic regulation of temperature, the proper humidity for efficiency, and the effect of these considerations upon health. Proper light adjustment, satisfactory illumination and methods of illumination, color, harmony of decorations, sound deadening in house construction, music and harmony, all are of vital and genuine interest to the girl of this age, and pertain to physics. Electricity in its relationship to stoves, irons, lights, door bells, tele- phone, plating, and labor-saving motors will grip and hold the girl's atten- tion and, if properly handled, will give her an insight into the world at large in connection with the sources of electricity, its transmission, its transforma- tion, etc., that will enlarge her outlook and prove of tremendous value when she understands the principles involved and the ultimate source of electricity with the processes involved in bringing it to her. But what about the boys ? What boy is not interested in machines ? Let him have the mechanics of machines in simplified form and yet working itself back to underlying principles. Give the boy levers, hoists, derricks, pulleys, block and tackles, winches, gears, eccentrics, belting, gearing, screws, hydraulics, elevators, Archimedes' principle in its relationship to the submarine, gas and steam engines, automobiles, law of falling bodies in its relationship to shooting from aeroplanes and by artillery, tractors in their relationship to industry, and war tanks and air craft of all kinds. What boy will not spend hours over the Scientific American and the Supple- ment ? Let us seize that interest and make it of use to him so that he under- stands the principles and laws back of the great inventions of modern times. In electricity let him study bells, telephones, the telegraph, motors and dynamos, transformers, wiring, the laboratory and the commercial current and its measurement, electrotyping, and the wireless. Emphasize the principles underlying electrical action, the source of electricity, how energy is transformed into electricity and back again into mechanical energy, its transmission, its usefulness, its practical applications. When our boy begins to understand something of its power, of its adaptabihty, of its speed, of its absolute obedience to law, he may come to comprehend what acting upon principle can accomplish for himself as well. But what of the war ? How is it to be won for democracy ? Some say it will be won by the submarines, others say by the aeroplanes. The pur- pose of the submarine is a food blockade. How shall the food blockade be met? By the conservation of food, by the eUmination of waste, by the practice of economy. Let us strike then while the iron is hot for the chemistry of food and textiles in the reorganization of science courses to fit a three-year intermediate high school. What is the purpose of the aeroplane ? It is the eyes of the artillery. It makes the advance of the Allies possible. Then let the boys come to understand aeroplanes, artillery, and tanks and understand them by the same principles upon which they understand simple machines. 548 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science The startling headlines of the newspapers today call our attention to the war by such captions as these: ''The Sub Solved — 10,000 Aeroplanes to Win " ; '' Food Speculators Jailed " ; " Dearth of Dyestuffs." With these things appealing day by day to our boys and girls they will undertake the study of the things pertaining to war and related to their own environment with a vigor and determination not previously manifest. These war announcements will arouse interest, stimulate inquiry, and demand explana- tions. This is then the time for the study of the principles to be under- taken. This is the time for them to obtain a complete understanding of the problems involved. This ability to understand present problems leads them to solve new problems on the basis of the knowledge acquired and laws understood. Add to this a desire to help that this complete under- standing engenders and a willingness to sacrifice because the spirit of sacrifice is all about, and the reorganization of the science courses to fit a three-year intermediate high school becomes of paramount importance. Note the immediate effect that is already manifest over the land. Boys have undertaken agriculture with willingness and efficiency. Attempts have been made for food conservation. Economy in clothing is being prac- tist. In relationship to these things there has been a striking devotion to study and a desire to apply the knowledge in practice; prompt response has been made to every legitimate appeal. The High School Masters' Club of Massachusetts declares for three years of science in the junior high school. At least one of these three years should be of appKed physics and chemistry. The pupils are willing and ready — are we ? THE TRAINING OF SCIENCE TEACHERS E. R. EDWARDS, STATE HIGH-SCHOOL INSPECTOR, JAMESTOWN, N.DAK. In addition to having had thoro courses in science in a standard college or university the teacher should have had thoro work in the psychology of science and the various other subjects which comprise the usual high- school curriculum. He should have made himself famiUar with studies that deal with the beginnings of scientific thought among the people. If it is true that the individual must repeat the history of the race in a large measure, then the child's approach to scientific thinking is at some stages closely akin to those stages of thinking thru which the race has past. The child naturally demands a fuller experience which is a natural demand of any active mind. The science teacher must be trained to know that a child's thoughts are not controlled by practical adjustments. His behavior may be the fault of his childish imagination. Critical thinking is a late development in the individual as it was in the race. This slow development must be kept in mind when planning a course of instruction and when teaching science to immature students. I Department) THE TRAINING OF SCIENCE TEACHERS 549 The teacher must remember that the children in the early years of the high-school course, having had no systematic science work, may be almost afraid of the work at times, but students of this age possess tremendous advantages. They have real interests in things about them. This interest may be used to good purpose or it may be dulled by repression and lack of exercise. These pupils possess enthusiasm without the self-consciousness which is so often a characteristic of pupils a little older. The question for the teacher is not so much, How shall I teach ? as How can I best help the pupil to learn? It is not so necessary that the teacher answer the pupil's question or that the pupil answer the teacher's as that the teacher stimulate the pupil to ask and to answer his own questions. The reason that the question of new methods for teaching science, as well as the question of new science courses themselves, arises so often now is because within the past few years the public has demanded a more prac- tical education. The public is no longer satisfied with the course or the method of instruction that prepares the student primarily to enter a college. There is imperative need of science teachers who have made in the course of their preparation some rather critical studies of real educational conditions. Teachers who are trained in a few subjects by the customary college classroom , methods, who have confined and are confining their attention very largely to one or two subjects in science or in any other field, add immensely to the problems of administration, because they see little and value less, things outside of their special subjects. As a result of too much and too early specialization upon the part of teachers and administrators, in subject and method, we have as yet no course in science covering a four-year period as we have in foreign language, EngUsh, and history. Perhaps to this may also be attributed, in part at least, the fact that the interests of science rather than the interests of the pupils or the community have been dominant. It would also seem that scientific studies of the mental processes of the pupils might to a large degree be substituted in the preparation of teachers for a too-absorbing interest in botany, chemistry, physics, and biology. The best training in pedagogy and methods which the prospective sci- ence teacher can get is that offered in the college where a model high school forms part of the equipment. Where the institution does not have such a school the next best opportunity is observation work in the near-by city high school. For the teacher nothing can quite equal in value the observa- tion and actual cadet teaching in a model high school under proper super- vision. This work should give the prospective teacher a good working idea of laboratory methods and equipment. Laboratory work presents one of the most difficult problems of second- ary education. Fortunate indeed is the teacher who in his own preparation has been guided just enough and not too much under the conditions men- tioned above. He in turn must perform this service for his own pupils. SSO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science He must distinguish between the essential and the nonessential. The successful science teacher must be a person who has the right conception of laboratory work. I feel frank to say that so far as my observation goes laboratory work in science in high school has small value as often conducted at present. Present laboratory methods often penalize ingenuity. Our laboratory tactics are often similar to those employed in fattening a goose. We cage our student and ask him to do no constructive thinking. We supply the learner with a full set of directions regarding his experiment; state exactly what is to be done and how, what materials to use, what con- clusions to reach, and what to do with the materials when he has finisht. We require too much writing. I have seen many laboratory periods about as follows: thirty minutes of work and one hour of writing. Many of us no doubt still possess notebooks made under such conditions, which we keep as sort of curios. They form no important part of our reference library. Some written work is necessary, but more than enough defeats its own purpose. The drawings in laboratory notebooks are seldom of value. Altogether too much of our laboratory work has little or no connec- tion with the common everyday things with which the children and the community have to deal. Perhaps a little work during the teacher's prep- aration which would give him a good working idea of what the average community possesses and would acquaint him with how the average family has to live might be a great help. Why not make use of the things in the community that affect everyday life in our science teaching ? Do we not ordinarily confine our laboratory work to trying over again the experi- ments that have become classic and to verifying results that have been thoroly estabHsht for years ? Why not study the local electric-light plant, gas plant, waterworks, telephone system, machine-shops, flour mills, etc. ? It is simply appalhng how many students and adults as well are ignorant of these things and even ignorant of their location in some cases. This condition will exist in a lesser degree if the teacher of science has been trained to appreciate the value of local surroundings and to put common things to good account in his work. The teacher of physics who has been trained to construct with his class a simple board to represent the wall of a house and upon the back of it place in a practical way the rough wiring for the customary electrical household conveniences, and then place upon the opposite side some of those devices, as electric light, telephone, three-way switch, etc., will not only impress his class and his community favorably, but will have succeeded in making his pupils realize the connection of the subject they are studying with every- day life. I am not sure that a vacuum cleaner, electric flatiron, electric washer, and a cream-separator are out of place in a physics laboratory. They are much nearer the common people than a photometric room, The same is true of gas and electric meters. Department] WAR IS A HIGHLY ORGANIZED SCIENCE 551 To summarize briefly, then, the successful teacher of high-school science, like the successful teacher of any other subject, should be a person who has, to begin with, graduated from a good high school where he had a liberal course including elementary science; who in his college course has studied as thoroly as possible several of the sciences. Besides this he should have had work in other lines, especially in EngHsh and the social group; he should have had thoro work in general psychology and the psychology of science; he should have had work in pedagogy comprising both observation and practice teaching. The successful teacher of science realizes that social efficiency — eco- nomic, domestic and civic — is the great ultimate end of education, and he works toward this end. Stated another way, the successful teacher of science should be trained to know all he can about science, about science teaching, and, most impor- tant of all, all he can about boys and girls. WAR IS A HIGHLY ORGANIZED SCIENCE— THE SOLDIER AND INDUSTRIAL WORKER BOTH NEED TRAINING IN SCIENTIFIC THINKING AND APPLICATION J. A. B. SINCLAIR, SURGEON, UNITED STATES NAVY, PORTLAND RECRUITING STATION, PORTLAND, ORE. As sudden as was the act of an unknown youth whose leap exploded the European pov/der mine was the stroke of the German military machine, and the momentum with which the war of wars developt was the most amaz- ing feature of the world's greatest cataclysm. This is proved by the start- ling fact that in less than three months the losses in killed, wounded, and missing was a miUion men, and nine nations, numbering in fighters eighteen million souls, were at war. Such a state and such events were possible only thru the workings of the most highly organized and scientifically operated military machine the world has ever known, and well it was for that machine's opponents that they too were in a measure organized after the same general scientific plan. One of the most salient features of the opposing military-naval estab- lishments of the European nations at war today is the specialization of the one-time-citizen-now-soldier along scientific war-industrial-trade lines, and — since past and present events and the best human forecast do not justify the human hope for early world-peace — it behooves the citizens of this our country, now adding its part to this well-nigh universal conflict, to train its young men to think and work in like scientific lines to the end that mobiliza- tion of these resources may insure our nation against disaster. The German military organization is the world's model, at least from the standpoint of immediate accomplishment of results, and therefore we 552 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science can hardly do better than to emulate it in its perfect working. It was effected in its minutest detail by the very essence of scientific thought and application. In that organization every tongue fitted its groove, every tooth its socket. We have seen how the Kaiser's marvelous soldiers carried their banner to the very outskirts of Paris in August and September, 1914. It is the Great God efficiency, to which the Germans were required by their commanders to pay the homage of worship — and it behooves us either to effect a thing that will operate as well or to copy theirs. The fact of the world at war has silenct the erring Hps that declared against the necessity for preparation against disaster, like that of Belgium and Servia. There had developt in Europe and in America, among those active in the cause of universal peace, a trend to discredit the military service and by every means to discourage young men from entering the services of their countries in their armies and their navies. In America this was particularly true, in spite of the fact that no one can look carefully into the work of our Army or our Navy without concluding that either branch offers a career of which any parent may be proud, and which any son may enter with the fullest devotion and the highest ideals. Whoever enters either branch, whether as officer or as enlisted man, enters a great school. To an Ameri- can boy there is no career open, unless it be that of a teacher, which he himself must of necessity become, which offers a larger opportunity to minis- ter to the service of men than that of the army or navy officer, and so care- fully is the health and well-being of the enlisted man lookt after, that the sick-rate and the death-rate in these services are far lower each year than for boys of like age in civil Hfe. Figures can readily be produced to prove this. [Let me here give statement and figures of the Surgeon-General of the United States Navy just pubHsht. Many of you have brothers, sons, and other relatives, and acquaintances who have gone into the various branches of the service of their country and yours, and to you I wish to say that their every interest will be the interest of their superiors. Intoxicating liquors were eliminated from the Navy several years ago by the present Secretary upon the recommendation of the present Surgeon- General, and just recently like steps have been taken in the Army. To belittle the military-naval service of our country is to strike a blow, not for peace, but against that inbred spirit which stands for courage and loyalty and patriotism. One cannot destroy the old-time fighting spirit of the race without weakening these elemental human virtues. Dreadful as war is there are things even worse. Under circumstances such as the violation of Belgium a nation will fight if it has left in it a spark of elemental virtue. "The remedy for war lies deep. The cause of universal peace which we advocate is none other than the cause of universal education." With this in mind let us set ourselves to the task of educating our youth at once in the b Department) WAR IS A HIGHLY ORGANIZED SCIENCE 553 scientifically correct methods of warfare, and in those virtues which make for universal love and perhaps eventual peace. It behooves the United States especially to train its citizens along these lines. At the head of our nation is a great scholar and teacher, to whom every citizen owes support. His was and is a guiding hand in things that belong to peace. His is a guiding hand in war. The antithesis must be maintained. In order to perpetuate our institutions and guard our varied interests, in order to prevent aggression and defend human life, we must take steps, with the greatest possible moment, to make preparedness in the most thorogoing manner that the best brains of our miUtary-naval estab- lishment, our scientists, our scholars, our teachers can devise, with all their present knowledge and all the knowledge they can acquire upon setting themselves to the task, giving all due study to establisht methods ante- dating the war and to the new developments in the great science now being so diligently applied in what seems to be, for the nonce, man's chief end — the destruction of men. To attain this end and in order to avoid a third national bankruptcy, it behooves every citizen to do the very best part his endowments will admit of. Thomas Jefferson, in a letter to Monroe, advocated compulsory military training in the following words: "We must train and classify the whole of our male citizens and make military instruction a part of collegiate education." And before he had learned by sad experience the necessity for this, he had been a pacifist to the extent of letting the standing army dwindle to a handful. And now we have compulsory military service — what shall we do with it ? Organize it. Start the education that must be part and parcel of it in the schools— in the grammar school, the high school, the trade school. Teachers should see to it that the lessons of history are learned and that our youth shall have that training which will enable him to take his part in an efficient manner, in such capacity as his country may ask him to serve. They should, by school military organization and drill, improve his physique and give him that which he so sadly lacks — discipline and respect for his elders. Make this training universal and obligatory. In the examination of some ten thousand recruits in the Portland Navy Recruiting Station many observations of interest have been made. Some are discouraging and some gratifying. One of prime import is that the youth who has had the advantage of school is far better physically than the lad from the street, who has been neglected by parents and has lackt the advantage of teachers. The latter's chance of acceptance has been about one in seven. When the war began for us, numerous high schools thruout the state patriotically releast their pupils, giving them certain credits. Thirteen boys came from a high school in Sheridan. Those thirteen were accepted. It was my first experience to accept thirteen men in a row for the Navy. 554 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science Since then I have accepted thirty-seven consecutively. It was the volunteer system in time of actual need, causing the very best to go to the front. High-school and college men are the rule now, not the exception as before. Now as to the advantage of another school — that of the trained indus- trial worker. The services of this man have always been at a premium in the Army and Navy. The military art embraces all other arts, and mihtary training calls for experts in all departments of human activity. Young men who desire to fit themselves for any trade or profession can find in the Army or Navy an opportunity to learn practically the work of that trade or profession, and in the future economic advantage will be taken of this fact, in the scientific development of our military life that is bound to come, by assigning volunteers to those places in the military machine where they will receive instruction as far as possible in the very trade or profession which they intend to practice in civil life after their training period. In the division, the smallest unit of military organization containing all the elements of an independent military command, there is an appropriate place for every trade and profession, and the more scientifically trained in habits of thought and work the members of the unit are, the more efficient will be the command. This efficiency can be and will be in the future enormously increast by the work of the teacher in academic and trade schools. In the Navy skilled industrial workers are particularly in demand and command the highest pay. Skilled workers have always been in demand. But the art of war is just now undergoing a scientific revolution as seen in the machine gun, the aeroplane, the hydro-aeroplane. The forty-two-centimeter, 20-mile asphyxiating-gas-shell-hurling artillery, wireless communication from the sky for fire direction, and auto trucks that have raised the rate of march for infantry from fifteen to one hundred and twenty miles a day, as in GaUieni's flank movement for the defense of Paris. Auto machines have been fitted with the scythes of Boadicea to slash thru wire entanglement, and, turreted for rapid-fire guns, span trenches and emulate the destructive- ness on land of the submarines in the sea. Searchlights have made every commander a veritable Joshua, who can prolong the day for the enemy's slaughter. A new art of war has sprung full armed from the battlefields of Europe. These improvements in the art of kiUing call for a very great horde of skilled mechanics. The teaching of these should be suppHed by the trade school. Our need for an organization which will be capable of utiHzing new knowledge thus made necessary, promptly available, is imperative. Our enemies already have this knowledge and have taken advantage of it in their organization. We should make all diligent haste in these matters and, thru scientific appHcation of the knowledge gained by loss of Europe's blood, be ready with trained men and modern arms to meet — to stop — the Prussian menace of universal domain and make the world ''safe for Democracy." Homer Lea in his Valor of Ignorance, Departmentl WAR IS A HIGHLY ORGANIZED SCIENCE 555 the title of which depicts so accurately the average American of his day, told how criminal were the acts of any nation to send untaught and un- trained soldiers, and how criminal it was to send ignorant officers in charge of such men to the battlefields. The Father of our Country, in his first annual address, said, "To be prepared for war is the most effectual means of preserving peace. A free people ought not only to be armed, but disciplined, to which end a uniform and well-digested plan is requisite," and again, "The safety of the United States under Divine protection ought to rest on a basis of systematic and soHd arrangement, exposed as little as possible to the hazards of for- tuitous circumstances." If then we shall give our young men proper training along the lines indicated, we shall be no longer lacking in preparedness, and we shall have a citizen-military organization that will contravent defeat, and it will mean that we shall not follow Europe's experience and sacrifice our bravest and best in the early period of their learning. "There is no tragedy in all the Enghsh story, splendid as are many of its pages, greater than the tragedy of the untold thousands of English young men who were sacrificed to national inexperience in all the battles that lie between Ypres and the early stages of the Somme." LIBRARY DEPARTMENT SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Effie L. Power, Carnegie Library Pittsburgh, Pa. Vice-President— Mary C. Richardson, Lewis and Clark High School Spokane, Wash. Secretary — Nancy Thompson, State Normal School Newark, NJ. I FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, July ii, 191 7 The Library Department was called to order in the library hall of the public library at 2:00 P.M., by Miss Harriet A. Wood, of Portland, Ore., who presided in the absence of the president. Miss EfEe L. Power. The following paper was read: "Problem Method of Instruction and Its Probable Correlations in Library Service and Administration" — Herbert G. Lull, director of teacher training, Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kans. Discussion followed, led by Dallas D. Johnson, department of education. University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. Miss Lola E. Bailey, librarian of the East Portland branch, and Miss Emma E. Barette, of the Buckman School, Portland, then gave briefly the value of library service as actually workt out in connection with the school problem. This was particularly interesting, as the two points of view were presented, that of the teacher and that of the librarian. There being no further discussion. Miss Wood appointed the Committee on Nomina- tions as follows: Louise Smith, Seattle, Wash.; Flora M, Case, Salem, Ore.; William E. Henry, Seattle, Wash. SECOND SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 12, 191 7 This session of the department was in the form of a round table for high-school librari- ans, with Louise Smith, librarian, Lincoln High School, Seattle, presiding. "The Care of Clippings, Pamphlets, etc.," was discust by Virginia Slaven, school librarian, Seattle, Wash. An informal discussion followed in which Miss Fossler, of the technical department of the Portland Library Association, explained the method of that department for caring for newspaper clippings. Marion Lovis, librarian of the Stadium High School, Tacoma, Wash., spoke of the student committees in the high-school library. Miss Pope, of the Lincoln High School, Tacoma, also gave her experience with student committees in her school. The "Question Box" was conducted by Harriet A. Wood, school librarian of Port- land. THIRD SESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July 12, 19 17 The Library Department was called to order in Library Hall by Harriet A. Wood at 2:00 P.M. The following paper was presented: "State Supervision of School Libraries" — J. A. Churchill, state superintendent of Public Instruction, Salem, Ore. 557 558 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library George A. Briscoe, superintendent of schools, Ashland, Ore., spoke of the coopera- tion between the public library and the schools in that city. Superintendent Pettitt, of Albany, Ore., and Superintendent Hampton, of La Grange, Ore., told of the school libraries in their towns. Mr. Henry, librarian of the University of Washington, spoke of school- library conditions in Washington. Dr. Churchill then spoke briefly on the "Librarian in the High School — Her Status, Qualifications, Salary, and Defined Duties." Miss Wilkin- son, librarian of Flathead County High School, Kalispell, Mont., was askt to tell what qualifications she considered most helpful and necessary in a successful high-school librarian. •. The informal discussion was followed by a paper on "Library Opportunities n Junior High Schools," by Laura E. Bailey, teacher of English in the Washington Junior High School, Salem, Ore. The discussion which followed was led by Sabra Conner, of the Shattuck School, Portland, Ore. FOURTH SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 13, 1917 The final meeting of the Library Department was called to order in the Story-Hour Room at 9:00 a.m. by Miss Wood. The reports of the several committees formed the business of the morning. The Committee on Nominations recommended the election of the following: President — C. C. Certain, head of English department, Cass Technical High School, Detroit, Mich. Vice-President — Lucile F. Fargo, librarian. North Central High School, Spokane, Wash. Secretary — Lucy E. Fay, librarian of the University of Tennessee, Nashville, Tenn. The report was unanimously accepted and the officers declared elected. Miss Power's report for the Committee on Elementary Schools was read by Miss Wood; the report on High-School Libraries by Miss Hall was read by Miss Pope, and Miss Wood gave the report for her Committee on University and College Libraries. These reports were accepted. The reports of the Committees on Rural School Libraries and Normal-School Libraries had not been received. The meeting was adjourned. Ruth M. Paxson, Secretary pro tern Report of Elementary School Committee of the Library Department, 19 16-19 17 During the year, 19 16-17, the Elementary School Committee of the Library Depart- ment of this Association has carried forward the work on the List of Books for Departmental Use with Elementary Schools previously issued and has begun plans for a permanent exhibit illustrating library work with elementary schools. One hundred copies of the tentative list were printed in June, 1916. About ninety of these have been distributed for criticism, a very small proportion of which have been returned to date. A record of distribution has been kept, and it will be possible to follow up finally the persons not reporting. The books listed have been rearranged by the Committee by grades, with some addi- tions and the work of annotation begun. Since this list is intended to be used primarily as a buying list, it has not seemed desirable to reprint it for this meeting as planned, on account of fluctuations in prices and other points in publication. A notice from the Secretary of the National Education Association in the volume of Proceedings recently issued, that such a list might be obtained by application to the chairman of this Committee, has brought so many requests from all parts of the country that the Committee is assured that a brief buying list, such as has been planned, is needed and should be completed. Suggestions with regard to a permanent elementary-school exhibit are cordially invited. It is planned that this shall take the form of charts, mounted photographs and scrapbooks illustrating equipment and method, lists and collections of books, and shall Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 559 be workt out in conjunction with the high-school exhibit already organized by the High- School Committee, with the result that the library exhibit as a whole may show a more unified plan of work. Effie L. Power, Chairman Report of Committee on High-School Libraries for Year Ending June 30, 191 7 The past year has been notable for the increasing interest of educational leaders in the campaign for better high-school libraries. This is largely due to the efforts of Pro- fessor Charles Hughes Johnston and his Committee on High-School Libraries in the Department of Secondary Education of the National Education Association. The results of that committee's work fully justify its continuation until the general reorganization of high-school libraries thruout the country is establisht. It is hoped that thru its influ- ence each state education department will soon take definite action on standards for high- school library equipment, organization, and administration, and that state inspectors of high schools will hold the schools to these standards for their libraries. The most important event of the year in the way of progress toward standardization of high-school libraries is the adoption by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of a tentative report on "A Standard Library Equipment and Organi- zation for Libraries in High Schools." This includes four types of high schools: four- year high schools with enrolment of from five hundred to three thousand pupils and over; four-year high schools with from two hundred to four hundred pupils; high schools with less than one hundred pupils; and junior high schools. This report was prepared by Mr. C. C. Certain, of the Cass Technical High School, Detroit, in collaboration with many leaders in high-school library work thruout the country. The full report was printed in the June number of Educational Administration and Supervision (Warwick & York, pub- lishers, Baltimore, Md.) and has been sent to the school superintendents in all parts of the country. It is hoped that its standards will be found suggestive to state and city boards of education. State aid in high-school library development. — The most significant event of the year in the matter of legislation concerning high-school libraries was the passage of the following law by the state of California: No librarian shall be employed for more than two hours a day in any high school unless such librarian holds a high-school certificate, or a special teacher's certificate in library craft, technique, and use, of secondary grade work, granted in accordance with the provision of this code. Such librarians shall rank as teachers and shall be subject to the burdens and entitled to the benefits of the public-school teachers retirement fund,. on the same basis as other teachers. This law becomes effective July, 191 7. In Oregon the state education department has recommended to its superintendents that in any high school employing as many as ten teachers, nine of these are to be used on the regular teaching force and the tenth teacher is to be a trained librarian who may give her whole time to library work and thus serve the other nine. State Superintendent Churchill predicts that inside of ten years there will not be a high school of that size in the Northwest which does not employ a librarian trained in some one of our standard library schools. State inspectors of high schools and state high-school visitors from the universities have cooperated with us this year as never before. Special mention should be made of the important work done by Mr. Clarence Kingsley, state inspector of high schools in Massachusetts, in contributing valuable suggestions for the library equipment of small high schools. These suggestions were printed in the symposium accompanying the report of Mr. Certain in the June number of Edticational Administration. Mr. Kingsley also arranged that a part of the program of the state conference of high-school principals 56o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Library of Massachusetts should be devoted to the discussion of proper high-school library equip- ment and service. This meeting was held in March at Simmons College, Boston, where Miss Donnelly, of our committee, prepared an exhibit illustrating what a modern high- school library contributes to the school. This meeting had a markt effect in arousing the interest of high-school principals. Thru the influence of Professor HoUister, high-school visitor of the University of Illinois, the University publisht this year a bulletin on high-school libraries {Bulletin No. 33, April i6, 191 7, Urbana, 111.). Mr. Josiah W. Taylor, state agent for high schools in Maine, has been instrumental in securing the publication of a bulletin on high-school library equipment for the small high schools of that state. Mr. Koch, state inspector of high schools in Pennsylvania, has given active support to the high-school library move- ment and has cooperated with the newly formed Association of School Librarians in having the high-school library emphasized at the state teachers' meeting. Mr. Pearcy, state inspector of high schools in Indiana, has given our committee definite help in con- nection with the meetings of the State Teachers' Association, where the high-school library appeared twice on the program as a topic for papers and discussion. There is close cooper- ation between the Indiana state library commission and the state inspector in the work of increasing the efficiency of the small high-school libraries. Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, and Wisconsin, with their special state super- visors of school libraries who devote their entire time to school-library development, are steadily improving high-school library conditions. Progress in city high schools. — During the years 1916-17 great impetus was given to the high-school library movement thru the action taken in Pittsburgh and Chicago by the boards of education making the high-school libraries branches of the public library and under joint control of the public library and the board of education. Chicago plans to establish such branches in charge of trained librarians in all of its twenty-two high schools. Pittsburgh also has a comprehensive plan for high-school library development and has made the position of high-school librarian a faculty position with the status and salary of a high-school teacher. The standards adopted for eligibility as high-school librarian are college graduation and graduation from an approved library school. This year Brook- line, Mass., has adopted the same standard for its high-school librarian, and beginning September, 1917, the high-school library will be operated under the joint control of the public library and the board of education. The past year has also seen the introduction of the trained librarian in the following high schools: Hughes High School, Cincinnati; and the high schools of Butte, Mont., Davenport, Iowa, and Parkersburg, W.Va. Two high-school libraries in Des Moines have been reorganized by the public library and librarians have been appointed, and the high-school library of Braddock, Pa., has been reorganized by the public library of that city. In the high school of Phoenix, Ariz., the fast full-time high-school librarian in the state has just been appointed thru the influence of Miss Ruth Wright, librarian of the State Normal School at Tempe, Ariz. Nearly every state in the union has at least one high-school library on a modern library basis and in charge of a trained librarian. The influence of such a library is bound to be felt in all the other high schools of the state, and it should be a center of helpfulness to teachers and principals eager to develop their smaller high-school libraries. High-school library exhibits. — The most important work of our committee this year has been the preparation and care of library exhibits at educational and library meetings. The exhibit shown at the Washington Irving High School in July, 1916, during the meetings of the National Education Association in New York City has been in constant demand and has traveled as far west as Iowa and as far south as Alabama and Mississippi. It has been used at the following meetings: state teachers' meetings of Iowa, Kansas, Mississippi, and West Virginia, and the state meetings of high-school principals at Boston. In addition it has been lent as a whole or in part to the high schools of Dallas, Tex.; Norfolk, Va.; Sioux Falls, S.Dak.; Brookline, Mass.; Wakefield, Mass.; and Parkers- Department! SECRETARY'S MINUTES S6i burg, W.Va. A part of the exhibit has also been in use at the State Normal School of Emporia, Kans., and the State Normal School, Providence, R.I. The blueprints and photographs of high-school library rooms have been in great demand — so much so that we could not meet all requests from school superintendents and school librarians. Among those to whom these have been lent are the following: state education departments of Oregon, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, and New York; state inspector of high schools in Maine; state high-school visitor of the University of Illinois; high-school librarians of Rochester, Minn.; Proviso Township High School, 111.; and the high school of Rock Springs, Tex. Advisory work of the committee. — More and more school people are learning that our committee is at their service, and is a clearing-house for information on all high-school library matters. The chairman has been kept busy this year in helping school super- intendents and high-school principals secure properly qualified high-school librarians with the right personality and experience. Aid has been given to boards of education in drawing up standards of qualifications for high-school librarians and their assistants. Many have sent for help in planning and equipping new high-school library rooms. Newly appointed high-school librarid!ns have turned to the members and chairman of the committee for advice on problems of high-school library administration. The field of our service is steadily widening, and the committee has the opportunity to bring together in closer personal relations all the high-school librarians of the country for mutual help and inspiration. State associations of school librarians are being formed with the help of the committee, and the chairman has had the privilege of assisting in the formation of such associations in Pennsylvania and also in Washington, D.C., where the first southern association of school librarians was formed in the fall of 19 1 6 thru the efforts of Miss Laura N. Mann, librarian of the Central High School. Another important associa- tion which is influential in this movement and has developt this year is that of the Minnesota school librarians. Such an association has been proposed in Michigan in connection with the State Teachers' Association. Indiana school librarians are brought together in the same way in the library section of their State Teachers' Association. In order that newly appointed high-school librarians and others who want help may know where to turn for assistance the members of our committee have been assigned certain states where they serve in an advisory way in all high-school library matters. The assignments are as follows: Miss Cross — Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota. Miss Donnelly — New England states. Miss Fargo — Washington, Idaho, Oregon, Montana, South Dakota, North Dakota. Miss Howard — Pennsylvania, Virginia, District of Columbia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas. Miss Morgan — California, Arizona, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico. Miss Hall — New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Maryland, Oklahoma, Kentucky, Florida, Texas. Reports of progress have been received from most of these states, and members of the committee have begun a study of high-school library budgets for libraries in schools of different sizes. This next year we feel that a survey of high-school library conditions should be made by means of a questionnaire such as was sent out in 191 2 to high schools in charge of librarians. This would not mean more than three hundred or four hundred high-school libraries in the entire country, and the data obtained would be of great value, as the 191 2 report is entirely out of date and nothing has been printed which covers the same ground. We urge that the National Education Association grant this committee such funds as would be necessary to pay for the expense of the survey. In all probability this could be done for twenty-five dollars. In addition to this the committee needs money for general postage expense in connection with exhibits. 562 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library With grateful appreciation for all the help that the committee has constantly received from educational library leaders, and a special expression of thanks to Professor Johnston and his committee in the Department of Secondary Education for their constant coopera- tion, this report is Respectfully submitted, Leora M. Cross, West High School, Cleveland, Ohio. J. R. Donnelly, Simmons College, Boston, Mass. LuciLE Fargo, North Central High School, Spokane, Wash. Clara Howard, Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pa. Hannah Logasa, University High School, Chicago, 111. Ella M. Morgan, Lincoln High School, Los Angeles, Cal. Mary E. Hall, Girls High School, Brooklyn, N.Y., Chairman. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PROBLEM METHOD OF INSTRUCTION AND ITS PROBABLE CORRELATIONS IN LIBRARY SERVICE AND ADMINISTRATION HERBERT G. LULL, DIRECTOR OF TEACHER TRAINING, KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, EMPORIA, KANS, Socialization, motivation, and problem instruction are three essential phases of instruction. By socialization of instruction we mean (i) the social- ized content of instruction which is significant in the play life, home life, and community life of the child, and (2) the group activities of the chil- dren in instruction. Instruction is motivated when the child works and thinks in order to satisfy his needs. Instruction is motivated when needs are felt and when interest stimulates desire and desire then leads to satisfying action and thinking. We speak of problem instruction when we refer to the method the child uses in thinking how to satisfy his needs or how to secure new control of his environment. The first essential condition in the conduct of problem instruction is supervised study. Children cannot solve problems unless they have con- ditions which permit free activities; they must be free to move about the room, to find materials, to use the dictionary, maps, reference books, black- boards, and other materials. But the children cannot move about and work freely if a recitation of another grade or division is beinoSS Number of schools using school land for instructional purposes 392 Number teaching thru home-project method 337 Number in which instruction consists wholly of classroom work 416 Number in which instruction consists of classroom work, with laboratory exercises and observation on neighboring farms 1064. In addition the same report shows 68 special secondary schools with 416 teachers and 6301 pupils. A report of the director of the States Relations Service covering the year 191 7 shows 4665 schools and over 90,000 pupils which means more than a doubling in both the number of schools and in the number of pupils during a single year. In Wisconsin the number of high schools with special agri- cultural departments has grown steadily since 191 1 when state aid was begun for such departments. The average annual increase for a period of five years has been over 20 per cent. Minnesota now has 180 of these departments. Michigan has about 60. In New York the number of pubHc high schools teaching agriculture and other vocational branches has increast at an average annual rate of about 40 per cent. Many other states have had a growth quite equal to the illustrations given. All of this means a settled conviction on the part of the whole country of the educational importance of this field of work and J a very rapid adaptation of educational machinery. I^fe, Diverse viewpoints. — As the work has grown, two rather diverse view- li I)oints have developt as to the ends to be attained. The first looks upon n 6o4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural agriculture as an informational or purely cultural subject designed to furnish a practical body of subject-matter which can be utilized as valuable information and also as a means of vitalizing all school work, especially the science subjects. At the same time the study can train pupils, espe- cially those in the country, in relation to their home life and environment and develop in all, either city or country, some understanding and appreciation of one of the most fundamental and necessary lines of industry. This type of study was very naturally developt at first by the teachers of science in an effort to vitalize their subjects and revive an interest which was found to be lacking in connection with the common methods of high-school science. As might have been expected the methods of work developt by those having this viewpoint were largely those of science work in which classroom instruction was linkt with simple laboratory exercises and more or less field study. The other viewpoint looks upon agriculture as an industrial or voca- tional subject in which the project involving actual farm practice under as natural conditions as possible furnishes the central and most essential fea- ture about which class instruction, laboratory exercise, and field work may be organized. This viewpoint developt more slowly at first than the informational, but its rapid development during the last few years has been perhaps the most remarkable thing in the entire movement. We have had to some extent both extremes of these two viewpoints, but to a great degree they have combined in all proportions, with the general tendency toward the vocational viewpoint. This development has made a still unsettled question as to what type of school is best fitted to develop this vocational kind of education. There are some leaders who hold strongly to the idea that the regular public school is so Hmited and bound by the traditions of academic instruction that it is impossible to adapt it to the full demands of vocational training. To a much larger number of leaders it became apparent early in the movement that the high schools were especially well adapted to the needs of voca- tional education. There are many arguments to show why the high schools should carry on such work. In the first place they are close to the needs of all the people, serving as the finishing school for the great majority of pupils. In this sense the high school has become in a markt degree the people's college. Again, the ideal of the high school as the goal of every American boy and girl has grown with most remarkable rapidity, so much so that the number of high-school pupils in the United States has more than doubled in the last decade, with a growth in population during the same period of hardly 20 per cent. Legislation in all the states has been in the direction of making this ideal possible. I beHeve I am safe in saying that while several types of special schools of a distinctly vocational nature have sprung up over the country and are doing more or less valuable work, nevertheless the tendency of the whole ^ Department! RESULTS ACHIEVED IN SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 605 country has turned more and more to the high schools as the agency for providing the best kind of vocational training. It is certain that special county agricultural schools establisht in Wisconsin and Michigan and provided for in Minnesota have had a very uncertain existence with a small number of students and a precarious outlook for the future. Minnesota past a law providing for such schools, but so strong has been the confidence of the people in the high-school departments that no county agricultural schools have yet been establisht under the law. In Wisconsin eight such schools have been establisht with the most liberal state aid provided for any phase of educational work, and yet one school has been abolisht, two are now in process of reorganization, and the seven schools in operation last year had a total enrolment of only 527 pupils, with an average attendance of but 392, and a per capita net cost averaging for all the schools approxi- mately $212 .00. In markt contrast are the figures for agricultural depart- ments in high schools where a vocational type of work has been developt. Reports for the same year show in Wisconsin 92 such departments with approximately 4,000 pupils taking the work. Other schools, such as the special congressional district school of the South and of a number of northern states, the special secondary school maintained in connection with state agricultural colleges as in Minnesota and other states, the special agricultural high schools such as those of Massachusetts, Indiana, Illinois, etc., have perhaps met with greater suc- cess than the county school and may indeed be filling a large place. It nevertheless remains true that the movement in the regular high school has become especially popular and has shown an unusual growth. While there may be a place for some of these special schools, yet I believe that there is a growing conviction among teachers in this work that for some time to come the greatest field for the development of the work will be the regular high schools. That the work here should be made more practical and more distinctly vocational will probably be admitted by all, but it must also be recognized that great improvement has been made in the last year or two in this direction. In the high schools two plans have been developt. The first organizes the vocational in close connection with the general course, giving approxi- mately one-fourth of the time to the vocational subject and three-fourths to the academic or general subjects. A teacher with special training in the vocational subject is employed, but this teacher is not required to devote his entire time to this work. He is allowed in some cases to give part of his time to the teaching of general subjects, especially the science subjects most closely related to the vocational work. Students in the vocational courses take their academic work under regular teachers in classes for all general-course students. This plan is in opera- tion in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and a number of other states. 6o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIAtiON lAgricultural The second plan requires that a distinct vocational department must be maintained in which pupils take all the work of their course and in which the vocational aim must be given chief prominence. This plan is most definitely typified in Indiana and is to a considerable extent followed in New York and Pennsylvania. In all of these cases, however, there is some effort to correlate the work between the general course and the vocational department. The tendency under this plan has been to require about one- half of the pupils' time to be devoted to distinctly vocational work. With the growing emphasis on the vocational viewpoint has come a growing importance in the project side of the work. Many bulletins and special papers have appeared about it. There has rapidly come to be a large consensus of opinion that effective organization of this side of the work must constitute the most essential part of the whole plan of secondary agricultural work. Without it the study lacks practical motive and can have small vocational or even prevocational value. It may be said to be very doubtful whether this subject has sufficient informational or cultural value to make it worth while without the project plan. Again, by the very nature of the farmer's work in tilling the soil, the successful care and completion of most of the projects create another demand, namely, that the agricultural teacher should be employed on the basis of an eleven- or twelve-month year, or at the very least he must be employed for the summer season when crops demand greatest attention. Experience has demonstrated that project work which involves real farm practice cannot be successfully carried out and completed without adequate summer supervision by the agricultural director. A number of states, including New York, Minnesota, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Vermont, have already inaugurated this plan. In Wisconsin a special bill embodying this idea was defeated in the present legislature. Without the law the strongest schools are already following the plan, but the bill, if it could have been past, would have establisht the custom in all the schools. At the present stage of the work there is no greater need than that it should come to be an accepted idea in all the states that the year for an agricultural course in secondary schools should conform rather to the farmer's season than to that of the regular school year. During the summer months it should be the primary business of the teacher to super- vise the projects of the students in the course. He also has opportunity in the summer to collect materials and make plans for the work of the coming year. He should further improve his time by becoming better acquainted with the farmers and their problems, and finding many opportunities of letting the people of the community know what the school is doing and how it can give them help. Another Hne of decided achievement has been in the direction of ade- quately trained teachers of secondary agriculture. In the earlier stages Department] RESULTS ACHIEVED IN SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 607 of the movement few teachers had both the necessary technical training and adequate professional skill. Now departments of agricultural educa- tion have become very common in the agricultural colleges. Likewise special departments have been organized in some normal schools for the preparation of agricultural teachers. In Wisconsin two such normal-school departments have been establisht, each offering both a two-year and a three-year course. Last year about thirty^five students were graduated from these courses. About twenty-five were graduated from the depart- ment of agricultural education of the state agricultural college. These stu- dents are going out thoroly imbued with the idea of practical agricultural work and trained in effective methods of work. At least twelve of the states have made the requirement that teachers of secondary agriculture must be graduates of four-year agricultural-college courses. Most of these courses require from twelve to fifteen semester units of professional work. As a result of better training of teachers the work has been raised to a distinctly higher standard. The granting of state aid to departments of agriculture has undoubtedly served as a great stimulus to rapid and efficient development. Such aid is given in high-school departments in about fourteen states. Outdoor laboratory work. — The farms and the agricultural materials of the community furnish the most valuable laboratory opportunity which can be obtained. The purpose should be to utilize for study all of the best things in this line which the locality affords. A number of types of field work have been carried on very extensively. First of all, much actual study and teaching are done in the field under the most practical conditions, as, for example, where corn is studied, pruning lessons are given, or exercises are given on stock judging. Again, a special object for a field trip is, not only actual observation and study, but also the collection of material for use in more careful demonstration and study in the laboratory of the school. Selecting corn for curing, judging, and testing; collecting weeds, grains, etc., are of this type. Another valuable type of outside work is actual practice in setting up and operating various machines used on the farm. In some cases arrangements have been made for pupils to get some practice of this kind in local creameries. In others use has been made of local implement warehouses and machinery shops. In this outside work it is often a problem to secure means of taking pupils to desirable places for outside study. This has been met to a con- siderable extent thru the automobile. Pure-bred stock breeders have often been willing to furnish conveyances to take pupils to their farms. Autos have in many cases been furnisht by interested school patrons or by boys in the course. In the Wisconsin normal schools which give teachers' courses in agriculture an auto bus has been made a part of the school equipment. It is to b.e hoped that the high-school departments may be 6o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Agricultural led to furnish such equipment. Some of the agricultural instructors have found it possible to own cars which were depended upon for field trips. Another problem is to get pupils for a long enough time during the school day to make these outside trips. A large number of schools are arranging the programs of agricultural pupils with this end in view. Where conflict with the general school program occurs, it is demanded that this program shall be made flexible enough to allow at least a reasonable amount of time for field work. At any rate a special agricultural course which does not see to it that a wide study is made of the local materials and problems of this outside laboratory cannot at the present time lay any claim to recog- nition as a vocational course. Inside laboratory work. — Outside laboratory study should be continued in the inside laboratory. This work should have the careful direction of the instructor and should utilize fuller and more accurate methods and technic. There should be developt here a type of laboratory teaching in which pupils are meeting problems suggested by skilful questioning on the part of the teacher, and where such questions and problems are being workt out with material in the hands of pupils. In many cases demonstrations and experiments will be needed to supple- ment simple observations. Such demonstrations and experiments should grow out of the discussion of real problems developt in relation to the immediate material in hand. Stereotypt directions taken from labora- tory manuals, or even those workt out by the teacher and imposed upon the pupils in a formal way, generally lack in vital value. This formal type of laboratory work has been altogether too common in most science laboratories in the past. What is needed is a vital type of work which is directly related to the material of the community and in which pupils are working out practical problems with material in hand. A definite equipment is needed. Such work can best be done at tables where pupils can be seated and where materials can be handled and experi- ments can be made. The best type of laboratory which has been developt for smaller schools is one in which one part of the room is utilized for tables and movable chairs for the work described, and the other part is provided with seats and a teacher's desk which can be utilized when needed for more formal classroom recitation or quiz. About the walls should be adequate blackboards and a good supply of case room for the keeping of illustrative material, bulletins, apparatus, etc. Charts, good pictures of farm animals, seed catalogs, current agricultural advertisements and posters, and simple farm equipment should be displayed where they will appeal to the eye. A bulletin board should furnish a means of showing the best agricultural development in the way of records of farm animals, achievements in legislation, latest things in buildings and equip- ment, practical problems as to marketing, credit, and cooperation. Pic- r Department] RESULTS ACHIEVED IN SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 609 tures of famous animals and of noted men, cuts and photographs of new farm equipment, headlines of papers and agricultural journals, short articles on farm topics, and current posters are all valuable for display on this board. Examples of such laboratory work as that described have become numer- ous. The following are illustrations: weed study; study of the seeds and entire plants of various farm crops; curing, testing, and judging of seed corn; soil study; examination and testing of milk; cream separator demonstrations; setting up and testing gas engines; and even the studying and judging of poultry brought to the laboratory. School-plot work. — There has been much discussion as to whether a school plot is necessary or desirable. Experience has demonstrated that while the school plot may be a great disadvantage by bringing the course into disrepute if neglected, nevertheless if well cared for it is of very great advantage in developing the practical side of the work. It is not a question of deciding which is better — the home project or the school plot. The fact is that both are of great value. And furthermore experience has shown that the one always stimulates and helps the other. It is especially true that the school plot encourages the home project. In Wisconsin, out of about eighty schools offering special courses in agriculture last year, practically one-half developt school plots. These plots ranged in size all the way from garden patches of one-fifth of an acre up to a school farm of twenty-two acres. In no case was the school plot carried on to the exclu- sion of the home project. On the contrary, home projects were especially successful thru the stimulus of the school plot. The school plot offers the following special advantages: It furnishes ground conveniently located for practical demonstration and experiments in connection with the instruction work. It provides a convenient means for growing illustrative materials and laboratory supplies. It furnishes a means of growing samples of improved grains or other crops. It becomes a useful object-lesson which easily attracts the attention of the whole com- munity and which demonstrates to the community that scientific methods are successful and that the agricultural dir^ector is a practical and not a mere book farmer. It furnishes one of the best means of stimulating the interests of pupils in developing home-projects successfully. It helps to furnish necessary food supphes for any stock which is kept in connection with the agricultural course. Some of the most successful plot projects carried out by high-school departments are illustrated by the following: alfalfa demonstrations; growing an area of pure-bred corn or certified potatoes; market gardening in cities or larger towns; raising cabbage for sauerkraut; ear- to-row corn work; hill selection of potatoes; school-garden work; hot-bed work; orchard work; small fruit culture. Projects. — The importance of the project work has aheady been empha- sized. Two general classes of projects have been extensively developt — 6io NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural school or group projects and individual or home projects. We here limit the term "project " to the idea of any definite piece of farm practice extended over a long enough period for the realization of a complete and productive result. School projects. — School projects may be considered under the heads of projects with plants and projects with animals, although some projects often carried out in farm engineering and farm management may not belong to either group. Most of the projects connected with school-plot work belong to the plant group. Such projects have already been discust. Others of the same class are developing a successful field of alfalfa on some local farm, spraying projects carried out by a class in some local orchard, or green-house and hot-bed work in connection with a school garden. School projects with animals have dealt with a variety of problems. Poultry work is among the most popular. This work is often begun by the use of the incubator, which is now a part of the equipment in many schools. Eggs are purchast by pupils and hatcht in the school incubator and then cared for further, either as a school or as a home project. Brooders and coops have been constructed for the summer care of chicks and then a suitable poultry house has been erected for the further housing of the birds and for egg production. Such construction work makes the most prac- tical kind of manual training for agricultural pupils. The cost is thus limited to the price of materials. A number of schools have carried on steer-fattening projects. In one case steers were purchast by the animal-husbandry class, and a barn was rented and fitted up for the care of the animals. Rations were carefully figured out and a careful record was kept of quantity of food, weekly increase in weight, etc. At the end of the project the steers were marketed locally, and a banquet was given the boys by the business men. In a considerable number of cases dairy cows have been kept by the schools, or in one case owned by the agricultural director, and used for practical dairy work. Products are marketed, records are kept, and full accounts are completed. In such projects it has usually been found advisable to employ some pupil as herdsman to take the responsibility of caring for the animals and marketing the product. Profits above expenses have usually been turned into the school funds. Hog fattening has been carried on as a school project in a number of cases. Home or individual projects. — The most common and most generally developt project has been that of the home or individual. This form of project has come to be generally regarded as one of the most important in connection with any agricultural course which aims to be vocational in character. The home project has the one great advantage that it gives opportunity for actual farm practice under the most practical conditions. It links up closely with the home, thus helping the instruction actually to function in everyday life. At the same time, the benefits reach, not only Department] RESULTS ACHIEVED IN SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 6ll the pupil, but also the parent and the home and sometimes the whole neighborhood. These projects have covered almost every phase of farm practice. Each school has developt lines which were most closely related to the problems of the particular community. Among plant projects the following liave met with general success: vegetable gardening; raising corn, potatoes, ibeans, and other crops on a given area; raising and marketing fruits, such •as apples, pears, cherries, strawberries, and other small fruits; caring for the home lawn and painting the house; landscaping the yard around the house; raising tomatoes or other vegetables for canning. Animal \ projects have included caring for a small herd of dairy cows for a given period; pig raising and fattening, rearing and marketing of poultry, raising ducks, sheep husbandry, and others of similar character; also a number of drainage projects have been successfully carried out. The problem of how teachers may secure transportation for these visits where pupils are scattered in rural districts has become an important one. This has been met in a great variety of ways. The auto, if one can be owned or rented, furnishes perhaps the best way. The motor- cycle, the bicycle, and the common horse and chaise have all been utilized. A pressing problem at the present time in this work is that of developing a systematic plan of reports in connection with all the project work. A number of manuals have workt out such plans to some extent. These reports should be of three classes: First, reports by the agricultural director to the school board and to the state department of education showing visits made, distribution of time, and work done. This report is of special importance in connection with the summer work. The second class in- »tcludes those made by the agricultural director to be filed for his own future reference or to be left for his successor. These reports should show full •plans of work, progress made, and results accomplisht. Thirdly, careful reports should be required of each pupil doing project work. These should include a time-record report, an account record, and a brief state- ment of progress and results. These reports are required weekly. Manual-training or construction projects. — Manual-training or con- struction projects are closely related to those already discust. Most agricultural courses are carrying on some work of this kind. In schools maintaining special manual-training departments the work is directed by the teacher of this department. In smaller schools having no such depart- ment the work is developt by the agricultural director. The work includes woodwork, forge work, cement work, and building construction. Each school in Wisconsin is expected to provide a few benches and sets of tools and if possible at least one forge as an equipment for this work. The pro- jects are planned with special reference to individual and local needs. The general manual-training course as usually given is not considered well 6i2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION {Agricultural adapted to the needs of the agricultural work. Wood projects have included all sorts of useful farm equipment such as stepladders, wheelbarrows, wagon boxes, and hayracks. The forge has been used for such useful iron articles as gate hooks, iron stakes, bolts, clevises, etc., and has been used further for making the necessary iron attachments for the wood projects. All sorts of practical cement construction has been undertaken. In a number of places, farm shops have been constructed by the pupils themselves, and benches, forges, and cement forms have been installed. The construction of poultry houses, chicken coops, hog houses, and even small barns has become quite common. In one school in Wisconsin a very complete outfit of farm buildings, including barn, silo, poultry house, and barnyard has been constructed and largely paid for out of profits made from practical work. Contests and exhibits. — While exhibits and contests should not be lookt upon as the main objective of agricultural work, nevertheless as a means of rounding up and emphasizing the material results of the work they are exceedingly valuable. They afford one of the best means of arousing com- munity enthusiasm and of getting patrons to visit the school and see what is being done. Furthermore the exhibits and contests help greatly in moti- vating the work for the pupils. While prizes should not be overdone, they are valuable if not abused. The annual school exhibit has come to be the leading community event of the year. Here are shown the results of all the projects, including garden vegetables, field products, and farm animals. In a great many cases a farmers' exhibit has been included. Contests in stock judging, corn judging, and fruit judging are often made a part of this "fall festival" or fair. In one school a corn-picking contest was carried out. In Wisconsin and Minnesota and perhaps some other states, a young people's agricultural department has been main- tained for a number of years in connection with the annual state fair. Both exhibits and contests have been prominent features, and the second- ary schools have been an important factor in this work. For the last two years, thru a cooperative plan including the agricultural college, the state department of education, and the state boys' club depart- ment, a state stock- judging contest has been held at the state agricultural college in Wisconsin. Large interest has been aroused, not only among the schools, but among the stock men and other agricultural organizations of the state. Extension work. — Experience has shown that extension work must be handled with a great deal of tact and caution. No class of people is more ready than the farmers to resent the impractical and academic efforts of novices who try to show them how to farm. It is also true that farmers are most appreciative of any real help extended to them. We have urged in Wisconsin that the extension work be made secondary to the real work with the pupUs in the agricultural course. Interest of the parents and of the f Department] RESULTS ACHIEVED IN SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 613 whole community can best be aroused at first thru the practical results with these pupils. Much has been said about going back to the farm and keeping boys on the farm. Much of this talk has reacht but little beyond the eloquent words of the speaker. Agriculture in the schools and especially the agricul- tural departments in the secondary schools have been actually reaching the problem. Many illustrations could be given where boys, thru interest aroused in such a course, have decided to go back to the home farm or to take up farm work in some other way. Boys are actually staying on farms and going back to the farm thru the influence of these courses. The work has by no means reacht its full possibilities nor have the best methods been fully workt out. Results here given, however, do indicate successful work actually accomplisht, and the lines of effort here con- sidered do represent fundamental Unes of future development. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS Presidenl—SAtLA H. Fahey, teacher of English, Seward Park School New York, N.Y. Vice-President — Anna Willson, principal, high school Crawfordsville, Ind. Secretary — Mary V. Donoghue, sixth-grade teacher, Stewart School Chicago, lU. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, July ii, 1917 The first session of the Department of Classroom Teachers was called to order by the president at 2:00 p.m. in the Unitarian Church. The following program was presented: "Vocational Guidance and Educational Preparedness" — Anna Y. Reed, author of Vocational Guidance Report, Seattle, Wash. "The Education of Girls" — Mrs. Mary Schenck Woolman, manager, National Asso- ciation for the Promotion of Industrial Education. General Discussion. SECOND SESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July 12, 191 7 The second session was called to order at 2:00 p.m. The following program was presented: " Demands Made by the Public on the Teacher and the School " — Anna Willson, presi- dent, Indiana State Association of Teachers, Crawfordsville, Ind. The Victrola in the school was demonstrated by Miss Elizabeth O'Connor, of New Jersey. "Organization among Teachers as Related to National Preparedness" — Sara H. Fahey, Seward Park School, New York, N.Y. The following officers were elected for the coming year: President — Sara H. Fahey. Vice-President — Viola Ortschild. Secretary — Mary V. Donoghue. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND EDUCATIONAL PREPAREDNESS ANNA Y. REED, PH.D., AUTHOR OF "VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE REPORT," SEATTLE, WASH. Personally, I conceive the stimulation of character development to be the most important single responsibility of a first-class vocational depart- ment. It is the foundation of all education, the basic element in all true 61S 6l6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers life-success, a priceless possession which money cannot buy nor lack of money deny. Long before I began my work in Seattle, principals, individual teachers, and advisers for girls and boys were doing desultory work of this kind in connection with their regular school work. Employers, in dozens of statements which I might quote, were there time, have for years been urging the importance of character qualifications versus academic qualifica- tions, were it impossible for us to equip our pupils with both. No voice protests against the public school assuming as much responsibility as it will along these lines. The demand is unanimous and is increasing. Why then delay introducing a systematic, carefully organized plan for character study into the curriculum of our public schools ? The classroom teacher must of necessity assume the larger share of responsibility for character development. How shall she do this? As soon as any teacher fully grasps the meaning of her opportunity in this line, various practical methods of systematic guidance will suggest themselves to her. In our Seattle experiment we organized a regular system of character study in connection with the vocational department. Character qualities deemed of the most importance were listed on our vocational recommenda- tion blanks, were estimated by teachers on the same basis as academic quali- fications, and were utilized by us in recommending the school product to our business houses. Employers who accepted our pupils, after a reasonable period of observation, graded on the same qualities and returned their esti- mate to us for comparison. I shall not go into details. Our system is fully outlined in our last report which can be secured gratis by any who may be interested. Were T compiling a list of character qualifications now, I should lessen the number and try to draw a more definite line between the meaning of such as were chosen. I would recommend to you, as I did to Seattle, that this type of character study be extended beyond the vocational department, that certain character qualities be included on the regular report cards, that pupils be encouraged to estimate their own standing in these qualities, and that such pupil estimates be utilized by the teachers in final grading. What do you think you have to offer? and. Would you hire yourself? are the most thought-compelling questions ever askt in my oflSce. My own experience warns me that many teachers will find difficulty in overcoming the personal equation which enters so largely into the estimate of all such qualities as personality, initiative, and alertness. I mention personality especially because it seems to be the most important and the most elusive to analyze and the most difficult to estimate. Moreover, I have constantly found my own grading on personality to be at consider- able variance with the grading of classroom teachers. In the Seattle report many stories are told which indicate the difficulty. Personality to the employer and to me, in so far as I am seeing a pupil for the first time and am estimating her prospects of employment, means external appearance Department! VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 617 as indicative of character. To her teacher, who has had time to study her often and at close range, it means the sum total of all that she knows about the girl. Conflict between these two viewpoints, coupled with the fact that very frequently underneath a careless or an unattractive exterior we all know that qualities of intrinsic worth are hidden, has led us to rely rather more than is justifiable on "appearances being deceitful." This accepted aphorism has been a stumbling-block for many teachers. I think we can turn it to good account in almost every case if only we make it work with us instead of against us in the development of personality. Why need we hesitate to use it as an encouragement to the pupil whose deficiencies in personality have been decreed by Providence? Why, also, need we hesitate to urge upon our pupils that, appearances being admittedly deceit- ful, just in so far as such appearances are within our own control it is far better to study how to have them deceive for us rather than carelessly and uselessly to permit them to deceive against us ? The gum-chewing girl and the overalls boy were permitting appearances to deceive against them, the red-haired girl was doing all she could to make wise use of the aphorism. The second phase of vocational guidance, occupational guidance, is still in a chaotic condition so far as its use by the classroom teacher is concerned. In order to be of any real worth it must be offered by expert students of occupational life. This fact has not been as well understood as it should be by our school authorities with the result that much occupational guidance now being given in our schools is ludicrous in the extreme, is absolutely detrimental to the recipients, and is giving just cause for severe criticism. Ability to collect occupational data, ability to foretell the industrial future, and ability to estimate the value of the school product in terms of occupa- tional efficiency is a full-sized job by itself and cannot be combined with classroom instruction. The few teachers who have had the business experi- ence to qualify for this line of work are passing rapidly from the classroom to the departments of research and efficiency maintained by our large business houses. Three years of study along occupational lines in Seattle convinst me that the product of our public schools in very large numbers was being classified by business houses as "seconds" or as "damaged goods." I tested the validity of my conclusions by summarizing reports of business conferences, articles in trade magazines, reports of corporation schools, and by observing the actual work which was being done in our public con- tinuation schools. My summary seemed to voice the general opinion that our school product is good in natural ability, but lacks training in the fundamentals used in daily business life, namely, arithmetic, commercial geography, and ability to use the English language clearly and correctly; that it also lacks in earnestness, accuracy, reliability, initiative, and the quality of being eternally on the job. Or, in other words, the schools seem to be receiving satisfactory raw material which is too often spoiled in 6l 8 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers the process of manufacture. What is the trouble? Is the equipment wrong ? Is the method wrong ? To seek light upon these problems was the real purpose of my present year's study. One at a time in twenty-four cities of our country I have visited in turn, factories, offices, stores, corporation schools, vocational schools, and public schools. Of the business houses I have askt : What are these boys and girls, men and women doing? How many are working efficiently ? What constitutes efficiency ? Where can they best learn it? Where have they learned it ? What does it all mean in terms of general education ? Of the corporation schools I have askt: What does it prepare them for? What does this school mean in terms of general education? What work that purports to be done by the public school is it doing ? Why the repetition? Is it using the same or different methods, and which secures the better results ? Of the older public-school system I have askt: What are these boys and girls studying ? What will it prepare them for that will make their lives successful ? What foundation are they laying for the specialized study of the corporation school or the public evening school ? Of the public continuation school I have askt: What does continuation mean in actual practice? Does it mean continuing to manufacture damaged goods, does it mean mending damaged goods, or does it mean that by wise interpretation of the wage-earning experiences of the young we are helping them to continue the real education of life ? How much of this phase of vocational guidance can and should be done by the classroom teacher ? Very little securing vocational informa- tion first-hand, very little individual occupational guidance. Very much of that type of guidance should be had which takes the vocational infor- mation secured by the research worker and so incorporates it in the educa- tional curriculum that it forms a part of her regular classroom instruction, leading her charges to think, study, and question as to the meaning of vocational preparedness and its requirements. Just at the present time the sins of omission committed by classroom teachers who are interested in vocational guidance are as nothing in com- parison with the sins of commission committed by the well-meaning, would- be progressive teacher whose ignorance is her only excuse for attempting such guidance. It seems to me that if our schools ever qualify in this phase of guidance, if our classroom teachers are ever enabled to offer even general occupational guidance, it must be thru the medium of a well- organized, thoroly centralized research department. I do not mention the organization and the duties of such central departments, as that topic belongs to a later program, but I do urge upon you, as classroom teachers, the dangers of occupational guidance based upon insufficient data. Never was the novitiate, with no normal background on which to interpret abnormal conditions, on more dangerous ground, never a more dangerous counselor. Department] DEMANDS OF PUBLIC ON TEACHER AND SCHOOL 619 The teacher who would contribute to educational preparedness for success in vocational guidance will study this new movement carefully and intelligently; will do all that she can to increase educational interest in the study of occupations and to connect classroom problems with the problems of life. In the net results of the war she will have contributed her full share to the success of American arms, American business, and American education. DEMANDS MADE BY THE PUBLIC ON THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL ANNA WILLSON, PRESIDENT, INDIANA STATE ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS, CRAWFORDSVILLE, IND. I am confident that I am addressing the "fittest," for in the face of the terrific demands made upon the classroom teachers today no other explanation can account for your presence here this afternoon. I am just a little surprised, knowing as I do the wisdom of the president of this section, that I should be assigned a very few minutes for the discussion of such a tremendous subject. Now if I had some little theme like "What the Public Does Not Demand of the Classroom Teacher," I could dispose of it very briefly and easily. I should have time to bring it forward, give its life-history, and inter it before your very eyes ! But when it comes to speak- ing of what the public does demand of the classroom teacher I am staggered at the task! It would take the strength of a Hercules to do that. In the first place, the public demands of the classroom teacher an iron constitu- tion and an angelic disposition. Without any sacrilege, I may say with St. Paul: The classroom teacher, like charity, suffereth long and is kind, beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, endureth all things. Now abideth the superintendent, the supervisor, and the class- room teacher; but the greatest of these is the classroom teacher. The problems of our work loom before us big, complex, bewildering. About the only thing we are not held responsible for is bringing the child into the world. From the time he is four years old we are held responsible for his well-being, and any weakness or failure upon his part thereafter physical, mental, or moral, is traced back to his training in the public school. Verily, it seems that the home, the church, the business world, the state, have turned to us alone to train the citizens of tomorrow in everything, from the use of a toothbrush to the choice of a vocation and the casting of an intelligent vote. The classroom teacher must welcome the American infant of four or five, take off his overshoes and mittens, amuse him, and teach him correct table manners and an infallible code of morals. He must be taught how to dance and how to say the blessing at the family table. He must be taught to be 620 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers clean and to treat the rights of others with respect. He must often be bathed and clothed and fed. He must, under the supervision of teachers, be guarded against all diseases, protected from all germs, inspected by dentist and oculist and physician. He must, as he progresses, be taught more of literature, history, and science than college professors used to know, yet he must be as accurate and rapid in his calculations as the adding machine. He must be correct in speech, no matter what sort of language he hears every moment he is not in the classroom. He must be polisht and broad-minded, alert, shrewd, and keen, no matter what his years and temperament. He must be honest and steady, despite his heredity. He must be a skilled workman. He must become an intelligent reliable citizen. If he does not develop into such a paragon of perfection under the influence of his teachers, who have him a few hours a day for nine months for eight or nine years, it is proof that his teachers have been negligent and that the school is a failure! After dismissal, when all the youngsters have been buttoned up, booted, and spurred, and sent to the home which complains that school hours are too short, his teacher must refresh herself by meetings with supervisors, by calls upon all the homes represented in her school, by joyous attendance of the parent-teachers association, by inspec- tion of the home gardens, by reading a paper at the club, by showing a lively interest in the civic league, by singing in the community chorus, by teaching a Sabbath-school class, and by taking a correspondence course in the uni- versity lest she become stale and rusty. She must always be drest neatly and in good taste, and be sweet, sympathetic, and charming in manner! And in return for these things she shall be rewarded with a wage less than that which the brickmason receives! The classroom teacher is by all odds the rarest bargain that the public sees. The time was when the teacher could lock the door at four o'clock and have no care until eight- thirty o'clock the next day — but that is past. Much depends upon our attitude toward these new duties. Shall we regard these new demands as symbols of bondage or of power ? Shall we think of them as burdens or as privileges ? Shall we ignore them or accept them as the highest compliment ever paid any profession ? Shall we pro- test and strike or shall we rise to the occasion and become such leaders in the community life as the great teacher at the White House is proving himself — the leader of an astonisht and grateful world in bringing about the universal triumph of democracy? "He that is greatest among you, let him be servant of all," was said by the Great Teacher to all of us worthy of the name of teacher. It was said of Him, "They brought the little children to Him that He might bless them." Today the nation with touching faith brings all the children to us that we may bless them and save them. It is a comfort to know that our ideal of our task is higher than that of the most carping critic. We have come to reaHze that education of head and hand without education of heart. Department] DEMANDS OF PUBLIC ON TEACHER AND SCHOOL 621 is vain, and thus character-building is our ultimate aim. Character is habit; most habits are formed before twenty, most ideals are conceived in youth. We have these future citizens of the nation which shall lead the democracies of the most wonderful age the world has ever known under our influence during nearly all of these habit-forming years. Think what oppor- tunity for patriotic service is ours ! We beheve that it is possible to train for efficiency and at the same time instil such quaUties of chivalry that no war can make brutes of our men. We have seen that education without culture is insufficient, and thus we must inspire a desire for the more abundant life — the appreciation of nature, the love of music and good books, the right use of the leisure hours. We have agreed with the public that education without a definite aim means disappointment and failure in life. Every boy must have a vocation; every girl must be made self-supporting and independent. Thus we have taken upon ourselves the duty of guiding each child to know himself and to know the world, and thus of helping him to find his bent and fit himself to do the work for which God made him most fit. And we are sure that education without willingness to serve society is selfish and base, so we must hallow it to God's great work of bringing the Kingdom of Heaven, real democracy, to earth here, if we are to help as a nation to establish it abroad. We must strive to give the vision that "no man liveth to himself alone or by bread alone," but that all must work for the big, broad, human, public-spirited side of things. Never was the time more ripe than now to teach these big, splendid things; never were people more responsive and thoughtful. Never was there such need of training our youth in new and untried lines. We must cut loose from the old traditions and prepare for the wonderful new world that needs leaders and workers. The schools and universities of Canada and Europe have been depopulated. We must keep our boys under con- scription age in school, and we must use every moment of their time to fit them in the highest way to serve, not only our nation, but the world. Our girls must joyously prepare to take their place in the new order of things. We must throw away much that is of doubtful usefulness and replace it by much of business, of agriculture, of big, broad, commercial training. We must broaden and deepen the knowledge of all peoples and of the resources of all countries. We must make instruction less superficial and more earnest and thoro. We must be willing to endure the hardships of the pioneer, and hew our way thru the wilderness of conflicting opinions and standards. Indulgence of our youth in ease, pleasure, and luxury has been our besetting sin as a people, and all unconsciously, in our love as parents and teachers, we have been giving too much to our young people and expecting too little. We have awakened to the fact that we were mighty close to the brink of a great error, and in the sacrifices that face us now we have realized that the one best gift we can give is education for service. Every school should be a training camp for citizenship in the highest sense of the 622 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers term. Here there must be discipline, obedience, cooperation, feeling of responsibility. We have been spendthrifts and squanderers of time. We must make conservation of health and gifts and talents our slogan, for we, as a people of ideals, are ready now to give our all to the greatest cause the world has ever known. This is our hour as teachers, and we must accept its God-given challenge and with greater courage determine to give back to the nation useful, happy, self-respecting, self-supporting, loyal citizens, imbiited with a passion to bring democracy to the whole wide world at any personal sacrifice. DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Mrs. Charles F. Harding, secretary of Vocational Supervision League, Chicago, 111. Vice-President — Mrs. May L. Cheney, appointment secretary, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. Secretary — Miss Sarah F. Clarke, assistant principal, eighth grade Scranton, Pa. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July io, 191 7 The department met in Room A of the City Auditoriimi at 10:30 a.m., the president, Mrs. Charles F. Harding, in the chair. The session took the form of a symposium on "The Part of the Patrons' Department in War Aid." Mrs. Harding spoke briefly of the history of the Department of School Patrons and of its plans for the future. She then called upon the representatives of the four afiiliated organizations who reported as follows: Association of Collegiate Alumnae — Mrs. Gertrude S. Martm; paper read by Mrs. Robert French. Southern Association of College Women — Miss Emilie W. McVea; paper read by Mrs. E. W. Finzer. National Council of Jewish Women — Mrs. Charles Long; paper read by Mrs. Isaac Swett. General Federation of Women's Clubs — Miss Mary E. Parker; paper read by Mrs. Sarah A. Evans. The following program was given on behalf of the standing committees: "Education in War Time" — Mrs. O. Shepard Bamum, Alhambra, Calif., chairman, Committee on Coordination of Outside Activities. "Rural Schools and the War" — Mrs. Josephine C. Preston, Olympia, Wash.; re- porting for Mrs. Marie T. Harvey, chairman, Committee on Rural Schools. "Guarding the Health of Children under War Conditions" — Dr. M. S. McNaught, Sacramento, Calif.; reporting for Dr. Sarah M. Hobson, chairman, Committee on School Health. "Conserving the Children of Working Age" — Mrs. Ella Adams Moore, Chicago, 111., chairman, Committee on Vocational Supervision. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, July ii, 1917 The department met in the City Auditorium at 2:00 p.m., Mrs. Harding presiding. Preceding the regular program, Mrs. Ella Flagg Young spoke of the importance of the work of the Department of School Patrons and complimented the department upon the way in which it has entered into the spirit of the National Education Association. A telegram from Mrs. Josiah Evans Cowles, president of the General Federation of Women's Clubs, was read. Mrs. Cowles extended cordial greeting in the name of the General Federation, and emphasized the need of maximum school work and support during the war, and the constant need of combined and increast assistance by the Department of 623 624 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons School Patrons, and added the hope that this session might far outrank former ones in interest and accomplishments. The following program was then given: "The Past, Present, and Future of the Patrons' Department" — Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum, vice-president, State Board of Education, Alhambra, Calif. "Some Phases of the Rural-School Problem" — Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo. "The Child"— Rt. Rev. Walter T. Sumner, bishop of Oregon, Portland, Ore. THIRD SESSION— July 13, 191 7 This meeting took the form of a luncheon at the Hotel Multnomah, Mrs. Ella Flagg Young presiding. The topic for the session was "Vocational Supervision," and the follow- ing program was given: "The Chicago Experiment in Vocational Supervision" — Mrs. Ella Adams Moore, Chicago. "Supporting Outside Activities in the Schools" — Rt. Rev. Walter T. Sumner, bishop of Oregon, Portland. "The Vocational Bureau in Chicago" — Mrs. Charles F. Harding, Chicago. "The Parent as Vocational Adviser" — Robert J. Aley, Orono, Me. "A Plea for Rural Children"— Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, Denver, Colo. Others who spoke were: Miss Kate Devereux Blake, of New York; Carroll G. Pearse, of Milwaukee, Wis. ; Mrs. Millie R. Trumbull and Miss Grace DeGraflf , of Portland; and Dr. M. S. McNaught, of Sacramento, Calif. Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum, on behalf of the Department of School Patrons, thankt the hostesses and the people of Portland for their gracious entertainment, and Mrs. Sarah A. Evans, on behalf of the women of Port- land, presented to Mrs. Young a beautiful basket of flowers. Mrs. Young introduced each person on the program in a short, by pointed and appropriate speech, and altho the session lasted over two hours and there were between 600 and 700 present at the tables, there was no lagging of attention or enthusiasm. A business meeting was held immediately following the luncheon. Dr. McNaught, chairman of the Committee on Nominations, reported the names of the following ofl&cers who were unanimously elected: President — Mrs. Charles F. Harding, Chicago. Vice-President — Mrs. Gertrude S. Martin, executive secretary. National Association of Collegiate Alumnae, Ithaca, N.Y. Secretary — Mrs. Henry Kuh, National Council of Jewish Women, Chicago. The question as to whether organizations other than national can become members of the Department of School Patrons was brought up and referred to Mrs. Young, who gave it as her general opinion that they might, but wisht the matter to be lookt up definitely. She suggested that Mrs. O. Shepard Barnum be appointed to write up the history and policies of the department. The chair appointed Mrs. Barnum to do this. Mrs. Young moved a vote of thanks to Mrs. Harding for the 'excellent meetings held in Portland and for Mrs. Harding's faithfulness and ability in conducting the work of the department. The meeting adjourned until 1918. Ella Adams Moore, Secretary pro tern. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON VOCATIONAL SUPERVISION ELLA ADAMS MOORE, CHAIRMAN The first task which this committee set itself was that of discovering what efforts in the direction of vocational guidance and employment supervision are being made in the United States. By vocational guidance we have understood the effort to discover the bepartment) kEPORTS OF COMMITTEES 625 child's particular aptitudes and to guide him in the direction of getting the proper training to develop these aptitudes and to prepare him for a special vocation. By the latter term we have understood the investigation of employments open to children, the placement of the child in the position most promising, or least demoralizing to him, and the keeping track of him until his industrial life is reasonably well establisht. By the wider designation (vocational supervision), composed of terms found in both of the more limited expressions, we have hoped to bring out both the more general service of an advisory character and the very definite personal relation between the vocational adviser and the child. The committee found that this investigation would not be possible with limited time, limited funds, and no authority to ask for statistics. It therefore applied to Miss Lathrop, chief of the Children's Bureau in Washington for help. Thru this bureau a questionnaire has been sent to 590 towns and cities in the United States of ten thousand inhabitants or more. Answers have so far been received from 233 cities, about 40 per cent of those questioned, with the following results: ^ 1. Investigation of local industries employing child labor was reported in 113 cities 2. Studies of individual children as to aptitude for specific occupations. . . 93 cities 3. Advice as to suitable opportunities in industry 45 cities 4. Placement work 74 cities 5. Follow-up work 68 cities 6. Efforts made to keep children in school: a) By showing the value of education in wider opportunity 182 cities b) By showing parents practical value of an education 163 cities c) By finding work for children out of school hours 132 cities d) By providing scholarships 37 cities Because of the limited time given the cities for replying and because of a lack of understanding on the part of those who have received the questionnaire, the findings are as yet very incomplete. The movement is new and in most cities still in an experimental stage; hence the information, in the case of many cities which replied, has been meager. The committee hopes, however, that the Children's Bureau will continue its aid in this investigation and that the committee may have some very definite statistics to report at the meeting in 1918. As a second piece of work the committee has planned to acquaint clubs and schools all over the country with the need for vocational supervision and with methods for begin- ning and carrying on the work. Copies of a circular describing the Chicago experiment in detail may be obtained by addressing the Vocational Supervision League of Chicago, in care of the chairman of this committee, and a leaflet giving references on this subject and hints for a program for a "Vocational Supervision Day" for clubs or schools may be had from the president of the Department of School Patrons. The chairman of this committee would be glad to answer any questions and to arrange for help in starting the work in any city if interested persons wiU make application. REPORT OF THE VOCATIONAL BUREAU IN CHICAGO: A SUMMARY MRS. CHARLES F. HARDING, PRESmENT, DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS The public schools have just publisht the report of the work done by Miss Anne S. Davis, chief vocational adviser, Chicago Public Schools, during the first five years of the history of the Vocational Bureau. This Bureau, as you have just heard, was establisht in 191 1, after an investigation made possible by the generosity of three Chicago clubs. Miss Davi§, acting under the guidance of the Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy, made this first investigation and has directed the Bureau since its organization. I quote from this report: 626 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons SOURCE OF INFORMATION This study of Chicago children who leave school to go to work covers a period of five years. The children who fumisht the data, numbering 6758, for the study came to the Vocational Bureau for advice and assistance in securing employment upon leaving school. All but a small percentage of them came from the elementary schools and were under sixteen years of age. The material presented is an accumulation of facts and information regarding the child's working life, gained by meeting the child as he leaves the schoolroom, going with him into the shop, the office, or the factory, and following him up, month by month and year by year, after he has entered industry. It has thus been possible to secure complete industrial histories of a large number of children covering a period of from one to five years, showing what becomes of boys and girls who leave school early, in what kind of work they engage, and with what success. As the Vocational Bureau during these five years was making a study of industries and also was placing boys and girls in positions, it has gained an insight into the position of the child in industry, both from the child's point of view and the employer's. The children included in the report are average children; they are not all from the poorer and more congested districts of the city, where poverty plays a large part in driving the children from school at an early age. They are not all retarded children who dropt out of school before completing the elementary grades; 42 per cent had graduated from the eighth grade or had come from the high schools, 84 per cent left school before their sixteenth birthday. They represented forty-four nationalities, but less than 10 per cent were foreign born. They came from schools all over the city with the exception of twenty-five schools which were in the outskirts of the city or in exceptionally well-to-do districts where children are not in the habit of going to work at fourteen. They were on the whole a group well representative of the children who leave the public schools of Chicago at an early age to enter industry. Miss Davis has drawn the following conclusions: CONCLUSIONS The chief facts brought out in this report are: 1. There are two main reasons for children leaving school — economic pressure and dissatisfaction with school. The latter plays the more important part. Many parents would keep their children in school longer if they were informed in time of industrial conditions and educational opportunities in the schools. 2. About 50 per cent of the children leave school before they reach the eighth grade. The majority leave on their fourteenth birthday or as soon as the law allows. 3. Children leaving school seem to have little idea of what they want to do or of what they think they can do. 4. The kind of job secured is often a matter of chance. Drifting from job to job rarely leads to better opportunities, but produces unstable habits. 5. The occupations open to boys and girls are non-educative. They are easily learned and are monotonous and mechanical. They offer little opportunity for advancement. Much of the work is seasonal. 6. School grade has little to do with the earning capacity of children and the kind of work they enter before the age of sixteen, so limited are the occupations open to children. 7. An increasing niunber of employers are refusing to employ children under sixteen years of age. 8. Because there is so little work for children and because they change positions so frequently, wiUi a period of idleness between jobs, it has been shown that over 50 per cent work less than half the time until they are sixteen. The rest of the time they are on the streets. 9. Since they work so little of the time, their wages are not likely to increase the family income sufficiently to make up for their loss of schooling. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL HEALTH SARAH M. HOBSON, M.D., CHAIRMAN This committee has been cooperating with the Jomt Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National Education Association and the American Medical Associa- tion, Dr. Thomas D. Wood, chairman. This cooperation takes the form of the distribu- Department! REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 627 tion of pamphlets publisht by the Joint Committee to all branches of the four affiliated national organizations. These pamphlets are Minimum Health Requirements for School Children, Health Essentials for Rural School Children, and Health Charts. Further to enlist the interest of patrons of the public schools in health questions and to stimulate community activity, a program is submitted as a suggestion for school health day, and clubs all over the country as well as organizations of various kinds are urged to set aside one day for the study and discussion of school health problems. The affiliated organizations, the National Council of Jewish Women, the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, the Southern Association of College Women, and the General Federation of Women's Clubs, are especially requested to indorse whenever practicable the plan for a school health day. These programs may be obtained by addressing the chairman of the committee, 700 Marshall Field Building, Chicago, 111. The problems of guarding the health of children under war conditions will be the usual problems intensified by the high cost of living, by the withdrawal of women from the home into industrial occupation, by the increase of children in industry, and by exposure to disease brought back from the war zone by returning soldiers. The ill-balanst economic conditions which are met in many cases of so-called "charity" constitute the greatest peril. To give to one group, under any guise whatso- ever, a commodity or service for which a neighbor group pays and is therefore independent is to break down the American spirit. The spirit of America asks for an opportunity to work and for wages adequate to pay for the things necessary to a wholesome life. REPORT OF ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGIATE ALUMNAE GERTRUDE S. MARTIN, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, ITHACA, N.Y. The past year has been a period of rapid growth for the Association of Collegiate Alumnae. During the year twenty-five new branches have been formed, and the gradu- ates of eighteen additional colleges have been admitted to the Association. There has not been time as yet to canvass these new alumnae for membership in the Association, but many of them have applied without waiting for a personal invitation, and the next year will undoubtedly see the formation of many new branches. In the spring of 19 16 it was voted to transfer the editorship of the Journal to the office of the executive secretary and to change it from a quarterly to a monthly, omitting only the months of July and August. This change has made it possible to use the Journal, not merely for the publication of our proceedings, but as a vehicle of communication between the branches and for bringing before our members news and discussion of all sorts of social and educational movements in which our members are interested. In addition to interest- ing articles and reports of our own committees, and state sectional conferences, etc., the Journal has presented each month news from the branches, news from the colleges, notes from the bureaus of occupations for women, and reviews of books that seemed likely to interest our readers, particularly books by our own members. The enlarged Journal has proved of inestimable value in bringing our branches into touch with one another and with the work of the national Association. One of the gratifying advances of the year has been closer association and cooperation with the Southern Association of College Women. We have invited the branches of the Southern Association to use the pages of our Journal for the publication of their branch news from month to month, and we look forward hopefully to the time when the excellent work that that association is now carrying on under the able leadership of its president, Elizabeth Avery Colton, for the raising of educational standards in the South, shall have so far succeeded as to make possible a union of the two associations. 628 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons It is impossible in this report to attempt to give anything like an adequate report of all the activities of the Association. I select, therefore, only the newer developments and those in which the Department of School Patrons will probably be most interested. One of these is the Americanization work. A little more than a year ago it was voted to create a national Americanization Committee to stimulate and extend more widely the work which some of our branches were already carrying on. Miss Frances Kellor consented to take the chairmanship of this committee, and we are now attempting to secure a state chairman for every state in which branches of our Association are located and in which there is an immigrant problem to be dealt with. Where this work is already going forward under the auspices of some other organization we merely appoint a com- mittee to cooperate. Our effort is directed particularly toward reaching the immigrant woman and bringing her into contact with the standards and ideals of our American life. Having found that the night school is not the solution of the problem of Americanizing the immigrant wife and mother, some of our branches are preparing to provide afternoon classes in cooking, sewing, English, and citizenship under such conditions as to make attendance possible for this most neglected and most important element of the immigrant family. Another very important part of our work is that carried on under our National Committee on Vocational Opportunities for Women. The work of this committee con- sists in part in investigation into the opportunities open to women in fields other than teaching, with the publication of the results; in part in advice and guidance in the estab- lishment of new bureaus of occupations for the placement of trained women; in part in the creation of subcommittees in the local branches to deal with whatever phase of the vocational problem seems most pressing. The Association has begun the publication of a series of vocational bulletins growing out of the research work of this committee. Bulletin I, publisht several years ago, listed all the institutions of the country of college rank giving vocational training for women with information with regard to length of course, cost, etc. This bulletin is now undergoing revision and will soon be republisht. Bulletin II gives the results of an investigation into opportunities for women in the field of home economics by Marie Francke. Bulletin III will be a report on an occupational census of college women, the most extensive investiga- tion of this sort ever made. This will be ready for publication in the fall. The work of forming new bureaus of occupations for the placement of trained women goes on apace. Eleven such bureaus are now in operation, all but three of which have been created wholly or partly under Association of Collegiate Alumnae auspices. Two of- them have begun their work during the past year. The fall or early winter will almost certainly see the opening of several more. With the demand for trained women that is certain to result from the withdrawal of so many men from business and industry, the need for such bureaus will be overwhelming. Unfortunately our financial resources are too slender to meet the call. Our organization has the training and the experience for the creation of such bureaus. Who will furnish the money ? In the local branches the work of subcommittees varies according to the needs of the locality. Where the branch is a part of a college community, it is likely to undertake to assist in providing vocational guidance for the college woman by means of vocational con- ferences, lectures, etc. Elsewhere these committees have concerned themselves more frequently with the problem of the high-school, and above all that of the grammar-school, pupil. It is safe to say that thru the efforts of these committees thousands of boys and girls are each year either kept in school longer than they would otherwise have stayed or are being guided into occupations that offer possibilities of a successful economic career. Our efforts are not, however, making more than a bare beginning toward any adequate solution of this problem. Closely allied with this work of vocational guidance in the grammar and high schools is the effort made by most of our branches to assist promising high-school students to con- Department! REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 629 tinue on into college. Nearly all of our one hundred branches are administering loan or scholarship funds for this purpose. In some cases two, three, and even four young women are receiving assistance at the same time, so that the whole number of students for whom college is being made a possibility thru the efforts of our branches would, if they were brought together in a single institution, constitute a group almost as large as the present student body in some of our smaller colleges. In addition to this assistance of the undergraduate student the Association is carrying on and extending its work in behalf of advanst study and research for women thru its fellowships. Thru its Committee on Fellowships it is now awarding eight fellowships for advanst research; In most cases the holders of these fellowships are within one year of attaining the doctorate and in a number of instances in the last few years the beneficiaries had already received that degree, but wisht to carry on further investigation in their xhosen fields. It is only rarely that any of our fellowships go to women who have com- )leted less than two years of graduate work. So successful has been the work of our committee in finding the best-equipt candi- ites in the country that organizations and associations that have created funds for fellowship purposes are beginning to turn to the Association both as a repository of their mds and as the best-equipt agency in the country for the award of the fellowship. This ^ear the Gamma Phi Beta sorority, having establisht a fellowship in the field of social jrvice, put it into the hands of our committee for award, and the first beneficiary was imed in April. Moreover, the Association has itself created this year a new and very interesting jllowship to be open only to women from the Latin-American republics. Candidates for lis fellowship are now under consideration, and it is hoped that the award can be made in time so that the beneficiary can enter upon her work at the beginning of the coming academic year. This fellowship is the concrete expression of the desire of the Association to do all that it can to cement friendly relations between our country and our sister- republics in South America. We believe that the only firm foundation for a permanent peace between nations consists in a thoro understanding, on the part of each, of the political institutions, the intellectual life, and the spiritual aspirations of the others. We believe lat one of the most effective means of bringing about such an intellectual and spiritual ipprochement would be an extensive interchange of students and teachers between the Jnited States and Latin America. In creating this fellowship we hope that we are making ir first contribution toward such an interchange. The Association has also taken its first steps this year toward making itself not only itional but international in scope by the formation of branches in distant parts of the rorld, tho in certain aspects of its work it has always had an international outlook. To le branch in the Philippines there has been added one in Hawaii, and there is active )romise of branches in the near future in Canada, China, India, and Japan. A new section been created with a sectional vice-president in the Orient. Like all similar organizations the Association has felt the call for national service. At |ts national convention, which opened in Washington three days after the declaration of mr, resolutions were past offering our services to the government for any work for which ire might be found fitted. The thought was exprest that perhaps such a body of trained iromen might be able to render service in the safeguarding of the training camps and in connection with the provision and testing of foods for the armies. Meantime every effort has been made to arouse public opinion to the necessity of safeguarding the training camps to prevent a repetition of conditions that existed in cormection with most of the camps on the Mexican border. As soon as the Women's Advisory Committee was appointed by the federal govern- ment and it was decided to organize the work by states, the executive secretary appointed in each state in which branches exist a state representative of the Association to cooperate with and put at the disposal of the state committees the forces of our organization. All 630 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION tSchool Patrons arrangements had been made to take a registration of our membership for national service when the appointment of the Women's Advisory Committee was announst. Effort in that direction was at once suspended pending the preparation of a satisfactory plan by the committee, but as soon as the committee announces its plan for registration the work will go forward. The Association is issuing to its branches from time to time little war-service bulletins containing suggestions of work that our branches might carry out as groups or as indi- viduals. The first suggestion, which was "to bring a healthful home atmosphere to enlisted men off duty by providing club houses and homes outside the camps," is now in process of execution by the Boston Branch, not only for the camp at Ayer, Mass., but for the naval training stations along the New England coast. It has been presented to the alumnae association of several of the women's colleges and has been enthusiastically received. It bids fair to be carried out at many of the camps. The second suggestion, given first to the branches as a bit of work to be done locally, has gradually developt into something much larger and more inclusive. , The idea has been roughly sketcht in the "Proposal for the Training of Girls for National Service." This has been submitted to the Women's Advisory Committee of the National Council and to the state chairmen as well as to our own state representatives. Whether it will be found practicable remains to be seen. The Association has also undertaken the task of finding and organizing the women chemists of the country in order to have them readily and quickly available when the call for service comes. The field of industrial chemistry has not opened readily to women. As has been the case in other professional fields, employers have been hesitant about employing women. The tremendous demand for chemists incident to the war is certain to give them their opportunity, but they can take advantage of it much more effectively organized than as separate units. In addition the executive secretary is planning to hold state conferences of the college women in order to discuss Ihe best methods of making available for the service of the nation the power of its trained women. These surely are the women to whom we must look for leadership in the effort to deal effectively with the complicated social and ecopomic problems growing out of the war. REPORT OF THE SOUTHERN ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGE WOMEN EMILIE W. MCVEA, PRESIDENT, SWEET BRIAR COLLEGE, SWEET BRIAR, VIRGINIA The effort of the Southern Association of College Women in the past few years has been devoted largely to differentiating between the preparatory schools and colleges of the South. The investigations have been chiefly made by Miss Elizabeth Colton, presi- dent of the Association. Miss Colton has succeeded in impressing upon many schools attempting to do work of college grade the need for fairly definite aims, definite entrance requirements, and adequate college courses. There is no question that thru the instru- mentality of the Southern Association of College Women and the Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools in the South the standards have been greatly raised during the past eight years. Thru its various chapters and its individual members the Southern Association of College Women has held college days in many high schools and preparatory schools in the South. It has interested the students in colleges whose degrees are of real value, and it has also brought this same kind of influence before the parents of prospective students. At present it has representation on the state committees of the Woman's Council of National Defense, and thru this agency is undertaking active service in the plans for the war. It will have more to report along the line of definite endeavor in the war situation next year. Department] REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 631 I REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, COUNCIL OF JEWISH WOMEN MRS. CHARLES LONG, CHAIRMAN, WILKES-BARRE, PA. The report of the work of the Committee on Education of the Council of Jewish omen shall begin with the promising word "finally." Not only because it is the last three reports given you which cover a triennial period of service of the chairman, but in beginning with the "finally" of 191 6 the continuity obtains, moreover, because the concluding legend of a rounded sentence, last year constructed to fit the mouth rather than the mind, has become the master-key of 1917 endeavor. It reads, "We can sense the occasions without fooling even ourselves when we will all work for all the children all the time." From the eighty-nine sections listing the educational activities which each under- takes, a surprising number of such "occasions" seem already at hand, for to the question, "What are you doing?" by far the most frequent reply is: "We cooperate with other organizations along all lines of educational activity." It might be suspected that the blanket phrase "we cooperate" is merely a glib dismissal of an obligation, but in almost every instance the case is stiffened by special data, such as money contributed, offices held, representative sent, plans offered, lectures provided, demonstration made, and the like guaranty of the "Service with Sense" which was last year the Council's claim. To fit this year it appears that "common" may be added to both the service and the sense. Would it not be heartening to be able to say that everywhere kindergartens, penny lunches, medical inspection, classes for defectives, visiting teachers, vocational guidance, and all those social and health outposts are being set up firmly and adequately along the whole academic pathway of child life by state, school, or community authority instead of as the spectacular, meager, faddy, quasi-efficient effort of a small group ? But our eighty-nine sections show too that both conditions exist and that there is no immediate plan anywhere to strike an attitude of awed approval of existing conditions., Human nature and human needs have not yet scrapt the Council's hope to render real service as the unit of American Jewish womanhood to the unit of American Jewish child- hood in cooperating, in now and again projecting, even in sometimes protesting, but always protecting. Twice before I have mentioned the mothering of our children. In our "Program of Work" one of the activities recommended to the attention of section committees on education is that they attempt to meet in their communities any need of any Jewish child. This plan is now submitted in its detail as it appears in the "Plan of Work," page 74, C III ff. You are urged to be the "School Friend" of Jewish Children, a medium between school and home, in health, studies, occupations, material benefits. This follow-up work is emphatically valuable as an activity. Concentrate in large conmiunities upon the Jewish child life of a single school; in smaller communities, the whole Jewish child life can be touched by the Council school friend or visitor, at every angle of need or possible profit, thus raising the whole mass of Jewish life by a practical service bom of real accept- ance of responsibility. Having the experience, you will be able to help in special non- Jewish cases, should the principal or teacher request. All school visiting to be done under Committee on Education, home visiting referred to proper committee according to the issue involved in each case. In all communities, except where the size of Jewish population makes it unreasonable to carry it out, this plan is now accepted as the uniform policy of the Committee on Education. The San Francisco section so prizes this sort of service that it employs a visiting home teacher to insure its efficient execution. And while in other places, Norfolk, Kansas City, Louisville, Wilkes-Barre, Atlantic City, etc., the work is done by the unsalaried "school friend," it is no less continuous, effective, clear-headed. Moreover, it solves the next problem — it prevents fret in our high-bred college graduate by giving 632 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (School Patrons her training, opportunity to function. The "school friend" is your opportunity, you parents, teachers, taxpayers, to call upon the good offices of those deeply eager to lift with intelligence, with efficiency, and with pride the whole mass of American Jewish life by helping each unit; thus to return for the new privilege of larger life in this land, the newly molded children, little cups bearing finest tracings of their old traditions and their new obligations, showing no roughness, inviting gentle handling. And this may serve to introduce again the matter of the critical study of Shylock. In our last report the question as to the Jewish child's part in carol singing, in sectarian festival service, and the criticism of Jewish characters in literature, we left as the immediate problem of the community concerned, to be dealt with according to its own interpretation of the immoral issue of lip-service. However, after much questioning of high-school boys and girls, we find it advisable to warn the teachers of Shylock that we cannot be patient with those who fail to make clear to their classes the historic foundation of the story, the excessive persecutions of the man, the untrue picture of Jewish filial relation, the revengeful qualities as of an individual, not of a race, and the fine frenzy of a poet's inter- woven plots. To have these fairly placed before honest young minds is our whole request — anything less is a new spitting upon our beards, refined torture that practices upon quivering adolescent souls unbraced with argument to parry the thrusts. Moreover, to present the merchant otherwise is no less bad literary than bad moral training. No, Jessica was no Jew's real daughter, for filial love is also the badge of the tribe, and this parental love has a wider spread than the wing. So the Council mothers all childhood in the large, but tenderly nurses the single branch. In evidence are those groups that cherish the talented. To waste its sweetness is no longer a necessary tragedy. Houston, Hartford, Newark, Birmingham, Norfolk, Fort Worth, St. Paul, Pittsburgh, are some sections that find instruction in business, art, and music for children who would otherwise miss it. In Charleston, Savannah, Galveston, Portland, etc., kindergartens are conducted, while special schools for young and adult foreigners exist in too many of the sections to list, but particularly picturesque are Toledo's Girl Scouts; Brooklyn's class to correct faulty accent; Los Angeles' dancing and piano lessons, and the translation of the classes right into the foreign home. San Francisco educates foreign mothers for citizenship, while Worcester makes sure of the mothers by providing kindergarten and baby care at the same time. Atlanta collects and distributes magazines to them, while Charleston, South Carolina, and other southern cities provide free textbooks. Then, too, many record persistent work for better health conditions with penny lunches, dental clinics, open-air classes, special industrial instruction for defectives, the blind, deaf, etc., and social hygiene courses for both children and mothers. And always parallel with the Jew's labor for social reconstruction is his passion for self -improvement. In providing classes for others he spreads the feast because he himself loves the flavor. And so the Council activities in "the pursuit of wisdom" are especially character stic. Of lectures and classes in first aid, Red Cross, home keeping, dietetics, we find a goodly crop; parliamentary law classes are held (an acknowledgment of the . value of technique) in Chattanooga, Denver, Newark, Schenectady, Hartford, New Haven, Pittsburgh, New York, and elsewhere; while Cincinnati's class has grown up and is now a course for real teeth in "Finance and Investments." Besides these, the gamut of cultural interest is run from Stevenson study in Nashville to current events in Chat- tanooga, Russian literature in Albany to history of the Jews in Wilkes-Barre, drama club in Atlantic City, art in Pittsburgh, biography in Terre Haute, music in Charleston, W.Va., and so on and on. Yet over and above the rest is a new bugle call, best interpreted in words from Galveston, Tex., "Up to the declaration of war, our work has concerned itself with Jewish and community interests. Now our efforts are directed toward uplift of the soldier and training for service of those who shall sustain him." Department) REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 633 The Council calendar of its holidays was sent as usual to school authorities. Every- where the explanations of their significance were given the consideration due them. It is hoped that some day a something may be hit upon that will find the quick in the colossal abstraction of college authorities. Yet one more activity — this because it has been a state interest. With the proper enthusiasm and due procedure we of Pennsylvania, at the last State Educational Associa- tion meeting in Harrisburg, presented a petition, with double the number and all the heavy-weight names necessary to create a new department. Pennsylvania now has that department, whose purpose the petition claimed will be "to present the welfare and purposes of the teachers, the needs and interests of the children, the rights and duties of parents, and the privileges and obligations of taxpayers so that each may better under- stand and help the other." Pennsylvania State Educational Association now has a Department of School Patrons, and when it shall again meet in December it is hoped that Pennsylvania organizations will somehow appreciate that they should have an interest in the conduct of the great institution of education. Real efforts will be made to tell the state federation, the chambers of commerce, the civic clubs, rotary clubs, and others of their new opportunity and real obligations. We hope to see the Department of School Patrons of the National Education Association take the large and dignified place it deserves I as representing the not unimportant and as yet least considered side of school influence — the public and the parents. Perhaps a state department of school patrons can help ■ develop the crude notion that these two groups are at least a fraction as important as the [teacher to the child in the welfare of all four. We are happy, as the Council's Committee [on Education, to have put this particular piece of work thru, to claim for it your approval I and help, and to leave it now as a new instrument at yours and the state's service. REPORT OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, GENERAL FEDERATION OF WOMEN'S CLUBS MARY E. PARKER, CHAIRMAN, WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, OHIO As the present chairman interprets the duties of the education department of the : General Federation of Women's Clubs, they have to do with the activities of certain volunteer groups of women looking toward cooperation with organized educational authorities, that is to say, the education departments of women's clubs aim to contribute to the efficiency of the public schools in every way possible. It is an obvious fact that the need and consequent opportunity for such service vary in inverse proportion to what the school authorities have been able to accomplish. In communities which have been both prosperous and progressive the number of opportunities is not so great, in fact, it may be stated as a pretty general rule that clubs 1 have taken up pieces of work which have been neglected by other agencies, whether thru lack of interest or lack of resources. In the opinion of the present chairman no single object has interested so many club women as the rural school, and in no other single cause have they workt so whole-heartedly. They have aroused public opinion to the necessity for increast revenue; they have workt for the passage of compulsory education laws, and they have followed up their support by vigilant efforts to secure the effectiveness of such laws; they have given personal atten- tion to specific problems in their own neighborhood rural schools; they have helpt to beautify the building and the ground; they have added books to the school library and they have in many thoughtful ways helpt also to make the life of the rural-school teacher more enjoyable. The work for the rural school is one of the most significant phases of our department, particularly in face of the present crisis and of the future strain which is bound to come. The present emphasis on agricultural productiveness only serves to bring into stronger 634 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons relief the permanent need for improved rural conditions, especially as they touch the coming generation. At the last Biennial the Federation gave formal expression to its belief in vocational education, and hundreds of letters were sent to Washington supporting the Smith-Lever Vocational bill. Since the passage of the bill state chairmen have been active in their different states and have urged that provision be made to receive the federal aid. The steps to be taken in carrying out in detail the provisions of the, vocational bill involve much technical knowledge and careful readjustment, so that probably all that the clubs can do for the present will be to assist local and state authorities in whatever ways may be indicated by them. If such work is already under way, club women should show a personal interest in the classes — especially for girls. In one city the local club arranged an exhibit and sale of what had been made and took orders for future delivery, in that way helping to bring the new venture to the notice of other women in the community. In some towns and cities they have brought speakers who were actively engaged in vocational work and who could speak with conviction and definiteness from their own experience. Club women have taken practical interest in the problems of vocational guidance, altho here again much of the necessary information is not available to the volunteer worker. The directing of a boy or girl into modern industrial life is too serious a matter to be undertaken lightly, and about all that we can do is to bring to audiences of students and parents speakers who can give a general idea, each one of his own particular field. The question of special psycho- logical fitness or of economic future can be considered only by experts. Probably no more suggestive piece of work along this line of vocational guidance for high-school girls has been done than that carried on by the dean of women in the Montana Agricultural College. Every year representative girls from the high schools all over the state are sent to a vocational conference held at the college. The teachers in the high school select the girls, the clubs meet the expenses for transportation and living expenses, and the college provides as speakers specialists from different sections of the country. The kindergarten section of the department has been actively engaged in an effort to arouse a new interest in the establishment of kindergartens and has been in close co- operation with other organizations. We deplore the fact that there are so many little children who cannot enjoy the benefits of the kindergarten, and a strenuous effort is being made by the Kindergarten Committee of this department to arouse a new appreciation of importance of this phase of education. The Federation has committed itself to help in the Americanization work, and espe- cially valuable assistance has been rendered in Los Angeles, Chicago, New York, Detroit, Boston, Rochester, and occasional other cities. This work for the foreign woman has presented a new opportunity for club educational work in communities in which other ends have been already served. In Montclair, N.J., for example, which has been most generous in support of its schools and most progressive, the local federation paid the salary of a "home teacher" who served as a connecting link between the day school and the foreign home. The possibilities for good in such work are great. The establishing of friendly relations betwen the non-English-speaking mother and the public schools is a delicate matter. Occasionally there is a volunteer worker who is especially fitted to do it and whose hobby it is, but it seems quite a safe statement to make that the position as home teacher requires special aptitude, special social training, and also the ability to understand and use at least a little of the language of the section in which the work is done. As I see the problem, the securing of the home teacher who is a part of the public- school system is the most valuable contribution a volunteer organization can make to the Americanization work. The raising of funds to finance this work is a splendid service to any community. The value of the work is educational, it is social to a degree, and it contributes more than we can know to real Americanization. Department] REPORTS OF COMMITTEES 63 s In the present crisis we are concerned primarilj^ with immediate needs, the most pressing of which is the need for food conservation. Since educational activities as a rule look to future rather than to present realization, it has seemed wise to lay aside other plans temporarily and to stress for this summer all work leading to food production and preserva- tion. Our women have been urged to join in this work, to lend a hand to the carrying out of plans of large organized bodies, and to initiate no work entirely by themselves unless it was obviously neglected for some unusual reason. They have been urged to cooperate with state agricultural colleges and to assist them if need be, in organizing school boys and girls into clubs for the raising and preserving of food. They have been urged to use their influence to stimulate school authorities to teach both thrift and patriotism, if not already doing so, and to lend a hand if there is any need. In a word, in the immediate present their work is mainly that of cordial cooperation in activities planned by government departments or other specialized organizations. In the near future certain few needs may demand our attention. As a nation we must not permit our schools to help carry the burden of the war, we must not lower our appropria- tion, and we must not lower our educational standards. Our women in organized clubs can serve as vigilance committees, and whenever hostile forces threaten the schools they will have a definite duty to perform — that of rousing public opinion. As the mother in the home guards the physical welfare of her children, so the great body of women must watch the standard of vitality of the next generation. Probably the best way of avoiding the danger of overlapping and duplication of efifort is for two or more of the departments to unite on one piece of work. It may mean serving breakfast and lunches to school children, it may mean better recreational facilities, or it may mean the engaging of a competent teacher of physical training. These are the most obvious duties, it seems to me. The academic discussions of changes in courses of study and methods of teaching are not today so much a problem for the lay worker as for the specialist in education. In conclusion two principles stand out very clearly to my mind as the ones which should govern the women's clubs: First, their greatest service is possible when their cooperation with educational authorities is closest. Women have long ago learned that their service is most valuable, not when they criticize or attempt to formulate policies, but when they lend a hand to school officers who are presumably fitted for their work and intelligent as to local needs. If the schools are not in the control of such men who can be trusted, public opinion should be roused to demand the right sort of persons in educational control. No policy enunciated by the General Federation will serve equally well all sections of the country, and any attempt to outline such a policy in detail would be futile. The best advice a central office can give, in my opinion, is, "Find out in what way your local educa- tional experts can make best use of you." The second is that there should be greater continuity in our efforts. The instinct to achieve is fundamental and so is the instinct which craves recognition for achievement. Without them little would be accomplisht, but there is danger that with our plan of biennial change of officers the aggregate loss may be greater than the final gain. A new chairman of education fears criticism if she inaugurates nothing new, and she has a perfectly natural desire to start some piece of work for which the need has never been realized before. As a result many good things are lost because of lack of persistent effort. A few weeks ago a prominent man in charge of the educational activities of a prosperous and progressive state said to me: "The fault I have to find with women's clubs is that they are always wanting to start something, and in their zeal to inaugurate some- thing they neglect to develop what has already been started. They seem to tire of keeping at one thing." The wisdom of this criticism is unquestioned. To summarize briefly, it is the duty of the educational departments of our women's clubs to help the public schools as they try to contribute to the work of food conservation and of the Red 636 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons Cross during the present summer — then the next duty will be to watch that the schools do not stiff er and that we do not lower our standards thru a false economy. We must guard the vitality of our children as we never have before. We must teach them thrift and patriotism and we must remember that there is bound to come a period of grilling economic competition which will need both the trained mind and the skilled hand. We must help if we can to make our schools serve all types of children. The country needs an educational program which will involve sacrifice if we are to do our duty by the next generation. Whatever happens the women of our country must stand with those who are not blinded by the stress of the present to the needs of the future. In spite of war, the schools must grow constantly better. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENTS ADDRESS THE WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS MRS. CHARLES F. HARDING, CHICAGO, ILL. The Department of School Patrons, numbering hterally miUions of women, is an integral part of the National Education Association. These women are able, progressive, public-spirited. They form the membership of four great national organizations, the General Federation of Women's Clubs, the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, the National Council of Jewish Women, and the Southern Association of College Women. THE PURPOSE OP THE DEPARTMENT The department was formed to perform two important functions: First, the department passes on to every individual club member the knowledge of current educational needs and accomplishments gained from the meetings and pubhsht reports of the National Education Association, and from independent study and investigation thru the well-organized channels of the women's organizations which make up its membership. Second, the department has a very real function in presenting to the teachers who are technically trained and technically engaged in the teach- ing of children what may be termed the lay viewpoint, that is, the viewpoint of the intelligent and progressive patron of the schools. The department is now acting thru five standing committees. The first of these is the committee on . OUTSIDE ACTIVITIES 1 The Department of School Patrons concerns itself chiefly with those activities which, altho important and in many cases essential to the welfare of the school children, are as yet often outside the school administration. Examples of such activities are kindergartens, vacation schools, penny lunches, vocational supervision, and the work of the visiting teachers. There is no question|that there is great overlapping and waste in the adminis- Department) THE WORK OF THE\DEPARTMENT of school patrons 637 tration of the various outside activities with which the department is con- cerned. A Committee on the Coordination of Outside Activities has therefore been appointed. This committee is studying the operation of these activities, with a view to sifting their value, suggesting a judicious eUminating of the least useful while encouraging the most important, and urging classification and combination wherever possible. MORE MONEY FOR SCHOOLS A Committee on School Revenue is concerned with a problem vital to the schools at this time. Because of the war and because of the tendency of the schools toward socializing, new demands are being made every day upon public-school revenue. At the same time there is a universal desire to economize, not only in living expenses, but in the matter of certain taxes. Economy in school revenue means the cutting off of equipment, of teachers, and of facihties in general for the schools. PubHc opinion should be created against measures which would weaken rather than strengthen our "second line of defense." The National Education Association, made up of a great body of teachers, has never undertaken this and would be handicapt in doing so because of its relation to the pubUc. On the other hand, the Department of School Patrons, whose members are closely in touch, not only with the children, but with the sources of income and some- times with the administration of the pubUc schools, can and should under- take and accomplish this work. VOCATIONAL SUPERVISION An example of what may be accomplisht for the schools thru cooperation, such as is afforded in the department, is the work of vocational supervision carried on in Chicago, where a juvenile employment bureau was started by a league made up of representatives of women's clubs and other social organi- zations. After five years of successful operation the general direction of this bureau was taken over by the public schools with a large part of the expense of its operation. A Committee on Vocational Supervision has been made a committee of the Department of School Patrons and is now engaged in a study of voca- tional supervision and vocational guidance thruout the country, and hopes to make a definite report at the next meeting of the National Education Association. This committee cooperated with other organizations in Illinois in pushing the Child Labor bill which was made a law at the last meeting of the legislature. SCHOOL HEALTH The Committee on School Health does not expect to initiate investiga- tion or experiment. It is working in connection with the Joint Committee of the National Education Association and the American Medical Associa- tion, of which Dr. Thomas D. Wood is chairman. This joint committee 63 8 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [School Patrons has already publisht three pamphlets: Minimum Health Requirements for Rural Schools, Health Essentials for Rural-School Children, and Health Charts. The first two present in teUing form the rules for health which should be observed by rural-school children and by the community in planning con- ditions for these children. They are, however, quite as valuable to the city child and the city community as they are to those for whom they were formulated. The third pamphlet consists of photographs of fifty-two illustrated charts which put graphically these same rules for health and show the results both of carrying them out and of neglecting them. The Committee on School Health feels that it can do no better than to ofifer its services in distributing these pamphlets as widely as possible and in calling the attention of club members and school people to their value. TYPICAL PROGRAMS The Committees on Rural Schools, on School Health, and on Vocational Supervision have each prepared a typical program for a club meeting. These have been printed in numbers and will be sent to anyone applying for them. Each of these programs gives in brief form topics for discussion, subjects for papers, suggestions for debates, and references for study. It is urged by the department that a day be set aside by clubs and schools for each of these programs. The program on rural schools has already been publisht by two state magazines in Missouri, one representing the interests of educators, and the other those of club women. The chairman hopes, thru this publicity, to interest the people of the state in setting aside a day for the study of rural schools. This seems a good precedent for other states. The war has brought to the attention of the United States the necessity for the conserving and building up of the health of school children by showing the great numbers of young men who fall below the physical conscription requirements; it has shown also the dependence of the country upon the rural communities and the necessity of directing attention to the problem of the rural child and his surroundings; while the inroads which the war situation is making upon the education of children over fourteen makes particularly imperative the matter of protection of the child of work- ing age, which is the province of the Vocational Supervision Committee. These programs will focus interest upon these vital topics. With its present equipment the Department of School Patrons can only approach the problem which is its particular field. In order to become a national force in the work of uniting trained thought and volunteer effort, and thus make pubHc opinion in educational matters, the department should have increast affihations, a larger income, and a more complete organization. We look forward to a time when the affiliated organizations as well as the National Education Association will so appreciate the great national educational problem which this department is attempting to solve that they will place at its disposal the means for reahzing this vision. Department) TtJE PATRONS' DEPARTMENT 639 THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF THE PATRONS' DEPARTMENT' MRS. O. SHEPARD BARNUM, VICE-PRESIDENT, STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION, ALHAMBRA, CAL. The meaning of several movements in the recent past has become clear in the blazing light of the present world-struggle. One conspicuous move- ment during the last twenty-five years has been the extensive and intensive organization of women. Undeterred by ridicule or difficulties, American women have formed clubs and councils and associations in communities, then, urged onward by an irresistible impulse, they have formed the local clubs into county, district, state, and national federations; these in turn have fabricated a framework of departments and committees, wheel within wheel. Some of us have wondered whether our multifarious club life was really a duty or a deUght. Today we see the hand of Providence; we see that an army of American womanhood has been enlisting, training, mobiliz- ing, effecting organizations, not "for organization's sake," but for the service of their country in her sudden hour of supreme need. Theirs is a prepara- tion vital and fundamental, for it touches the crucial task of democracy at war — that of creating, among a hundred million free and independent persons, unity of thought and feeling and action sufficiently quick and strong for a life- and death-struggle. Furthermore the present struggle involves problems unheard of in military science hitherto — many of them can be solved only in a universal laboratory of homes. We are profoundly thankful that over two millions of organized women are ready, and that they occupy strategic positions locally and will be loyally followed by millions more. Thru this channel government instructions and appeals are already being past rapidly from headquarters to homes in every city and hamlet, and the stir of myriad ordered activities is pulsing back to Washington. Twelve years ago the educational leaders of five of the largest national organizations of women, led by Miss Ellen Abbot, then educational chairman for the General Education of Women's Clubs, became convinst that the volunteer educational work which they had long been conducting should be unified to be effective, and to be fully intelligent should profit by the systematic guidance of the national organization of professional educators — the National Education Association. Consequently a request was made for a department in the National Education Association which should represent and direct the educational activities of these women — the Depart- ment of School Patrons. No war was needed to demonstrate the value of such systematic volunteer support and service in the educational field, because social and industrial changes had brought to the door of the American school duties and activities that had formerly been shared by the home, the farm, the « This paper includes both Mrs Barnum's address and her report as chairman of the Committee on Outside Activities. 640 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [School Patrons shop, and the church. These include, to rehearse at random, a great variety of studies; prevocational training for various occupations; super- vision of play; personal and social hygiene; medical inspection and free clinics; penny lunches and student cafeterias; discipline, manners, and morals; vocational supervision; vacation schools, evening schools; home gardens, home credits; home economics; citizenship and social relation- ships. All this necessary socialization of the schools entails a tremendous burden. In any given community organizations interested in social and educational work must help carry the financial burden, if the school is already doing its modern Protean tasks; they must help the neglected children if the schools have not yet come to the rescue. It does not seem possible, even in war time, to conscript the homes, to say nothing of the farms and shops and churches, and reestablish their ancient share in the upbringing of children. Strictly speaking, the Department of School Patrons has an honorable past of ten years. It was authorized under the name of the " Department of National Women's Organizations" by the Board of Directors of the National Education Association at the convention held in Los Angeles in 1907. Mrs. Josiah Evans Cowles, now president of the General Federation of Women's Clubs, was the representative of the women's organizations who secured the necessary petition and convinst the directors of the value of the plan. Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, United States Commissioner Elmer Ellsworth Brown, President Carroll G. Pearse, and many other leaders in the National Education Association gave cordial assistance in the organiza- tion of the department, as they have continued to do thruout the ten years of its history. The department held its first meeting in 1908 as part of the convention of the National Education Association at Cleveland, Ohio. As the purpose of the department called for united effort by all the five national organiza- tions and in all the states, a nicely adjusted system of administrative com- mittees was instituted by Miss Laura Drake Gill, the first president. This system was in operation until the meeting of the National Education Asso- ciation in 191 5, at which time it was decided to give up the joint committees and to use the machinery already estabHsht by each afiiliated organization for its state work. An executive committee was formed to conduct the work of the department between regular business meetings (which occur only during sessions of the National Education Association), and this executive committee included a representative from each of the five aflaiiated national organizations. Under the next president, Mrs. O. S. Barnum, elected in 19 10, the work of the executive and state committees was carried on. Two committees were added, in accordance with the advice of Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, then president of the National Education Association, in order to concentrate and direct the efforts of all of the organizations upon two school needs that I Department! THE PATRONS' DEPARTMENT 641 she, with her wealth of educational wisdom and school experience, con- sidered most general, most urgent, and most directly dependent on parents and citizens, namely, increast school revenues and improved health condi- tions for school children. The work of the Department of School Patrons under the presidency of Mrs. William S. Hefferan during 19 13-14 was a continuation of the previous year's work thru the joint state committees, emphasizing school health, school revenue, and adding one other feature — rural-school improvement. The Committee on Rural Schools was added to the department at the suggestion of the president, Mr. Fairchild, and of the United States Com- missioner of Education, Dr. Claxton. The work undertaken was the arousing of pubUc opinion for desired legislation, for the enforcing of existing provisions, for the increase of revenue for school purposes, for school health and all it means in the way of medical inspection, school nurses, proper ventilation and lighting of schools, and lastly for rural-school improvement. Mrs. Louis Hertz, of San Francisco, was president during the years 191 5-1 6 and continued the policies of the preceding years. We say in America there is always the "man of the hour" prepared by Providence for each emergency. In the new order we find there is also the "woman of the hour." In New York, in 1916, as America was in the thick of war problems and within a year of actual war, involving the educational as well as all other forces of the nation, Mrs. Charles F. Harding became the president of the Department of School Patrons, and most truly the woman of the hour. With her administration we reach the strenuous present and, we are sure, a promising future. In brief outUne I should say that the past of the Department of School Patrons has stood for preparation, in common with that of women's organiza- tions generally; that the present should stand for application to immediate war needs; and that the future should stand for preservation of child life and school life — in spite of chaotic and menacing conditions. The duties of the present are plain. Education in war time demands greatly increast expenditure of effort and money. It will require the utmost endeavors of professional educators and generous systematic aid from volunteer agencies. All regular work must be maintained at maximum scope and efficiency. During the war, more than ever before, every child in every family must be given knowledge and skill and intelligent under- standing of the nation's needs. Many additional school activities must be undertaken on a large scale as preparedness measures: school gardens and home gardens conducted under school supervision of agricultural experts; courses in home economics and club and extension courses directed for scientific food conservation; thorogoing physical education extended to every school and class, to girls as well as to boys; vocational courses and continuation schools to equip children for self-support and the nation for 642 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [School Patrons industrial preparedness; evening schools, vacation schools, home teachers, and neighborhood centers must be multiplied and maintained to hasten at top speed the Americanization of our immense alien population. This population cannot be a sure source of strength and unity until it can under- stand our language and learn our institutions, laws, and purposes in the war. Volunteer aid for these war-time additional undertakings has been eager, but it should be made systematic. State legislators have helpt by passing measures giving emergency powers to school officials. State attorney-generals have made astonishingly generous and elastic rulings. State departments of health, industrial wel- fare organizations, and others have assisted with surveys, labor supervision, and inspection of labor camps. State councils of defense have cooperated with educators and issued instructions for Red Cross work and organization of student labor reserves. The Association of Collegiate Alumnae, Young Women's Christian Associations, Daughters of the American Revolution, Women's Christian Temperance Unions, parent-teachers associations, the state and general federations of women's clubs, are cooperating with defense agencies. The affiliated organizations of the Department of School Patrons of the National Education Association have already rendered much assistance, as will be seen by referring to their separate reports. General and state federations, in addition to much other important legislation, have helpt secure the Smith- Hughes law for vocational education and state laws providing for state participation in this true "preparedness measure." The National Education Association is ardently advocating all forms of patriotic school endeavor. As I said in the Department of School Administration, we have heard during this convention every possible duty urged. For the sake of the nation every teacher should form character, instil fervent loyalty, train accuracy of judgment, strength of body, skill of craft. To do this will cost heavily in equipment and leadership. We shall have to work hard to bring it about — for in all the National Education Association meetings I have heard no mention of ways and means for secur- ing adequate funds for patriotic work except here in the Department of School Patrons. Not only do these additional preparedness phases of school work require additional money, but under war conditions and financial pressure it is increasingly difficult to secure adequate funds for ordinary school activities. Public sentiment must be aroused to the really grave crisis confronting school revenues in many localities. The Department of School Patrons with its affiliated national organizations is an ideal recruiting agency. Thru its standing Committee on School Revenue aggressive campaigns for school funds should be conducted with scientific thoroness. The amounts required by school bond issues, appropriations, and taxes are becoming so large that they attract critical hostile attention. Sentiment Department! THE PATRONS' DEPARTMENT 643 and the conviction that public education is the best public investment are no longer sufficient. Legislatures, executives, supervisors, and other tax- enabling and tax-levying bodies insist that they "must be shown." School authorities that have failed to secure requisite support by former methods of appeal are desiring assistance for their next campaign. Certainly volunteer cooperation is required, because some hard-headed officials con- sider professional educators as interested parties and a? overambitious for their own specialty. The Committee on School Revenue of the Department of School Patrons is ideally constituted to direct thoro finance campaigns for the following reasons: First, because it is fortunate in including by affiliation the National Association of Collegiate Alumnae and the Southern Association of College Women. Their members are trained in making investigations and in research work. The Committee on School Revenue should enlist them to conduct investigations and secure facts and proofs concerning school revenue, its sources, its amount, its amount in comparison with other public service, its rate of increase in comparison with such other agencies, the presence or absence of scientific budgeting and efficient management — to insure maximum economy and wise expenditure; comparative expenses in the same locality for a period of years — noting causes for violent fluctua- tions; comparative expenses for different localities similarly conditioned; tabulation of expenses for new items and phases of "socialization" or war work. A large program! But the Association of Collegiate Alumnae and the Southern Association of College Women know how to focus on some problem that they can work out accurately; and every set of hard, reliable, demonstrable facts and proofs will assist in many situations, allay many suspicions, convert many skeptics. Secondly, the Committee on School Revenue has a unique advantage because it can take the facts secured by the Association of Collegiate Alumnae and the Southern Association of College Women and put them in the hands of the Council of Jewish Women and the two million members of the General Federation of Women's Clubs. By well-timed campaigns of publicity and by use of community influence these milUons of women can help meet each revenue situation as it arises in each city or county or state. ' This done, the Department of School Patrons will be able — to use a popular phrase — "to put the budge in budget." Philosophers tell us that the present is only a vanishing line between the past and the future, and our department should at once consider the prob- lems of preservation of child life and school life. As the department continues its work after the program is over and the convention adjourns, and is carried on thru the year and all over the coun- try, new needs or new military necessities caUing for school cooperation may change its poUcy or plan of work at any time. At present the following Unes of policy seem important; 644 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ISchool Patrons 1 . As the need for the work which the Department of School Patrons can best do for the schools is greater than ever, it should increase its efficiency by every means. The executive committee should be continued with full powers and the policy maintained of double terms for officers. 2. All state and local organizations interested in the schools and willing to help should be askt to cooperate, to attend conventions, and especially to join the National Education Association by taking institutional member- ships. ■3. Arrangements should be made to have the plans of the department and the National Education Association — its message and instructions, its projects at any particular time — taken systematically to the conventions of affiliated organizations. Some representatives should attend every national convention of the General Federation of Women's Clubs, Council of Jewish Women, Association of Collegiate Alumnae and Southern Association of Col- lege Women, to present the department work and secure active partici- pation. 4. Similar arrangements should be made for publicity thru the organs of these national and state organizations. 5. A simple and very effective addition to the present plan of organiza- tion would be to have in every state one person appointed to represent the department in that state and take the department work and plans to the state convention of each affiliated organization — or others interested in volunteer educational work. Suppose a state is approaching a legislative campaign for school funds. What assistance could be rendered by such a representative? She could bring all "facts and proofs" above indicated from the Committee on School Revenue, could unify and direct, and help bring local and state finance campaigns to a successful issue. As we face the future with its heavy responsibilities, every committee of the department should intensify its assigned work. For tl\e " Committee on the Cooperation of Outside Activities" I should like to bespeak con- centrated effort on one war problem — diminisht and endangered school attendance. We need to know how many children of school age are out of school and why. Even where services of truant officers are adequately provided, if there is any such place, their work is usually based on school enrolment; in these disturbed times many families are in places where their children have never been enroled and so are not discovered and cared for. If some sort of volunteer school census could be made we should find more work for all of our other committees. We should find more money needed to solve the problem of overcrowded schoolrooms; more families requiring emergency help, and more children at work who should be in school. This last important problem is being very satisfactorily attackt in Chicago by the Vocational Bureau, the Vocational Supervision League acting thru its Scholarship Committee under the able leadership of its chairman, Mrs. Moore, also in Los Angeles, and probably elsewhere. If we learn why each Department) CONSERVING THE CHILDREN OF WORKING AGE 645 child is out of school we shall learn the communities' deepest needs as to health and labor and social life. In conclusion may I repeat the thought that has been with me thruout the convention and which I exprest at the National Council on the first day ? A great opportunity and obligation was placed upon all friends of education by the President's reference to the schools as the nation's "Last Line of Defense" — the reserve line of strength and knowledge and training. We must hold that line unbroken! We must not allow it to be held as the "Hindenburg line" is being held today — by moving it back a few miles every now and then at the instance of the enemy. In spite of all difficulties we must keep that line just where it is, without retreating one inch; school terms must not be shortened, the school course of each child must be kept up to its reasonable and normal fulfilment. Mass attacks in the interest of child labor must be repelled, as well as individual desires on the part of the pupil or parent to snatch a handy *' blind-alley " job. All these insidious foes must be repelled. In the name of patriotism and education and the future of our children and our country, let us meet our supreme obligation, let us "hold that Une!" CONSERVING THE CHILDREN OF WORKING AGE ELLA ADAMS MOORE, VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE VOCATIONAL SUPERVISION LEAGUE, CHICAGO, ILL. Every year in the United States an army of children enters industry. In Philadelphia during 19 16 its recruits numbered between fifteen and six- iteen thousand, in Chicago about twenty thousand, while in New York ^City alone they were forty-seven thousand — the children who took out [certificates and left school to go to work. Nearly three-fourths of them [were only fourteen years old, and all were under sixteen. Once in industry these children are likely to find themselves misfits; [they shift from job to job with long periods of demoralizing idleness between, [and with deplorable loss to themselves and to the community. All over the country people are beginning to be shockt by this waste, and in many [places experiments looking toward checking it are being tried out. Such [an experiment has been carried thru six years of constructive effort in [Chicago. In April, 191 1, three clubs, the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, the ^Chicago Woman's Club, and the Woman's City Club, under the guidance )f the Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy, united to employ a trained investigator for three months to discover what industrial oppor- tunities were open to boys and girls of fourteen in the downtown district of Chicago. This investigator. Miss Anne S. Davis, made her report in July and in the following October a vocational bureau was started by the three clubs with Miss Davis in charge. This bureau has been in successful 646 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons operation ever since, and now has a staff of five regular paid workers besides volunteers and students. It has been able to increase gradually its staff and its equipment because it has gradually enlisted the help of individuals, of clubs, and especially of the public schools. The organization which these clubs formed to carry on the work is called the Vocational Supervision League. Both clubs and individuals are eligible for membership, which now numbers about two hundred individuals and representatives of fifty clubs. Both clubs and individuals pay two dollars a year membership fee, with sometimes additional contributions. The cooperation of the public schools was early enlisted, and they began their assistance by giving, in 1913, a room for the Employment Bureau, gradually increasing their contribution until now they have assumed the general direction of the Bureau, giving the services of three vocational advisers, a stenographer, and office equipment. The first duty of the Bureau is to investigate the employments open to fourteen- to sixteen-year-old children with a view to determining which are safest, most wholesome, and especially which offer the best opportunities in the way of training for positions of skill and responsibility later in life. About 4,500 firms and employments have been investigated thus far, and the results of this investigation tabulated and placed on file in the office of the Bureau, where they can be drawn upon for the benefit of individual children. f The Bureau interviews the boys and girls who apply for work. Its first endeavor is not to place the child in employment, but to send him back to school. The adviser always asks his reason for leaving. In more than 30 per cent of the cases it is found to be dissatisfaction with the school. In such cases the vocational adviser often suggests a vocational or commercial or technical school. Parents are interviewed, and both they and the children shown the practical value of further training, with the happy result that be- tween 25 and 30 per cent of the children return to school, altho in many cases they aheady have their working certificates. Where home conditions make it absolutely imperative that the child should go to work, a position is found for him, the vocational adviser keeping in mind the characteristics of each individual and endeavoring to fit the place to the particular appH- cant. After the child has been placed, the Bureau keeps track of him at his work and in his home, seeking to smooth out differences between him and his employer and thus to keep down the shifting and idleness which are the particular pitfalls into which, in the first two years out of school, he is so likely to fall. It endeavors also to keep the young "workers in touch with settlement classes, evening schools, and social centers, and in every way to call attention to opportunities for further training and development. The pubUc schools of Chicago have just pubhsht Miss Davis' report of the first five years of the work of the Bureau. During these five years Department! CONSERVING THE CHILDREN OF WORKING AGE 647 about eighteen thousand children were aided and directed by the Bureau, and this accompHshment is, of course, considerable; but the greatest value of the work is its experimental value and the suggestions it has yielded as [to methods of vocational guidance and the course which legislation and :hool administration should take in the future. I can speak of these iportant by-products only briefly. The first is a suggestion with regard the curriculum. Miss Davis' report of the first five years of the work ikes an intensive study of 6758 children interviewed as to reasons for javing school: 2187 or 32.4 per cent reported economic necessity, 1507 or 22.3 per cent reported earnings desired, but not necessary. 2025 or 30 per cent reported dissatisfaction with school. 301 or 4.4 per cent reported preferred work to school. 381 or 5.6 per cent reported graduated from eighth grade. 231 or 3.4 per cent reported could not afford books. 126 or 1.9 per cent reported other causes, ill health, fell behind class, moved, etc. It will be seen that 30 per cent reported dissatisfaction with school. The 4J per cent who reported that they preferred work to school should perhaps be included under the same head. This indicates that the largest percentage of children leave because the schools are not giving them what they need, or what they think they need. " I didn't want to go any longer," "I didn't like the school," ''I didn't like the teacher," "I got tired of school," "I couldn't learn," "I was so big the boys laught at me," are me of the statements in which this dissatisfaction was voist, while one all boy with a really inspired disregard for the rules of orthography ote, after he had been at work six months, in answer to the question, What studies helpt you most in your work?" "They dint help me othink. They only thoght me to read and riwite. I wirked in a factry nd dint after read and riwite." All this shows clearly enough the children's nse that they were getting nothing which they regarded as vital, and oints with certainty to the necessity for including in the curriculum of our public schools more courses that will help the boy who ''wirks" in a I* 'factry." It is significant that with the introduction of vocational and brevocational classes in Chicago, as Miss Davis' report shows, this dissatis- laction is decreasing and more children are entering high school. Second, the work of the Bureau has emphasized the advisability of raising the minimum working age of children. As long as the child is felt by the community to be of age at fourteen, just so long must he go to work kt that age. The day he is fourteen, the Mother's Pension Fund, the United Charities, and other agencies stop their aid to the family. Even when not economically necessary to put the child to work, parents often feel that as soon as the minimum age has been reacht, they have fulfilled their obligation to their child's education. He must now help in the support of the family. Of the children taking out working papers in Chicago for 648 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons the year ending June, 191 5, 68 per cent were only fourteen years old, only 32 per cent were fifteen. Many were within a few weeks of graduation from the eighth grade. The Bureau has helpt already in the legislative campaigns in Illinois looking toward giving further legal protection to children of working age. In the campaigns for raising the minimum age in Illinois, the statistics and information given by the Bureau have been of the greatest value in convin- cing the legislators, and in the campaign of 191 7 this work helpt by throwing light on the whole question of school attendance of fourteen- to sixteen- year-old children. The Bureau had found that half the children between fourteen and sixteen who were out of school were idle all the time or, to put it differently, that each child was idle on an average of half the time. Knowledge of this fact did more than anything else to bring about the pro- visions in the new child-labor law that children must be promised definite employment before they leave school, and that certificates must be returned by the employer to the issuance bureau within three days after the child leaves his job. These provisions make it possible to keep track of a child who is out of school and to do away with some of the truancy, vagrancy, and delinquency which have so menaced the character of children of this age. Third, this work has shown the value of the various phases of voca- tional supervision. It has emphasized the need of information to teachers, parents, and children. If parents all over the country could know what two years of vocational training would do for their children, even the most selfish or the most needy of them might be moved to further sacrifice. If teachers could know what lines of work offer the most training and could turn the children in the direction of these lines, if children themselves could be brought to see the advantage of a low initial wage with training over a high initial wage in a "blind-alley job," the whole future of the children would be altered. The value of the placement and follow-up work seems to have been clearly demonstrated. I have no definite statistics to show how many children have been more advantageously placed than if they had found their own work, nor how many have been aided by two years of supervision; indeed it is impossible to marshal statistics to prove that something would have happened if something else had not; but we can point to many indi- vidual instances like that of the boy who was askt to sweep out an oflSice where he had been placed to do filing. He demurred, and would have left if he had not been advised by the Bureau to continue at work. The employer was consulted, with the result that the boy was kept, the objec- tionable menial service being offset by a higher wage. Another example is that of a small boy who came to the Bureau because he was so "tired all the time" and "often fell asleep at work." It was found that he was holding two positions, working eleven hours a day, for $4 . 50 a week. Work in an engraving establishment was found for him — eight hours for $4.50 Department) CONSERVING THE CHILDREN OF WORKING AGE 649 with- training. A little girl was kept from going into the office of a man where she would be the only worker, and was placed where she could enjoy the safety of numbers. A fourth result is that special help for certain classes of children has been shown to be necessary. Since the Board of Education has taken over the Vocational Bureau the League has turned its attention to handicapt children and has provided a vocational adviser to give all her time to them. Under ''handicapt children" are included lame children, deaf children, and .especially tubercular and anemic children. These last are particularly promising because their handicap is only temporary, and with care and attention they may develop into sound and useful men and women. With- out such attention, however, they will almost inevitably be a burden to themselves and a menace to the community, if indeed they survive at all. Fifth, the value of "scholarships" for special children has been proved by this work. Thru its Scholarship Committee the Vocational Supervision League undertakes to furnish to a limited number of special children a sum sufficient to enable them to attend vocational, commercial, or other courses. rThe children selected for these scholarships are: first, the handicapt chil- dren, whose health and future prospects would be jeopardized by going to work at once; second, the particularly bright or gifted children who may be prepared by a few months of training to obtain work leading to a skilled trade, to business, or perhaps even to a profession; and third, the oldest child of a family, since the training of such a child will yield results, not only for himself, but for his younger brothers and sisters. When the Board of Education took over the Bureau in Chicago and gave it an equipment which enabled it to reach about one-fourth of the children who leave school, a member of the League remarked that our work for the Bureau was now done and our connection with it at an end. The secretary of the League during the whole six years of its life, and the person above all others to whom the Bureau owes its existence and its history, Mrs. Charles F. Harding, returned, "Oh no, our work is not done. It can't be finisht until every child in Chicago is served by the Bureau." That became the slogan of the League. It began to regard its first accomplishment not so much in the light of a triumph as in that of a widened opportunity for further service, a service that might be extended to the whole country. The National Education Association at its meeting last July provided for [that extension by electing Mrs. Harding president of its Department of School Patrons, and now the slogan for vocational supervision has become, " No cessation of activity until every child in the United States is served by such a bureau." We hope that thru the Department of School Patrons something may be done in the next year in the direction of starting the youth of the country on the right vocational track, and that this vision of the president of the department may one day be made real. 650 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [School Patrons SOME PHASES OF THE RURAL-SCHOOL PROBLEM MARY C. C. BRADFORD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, DENVER, COLO. The rural-school problem as a whole is practically one with the great problem of America's function in modern civilization. For America's proper discharge of its mission in twentieth-century life depends upon the effectiveness of its educational system, and that part of the school organiza- tion embraced in what are called rural schools provides for the training of more than one-half of the children in the United States. Therefore it is easy to see the importance of giving to the majority of the school population of our country such advantages as will enable them to become worthy to transmit the best traditions of American life and thought to future genera- tions. Ample educational opportunities for all country children must be afforded by any school system claiming to do efficient work. Education broad and deep and rich in content and practically adapted to the needs of the rural community must be the aim. The country child is entitled to instruction from professionally trained teachers, and to the use of school- houses and playgrounds arranged in such a way as to conserve health and comfort and to develop appreciation of beauty and the use of power. The community is entitled to the possession and use of such buildings for all purposes tending to enrich the community life and to tighten the bond of community unity. The rural-school teacher is entitled to a salary commensurate with the cost of Hving and the present-day demands in the lines of scholarship, professional activity, and community leadership. The teacher is also entitled to a home environment of comfort, added to at least a modicum of beauty, to the end that hours of preparatory work and leisure may be spent in congenial surroundings, thereby increasing the efficiency of the teacher. How are these things to be obtained in rural schools ? First, by a campaign of education on these general necessities of rural- school education in every school district in the United States. A mighty task, you say? Yes; but one that must be undertaken if the rural-school problem is to be solved. Secondly, by advocating and demonstrating the three principal methods of rural-school betterment: either the county unit of administration or great numbers of centralized or consoHdated schools, and in all cases standardization. Standardization, to be really effective, must result in uniting all the endeavors of every factor in the educational fife of a commonwealth or community. It must bind in one mighty whole the offices of state and county superintendents, the activities of the school boards, the functioning of the teacher, the response of the children, and the cooperative effort of patrons, taxpayers, and the electorate. Department] RURAL SCHOOLS AND TtlE WAR 651 A great vision, this, a rural-school system based upon a sane and beautiful relation between life-activities and educational effort. Each schoolhouse a center of physical, mental, and spiritual preparedness to meet the demands of life. Rural districts transformed into regions where beauty, efficiency, freedom, and happiness dwell. Urban populations purified and enricht by the contribution of rural population such as these — a nation enricht, reconsecrated to the service of all humanity thru the reahzed ideal of a rural-school system equal to the magnitude of the task imposed upon it by our Mother-Land — ^America. i RURAL SCHOOLS AND THE WAR DR. MARGARET SCHALLENBERGER McNAUGHT, COMMISSIONER OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, SACRAMENTO, CAL. In considering rural schools in their relation to the war we must keep in mind two facts: first, that they can do much because they are schools; second, that they can do more because they have the advantages of rural conditions. All schools can be of service to the nation in the manifold activities of this war by reason of the pressure which those activities put upon all phases of life. Schools can teach patriotism and thrift, can inculcate principles of cooperation, obedience, and discipline, and can give training in many kinds of help thru the medium of county or other boards of defense, or thru the Red Cross and similar associations whose work requires at times many kinds of service that can be given by school children as well as, if not better than, by adults. In addition to these services common to city and rural schools alike, the rural school has a big advantage in the means at its disposal to engage boys and girls in the actual work of increasing food production. In that regard the whole school community, men and women as well as children, should be, as it were, pupils of a common school. Children should help their parents and parents should help their children to bring forth from orchards, fields, and pastures the most abundant harvests that nature can be made to yield to industry. School teachers, farm advisers, and all others having special knowledge or expertness in any kind of food production, food conservation, or food distribution should be teachers in the common task of this com- munity school. As the federal government thru what is known as the Smith-Lever Fund provides money to assist under certain conditions the task of agricultural instruction thruout the United States, each rural-school district should make itself acquainted with those conditions and seek to profit by the aid thus extended. Many school teachers and many school districts are not aware of the existence of this fund nor of the purposes for which it is granted. Rural-school teachers should make inquiry into the manner and the con- ditions of the distribution and use of this fund in their states, and strive to 6S2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (School Patrons obtain a due proportion of it for their own districts. The amount obtained may be small in some districts, but it will be helpful in itself and an incentive toward bringing local help as well. Information concerning the Smith- Lever Fund may be obtained from Washington or from the agricultural departments of state universities. Great as is the strain of the war, however, it should not be forgotten that the schools best serve the nation by fitting children for the work which they are to do when they in their turn become the upholders of the state. Neither time, nor money, nor energy needed for right training toward manhood and womanhood should even at this crisis be diverted from the abiding purpose of childhood education — that of fitting the coming genera- tion to meet and master the problems that will surely confront it. Such education can be made to develop by the very means of war work and aspiration. There are few better means of nature-study than that of active engagement in the growing of plants and the tending of farm animals, few better lessons in domestic science than those given in food conserving and cooking, few better moral lessons than those of thrift and discipline, few higher lessons than those of patriotism and cooperation. To the rural schools then the coming of the war brings, not only new duties and new burdens, but new opportunities and new advantages. The fullest as well as the fairest and the finest field for these is at the very door of the schoolhouse itself. The schoolhouse, therefore, should be a com- munity center for all worthy gatherings; a place for counsel and planning, for working and helping, for inspiration and aspiration; a sort of local temple of usefulness where the ever-broadening mind of the community may live and move and have its being. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS Chairman — Arthur H. Chamberlain, editor, Sierra Educational News. . . San Francisco, Cal. Secretary — George L. Towne, editor, Nebraska Teacher Lincoln, Nebr. FIRST SESSION — Wednesday Forenoon, July ii, 191 7 The meeting was called to order by the chairman, Arthur H. Chamberlam, in Room C, [City Auditorium, at 10:00 a.m. Topic: The Textbook (A Symposium) The following paper was presented: "Free or Rented Textbooks" — R. H. Wilson, superintendent of public instruction, Oklahoma City, Okla. Discussion: "State-Printed Textbooks" — E. M. Cox, assistant superintendent of schools, Oakland, Calif. "Uniform Textbooks" — Edward C. Elliott, chancellor. University of Montana, Helena, Mont. SECOND SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 13, 191 7 The meeting was called to order by Chairman Chamberlain in Room C, City Audi- torium, at 9:00 A.M. Round-Table Discussion: "Editorial Journalism" — W. C. Bruce, editor, American ^School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis. Business meeting was then called to order, when the following resolution was adopted: We believe in the principle of free text books unhampered by restrictions of publica- jtion and uniformity. The following ofl&cers were elected: President — Arthur H. Chamberlain, editor, Sierra Educational News, San Fran- nsco, Calif. Secretary — George L. Towne, editor, Nebraska Teacher, Lincoln, Nebr. FREE OR RENTED TEXTBOOKS R. H. WILSON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, OKLAHOMA CITY, OKLA. Since this subject has engaged the best thought of school men, pub- lishers, pohticians, patrons, and taxpayers during a period of years, I lave drawn largely upon such information as has been collected by the [different commissions and committees that have made investigations along ^this line. 6S3 654 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [PubUcations There is no doubt that free textbooks for school children will ultimately be provided in all of the states. Therefore the plan of having books pro- vided by the public and rented to the pupils is but one step toward what will eventually be the common practice in this country, and it is hardly necessary to discuss the latter division of the subject assigned me, because it is at best but a means of securing free texts for all pupils. More than two-thirds of the states have laws giving some central power control over the choice of the textbooks used in their public schools. These states as a rule provide for uniformity of texts. Fifteen of the states and one or more of the provinces of Canada have laws providing that textbooks shall be f urnisht free to all pupils in the public schools, while practically all the states furnish books free of charge to indigent children. Our schools are and should be the most democratic insti- tutions in the nation, and I submit to you that the furnishing of books to indigent children only is a badge of charity which subverts in a measure the democracy of the school by creating class distinctions. Not only is this depressing for the morale, but it prevents the school from exercising its widest possible influence — that of reaching all persons — to say nothing of the decrease in eflSciency on the part of the educational institution caused by failure to touch the Uves of the "proud poor." When compulsory education laws are strictly enforst, the free textbooks to indigent pupils serve to accentuate the state's charity, to humiliate parents and pupils, and to foster or emphasize class distinctions. Legislatures in passing laws compelling attendance should regard free-text laws as equally necessary. As a general rule teachers and bookmen have opposed uniform texts while parents have favored them. However, teachers have now joined the parents in favoring free textbooks. Let us examine briefly why so many of the parents and teachers are in favor of free texts. The burden of expense is felt less by shifting the distribution of it thru taxation. As a result there is less complaint on account of cost of texts. Promotion and demotion of pupils are easier and impose no addi- tional expense on the parents or public. The dilatory parent or dealer does not interfere with the work of schools thru failure to provide books on time; therefore there is a decided gain in time of classes and in efficiency of the school. Since books are free, all children may enter school and begin work the first day without loss of time, and where high-school texts are f urnisht free a larger percentage of pupils enrol in the secondary schools and remain until graduation. The rules relating to preservation and neatness of books can be so arranged and enforst as to teach the young citizens valuable lessons respecting use and abuse of public property. Old and out- of-date texts can be changed without the usual turmoil that follows a change in communities where parents are required to buy books, and with a greater economy, since under the free-text system all the old books will be exchanged, while under the individual system more than half of the Department] FREE OR RENTED TEXTBOOKS 65s old books are left in the homes or thrown in the corner and eventually destroyed. It is possible to have a larger number of texts at smaller cost to the community thru centralized buying. The authorities controlling the books have greater power in managing the schools. Requests for per- mission to study together are eliminated. Members of the same family do not have to share in the use of a text as is now done in many instances; therefore each one does better work. By exercising the proper sanitary precautions there is less chance of spreading disease then under the system which permits children to purchase second-hand books used by children in other districts where proper sanitary precautions may not have been taken. Free texts make the schools free to pupils in fact as well as in name. The foregoing summary of advantages of free textbooks is based upon the experience of states having the free- text system; and as has been said by Dr. E. Benjamin Andrews, It is significant that those states and cities in the union commonly considered the most advanst educationally have adopted free books as indispensable to the proper working of a free-school system, and that wherever this has occurred the number of pupils in attendance has increast, the average attendance has lengthened, a greater number have continued their studies thru the highest grades, and the whole efficiency of the schooling has improved. New York City has furnisht textbooks free to all its pubUc-school pupils since the public schools of that city were first organized in the year 1806. The public schools of Philadelphia were organized in 1818, and a system of free texts was immediately installed. In 1884 the state of Massachusetts adopted a compulsory law providing for free texts for all public-school children. In more than one-fourth of our states pupils are now supplied with texts at the expense of the public, and in none of these states have the theoretical reasons offered by opponents of the system been realized. Probably there is no subject about which there is more misinformation than that relating to the cost of textbooks. The United States Com- missioner of Education reported in 1911-12 that the entire amount spent for the school system of the several states was $483,000,000, of which about $10,000,000, or less than 2 per cent, was spent for textbooks and other instruction suppHes. The Commissioner estimates that the average cost of textbooks for all the school children of the United States is 60 cents per capita under the present plan of distribution. But the people, having before them the concrete examples of poor people being compelled to buy books for large families of children, do not deal in averages. As a result the legislatures have past laws for uniform and free textbooks. The New York Department of Efficiency and Economy made an investigation of the cost of books in that state for the year 191 2-13 and found that ''the cost of installation of a new system of furnishing free textbooks to all the pupils in the public elementary schools of the state would be an average for each pupil of $1 . 23, and for pupils in the secondary schools an average of $4 .85 656 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Publications would be required, while the cost of renewal would amount to 52 cents for pupils in the elementary grades and $1 .58 for pupils in the high schools." State Superintendent N. C. Schaeffer gives the enrolment of pupils in Penn- sylvania for the year ending June 30, 191 5, as 1,343,055, and the cost of textbooks for these pupils as $1,157,930. 27, or 86 cents per capita. These figures include the high schools and normal schools which under the law are furnisht books free of cost upon the same basis as the elementary schools. There is a wide divergence in number and cost of texts used in the first eight grades of the pubHc schools in the several states, ranging from $5 . 57 in Kansas to $17.41 in Utah, according to the report of the School Book Investigating Committee to the General Assembly of Georgia made in 19 14, so we find that the cost to the taxpayers of free texts must be estimated separately for each state. But if we use as a basis the figures given by the United States Commissioner of Education, 60 cents per capita, a district having an enrolment of thirty pupils would be required to spend $18.00 for books each year. In New York it would be necessary for this district to spend $36 .90 to instal the system of free texts in the elementary schools, and $15 .60 each year thereafter to keep the supply replenisht. In Penn- sylvania it would cost a district having thirty pupils enrolled only $25 .80 to supply all pupils in the elementary, high school, and normal school. Thus it will be seen that in no case cited will the cost be prohibitive. It has been estimated that the average life of a textbook is four years. Under a free-textbook system the public secures the full benefit and use of the text during its entire life, while under the system of individual ownership the book is frequently retired from use after one year of service, thus causing a waste of wealth which appeals strongly to the conservationist. On the other hand books that are obsolete or antiquated are retired from the school. In many districts in states having no uniform laws providing free textbooks, pupils are using books that were once used by their grand- parents. I am of the opinion that the weight of authority is in favor of free text- books and that it is a question of time only until all states will have laws providing for the entire freedom of our public schools. The method of purchasing and distributing these books will then become important. Is it better to have the books purchast by a central state authority and paid for by a uniform tax over the state, or should each district purchase its own books ? Both methods are employed in this country, but I am of the opinion that the method providing for the purchase of the books by districts is fundamentally and economically sound. As shown heretofore the cost is not prohibitive. The people in the district, thru their directors, have control of all school property belonging to the district. This property was purchast with the taxpayers' money, and as a result the directors safeguard it more^ jealously than they would were it donated to the district by some Department] PREE OR RENTED TEXTBOOKS 657 distant taxing authority. For the same reason the books will be cared for more painstakingly if provided at the expense of the district. A director will hesitate a longer time before exacting the penalty for abuse of property provided by the state than he will for the abuse of property provided by his own district. If texts be furnisht free of cost the schools in those states having no uniform adoption will have practically the same advantage as those schools in states having a uniform adoption of schoolbooks, espe- cially where the districts purchase and distribute the books. In my own state, Oklahoma, our interests are so diversified that texts suited admirably to the needs of one district may be entirely unsuited to the requirements of another section. For instance, in the subject of agriculture entirely different texts are needed for the southeastern part of the state where rainfall is abundant and corn and cotton are the chief crops raised, and for the northwestern region where wheat and forage are the principal crops, and where rainfall is so small that dry-farming methods secure the best results. Other industries are just as varied with us as in other states. Arithmetics, as well as the texts for some other subjects that might be mentioned, suited for city schools may be ill adapted to use in rural schools. These objections to uniform texts apply in some degree to all states with diverse populations, climates, and interests. Since it is impossible to cover the entire field of knowledge in one book, or set of books, the authority should make it possible for the children of any community to use those texts which will most nearly meet their needs and at the same time furnish the greatest amount of inspiration for their future. With each district furnishing its textbooks free, pupils moving from one district to another are not required to buy new books, as they leave their old books with the board in the district from which they move and are supplied with other books in the districts into which they move. The fact that the books used in the two districts might not be the same would not seriously impair the efficiency of the school as much as it may be impaired under a system that makes it possible to have books unsuited to the needs of the community. There are in many states districts that are now taxt to the constitutional limit, and I realize that objection can be made to having these districts furnish the texts for the pupils. Such districts should be provided for by having the county or the state supplement their funds by an appropriation or levy until such time as their taxable valuation becomes sufficient to enable these districts to make provision for their own suppHes, or until the districts have consoUdated with other territory that has sufficient taxable wealth to bear the burden. Where books are bought in large quantities for all the schools of the state or the country and distributed to the districts by the county super- intendent, or some other suitable person, considerable money may be saved thru the elimination of the jobber or middleman — a saving that will be in the 658 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [PubUcations interest of the taxpaying public, the individual parent, and the community as a whole. Illustrating this statement the state of Massachusetts spent $1.11 per capita to supply books for indigent children in 1880, where such books were bought for a Umited number, while the average per capita cost of supplying books to all pupils in 191 2-13 was only 85 cents, a difference of 26 cents per capita. The foregoing facts and figures explain why opponents of the free- textbook system gather their arguments from communities, counties, and states that have never given the plan a trial. ROUND-TABLE DISCUSSION EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM W. C. Bruce, editor, American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis. — John Milton declared that "where there is much desire to learn, there of necessity must be much arguing, much reading, many opinions, for opinion in good men is but knowledge in the making." The desire of American educators to learn as well as to teach and the constantly changing conceptions of educational values are causes of the fact that the educational field has an unusually large number of periodicals, and these vary more in type and purpose than the technical periodicals of all other professions. The most helpful educational paper is one which the average teacher and executive reads with a feeling of eagerness and pleasure. It promotes every distinctly worthy educa- tional improvement and interests itself, not only in the theory of education, but in those more practical topics which may be specifically applied in the classroom. It promotes the professional interests of teachers as a class by consistently and persistently setting high standards of preparation and achievement, by holding up higher ethical standards and, last but not least, by seeking the recognition of teaching as a social force thru improved conditions of tenure, service, and compensation. Negatively, this type of school paper is the foe of all things which hinder the progress of education and citizenship. Much of the failure of educational journalism can be attributed to the lack of consciously adapting publications to their reading circle. Editors are prone to think that their leadership should be of such a character that it is always far in advance in every movement. They overlook the fact that they are really teaching a great ungraded school in which there are always some beginners, some few advanst students, and a great number of intermediate stages of professional preparation and experience. In a mature way these readers all have the individual characteristics of students in the classroom, and the editors must apply, in the type and treatment of editorial content all the pedagogical principles which they would use in the classroom to arouse attention and interest, to overcome indifference and carelessness, and to impress the lessons they would convey. The educational periodical when it reaches the subscriber must compete with the popular magazines of the day, which are exceedingly attractive in content and make-up and which use every artifice of high-grade typography, art work, and authorship to command attention. Again, the school journal competes with the strongest literary, political, and popular reviews, whose resources in subject-matter and authorship can bring together the most vital topics of the day as discust by the leading thinkers, statesmen, and men of affairs. In meeting such competition it is not too much to ask that the editor of the school magazine shall seek to make every article he presents of the greatest possible inter- est to his readers, in so far as the subjects of discussion touch upon their work. He will keep carefully in mind what may be called the news value of all articles as determined by their statement of principles in education or the application of old principles to new situa- tions. He will hold to the timeliness in season of every problem discust, and he will seek Department! EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM 659 to avoid duplicating the articles of his competitors. He will look carefully to the style of each article for its clearness, directness, and force. He will study carefully the length of each paper, seeking compactness, conciseness, and logical arrangement in place of heavi- ness and diffuseness. He will look for crisp, definite discussions and specific recommenda- tions in place of wearisome academic generalizations. The decline of personal editorship among the daily papers and general magazines has not been without effect on the educational magazines. A few publications still make the editor's page the very heart of each issue, but the great majority make it secondary in importance to the other articles publisht. In itself this condition is an acknowledgment )f weakness that ought not to exist. The editorial page ought to be the strongest portion )f every educational journal and its discussions as genuine and fresh as the editor can make lem. They ought to be an interpretation of the important happenings and of the best loughts of the times. If the editor has none of that special spark of genius which makes is writings stand out for their brilliancy, his work can at least be markt by earnestness and icerity. He can be optimistic, and the strongest appeals as well as the most severe iticisms can be tempered with the "leaven" of good sense. The educational editor mst remember that he is both educator and editor. The news section of educa- tional journals has never been fully appreciated as a strong means of educational better- 'ment. Teachers' journals quite rightly seek editorial material of permanent value, but they should not overlook the fact that what may be of passing interest has frequently a far- reaching effect on education. An English schoolboy's "howler" will illustrate the atti- tude which is desirable. When asked to define the words weather and climate, he wrote, , "Weather lasts a few days at a time, but climate lasts all the time." Educational news should be timely, accurate, and fresh, but it should not be printed merely as a record. It should be written to help as well as to inform and to interest readers. Even the most simple news item about a person of importance or about a move- ment can be well digested and causes and relations indicated. State papers will limit themselves to state news, and papers of national or sectional circulation will tell of happen- ings of greater importance, but all of them can present facts which have a bearing on the betterment of school conditions and the improvement of the teaching profession. There is some danger in giving an editorial turn to the news columns of the school journal, in that the editor's own views will cause him to emphasize some facts and to minimize others. So long as the news is not clear as to facts, this policy is far more desirable than a lack of careful selection and adherence to the publication of every trifling item which is sent in by subscribers. The news columns of the school paper afford an opportunity for careful ^writing and still more careful editing. The editor who does not avail himself of city, ite, and county school bulletins and other official publications, and who does not use )ress clippings and local correspondence is missing many opportunities for service thru his lews columns. Educational journals have suffered a good deal from what may be termed amateur mmalism in that there have been many milk-and-water "sheets" begun by men who ive no conception of the problems and hazards of the publishing business, as well as the luties of the school periodical, and who have used unfair methods to gain circulation and itronage. Educational journals must hold to high ideals and must render a high tjrpe )f service if they are to enjoy a self-sustaining existence. I do not know of an educational )umal that would not render double service if its income were doubled, and if its editor id publisher were given a compensation equal to that which is enjoyed by superintendents Fand educators who are doing work of equal educational value. A comfortable margin of ' income over the necessary monthly outlay of a school paper gives a feeling of confidence that makes an editor bold to attack abuses wherever they are found and permits him to "hew to the line," whether the chips strike an advertiser or a large number of his readers. The average educational editor is not seeking money for its own sake, but for the sake of what it will do to make his periodical a larger and stronger educational force. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE KANSAS CITY MEETING, FEBRUARY 27-MARCH 3, 1917 SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President— Jobs D. Shoop, superintendent of schools Chicago, 111. First Vice-President — F. L. Keeler, state superintendent of public in- . struction Lansing, Mich. Second Vice-President — John Dietrick, superintendent of schools Helena, Mont. Secretary — Margaret T. Maguire, supervising principal, George A. McCall School Philadelphia, Pa. FIRST DAY EVENING SESSION— Tuesday, February 27, 1917 The Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in Convention Hall, Kansas City, Mo., at 8 : 00 p.m.. President John D. Shoop, superintendent of schools, Chicaga, 111., presiding. The following preliminary musical program had been rendered by the Polytechnic Institute Chorus, David Grosch, director. "BeNot Afraid" (from "Elijah") \ir ^ i i. "Thanks Be to God" (from "Elijah") ....... j^endelssohn "The Cry of Rachel" Salter The session opened with an invocation by Rev. Burris A. Jenkins, pastor of the Linwood Boulevard Christian Church. Addresses of welcome were given by George H. Edwards, mayor of Kansas City, Uel W. Lamkin, state superintendent of schools, Jefferson City, Mo., and I. I. Cammack, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, to which response was made by O. T. Corson, editor, Ohio Educational Monthly, Columbus, Ohio. Albert J. Beveridge, former United States senator, Indianapolis, Ind., delivered an address on "The School and the Nation." President Shoop announst the' following committees: COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111. J. George Becht, secretary. State Board of Education, Harrisburg, Pa. Frank B. Cooper, superintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash. • Grace Strachan, district superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y. H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Topeka, Kans. COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS * H. S. Weet, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N.Y. H. A. Johnson, superintendent of schools, Ogden, Utah. Z. R. Thornburg, superintendent of schools, Des Moines, Iowa. Wm. McKay Vance, superintendent of schools, Delaware, Ohio. E. C. Hartwell, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn. A vocal solo was rendered by Mrs. Ella Van Huff. 661 662 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City SECOND DAY MORNING SESSION— Wednesday, February 28, 1917 A preliminary musical program was rendered as follows: The Girls* Chorus, Westport High School, Effie J. Hedges, director, sang: "The Wanderer's Night Song" Rubenstein "Invitation" Weweler The Boys' Glee Club, Central High School, Marie F. Whitney, director, sang: "Winter Song" Bullard "Love's Old Sweet Song" Molloy The following program was presented: "A Stronger Foundation for, and a Better Command of. Spoken and Written English": a) "In the Elementary Schools" — Milton C. Potter, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. b) "In the High Schools " — Jesse H. Newlon, principal, High School, Lincoln, Nebr. c) "In the Normal Schools" — James F. Hosic, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111. d) "In the Colleges" — E. M. Hopkins, professor of English, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. Greetings were presented by Robert J. Aley, president. National Education Associa- tion, who also called attention to the meeting to be held in Portland in July and announst that the program would center about preparedness, nationalism, and patriotism. AFTERNOON SESSION— Wednesday, February 28, 1917 The afternoon was devoted to a gymnastic exhibition illustrating preparedness in the elementary schools, given at Convention Hall by thirty-five hundred children of the elementary schools of Kansas City, under the direction of the department of physical training, F. Burger, director, L. H. Molis and E. Seitz, assistants. The music was fumisht by the elementary-school orchestras, under the direction of the department of music, Mrs. B. M. Whiteley, director, Lena M. Spoor, assistant. EVENING SESSION— Wednesday, February 28, 1917 At 7:00 P.M., an illustrated lecture on "The Scenic Beauties of Oregon" was presented by Samuel L. Lancaster, engineer and builder of the Columbia River Highway, thru the courtesy of the Portland Chamber of Commerce. The topic for the evening program was, "Uniform Standards and Correlative Factors in Public-School Education." The following program was presented: "Standards of School Architecture and Schoolhouse Construction" — Fred L. Keel'er, tate superintendent of public instruction, Lansing, Mich. "Standards of Individual Health among Children" — John Dill Robertson, com- missioner of health, Chicago, 111. "Are the Older School Virtues Obsolescent? " — W. C. Bagley, professor of education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. * " Standardized Units of Achievement of Pupils, and Measurable Standards of School Administration" — Charles H. Judd, director. School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. THIRD DAY MORNING SESSION— Thursday, March i, 191 7 A preliminary musical program was rendered by the Lincoln High School musical organizations, N. Clark Smith, director, as follows: Folk-Song Anthem, "Steal Away to Jesus." Plantation Folk-Songs, "Make Good," "Rock Mt. Sinai." Superintendence! SECRETARY'S MINUTES 663 The general topic for the morning was, "Defining the Scope of Education," and the following program was presented: "The Legitimate Range of Activity of the Junior College in a Public-School Sys- " — 1. 1. Cammack, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo. "Relations between, and Dififerentia Defining, the Work of Public-School Education d Philanthropy" — J. H. Francis, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio. "Relations and Lines of Demarcation between the Fields of Industry and Public- School Education" — Albert Shiels, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal. Multiple Use of Child- Welfare Agencies" — William Wirt, superintendent of schools, ry, Indiana. foUc i The annual business meeting followed the program. The report of the Committee on Relation between Boards of Education and Super- tendents was presented by Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich,, chairman. At the conclusion, of the report, on motion of Superintendent Chadsey, rl lutions covering the following points were unanimously adopted: I. The general principles of school administration detailed in the report were con- curred in. 2. A committee of ten members to be known as the Committee on Publicity was authorized for the purpose of bringing these principles to the attention of boards of educa- tion and communities thru legitimate avenues of public discussion, said committee to be fumisht with the necessary funds for carrying on its work. 3. A commission of ten was authorized to be known as the Commission on Adminis- trative Legislation, which should work out details in the form of rules suitable for adoption by boards of education, and model laws to be recommended to legislatures, and should present these rules and laws to this department for action at its next annual meeting. In the performance of this duty the Commission on Administrative Legislation was directed to give special attention to board rules and laws now in operation and, so far as possible, to support each of its recommendations by direct reference to such establisht cases. 4. A committee of ten was authorized to be known as the Committee on Cooperation with School Boards, the duty of which shall be to get into communication with school boards or organizations of such bodies and to secure from them as much cooperation as may be possible in defining fully the problems of public-school organization. The special duty of the committee shall be to promote, so far as possible, organizations of sections for school-board members in state educational associations and in the National Education - Association, in order that the general principles adopted by this department may be ■H|iscust and supplemented by school boards. I^H The Committee on Nominations reported as follows thru the chairman, Herbert S. * Weet: President — Thomas E. Finegan, deputy commissioner of education of the state of New York, Albany, N.Y. First Vice-President — A. A. McDonald, superintendent of schools, Sioux Falls, S.D. » Second Vice-President — Carlos M. Cole, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. Secretary — Lida Lee Tall, supervisor of grammar grades, Baltimore Co., Baltimore, Md. On motion of Calvin Kendall, state commissioner of education, Trenton, N.J., the report was unanimously adopted and the secretary was directed to cast a ballot for their election. The report of the Committee on Resolutions was presented by Francis G. Blair, chairman, as follows: Your Committee on Resolutions believe that the program prepared for this meeting has been one of the most successful and profitable ones ever rendered in the history of this Department and that the attendance and interest has been unusual in spite of the fact that over and above all our deliberations has hung one transcendent question, over- shadowing all others in its interest and importance. That overhanging and absorbing question is, how our nation will meet the great international situation which confronts it. Your committee, after a careful consideration of all the issues involved, unanimously believe that under this unusual and extraordinary circumstance we should deny ourselves the time-honored privilege of formulating and presenting an extended statement of the principles and policies of educational supervision and procedure, and in lieu of such resolu- tions present a single declaration for your consideration. That declaration is as follows: 664 NATIONAL Education Assoct A f ion [Kansas city "Met, as we are, in the midst of a great world-crisis which threatens the safety and honor of our own country, the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association, representing in its membership all the education systems and interests of the United States of America, do hereby solemnly and unitedly declare our confidence in, and our loyalty to, the President of the Republic — Woodrow Wilson — in his supreme effort to maintain the dignity and honor of our nation." The report of the committee was unanimously adopted by a rising vote, and the president of the department was directed to wire the declaration to President Wilson. The representatives of cities desiring to invite the Department of Superintendence for its 19 1 8 meeting were allowed three minutes each for the presentation of invitations. Atlanta was represented by J. C. Wardlaw, Boston by F. B. Dyer and A. E. Winship, Chicago by Mrs. Charles O. Sethness, Columbus by J. H. Francis and F. B. Pearson, Milwaukee by M. C. Potter, Minneapolis by W. F. Webster, Newark by J. W. Kennedy, Washington by E. L. Thurston. It was agreed that on each successive ballot the two cities receiving the smallest number of votes should be withdrawn. Milwaukee and Newark were withdrawn after the first ballot, Chicago and Washington after the second ballot, and Columbus and Minneapolis after the third ballot. The fourth ballot gave Atlanta 446 and Boston 441. AFTERNOON SESSION— Thursday, March i, 1917 The afternoon session was given to round tables as follows: A. ROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS Chairman — Nathan C. Schaeffer, state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. The topic for the afternoon was, "How the State Department of Public Instruction and the County Superintendents May Best Cooperate for the Advancement of Education in the State." Following a paper by Frank B. Pearson, state superintendent of public instruction, Columbus, Ohio, the entire afternoon was spent in general discussion. B. ROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH A POPULATION OF 250,000 Chairman — William M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. "The Modem School" was discust by George D. Strayer, professor of educational administration. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.; Otis W. Caldwell, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.; and Franklin B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass. "Military Training in the Public Schools" was discust by John D. Shoop, super- intendent of schools, Chicago, 111., and E. L. Thurston, superintendent of schools, Washington, D.C. "The Duplicate School as an Educational Asset" was discust by Joseph S. Taylor, district superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y., and Charles E. Chadsey, super- intendent of schools, Detroit, Mich. "Unity or Dualism in School-Board Control of Our Educational System" was dis- cust by H. E. Miles, Racine, Wis., and Frank E. Spaulding, superintendent of schools Minneapolis, Minn. C. ROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH A POPULATION OF FROM 25,000 TO 250,000 Chairman — E. U. Graff, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr. The following program was presented: "Books as Tools"— Zora Shields, teacher and librarian, Central High School, Omaha Nebr. I Sui m I Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 66$ "Silent Reading" — Herman Dressel, superintendent of schools, Kearney, N.J. "Testing the Efl&ciency in Reading," Charles Fordyce, dean, Teachers College, hiversity of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. D. ROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH A POPULATION UNDER 25,000 Chairman — Frank T. Vasey, superintendent of schools, Charles City, Iowa. The following program was presented: "Measurements and Tests, Aids to More Efficient Supervision" — M. E. Haggerty, assistant professor of education. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. "Adjustment of School Work to the Individual Differences of Children" — J. W. Studebaker, assistant superintendent of schools, Des Moines, Iowa. "Ear Marks of an Efficient School System" — Fred M. Hunter, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, Nebr. "Cooperative Experiments in Spelling" — Ernest Horn, assistant professor of educa- tion, Iowa State University, Iowa City, Iowa. ^ E. ROUND TABLE ON COMPULSORY EDUCATION, SCHOOL CEl^ISUS, AND CHILD WELFARE Chairman — J. M. Gwinn, superintendent of schools, New Orleans, La. The following program was presented: "What Provisions Should a Compulsory-Education Law Include from the Viewpoint of Aim and the Viewpoint of Enforcement?" — George H. Chatfield, assistant director, bureau of attendance, New York, N.Y. "The Federal Child-Labor Law" — T. P. Twiggs, supervisor of compulsory education, Detroit, Mich. "Child Welfare as the Product of Civic Cooperation" — P. W. Horn, superintendent of schools, Houston, Tex. "The Factors of an Adequate School Census — How They May Be Realized" — Paul B. Habans, assistant superintendent of schools, New Orleans, La. "Are School Facilities and School Progress Keeping Pace with Our Restrictive Laws?" — R. J. Condon, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. General Discussion: Albert S. Shiels, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.; O. L. Reid, superintendent of schools, Louisville, Ky.; Carlos M. Cole, superintendent of schools, Denver Colo.; Fred M. Hunter, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, Nebr.; J. H. Markley, assistant superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo. F. ROUND TABLE OF DIRECTORS FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Chairman — Walter S. Munroe, Bureau of Educational Measurements and Standards, State Normal College, Emporia, Kans. The following program was presented: "The Problem of Measuring Ability to Read Silently" — S. A. Courtis, supervisor of educational research, Detroit, Mich.; H. W. Anderson, Bureau of Educational Research, Dubuque, Iowa. "Correlation between Ability to Think and Ability to Remember, with Special Reference to United States History" — B. R. Buckingham, educational statistician, State Board of Education, Madison, Wis. ^ "Organized Effort in Educational Research in City School Systems" — ^J. P. O'Hem, assistant superintendent of schools, Rochester, N.Y. "Fundamental Problems in Conducting a State Bureau of Educational Research" — Charles Fordyce, dean. Teachers College, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. "The Function of a Bureau of School Service in a State University" — H. A. Brown, Bureau of Research, Department of Public Instruction, Concord, N.H.; F. J. Kelly, Bureau of School Service, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. 666 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City EVENING SESSION— Thursday, March i, 1917 Preliminary to the regular program, John R. Fox, Chicago, 111., gave an illustrated talk on "The Yellowstone National Park." Violin Solo, "Ballade and Polonaise" (Vieuxtemp), by Heinrich Rittmeister, concert master, Kansas City Symphony Orchestra, Mrs. H. Rittmeister, accompanist. The topic of the evening was, "Observable Tendencies toward a Nationalization of American Education." "Its Spirit, Purpose, and Method" — Philander P. Claxton, United States Com- missioner of Education, Washington, D.C. "Its Legitimate Scope and How It Might Be Made to Articulate with State and Local Initiative" — Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Spring- field, lU. President-elect Thomas E. Finegan was presented and made a short address. Howard H. Hayes, Salt Lake City, Utah, gave an illustrated talk on "The New National Park Idea." FOURTH DAY MORNING SESSION— Friday, March 2, 191 7 The musical program was fumisht by a chorus of 700 children from the elementary schools of Kansas City, Mrs. B. M. Whiteley, director, Lena M. Spoor and Pauline Campbell, accompanists. "Hail, Bright Abode" Wagner "Hymn to the Stars" Mendelssohn "Zuni Indian Song" Loomis "The Birthright" Page The following program was presented: "Variations in the Ratio of Time to Be Given to the Mental and Manual Elements in the Different Grades of the Elementary Schools and Their Relative Values in Develop- ing Educational Symmetry" — ^James H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass. " Educational Poise " — Adelaide Steele Baylor, Vocational Division, State Depart- ment of Public Instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. "Preparedness" — R. A. White, University Military-Training League, Chicago, 111. "Military Training Camps" — Wharton Clay, secretary. Central Department, Military Training Camps Association of the United States, Chicago, 111. "Health Problems of Rural and Village Schools" — H. A. Davee, former state super- intendent of public instruction, Helena, Mont. "The High-School Teacher's Professional Preparation" — William H. Smiley, super- visor of high-school education, Denver, Colo. "Report of Committee on Military Training in the Public Schools" — Henry Snyder, superintendent of schools, Jersey City, N.J., chairman. Following this report, Randal J. Condon, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio, offered the follo%ving resolutions, which were adopted with only a few scattered negative votes: Resolved, That the recommendations of the Committee on Military Education of American Youth be, and they are hereby, adopted as the recommendations of this Department, namely: I. Since it appears that we have not yet reacht the time when we may escape war, we favor and recommend the adoption of a plan of intensive and specific miUtary training for young men of nineteen years of age and over to be conducted during the twentieth and twenty-first years. This training should be universal and compulsory upon young men of the ages mentioned who are physically qualified, should include all the features necessary to prepare young men practically and effectively for the work of the soldier, should be provided and directed by the National Government and at its expense, and should be given by expert instructors provided by the National Government. Superintendence! SECRETARY'S MINUTES 667 2. We are opposed to the introduction of military training and military drill, or any form of instruction which is distinctively or specifically military, into the elementary or secondary schools. .3, A thoro and comprehensive plan of physical training should be provided and made compulsory upon all boys and girls of all ages attending the schools. This plan should include physical exercises, setting-up drills with emphasis upon posture and discipline, marching, organized and supervised play, recreation, athletics, gymnastics, summer camps and outdoor life, wherever possible, for the whole or part of the vacations. This work should always be intensive, should be graduated and adapted to the ages and needs of pupils, should aim to train pupils in health, strength, vigor, alertness, endurance, self-reliance, and self-control, and should include suitable provision for the correction of bodily defects. At the same time, provision should be made for the extension of similar kinds of instruction to young people, who are not in school, thru agencies already establisht, such as evening and continuation schools, recreation and community centers, and others which may be establisht. 4. Special attention should be directed to personal hygiene. This should include the care of the body, frequent, thoro, compulsory medical inspection, and a consideration of the laws of health, strength, and vigor. 5. Provision should be made for instruction in sanitation and safety precautions for the purpose of guarding against disease and injury. For this purpose voluntary camp life during vacations should be encouraged, as well as out-door exercises and hikes into the country. 6. Patriotic and civic service should be a prominent feature of an American education. This work should include the study of the history of our country, accurately and frankly preesnted, a study of the people, the aims, efforts, and sacrifices of our great leaders, stimulation of a love of country, the opportunities for rendering service, the American- ization of the thousands of foreigners coming to our shores each year, and the development in them of an appreciation of the value and responsibility of American citizenship. The spirit and purpose of the Boy Scout movement, as contributing to these purposes, should be recognized. AFTERNOON SESSION— Friday, March 2, 19 17 The musical program was fumisht by the orchestra of the Northeast High School, Frank E. Chaffee, director. "Surprise Symphony" (First Movement) Haydn "The Skaters" (Waltz) Waldteufd Andrew W. Edison, associate superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y., presented the following resolution, which was adopted on a count vote of 172 affirmative, in negative. Resolved, That the President of the Department of Superintendence and the Executive Committee of the National Education Association be authorized to fix the time and place of the next meeting of the Department of Superintendence, provided suitable arrange- ments cannot be made for the meeting at Atlanta. The following program was presented under the general topic, "Educational Inno- vations and Experimental Movements": "Some Remarkable Achievements in Rural Schools" — A, E. Winship, editor. Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. "The All- Year School" — ^J. Wilmer Kennedy, assistant superintendent of schools, Newark, N.J. "The Two-Group Plan" — L. R. Alderman, superintendent of schools, Portland, Ore. "A Kindergarten Training for Every Child" — Bessie Locke, kindergarten division, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C, The following report of the Committee on Unification and Americanization of All Our People was presented by William M, Roberts, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. : The foreigner who comes to this country presents a problem in the solution of which the public schools must give assistance. He is ignorant of our language and of our methods of government, but most of all he is a stranger to our ideals. To teach him the 668 NA TIONA L ED UCA TION A SSOCIA TION [Kansas City language, acquaint him with the methods of popular government, and bring him into sympathy with our ways of thought and feeling, so that he has a sense of pride in being one of us, is what is meant by Americanization. In this work the schools are performing a great service; but what they most need is definite standards both of aim and method. Your committee desires later to present at length some suggestions regarding these matters, but begs leave to submit at this time the following resolutions: Whereas, The Bureau of Education from time to time has supplied to the schools helpful information and suggestions relative to the education of resident foreign-bom adults; and Whereas, The Bureau of Naturalization — which is charged by law with certain duties regarding the admission of aliens to citizenship — has also done much to interest the schools and to assist them in preparing applicants for citizenship to meet the require- ments of the courts; therefore be it Resolved, That the Commissioner of Education and the Commissioner of Naturaliza- tion be respectfully petitioned to prepare and to present to the public-school authorities a joint program for the education of the immigrant, including preparation for citizenship, to the end that the schools may have the benefit of their united counsel, and may also be fully informed as to what the federal executive department recommends or requires in these respects; and be it further Resolved, That the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association indorses the request that the United States Bureau of Education be given an appropriation of fifty thousand dollars for the purpose of distributing information and giving advice and assistance as to methods and practices in the education of immigrants looking to the Americanization of foreign-born and alien residents of the country. The resolutions were unanimously adopted. The report of the Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education was presented by H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Topeka, Kans., as follows: At this late hour, I shall merely detain you for a brief statement with reference to the work which has been accomplisht by your committee and cooperating investigators since the creation of this committee by the department at the Mobile (Ala.) meeting. The immediate objective results of our work are contained in two reports on "The Minimal Essentials in the Elementary-School Subjects." The first report was pubUsht as Part I of the Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, and the second has just been issued as Part I of the Sixteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. In addition to these publications, various papers and addresses have been presented by members of the Committee on Economy of Time, or by cooperating investigators, before meetings of the National Education Association, and these are reported in the printed proceedings of this Association. The indirect results of the work of the committee, we believe, are many. The printed results of the committee's work are being used in classes in education in normal schools and universities, where hundreds of teachers and supervisors and superintendents are in training. The printed reports and papers are also being used very extensively by superintendents and supervisors in study courses with teachers who are in service, and by superintendents and supervisors in the reconstruction of courses of study. That they have been influential in determining many phases of emphasis in supervision can hardly be doubted. Evidence is beginning to appear also that the content of textbooks is being determined by the recommendations which have been made with reference to the minimal essentials in various subjects of study. The work which the committee has projected for completion within the next two years, before which time the committee cannot feel that it has met the responsibility placed upon it at the time of its creation, is as follows: 1. Its efifort to state the minimum content in the elementary-school subjects will be further extended by including geography, music, elementary science, and drawing, thus completing, as far as is possible, the work on the reduced content in the elementary- school subjects, interpreting all its recommendations regarding content finally in relation to economy of time. 2. Arrangements have been completed for starting the work of three committees in the field of method. One, in charge of W. C. Bagley, of the University of Illinois, will formulate the "Objectives of Elementary Education on the Basis of the Minimum Content of the Elementary-School Subjects." Coordinately, another committee, in charge of Frank E. Thompson, of the University of Colorado, will formulate the "Purpose of Education in Terms of Activities." Another committee, consisting of Messrs. Bobbitt, Charters, Coffman, Horn, Kilpatrick, Stone, and Wilson will take up the "Minimal I I Supcrintendencel ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 669 Essentials" in each subject as they have been recommended in the Fourteenth and Six- teenth Yearbooks and as they may be recommended in later publications, and endeavor to organize this content into the successive problems which should be mastered by the pupils from grade to grade in each of the subjects. 3. In the field of organization we propose to start a committee to work at once, under the direction of H. L. Smith, of Indiana University, making a survey of the efforts being made above the sixth grade in this country which are resulting in the saving of time between the sixth grade and graduation from high school. This survey will be made in such way as to permit a quantitative report of the results of the survey. 4. As soon as the report of the Commission on Reorganization of Secondary Educa- tion is available in printed form, we shall constitute the committee necessary to review the report from the standpoint of»the organization of the teaching content of each subject as recommended in such a way as to determine where savings may be made. 5. Arrangements have already been completed whereby a study will be made, under the direction of George D. Strayer, of Columbia University, of the extension of school time, both the day and the year, in relation to economy of time. Following the report of the committee, Andrew W. Edsen offered the following resolution, which was adopted: In view of the fundamental and thorogoing way in which the various committees on the economy of time, the council committee, and all the cooperating committees, particularly the committee from the Department of Superintendence, are doing their work; Resolved, That the Department of Superintendence indorses the work thus far done and urges that the necessary provision be made both financially and otherwise for the continuance of this work to the point of completion, and that the committee from this department be instructed to ask for opportunity to make such report of its work from time to time as, in its judgment, may be profitable to the members of this department. After some brief remarks by President Shoop, the meeting adjourned. Margaret T. Maguire, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ADDRESSES OF WELCOME I. UEL W. LAMKIN, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, JEFFERSON CITY, MO. I appreciate very much the honor and privilege of welcoming to Missouri this body of schoolmen and schoolwomen at this most important period in the history of education in America. We are glad that you are here to dis- cuss in this Missouri city the problems of present-day education and to I point the way toward their solution. It is needless for me to say that we are proud of the state of Missouri; of her resources; of her people; of her history. We are proud of the fact that her resources required the establishment within her borders of two great federal reserve banks, and, in addition, one of the federal farm-loan • banks. We are proud of the position that she holds in national affairs and of the influence she has had on national life. We are proud of the progress which her schools have made. We hold that the true measure of progress is not in what is the actual condition, but in what has been the real improvement in recent years. It has come to pass in Missouri that while we are interested in what our fathers did, yet 670 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City we are still more concerned in what opportunity our children shall have. We are proud that we have in Missouri one of the best universities west of the Mississippi and that we have here an efficient system of normal schools; that we have increast the number of high schools more than 100 per cent in the past six years, and that we have establisht in more than a hundred of them teacher-training courses. While we have not heralded it abroad, yet we began to standardize and approve rural schools in Missouri in 1907, and our policy of state aid makes it possible for every country school in this state to be open for a term of eight months. We have a hundred consoli- dated districts in Missouri, all of them formed within the past four years. The eyes of the people of the state are turned toward the solution of the country-school question. We have in Missouri a state senate, much maligned in some quarters, yet the first senate measure which past that body was one which lookt toward larger state support of the country schools of the state. With the present feeling of the people toward education, with their attention directed toward fundamental questions, we believe that in the next decade we can successfully challenge any state in the Union to show an equal record of progress. And hence I say again, we are glad that you are here at this time. We hope that your visit within our borders will be pleasant and profitable to you as well as to us, and we assure you that when the time comes for you to go back to your homes, you will take with you the "Good-by, Good Luck, and God Bless You" of every Missourian. II. I. I. CAMMACK, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KANSAS CITY, MO. Since you have received the freedom of the state and are in possession of the keys of the city, it remains for me, on behalf of the Board of Educa- tion and teachers of our city, to extend greetings and express to you a hearty welcome. Those of you who were present at the last meeting of this association, when the invitation was extended to come to this hitherto unexplored region of our country, need no assurance of the fervor of that invitation and the earnestness of the desire to have you with us. We wish now to assure you that the great longing for your presence manifested on that occasion has been transformed into soHcitude for your welfare now that you are here. The report of your secretary of the generous enrolment of teachers from this and adjoining states, together with the magnificent audience at this first meeting, is evidence that your selection of this city is duly appreciated. We recognize in this department the greatest educational body in the world, and we sincerely hope that this will be its greatest meeting. The enthusiasm, inspiration, and wisdom you bring to us will be of inestimable I perintendencel ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 67 1 value to our teachers and our citizens. The problems you discuss and the uggestions and criticisms we ask you to offer will bring new inspiration aid us in our work. Coming at a time when previously accepted standards affecting our dustrial, educational, political, and social welfare are being shaken to eir foundations, this body is facing problems and responsibilities never fore encountered in its history. The position of America today, in every hase of national and social life, was never in a more critical situation. The uestion of world-leadership is involved. Our nation has the geographical sition; it has the material resources; it has boundless enthusiasm. Will develop the leadership necessary to cope with the issues involved? I elieve you will agree with me that in the readjustments that must follow the present great upheaval the public schools of America, as never before, are to become one of the most powerful factors in shaping that readjust- ment, and that the future possibilities and relative importance which this country will command in the coming years depend largely upon how suc- cessfully this mission is accomplisht. Since our forefathers settled on the shores of the Atlantic the pioneers have always been in the West. We are told that "westward the course of empire takes its way." Whether or not this is true in the domain of edu- cation, the West, while without a great historical inheritance, has fewer educational traditions with which to cope. It has much educational freedom. It has flexibility and probably a large measure of that type of courage described by the old adage that "fools rush in where angels fear to tread." Educationally here in the West (for considering the meeting-places of this department we are on its westernmost frontier) we may be, and prob- ably are, in the elementary stages of our development, or at most in the early adolescent period. If this is true, we at least have the virtue of exhibiting life in the making, possibly in more than the educational field. Perhaps more than in the older parts of our country education is becoming more and more a function of the state, under public control, supported by public taxation. Perhaps here in the West does the belief exist to a greater extent than elsewhere that this publicly supported education must cover the whole period of human life, beginning at the cradle and persisting to the grave; that it has as much to do with the physical, industrial, and social welfare of the race as with the intellectual and moral; that the right atti- tude toward life is of as much importance as the right personal equipment for life. In its extension downward it is regarding the kindergarten of as much, if not of more, importance than any other single grade of the ele- mentary school; while in its extension upward the junior college or the home college is its crowning achievement. In its feeble way the city to which you have come is attempting to realize some of these ideals. Its buildings and grounds are planned and Ik 672 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas city constructed to minister to the largest possible community needs. It is a pioneer in its advocacy and pursuit of your perennial time-honored slogan, *' Economy of time in education." For many years it has been covering the elementary period in seven years. Sixty per cent of all pupils entering all departments of the schools, including the kindergarten, complete the elementary-school course. Of this number 90 per cent go into the high school, and more than one-third of those entering the high school remain until graduation. The last addition, the junior college, now gives us a triple organization covering seven-four-two years, preparing our students for the senior colleges, for the professional schools, and attempting to give a more adequate and practical preparation for life. We have prepared no extensive formal exhibit for your inspection. We have believed that you prefer to see our schools in action. The chief exhibits to which we call your attention (the product of our vocational schools) are the temporary school buildings, the schoolroom, gymnasium, and playground equipment which are now in use. We invite your inspec- tion and solicit your suggestions and criticisms. We wish to place our buildings, our schools, and ourselves at your disposal and hope you will command us at your pleasure. To enable our teachers to have the largest possible opportunity to profit by attending the meetings of this association and to meet you personally, all our schools will be closed on Friday. They will be in session the other days of the week, but with the privilege given to each teacher to be absent two half-days to attend such other meetings as may be of special interest to her. The printed matter placed in your hands is designed to give you some idea of what we are attempting to do and to assist you in getting about our city and in visiting our schools. For months we have prayed for the delight- ful spring weather with which we are usually blest at this time of year, and if it is not forthcoming please do not blame us. In closing, let me again assure you of our desire to assist in every way possible in making this the greatest meeting of your history, and thank you most cordially for the privilege of serving as your host, with the sincere hope that you will remember us with pleasure and that you may wish to return at some future time. RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME O. T. CORSON, EDITOR "OHIO EDUCATIONAL MONTHLY," COLUMBUS, OHIO I am grateful, Mr. President, for the privilege of representing the mem- bership of this great Association in an expression of appreciation of the opportunity which is ours of meeting in this growing city, the excellence of whose schools is so justly and so universally recognized. iperintendencel RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 673 I ^^B I am sure that the friends who have so warmly welcomed us, and to '^"whom I most sincerely return the thanks of the Association for their cordial greetings, will neither misunderstand nor misinterpret my meaning when I say that, while listening to their messages so expressive of genuine hos- itality, my mind, in common, no doubt, with the minds of many others in is large audience, could not avoid dwelling upon the noble life and unselfish rvice of the great soul who, for forty years, so wisely and so sympa- etically directed the educational affairs of this community that the mes of Kansas City and James M. Greenwood are inseparably linked gether in the thought of all who knew him. I trust that I may be par- [oned the personal statement that I shall always treasure with sincere gratitude the memory of a visit to this city nearly twenty years ago and the warm welcome then extended to me as a visitor to the Kansas City schools with the purpose of learning, if possible, something of the secret of the unusual power of the man whose name will be forever associated, in the memory of all who served with him in his remarkable career as superin- tendent of the schools of this city, or who were honored and blessed with his friendship, with all that is helpful and sane in educational thought and practice, all that is noble and worthy in character, and all that is sincere and sacred in friendship. We are grateful, indeed, to Mayor Edwards, State Superintendent Lamkin, and Superintendent Cammack for their gracious words and - kindly deeds of welcome, and our hearty congratulations are extended to ., all who have any part in carrying on this great system of public schools, I^MOunded and fostered by James M. Greenwood, the record of whose achieve- I^Hients in the cause of popular education will ever remain a priceless heritage I^K) the members of this Association. I^B I am sure that no better use can be made of the brief time allotted to I^Kiis response than to direct your thought to the consideration of some sug- gestions growing out of repeated rereadings of the last address delivered by Mr. Greenwood, before the meeting of the National Education Associa- tion, at St. Paul, July 10, 19 14 — an address which needs to be care- fully pondered and heeded in these days of superficial thought and hasty conclusions, when there is danger of losing sight of the fact that the one essential factor in a good school is a good teacher with an oppor- tunity to do the work of a teacher without unnecessary interference and with sincere appreciation both of the difficulties met and the successes won. His subject was "The Kingdom of Little Things," and out of a clear brain, a warm heart, and a ripe experience of a full half-century of recognized educational leadership, he pleads for a return "to fundamental truths before we cast aside all charts, compasses, logbooks, instruments, mental and mechanical, to take observations with on this unexplored sea we are endeavoring to navigate." 674 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City He inquires whether it is not " the part of wisdom to take an inventory of the merchantable stock we already have before throwing it into the junk pile," and then forcibly reminds us that *'many new assets are worthless in any market" and that "most of them have no quotable value in any educational stock exchange." He pleads for a chance for the teacher to do this work of a teacher and declares that "school frivolities, ignorance, laziness, stupidity in high places, slow-going processes, and thinly gruelled textbooks have so entrenched them- selves behind innumerable boards of supervising bandits that the teachers have no time to do the real essential work of the schools," and that "there are so many efficiency engineers running hand cars through the schoolhouses in most large cities that the grade teachers can hardly turn around without butting into two or three of them." These are true words, bravely spoken, and should lead all supervisors of schools to realize anew that constant nagging, destructive criticism, and persistent interference do not constitute supervision, and that just as the object of all purposeful teaching is to make pupils self -helpful and coopera- tive, so the object of all right supervision is to develop in teachers such qualities and characteristics as will make them strong in wise initiative and loyal in united service. In the last few decades we have witnessed a number of spasmodic reforms in education. For some time courses of study were "enriched" by the simple rule of addition. This "reform" proceeded until the mass required to be taught became so large as to alarm and dishearten both teachers and pupils. Correlation, often superficial and extreme, followed until the mass became a "mess" suggestive of both comedy and tragedy. Today an honest effort is being made to correct the mistakes of the past by the elimination of useless material and a return to fundamentals. "Motivation" and "evaluation" held the stage for a brief period and then stepped aside to make room for "standardization," which is in danger of being carried to such an extreme as to produce a dead and deadening formalism, and "mensuration," which pretends to "measure" everything in the educational world — ^physical, mental, and spiritual.. All these bid fair to be entirely eclipsed by the latest arrival which is sweeping over the land to such an extent that the common pedagogical salutation at this meeting is, " Good-morning. Have you been 'surveyed' since we last met ? " The attention now devoted to school-surveys warrants a few obser- vations regarding them by one who is neither a " surveyor " nor a "surveyee" and who can therefore afford, with malice toward none and charity for all (who deserve it), to say what he thinks on the subject. At its last session this department wisely placed itself on record as commending the properly conducted, sympathetic, and constructive school-survey as an aid in the solution of school problems. Superintendence] RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 675 It is fair to infer that this positive commendation of properly conducted, sympathetic, and constructive school-surveys is at least an indirect and well-merited condemnation of all school-surveys improperly conducted, unsympathetically directed, with the evident purpose of finding fault, and [therefore necessarily destructive in their influence and results. No argument is necessary to prove that a "properly conducted" school- ^ survey cannot be conducted by surveyors who have had no successful [:experience in teaching, without which it is impossible to pass intelligent judgment on the work of either teachers or pupils. No amount of second- [hand information gained from textbooks or from collecting and collating mswers to questions sent to teachers can qualify anyone to survey, with [any degree of fairness or intelligence, any teaching of any kind anywhere. [If a few of the so-called "experts" in education would only retire from their )ernicious activity long enough to permit their proper classification as tex-" spurts," the demands of truthfulness would be much better met, and {worthy teachers would be greatly relieved. Were it not for the incalculable and irreparable injury which would [come to helpless children, as a result, it would be interesting and instructive I to try the experiment of requiring each "expert surveyor" to teach in the [school which he surveys, for at least a month, and give a concrete example [of how the work, which he is so ready to criticize, should be done. No doubt such an experiment would greatly reduce the number of theorists who are always ready to find fault with the work of teachers, but who, when put to the test, are found to be far more incompetent than those whom they criticize. No survey is "properly conducted" which is hastily made. It takes le to investigate with any degree of fahrness or justice the work of a jchool or the methods of a teacher. One visit to a recitation is no criterion by which to pass final judgment upon teaching. All of us who have taught : school can recall days when all things seemed to work together for good land to conspire to bring success. On thf other hand, there are vivid memories of other days when opposite conditions prevailed. Had we been "surveyed" on one of our "good days" our standing would have been excellent," but, if on one of our "bad days," "very poor" would have ! been recorded to our discredit. Any sane supervisor knows that more than one hasty visit to a school is necessary to secure the information on which to base even a partially fair estimate of the work of a teacher. In more than one instance in conducting school-surveys, a youthful "professor" in the full pride of a degree recently conferred, with little or no experience in teaching, has rushed into a classroom with notebook in hand, there to remain through one recitation, "to survey" the teacher's work. In the sense that "to survey" is to overlook, the "farce" is a great success, but to give to the public conclusions based on such a "farce" is an outrage which cannot be too severely condemned. 676 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Kansas City The hasty and superficial manner in which school-surveys are sometimes made justifies the suggestion that, when so made, a sign should be placed on the survey headquarters to read: " Schools surveyed while the teachers are at lunch. Reports formulated and given to the press the following night while the superintendent, prin- cipals, and teachers are asleep, thus avoiding the embarrassment which would come with a verification of the truthfulness of the statements made in the report. If in special haste, reports can be made in advance and the survey made afterward to conform to the report." Teachers neither ask nor desire that a survey of their work should be "sympathetic" in the sense that they be considered objects of pity or com- miseration. But they do insist and they have a right to demand that they be treated as human beings — men and women of character and intelligence^ who are truthful and honest and reliable and sincere. In some instances surveyors have refused, when entering the schoolroom, to make known either their names or their purposes. Their actions have been character- istic of private detectives raiding a "speak easy" in search of concealed liquor and law-violators with the knowledge that, in dealing with criminals, silence and caution are both necessary. There is no explanation and can be no excuse for thus humiliating teachers when inspecting their work. A school-surveyor should at least act with such courtesy as always char- acterizes a gentleman, and should, in every way, endeavor to make his "patients" as comfortable as possible while the "operation" is being per- formed. A "sympathetic" school-survey will always look for good as well as poor teaching, and, whenever possible, will give due credit to teachers for good results secured. Unfortunately, in some instances, good teaching, if mentioned at all, is referred to only incidentally, and instead of crediting teachers with good results when found, other explanations for such results are offered. In the comments of one survey it is announced that "one of the most astonishing outcomes of the testing (arithmetic) was the demonstration that long division is the easiest of all complex operations for children.'-' It is fair to assume that this "astonishing" statement is based upon the success of the children in passing tests in long division. If so, it is evident that those in charge of this survey presume that success in passing a test is a certain indication that the subject tested is both easy to teach and easy to learn. Such a presumption is false, and therefore the conclusion based upon it is also false. Experience will teach anyone that success in passing proper tests is the result of good teaching, which leads to such a mastery of the subject taught that the student is thoroly prepared to meet the test when required to do so. When an astonishing conclusion based upon a false presumption is reached and announced, it then becomes necessary to accompany the Superintendence) RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 677 announcement with a "philosophical" explanation. Such an explanation is as follows: "This apparently is because it — long division — is made up of a succes- sion of operations in division, multiplication, and subtraction, in short amounts, which permit the children to get rest through variety." It is impossible not to smile in the presence of this philosophical ( ?) (explanation of a false conclusion based upon a false presumption. Some of us can recall the "rest" — such sweet repose it was — which came to us as children when we struggled through the intricacies of long division, due to the "variety" of the "succession of operations in division, multiplication, and subtraction," although we cannot recall that the "amounts were short" except in our answers, which quite often were too "short" to meet the demands of accuracy. »A "sympathetic" understanding of the work of teachers and a knowl- dge of the simple fact that good results in learning are usually the product if good teaching will avoid false conclusions and render unnecessary any xplanations for such conclusions. To be "constructive" a school-survey must not originate with dis- gruntled members of school boards or patrons of the schools who have some selfish purpose in mind or some selfish scheme to carry out. A survey with such an origin is almost certain to be used in the interests of its promoters to oust the superintendent whom they have been unable to control because he thought more of principle than position. To be "constructive" the report of a school-survey must avoid every- thing which savors of the sensational. The interests of the schools are next to those of the home in their importance, and the schools should be as sacredly safeguarded as the home against any attempt to injure them by parading their defects in the headlines of newspapers or magazines. As a rule, the defects which are discovered by a survey were well known by those in charge of the schools before the survey was made, and, in the majority of instances, everything which could be done, had been done to remedy them. To make public a report which leads to a wrong conclusion regarding the efforts of a superintendent and his teachers to remedy existing defects and, as a result, brings censure both undeserved and unjust, is destructive, not "constructive," and deserves severe condemnation on the part of all fair-minded citizens. It should never be the purpose nor the result of a school-survey to create a vacancy, nor to fill a vacancy when created. The "properly conducted, sympathetic, and constructive school-survey," commended by this department, has, in reality, in some form, been carried on in the majority of schools ever since school-organization and school- supervision have had an existence. The fact that these surveys have been quietly made by real superintendents and actual teachers, without any of the sensational features which sometimes accompany the modern school-survey pompously conducted by so-called "experts," is decidedly in their favor. 678 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Kansas City In some instances, no doubt, a real educational expert with superior knowledge of the needs of a system of schools and with superior judgment, the result of large experience, can be of real service to the school authorities, superintendent, and teachers in making a ''properly conducted, sympa- thetic, and constructive school-survey," but no school-survey can be "properly conducted," nor be "sympathetic," nor "constructive" in any true sense, which is not so directed as to secure the hearty cooperation of the superintendent and teachers of the schools surveyed. If the facts are to be known, the only persons in possession of the facts must be consulted. If beneficial results are to follow the survey, the only persons who can bring about such results must have respectful consideration. These persons are the superintendents, principals, and teachers. No one of them is perfect, but the great majority of them are capable and in every way worthy of confidence. On behalf of these superintendents, and their principals and teachers, both "surveyed" and "unsurveyed," I again thank you for your cordial welcome and bespeak for you, Mr. President, a most successful meeting. THE SCHOOL AND THE NATION ALBERT J. BEVERIDGE, FORMER UNITED STATES SENATOR, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. In your hands and those of the teachers under you lies the future of the republic. The press is powerful in influencing the course of the country from day to day; but the school more than all other agencies can form national character, create such a thing as permanent national opinion, and establish lines for it to follow with steadiness and continuity. This fact is so obvious and outstanding that I shall not becloud it by overstatement. Because of it I wish tonight to suggest a policy. That policy is nationalism. Would it not be well if every program of instruction were colored by it? Ought not American youth, class after class, generation after generation, be reminded that our greatest task, or perhaps I would better say, the sum of all our effort, is to finish the building of the American nation ? And to this end is it not indispensable that certain fundamental characteristics be developt and continuously strengthened ? The first of these is a steady state of mind and thoroness in thought and action. A shallow and uncertain people will not do much that will last. It is the nature of instability that it wants to tear down even the structure which is in the process of building; and hasty plans only partly thought out are often worse than no plans at all because they are wrong and must be done all over again. Do we not see all around us the waste of capital and labor, of life and effort, caused by careless legislation and immature enterprise? In a material way we have not greatly suffered from this Superintendence] THE SCHOOL AND THE NATION 679 hitherto because our natural wealth has been so great and our numbers so scanty that we can lose a great deal of energy, time, and resources and still have larger natural riches than the people of any other country. But this period is now drawing to an end and we can no longer leave prudence and prevision out of our lives. How shall we establish normal standards of thinking and acting and live up to those standards ? Is not the best method that of acquiring a state of mind of which steadiness and thoroness are principal elements? And must not the formation of this begin in the classroom? Would it not help if, from the very first, the child were made to understand that to do or learn anything completely is the essential, and that quickness and brilliancy are only incidental? And this process should continue as intelligence increases, until the man is evolved who, when he undertakes any task, makes sure that he knows what he is about and then does his work in such fashion that it will not have to be done over again because it was badly planned and defectively executed in the first place. This surely would help us as individuals in getting the most that is to be had out of life; and in our public affairs it would free us from that freakish public opinion and those gusts of uninformed sentimentality which so confuse us and would bring disaster to a people less happily situated than we are. Well-informed, patiently thought out, and therefore sound conclusions would take the place of hurried first impressions, such, for instance, as those made by newspaper headlines which now so greatly influence us. We would require that our public leaders should be trust- worthy in their mental processes as well as unblemisht in their moral character. We would demand moderation rather than violence of state- ment. We would no longer be attracted by extremes merely because the expression of them is emphatic, nor by the bizarre merely because it is unusual. All this would lead to sound counsel and well-considered action; and the constructive good accomplisht would be enduring. Perhaps no better example of the state of mind into which we have been wrought in recent times can be given than this very one of popular leaders. Occasions arise where words of clear-headed, far-seeing guidance from men of knowledge and judgment would be helpful to all of us. We rightfully look for this from prominent men who ought always to be publicists. But in our inconsiderate haste we insist on immediate declara- tions of opinion from those whom we are accustomed to follow. Not only must their views be given instantly, but they must also be sharp and decided. Thus those who should be the leaders of public thought too frequently become panderers to public impatience. They are too often competitors for publicity. They strive to get on the front page of the first edition of the newspapers. To do this, speeches and interviews even on the gravest and most complicated questions are prepared with frantic precipitancy and 68o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas city in lurid language. That necessary delay required by gathering and mastering data and carefully working out the problem which it presents would make out of date the publication of the conclusions thus formed; while cool and balanst language would lack that sting and eccentricity at present so attractive to our taste. We require that the outgivings of our public men shall be full of "pep" and ''punch"; otherwise they are rejected by a public palate which has become accustomed to high seasoning. Thus our public discussion is peculiarly heated, spasmodic, and charged with error. Instead of a full statement of facts, they are often given only in part and with prejudist ardor. Extravagant catchwords more and more frequently take the place of careful reasoning; and explosive epithet rather than clear argument is made the weapon of serious controversy. So it is that public opinion, lasht by inconstant winds, whirls in eddies, now about this point and now about that, instead of flowing in full and constant current. The papers of the statesmen of our formative period, and indeed of the more powerful ones down to recent times, when compared with many produced today, disclose the change in the manner of thinking of public men and their expression of it. During the years that I have been writing the Life of Chief Justice Marshall this fact imprest me so strongly that I placed side by side on a long table typical speeches and papers of our eminent publicists. Those of recent years appeared to be immature, hastily prepared, and overemphasized when read in parallel with those of our early and middle history. Yet those calmer and simpler papers -dealt with problems as weighty as any that ever confronted the mind of man and were written at times when popular passions raged ungovernably. The others discust questions no greater and appeared at times no more perilous. They indicated that we have indeed acquired the harmless "punch" of extravagance, but have lost the deadly "punch" of moderation. In gaining velocity we seem to have impaired our sense of direction. That this is not the necessary result of democracy nor of any normal modern condition is shown by the state papers and important public speeches of European statesmen in very recent times. For example, when Aristide Briand was minister of education in France he achieved by a single address to the French people a peaceful revolution in the gravest and most delicate of conditions. That paper dealt with a matter as emotional as it was economic. And yet Briand's statement was as cold and impersonal as a glacier and as irresistible. He merely set forth the facts, the logic of them from his point of view, and the conclusions which that logic compelled. He added nothing more. It was as if he said to the French people: "Here! This is how things stand; this is how you are affected by them; this will be the result of changing them. Take it or leave it — it is your affair, not mine. Do what you like, but don't get Superintendence] THE SCHOOL AND THE NATION 68l excited. Whatever you decide upon, act with clear heads and without passion." Our newspapers are abused for sensationalism, inaccuracy, high- pressure language, and exaggerated denunciation or laudation. But are not these faults both of our public men and of the press due, in considerable degree, to a public state of mind which insists upon them? And can this be changed for the better except in the classroom ? Is not the school the only or at least the best loom on which steadiness, thoroness, and moderation can be woven into individual character and thus made a part of national character ? Is there any other place where the uses of intel- lectual and moral dignity can be taught so well and with such good and lasting results ? The French afford us an example of the truth that dignity may be retained without cooling the spirit and that responsibility does not soften the temper of the blade. Dignity and responsibility merely make sure that spirit and temper are justified and are kept under the control of common sense instead of ruling it. French leading editorials are signed, and the writer makes sure of his facts, and his reasoning is careful. Also he takes infinite pride in his work and writes with all the beauty and distinction as well as force of which he is capable. He strives to make his product the best in style as well as substance that can be turned out. He acquires the sense of the artist and looks upon his pen as a painter looks upon his brush. He knows that if he writes loosely as to thought or slatternly as to expression his prestige is impaired and his influence diminisht. This love of one's work permeates French workmen as well as French artists and writers. The same is eminently true of German scientists and artisans. The idea that inspires these men is to execute their work well and not merely to do as little as possible, as quickly as possible, for as much money as possible. Their reward is in spiritual satisfaction as well as in financial gain. This has its effect, not only upon their individual product, but also upon the character of the nations of which they are parts. Thus with insignificant resources great things are achieved. It is not alone in our domestic concerns that steadiness of mind and thoroness of method would profit us. We would benefit even more greatly in our relations with the world. We base our opinions in foreign affairs upon what we are told; and our tendency to form quick and decided conclusions from first impressions, and to be swayed by emotion and sentimentality, is recognized by other nations and used by them. They are not to be blamed for doing this, but we are to be blamed for allowing them to succeed in doing it. Their purpose is never our welfare, but always their own advantage, and in this they are entirely justified. More than once in our history it has happened that we were thus influenst to our own injury and did not discover the fact until many years afterward. 682 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas city For instance, in the Russo-Japanese War our public opinion was so molded that it was overwhelmingly favorable to one side and against the other. By reason of this, certain things in the Orient were made possible, and the accomplishment of them begun and are still continued, that seriously impair American interests. After the lapse of a dozen years we are begin- ning to realize this and to understand that our misinformed sympathy was employed to our injury. We are beginning to see that it would have been better for us if we had practist the age-old and age-tested maxim that "there is no sentiment in international politics" and had been watchful of American interests only. That we did not do so has already cost us much and may cost us immeasurably more. Or take our situation today. We are told that it is without precedent and that the seas in which we are floundering are wholly uncharted. Yet from the time Washington proclaimed neutrality in the war between England and France down to 1800 we past thru a period so much like the present one that the similarity is almost uncanny. On the seas our com- merce was then ravaged, our rights ignored, our citizens outraged by both belligerents. Speeches were made then very much like those we hear today, and in some of them exact phrases were used that are now familiar to our ears. The same passions were displayed; and the diaries and journals of that time disclose the fact that people felt and acted just as they do now. Proposals were then made, and were extensively and hotly discust, which, in the perspective of history, appear to us trivial and even grotesque, but which seemed serious and practical to people then living. Yet Washington and the strong men of that time maintained a neu- trality that was absolutely impartial and even-handed, favoring neither one side nor the other. Had that tremendous man and his mighty asso- ciates swerved a hair's breadth from that policy, the country would have been drawn into the European struggle and the career of the United States would have ended at its very beginning. Just as the steadiness, courage, and thoroness of that greatest of Americans achieved our inde- pendence, so the same qualities in him saved it during years as dark and forbidding as those of the Revolution itself. These two examples out of the many others make plain to us that as individuals and as a nation we should exercise the prudence and circumspection of mature and self- contained men as to all attempts, no matter from what quarter, to influence our emotions and conduct with reference to foreign complications. My plea is for a state of mind that is not lightly blown different ways, but that keeps steadily in view, first of all and over all, the well-being, the safety, and the power of the American nation. To this end a more careful study of American history would be helpful. If the masses of our people knew better the plain lessons which our own past can teach us, they would know how to act and would act with more poise and certainty now and in the future. After all, experience is a good counselor and history a Superintendence] TH^ SCHOOL A^D THE NATION 683 profitable chart. Trite tho it is, it is well to remember the ancient but accurate commonplace that, whatever else changes, human nature does not change. Even in our present-day domestic problems our history reveals the cause of many of the difficulties that beset us and points the way by which they may be overcome. For instance, our individualism, which many of us mistake for liberty, is a maldevelopment without a counter- part in any land or age. To reduce our overgrown individualism to normal proportions and to guide and control it by the social spirit and the co- operative method is perhaps our greatest fundamental task in our economic life. In our earliest days men who owed debts, or dislikt taxes, or became impatient of any of the necessary regulations and restraints of an increasing population escaped such hated exactions by going a few miles farther into the wilderness. There they lived by themselves, thinking of nothing but the unlimited and savage independence they enjoyed. As population advanst, the discontented and restless again moved onward. This process was kept up until the Pacific was reacht and the human tide turned back upon itself. Thus excessive individualism became a peculiarly American characteristic. But at last our individualistic people awoke to the fact that each of them was a part of a great community. Invention connected them eco- nomically and socially, by railways, telegraphs, and telephones. Great business organizations became necessary to produce and distribute the necessities of the people. But this corporate age took over the individual- istic maxims and methods that had been growing for a century. ''Every man's business is nobody's business but his own" and other similar prin- ciples of individualism were applied to themselves by railroads and great industrial organizations. Thus came a period of exploitation of the public by the very agencies essential to the service of it. Individualistic methods were at war with those social methods without which civilized communities cannot exist. Our industrial turmoil of the last quarter of a century can be understood only by a thoro knowledge of American history. But without understanding it we cannot, of course, deal with it wisely. For these reasons the economic and social building of the American nation is not very far advanst. There is before us a period of construction as great in its magnitude as it will be in its benefits. Perhaps it is not too much to say that the mighty work to be done in the next two decades is no less than the organization of America. It is probable that after the war we shall suffer severely for a few years; and it is certain that the eco- nomic readjustment of the world which will begin when peace is declared will find us with a lack of system, the outgrowth of our haphazard and 684 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City fortuitous economic history, in striking contrast with the perfected industrial methods of other nations. Our plight will be all the harder because of our lack of business fore- sight and our passion for quick and big profits which we have displayed during the last three years. For instance, we should have acquired foreign markets to absorb continuously the surplus of normal products instead of making quick and big, but transient, gains from abnormal products. But the stress we must endure may prove to be a good thing for us in the end, for it will burn away a mass of deadwood that now weighs us down. Grinding facts will convince many of the wisdom and necessity of national measures upon which they now look with disfavor. We shall be freed from those economic shackles which our abnormal individualism and localism have welded upon us. We shall be made ready to go forward with good will to the doing of the large and creative tasks that are waiting the hand of the builder. An example of these is the unification and correlation of our railroads. These are now national highways. The old distinction between interstate and intrastate commerce no longer is justified by either theory or fact. The multiple control of our railways by the various states as well as by the nation would be unthinkable except for the explanation which our history gives. The control which local commonwealths now exercise over national highways running thru them is as irrational as was the laying of separate tariff duties practist by each of the thirteen original states before the Constitution was adopted. Just as the power to make tariff laws was given to the general government exclusively, so the supervision of railways must be given to the nation exclusively. The conflicting railway regulations of the several states, the inter- ference by swarms of state officials with harmonious railway operation, and all the other familiar obstacles which state control throws in the way of stable transportation policy and efficient railroad service are responsible for many conditions of traffic that now afflict us so sorely. With a single and national supervision the railways could safely plan for the future and build to those plans with certainty. They would have a steadiness and continuity which would enable them to finance more readily the making of vital improvements. Thus could be overcome the maddening congestion at terminals which today is hampering so seriously the business of the nation and the industrial activities of all the people. For the same fundamental reasons the same national methods should be applied to all great business organizations. American business must be systematized, standardized, nationalized. National incorporation and national supervision of great commercial and industrial units should take the place of that multifarious local control which never has prevented nor ended a single economic evil on one hand nor aided wholesome business activity on the other hand. In short, the corporate forces of the nation, Superintendence] THE SCHOOL AND THE NATION 685 by which alone its industry can be carried forward in full measure, must be mobilized, to use a military expression, by national methods for national service. Equally important and indeed a necessary part of the carrying-out of this general policy and philosophy of nationalism are well-known and thoroly tested measures for the personal well-being of the citizens of the nation. The government of all the people should safeguard the health and economic efficiency of each of the people in those things where modern conditions have made it impossible for the individual to make such pro- vision for himself. It is only human nature that a man will take more interest in the government when the government takes more interest in him. This is paternalism only in the sense that all of us are anxious to help each of us get thru the common struggle of life. I am for any system, philosophy, or measure that makes for the general good, no matter what label may be pasted upon it. Catchwords have been ball and chain upon the feet of progress. If some method of human better- ment is called paternalistic or socialistic or autocratic or individualistic or democratic, we are prone to accept or reject it, according to our prejudice, because of the name applied to it, no matter how good it may be for each one of us individually and all of us collectively. In doing this we act, not as intelligent men enjoying intellectual and political liberty, but rather as caged parrots uttering sounds that we do not understand. After all, nothing is really important except human life and happiness collectively as well as individually. This fact is indeed the basic reason why all our thought and effort should be given to the building of tlie nation and our whole devotion centered upon it. For in perfecting the nation we are doing that which alone can yield us largest opportunity for fulness and richness of life. But the problem of completing our nationality is not only economic, social, and political; it is ethnological also. The only solid foundation of a nation is a homogeneous people. But we Americans are not yet of one blood. In our veins flow the currents, as yet unmingled, of every European nation. There are at least five groups among us, of different national extraction, each one numbering more than a million persons and some of them a great many millions. These must be welded into a single harmonious and distinctive people. It will take long, hard, and patient labor to accomplish this. But until it is done the peril of internal dis- sension and possible disintegration will be a grave one. But if we achieve this unity of blood it will be worth all our toil and sacrifice. For we shall have made certain the completion and the per- petuity of the American nation. We shall have created a new people consecrated to ideals made up of the best evolved by the peoples from which we are derived, together with those that we ourselves have developt from our own peculiar experience and situation. We shall have wrought out 686 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City conditions that will make life more fruitful. This is the reasonable and attractive vision that invites us to its realization. In the end we shall reach it thru daily business association, common education, social inter- course, intermarriage, and the like. The strongest argument for universal military service is that it will help to weave our variegated groups into one harmonious fabric. This is as important as are the militant and economic phases of the subject. When a youth of Scandinavian parentage from Minnesota is in command of others of British stock from New England, when a young man of German extraction from Ohio or Wisconsin finds himseK under an officer of French blood from Louisiana, when one of Italian lineage from New York obeys the orders of a ranking Irish comrade from Illinois, all wearing the same uniform, performing common duties for common purposes, living the same lives, cherishing equal devotion to a common service of a common country, all will learn as they could not otherwise learn the good qualities of one another and discover that they are not Scandinavian nor German nor French nor Italian nor Irish nor British, but only American, and nothing but American. Their very minghng together, their unity of action and purpose, would make for our oneness as a people and hasten in normal fashion the ethnological solidarity of the republic. Universal and all- inclusive military and manual training is a loom upon which nationality can be woven naturally, speedily, and enduringly. But the master force for achieving our homogeneity is tolerance. This is always true; but at the present moment and in the dark hour thru which we may be doomed to pass, the duty and the utility of tolerance is especially clear and vivid. All American citizens owe equal and undivided loyalty to the American nation and to no other. That all of us are in fact devoted with whole- heartedness to our common country must be taken for granted. Let no one doubt that, if that emergency comes which requires a free people to be of one mind and heart, there will be no division among American citizens, regardless of creed or race, in their determined support, at any cost, of the government of the American nation. Let none of us question for a moment that glorious certainty. No insult bites so deeply and with such a poisoned tooth as that which denies a man's fidelity to the sacred obligations of patriotism. Mutual forbearance, mutual faith, are vital to the growth of that spirit of unity which alone can make us one people and work out the fair destiny of the American nation. Liberty of individual thought, freedom of individ- ual opinion, are the only conditions upon which all of us are willing to yield to the views of the majority among us. When these are denied, there is despotism, no matter by what name we disguise the fact. Bayonets are not the only weapons of tyranny. As cruel, as merciless, and even more effective are those familiar instruments of oppression which Superintendence! THE SCHOOL AND THE NATION 687 intolerance fashions between the hammer and anvil of suspicion and hatred. Those whose forefathers lived in this country for generations and proved on many a battle field their fealty to America should be, and are, most generous to those of their fellow-citizens whose families have not dwelt so long in the land; for they know that, when the call of war has come to us in the past, these very citizens, no matter how newly arrived upon our shores, have rallied to the colors and fought as well and sacrificed as much as those whose ancestors landed at Plymouth Rock or built the log stockades at Jamestown. We must never lose sight of the great central fact that the purpose of all our effort is to perfect a separate nation and create a distinctive people. Is it not therefore the part of farseeing wisdom to study with painstaking care any proposals that might tend to delay or defeat that crowning purpose ? Ought we not to require overwhelming and unanswer- able proof of the good results to the American people of any policy likely to weaken the spirit of concord among us and lessen our undivided attach- ment to our own nation ? Take, for instance, the proposal of an alliance with some foreign power. We have been hearing a good deal recently about this idea first advanst some twenty years ago by one of the world's greatest capitalists who, altho of alien birth, is one of the best of American citizens. It is a big plan, with engaging features. Before adopting it, however, should we not examine the consequences to ourselves? The mention of a single condition may suggest the advisability of considering other and even more important elements of the problem. The men in charge of our nation are chosen at frequent and rigid elections and only from the places where they live. So they, perforce, think locally rather than nationally (witness our notorious "pork-barrel" legislation) ; much of their time and strength is consumed by the unending task of repairing their political fences; and they often win or lose on purely local and transient "issues." In the proposed alliance these locally thinking, rapidly changing, untrained or loosely trained American public serv- ants, engrost in "politics" and poorly instructed as to world-conditions, would have to deal with the ablest men of the allied country, kept by a wise system of elections in the continuous service of their nation, accus- tomed to think in national terms instead of those of their local habitat, giving their whole time and ability to the national business, highly trained in the profession of statesmanship, accurately and comprehensively informed on international affairs, and with a definite and traditional foreign policy to guide them. Would American interests thrive under this arrangement? Would such a foreign partnership make for harmony among ourselves ? On the whole, may it not be better for us to continue our one American traditional policy of friendship for all nations, alliance with none ? 688 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City We sometimes hear that this is a policy of isolation. But it does not isolate us commercially, socially, nor in any economic sense. It isolates us only in the political sense. It keeps us aloof only from foreign quarrels and conflicts. It encourages the closest connection with other countries in all the activities and relationships of peace. Would other connections than these be advantageous to us ? Would political union with any foreign power whatever be conducive to our solidarity as a people ? Or would it create divisions among us? And would it strengthen that peculiarly powerful position as a nation which nature has given us ? Ought we not as thinking men and women ask ourselves questions such as these when so grave a business as a foreign alliance is proposed to us ? And do not even more serious ones suggest themselves in connection with the ancient idea again advanst in the last two years of the formation of a superstate to regulate the world and keep in order by force of arms those nations which the superstate shall deem to be unruly? According to this plan we would be required, if we became a member of the superstate, to go to war for the purpose of preventing or punishing armed aggression, for the protection of the integrity of small states, and in general to maintain justice among nations. But does not history instruct us that it is sometimes hard to tell until a long time after a war which party to it really began it ? Defense of the integrity of small states is, of course, attractive to everybody; and yet has it not been a lucky thing for us that during the last seventy years we were not a member of a superstate bound in honor to protect them by force of arms ? For if we had been, what would we have had to do when Finland was seized or Schleswig-Holstein taken or Egypt occupied, or the Boer Republic and Orange Free State overthrown, or Algiers and Morocco annext, or Korea absorbed ? What would be our duty today in the matter of the dismemberment of Persia ? Where would we have been in our own war with Mexico ? Would we have been permitted to take the territory which now forms the states of Colorado and Utah, Nevada and New Mexico, Arizona and California? Would we have been allowed to annex Texas? Would Porto Rico now belong to the United States? Or would our suzerainty over Cuba — the strongest and most comprehensive ever committed to paper — be in existence ? In this connection an intimate and immediate subject forces itself upon us. Mexico commands the Gulf, the Canal, and the near Pacific. Also its resources are perhaps the greatest of any undevelopt country, and its potential commerce is invaluable to our prosperity. Some day a stable Mexican government will be establisht. When that happens it is vital to our interests and our safety that we form relations with it so close as to be supervisory over it and to prevent the possibility of an alliance between it and any foreign government. For the power that controls Mexico would Superintendence! fff£ SCHOOL A^D THE NATION 689 have the upper hand in the Gulf, the Canal, and the near Pacific, as well as overwhelming advantages in Mexican trade and the development of Mexican resources. We cannot permit the development of any situation whatever that would not leave us dominant over our southern gateways and the avenues that lead directly to them. But if our hands are bound and the Mexican problem is left to an international council in which we have no greater voice than Japan, Germany, Great Britain, Argentina, Denmark, or Holland, is it reasonable to expect a solution of it that would be just to us or safe for us ? We must not forget nor overlook the considerations that, if other nations are willing to let us help regulate their affairs, we must also be willing to let them help regulate our affairs; and that in this joint control the majority vote of the nations constituting the superstate would necessarily determine the action of each one of them. It might also be well to remember that in the operation of the proposed plan there are swarms of practical difficulties that must be overcome, such as our proportion of troops and ships in the international army and navy, the command of the combined forces, their mobilization and supply, the time, place, and strategy of operation, and the like. To enter the superstate we would, of course, have to alter the vital provision of our Constitution which gives Congress the. exclusive power to declare war. While the doing of this would put that power farther away from the people, the change could and should be made if it is imperatively demanded by the national welfare or safety. But ought we not to make sure that this is the case? Ought we not to inquire whether the good which it is taken for granted the superstate will confer upon us is greater than the unhappy plight in which, as seems probable, it would place us ? The point I am trying to make is that we should examine all matters, especially those that affect our national destiny, with the care and delibera- tion which their weight and importance demand. I am merely suggesting that the qualities of steadiness, poise, and thoroness be applied in our investigation of these grave questions and in the process of making our decision upon them. If this is done and we finally accept any proposed plan of action, we will go forward to the execution of it unitedly, with good will and full understanding. It cannot be kept too clearly and constantly in mind that in our effort to solve all our big problems, foreign or domestic, the building of the American nation is our supreme task and duty. Human experience has demonstrated that the forms and forces of separate nationalities are the natural ones of progress. It is better for humankind in general and for particular peoples that each of them shall work out its own destiny according to its own genius as a distinctive nation. The philosophy of international- ism, old as it is, has not yet proved itself adaptable to human nature. 690 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas city And it cannot be stated too often that in developing our own nationality the ethnological problem is the most difficult, as the solution of it will be the most glorious, of all. I am for any method that makes for American unity and against any plan that might work division among us, no matter how much, on other grounds, I might hesitate about opposing the one or supporting the other. I have intimated, by way of illustration, a few of the large tasks and difficult problems, domestic and foreign, the doing and solving of which require the practical application of the philosophy of nationalism. That philosophy should be made the policy of our national life. To inculcate one and carry out the other, the teaching and practice of steadiness, thoroness, tolerance, discipline, unity of action, and exclusive devotion to the American nation are fundamental. That this shall be done well and enduringly is the great duty and the glorious opportunity of the American school. The future of America is not upon the knees of the gods, but in the hands of American teachers. And so it is that we look forward to that future with confidence and good cheer. TOPIC: A STRONGER FOUNDATION FOR, AND A BETTER COMMAND OF, SPOKEN AND WRITTEN ENGLISH A. IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS MILTON C. POTTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MILWAUKEE, WIS. The first requisite for success in teaching elementary English is that we assign the first place, not to grammar, as was the method for many years, but to written and oral composition. Teachers and writers of textbooks were for years groping for this principle, but did not consistently practice it until very recently. Lessons and examinations in grammar had no relation to daily speech. It was known for some time since that a child may get 100 per cent in grammar and yet utterly fail to indicate it in his daily conversation. Teachers long felt that they were wasting time in teaching grammar. Composition and grammar were strangers to each other. Teachers despaired of coupling them up, and the "textbook authorities" frowned upon the union. While it is true that an artist must know something of the chemistry of colors, still he must devote most of his time to painting. While it is true that an athlete must know something of the body's anatomy, still he must devote most of his time to athletic exercise. So the pupil who would learn to speak and write, while he should know something of the structure of the English language, must devote most of his time to actual speaking and writing. Of course the criteria for good speaking on the part of alien or provincial children, or those of unlettered parentage, must be found largely in their Superintendence] ENGLISH IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 691 reading. Babies can understand you and point out their toes or their noses long before they can utter those words. They speak hundreds of words long before they can read at all. The lips lag behind the ear, and the eye much farther behind the lips. Correct speech standards can be establisht for such children only by quickly bringing the eye up to the level of the ear and the lips. This is also true historically. The strength of our tongue resides here, that scientific surveys were antedated by a flood of irrepressible expression widely understood and enjoyed by the plain people. William BuUokar's Brief Grammar — a purely conceptual treatise — appeared in 1586 as the first attempted science of the English language. But it is probable that Shakespeare never read it nor even heard of it. The subsequent growth of English ignored it. But how did the language grow? It grew by means of practical or poetic short cuts taken by eager souls bursting for ample expression. It expanded by reason of the struggle for efficient brevity in composition. It was therefore a grammarless growth. Grammar must forever be pursuing literature. Repeatedly men rejoice as Mary escapes from Martha's domestic tyranny. William Shakespeare and Herbert Spencer studied no grammar, but they were principal contributors to the growth of the language. So in a less degree is every slangster. "Pussyfoot," and "blighty," tho joyous, are not yet old enough to be highly respected. The middle-aged "grafter" and "mob" are linguistically respectable. Expression has always come from within. It is preceded by personal incentive. No one has really said anything who has not had something in him which he really wanted to say. The form of expression is impossible of improvement if the source of expression is dried up or dammed up. In spite of this experience we have expected children's English to improve, and we have thought that children would become good speakers and writers if we gave them a thoro course in technical grammar. The practical result of this method has been to make good miniature grammarians of children, but it has not helpt them to express their thoughts either effectively or correctly. Practically everybody has now reacht this conclusion, so far as merely conceptual grammar is concerned. The replies to a questionnaire which I sent out recently show that three out of eVery four teachers and superintendents believe that too much technical grammar has been and is taught in the elementary school. Con- sequently the first word on this subject is that we must turn right about face and devote most of our time and energy, not to teaching grammar, but to teaching composition. Just as use now governs in botany and physi- ology, in civics and architecture, so must it govern in grammar. Unused grammar is utterly useless. Composition must be given the first place in our course in elementary English. 692 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kansas City It follows from this that composition must be made over in order that it may deserve the first place. It must be vitalized. It must be made an enjoyable and delightful exercise for the child. It will not do to continue with the old perfunctory composition work which consisted in simply directing the children to speak and write and then condemning the words they used. We must get at the matter more fundamentally, in order to transform the composition into an effectual means for improving the oral and written English of the pupil. We must make it interesting — intensely interesting. Now by that I do not mean entertaining. The passion to be enter- tained is an American disease. When I say that we must make it interest- ing, I am saying exactly what the new education means by "motivated" speaking and writing. This is simply a new term for an old art. Many a skilful old pedagog, perhaps without knowing it, motivated his compo- sition work — that is, he made it interesting, enjoyable, real, vital, for the pupil, so that the pupil spoke and wrote, not because he was told to, but because he wanted to, because he wanted to say something, because he wanted to write something, because he wanted to convey information to his fellows, because he wanted to explain what he knew and what he thought they would be interested to hear, because he wisht to utter what he felt; because he wisht to express himself. An illustration will explain correctly these general statements which may be summarized as insisting on the difference between having something to say and having to say something. Let us suppose that the teacher has told her class the story of a hunter meeting a mother bear in the woods. The teacher wishes the children to tell the story. She wishes them to have practice in story-telling in order that by means of this practice they may become better speakers. It is not enough (if the principle stated above be true) for this teacher to say to the children, "Now, you tell the story." Why should these children tell again a story that has already been told and that everybody in the room knows ? This sort of direction fails to make the work interesting, or, in modern phrase, fails to give the children a motive for speaking. What should the teacher say? The teacher might say: "Children, you have heard this story. Now I should like to have one of you tell it as the mother bear might have told it to her little bears when she got back to the cave where they lived." There is a tingling delight to children in Kiplingizing William J. Long. Geography and history supply us with abundant good material for composition purposes, provided we use it sensibly, provided we make it interesting, provided we motivate it. The attitude of the speaker or writer must always be, "Classmates, I have something to tell you that will interest you." Over wash tub or ironing board many a mother of an earlier generation has developt this method for her teeming brood. I would learn of her. Superintendence! ENGLISH IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 693 My point, then, is that not only must composition be given the first place in our course in English, but, in order that it may properly hold the first place, it must be transformed into a vital thing connected with evety school subject, so that in his composition work the child will pass thru a series of vivid experiences in speaking and in writing. In view of what I have said concerning an overdose of grammar, I lust not fail to do justice to the usable elements of grammar. These [must be presented just as carefully and thoroly as was ever the case in the [last century. The swing away from grammar to composition has been in some quarters radical that grammar, deprived of the first place which it has held so [long, is in danger of being deprived also of the second place and of being jiven no place at all. This is going too far, for just as the artist must know something about the chemistry of colors, just as the ball-player must know le essential rules of the game, so the speaker and writer in our expanded lodern English must know something of the rules of the language. But just as composition needs to be made over in order to deserve the first )lace, so grammar needs to be made over in order to deserve the second )lace, and this involves us in two considerations: 1. We have been trying to teach the child all of grammar, when we ^should have limited our teaching to the minimum essentials of grammar. The best thought of the day seems to be that only those parts of grammar should be taught that can be made useful to the child in his speaking and writing. 2. It is not enough, however, that we confine our teaching to the minimum essentials of grammar. That is good as far as it goes, but it does lot go far enough. We must make it go farther. That is, we must make this [grammar which we do teach function in the child's speaking and writing. This second consideration, that the minimum essentials of grammar lust be constantly applied in the speaking and writing of the pupil, implies Lt each several wound shall be kept open and expressively running until iverything offensive is clean gone. This means the group-correction exer- ise. The individual pupil's composition may be read or copied on the )oard and criticized by fellow-pupils, one recently learned grammatical )rinciple after another being applied. In the brief time allotted me a single illustration must suffice. The lonth of February is full of special days on which children pay tribute to )atriotism or poetry. My circular letter to teachers this month reads as follows: Nearly everybody is interested in what school children are doing. The newspapers are therefore usually glad to print news about their meetings, games, and occasional celebrations. This month contains days sacred to the memory of Lincoln, Lowell, Washington, St. Valentine, and Longfellow. Write a brief account of your exercises for one of these U.. 694 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City days. Before writing, however, remember that your report is intended to interest the readers of the newspapers, and therefore decide what it will be best to write about and what to omit. Make an outline. It is important that the report that your class sends to the newspaper not only contains no mistakes, but also does the class credit. For this reason, after the best three or four accoimts have been chosen from all that are read aloud, these should be copied on the board for class correction and improvement. Do not attempt to secure publication without this group correction. After the class has discust several, the one that seems most satisfactory should be rewritten and taken or mailed to the newspaper office. Since you and your classmates have recently been making a careful study of verbs and their uses, the following questions should be given particular attention in the criticisms of the accounts: (i) Are all the verbs in the report used correctly ? (2) Can better verbs, clearer, stronger, more suitable ones, be substituted for some of those used by the writer ? Only by frequent short-period repetitions can the pupil's lips find it finally easier to use correct forms than the incorrect forms so frequently heard on the playground. Habit and not knowledge is the real governor of conduct. This does not imply that unthinking habit is preferable to formed and informed habit. Each grammar-grade child should own a dictionary and should be encouraged to use it continually in connection with his reading, and to apply consciously the results in his writing and conversation. Unless the home be a sympathetic ally of the school, a much better command of spoken and written English can be arrived at in the elementary schools only painfully and by otherwise unwarranted expenditure of time and effort. B. IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS JESSE H. NEWLON, PRINCIPAL, HIGH. SCHOOL, LINCOLN, NEBR. The English instruction in the high school must be socialized. Prepa- ration for college is a secondary consideration. Preparation for efficient participation in the social, business, and industrial life of a community is of supreme importance. The ability to use the mother-tongue correctly and effectively constitutes a large factor in this efficient participation. It is conceded on every hand that high-school English instruction has not suc- ceeded in adequately preparing either for college or for life. A better foundation for written and spoken English must be laid in a different content of English courses and in a different method of English instruction. Out of the vast fields of English literature, comparatively few classics have been selected for use in preparing students for college. These classics, with few exceptions, were selected from fifteen to twenty-five years ago. High schools have introduced practically nothing in their English courses outside of the classics in the college-entrance lists. The trouble is that our English courses have been planned by collegians, and in the planning they have thought only of how to produce masters of Superintendence] ENGLISH IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS 695 style. Such courses are not adapted to the present-day high-school population. So far as English is concerned, there is an impassable gulf between the brilliant boy or girl coming from the cultured home and the dull pupil coming from the poor home; and yet all are put thru the same courses and in the same sections. Again, these students may have wide variations in reading tastes, but they are all forst to read the same things. It is a farce to force all of this heterogeneous population thru the deadening courses designed a quarter of a century ago to prepare for college. The necessity of speaking correct English is far greater than the neces- sity of writing it. There is immeasurably more talking than writing in the business and social world. The vast army of clerks and salesmen, for example, are not called upon to write, outside of making standardized-form Ieports, but they are called upon to speak, to converse, and that most ffectively, every hour of every working-day. Outside of the professional irorld (and professional men and women are college-trained) most people 7ill do little writing aside from business and social letters, and these are imple in style and do not demand large vocabularies. The introduction of oral composition is working a revolution. In some astances oral composition is considered of equal importance with written composition. In a few schools it is beginning to be recognized as of even more importance, but in most schools it is being tried with great trepidation. The person who can speak grammatically correct English can write it. When students have learned to speak correctly, more than haK of the battle by far has been won. Every English-composition class should, then, become an open forum for orderly discussion. This discussion should take all forms. There should be good story-telling, talks intended to convince and persuade, talks intended merely to inform, and there should be debate. I would put debate last, for debate is without doubt the least important ;orm of oral expression taught in our schools. The great demand is not r debaters, but for those who can speak effectively and convincingly. The lubjects for discussion in the English classes must be of vital interest to the tudents and they must be subjects worthy of discussion. In the Central igh School of Grand Rapids, Mich., most excellent results have been btained by the discussion of problems centering about vocational and edu- tional guidance. Students are keenly interested in such fundamental e-problems. One of the chief shortcomings in our English instruction has been that e boys and girls have held themselves to rather strict account for correct nglish when writing themes for the English instructor or when making recitations in the English classes, but when making recitations in the history or chemistry classes, or in writing papers for the history or chemistry instructors, they have not felt the necessity of using good English. Some- how we fail to make connection between chemistry or physics and good English, or between everyday life and good English. 696 -Rational MDticAf ION AssociAfioN i^ansascity The whole school should be organized for the teaching of English. Every class must become a class in English-composition. The student in history or science, for example, is supplied with vital motives for speaking. The oral and written work in these classes ought never to be artificial nor forst. It should be natural. The student must be held for correct speech in all these classes. The best way and the only effective way to obtain such cooperation and to make the students feel the necessity of using correct English in every classroom is to create a social situation in the school that will bring home to the students a realization of the fact that correct English is a matter of supreme social importance, that it is a matter of good breeding and good manners, that it is a matter of success in business, that it marks the gentle- man or the gentlewoman. In one school the value of good English was advertised to the student body in a most effective way. The faculty and students organized and conducted a week's campaign for good English. On Monday morning an assembly of the entire school was held. Three prominent citizens appeared before the assembly and discust the value of good English. The superin- tendent of schools spoke from the standpoint of the educated man or woman, a professor of a local college — a woman — spoke from the stand- point of society and social usage, the secretary of the Association of Com- merce— a man who used most exquisite English, a newspaper man — spoke from the standpoint of good English in business. Thruout the week the number of mistakes in English in every classroom was listed and daily tabulations were made for the entire school and posted prominently in the corridors. Placards were placed thruout the building showing the correct idioms for many common errors in English. Everybody was talking about good English. The effect upon the school was wonderful. One of the greatest needs has been the means for the measurement of progress in English-composition, oral and written, and the setting up of definite standards of accomplishment for the different grades of the school. Each teacher has set up his own standards. That has meant as many standards as teachers, and therefore no standards. What mastery of the mother-tongue ought the student to have at the end of the ninth grade ? This question has never been answered. There never will be any answer until satisfactory objective scales for the measurements of English- composition have been developt. A very good beginning has been made in such scales as the Hillegas scale. Another means of improving speech in the high school, particularly in the junior high school, is the classification of students according to their ability. If there are to be two sections in first-semester English, the stu- dents should be classified according to ability. Such a classification will permit of both rapid and slow movement and will enable the teacher better to adapt the instruction to the needs of the pupils. In the slow-moving Superintendence) ENGLISH IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS 697 division emphasis can be laid upon improving the grammar of the students and on the elimination of common errors of speech, while in the rapid- moving sections more emphasis can be laid upon the various forms of dis- course, and more extensive practice can be secured in writing. In the first place, there should be a minimum number of courses, alike in general character, required of all students. The brilliant student should e able to complete this work in two years in the three-year junior high hool and in the four-year high school, and perhaps in less time in the ree-year senior high school. Beyond these minimum requirements there ould be in the larger schools rich offerings in literature, reading, public peaking, debating, short-story-writing, and other forms of discourse. hese should be elective courses, but they will provide a rich opportunity 'or development that will result in a far better product than was ever chieved by the most rigid traditional college-preparatory courses. The subject of the morning is the problem of a better foundation for ritten and spoken English, but there is a vital connection between the ding habits of people and their speech. Wide reading of good literature makes for more refined speech. I cannot refrain, therefore, from paying my respects to the present courses in English literature in the high schools. I submit that the chief cause of the failure to induce good reading habits, lies in the method of dissecting literature which is still in vogue in most of the high schools of the United States. In a well-known high school not long ago one entire semester of the senior year was spent on the study of Hamlet. It is no wonder that one member of the class exprest herself as disgusted with Hamlet. In a high school of 1500 students housed in a magnificent new building the following classics are to be studied in the 9A and the loB grades this year: Lady of the Lake, Silas Marner, Ivanhoe, Merchant of Venice — one year on four classics! An editorial in Educational Administration and Supervision for November, 191 5, describes the English . work in a high school in a city of 75,000 inhabitants. In this high school tbe following classics are studied in four years: Idylls of the King, Treasure stand, Ivanhoe, Merchant of Venice, Ancient Mariner, Julius Caesar, ^ision of Sir Launfal, Burke's Conciliation, two additional plays of Shake- speare in the senior year, Milton's Comus, some nineteenth-century poetry, d some poems from the Golden Treasury. Eleven classics and a little ric poetry in four long years ! A large number of contemporary productions should certainly be eluded. With the exception of the English Bible, the reading of 95 per cent of the people will always be confined to the contemporary field. A study of the offerings of many high schools reveals the fact that we do not recognize that worth-while things are being written today. In one high school the only contemporaneous production studied is Kipling's Captains Courageous. The whole effect of current practice is to belittle contempo- raries, to put the quality of all things contemporaneous under suspicion. 698 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kansas City Finally, the most important factor is the teacher. We cannot secure the maximum of results in good English until we have instructors who can ' themselves speak grammatically correct English, even if they do not speak beautiful English. The ordinary teacher in the American high school is not a master of the mother-tongue. In the first place, the majority of teachers have not had the advantage of training in good English in the home. In the second place, we have not realized the necessity of insisting on good English from every teacher. It is amazing that so many teachers are careless in this respect. Supervisors are remiss in their duty if they do not insist that all teachers use correct grammar. One of the first good results that will come from focusing the attention of the school on the Eng- lish problem will be the effect on the teachers. The chief obstacle in the way of the improvement of English instruction at the present time is the lack of teachers well trained in methods of teaching in secondary schools. The high school is dependent on the university for recruits for the ranks of English teachers. Departments of English in col- leges are not organized for the training of teachers and do not exist for that purpose. It is only rarely that the college instructor in English has had high-school experience or has any conception of high-school problems. To summarize, I have suggested the following ways of laying a founda- tion, in the high school, for a better command of written and spoken English: (i) the English recitation must be socialized; (2) oral composition must be assigned the place of first importance, and formal grammar and written composition made the secondary consideration; (3) the entire faculty should be organized for the teaching of English, and the attention of the whole school should be focust on the problem; (4) objective scales for the measurement of progress in English-composition should be developt; (5) the students should be classified, according to abiHty, into slow- and rapid-moving groups; (6) beyond the minimum required for all students there should be rich elective courses in the vast fields of literature and composition and in speaking and reading; (7) the courses in literature should be greatly enricht thru a much wider reading; there should be less intensive study and more reading for enjoyment, and many contemporary authors should be included in the courses. Finally, the greatest immediate need is for teachers of English trained in the new methods of English instruction. Present facilities for such training are utterly inadequate. The universities must meet this need. Superintendence] ENGLISH IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 699 C. IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS JAMES r. HOSIC, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, CHICAGO NORMAL COLLEGE, CHICAGO, ILL. The public normal schools of the United States vary so widely in nearly all respects that it is difficult to make any safe generalizations with regard to them. Not even their harshest critics would venture to accuse them of presenting a dead level of monotonous uniformity. Each serves what is practically a local community; many tend to draw upon their own con- tituency to recruit their teaching force; and almost every one seems to ride itself upon having a course of study peculiarly its own. The facts with regard to English in the normal schools have twice been Lthered by the National Council of Teachers of English. The following quoted from the latest report: When we came to tabulate and organize our data, we found it absolutely impossible lo discover anything but the most general tendencies. The utter lack of anything approaching uniformity, standardization, is amazing. The English courses in the normal schools of the United States are, with a few exceptions, the embodiment of the individual notions of the teachers in charge or the presidents of the schools. If the head of the English department is a specialist in the drama, the English courses emphasize the tech- nique of the drama, Shakespeare, the modern drama, dramatization, etc. If he is an advocate of technical grammar, he plans a stiflE course of a semester or a whole year in that subject. Apparently it is a question, not of what the students need, but of what the teacher likes and can best teach. Two or three states have uniform courses in English in the normal schools, and here and there can be discovered faint traces of agreement among the schools in a certain section of the country, but for the most part each school is a law unto itself, and the coming of a new English-teacher means the formulation of a new course in English. Those who rejoice over this condition of affairs, as indicating the free play of initiative and the untrammeled expression of originality, will do well to read the article on "Education for Initiative and Originality," by Professor E. L. Thorndike in the Teachers College Record for November, 1916. They will find there the suggestion that the most original workers are invariably well informed as to what others in their field have done; and that the independent thinker makes not less, but more, use than is common tof the ideas of his fellows. I The chief respects in which variation in normal-school English is found Ere three: (i) As to the kind and amount of so-called "academic" instruc- tion in such branches of English as literature, grammar, composition, history of literature, oral expression, etc. In some schools grammar, for example, is but a phase of composition work; in others it is studied as a separate subject several hours a week for a year. The same is true of the history of English and American literature. (2) As to the amount of instruction in methods of teaching English, and as to who gives this instruc- tion. In many schools the English- teachers have no responsibility for IL 700 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas city method in the subject. (3) As to observation and practice. At present comparatively few teachers of English assist in the supervision of practice in teaching English. In order to provide a basis of discussion and possibly of improvement of the situation, the following series of propositions concerning English in the normal schools is offered. Progress is already being made in each of these lines. 1. The regular, or required, courses in English in a normal school should be neither ''acctdemic" nor "pedagogical," but professional. — This is to say that neither the ordinary liberal-arts college nor the methods department of the normal school can supply the best model for the normal course in English. The former often emphasizes formal rhetoric and literary history; it ignores oral composition and reading aloud; and it chooses topics for composition from the general interests of college students. The better type of normal course, on the other hand, gives as much attention to oral composition as to written; it trains students in appreciative oral reading; it leads the students to formulate for themselves the principles of effective communication; and, above all, it utilizes professional interests in its choice of topics. Academically,, then, the normal course in English should be unique. Pedagogically it should be made real. The ordinary course in methods in English is likely to be ineffective because it is too abstract, too remote from the pupil's own experience. He fails to grasp the significance of the prin- ciples expounded, and consequently forgets them before his day of trial comes. The more effective procedure is to bring to the student's conscious- ness the nature of the mental processes involved in the various phases of English-study at the time he is passing thru them. This has the twofold value of teaching him (i) how to learn English himself and (2) how to direct others in learning it. Since the knowledge comes as a vital part of his experi- ence day by day, it is likely to function when his own work as a teacher begins. 2. Such a course is doubly effective if it is accompanied by directed observa- tion and practice. — The English- teacher himself should go with the class to observe lessons in several phases of English in two or more grades. He should discuss with the class beforehand how to observe, suggesting definite questions and possible points of view and making sure that each pupil is prepared to see everything significant that takes place. He should himself make ample notes of the recitation; and he should afterward require the members of the class to tell exactly what was done and why, and to raise such questions as occur to them, with the room teacher present, if possible, to join in the discussion. The course just described should be determined in detail by definitely ascertained facts: a) There should be discovered precisely what equipment each entering student brings. This can be done more effectively in the normal school Superintendence) ENGLISH IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 701 itself than by any outside agency, examining or other. Many students need individual attention to their voice and pronunciation. Some need drills in the correction of grammatical errors. Others need rather to add to their acquaintance with standard literature. No blanket course can provide for all. There should be set up, however, certain definite standards of correctness in speech, of ability to organize and express ideas orally and in writing, of power to use books, and of familiarity with general literature to which every student must approximate before being certificated, and he ould be required to maintain those standards in all his school activities ruout his course, on pain of being sent back to the English department for medial treatment. It is reasonably certain that the requirements in the ernacular at present laid down by the normal schools are at once too formal, 0 vague, and too lazily enforst. Here is a golden opportunity for a com- ittee on essentials. Here is labor also for the National Committee on erican Speech. b) The course should take into account the work actually to be done in e schools of the city, county, or state. A professional school is not a lace for a general, cultural education, but a place to prepare for a certain acting and important service. c) Provision should be made for specialization. The range of activities now included under the head of English is so great and the tenure of office on the part of teachers is so short that much more than a good point of view and a benevolent disposition is necessary for either primary or higher- grade work. The former requires acquaintance with phonetics, familiarity with the psychology and hygiene of reading, a knowledge of folklore and skill in story- telling, dramatization and graphic illustration, scientific knowledge of the spelling vocabulary of children and the economical method of learning spelling, a taste for poetry and a repertoire of simple verse, a good word stock, and a sound knowledge and practice of idiomatic English- usage. The latter permits of more formal methods, but demands a wider range of attainment in English grammar, English word-structure, English- composition, and English literature. d) The course should reflect and employ the best current principles of Iducational philosophy and psychology. The science of education is diffi- ult at best for young men and maidens of eighteen or twenty. Systematic ourses in those subjects inevitably seem general and abstract to beginners ,nd too often leave them dazed and gasping. Obviously such a course as I have outlined requires a specially selected and equipt instructor to carry it out. He should be provided. 3. The normal-school teacher of English should he a specialist in English who is also fairly well acquainted with the main results of educational thought and investigation to date, and w-ith the best current school practice. — This is a double requirement and may seem to many excessive. In fact it is not so. The universities employ numerous instructors who are prepared, 702 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas dity not only to stimulate and train the ordinary student, but also to direct the advanst student in the search for new facts and relationships or in the acquirement of knowledge and skill for special individual or profes- sional ends. To attract to the normal schools generally persons of such attainments and keep them there it will be necessary, first, to provide the opportunities which were described above under the head of the course of study. So long as only teachers of high-school and college English are wanted in the, normal schools, so long only the ordinary college or normal-school graduate, who has specialized somewhat in English, perhaps, will be available. It will be necessary, secondly, to adjust the hours of labor to the responsi- bilities entailed. The university professor teaches perhaps twelve hours a week, often less. He must have time to meet his students individually, leisure to keep up with the progress of studies in his field, and opportunity to prepare from week to week fresh material for his classes. Often he is granted leave of absence on pay in order that he may travel or study abroad. The normal-school teacher, on the other hand, seems generally to be expected to teach all his life only the things he learned as a student. Fre- quently twenty-five or thirty hours of teaching each week are demanded of him. No wonder if he falls behind in English, to say nothing of the probability of his holding to an antiquated "faculty" psychology or vague and formal aims of education. Certainly he should be in a position to know as much of the newer educational psychology of instinct, habit, and indi- vidual differences as the youths who are graduating in the senior classes of his own institution. It is necessary, thirdly, that he be paid as he de- serves. Granted that he has actually attained the breadth and scholarship in English and education which have been indicated, is there any reason why he should be tempted to seek a college chair in order to obtain for him- self and his family those rewards of his labor which he has a right to expect ? A stronger foundation for spoken and written English and a better com- mand of it are to be promoted in the normal school, then, (i) by reorganizing the course of study so as to focus on the known essentials for each individual student in view of his special ambition, and by combining the academic and the pedagogical in a single series of professional activities, including, for example, the study and practice of English-composition and the examina- tion of the mental processes involved; (2) by coupling observation and practice teaching with the other work of the English department; (3) by demanding and rewarding instructors capable of administering such a course and such practice. Finally, having specified worthy educational objectives and sifted the educational material of English-study, the normal school must test educa- tional methods. So far only the more mechanical aspects of English-study, spelling, for example, have lent themselves to wholly satisfactory quantita- tive tests. Some aspects will probably never do so. Nevertheless, progress Superintendencel ENGLISH IN THE COLLEGES 703 in the devising of standard tests should be eagerly welcomed, and the normal school should not be slow either to undertake experimentation on its own account nor to make sane and judicious use of the results of the experiments of others. D. IN THE COLLEGES E. M. HOPKINS, PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANS. I cannot conceive of a solution for the college part of the English prob- lem that is not at the same time a solution for other schools. It is all one problem for all schools, as all schools should see; but if any school or group of schools fails to see it, it should not be the college nor the college group. All schools and teachers should view the English situation in perspective; but the point of view of the college is supposed, rightly or wrongly, to have a certain definite advantage in elevation, and, if so, the college should see the more clearly. Perhaps colleges, at least some of them, fail to understand this; and, as a matter of fact, we know that many of them, instead of viewing all parts of the educational structure in perspective, estimate their own part so highly and stand so close to it that they cannot see anything else. We know that the college is, or has been, sometimes incUned to assume that all other schools exist for the benefit of the college; or perhaps that the college has no concern with other schools. In dissenting from this view, I go so far as to say that it is not the first business of any school to prepare for the next one, no matter what the next one may be, whether college, high school, or normal school. I believe that the actual duty of any school is a more severe and responsible one, namely, to do its best for those who are not going farther with their education. Those who pass from any school into the business of earning a living have need of far better training, if there is to be any distinction, than those who are expecting to continue their school studies; and if the school curriculum is so planned as to provide adequately for the first class, the others will automatically be provided for. For example, the question whether a high school should or should not have four years of English should be answered in the afl&rmative whenever possible, not for the reason that a fourth year of English is better for a student who is going to college, but that it is especially needed by the student who is not going to college. The intending college student can very well get on with three years, as he will have a chance for more later; but the other should have all that can possibly be provided for him, because for him the chance is his last. Take notice that we need not ask whether or not things are wrong with English. To avoid discussion and controversy, we may assume that every- 704 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kansas City thing is wrong everywhere; that everything about the study and the teach- ing of EngUsh is, generally speaking, at the bow-wows, wherever the bow-wows may be. It is, however, fair to make a qualification: that the situation, bad as it is, might be worse, that all schools are doing their best under the conditions. It is also fair to say that while no school, college or other, can wholly disclaim responsibility for those conditions, the schools themselves can do Httle more than to show what is wrong; the cure, if a cure is possible, can come only from the public, from the community as a whole. The basic thing that is wrong seems to be that all^ schools, including the college, ignore the simple fact that English is a language, that is, a speech, a living, growing organism; and that, as a living language, the fundamental use of English, the sole purpose for which it exists, is that of communica- tion— a giving and receiving of thought, that is, of our experience, present, past, future. Since it is the business of English to convey thought, and since we have no need of it until we have done some thinking and have, as a result, something to convey, the most important aspect of English-study in all schools is the study of the nature and matter of what we call thinking. In accordance with the general principle that has been stated, the study of composition may be simply defined as the study of how to adapt the means to the thought, the person or public, and the end; and this statement includes every possible conception of that which we call motivation, whether vocational guidance, journalism, business English, or whatnot; and shows very clearly why training in oral expression is on the whole much more important than that in written, because we use it much more. The study of literature is simply the effort to interpret as completely as possible the means used by some one else in similarly expressing himself. Hence the business of English-teaching in each successive school, each corre- sponding to a certain stage of growth in experience, that is, in thinking, is, first, to realize the experience of that stage, to enlarge it, to bring it into consciousness — that is, to train in such activity and range of thought as is possible at that stage — and then to apply this knowledge in the study of the means of expression which we must use in communicating with others and of the means of expression which others must use or have used in communication with us. Another of our grave present difficulties is that under present conditions it is often impracticable for one who does not know what English really is, to find out, and consequently to find out how to teach it. Much of what we teach and are taught in English is traditional, oblivious of essentials, and in consequence absurdly or painfully untrue; these absurdities and untruths arising largely from ignorance of the nature, the history, and the genius of English speech itself. Again, it is painfully true that after we find out what Enghsh is and what the teaching of it really means, or should mean, the teaching of it is Superintendence! ENGLISH IN THE COLLEGES 705 often impossible because of existing physical conditions. Even if we grant- to all English teachers complete English and pedagogic training which, as a matter of fact, most of them lack; if we grant them all necessary equip- ment, which they usually have not, and the full cooperation of everybody in the schools and the community, which also is lacking, no human being under any circumstances can do what the English teacher under the most favorable of these named conditions is supposed to do with the average number of pupils saddled upon him, even if those pupils are not of foreign parentage; when they are, the impossibility is doubled. Again, both they who do not understand the situation and we who do, we who know that we face impossibilities, instead of acting in accordance with that knowledge still allow ourselves to make the mistake of trying desperately to teach everything at once instead of dismissing 99 per cent of our task because it is impossible, and trying to do something with the remaining i per cent. What in particular is the college doing? It has the same difficulties to meet as have other schools, and is handling them in much tlie same way. Perhaps, on the whole, the college is not so fully alive to the degree of its shortcoming as are the secondary schools, which, in this particular, seem to be in advance of all others. Tradition is in the college; "coddling" is in the college; indeed, perhaps the college may be regarded as the fountain- head of all coddling. College English may perhaps sometimes train the memory, but it does not always, if often, train to think and to lead in thinking. It does not condition the granting of a degree upon the abihty to apply knowledge — to meet specific community demands and ratify them. So, in no very cheerful fashion, we come to the question. What ought to be done ? First of all, can we make the changes necessary in present conditions to bring results to a proper standard of desirabiUty? The answer is both yes and no. We can improve the training of teachers, increase equipment, bring about more complete cooperation, and by organization, investigation, systematic publication, we can do at least something toward influencing public opinion, obtaining additional cash, and therewith increasing the number of teachers in proportion to the num- ber of pupils. (I say nothing of increasing the salaries of teachers, tho that is greatly to be desired, for the reason that a mere increase of salary will not enable a teacher to do more than twenty-four hours' work in a day; while, on the other hand, better results, if obtained, will soon bring better pay.) But this process is necessarily slow — often approaching zero as a limit! — and meanwhile the school population is increasing faster than our means of taking care of it, even when the'public is willingjo help. Only one tentative way out has occurred to me — tho of course one is enough if it really is a way out — and that, if feasible, is simplicity itself. It is that in all schools we make our classes teach themselves. If every pupil in a class of two hundred and fifty foreigners, equal, in attention 7o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City required, to five hundred Anglo-Saxons, can be made responsible for his own progress — either voluntarily or under pressure of class spirit, of the opinion of the social body to which he immediately belongs — ^perhaps the problem will be partly solved; for then, instead of one teacher to two hun- dred and fifty, we shall have two hundred and fifty-one teachers for two hundred and fifty. If we are to do this we must first of all put an end to our present practice of teaching everything at once, over and over again, in all schools, because, as we all say, our pupils have not learned anything when they come to us, and we must therefore teach them everything. We must substitute a very few absolutely specific requirements in each stage of our school work and insist that no pupil shall be graduated from that stage to the next until he can meet those requirements: in other words we must have promotion by subject or even by parts of a subject instead of promotion by grade or by year; and we must make it clear to all pupils and classes that at no later time will they have an opportunity to repeat the work that they are doing at the moment; that the point, whatever it is, must be mastered then or never. Some of us have already discovered, that, if we have taught just one thing and the mastery of it, we have accompHsht more than if we have attempted a hundred things and failed in all. Of course our difficulty will be in determining the special matters, few in number, which shall successively have this rigid attention in successive weeks and terms and years of school training; and the system cannot be in all points the same for all communities, altho in certain points it may perhaps agree in all. It will be necessary to discuss and agree upon the things that positively must be mastered in the grades, however few they may be, and whatever else is not done; so for the secondary school and so for every other school. As a tentative statement regarding the college, it might be said that while the most important details of form must have been mastered before a pupil can get to the college, larger matters of form will remain for study; but in ^ the college emphasis will be placed upon larger thinking, closer reasoning, a special adapting to public usefulness, and influence of that greater power which the college should develop. Soundness and intelligence of judgment should be fostered by special means in the coUege-Enghsh course. A graduate of a college should be as definitely competent to assume certain responsibilities as is the graduate of a technical school. He should be definitely and specifically trained to apply all the knowledge which he has gained earlier, and the addi- tional knowledge which he gets in college: college science, logic, psy- chology, sociology, history, art, literature. No longer should the college be regarded as the special nursery for coddUng. The college, like any other of the schools, will unquestionably need its hospital, in which patients may remain until they are cured; but the holder of a college degree should, when he gets it, be able to apply his knowledge in matters of practical activity, in matters ethical, and in matters of taste; and— I know it is a large thing Siiptiriiiteddence] ENGLISH IN THE COLLEGES yoy to say and to assume, but I am saying it — this special responsibility should belong to his English training. A college graduate in English, to be entitled to a college diploma, should not only know certain things, but be competent to do certain things, and, above all, he should be certain things; all of which can be specifically sought for in his training if the necessary means are provided and the results seem worth the necessary cost. As one specific thing, which, as a rule, he cannot .now do, he should be able to interpret, analyze, reproduce the thought of a )aragraph, a page, a speech, a volume — the central thought and the essen- lal details — without regard to the form in which it is presented. He should mderstand moat thoroly his own language and how to use it. His reading id subjective experience should supply the deficiencies in his personal jxperience, in taste, feeling, imagination, as well as in pure knowledge. [e should know the difference between his acquired and his personal jxperience, how to make the one a part of the other in essential substance. '^ithin the limits of that broadened experience he should be mentally, jsthetically, morally, spiritually, incapable of thinking wrong and so of loing wrong, of mistaking obvious error for truth. As a citizen, writer, fteacher, public servant in any capacity, he should be incapable of perpe- trating or of tolerating the absurdities or the pitiful and puerile blunders of intellect, taste, and morals that characterize so much of public thought as it finds expression in newspapers and representative public bodies. He should be able to know the truth and be trained to stand up for it. As a pickt man of pickt men, he should push as well as lead forward; not waiting to be askt, not expecting to be thankt, but rather expecting to suffer penalty, to get his fingers pincht while he is lifting. The college itself, while training him, should set him the example of leadership and suffering — of sacrifice for an ideal. Those who now criticize the college for " amounting to nothing" would often be much less pleased if it did amount to something; but that fact will not justify the college for supineness, irrelevance, or incompetence; for failing to train its graduates for a broad and high efficiency requiring for its measurement standards that shall be only in part material, but still an efficiency which will meet much more fully than ^at present the requirements for later professional or technical study, as ^ell as for social usefulness. 708 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City STANDARDS OF SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND SCHOOLHOUSE- CONSTRUCTION FRED L. KEELER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, LANSING, MICH. I am to speak to you about standards of school architecture and school- house-construction. At once you are ready to hear of codes, requirements, and regulations. But I am neither architect nor engineer, and I shall not, therefore, enter a field I know nothing about. I shall speak, rather, from the standpoint of the schoolman. I speak to a body of men who, like myself, are very directly concerned in school-building problems. I shall indicate in general what qualities are essential in good school buildings and I shall try to suggest also some vital matters which should be observed in the procedure of erecting them. Where shall we go for our standards in school architecture and school- house-construction ? Whom shall we consult ? You remember President Garfield's definition of a good school: "Garfield on one end of a log and Mark Hopkins on the other." Garfield was right. It takes a great pupil .and a great teacher to make a good school. The modem school, however, attempts not only to serve the children but it also puts at the service of the whole community means of improvement both in study and in recreation. Garfield's definition lacks something. Practical considerations make the school building an essential part of a good school. A building which shall house a modern school is a complex structure, and it is a good schoolhouse in proportion as it permits a good school to function well in it. In passing judgment on a school building we must consider the factors which vitally concern the welfare of the school and its individual members. We must consult also the needs of the community which the building serves. I would apply in the main five criteria. Obviously it is both impossible and unnecessary to discuss them in any detail — I can only mention them. What are these criteria? Utility. — A good schoolhouse, first of all, must be a good place to teach school in. The arrangement of its parts must conform to good school practice as far as its instructional facilities are concerned (and when I say good school practice I mean school practice of the conventional kind). No one is justified in incorporating his personal whims or current innovations. I know school buildings which were erected in moments of inspiration under the guidance of individuals who had peculiar notions which they designed the buildings to serve. Their ideas, however, have not stood the test of time, and these school buildings, which cost a lot of money, do not serve well today. Not only must the building serve the traditional functions of a school, but it must also provide facilities for physical training and for the activities of the community which are more or less of a social nature. The next great Superintendence! SCHOOLHOUSE ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION 709 lesson which the American democracy must learn is cooperation. The great work of tomorrow must come from cooperation. The school building must serve as the center where people may gather for study, amusement, and recreation. Everywhere we must work together, and we can do this only by getting together. The school is the one place where, regardless of race, color, or creed, American citizens may gather. The more rural the com- munity the more necessary is this feature in a school building. It is said that one reason why it is so difficult for farmers to reach workable plans of cooperation is because in childhood they never learned how to play. As pioneers they grew up in isolation, and the only game possible was a game of scrub or pitching horseshoe. They never learned to do teamwork, and it is teamwork that counts nowadays. The schoolhouse of the future must be a place where people are taught both how to work and how to play, I am happy to say that in my own state no building of any account has been erected within the last three years which has not provided for all of these things. Michigan is getting ready for a good time. Health. — Having ascertained the merits of the building as to its utility, I would at once inquire as to its provisions for health and sanitation. Fortunately school hygiene has developt during the last few years into quite an exact science. We know with considerable certainty how to light a schoolroom properly. We know quite accurately what demands must be met to ventilate a school building properly. I am of the opinion, also, that the problem of school-ventilation has been more satisfactorily solved than some are disposed to admit. Certainly the progress made in the last twenty-five years is very gratifying. While no one will claim that perfec- tion has been reacht along all lines of school hygiene, I do maintain that sufficient knowledge exists on the subject and valid enough standards have been determined so that school authorities can proceed confidently to avail themselves of the best practice of today. Safety. — Hand in hand with proper hygienic conditions I should look for the arrangements which insure safety. I believe that, except in large cities where school grounds are small and expensive, we shall see less and less of school buildings that are more than two stories high. A two-story building of fireproof construction, planned with ample corridors and suffi- cient exits properly placed, is safe at all times. However, if a building must have fire escapes let them be constructed inside of the building on approved lines. The ordinary fire escapes hung on the outside walls, passing often in front of windows which would permit flames to cut off egress, are at best a hazardous safety appliance. Beauty. — A building which is serviceable, hygienic, and safe is, indeed, a good school building — better perhaps than most buildings now in use. But there is a fourth feature which I think of more importance than present practice would indicate — school buildings shoujd be beautiful. The public- school system of this country is, of course, a comparatively young institution. 710 n AtlON At nWCAtlON ASSOC! AtlON [Kansas City Moreover, the population of the country has increast very rapidly and the exigencies under which school buildings are generally constructed have permitted consideration of only the absolutely necessary features. Such conditions have not as yet evolved esthetic architecture. Is it not time, however, that school authorities and school architects shall make school buildings express some elements of beauty, both inside and outside ? The school building is often the most conspicuous structure in the town* It is erected to stand for generations. Is it not worth while that in its construction some effort be given to the making of a building which shall have a positive, silent influence because of the beauty it expresses ? James Bryce, in his American Commonwealth, makes an observation which we should take to heart. He says that the most impressive feature of American architecture is its utter monotony. If he had referred par- ticularly to school architecture his statement would have especial force. The style which has been in vogue for the last decade is certainly deserving of this indictment. On my way here the other day I past in a certain city two large buildings. The buildings bore a striking resemblance. Above one floated the American flag, and I knew it was the home of an American public school. Above the other was a sign which informed me that this was the home of the "Gold Dust Twins." I wish to protest against this style of school architecture whose most prominent features are ugliness and monotony. A committee of school-board members visited a building recently erected in one of the small towns of our state for the purpose of getting ideas to help them in erecting a schoolhouse in their own town. The building visited, which is not an expensive one, imprest them very much. The feature which attracted them most, however, was the large study-room. On his return home one member of the committee exprest himself as follows: " I went back to that room several times, and before I came away I went in just once more and sat down a little while because it felt so good to be there." What a fine compliment to the architect! Now I do not mean that buildings should be ornamental; not at all. When Woodrow Wilson was president of Princeton University he selected from several sets of plans for a building one plan which at sight met his approval. When askt why he chose that particular plan, he replied : " That architect has not attempted to construct beauty— he has put beauty in construction." That epigram I wish to submit as the fourth criterion in passing on the excellence of a building. Economy. — The last test I would apply is economy, the item which usually receives first consideration. Competition has developt a type of building which gives the maximum schoolroom area for the minimum con- struction material. Commendable progress has been made in this depart- ment of school building, which can be exprest directly in dollars and cents. A generation ago there was a large amount of waste in the construction of a school building. There was much waste room within. The general outline Superintendence! SCHOOLHOUSE ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION 711 of the building was very irregular and thus required more wall and founda- tion than was necessary for the area inclosed. A good example has come to my attention recently, and it will make my point clear. Two small towns of our state have lately erected school buildings. The buildings have the same number of stories and the same floor area, yet one, owing to its unfortunate plan, has one hundred and sixty linear feet more of wall and foundation than the other. There is no valid excuse for this, because by all standards the latter building is the better. The fact that there was a waste of 25 per cent in wall and foundation is a serious indictment of the judgment of the group of excellent business men who served on the board of education that erected the building. I do not speak of economy last to indicate that it is of minor importance. I am for economy, but under no circumstances would I permit mistaken economy to cripple the excellence of a school building from any of the standpoints I have already mentioned. There is much need of education in the matter of wise economy in school building. These, then, are the standards by which I would judge a school building: utility — both from instructional and from recreational stand- points— health, safety, beauty, and economy. How shall these qualities be secured ? When the state compels a child to attend school, it should also provide that the school building and the school premises, where the child must live one-third of the day, are satis- factory from all standpoints. The school premises in many instances are unfit even from the standpoint of decency, and it is incredible that parents will suffer their children to go there. I wish parents would insist on better things. More than three-fourths of the states of the Union have laws which compel children to attend school, and it is highly gratifying to note that two-thirds of the states of the Union have recognized their responsibility in providing adequate building facilities, and regulate more or less strin- gently the construction of school buildings. I am for compulsory education and for state regulation of school-building. State regulation, however, is as yet in an experimental stage. A few states, indeed, pride themselves on their very stringent laws and codes, which specify definitely and minutely what is required. Now, if we were absolutely certain that at last we know all that is to be known about school- building, we should be more justified in placing laws upon the statute books which compel school authorities to build according to their provisions. But we do not know all about it. The field is new. It is therefore unwise to prescribe rigid standards. Some states, and my own state is one of them, place the authority to approve building plans and to condemn unfit buildings with some state authority — usually the state superintendent of public instruction — leaving to the discretion of such authority what the requirements shall be. I favor this plan. I favor a code which will give due recognition to all ideas which stand in line with the best practice of the day. The state is then in a 712 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kansas City position where it can gradually eliminate that which proves undesirable and acquire that which is good without going to the trouble each time of changing the statutes. But as progressive schoolmen you are interested in getting good build- ings whether the state requires it or not. In smaller cities it is possible for you to take a part in planning the school building. How go about it? The first thing to do is to secure an architect, and let me say at once that the usual method of selecting an architect is a most unsatisfactory one. How is it done ? It becomes noised about that a town is to erect a high school, we will say. Immediately from ten to one hundred architects come upon the scene. Among them are some honorable practitioners, men who put their heart and brain into their work. They come with the desire to get the job, of course, but they would like to erect a building which shall be an honest building, one which shall meet the requirements of the school in that community, and which shall be an ornament to the town because it fits into its surroundings. For their work they expect legitimate pay. Others also come to get the job. They carry large albums full of pictures of buildings situated in all parts of the country, many of which they have never even seen. These they give as illustrations of their own work. They present sketches of floor-plans and exteriors in gaudy colors and urge their case with all the skill known to salesmanship. For their work they ask very little of the board; how they live and flourish is worth inquiring. Am I putting the matter too strongly when I say that in this method of selecting an architect by so-called competition the poorest man invariably gets the job ? There is a better way. I believe that the board of education and the superintendent of schools should make a thoro investigation of men who are in reality architects and, if possible, school architects. I am convinst that the most important human element in school-building is the character of the architect. I would secure a man of integrity and recognized ability and I would have this man work hand in hand with the local authorities to develop a building which shall embody all the elements I have named. Again and again I would submit for criticism the prelimi- nary sketches to persons who have given study to the problem of school- building. If your architect is one of limited experience, be very careful; if he is one of high standing as a school architect, then be twice as careful. An instance will make my point clear. A few days ago preliminary sketches for a half -million-dollar high school were presented to us for criticism. The architect is a man of national reputation. The building which is to cover an entire block will of necessity be rectangular in form. It was planned to inclose a court and also a gymnasium with an auditorium above it, both opening off the corridor opposite the main entrance. Such an arrangement is bad from several standpoints. First of all, the ffuditorium and gym- nasium are for the use, not only of the school, but also of the community, and, as a matter of convenience, they should be placed where they are Superintendence] STANDARDS OF HEALTH AMONG CHILDREN 713 directly accessible. Also in them large crowds will gather. To insure safety, therefore, they should open directly out-of-doors. Furthermore, the auditorium and gymnasium of the building will be much in use during vaca- tions, if there are any vacations. They should, therefore, be placed where, in summer, natural ventilation can be secured and not in the pit of an inclosure where there is neither air nor light. Lastly, it is needlessly expensive construction to place the gymnasium under the auditorium, for it requires very heavy girders to span sixty to seventy feet and support the floor and load of the auditorium. My plea is that you recognize your opportunity; that you inform your- self on the subject; that you assume the responsibility; that hand in hand with the architect and the engineer you produce a building which shall be conspicuous for its abundance of good school sense. STANDARDS OF INDIVIDUAL HEALTH AMONG CHILDREN JOHN DILL ROBERTSON, COMMISSIONER OF HEALTH, CHICAGO, ILL. " Behold, a sower went forth to sow .... some seeds fell by the way- side .... some fell upon stony places where they had not much earth .... and some fell among thorns. But others fell into good ground and brought forth fruit, some thirty fold, some sixty, and some a hundred." This parable of the sower is applicable to the school teacher who sows the seeds of knowledge. The children represent all degrees of soil. There is the child who is comparable to the rich, black earth found in the river valleys; the child who typifies the sandy soil of the seashore and desert; and the children who may be likened unto the stony and thorny places. The child's brain is in every way comparable to earth where seeds are sown. No competent farmer would pay less attention to the soil than to the seed. In fact, his first consideration is the soil, and the seed is not selected until a diagnosis has been made as to whether a particular field will yield a better crop of corn, or of wheat, or of buckwheat. If he is a progressive, scientific farmer, he goes still farther and takes into account, not only what the present yield will be, but what the cost of that yield will be to the land upon which it is grown. He will consider whether a beautiful growth of buckwheat has devitalized and robbed that land of chemicals which were necessary for the ultimate regeneration of that field. The same problem is presented by the child who, being admitted to the school at six years of age, becomes as much of a problem to the teacher as is the field to the farmer. Certain standards must be adopted for the scientific measurement of children. These standards must take into consideration both the physical and the mental qualities possest by them. It must be broad enough to be practical and yet not so broad as to be ineffectual. 714 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kansas City The first standardization must be made along the purely physical con- dition of the special senses. Tests for the purpose of determining the physi- cal condition of the eye, the ear, the nose and throat, the sense of touch and taste, should all be included in the scheme for standardizing the pupils when admitted to the schools, or as soon thereafter as possible. As early as may be, a careful survey of the glandular system should be made, taking into consideration the internal secretions; the height and weight should be care- fully noted; in fact, a complete physical examination should be made of the child as soon after he enters school as practicable. As many as possible of these tests should be made and recorded before the time for the admis- sion to the schools. A physician's certificate certifying to as many of these points as can be ascertained, and to the further fact that the child has no communicable disease, should be required by the board of education when the child is admitted. The school should keep this record, together with birth and vaccination certificates, on file. Any defects noted on this record should be transmitted to the teacher who has to deal daily with this defective pupil. A careful study of these defects of the special-sense organs will reveal the fact that many of them can be corrected. This should be undertaken at once, but experience has proved that in a majority of instances no action is taken by the parent, and the child must continue to work under the handicap of his defects. The state has wisely decided that all children must have a common- er grammar-school education. It has enacted laws to bring this to pass, and the truant officers and the courts enforce compulsory attendance. This is effective against the child, and the parent is equally subject to the law. Has not the state the same right to provide compulsory physical examination, and, where feasible, compulsory correction of physical defects that incapacitate a child for the curriculum adopted by the boards of education ? Such a procedure is right and in the best interest of the defective child. It is in the interest of the non-defective child, who, under our present system, must be retarded by his less fortunate classmate. It therefore would be for the best interest of all concerned. The immediate result would be fewer contagious diseases, greater physical and mental efficiency, and con- servation of the taxes by lessening the number of days absent of all pupils. Our public schools are wasting one or two years of the pupil's life by non-attention to his physical needs. The child is housed in the schoolroom and compelled to breathe dry, dusty, cookt air. It has been heated until all of its moisture is dried out, and it has been made as dry as the air of the Sahara Desert. It has been circulated in many instances thru a dusty conduit, and comes into the classroom laden with dust particles. This dry, dusty, devitalized air becomes an irritant to the mucous membranes, and the air passages of defective children suffer to the greatest extent. Superintendencel STANDARDS OF HEALTH AMONG CHILDREN 715 These air conditions have a baneful, retarding effect upon both pupils and teachers, and hours are lost in useless endeavor when both are suffering from inertia. In the short time allotted to me I cannot fully elaborate the absolute need of diagnosing and classifying the soil with which you have to deal. It is obviously necessary that seed should be planted which will grow and bring forth good fruit. All physical defects should be corrected, where possible, so as to give every opportunity for free and untrammeled motor and sensory impulses. Your judgment is, and always will be, taxt to the utmost in grading the different mental and moral groups to whom you minister. This fact makes it all the more expedient that you demand, and fight for, the principle that the human beings whose lives you are shaping should have everything done for them that is physically possible. Shame upon any community which houses in its schoolrooms children who have had no breakfast! That community is doubly culpable that permits a child to study there with eyes that see only vaguely, with ears that hear little, and with nostrils filled with adenoids which make breathing difficult. Millions are being spent for the seed and a large part of this is being sown upon barren ground. The following figures from a survey made by me of the Chicago schools in the year 191 6 speak for themselves: Chicago has, in round numbers, 500,000 school children attending the public and parochial schools. Of this number, during the year 1916, we made physical examinations of 191,225, and found 101,237 with physical defects. We advised 88,044 of the defectives to seek treatment, because in the opinion of our school physicians they were capable of being corrected. Taking the number examined as a basis for estimating the entire school population, we find that over 240,000 of our 500,000 school children have physical defects that could and should be corrected. A tabulation of the defects found in the 191,225 examined shows the following number under the different classifications: Orthopedic 1,128 ■ Rachitic type 385 Defective vision ii,973 Other diseases of eye 2,191 Defective hearing i|25S Discharging ear 663 Defective nasal breathing 6,214 Defective palate 978 Defective teeth 56,251 Hypertrophied tonsils 31,642 Adenoids 14,262 7 16 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Kansas City It will be noted that in this survey there were found defective teeth in 56,251 cases. These defects were markt — not the defects that the ambitious young dentist looks for, but those that were evident to all. In fact, surveys made by our dental society would indicate that of our 500,000 school chil- dren, 450,000 have defective teeth. What does this spell? Just what Sir Oliver Goldsmith said in "The Deserted Village": 111 fares the land, to hastening iUs a prey, Where wealth accumulates and men decay. Is that not true of the nation ? If you would have me estimate the virility of your nation, you must first show me their teeth. I have had a look at the teeth of our Chicago children (and I do not think they compare unfavorably with those of the entire nation), and from those teeth I read the present condition of our race and reason further. We do not give our children enough hard foods to eat. We make the matter of eating too easy for them, The exercise and polishing of the teeth with hard substances should be kept up thru life. Rough food — good teeth. And good teeth go a long way toward good health. Bad teeth produce rheumatism, heart, kidney, and various other serious diseases. Govern- ments are now paying as much attention to the teeth of their recruits as to their feet. All this brings me to the first great remedy for improving the physical condition of our school children, and that is military training in the public schools, beginning at the kindergarten and ending with the termination of the high-school course. Not a military training for battle, altho conducted by army officers; not a military training for boys alone, but military training for both sexes. The peace-advocate will argue that, if physically prepared for fighting, we will surely fight. I never quite saw the force of this argument, but, admitting it is true, is it not a fact that the deaths occurring among our people because of the neglect to obtain proper physical condition during childhood, and the deaths that occur from school age up to fifty years, amount to many more during a century than would occur from an occasional war ? In other words, the deaths resulting from a lazy, gluttonly peace are many times multiplied over the deaths of war. Wars may have their good purposes; and if the United States should be dragged into the present great European conflict might it not after all be her salvation ? If it led to the adoption of military training in our schools it would lead to the correction of physical defects, and especially of the teeth of our popu- lace. Should this occur, such a baptism of blood would be for the ultimate physical regeneration of our race, which is now approaching dangerously near that of ancient Rome and Greece. If not corrected, this will lead us Superintendence) ARE THE OLDER "SCHOOL VIRTUES'' OBSOLESCENT? 717 into an era of ultimate decay. Let us pray God this may not be necessary to bring our people to a realization of the present physical condition of our coming generation. Military training in our public schools will furnish the pupil an incentive to have the many physical defects corrected. It will lead to the better understanding and classification of these defects and give us physical standards of perfection. Everyone who has ever traveled in Germany is struck with the absolute law-enforcement of that country and with the fact that the people them- selves not only cheerfully obey the laws, but see to it that everybody else does. This, in my opinion, is a direct result of military training. To sum up, then, let me emphasize my belief, first, that compulsory physical examination and correction of defects of school children are necessary. Secondly, as a means to the accomplishment of this, the establishment of military training in the public schools for both sexes is necessary. ARE THE OLDER "SCHOOL VIRTUES'' OBSOLESCENT? W. C. BAGLEY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL. Under the condition of universal education it is a paradox that what you sow in the schools will be reapt in the larger community of the next generation, and this is particularly true of the ideals and visions, the stand- ards of right and wrong, the criteria of progress and decay, that dominate the administration and government of the people's schools. The philosophy of school-management may seem to be a theme very remote from any important relations to the larger welfare of the state, and yet it is probable that no factor in present-day life will be more determinative of the effect- ive ideals of the next generation than are the theories of administration and management that dominate our schools today. It would be inconsistent with my own keen appreciation of what our schoolmen and school women of the past three generations have done for the present generation not to preface my discussion by some reference to present conditions. We are perhaps rather too prone to attribute what is still weak and inequitable in our social organization to the defects of our educa- tional system, and too little prone to glance at the credit side of the account. We have recently past thru a national election characterized by a quiet, dispassionate, and yet thorogoing realignment of political forces thruout the country. To one who watcht at close range and in various parts of the country the progress of the campaign, one conclusion was inevitable, namely, that the people were thinking much more independently of the old- time dictation from political leaders than in the preceding campaigns. And in the intense, but calm and quite unemotional interest that characterized 7l8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City the two days of uncertainty and doubt following the election there was every evidence of willingness to abide by the will of the majority. It is fair for us to ask whether the work of our schools has been a factor in producing these conditions. Certainly, if matters had turned out other- wise, we should have been quick to blame the educational system for its ineflSciency. It is only fair, then, to attribute to it some of the credit. And, speaking for the younger generation of schoolmen, this can be done without suspicion of conceit, for in this achievement we have had little to do. The seeds were sown by our own schoolmasters whom we sometimes think of rather condescendingly as having been well intentioned but never quite "on the job" as we are today. The outstanding virtues that present-day education is seeking are in most cases extensions and refinements of what our own teachers sought. The latter, it is true, were to our minds somewhat hazy about the processes, but they had the desired outcome clearly in mind. Their ideal was a genera- tion that could think clearly and soberly, that could act courageously and intelligently, and that could live temperately. They thought that they could gain the first two of these ends by discipline of various sorts, but principally by the severe mental discipline of arithmetic and formal grammar and spelling, of Latin and algebra and geometry. Their method of promot- ing temperate living was to relate the terrible consequences of indulgence in stimulants and narcotics, accompanied by highly lithographt charts showing cirrhotic livers and fattily degenerated hearts. But thru it all, as I remember these teachers (first as a pupil and then as a younger colleague), they had a keen desire to insure the ends that I have named. We think today that these ends are most desirable, but that the means that our own teachers adopted were about as bad as could be invented. The inexplicable thing, of course, is that our people today seem to be thinking fairly independently and fairly soberly; and as for the temperance physiology, while the germs that it planted seemed to remain quiescent for a long time, they finally began to multiply and swarm within the body politic, and to produce enough antitoxin to make nine-tenths of the country bone-dry and to give the remainder a severe fever of alarm which seems now about ready to terminate in a penitent convalescence. As a poor prophet who only a few years ago ridiculed and pooh-poohed the competence of the temperance physiology to excite anything but amusement, I now have to confess that I was a very poor prophet. The present generation of teachers should not be altogether content with either the ideals or the methods of its predecessors. It should refine the ideals and improve the methods, and it should also formulate new and wider ideals and strive to attain them. Teachers of the present generation are certainly not blind to this duty. They are looking ahead and planning ahead for better things. It is one of these newer ideals that I wish to examine very briefly tonight. Superintendence] ARE THE OLDER ''SCHOOL VIRTUES" OBSOLESCENT? 719 Our predecessors strove to develop clear thinking and independent thinking and sober living. Today we are striving to develop among our pupils all these virtues and something in addition. Most of us are convinst that education cannot be really successful unless it develops in each succeed- ing generation the willingness to grapple with new problems and the ability to solve these problems. This ideal of "initiative" is reflected in the keen demand that school requirements shall not crush the child's originality. The past generation of teachers was content with emphasizing the prime importance of having pupils understand what others had workt out; the present generation is coming to insist that merely to learn understandingly is not enough; to this must be added an appreciation of what is learned in its application to the solution of a problem which appeals to the pupil as needing immediate solution. It is clear that we now have a very wide extension of the older ideal of insuring independence of thought thru first insuring an understanding of what was learned. The aim now is to liberate the pupil entirely from any mastery which does not appeal to him as productive of beneficial results. Very few schools, of course, have been able to apply this principle extensively to actual practice without running hard against some serious difficulties. Certain schools have attempted rather wide applications, but these have usually been private or endowed schools, or frankly experi- mental schools that could live without meeting popular needs. And not infrequently the application of the principle has been only apparent. I have in mind a school of this type to which an acquaintance of mine sent one of his two sons. The boy entered the first grade and for several months he apparently progrest at a favorable rate. Toward the close of the year, however, the father was summoned to the school to discuss his son's wel- fare. " Your boy does well in certain phases of his work," said the principal. "His progress in construction work and in dancing is most commendable; but he cannot read." The father, who had labored under the impression that the school should at least teach the boy to read, suggested that the fault might lie with the teachers of the reading classes. "However, the boy must know how to read before we admit him next fall," the principal added. The father saw that the situation was desperate. A family council was held; a division of labor was effected; both the father and the mother gave up their plans for the month's holiday in August; and in September the boy went back to school with an initial mastery of a basic social art. As nearly as I can make out, the methods employed would not have been considered orthodox even by the past generation of teachers, but the results were eminently satisfactory. Another school virtue that has been relegated to the background by the emphasis of this ideal of initiative is the virtue of thoroness. The teacher of the past generation strongly emphasized thoroness of mastery as an essen- tial condition of effective independent thought and action. The first blow 7 20 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Kansas City to thoroness came with the onslaughts on the doctrine of formal discipline, and now that this line of defense has fallen, the present heavy emphasis of the "immediate problem" bids fair to finish the job. In some quarters, indeed, it has been asserted that what we used to think of as thoroness is quite inconsistent with initiative and originality; that meticulousness in details and facility in looking after small and routine matters are qualities that do not associate readily with ability to solve new problems and gain new achievements. The influence upon school practice of these implications and applications of the ideal of initiative has already been felt, and will be more widely and intensely felt as the ideal gains wider currency. It is expedient then that we examine carefully the assumptions upon which these implications and appli- cations are based; and the need is all the greater because their tendency is to open the lines of least resistance, and every theory that does this needs to be very carefully and critically examined before it is generally accepted. But I should be the last to emphasize the argument of expediency (or even immediate practical necessity) against the present tendencies. I have little use for that method of disposing of troublesome questions which rests comfortably upon the assertion that a proposal is "all Hght in theory but won't work in practice." The tendency of a theory that rests upon irre- futable premises is always toward its ultimate enthronement. If a theory is distinctly recognized as "good," it will sooner or later win the victory. The struggle for democracy; the fight against the corn laws; the enthrone- ment of individual liberty — all these and many other social achievements of the first magnitude have won because they rested upon sound theory. Ultimately it is always the philosopher who determines the course of human progress; ultimately it is your Platos and Aristotles, your Voltaires and Rousseaus, your Adam Smiths and Ricardos and John Stuart Mills who are accredited with wielding the great influence. And in the new realm of world-politics it will be the thinker who clearly sees the end and maps out the road — it will be he who will win in the interests of all mankind the free- dom of the seas and the brotherhood of nations. And so, if the older school virtues are to be retained, they must be retained because their necessity rests, too, upon premises that cannot be shaken, and upon values which lie deeper even than the vicissitudes of war and the prosperities of peace. It is not my purpose to outline the arguments which, in my opinion, go a long way toward establishing these premises and demonstrating these values. But I do wish to point out the crying need for carefully tested facts with reference to the various problems involved. Every assumption involved in a proposal which asks us to pay the price that I have named should be thoroly tested. As an instance of the kind of evidence needed, I may cite the recent findings of Mr. Thorndike regarding the specific ques- tion as to whether thoroness, meticulousness, and capacity for routine Superintendence! STANDARDS OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 7^1 work are, as these new proposals so strongly imply, really inconsistent with initiative and originality. Mr. Thorndike says: During the past month I have been studying the ratings of sixty electrical engineers employed by the Westinghouse Company and rated by the company's oflficers for original- ity and seventeen other qualities such as thoroness, knowledge, industry at routine tasks, and the like. Far from there being any antagonism between originality and industry at routine tasks .... or between originality and system, there is a positive correlation, and one as close as that between industry and enthusiasm or that between thoroness and system. It is facts of this sort that we need in order to test every assumption that is being made by those who are asking us to surrender the older school virtues. That our conceptions of these virtues should be refined and their administration improved and enlightened no one will deny. And I venture to predict that, when the facts are all in, they will tell a story something like this: That far from being inconsistent with initiative and originality, the virtues of obedience, duty, discipline, and thoroness will be found to have the closest relationship to the capacity for discovery and achievement; that the systematic mastery of race experience, illuminated, but by no means replaced, by the problematic method of teaching, will be recognized as a primary aim of education; that persistent and dogged application to set tasks will rAain its position as a fundamental school virtue; and that, while thoroness of mastery will have a richer and a broader meaning, it will still retain the virile qualities which have hitherto been associated with it. STANDARDIZED UNITS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF PUPILS AND MEASURABLE STANDARDS OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION CHARLES H. JUDD, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. There are two parties on this matter of standards. Some of us are afraid that the demand for standards will lead to formalism in the schools. Some of us are very sure that schools cannot be definite in their aims and efficient in their operations until there is a clear understanding of the standards of education. Much of our partisan fervor in this matter is due to differences in defini- tions. If I say that I am here to advocate the adoption of exact educational standards, it is safe to assume that a considerable number of you will, with- out further ado, read me out of your party. You will do this, not because of any sins of mine, but because you hold to a certain definition of the word "standard." You think of that proud achievement of modern manufac- turing mechanics which makes it possible to turn out year after year parts which are alike to the hundredth of an inch. You will rise to a high pitch 72^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kansas City of eloquence in asserting that such a mechanical standardization and reduc- tion of children and teachers to uniformity is absolutely intolerable. May I venture to anticipate you in your outburst ? I too would join in the cry against making children all of the same length, breadth, and thickness; I would that teachers were not so much alike as they are; I wish that we knew how to fan into a flame the spark of individual initiative that every child brings to school. If our agreement in this matter saves us from immediate hostilities, I ask you to listen for a moment while I try to bring out by an example or two what I think ought to be the accepted definition of the term "educational standard." An educational standard of the t5^e which I advocate is a mode of development which nature has shown to be advantageous. Let us borrow an analogy from biology. In the struggle for life, so our friends, the stu- dents of birds, tell us, sparrows have been standardized. After a storm, if you gather up the sparrows that have perisht, you will find in your collec- tion of unfortunates a preponderance of oversized and undersized sparrows. Middlesized sparrows live longer than those which are too big or too little. The sparrow which is too big is clumsy and disadvantaged; the sparrow which is too small is not able to resist the elements. If you belonged in the sparrow world and were a trained biologist^ you would have excellent reason for being interested in measurements of your own size, and on the basis of this knowledge you would decide whether to go out in storms or to stay at home. Take another example, nearer to ourselves. If the protoplasm which makes up the human body is to be kept in the best possible condition for the performance of its vital functions, a great deal of physical effort must be devoted to keeping up a certain temperature. The temperature cannot go too high nor too low without unhappy results. The range of possible variations is astonishingly small. Yet one never hears of protests in the name of individual initiative against ninety-eight and two-tenths degrees. Not only so, but the physician has found it extraordinarily convenient for all sorts of reasons to find out every time he is called in just what are the personal deviations from the physiological temperature standard, and he always bases prescriptions on what he finds to be the facts. What is true of sparrows and bodily temperature is true of all kinds of social relations. You and I have a standard method of passing each other on the street. One can go back in imagination to the beginnings of paths, when each man disputed with the stranger about the right of way. Indi- vidual pride and self-assertion doubtless appeared again and again. But in due time it dawned on men that it is better to put aside disputes and follow a social convention. Again, we have learned in the long course of social life that it is better to have a standard set of sounds with which to express our ideas. It is Superintendence] STANDARDS OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 723 easily thinkable that we should each make his own preferred noise when he sees a given object; but one example of Babel apparently has served to set the mind of man at rest about the desirability of conforming to social standards in the matter of vocal sounds. The fact is, whether we like it or not, that in physiological life and in social life we conform to a thousand standards. We may, if we will, cry out against a discovery of these standards; how much better it will be if we all adopt the attitude of modern science and interest ourselves, first, in that which is, and secondly, in that which can be developt thru the con- trol of natural conditions. The study of standards thus becomes at once a scientific and a practical task. We must know Nature's limitations on behavior, many of which we cannot change. Here we must conform as best we can. We shall do this the more completely because of our knowledge. For example, we cannot change the body temperature, but we can become keen in detecting the conditions which are inimical to bodily life. In other cases we can improve standards. This is especially true in the case of social conventions. Once we become fully aware of the fact that passing our neighbors on the street involves the rights of two parties, we shall refine the methods of giving to each his due. Once we realize that the purpose of speech is to bring two minds into harmony, we shall perfect our mastery of language conventions. So it is with educational practice. School life is governed no less than other phases of social life by standards which Nature has imposed. You cannot make a child of six years of age pay attention to any single thing for ten minutes. You cannot interest a nine-year-old child in James's chapter on the "Stream of Consciousness." You cannot teach a child how to write fluently in one month. You cannot get third-grade children to form a football team; they are not capable of social cooperation of the type de- manded for team play. We might spend the rest of today and all of tomorrow enumerating limitations which Nature has set upon the activities of children, and in this enumeration we should be dealing with the negative side of certain important natural educational standards. More difficult, but immeasurably more important, is the task of defining Nature's endowments on the positive side. If third-grade children cannot compass certain intellectual tasks, what do they understand? What kinds of games do they play ? What can they read ? How well do they write ? The wise teacher is always watching pupils in order that the standard of teaching shall conform to the natural standard. My plea is for this conformity to natural standards thruout the school system. Without hesitation or doubt it may be asserted that we have often departed from I natural standards and that we ought to admonish one another diligently to seek out the truth in these matters in order that we may correct our wayward steps. 7 24 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Kansas city Then too there are social relations involved in school work in which the rights of many parties are involved. Shall we allow these relations to be governed by individual caprice, or shall we ask that they be systema- tized ? Shall we each set up his own method of walking in the educational highway, or shall we demand that the rules of the road be made definite and inteUigible to all ? I am sure that there can be only one answer to these questions. I ven- ture, therefore, to close the introduction of this topic and will spend the second half of mv time exhibiting some figures which illustrate what I mean by a study of practice as it is today and by the demand that in some respects this practice be reformed in the light of study. [At this point lantern slides were shown exhibiting the differences in the matter of non-promotions in the public schools of Cleveland, Grand Rapids, and St. Louis. The practices in these three cities differ radically. — Editor.] THE LEGITIMATE RANGE OF ACTIVITY OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE IN A PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM I. I. CAMMACK, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KANSAS CITY, MO. Any intelligent discussion of public education, administered by public officials and supported by public taxation, must take into account the radical changes and the unusual development that have taken place in the last two or three decades. The phenomenal development in material resources, the improvement and extension of means of communication and transporta- tion, the invention and introduction of labor-saving machinery, with the development of new processes of construction; the constant and increasing change from rural to urban life with the modified industrial conditions accompanying such change, and the necessary social and civic readjustments have greatly modified and enlarged the scope and function of public education. While the population of our nation has increast approximately from sixty-five million in 1890 to one hundred million at the present time— an increase of a little more than 50 per cent — and the enrolment in the public elementary schools of the country has experienst a similar growth, increasing from twelve and a half millions to nineteen millions during the same period, the growth in secondary and college education has been vastly greater and is clearly significant of the changes that are taking place in the direction and scope of public education. In 1890 there were in public secondary schools 211,000 students; twenty-five years later the number had increast to nearly 1,250,000 — almost six times the former number — a growth of 500 per cent, ten times the increase which had taken place in population and in elementary-school enrolment during the same period. Superintendence] THE JUNIOR COLLEGE AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOL 725 It is significant to note that during this period the growth in private high schools had been from 98,000 to 150,000 — about 50 per cent — having kept pace with the general increase in population and with the increase in the enrolment in the elementary schools. The fact that, while the private high schools had increast but 50 per cent, the public high schools had increast 500 per cent indicates clearly that the great increase in secondary education is taking place in the public schools. In 1890 practically one- third of all secondary students were in private schools, while twenty-five years later but one-ninth were in such schools. The development in college and university education, while not so pronounst, is equally significant as to direction. There were in 1890 in colleges, universities, and technical schools approximately 68,000 students. In 1915, the corresponding date used in comparing the growth of secondary schools, the number had increast to nearly 220,000, or more than three and one-half times as many as at the former period, a growth of 250 per cent — five times the normal increase in population and general education. The major part of this extension was also in state- or public-controlled schools as distinguisht from private institutions. This brief survey emphasizes two conspicuous facts: (i) that the great extension in education in the past twenty-five years has been in secondary and collegiate education ; and (2) that it has taken place in the public schools as distinguisht from the private schools. In view of such facts it seems pertinent to ask what the public school as an institution of general education has done to meet this enormous expan- sion and how it has succeeded in coping with the complex problems that such increase has developt? The elementary school has largely retained the organization and methods that existed when it was the only instrument for free public education. While its curriculum has been modified from time to time and adjusted to meet the changing conceptions of the functions and scope of elementary education, there has been little fundamental change in its methods or organization. The secondary school has largely followed the organization and the methods of the private academy, its immediate predecessor, while the college and university have retained in large measure the traditions of a more remote past. Readjustments designed to meet many of the new problems have already made considerable progress. The traditional high school takes the youth after he has advanst a considerable way in his adoles- cent period and discharges him before he has developt a satisfactory degree of self-regulating maturity. That our present type of high school does not give a satisfactory education and training for either entrance to a higher institution or for taking up the complex problems of modern society is universally conceded. The dissatisfaction comes from every source that has to do with the product of our secondary schools. Employers in com- mercial and industrial firms are loud in their criticism of the inefficient 726 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City character of the training given. They assert that the high-school boy and girl have neither the proper attitude toward life nor the kind of knowledge and training necessary to give them even the right start in the business world. Many successful business men advise young people, on completing the elementary school, that it is better to go directly into industrial or com- mercial pursuits than to extend their education into the high school. The existence of hundreds of private schools for giving business and industrial training, claiming to prepare students for remunerative positions in a few weeks or at the most a few months, with the thousands of students in these schools, is evidence that the public schools are not adequately meeting the situation. The colleges and universities, altho they have largely shaped and dominated the subject-matter of the curriculum and the methods of instruc- tion in the high school, are far from being satisfied with the results. I cannot forbear quoting the head of the department of education in one of our great universities. On this point he says: "When will colleges realize that an inadequately prepared student, inadequately taken care of in his first year and ejected with all the pomp and circumstances of a faculty vote, is an evidence of institutional imbecility rather than of student failure?" The great number of immature students now entering college or uni- versity who have not reacht self-regulating maturity amply demonstrates the wisdom of making some provision that will take better care of education at this critical period. The work of these institutions is seriously hampered by the task of assimilating the imperfect product of the high school and trying to rectify the defects in their early education so as to fit them for the important work of the upper division of university training. It is conceded by the authorities of these institutions that the first two years of college are merely an extended type of secondary education. The presence in the college and university of great numbers of immature students of imperfect mental and moral development without the restraint of home life and often under a misconception of the very purpose of college education is a serious menace to these institutions as well as to the future well-being of the students. A knowledge of these conditions has caused many parents to postpone or forego sending their sons and daughters away from home to higher institutions of learning and has caused other parents who have done so, anxious days and sleepless nights. The particular conditions that caused one city to attempt a solution of some of these problems may be a matter of interest. Its system of schools provides for the completion of the elementary grades in seven years and the high school in four. The unwillingness of parents to send their children away from home to college or university has resulted in large numbers remaining in the high school longer than the customary four years. The schools are held in such esteem and the continuity of attendance is such that 60 per cent of all children who enter the elementary school, including Superintendence] THE JUNIOR COLLEGE AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOL 727 the kindergarten, complete the elementary course, and 90 per cent of this ^^ number enter the high schools, and their persistence is such that more than ^^■[one-third of this number complete the high-school course. I^B During 19 14-15, the year previous to the organization of our junior ^■college, there were 118 postgraduates in the high schools and an equal or ^B greater number who had chosen to remain an additional year or two before ^^B taking their diplomas. ^^m These students, during their extra years' attendance, were in classes ^Bthat were largely composed of students in the earlier years of high-school ^Rwork. The subject-matter, amount of work required, and methods used ^Bwere necessarily upon the plane of those constituting the larger part of such classes. As a consequence the overage students did not have work suited to their mental development; they did not grasp the proper viewpoint; they were deficient as to kind and amount of subject-matter covered and failed to acquire the habits that should come at that age in their develop- ment. They were, however, in large numbers asking the university which they afterward attended to give them college credits toward a degree for this high-school work. As a first means toward a solution of this problem, an official of the University of Missouri was invited to present the desirabihty of establishing a junior college as a part of our public-school system to a representative body of our citizens. The proposition received enthusiastic indorsement and was heartily approved by the daily press. The plan was presented to, and received the unanimous support of, the board of education, and in Sep- tember, 19 1 5, a junior college was opened. Expecting from one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five students the first year, we were surprised that double that number presented them- selves. We also had anticipated that work in the first year only need be offered. To the contrary, a sufficient number of home students who had had the first year's college work elsewhere applied for admission to justify the opening of second-year classes giving us a small graduating class at the end of the first year of the existence of the college. There are at present in the institution, which is in its second year, nearly four hundred students, demonstrating, as it seems to us, conclusively that the institution has a place and that it covers a legitimate range of activity in our system of public schools. Opened under the patronage of the state university, as would be expected, it ministers very largely to students who look forward to a com- plete college education, and more than 80 per cent of those now attending have so declared their intention. The very name of junior college implies that there is a senior college, and that perhaps its chief function is to pre- pare for, and articulate with, the senior college. While it will make possible a university education to hundreds of our boys and girls, it will also relieve the university of perhaps as many misfits. The experience of two years in 728 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kansas City the junior college will demonstrate to many that a university education is not what they most need. While at present our junior college is largely engaged in fitting students for advanst college or university work, the future development and its greatest mission will be to extend the opportunity for further education to students who cannot or who should not take the tradi- tional college course, but who are entitled to additional educational oppor- tunities. In performing this mission the institution will become not so much a junior college as a home college which shall respond to public demands, fit local conditions, include more and more opportunities for adult education, and become part and parcel of the home Hfe of the people. Its sessions will be held in the evening as well as during the day and, having students that during the day are engaged in the practical affairs of life, will take on a practical character and will thereby be more vitally helpful than any other institution now connected with public education. The chief objection that has been presented in opposition to the junior- college movement is economic pressure, that funds will be diverted to this extension in education to the detriment of the elementary and secondary schools. That the public is willing to finance this extension has been repeatedly shown by special sources of revenue being provided where the matter has been fairly presented and where the people have had an oppor- tunity to express their approval. Laws making this provision have been past in some states and are pending in others. Instead of waiting for additional taxation on an already overburdened public, the administrators of public education should look to a reorganiza- tion of the schools now embraced in the period already provided for by public taxation. Twelve years, and, in many places, thirteen or fourteen years, when kindergarten is included, are embraced in the public-school period. Economy of time has been a watchword in this association for many years. If the elementary period is followed by the junior high school as now con- ceived, the educational reformers believe that the essentials of an elementary education may be covered in six years. The twelve years, then, take what is called the 6-6 or preferably 6-3-3 plan. Under the last division the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades should cover the first two years of the traditional high-school period, thereby saving one year in systems having eight grades. That this is possible is attested by the fact that it is now being done in several cities. When the same careful scrutiny and effort at elimina- tion is given to the last two years of the high school and the first two years of the college that is now being given to merging the last two years of the elementary school and the first two years of the high school with a saving of a year's time, a like economy of time may be expected. To accomplish this the college and university must cooperate with the high school in the modification of their courses and in the elimination of much that is virtual repetition in the two schools. The tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years when Superintendence] THE FIELDS OF INDUSTRY AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS 729 so organized will give ample preparation for the professional schools, and for the upper division of senior-college work. This organization and this accomplishment will more nearly accord with what now exists and is being done in the best European system of schools. That this movement to make the junior or the home college an integral part of public education is nation-wide there can be no question. The state of California already has seventeen such institutions. Other states are rapidly falHng in line. The belief that it constitutes a legitimate range of activity in public education is gaining wherever the movement has received serious attention. The limits of this paper forbid a discussion of the many desirable results that will follow its general introduction. But it will make it possible for thousands of young men and women to obtain a college education who otherwise would find it beyond their power. It will permit other thousands to get such an education without leaving home. It will reduce to a very considerable extent the expenses of education beyond the traditional high school. It will offer an incentive to the ambitious boy and girl to reach a higher plane of preparation than is possible under the present system. It will make possible an adaptation of preparation to the local demands not now existing. It will enable the universities to confine their attention to legitimate university work. It will meet the present demand for prepara- tion along agricultural, industrial, and commercial lines thru the channels of public education without requiring the student to leave his home. Nor will the movement stop at this point. The junior college will of itself create the demand for the complete or senior college, and the larger municipalities must look forward to giving complete university training, including the work of the professional schools. That it can be and, in fact, is being done is demonstrated in Cincinnati, New York, and in a few other cities. An awakened democracy, face to face with the necessity of meet- ing and readjusting itself to the revolutionary movements now taking place, will not be satisfied with less, and the administrators of public edu- cation where vision is fixt upon the past instead of the future, cannot long delay its coming. RELATIONS AND LINES OF DEMARCATION BETWEEN THE FIELDS OF INDUSTRY AND PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION ALBERT SHIELS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CAL. The fields of industry and the education of the public schools overlap on the question of vocational education in the industries. 5o long as we may indulge in theory and are unhampered by practical considerations, we may say at the beginning that there is really no line of demarcation between industrial education and public-school education, Jj. 730 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City except as the former may be distinguisht as a rather specialized form of a general activity, that is, that industrial education is normally a function of any system of public education just as the three "R's" or drawing or music. But tho we do believe that training in the industries as part of a voca- tional program is essential in this age and for this country, our real diffi- culties begin when we start to apply our creed. For in the appHcation we may go beyond the legitimate bounds of the educational scheme, or, thru our clumsiness, we may fail to realize our own purpose. Both of these dangers confront us when we forget the lines of demarcation and the rela- tions which exist between education and industry. In the first case we may become so enamored of the industrial demands that we may forget that our business is, not to multiply laborers and to cheapen products, but to train the best type of wage-earning citizens. This does not mean that there is any fundamental philosophic antagonism between product and producer any more than there is between capital and labor. Nevertheless the fact remains that many real antagonisms can develop and do develop when we confuse the purpose of industry with that of industrial education. In the second case our purpose is loyal to itself — that is, we create an educational scheme dedicated wholly to the interests of the learner. But, because we establish too hastily a great variety of industrial programs, without inquiry as to the kind of industrial instruction, the scope, the method, the age of the learner, we initiate all sorts of ventures, ranging from little printing presses for tender children to vast, expensive equipment. So ambitious are some of the so-called vocational schools that they are developing into institutions of technology with practically no sig- nificance for the work they have undertaken to accomplish. If, therefore, we are to apply our theories of industrial education, we shall have to learn when industry should be called into consultation with public education and when it should be distinguisht therefrom. Further, we must distinguish the thing which we call manual training from that which we call industrial education, recognizing the place of each. So too must we distinguish industrial education from technical education. And having recognized industrial education for what it is, we must arrange a certain sequence, adapted to those experiences which are intended for younger children so as to afford them a groundwork for election of special courses, from those later ones which are to provide a preapprentice training. And these two in turn must be distinguisht from the kind of instruction that aims by a sort of supplementary training to give the wage-earning journeyman or apprentice yet further ability. And, when we have made tliese distinctions which correspond fairly well with the age of the learner, ranging from the child of twelve to the patriarch of sixty, we could conceive them as arranged vertically one above another. Now this vertical ladder of progression does not stand alone. On either side are other ladders of contemporaneous educational activities. Superintendence] THE FIELDS OF INDUSTRY AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS 731 We must never forget that however excellent from the practical side our complete industrial educational systems are, and however valuable they may be in the cultural sense, on either side of this progression should be instruction in hygiene, in literature, in music, in civics. Vocational education suffers from three great dangers: (i) it may be amateurish, reflecting neither the standard nor the practice of the work- a-day world, existing only as a sort of saccharine, sentimental kind of playing at vocations; (2) it may be narrow and rigid, looking toward the production of a humamnachine, the kind that does well its work, but knows neither the wherefore nor whither of its work; (3) it may be exclusive, for- getting that, altho any form of public education must prepare for wage- earning, not less truly must it prepare citizens of the state competent to understand and appreciate work, leisure, life — all three. To realize its purpose any program of industrial education must be a little more than industrial only; and in being industrial it must have the practical and cultural values of industry, that is, it must be intensive, but never narrow. Let us now briefly fill out a program showing the relations, the demar- cations: The seventh, eighth, and ninth years of school life (and these in a state that has proper legislation would as a rule include compulsory years of school attendance) should do two things: In the industrial work they should offer a variety of experiences that would afford a basis of choice. To do this no elaborate trade-equipment would be necessary. Woodwork, wiring, sheet-metal work, possibly printing and piping, paint- ing, cement work, a few lathes, benches, and good tools — and all these I simply arranged — would be sufficient. With these would be properly correlated blue-print reading, simple drawing, measuring, and shop arithmetic. But this would be one aspect of the prevocatioijal scheme, else we should not have a prevocational scheme at all. Trades are not the only vocations. Pupils should learn their potential tastes and abilities in agriculture and in commercial and academic subjects as well. Whatever the methods and investigations of vocational guidance might yield would be a part of the program for all four courses. No attempt would be made to train for H apprenticeship, for this is not the purpose at this time. What the pupil is to learn is his own fitness, his own ability, the reasons for his own election for the future. And always there would be full provision for the older studies — music, literature, and the rest/ If the intermediate school is to serve as something more than a device of administrative convenience, I believe it will find its place, not as a repetition of the elementary school nor as a pale duplication of the high school, but as an independent institution devoted primarily to the task of discovering to pupils what work they wish to do, to give them enough experience and guidance to afford a basis for intelligent selection and choice. 732 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas city A second and subsequent type for those electing a course in industrial training assumes to prepare the learner for actual livelihood. It should begin in the ninth and tenth years of school, at the age of fifteen or sixteen, because it is an education that is to fit a pupil for apprenticeship. It must, for that reason, reflect the actual conditions of trade. If our public-school systems are to enter upon a vocational program predicated on some preceding intelligent selection such as has been outlined in the prevocational scheme, then we must be particularly careful to dis- tinguish the demarcation between industry and vocational education, for it is at this period that the tendency toward confusion between the two is greatest. Having fixt the distinction clearly, we must establish the rela- tions between the two, for they are most important. The distinctions are these: Unlike industry, public industrial education is not primarily interested in making cheap products, but in training work- ing men and women. Unlike industry, it is not content that the learner shall learn certain processes only, but that he shall understand the processes, the relation between them, and their significance. Unlike industry, it does not stop with the idea of making a good workman only, but a good citizen also, who has not only the ability to do good work for industry, but the capacity to enjoy his leisure by indulging in those pleasures that are at once the finest and the least costly. But good intentions and ambitious programs do not alone make a good scheme for industrial education. Once the large purpose be conserved, industrial education has very intimate relations with industry; it must learn from industry, it needs the aid of industry, and it needs the help of the people in industry — employers and laborers — if it is to succeed. Espe- cially does it need the help in five things: in determining the kind of trade to be taught, in the selection of the teacher, in the selection of equipment, in determining the sequence of material of instruction, and in some scheme of cooperation by which the learner may attain shop experience without competing unfairly with shop workers. Obviously a school should not train pupils to enter occupations that are dangerous to health, that have for a long time been overcrowded, that have a low wage, that offer little promise of increase in pay or promotion. Not less obviously we should select trades in which contrary conditions exist. But these facts can become known only thru some preliminary study. It may be unnecessary to make an exhaustive survey to discover the fact that the school should not rush blindly into the purchase of elaborate equipment without knowing why. A second important consideration is the selection of teachers who will give instruction in technical trade processes. We are now quite well agreed that the college graduate or the graduate of the technical school may be very poorly adapted to teach a trade, even tho he may understand the processes and appreciate the methods involved. This is because he lacks Superintendence] THE FIELDS OF INDUSTRY AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS 733 experience in trade conditions, trade requirements, and trade customs. With these latter the journeyman or foreman is familiar. But our convic- tions have driven us to extremes, and many of us have discovered that a good workman may be a poor teacher. Industrial education requires equipment, machinery, and tools. If a school system desires to make a significant contribution to industry, it can scarcely expect to duplicate these things in a large way in several buildings; and if it does, it can scarcely expect to scrap them as junk, in the way that factories, under stress of competition, are sometimes compelled to do. Equipment must, therefore, be selected carefully. Those of us who have consulted expert managers and superintendents have learned the number of useless and costly things put into vocational schools by enthusiastic teachers who were graduates of technical institutions. I have in mind a class in ^fcpplied electricity in a certain city that had all sorts of expensive scientific ^Bnstruments and not a single arc lamp. Equipment for vocational educa- ^■ion, if not purely supplementary, will never be cheap, and that is added ^Season for avoiding unnecessary waste. A vocational school cannot suc- ^^eed without the advice and suggestion of trained artisans. Technical education for the future engineer and industrial education for the future shop foreman are different things. We need the industrial world to check our work, to determine for us the sincerity of our performance. Independ- ently we can provide the cultural training, the physical training, and the establishment of proper hygienic habits. If our industrial establishments need more intelligent labor, as we are told they do, and if we ourselves must conserve the general educational values without which laboring men and women might become mere au- tomata, it is probable that business will have to make certain adjustments by which it will permit some of our pupils to work in the shops, as part of their vocational experience, during the time in which they are actually attending the school. The history of industrial training in public schools has too long been handicapt by its isolation from business conditions. Thus far two kinds of education have been discust: prevocational training for preadolescents as a basis of subsequent selection, and pre- apprentice training for adolescents. A third type of training is that intended for wage-earners, apprentices, or journeymen, who enter the school to improve their own opportunity for advancement. I do not mean classes in shopwork for bookkeepers, or auto-repairing for enthusiastic owners of cars, but instruction for those who need it in their regular occupation. There is no logical reason for refusing such instruction to a community, unless indeed there are those who affirm that our public schools should be open only to young people who have not yet entered the competitive world. And this position few, I take it, would be inclined to adopt. In this work of continuation instruction we shall have to call on fore- men, superintendents, and managers. We may have to rent quarters in 734 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kansas City manufacturing districts. Whatever we do, the importance of observing the dependence of education on business will be constantly in evidence. To summarize, public education is concerned with industry, as it is with commerce, as it is with any form of educational experience which prepares man for a livelihood and for living. This implies a type of instruction more specialized than that of the first six years of school life, and differentiated from the purely cultural and academic conception which up to a decade ago dominated secondary education. Public industrial education is to be sharply discriminated from industry and from the sort of schooling which industrial employment offers, in that it provides for an education which is more extensive and more intensive. It is more extensive in that it conceives human beings, not as wage-earners only, but as men and women who need an education that is cultural, civic, and social. In all this program the large aim is, not to multiply a great number of superficial, partially trained workers, but better-trained, better-developt, better-educated workers, whether prospective or existent, who by this educa- tion may become better citizens for the state. MULTIPLE USE OF CHILD-WELFARE AGENCIES WILLIAM WIRT, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, GARY, IND. Two or three generations ago it did not matter much from the stand- point of national welfare whether or not the cities were good places for rearing children, because the cities had only lo per cent of the population. Today over half of our population is in the cities, and, as a rule, the most aggressive and ambitious part of our population has been attracted to the city because of the superior opportunities for professional and business life, as well as intellectual and artistic pursuits. Cities have never been good places for rearing children, and are less satisfactory for this purpose today than they were a generation ago. Every time an apartment house has been erected on a vacant lot, the children of the neighborhood have lost a playground. The work formerly done in the home and in the small shops near the home is now concentrated in large factories, and the city home no longer has the opportunity for the industrial training of its children. For nearly a generation there has been a nation-wide agitation for public playgrounds to take the place of the vacant lots and the free play space of the past. Nearly every city has made some progress along the line of securing public playgrounds for the children, but the progress made has not kept pace with the disappearance of the open play spaces. Prob- ably there are at least ten hours of children's play in the street today to one hour of a generation ago. The street is also a much more dangerous Superintendence] MULTIPLE USE OF CHILD-WELFARE AGENCIES 735 place to play in than it was a generation ago. Then a horse traveling down the street a mile in three minutes would have been considered racing. Today our streets are full of automobiles, and twenty miles an hour is considered a slow speed. The problem of creating a child world within the adult world of the city where children may be kept busy all day long working, studying, and playing in a wholesome environment has not been solved because of the financial inability of the city to provide the necessary equipment, facilities, and supervision. The public schools are now looking after the children for an average of about two and one-half hours a day, if the total school time- is averaged [over the 365 days of the year. Public libraries, playgrounds, settlements, churches and Sunday schools, social and recreation centers, and other child- ^ welfare agencies are occupying the time of the children for an average of I less than ten minutes a day for the 365 days of the year. As a result the city street has the children for twice the amount of time to educate them in the wrong direction that the school, playground, library, church, and other child-welfare agencies have to educate them in the right direction. The establisht public-school system is the principle stumbUngblock in the way of creating within every city a desirable child world that will make the city the best place for rearing children. The traditional school system was never planned for city life. In the country the child gets his physical training, industrial training, and general character-development on the farm. The providing of a school seat for each child and .a teacher who stays with him five or six hours a day for half the days works fairly well. But in the city, where the home cannot do for the children what the farm can do in the way of character- development and physical and industrial training, it is necessary that the , public provide a great deal more than a school seat, and a much wider range [of activities than simply studying reading, writing, and arithmetic, and 'use much more of the child's time. In the cities the public must provide the playgrounds, the gymnasiums, I and the swimming-pools for the physical training and play of the children. The public must provide opportunities for re-creation as well as creation. !The public must provide workshops, laboratories, libraries, studios, and opportunities for the civic and social training of the children, as well as school seats for the study of reading, writing, and arithmetic. In creating this desirable child world in the city, I believe it to be fun- damental that the regular teacher of the regular academic subjects have good classrooms with good equipment, that the classrooms must not be used for other purposes, and that the funds available for classrooms should not be diverted to other purposes. I also believe it to be fundamental that the teacher herself must have her undivided time for the teaching of regular academic subjects, and that part of her salary must not be diverted to pay 736 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City salaries of supervisors and extra special teachers. It is also fundamental that the regular teachers have all the children's time necessary for satis- factory instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic. It is fundamental that the job of the school-teacher be confined within the limits that make it possible for the average person to do the work satisfactorily. I want the children to have playgrounds, gymnasiums, swimming-pools, workshops, laboratories, gardens, libraries, studies, and auditoriums, and time to use them, and proper supervision while using them. But don't destroy your schools by taking for special facilities money needed sorely for regular classrooms. Don't destroy your schools by taking time for special facilities out of the ordinary school day for the study of reading, writing, and arithmetic. Don't destroy your schools by taking for super- visors of special facilities the time and strength and salaries of your teachers who are needed for teaching reading, writing, and arithmetic. Children should have the opportunity to be in a public, supervised child world seven or eight hours a day and at least three hundred days of the year. But it is physically impossible to expect one teacher to stay with one group of children all day long and every day, because of the length of time of the services required as well as the impossibility of doing for the children all the variety of activities that needs to be done for them. The establish t practice seems to be that only one child- welfare agency can be in use at any one time; each agency must be large enough to accommodate all at once. This plan is known as the "peak-load" plan, because the load during the time of operation is made as great as possible upon each facility. There is no more reason for operating public child- welfare agencies on a peak load than there is for operating adult public- service facilities on a peak load. We do not insist upon all the adults using the public park at once, using the street cars at once, nor the public art galleries at once. To require all the children to use school-teachers from nine until three, and librarians and playground teachers after three, is the same thing in principle as requiring all adults to consult doctors between nine and three, and lawyers after three o'clock. As an adult, someone else looks at my picture in the art gallery when I do not wish to look at it, someone else enjoys my public park when I do not wish to enjoy it, someone else goes to my grand opera when I do not wish to go, someone else consults my doctor, lawyer, or merchant when I do not wish to consult them, someone else rides in my seat in my street car when I do not wish to ride in it. Because all these public facilities have this wider use, or multiple use, or alternate use, each one of us has better street cars, better doctors, better lawyers, better parks, better operas, better art galleries than we would have if only one of these public-service facilities could be used at a time. Why cannot some other child use my child's school seat for studying reading, writing, and arithmetic when my child cannot use it ? Why cannot some Superintendence) MULTIPLE USE OF CHILD-WELFARE AGENCIES 737 other child use my child's auditorium seat when he cannot use it ? Why cannot some other child use my child's playground when he cannot use it ? If we can secure a wider use, multiple use, or alternate use of child-welfare facilities, then my child will have a better schoolroom and seat, better auditorium, and better playground when he can use them. On a peak-load plan every public-service facility must be large enough to accommodate everybody at once. But the advantage of cooperative effort in public-service facilities rests entirely upon securing a multiple or alternate use of these facilities. In the ordinary city public school the teacher of a third-grade class does not keep her children studying reading, writing, and arithmetic five hours a day. She first has her children in opening exercises. ' Then after they have studied reading, writing, and arithmetic as long as they can do so profitably, she tries to give them a recess, physical training, manual training, music, drawing, or nature-study. The program of every teacher is arranged so that the special subjects supplement the regular subjects and relieve the child of too-long-concentrated application in any one subject or type of work. Not more than one hundred and eighty minutes a day .is used or needed for reading, writing, and arithmetic. We can relieve the third-grade teacher of the burden of teaching the special subjects by sending the third-grade class that has been with her in her classroom studying reading, writing, and arithmetic for ninety minutes out to the special teachers, and give her in exchange another third-grade class that has been spending .the ninety minutes with the special teachers. Fortunately one academic classroom can be used for two academic classes. When the teacher sends her first third-grade class out to special activities and receives a second third-grade class in exchange, she will insist upon this second third-grade class using the classroom occupied by the first third-grade class. Her argument is that she has the work for the class outlined upon the blackboard, and that all her maps, globes, and charts are in this room. She cannot see why she should leave her classroom empty while she goes to another classroom and duplicates all of her work for the second class, any more than a history teacher in a high school should change classrooms every time she changes classes. Ten classrooms in a school are sufficient for the instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic of twenty classes of children if they are used exclu- sively for this purpose. The remaining ten classrooms can, therefore, be turned into laboratories, studios, libraries, workshops, and gymnasiums. The academic classroom is the most expensive unit in a school building. It costs more to*build ten classrooms for the academic instruction of ten classes than it does to build gymnasiums or to buy a playground for ten classes, to build an auditorium for ten classes, or to build workshops, labora- tories, studios, and libraries for ten classes. By using the classroom ex- clusively for the academic instruction of the children and giving the regular 738 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kansas City classroom teacher her full strength and time for this academic instruction, it is possible to provide what might be considered extravagant facilities and equipment for keeping children busy all day long, working, studying, and playing. Magnificent classrooms can be provided for all children, if we need only half as many classrooms as classes. Magnificent auditoriums can be provided if we need only seating capacity for one-sixth the total number of children. Magnificent playgrounds, gymnasiums, and swimming-pools can be provided if we need to accommodate only one-sixth of the children at one time. Magnificent shops, laboratories, libraries, and studios can be provided if only one-sixth need be accommodated at once. In a school accommodating twelve hundred children we need only six hundred classroom sittings; only two hundred auditorium seats; play space for only two hundred; shops, libraries, studios, and laboratories for only two hundred. By collective effort and multiple use we need to provide for each child an average of only one-half of a school desk and seat, one- sixth auditorium seat, one-sixth play space, one-sixth shop, library, studio, or laboratory space. Collective effort in the traditional school without multiple use requires twice the classroom space and six times the play, auditorium, shop, studio, and library space, which means that only a few of the children can have these necessary facilities. Is it not, therefore, a crime against childhood that the city school should not avail itself of the tremendous advantage of multiple use in operating child- welfare agencies ? The city is the best place for lawyers because there are so many people in the city. The city is the best place for doctors because there are so many people in the city. The city is the best place for merchants and for teachers because there are so many people in the city. Large numbers of people collectively working together in the city are able to provide a richer life than they can individually provide for themselves isolated from each other. In fact, the city is the best place in the world for the average adult to live his life. Is it not strange, therefore, that we should say that we cannot provide playgrounds for children in the city because there are so many children ? Is it not strange, therefore, to say that we cannot pro- vide school seats for children, auditorium seats for children, workshops, laboratories, and studios for children because there are so many children ? Should not the city that has the most children do more for each child just as it is able to do much more for each adult ? The city can be made the best place in the world for children if we will apply the same principle for operating child-welfare agencies that we have applied in the operation of adult-welfare agencies. Superintendence] COMMITTEE ON BOARDS AND SUPERINTENDENTS 739 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RELATION BETWEEN BOARDS OF EDUCATION AND SUPERINTENDENTS In the preparation of this report the committee has drawn upon the following sources of information: First, a circular of inquiry was sent to active members of the National Education Association who are at the present time superintendents of schools. It was designed to secure a type of information more intimate and complete than can be secured from printed copies of rules or from reports of the Bureau of Education. Answers were received from 190 superintendents. In some instances the committee corresponded further with individuals on this list. Of the 190 reports, 39 came from cities of more than 30,000, 151 from smaller cities. There were, in addition, four letters unsigned. These were not included in the tabulations. The second source of information was the Bureau of Education. Bul- letin No. 44 of the series of 191 5, entitled School Administration in the Smaller Cities, prepared by W. S. Defifenbaugh, chief of the Bureau's Divi- sion of School Administration, contains detailed information for cities below 30,000 inhabitants. A similar bulletin of the Bureau by the same author is now in press, giving the facts for large cities. The Bureau has cooperated with the committee and has given access to the manuscript of this bulletin, thus making it possible to base some of the statements of this report on a broader foundation than that supplied by the letters described above. A third source of material was found in the current discussions of school administration in school surveys and treatises on administration. A short selected bibliography of such sources is appended to this report. The impression which a careful study of this material makes on one's mind is the painful one that most administrative situations are undefined and shifting. Schools are administered, sometimes well, sometimes badly, but in most cases without clear definition of responsibility or authority. Public interests are fortunately protected in most instances, but the machin- ery is the primitive machinery of the vigilance committee, with now the superintendent, now the board of education, now the city council, now a parents' association, trying to determine what steps shall be taken to pro- mote public welfare. In such a situation the accidents of personal influence play an unjusti- fiable part. Several of the letters from successful superintendents state explicitly or show between the lines that they are entirely in control of the policies of the schools. Some go so far as to say that any effort to define the responsibilities and authority of the superintendents would curtail their influence and would therefore be undesirable. At the other end of the scale are reports which show that the superintendent is shorn of all influence. In many cases he is little more than a clerk, dependent from day to day on the accidents of the board's attitude for the meager authority 740 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City which -he tries to exercise. In some cases he goes to the board meeting only when especially invited. He has teachers sent to him by the board, and he knows nothing about the financial management of the system. Such a superintendent usually recommends the adoption of a state law endowing his office with rights. The extreme situations referred to above may occur within a single state, showing that there is no such thing as a typical and clearly defined American school administration. The origin of the present situation is not far to seek. American schools were first controlled by the citizens of the district. They met in intimate neighborhood groups and settled the problems relating to their children. Communities were fairly homogeneous, the course of study was simple, school buildings were all about equally unsanitary, and teachers were equally untrained. A majority vote was a democratic and accepted method of carrying the community thru these undesirables. Within a half-century all this has changed. We know today that every center in a state is involved in the behavior of each of its communities. Indeed, our generation is witnessing the assumption by the federal govern- ment of an influence and authority in education which is without precedent in American history. This is not the place to comment at length on these changes, but one result is absolutely certain — the simple district control of schools is gone. It remains for us to decide what we shall have in its place. What we have today is a series of experiments of every variety that can be set up thru the exercise of human imagination. Most of these experiments are going on behind closed doors. Most of them involve sooner or later a conflict of authority. Very few of them are understood by the people of the communities in which they exist. The result is, first, much clumsy administration, even where everybody acts in the spirit of most cordial cooperation. Matters of vital importance to the school are delayed. Secondly, baneful agencies, seeking to profit unjustly, can set up in the school system influences which would have no weight if there were clear and definite responsibility and authority. Thirdly, the people of the community, being uncertain about what is going on, often become restless and critical and unwiUing to give adequate sup- port to the schools. Fourthly, the teaching staff sometimes becomes de- moralized and relatively inefficient, at times the disorganization goes so far that teachers are actually and openly antagonistic to the board or superintendent, or both. All these untoward conditions are symptoms of inefficient organization. The cure is, not a petty tinkering with details, but rather a broad treatment of the fundamental principles involved. It is manifestly the duty of the Department of Superintendence to contribute in some vigorous way to a more intelligent control of the new type of school organization which has superseded the old-time district system. The people who send their Superintendence] COMMITTEE ON BOARDS AND SUPERINTENDENTS 741 children to schools are beginning to demand that they be informed more definitely than ever before about the government and conduct and achieve- ments of these schools. There can be no doubt that people are very much interested in their schools and are in a mood to act for the best interests of these schools if they can gain the necessary information. The selfish interests of the members of this department, no less than the demands of communities, dictate a campaign aimed at more thoro public understanding of school organization. There is not a school super- intendent in the country who would not gain by a clearer definition of his relations to the community. This is not a shallow plea for a self-seeking campaign for more arbitrary authority; it is a plea for a better distribu- tion of work within the system. Unless this department undertakes such a study and brings to boards of education suggestions which will help them in the discharge of their functions, there will be many more professional careers of school superintendents interrupted or entirely destroyed by conditions which could have been wholly avoided if the new problems of school organization had been fully discust. It is not necessary to bring to mind here the conspicuous examples of disaster in school systems which have been recorded even in the last year as a result of fruitless controversies growing out of a clash of authority. It is not necessary to offer an estimate of the energy which has been devoted by school superintendents to patching up the old bottle of school organiza- tion, which will not hold together when the new wine of modern education is poured in. A few quotations from the letters received by the committee will show the serious demand for a genuine campaign of public education in such matters. One superintendent in California says: I am of the opinion that if your committee, after receiving and studying the various reports to you, would formulate a pretty definite set of rules governing the relationship between a board of education and its superintendent, and have the same past upon at the next meeting of the Department of Superintendence, and then ask the various state departments of education to adopt such a set of rules and notify the various school boards of their respective states of their action, your efforts would be productive of the greatest good. Another from the same state says: In order to get the matter of relative powers of superintendents and boards before the attention of members of boards of education, I recommend that the committee prepare a circular with a tentative program composed of a few concise sentences with a heading, "What a Board Should Do," and another page with the heading, "What a Superintendent Should Do," avoiding, so far as possible, anything which requires extended explanation, even if something must be sacrificed. From Colorado comes the following: As to your final question, I have this suggestion to make, that is, that the conclusions arrived at by your committee should be put in printed form and given to the local press, 742 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Kansas city commercial clubs, and other organizations for civic betterment to get these conclusions before the public mind. Superintendents themselves should be requested to furnish names of newspapers and clubs to which information should be sent, but superintendents should not be askt to distribute pamphlets or any other matter relating to the subject. From the very nature of the question the superintendent should be an interested onlooker until such time as his board of education should wish to have him express his views on powers delegated to superintendents. Another superintendent from that state writes: The department can render no greater service than to devise certain type plans of organization suited to typical school systems and give these type organizations wide publicity in periodicals that reach the general public. That they should be supplied to school superintendents and principals and to boards is obvious. From Illinois comes the following: The Department of Superintendence can help improve present conditions by working out specific plans for cities of various sizes. The best plans in the world, I think, will not do, however, unless the boards have had a part in their formulation, for if they do not have a part they will reject the work of the school people as being one-sided because done wholly by interested parties. The state and national school-board associations would no doubt come to sane conclusions if they would study the problem in a thorogoing way, as leading educators are now doing. From Iowa: It appeals to the writer that the department may perform a real service by showing in tabulated form the exact functions that obtain now both on the part of superintendents and on the part of boards, and then secure from schoolmen in public-school administrative positions and from members of boards their reactions toward the different types of activ- ities. I suggest these two classes because I feel that the public schoolmen rather than students of education should give their reactions, and that the men representing the public whose money they spend should also be heard. From Massachusetts: In general the Department of Superintendence might contribute to the better rela- tion between boards and superintendents by emphasizing very strongly the fact that in industry and commerce directors decide upon policies and broad lines of activity, leaving the control of machinery and the execution of all administrative details to general super- intendents or managers. Absolutely the same policy should be followed in the manage- ment of school systems. There is no reason why superintending schools should not be recognized as a special- ized profession as much as superintending raibroads, steel mills, or department stores. The more a superintendent is recognized the more likely the country will be to attract capable men into the teaching profession to fit themselves for that particular part of the work. If the Department of Superintendence can emphasize this strongly and bring it to the attention of the intelligent men of the country, it will be doing a valuable piece of work. From Michigan: I believe the Department of Superintendence can promote progress in school organi- zation by determining just what the relation of superintendent and board should be, and I Superintendence] COMMITTEE ON BOARDS AND SUPERINTENDENTS 743 by giving publicity to its findings in the public press and by frequent discussions on the program of the Association. From Nebraska: I believe tha,t the Department of Superintendence can promote a better relationship between boards and superintendents by giving greater publicity to the elements of this problem and by making certain definite recommendations for general adoption. From New York: It seems to me that one of the ways in which the Department of Superintendence may most advantageously proceed in order to promote in all parts of the country better relations between boards and superintendents is to publish suggestive rules governing the work of the superintendent and outlining what should be the relation between boards and superintendents to make the work most effective. This committee, in the discharge of the commission for which it was created, and in compliance, as it beheves, with the consensus of opinion as exprest by those who repUed to its circular of inquiry, begs leave to recommend as follows: First, it is recommended that action on certain general principles of school administration which will be detailed in the later sections of this report be taken at this meeting, and that a committee of ten members, to be known as the Committee on Publicity, be created to bring these prin- ciples to the attention of boards of education and communities thru legiti- mate avenues of public discussion. It is recommended that steps be taken to supply this committee with funds for its work. Secondly, it is recommended that after the adoption of these general principles a commission of ten be created, to be known as the Commission on Administrative Legislation, to work out details in the form of rules suitable for adoption by boards of education, and model laws to be recom- mended to legislatures, and to present these to this department for action at the next annual meeting. In the performance of this duty the Commission on Administrative Legislation shall give special attention to board rules and laws now in opera- tion and shall, so far as possible, support each of its recommendations by direct reference to such establisht cases. Thirdly, it is recommended that a committee of ten be appointed, to be known as the Committee on Cooperation with School Boards, the duty of which shall be to get into communication with school boards or organiza- tions of such bodies and to secure from them as much cooperation as may be possible in defining fully the problems of public-school organization. The special duty of the committee shall be to promote, so far as possible, organizations of sections for school-board members in state educational associations and in the National Education Association, in order that the 744 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City general principles adopted by this department may be discust and supple- mented by school boards. As a basis for the future activity of the department the committee herewith presents general principles of organization which it believes should be adopted by this department. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1. The representatives of the people who are in charge of educational systems should realize that they represent, not the local interests of a nar- row district, but the interests of the whole community. Education cannot be complete nor its equipment satisfactory unless localities of very different character are brought into cooperation. Education is a function of the state, not of single communities. This principle is based on the consideration that population in its readjustments brings constantly into one district people who were shortly before in other districts. Furthermore, the higher forms of education can be supported only by large units of population. Thus the high-school district must be large, and this is still more evident in the case of the state institutions, such as normal schools and state universities. Local school officers often forget that education is the duty of the state. They conceive themselves to be guardians of a narrow district. They seek the advantage of a certain section of the town, or they represent the special interest of some one class in the community. The board of education which conceives its duty in a large way will not aim to secure in its membership personal representatives of all classes in the community, but will strive to represent the whole system by making adequate studies of the interests of all classes. For example, it is not pos- sible to include in the board personal representatives of every ward or of all the trades and professions, but the board should study the needs of all wards and of all trades and professions. The tendency in all school systems has been in the direction of a reduc- tion in the number of members of the board. The old idea was a board made up of personal representatives of all interests. The better principle is that the board learns about all interests and represents all interests thru inteUigence rather than thru partisan partiaHty and logrolling. The realization of this principle appears in the fact that the majority of boards are today made up of persons who represent the school system at large, not by districts. 2. A second general principle issues directly from the first. The repre- sentatives of the broad community interests in education should be free from any local entanglements. The same persons should not be involved in a study of the educational needs of a town and in the study of other needs, such as police, fire equipment, and so forth, because these latter are more restricted interests than is education. The educational system is in part Superintendence] COMMITTEE ON BOARDS AND SUPERINTENDENTS 745 paid for out of state funds and will from this time on be affected increasingly by national subsidies of particular activities. There will be the largest necessity for a high-minded consideration of the most advantageous dispo- sition of all resources for the good of the state and of the whole community. This requires the divorcement of the school system from local poUtics, however legitimate the latter may be. There is, accordingly, a strong tendency to separate the board of edu- cation from all branches of local government and to give it autonomy in all matters. 3. The representatives of the people cannot perform directly the large duties of carrying on the school system. They must employ technically trained officers to conduct the schools. To these technically trained officers they must look for proper information on which to base their deci- sions, and they must be prepared to intrust to those officers the powers and responsibilities which attach to the daily conduct of school work. There is little doubt on the part of all communities that technical train- ing is necessary for the proper conduct of schools, but the exact definition of the sphere within which technical training is needed is not yet workt out in most systems. A series of concrete examples may therefore be offered as illustrating the type of duty which board members cannot properly perform. No board member should teach classes. No board member should act as principal of a school. No board member should negotiate with a publisher of textbooks, nor should pass on the availability of a given book for use in a school. No board member should examine teachers with a view to determining their qualifications for appointment. No board member should plan a school building. No board member should write the course of study. Even where individual cases may arise in which particular members of certain boards would have the ability to perform these tasks, it is better that a well-establisht division of labor should be recognized. It is the duty of the members of the board to see that technical officers do the work of the system, but the board should not do this work itself. It is a public board, created to see that a certain piece of public work is done, not a group of technical officers created to do the work. The safe analogy in this case is the analogy of the board of directors in a business corporation. No one can imagine a director of a railroad stopping a train and giving the engineer and the conductor orders about their duties. It ought to be possible to organize and define the technical duties of a school system and to distinguish them from the broad duties which reside in the representatives of the people. 4. It is fundamental to the conduct of a school system to recognize that instruction is the end and aim of all that is undertaken. The build- ings are erected with a view to the housing of instruction; all supplies are used for instruction; all officers in the system are appointed for the purpose 746 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City of directing or conducting instruction. It follows that there should be no subordination of instruction to business interests and no separation of the general management of the business concerns of the system from the general management of instruction. It is sometimes held by board members that they know about business matters and do not know about instruction, and, on the other hand, it is freely asserted that school officers are inefficient in business matters. It is the judgment of the educational profession that board members cannot be intelligent about the conduct of schools unless they secure and thoroly comprehend reports on the instructional phases of school work. It is equally the judgment of the profession that no supervisory officer of a school system is competent to manage the details of a school system if he cannot comprehend the business relations involved. In some large systems there must be a separation of personal duties between the general superintendent and the manager of business details, just as there must be assistant super- visors of instruction. In such cases it is a fundamental requirement of good organization that the instructional demands of the system shall be dominant, and that this fact shall be clearly recognized in the organization. 5. The financial duty of the board is to be described in the statement that the board should see to it that the funds of the system are collected and distributed in a thoroly systematic fashion. This calls for a definite budget, a clear public financial statement, and a careful study of the prin- ciples underlying distribution, so that all the functions of the system may share equitably in the support which is available. If all these requirements are complied with, it may be and often is the duty of the board in the capacity of representatives of the public to make an appeal to the people for further support. A series of new financial problems have of late arisen to complicate the duties of the board. There is a demand for social centers, for playgrounds, for night schools for adults, and for other activities which cost money and were not formerly a part of school expenditure. The board of education has to decide what share of the public-school money can properly be expended for these types of activity. There is no problem in which the obligation of the board to the people whom they represent is more clearly exemplified than in this problem of organizing and distributing finances. It is a fundamental mistake for a board to assume that it is called upon to spend the funds of the system. It should organize expenditure and create the proper machinery for making the expenditure, but the board is not the spending agent. 6. The technical officers of the school system will be most harmonious in their activities if they are placed under the supervision of a single head or manager who is the executive head of the system. This central supervisor should have the responsibilities and the rights which will make possible a compact organization of the working force in the schools. Superintendence] COMMITTEE ON BOARDS AND SUPERINTENDENTS 747 7. The superintendent must be a man of superior training. He must be prepared to report plans of organization and to make a clear statement of results. He should organize the officers under him in such a way as to secure from them in detail an efficient type of organization, and he should secure from them adequate reports on which to base the statements which he presents to the board. 8. In the performance of these functions the superintendent has a right to the initiative in technical matters. Specifically, he should have the sole right to perform the following: {a) recommend all teachers, all officers of supervision, and all janitors and clerks; (b) work out the course of study with the cooperation of the other officers of instruction; (c) select textbooks with the same cooperation; (d) have a determining voice in matters of building and equipment; and (e) draw up the annual budget. These technical recommendations should always be reviewed by the board, and the approval of the board should be a necessary step for final enactment. This will insure the careful preparation of reports and the careful study of results. The superintendent is not to be authorized to conduct the system apart from the board, but he should be insured by defi- nite forms of organization against interference which will defeat his plans and divide his responsibility. Public business suffers when these technical matters are improperly handled. Let us assume two cases. In the first case the superintendent may be inefficient, and the board or some other active agency may cover over his inefficiency for a time by doing his work for him. The result will be disastrous in the end. It would be better for public business to bring the inefficiency to the surface as quickly as possible and remove the officer who cannot conduct the system properly. In the second case the super- intendent is efficient, but is hampered by lack of definition of his functions. The school system will lack in unity of organization and in harmony of internal operation. The system will be defective in so far as it is divided against itself. 9. In the relations of the board to all officers of the system it is essential that appointment, reappointment, dismissal, and promotion be removed from the interference of petty personal influences, and that all such transac- tions be based on records which are systematically organized and super- vised. There is no clearer indication of the condition of a school system than the attitude of the teachers and other officers to their duties and to the results which they are securing. The school system which is well organ- ized exhibits cooperation on the part of all its officers. The interests of the public suffer beyond measure when appointments are the result of illegitimate personal influences. 10. The demands of an educational system move forward each year with the progress of modern life. There is constant need of development 748 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas city in school policies. There is constant need of additional training on the part of all who participate in the work of the school system. School organi- zation must explicitly provide for continuation training of its technical officers and for systematic review of school policies by all who have to do with the school system. The counterpart of this development of school poHcies is the preservation of those elements of organization which have proved to be effective. American school systems suffer from instabihty. The board changes and the superintendent and teachers are of short tenure. There should be a clear recognition of the fact that the training of novices is always expensive. The business world has learned that it often costs more to train a new clerk than to increase the salary of an experienst clerk. American school systems have been most uneconomical in the treatment of their organizations. There should be an effort to insure stability with accompanying progressiveness, a retention of that which is effective with a supplementing and strengthening of that which is weak. Charles E. Chadsey, Detroit, Mich., Chairman J. H. Francis, Columbus, Ohio E. U. Graff, Omaha, Nebr. Charles S. Peterson, Chicago, 111. J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala. F. E. Spaulding, Minneapohs, Minn. Willla-m G. Willcox, New York, N.Y. Charles H. Judd, Chicago, 111., Secretary The following comments by individual members are added as supple- mentary to the report. By Charles S. Peterson, as follows: Allow me to lay out, at a little greater length, my ideas, and my reasons for believing that in large cities there should be a separate business-manager. My thoughts on the subject run about as follows: The public-school system is organ- ized for the purpose of educating children. The superintendent of schools is selected as an expert in education, and is assumed to be fully conversant with the best and latest methods of instruction, and capable of outlining the most efficient curriculum. His responsibilities are great. The duties connected with his office as administrator of the purely educational side of the public-school system are so numerous, complicated, and exacting as to demand his best thought, his constant study, and all of his time. I believe that the superintendent of schools should, in addition to the purely educa- tional duties, also have the power of initial recommendation as to textbooks and education apparatus. He should also have the right to recommend to the board of education the types of school buildings and what such buildings should contain in the way of educational facilities, such as classrooms, assembly halls, lecture-rooms, social rooms, teachers' rest rooms, etc. To burden him with the responsibility for the execution of all business matters connected with the school system is to limit unnecessarily his time for purely educational administration to the injury of his work as an educational expert. The assumed benefit to the school system of having the superintendent charged with the responsibility for business affairs as well as educational matters in the way of additional Superintendence] COMMITTEE ON BOARDS AND SUPERINTENDENTS 749 increast harmony in the entire system in my judgment is far offset by the loss to him of his much-needed attention to the instruction side. It is universally conceded that each community must place in the hands of selected lay citizens — business men and women — the responsibility for the administration of their public schools. Educators are almost a unit in opposing the selection for membership on boards of education of professional educators — men or women whose profession is teaching. Therefore it becomes incumbent upon lay citizens ultimately to pass judgment upon the policies and recommendations of their superintendent and assume responsi- bility for the same to the citizens of their community. It is logical to believe that any person who has chosen teaching as his life-work and specialized in all of his preparation and training therefor cannot justly be expected to be an expert on business matters; in fact, it is well known that most educators are not known as good business men; and this is no discredit to them since it cannot reasonably be expected of them. To hold otherwise is to my mind only comparable with the assumption that a good lawyer, expert in legal lore, should also be required and expected to be a fine electrical engineer. Since, therefore, the superintendent cannot reasonably be expected to have excel- lent judgment in business matters, while he can be expected to have such judgment with reference to educational matters, and in view of the fact that the boards of education, composed of lay members of the community, must in the last analysis be held responsible by the citizens of their communities for the efficiency of the public-school system, it is my deliberate judgment that they — the board members — should be unre- stricted in their holding the superintendent accountable for his educational policies, and that in turn they must hold business experts responsible for the execution of business, affairs connected with the public schools. On these latter matters, of course, the members of the board can bring to bear, in passing judgment thereon, the benefit of their business experience; and it is to be assumed that the judgment of a board of education on a busi- ness matter is far better than it possibly can be on an educational recommendation which involves technical educational theories and policies. I am therefore strongly of the opinion that our report should make a clear division between the technical educational part of the school system and the business affairs connected therewith, and recommend that the superintendent be given broad power in his natural realm, subject, of course, to the approval of the board of education, and that in large school systems there should be lodged responsibility for business affairs in another person, one who is expert on purely business matters. Of course I grant that in small systems it becomes necessary for the superintendent to have much responsibility for business matters, comparatively few in number, owing to the fact that the size of the system may not justify the employment of a business expert, while it is absolutely neces- sary, no matter what the size of the system, to employ an expert in education. By William G. Willcox, as follows: In acknowledging the excellent draft of the report for the Department of Superin- tendence committee I am almost entirely in accord with it and have no suggestions beyond an expression of doubt as to the wisdom of giving the superintendent the management of the business administration in cities of the size of New York or Chicago. I fully approve of the publication of the report as drafted. INFORMATION FROM VARIOUS SOURCES The following items of information are taken from the bulletins pre- pared by Mr. Deffenbaugh and from the letters received by the committee from superintendents. Any item which is quoted from Mr. Deffenbaugh's bulletin on School Administration in the Smaller Cities will be preceded by 7SO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City the letters "D.I." This bulletin was publisht as No. 44 of the series of 191 5. Items quoted from the manuscript of the forthcoming bulletin on School Administration in Large Cities will be preceded by "D.II." This bulletin is now in press. Items drawn from the tabulation of the letters sent by superintendents will be preceded by the letter "L." SIZE OF THE BOARD D.I. Of 1 27 1 cities reporting, 179 have boards of 3 members, 4 of 4 members, 365 of 5 members, 236 of 6 members, 306 of 7 members, 27 of 8 members, 97 of 9 members, 20 of 10 members, 8 of 11 members, 19 of 12 members, 3 of 13 members, 2 of 14 members, 2 of 15 members, i of 16 members, i of 19 members, i of 24 members. Only 181 boards have more than 7 members, and only 84 more than 9. The small cities having the largest boards are those working under special charter. D.I. Experience has shown that in a small city a large board becomes unwieldy. There is not enough business to hold the attention of more than 5 or 7 men. D.II. In practice the size of school boards in cities of 100,000 or more population ranges from 4 to 46 members. The median number is 9 and the mode 5. In cities between 25,000 and 100,000 population the number of board members range from 3 to 21. The median number is 7 and the mode 9. HOW MEMBERS ARE CHOSEN D.I. The usual method of choosing boards of education in cities is by election at large. In 1094 cities of 1288 reporting, the board is elected by popular vote, and in 194 the board is appointed by the mayor or city council. D.II. In cities between 25,000 and 100,000 population 79 per cent are elected by popular vote, 16 per cent are appointed by the mayor, and 5 per cent by the council or commission. TERRITORY FROM WHICH ELECTED D.I. Of 1073 cities that elect boards of education by popular vote, 975 elect them at large and 98 by wards. In some few instances a member represents a certain ward but is voted for by all the electors of the city. Of the cities appointing boards of education, 170 appoint members to repre- sent the whole city and 11 to represent wards. The tendency is toward election at large. In fact, the ward system of election has almost disap- peared, as this method has been found to be the least desirable. D.II. Election at large has in practically every instance brought about a more efficient management of city schools. The ward system has almost disappeared, and within a few years will no doubt give way entirely to election at large. In 1902, 25 of 57 cities elected or appointed school- board members by wards or districts. In 1916 there were in these same 57 cities only 9 in which the school board was elected or appointed by ward or district. Supcrintendeuce] COMMITTEE ON BOARDS AND SUPERINTENDENTS 751 D.II. In practice 86 per cent of the cities of 100,000 or more popula- tion electing board members elect them at large, 1 1 per cent by wards, and 3 per cent by a combination of the two methods. Of the cities between 25,000 and 100,000 population electing board members, 77 per cent elect at large, 15 per cent by wards, and 8 per cent by a combination of the two methods. COMPENSATION D.II. One of the fundamental principles in school administration is that school-board members should not be paid for their services. With a few exceptions this principle has been adopted by American cities. Two notable exceptions are San Francisco, Cal., and Rochester, N.Y. In the former city each school-board member receives a salary of $3000 a year; in the latter city, $1200 a year. COMMITTEES OF THE BOARD D.I. Tho school boards in most of the smaller cities have been reduced in size to 5, 6, or 7 members, some of them still cling to the custom of having many standing committees. Sometimes there are as many committees as there are board members, each member holding a chairmanship. What these committees find to do is a question difficult to answer. Either there is nothing for some of them to do or they take upon themselves duties that do not belong to them, but to paid experts. D.II. In many cities standing committees are the recognized means of mismanaging the schools. Before the advent of professionally trained men and women for executive positions the standing committees no doubt had a place, but since school boards are employing experts in all lines, a committee either has nothing to do or tries to do what the school board employs an expert to do. A business corporation or the board of directors of a city hospital would write ruin if they parceled out matters of detail to standing committees to act upon themselves or to report upon to the board with or without recommendations. Clearly the functions of many committees, such as those on promotion of pupils, examinations, course of study, instruction, teachers, must duplicate the functions of expert employes of the board. A superintendent can make his recommendations to the entire board just as easily as he can to a committee. L. The reports of 130 superintendents show that much of the work of the board is done thru committees. In 23 of these cases the committees are not all standing committees, and a part of the work is done by the board as a whole rather than by any special standing committee. ELECTION OF THE SUPERINTENDENT D.II. The term of office of the city superintendent of schools should be of such length after first election that he may have time to show what he is able to do. A probationary period of one year is not sufficient. No 752 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City superintendent, however clearly he may see the needs of a school system, can accomplish much the first year. One reason why many superintendents proceed so cautiously that the schools remain at a standstill is that the tenure is so short that to make any radical changes would mean for them "failure of re-election." A probationary term of four or five years would give a superintendent opportunity to make radical changes and time enough in which to prove that the changes are for the best interests of the school. If successful, he should then be given indefinite tenure. D.II. In cities of 100,000 or more population the median length of term of superintendent is four years and the mode four years. In cities between 25,000 and 100,000 population the median falls to three years and the mode to one year. D.II. The term of the superintendent of schools, it is generally thought, should be fixt by state law and not by school-board legislation. In 22 of 38 cities of 100,000 or more population reporting, the term of the superintendent is fixt by state law or city charter. In 68 cities between 25,000 and 100,000 population reporting, the term of the superintendent is fixt by state law or city charter, in 50 by the school board, and in 9 by state law and the school board. L. In practically every case the superintendent is elected by the board of education. The conspicuous exception is the city of San Francisco, Cal. POWERS OF THE SUPERINTENDENT The letters from superintendents make the following reports: L. In 66 of the 190 cases the powers of the superintendent are derived in part or in full from state laws; these include city charters. In the great majority of cases — indeed, in all except 9 of the cases — reported in the letters, board rules supplement the statements made in these state laws and city charters. In 34 cases of the 190 it is reported that the definition of the superintendent's powers is explicit and detailed. In 7 of these cases, however, the statement is added that the actual powers of the superin- tendent extend beyond the explicit statements made in rules and statutes. In all the other cases it is definitely stated that the powers of the superin- tendent are defined in a loose and vague way. In some cases the result of this loose definition is that the superintendent acquires by common consent a very large control over school matters; in other cases the result is a cur- tailment of the superintendent's powers, and in a number of cases it was reported explicitly that the exercise of power by the superintendent in any given case depends largely on the changing attitude of the board at different times. Sometimes the superintendent is allowed large latitude, and at other times there is a distinct withdrawal of this permission to go ahead with the organization of the schools. L. In 127 cases the superintendent makes recommendations with regard to the appointment of teachers directly to the board. In 55 cases Superintendence]' COMMITTEE ON BOARDS AND SUPERINTENDENTS 753 it is reported that the board of education receives its recommendations in the appointment of teachers thru a committee. In some of the cases the superintendent sits with this committee as it is preparing its recommen- dations. In other cases the superintendent makes his recommendations to the committee, and the board action following committee action is usually a formal affair. L. The relations which obtain with regard to appointments of teachers are usually the same as those which apply in the case of principals. On the other hand, in the case of clerks the reports supplied by superintendents are, in the first place, so meager that it is difficult to make any final state- ment. In the second place, it appears that the work is done in this case very largely thru committees rather than in conference with the board as a whole. L. In the matter of the appointment of janitors the answers in the superintendents' letters are very vague. It appears, by way of contrast with the answers given regarding the appointment of teachers, that super- intendents in general have very much less voice in the appointment of janitors than they have in the appointment of teachers and clerks. In only 71 cases was the statement made that the superintendent recommends the appointment of janitors. In a limited number of cases the form of this statement would seem to indicate that the superintendent has full charge of the matter and appoints the janitors. For the most part, however, the board apparently takes over this function more completely than in the case of the appointment of teachers. L. With regard to the organization of the course of study the powers of the superintendent seem to be very large. In all except 9 cases the state- ment is made that this matter is in the hands of the superintendent to make recommendations to the board. The 9 cases appear to be omissions of answers. In a number of cases superintendents state that they consult with principals and teachers, but the initiative in this respect seems to be almost entirely in the hands of superintendents. L. The making of the budget is referred to as a part of the superin- tendent's duties in 115 cases. In a number of these cases a financial officer, appointed by the board under the title of treasurer or business-manager, is referred to. Most of the reports are very vague with regard to the relations of the superintendent to such a business-manager. In a number of cases the letters state that the budget is prepared by the superintendent in con- ference with a committee of the board and the business-manager. A num- ber of the letters make no statement with regard to the budget. In a few cases the statement is made that the distribution of funds is recommended by the superintendent to the board, and his recommendation is accepted in all cases by the board. L. With regard to salaries and purchases of suppHes, the information is very meager. Somewhat less than a third of the letters had statements 754 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ^ [Kansas City on these matters, and in general the statements are of such a character that they cannot be tabulated into any single category. L. With regard to buildings, 125 superintendents report that they share with a committee of the board or with the board itself in the responsibility of planning buildings. A number of the remaining reports mention only a committee of the board and do not indicate that the superintendent has any voice in the planning of the buildings. In some cases it is reported that the business-manager is brought into the conference with the superintendent and the committee. SOURCES OF DEFINITION OF AUTHORITY WITHIN THE SCHOOL SYSTEM D.II. Some city schools are still governed by special charter provi- sion. The thought and tendency is toward general state law, since it is now a recognized fundamental principle that education is a state, and not a municipal, function. The opinion is often exprest that city officials should not be permitted to tinker with the schools every time a change is made in the city charter, and that all provisions regarding the schools now carried in the city charter should be removed and the schools of all cities be placed under a general state law, as is now the case in a number of states. D.II. In 57.5 per cent of the cities of 100,000 or more population the schools are governed entirely by general state law, in 25 per cent by both state law and city charter, and in 17.5 per cent largely or entirely by special charter. D.II. In 77 per cent of the cities between 25,000 and 100,000 popula- tion the schools are governed by general state law, in 9 . 5 per cent by both state law and city charter, and in 13 . 5 per cent largely or entirely by special charter. D.II. In 35 per cent of the cities of 100,000 or more population the school board makes up its annual budget without referring it to any other body or officer; in 25 per cent to the mayor, city council, commission, or board of aldermen; in 32 per cent to a board of estimates; in 8 per cent to county commissioners. D.II. In 52 per cent of the cities between 25,000 and 100,000 popula- tion the school board makes up its annual budget without referring it to any other body or officer; in 21 per cent to the mayor, city council, commis- sion, or board of aldermen; in 18 per cent to a board of estimates; in 4 per cent to the county board of supervisors; in 3 per cent to the taxpayers; in I per cent to the state tax commission; and in i per cent to the comp- troller. D.II. Since 1902 the city council has lost ground in having authority to pass upon the estimates of the school board. Eleven of 52 cities since that date have abandoned this plan. In 5 of the 11 the school board may now make up its budget without submitting it to any other body for Superintendence] COMMITTEE ON BOARDS AND SUPERINTENDENTS 755 revision; in 3 a board of estimates passes upon the school budget; in 2 the mayor; in i the county superintendent. THE TREASURER OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION D.I. In only 359 of 1350 cities reporting is the treasurer a member of the school board. In many instances the town clerk or the city treasurer has charge of the school funds. Often school boards elect some bank as treasurer, thereby saving the salary that would be paid a member of the board. In a certain city the board several years ago elected a treasurer, at a salary of $200 a year, who did nothing but receive and deposit the funds in a local bank, which kept the treasurer's accounts and wrote up his reports. This plan has been abandoned and the bank made treasurer, thereby saving the $200 paid the board member, since the bank acts in this capacity simply for the use of the funds. D.II. As a rule the city treasurer is the treasurer of the school board. In 31 cities of 100,000 or more population and in 76 of those between 25,000 and 100,000 population this is the case. In i city of the former group a member of the board acts as treasurer, in 2, outside persons, in 8 the secre- tary of the board. In 16 cities of the latter group a member of the school board acts as treasurer, in 3 the superintendent of schools, in 32 an outside person. SUPERINTENDENT OF BUILDINGS D.II. In cities of 100,000 population or more a necessary officer is the superintendent of buildings. In 38 of 45 of these cities reporting, such officer is employed. In cities between 25,000 and 100,000 population 74 of 136 cities reporting employ a superintendent of buildings. In several instances the superintendent of buildings holds another official position as clerk of the board or business-manager. D.II. In the former group of cities it is customary for the superin- tendent of buildings to be independent of the superintendent of schools. Of the cities reporting on the point, he is in 4 subordinate to the super- intendent, in 21 independent, in 5 cooperati\e. In 17 cities between 25,000 and 100,000 population reporting, the superintendent of buildings is sub- ordinate to the superintendent of schools, in 28 independent of the super- intendent of schools, in 10 the two cooperate. SUPERINTENDENT OF SUPPLIES D.II. Thirty- three of 45 cities of 100,000 or more population employ a superintendent of supplies. In a number of instances some other officer, as the business-manager or secretary of the board, acts in this capacity. In 5 of these cities he is subordinate to the superintendent of schools, in 15 independent, in 3 they cooperate. The other cities did not report upon the relationship between these two officers. 756 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City D.II. Fourteen of 113 cities between 25,000 and 100,000 population employ a superintendent of supplies; in 13 others the clerk of the school board or the superintendent of buildings acts in the capacity. In 11 cities he is subordinate to the superintendent of schools, in 5 independent, in 4 the two cooperate. D.I. A tabulation made from this bulletin of the reports from 1327 cities shows that 955 superintendents are permitted by their boards to nominate teachers, 501 sometimes appoint teachers, 854 recommend salaries paid teachers or other employes, 205 dismiss employes, 477 expend money without special authority, and 1175 have the same control of the high schools as the elementary schools. It also shows that 1272 superintendents attend board meetings, 319 teach, 610 have clerical assistance, 566 have their expenses paid for visiting other schools or for attending educational meetings, and 955 recommend the adoption of textbooks. In 578 cities the superintendendents are required to be at least college graduates, in 59 they must be at least normal-school graduates, in 670 no other quahfications than those required by state law are required, and in 588 they must have had executive or teaching experience. In 104 1 cities the janitors are responsible to the superintendent and principal. BIBLIOGRAPHY The Organization, Status, and Procedure of the Department of Education, City of New York. By F. J. Goodnow and Frederic C. Howe. Publisht by the city of New York, 19 13. Elementary Education. Bulletin of the University of the state of New York for October 15, 19 14. Prepared by Thomas E. Finegan and publisht by the University. Report of the School Survey of Denver, Part I, entitled "General Organization and Manage- ment." By John Franklin Bobbitt. Publisht by the School Survey Committee, Denver, Colo. Recommendations for Reorganization of the Public-School System of the City of Chicago. Report of an investigation by a committee of the City Council. Publisht by the City Council of Chicago. Public School Administration. By E. P. Cubberley. Publisht by Houghton Miflflin Co., 1916. The Portland Survey. Edited by E. P. Cubberley. Publisht by the World Book Co., 1915. School Organization and Administration, being a volume of the Cleveland Educational Survey, by L. P. Ayres. Publisht in 1916 by the Survey Committee of the Cleve- land Foundation of Cleveland, Ohio. How New York City Administers Its Schools. By E. C. Moore. Publisht by the World Book Co., 1913. City School Supervision. By E. C. Elliott. Publisht by the World Book Co. Superintendence] TENDENCIES TOWARD NATIONAL EDUCATION 757 OBSERVABLE TENDENCIES TOWARD NATIONAL EDUCATION I FRANCIS G. BLAIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. During the Roman occupation of the Holy Land it was a custom of Roman soldiers to compel the natives to go with them on certain journeys. If a Roman soldier were going thru a particularly dangerous portion of the city, he might compel two well-known Hebrews to walk one on each side of him for purposes of protection. If his journey was to some distant part of the country, he might compel them to carry his burdens. Out of this custom, no doubt, came that remarkable statement of the Master, "Who- soever compelleth thee to go with him a mile, go with him twain." And around that statement thru the succeeding centuries has waged a serious discussion. How much of the activities of an individual may be determined by external authority without a loss of those individuahties so essential to sound character ? How far can a local community go in giving over the control of its institutions to some superior governing power without a loss of local initiative and local leadership so elemental in any free government ? How far can a nation go in compelling the obedience of its citizens without invading those individual rights and liberties which are the essence of a real democracy ? Abraham Lincoln was undoubtedly pondering some such questions as these when, during one of the most critical periods of the Civil War, he said, " It has long been a grave question whether any nation not too strong for the liberties of its people can be strong enough to maintain its existence in great emergencies.". Every schoolboy knows how the Atlantic seaboard was settled by little groups of people drawn hither and held together by some peculiar con- ception of religion, social laws, or government; how each of these settle- ments acted like a magnet to draw to it other people sharing those peculiar ideas and ideals; how, as these colonies grew, pride in their local institutions and resentment against interference from outside forces grew also. He knows how fears and jealousies between these colonies made it difficult to effect a central organization strong enough to protect them against the attacks of savage tribes. They learned very slowly that in order to save one's soul one must at least be willing to lose it. Every student knows that when that greatest of colonial emergencies arose — the Revolutionary War — the jealousies and fears of these several colonies endangered its success by their unwillingness to surrender some of their local rights into the hand of a central power. Franklin saw it clearly when he flung his banner before them bearing the emblem of a disjointed snake with its subscribed legend, "Unite or Perish." Every student of that war knows that at several stages it seemed that defeat would certainly result from their bitter intercolonial jealousies. It is believed by many that it was only thru the great character and personality of George Washington, in whom all 7S8 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Kansas city these colonies placed their faith and respect, that these crises were past and the Revolution carried to a successful conclusion. But did this great struggle for a common cause with its common sac- rifices and cooperative effort teach the people of these colonies that a strong central authority was essential to the preservation of those local institutions and liberties which they cherisht so highly ? In the constitutional con- vention and in all the subsequent discussions of that document in the halls of Congress, it appeared that the lesson had not been learned. The ablest and most eloquent men of the nation championed two radically opposed, if not antagonistic, views of the relation of the nation to the states which composed it. Had the several states made a sufficient grant of power to the central government to constitute a really sovereign nation ? Out of all these serious and learned discussions had come no satisfactory answer to that question. That answer did not come until the day when, upon the battlefield of Gettysburg, the government laid its iron hand upon the shoulder of the dissenting states and said: "Whether you think it is con- stitutional or not, whether you will or not, we are going to compel you to go a mile along the great highway of national unity and national sover- eignty." Then, and not till then, did Abraham Lincoln or anyone else know that our forefathers had brought forth upon this continent a nation that was strong enough to maintain its existence in great emergencies. But did" these dissenting states stop at the end of the mile of compul- sion on this road toward a greater national consciousness, a greater national solidarity ? One of the most glorious pages of our history is the record of the many volunteer miles which these states have gone toward that goal. How have these miles been traveled? Mainly thru the organization of national associations with a nation-wide volunteer membership. These associations have brought men and women from all the states of the Union to consider questions economic, social, religious, educational. As these representatives from the several states have met and reasoned together, common ground and common interests have been discovered and common standards establisht. Out of these conferences and discussions have arisen nation-wide programs of thought and action. In this great work of securing national solidarity the National Education Association has played its part. Organized in 1847, up to, and for several years after, the Civil War, like all other so-called national organizations, it was sectional in its membership. Mason and Dixon's line was the common division of all such organizations. When some of us who were born in the last year of the Civil War attended our first meeting of this Association, we were not a little surprised to see men from Texas, Alabama, Mississippi, and North Carolina standing on the platform and speaking in favor of certain nation-wide ideals and programs in education which sounded strangely familiar to our ears. These men and women, representing those two sections of this country which had for so many years held nothing in Superintendence] TMDMCIES TOWARD NATIONAL EDUCATION 7^9 common on the great subject of education, meeting and conferring together in the halls of the Association and in the lobbies of the hotels, discovered that they could think together and act together on many nation-wide move- ments in education. They found that their differences were more psycho- logical than geographical; that when they composed their intellectual and sentimental differences, mountains and streams could no longer divide. They came to think nationally, to feel nationally, and to act nationally. Other influences have workt mightily in the same direction. Every man or woman who has caught up the ideas, the ideals, the sentiments of Amer- ican life and embodied them in literary form has helpt to create and extend the true spirit of nationalism. The national government has also done its share toward encouraging and stimulating the people of the various states in the nationalizing of educational thought and procedure. Our fore- fathers early saw that no democratic form of government could long endure unless it was built upon the foundations of common standards of intelligence, common standards of morality, and common standards of citizenship. They saw clearly that no such common standards could be establisht and maintained except thru the work of a wide-flung system of common-school education. They wisely concluded that the establishment, maintenance, and supervision of such systems of common-school education was the peculiar function of the states; that the relation of the Union to such systems was best exprest by grants and gifts to incite and encourage the states to their utmost in providing the opportunities of a good common- school education for all their future citizens. And, by one of those seem- ingly divinely ordered judgments, they decided to make such gifts and grants to the states without any condition whatever. They did not sur- round them with barbed-wire entanglements. They took the word of the state in good faith that it would use these grants and gifts for the purpose intended. At present there is an " observable tendency " on the part of the national government to depart from that long-establisht tradition and policy of making grants and gifts to the commonwealths without condition. We have seen a bill considered by Congress for two sessions and finally enacted into law which seems to indicate a striking departure from that long- establisht policy. This bill, as everyone knows, seeks to promote thruout the common- wealths of the Union a certain form of education called vocational education. There are written into the measure words and phrases which seem to be the shadow of a coming event. That coming event seems to be an active participation by the nation in the educational affairs of the various common- wealths. I know that many of the men who have stood closest to the preparation of this bill do not believe that there is in its provisions the least danger that the autonomy of public education within any of the common- wealths will be interfered with. The national Commissioner of Education, 760 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION . [Kansas city in whose word and judgment I have the greatest confidence, has assured me that he does not beHeve that there is anything in the provisions of the bill which necessarily means the obtrusion, in any way, of national agencies within the several states. I know that he believes that it does not, but we are warranted and justified in looking carefully into the meaning of these words. The bill provides for the creation of a National Commission of Voca- tional Education. It provides for the appointment of a group of highly paid experts. It provides $200,000 annually for this vocational board to use in carrying out the provisions of the law. The language of the bill is that this "National Board shall cooperate with the state board in admin- istering the provisions of the act." In another part it says that the "state board shall cooperate with the national board in the administration of the provisions of this act." It may be that all this machinery and all this language do not at all justify the apprehension that some of us feel. However, we have seen federal agents come into the several states and do a very large business on much less warrant of law than is contained in this bill. What are these highly paid federal experts to do? The answer comes from an authoritative source that they are to conduct investigations and surveys in the various states along the lines of vocational education and report to the federal board. Fortunately or unfortunately, as the case may be, we are familiar with the meaning of the terms " investigations" and "surveys," and we know that many educational crimes, if that is not too strong a word, have been committed under these names. We have seen within the last few years a great private corporation, with a large fund of money in its possession, go into various states under the guise of con- ducting investigations and make surveys which have, in some instances at least, created great confusion and produced great harm. And it does not* alter the situation to say that it is a voluntary matter, that the organization sends its experts only when invited to do so. One of the most compelling powers on earth is a hand filled with glittering gold. It is not at all com- plimentary to human nature to have to record what sudden and almost unaccountable changes have been brought by that extended, bounteous hand, and how some who have accepted it with hasty joy have been all unprepared to find in the other hand a gleaming sword. These experts are all of them, so far as I know, men of extensive training and of wide theoreti- cal and scholastic preparation. No one need to question in any way the motives either of this great organization or of these experts whose services it secures. They are men and women who have a real interest in educa- tional affairs and a great zeal to go out and do something. The danger consists in their going into states without a sufficient knowledge of the historic background out of which the school system of that state has developt; without a sufficient knowledge of the trial and conffict which has attended that development; without understanding fully the local Superintendence)' TENDENCIES TOWARD NATIONAL EDUCATION 761 conditions and colorings which have entered in to make it what it is; and without understanding these things, it is surprising that more harm has not been done than has really resulted from these investigations. Every person familiar with these state systems has learned at least two things that are worth remembering. A hundred years of experience in public education has shown clearly that the unit of organization, main- tenance, and administration may be too small for economic and efficient service. It has also been found that the unit of organization and adminis- tration may be too large. Its administrative forces may be so far from the place where the actual work is done as to be most uneconomic and inefficient in its results. Somewhere between the single district and the state we shall one day find a unit of organization and supervision which will produce the best educational results for the amount of money and energy expended. This hundred years of experience in public education has also taught us clearly the danger of conffict in too many overhead supervising forces and bodies. In most of our commonwealths we have some form of supervision in the underlying districts. There are also administrative and supervising officers connected with the townships in many of these states. The county is quite universally a unit of administration and supervision with an officer exercising rather well-defined duties and powers. Above these come the state departments with their various supervising and inspecting bodies and agents. In some states the state university and the state bgard of health exercise, with or without the warrant of law, certain powers of visiting and inspecting the public schools for one purpose or another. It is not an exaggeration to say that we have developt in many of these states a hierarchy of supervising and administering bodies. Now, if another state board has to be created in each one of the common- wealths, with the specific function of enforcing the provisions of this law on vocational education, it will add to this existing confusion. Already many of our districts have establisht the very forms of education which this bill seeks to establish. Millions of dollars have already been expended in Illinois by the various boards in erecting Duildings and providing appara- tus and instruction along these very lines of agriculture, domestic science, manual training, and vocational education. Will these local districts be willing to surrender the control of the plants they have developt in order to secure from the state a few thousand dollars ? Does there not appear a serious opportunity for misunderstanding and conflict? Then there is beyond all this the National Commission. I cannot understand how this commission can be certain that the provisions of this act are being complied with, unless thru its experts it comes into the state to examine the equipment, the programs of study, and the methods of instruction. If this is to be the case, one must be excused for picturing the most serious consequences in the way of misunderstanding and confusion. We are not without experience on this very point. The national government, in its gifts and grants for 762 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City higher education within the various commonwealths, has not followed the policy establisht respecting common schools. In its gifts to certain of the so-called land-grant colleges it has specified certain conditions. The Department of Agriculture has fixt these conditions and has administered them. Certain of our agricultural colleges in the West have for years suffered the very greatest inconveniences on account of the misunder- standings and differences of opinion between the state authorities and the national authorities. This has reacht such a grave situation in the case of the Agricultural College of the University of Illinois that within the last few weeks that University has notified the national government that it would sever its connection with the Department of Agriculture at Wash- ington and give up the grant rather than submit to the impossible require- ments made by the Department of Agriculture upon the University. No one will be deceived by the statement, however honestly made, of certain gentlemen who say that the money which is appropriated and offered under the provisions of this law belongs to the nation and that the states may accept it or not — that there is nothing compulsory about it. No greater bit of sophistry was ever uttered than that which tries to make it appear that there is such a thing as having a national fund which does not belong to the states. The states are the nation and the nation is the states. Every dollar collected by direct or indirect taxation by the national govern- ment comes from the states. Moreover, many of the wealthier states know that they will receive back much less than they pay into any fund collected by the national government and distributed on any other basis than that of wealth. So far as I can speak for these wealthier states, they do not object to paying into any national fund that has for its object the encouragement of nationalized forms of educational endeavor, whether such states get back all that they pay in or not. They are willing to pay ten dollars into such a program, even tho they do not get back more than three dollars out of the ten if, in so doing, they are promoting the cause of national education. But, if in the accepting of the three dollars out of the ten which they have paid in they must also surrender something of the control of their local educational institutions, they will refuse to accept a single dollar. Let me not be misunderstood. I am in favor of the very strongest forms of nationalism. As a boy I read with interest and with something of com- prehension the writings of Hamilton and Jefferson. Whenever there came a time to choose between the two I had not the least hesitation in choosing the philosophy of Hamilton. But I am glad that in this country we developt another man who incorporated in his thought and life all the lofty nationalism of Hamilton and all the passionate regard and sympathy for the rights of the individual of Jefferson. In Abraham Lincoln we have, in my opinion, the true spirit of the relationship which the nation should bear to the several parts, a nation which on all things necessary to its Superintendence! CHARACTER-EDUCATION-METHODS COMPETITION 763 existence will go to the limit of compulsion, but which will guard with the greatest care against any effort that will destroy local initiative and local leadership or that will invade seriously the personal rights and liberties )f the people of the commonwealths. It may be that the time has come when the nation has decided to start [out upon a program which, when completed, shall wipe out all state lines [in education and make our system of common-school education national every respect. But, if that is the program, we should understand it learly and realize fully that we are beginning upon it. However that lay be, many of us believe and will continue to believe that that policy twhich has obtained in the past, of the national government encouraging common-school education thruout the states by unconditioned grants and gifts, is the best policy for building up a " nation that shall uQt be too strong for the liberties of its people and yet shall be strong enough to maintain its existence in great emergencies." CHARACTER-EDUCA TION-METHODS COMPETITION MILTON FAIRCHILD, CHAIRMAN, EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, NATIONAL INSTI- TUTION FOR MORAL INSTRUCTION, WASHINGTON, D.C. At the meeting of the Department of Superintendence in Detroit it was my privilege to announce a prize of $5000 for the best children's code of morals. A prominent business man, who, because of his own experience and his study of general conditions, has come to the conclusion that the fundamental need of the nation is the character-education of her children and youth, offered the prize, and requested that the competition be put thru by the executive committee of the National Institution for Moral Instruction. He does not wish his name mentioned because the insinuation might be made that he is seeking personal glory and publicity. He wishes to help the professional educators of the nation to find some way by which the character-education element in the public schools can be increast in influence. It was not thought wise that the competition should be an open one, for a prize of $5000, probably the largest ever offered in an educational com- petition, would have drawn out many thousands of children's codes of morals, most of them worthless, and the judges of the competition would have been swamt. It was decided to secure the cooperation of the state superintendents, and to appoint thru them seventy selected code-writers, one at least in each state and more than one in the more populous states. One year— Washington's Birthday, 1916, to Washington's Birthday, 19 17 — was allowed for the composition, and all code-writers were encouraged to seek the assistance and advice of as many local educators and parents as could be interested. It is estimated that as many as ten thousand people 764 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City have been helping during the past year to formulate the moral ideas which should be inculcated in the minds and hearts of our children and youth. Of the seventy appointed code-writers, fifty-two succeeded in finishing their morality codes on time, and these will be submitted to the judges for the award of $5000. About ten others have promist to finish their codes for publication, so that when the Institution issues the "Morality Books" there will be, in all probability, a children's code of morals contained therein from each one of the states of the nation. The judges of the competition will be George Trumbull Ladd, Mental and Moral Philosophy, Yale Uni- versity, New Haven, Conn., Chairman; Mahlon Pitney, Justice, Supreme Court of the United States, Washington, D.C.; Mrs. Philip North Moore, President, National Council of Women, St. Louis, Mo. It is the purppse of the Institution to furnish the schools, in a series of revisions, a standard "Morality Book," which can be placed on the teacher's desk in every schoolroom, as a reference book for both teacher and pupils, by consulting which it will be possible to decide as to the moral ideas to be inculcated. Morality is the wisdom of human experience, religious experience as well as secular, and as a body of ideas it is more important to the welfare of the children and of their nation that morality be understood and appreciated than that any other body of knowledge should be learned. The child begins life ignorant of right and wrong; it has to learn what the truth is and that the truth, not a lie, is to be told ; it has to learn the property rights of other people and to regard those rights. It is very important indeed that there be a reference book which can be relied on to assist teachers and parents to decide what moral ideas ought to be inculcated in view of the experience of intelligent people. In history, we prepare text- books at great expense, and include in them the results of a million dollars of research; in geography there is condensed into the classroom textbook the studies of hundreds of thousands of explorers, extending over the whole earth and many hundreds of years. In morality the wisdom of experience should be accumulated and inculcated. Reference books should be furnisht the schools as a means by which teachers and parents can decide just what the childhood morality to be inculcated really is. The National Institution for Moral Instruction is not a commercial enterprise, and these books will be furnisht at the least possible cost. But of course the problem of character-education is much more than the accumulating of a body of moral ideas to be inculcated. It is not enough that the child merely sees appreciatively the vision of fine, strong character, but this vision must become a reality in the life of the child. The problem of methods of character-education is the most difficult and the most important. Someone has said, "If a boy is to grow up a knave, for God's sake let him remain a fool." The National Education Association has rec- ognized by many resolutions that the development of character is the su- preme object of education. And yet there never has been a concentration of Superintendence] CHARACTER-EDUCATION-METHODS COMPETITION 765 attention on the part of our leading professional educators on this problem. We have workt out rather thoroly the problems of methods of getting results in the intellectual development and we have given our enthusiastic atten- tion to physical education and are now studying the vocational education of the nation's children, but we have never yet attackt the problems of character-education with the determination to solve them, and mast in that ^effort the energy and wisdom of our leading professional educators. It is necessary that there be a concentration of attention on character- [education, and it is particularly appropriate to ask for it at this time, rhen the nation is facing the most serious trial of strength that has ever [come to the republic, and when the complications of life for the individual land for the nation as a whole are multiplied a thousand times over that which the founders of the nation experienst. The children of these war times will be the masses of our voters and our leaders of national affairs in the recuperation and reconstruction period which will come after the war; and the purposes and ambitions formed by these children in the schools of today will be the controlling purposes, ambitions, and ideals of the nation in those years after the war. It gives me great satisfaction, therefore, to announce that the same donor, who does not wish to have his name mentioned, but who is now acting as the advising treasurer of the National Institution for Moral Instruction, has askt the executive committee to offer a prize of $20,000 for the best method of character-education in public schools. This is far and away the largest prize ever offered in an educational competition, and is intended to assist in setting the standard of importance to be attacht to the character- education of the nation's children. The competition is to be restricted to the problems of character-education in public schools, because the public schools are the expression of the nation's interest and rights in the bringing- up of her children. The great number of schools under private control render an important and much appreciated service to the nation, but it is the public schools over which the nation itself has control, and which it has organized thru its component parts, the various states, for the realization of an enlightened mass of citizens, loyal to civilization ideals generation after generation. The competition is not to be an open one because the judges would be snowed under in open competition, and very few pro- fessional educators of great ability would be found among the writers. In each state there are to be nine collaborators selected by a special com- mittee of three. If the state superintendent in any state wishes to act as chairman of these "character-education collaborators," it will be the privilege of the executive committee to appoint him to this responsibility. If he does not wish to act as a collaborator in the competition, he will be invited to act as one of the committee of three to appoint the nine collabora- tors, who will then elect their own chairman. Associated with the state superintendent as the committee of selection in each state will be the 766 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION {Kansas City president of one of the universities or colleges of the state and a third person from the general public. The group of nine collaborators will submit one plan as the result of their joint study of the problems and of consultation with all who will take the trouble to advise them. There are 48 states; nine in each state will give a total of 432 collaborators; each ought to have 100 friends who will help think out this problem of character-education. Over 40,000 people will therefore be thinking for the good of the schools and of the children and the nation because of this national $20,000 character- education-methods competition. It is essential that this collaboration, or "group thinking," as I like to call it, be secured on the problems of character-education, because there is a peculiarity about the facts of the moral life of children. They are hidden away in personal experience and observation, and it is only when many persons work together and have associated knowledge regarding these hidden facts of the personal life that an adequate basis is secured for generalizations. The chairman of the winning group of collaborators is to receive $4000 and the eight others are to receive $2000 each. One year — Washington's Birthday, 1918, to Washington's Birthday, 1919 — is to be allowed for the study and formulation of plans. The scope of the plans submitted is to be as broad as the problems of character-education in public schools. Character instruction, both formal and informal, the formation of personal opinions by children themselves as to right and wrong, their own resolves as to conduct, and their training into habits in accord with morality, the training of teachers for character- education, the organization of the school life, the relation of home and school in character-education, and the function of the churches to harmonize and give the religious sanction for morality which the public schools can assume, the children will have in mind during the secular character-education which it is appropriate and necessary that the public schools should give. The results of this competition on methods of character-education will be made available to boards of education, superintendents, principals of high schools and elementary schools, to all teachers and parents, to all professors of education in teachers colleges and normal schools, and to students writing theses on character-education. It is probable that the National Institution for Moral Instruction will arrange, after the 48 plans have been submitted, to carry on definite experimental work to prove by thoro tests what methods of character-education believed by professional educators to be worthy of confidence do actually produce results in character-development among children. I speak for the Executive Committee and the Directors of this Institu- tion when I ask cooperation from you all in this effort to advance in the solution of this the most difficult problem of public education, the character- education of the nation's children. Superintendence! MMfAL AND MANUAL ELEMENTS IN THE GRADES 767 VARIATIONS IN THE RATIO OF TIME TO BE GIVEN TO THE MENTAL AND MANUAL ELEMENTS IN THE DIFFERENT GRADES OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS AND THEIR RELATIVE VALUES IN DEVELOPING EDUCATIONAL SYM- METRY JAMES H. VAN SICKLE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. The consideration of this topic involves three possible conditions upon which the distribution of "mental and manual elements in the differ- ent grades of the elementary schools" may depend: (i) the general aim of education, scientifically regarded, in distinction from the traditional con- ceptions of education; (2) the type of mental constitution of pupils; and (3) the question of whether or not the pupil continues his education beyond the elementary school, and, if so, in what kind of school. 1. The education of a child, scientifically considered, involves among other things the training of the hand and the senses functioning in hand activities so that adequate technical self-expression may be assured. The hand has developt correlatively with the brain, and the functions of the latter, both perceptual and conceptual, cannot normally be maintained with- out manual activities. I include in this term all bodily activities that are concerned with technical efficiency. In every grade of the elementary schools, therefore, there should be manual training, beginning with simple exercises in the primary grades and increasing in complexity as the intelli- gence and physical capabilities of the pupils increase. While the time factor may vary with circumstances, it seems to me that one-fourth of the pupil's time, at least, should be devoted to manual activities in every grade, or even one-half if we include penmanship, drawing, and physical training, as well as manual training proper. 2. Thus making manual training an integral part of all so-called culture education, the distribution of the mental and manual factors will necessarily be affected by the pupil's mental constitution. Analyzing the latter into its most fundamental components, we shall find a considerable percentage of children with nervous and mental organizations that fit them to learn most economically and most effectively thru sense-perceptions and motor activities in distinction from the symbolic material with which education is chiefly occupied. Doubtless this holds true in the beginning, as to most children, but of many it is so true that symbolic knowledge is never economically and securely mastered. Children whose approach to knowledge is objective fall into three classes: {a) Those of an elementary object-consciousness, who can never master the symbols of knowledge well enough to learn from books (idiots up to border-line cases) ; (b) Those of a more complex form of object-consciousness, who learn with difficulty from concrete experience and who can learn from books with varying degrees of success, but who cannot go far enough with 768 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Kansas city the latter to master the higher forms of technical learning (the average boy or girl) ; and (c) those who, approaching knowledge objectively, master readily both the objective and the symbolic material incidental to such objective knowledge and are capable of the higher forms of technical learning. The ratio of manual to mental elements in the education of these differ- ent forms of object-mindedness should obviously vary. The children of the elementary form of object-consciousness should be educated mainly thru the hand and the senses correlated therewith. Three-fourths of the cur- riculum for such children might well be devoted to manual activities. The children of the more complex form of object-consciousness (who cannot deal successfully with the higher types of technical training) should give more time to symbolic studies, but these should be closely correlated with manual activities and the sense-perceptions incidental thereto. Probably one-half to two-thirds of the time of pupils of this second type might properly be devoted to manual activities, providing teachers properly trained in method were available who were able to give instruction thru symbolic material accompanying such activities. Finally, the children of the most complex form of object-consciousness, approaching all knowl- edge objectively and yet able to learn the symbols of such knowledge with facility (technical high-school candidates, for example), should approxi- mately divide their time equally between so-called academic studies and manual activities, the latter, in this case, including laboratory branches where hand technique is indispensable. 3. Finally, the distribution of mental and manual elements in educa- tion will depend upon the length of the child's educational course, and its ultimate direction. Generally speaking, if we ignore the two preceding conditions and look at children's education in the light of current usage, the shorter the period of education the more attention should be devoted to manual activities. For instance, the majority of boys and girls whose education ends with the elementary schools should be fitted for practical pursuits, whatever else is done for them. Upon the latter will depend almost entirely their success or failure. Now, in such cases, it would seem that at least a third to a half of the school curriculum should be used in training the hand and the organs of sense correlated with hand activities. On the other hand, if children are to continue their education farther than the elementary schools, then the need of immediate and constant stress upon manual activities is not so great. In such case, if there is any change desired from the present elementary-school curriculum, it should be in the direction indicated in the preceding sections. It may seem that the variations in the distribution of mental and manual education here outlined are too numerous for any system of public schools to provide for adequately. However, the demands of the larger educational aims that modern science is revealing will certainly become more and more Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL POISE 'j6g insistent and compelling. The movement of practice, indeed, no less than theory, is rapidly shaping itself in that direction. A few of our more pro- gressive school systems are well on the way toward the accomplishment of such a program. With their steady extension of manual activities in the special classes for the elementary object-minded, with their practical arts and vocational school classes for the more complex object-minded, and with their technical and commercial courses for the highest grade of object- mindedness, the ideal is evidently clearly graspt, and the instrumentalities are being rapidly perfected. EDUCATIONAL POISE ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, VOCATIONAL DIVISION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. The absolute value of manual elements in the mental growth of children in the elementary schools is no longer an open question. Its truth does not rest alone upon the conclusions of psychologists basing their deductions on child nature, but these have been reinforst by actual scientific tests and measurements applied to detect the results of such training. The great influence of the manual elements as compared with other forms of education in developing sense-power and discrimination and motor-control, with resulting nerve and mental modifications, has been well establisht. The share of such training in cultivating attention — the essential factor in intellectual development — what it has done for judgment, reason, imagination, and the will, and its power in forming esthetic and ethical qualities difficult to separate from mental growth, are recognized. But while these conclusions are well justified, and few if any educators would deny the fact that the manual elements have a share in mental growth and the creation of educational poise, yet no one is prepared to say what the exact measurement of that share shall be. Bulletin No. 32, of the United States Bureau of Education, on "Some Facts Concerning Manual Arts and Home Making Subjects in 156 Cities," derives the following conclusions from the statistics compiled in the inquiry: 1. The number of periods per week devoted to these subjects is one in the grades and five in the high school. ' 2. The time devoted to work of this kind amounts to about li hours per week in Grades 1-5; ij hours per week in Grades 6-8, and nearly 6 hours per week in the high school. 3. The total school time for all subjects, not including recesses and noon intermissions, varies greatly, but the median total is 1350 minutes in Grade i, 1400 in Grade 2, and about 1550 in all other grades. 4. The time devoted to the manual arts and home-making subjects is about 5 per cent of the total school time in the first six grades, about 6 per 770 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City cent in the seventh and eighth grades, and nearly 25 per cent in the high school. The report of the Committee on Time Allowance for Manual Arts, submitted at the Annual Convention of the Eastern Arts Association, Springfield, Mass., April 20 and 22, 1916, after pointing out what has been accomplisht by manual-art subjects in the public schools, with a mere pittance of time, and what its purpose is conceived to be, recommends that not less than 15 per cent of the entire school time in Grades i to 5, inclusive, be allotted to manual arts, 20 per cent in Grades 6 to 8, inclusive, and 50 per cent in the high school. This would mean three times the present allotment, as based on Bulletin No. 32 of the United States Bureau of Education in the first five grades, a little more than three times the present allotment in Grades 6, 7, and 8, and double that in the high school. Any ratio such as those in the above report, at the present time at least, must be more or less arbitrarily stated on a basis of theory rather than actual measurement of values. The following points, however, are pertinent to any attempt to make specific time allowances for manual ele- ments in the elementary school as related to the mental growth of children: 1. There is a great educational value in manual work itself in all grades. 2. In Grades i, 2, and 3 manual arts are indispensable to the proper development of the subjects of reading, language, numbers, and nature- study. 3. Grades 4, 5, and 6, and to some extent 3, are periods of drill and the fixing of fundamental elementary truths as a basis for future work. 4. Individuals and groups of individuals differ as to the ratio of mental and manual elements essential to a development of educational symmetry. 5. Great mortaHty in the elementary schools has been largely due to a lack of appreciation of point 4. 6. It is much easier to make manual elements function in the present- day activities of children than purely mental elements. 7. It is self-evident that the manual work rightly presented will always develop the mental, but it is not evident that mental work of itself will develop the manual. 8. Too little time is at present allowed in most schools to the manual elements. 9. A statement of time ratios for such work in the schools, even on an arbitrary basis, may help raise the standards and encourage school people to accord more definite periods for such work with a more definite purpose in view. The following time-limits are suggested on a purely arbitrary basis, the justification being found in the points just enumerated: I. In Grades i and 2 at least 25 per cent of the time should be used in manual-arts work, and such work should be closely correlated with the other subjects. Superintendcncel PREPAREDNESS 77I 2. In Grade 3 at least 20 per cent of the time should be devoted to manual arts, which are still fundamental in the development of other sub- jects, but begin to assume a distinct place in the curriculum. 3. In Grades 4 and 5, inclusive, not less than 15 per cent of the time should be devoted to manual elements as a definite part of the curriculum, but correlated with other subjects as concrete applications of their prin- ciples. 4. Provision should be made to increase the amount of manual work, for such pupils as require it, by shifting them into other grades and other classes as the seventh and eighth grades or the junior high school, where the time-allotment is greater. PREPAREDNESS R. A. WHITE, UNIVERSAL MILITARY TRAINING LEAGUE, CHICAGO, ILL. I am here representing the Universal Military Training League. This League is in favor of the Chamberlain bill. The Chamberlain bill, now before Congress, is the fairest, sanest, and most thoroly American measure ever presented to this government for consideration. Note the following features: All male citizens physically fit must receive six months' intensive military training in their nineteenth year, except those who are the sole support of a family. There can be no substitutes. The men trained cannot be used for strike nor police duty, they can only be called for defensive warfare. Those of notoriously bad character are to be trained in separate units. No intoxicating hquors nor tobacco can be had during the training. When called to train, the young men may express their preference as to the time of the year they will take the training, whether summer or winter; the special branch of the service they prefer, whether cavalry, infantry, artillery, engineering corps, etc., or the navy; and, so far as practicable, their wishes will be respected. There are other conditions. One in par- ticular is that all expenses are paid by the government, and should anyone be disabled at, or going to or from, the training camp, he becomes entitled to a pension. No such consideration of its citizens was ever before shown by any government. At the threshold of consideration let us keep in mind that the govern- ment has, and has always had, absolute power to call for mihtary service every able-bodied man in the land between eighteen and forty-five years of age. There is no escape and no excuse will avail. The law of required service is the foundation of the family, the state, and the nation. In these relations duties are not optional — they are obligatory. Children must obey their parents and do as directed or the family will be a failure. No system of government based upon voluntary action would have stability. In a republic, the duty of all is to serve and support the government, each according to his ability. We are require^ 772 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas city by law to pay taxes, to do jury service, and to send our children to school. For the safety of the community we are compelled to observe health- regulations. These and scores of other provisions necessary for the com- mon good must be compulsory. I believe in universal military training and compulsory service because I believe in the wisdom of Washington, who said: *'If we desire to avoid insult, we must be able to repel it. If we desire to secure peace — one of the most powerful instruments of our rising prosperity — it must be known that at all times we are ready for war." Weakness thru unpreparedness has never prevented the strong from attacking the weak and unprepared. China, Korea, Belgium, Greece, are instances of weakness inviting aggres- sion from the strong. We have as yet no international chivalry. National and racial needs override moral codes. Why should a weak and unprepared United States prove an exception in a war-mad world? Universal military training creating a reserve army of two and a half millions in the next five years is a necessary step for preparedness. Pre- paredness is a big thing. It means guns, ships, ammunition, organization — industrial and commercial. But above all else it means trained men. Other things are necessary, trained men are indispensable. War is a sci- ence. Untrained men cannot resist trained soldiers any more than an untrained football eleven can break the trained ranks of Yale or Harvard. We need to be prepared for defense because circumstances over which we have no control are forcing us nearer a possible war. Any day may see us at war with Germany. We are not prepared. The defending Atlantic has become an easy highway for submarines and the transportation of great armies in the shortest possible time. War is daily peering over the shoulders of the Atlantic. If it come, what are we ready to do about it ? We need a sufficient and efficient preparedness because we have a Monroe. Doctrine to defend. A prominent American said recently: "The time is near at hand when we will have to abandon the Monroe Doctrine or fight for it." Properly interpreted, the Monroe Doctrine is worth fighting for. Overpopulated Europe and the teeming Orient look with greedy eyes upon the untenanted areas of South America, and some day, thru racial pressure, will challenge our right to exclude them. Moreover, we have on our flank turbulent Mexico. Foreign nations have large investments in Mexico. They will not be so generous toward Mexican invasion of their rights as we have been when Mexico killed our citizens and confiscated our property. ' We cannot play the dog in the manger. We must protect European interests in Mexico or Europe will look after its own. We will have to permit them to violate the Monroe Doctrine or fight. It is said that $400,000,000 of claims are filed with our state department by foreign claimants. We will do well to pay and forget it. We have an Orient with its problems. The Philippines, on the edge of sunrise seas, and Hawaii, the key to the Pacific, and, beyond, a young Superintendence! PREPAREDNESS 773 giant rising from the sea, ambitious, efficient, and under the inexorable pressure of overpopulation. Japan must expand her territory and power or remain a third-rate power. If we stand in her way in any direction, Japan will fight. I believe in universal military training because it is democratic. In a democracy every man must bear his share of the burden of democracy. If democracy means anything, it means the rule of the majority, the service of all. To permit a large number of citizens to shirk their duty just because they want to, and to let others fight both for themselves and the shirkers because they are wilHng to, is the reverse of democracy. All demand the protection of the laws, all should obey them. All expect the protection of the flag, all should defend it. I believe in universal military training and service because voluntary training and service have been a failure. In our Civil War a large and honorable number were willing to die and save the nation; quite a dis- honorable number were willing to let them do it. England found it a failure. In Liverpool there is a war monument on which is carved, "Eng- land expects every man to do his duty." When the crisis came, her expec- tations were not realized. I believe in universal military training and service because it is a good thing for our young men: (i) It is good physical training; it takes the kinks out of the stoop-shouldered and puts red blood into the anemic. (2) It teaches young men to obey. We are suffering from lack of discipline. Young men do not know how to obey because they have not been made to obey. The schools are without effective discipline and the average home has little or none. A large percentage of our lawbreakers are young men from fifteen to twenty-one or twenty-two. Better for our young men to know how to carry a rifle than a cigarette; to send a lead ball to the center of the bull's eye than to push ivory balls into the pockets of a billiard table; to love the red-blooded service of the camp rather than the anemic enter- tainment of cabarets. (3) Physical training and discipline breed efficiency for business. The time a young man may lose from his early business life will be more than compensated by his increast abiUty to do things. That these are not theoretical assumptions Germany proves conclu- sively. When I first began going to Germany thirty years ago, I decried German miHtary methods. For the last ten years I have felt otherwise. In Germany a law is made to be obeyed, not broken. "Das ist verboten" is no idle sign. Military discipline is largely responsible for this respect for law. Germany estimates that her industrial and commercial efficiency has been increast i6i per cent thru the military training of her young men. I believe in universal military training and service and a sane prepared- ness because it is the only way to avoid war. Only mighty provocation leads a nation to attack another if that other is as strong or stronger than itself. Had England, France, and Russia been as well prepared as Germany 774 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City there would have been no European war. The United States has no quarrel with any nation, no revenge to wreak, no territory to seek. We want to be let alone. We want to live at peace with all the world. We want to be the friend of every nation on earth. We will endure much for peace. But there is a limit. We will not attack, but we will defend. It is not militarism but plain common sense to be in a position to say, not boastfully, but firmly, to all the world in the words of the old jingo doggerel: We don't want to fight, but, by jingo, if we do, We've got the men, we've got the ships, and we've got the money, too. MILITARY TRAINING CAMPS WHARTON CLAY, SECRETARY, MILITARY TRAINING CAMPS ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES, CHICAGO, ILL. This Association is officially recognized by the United States govern- ment to assist it in recruiting for the summer miHtary training camps, and is provided with offices in the Federal Building, in Chicago. It is composed of twenty thousand citizens who have attended the summer government military camps. These camps are best recognized as the "Plattsburg movement." They were initiated by college men and since their beginning have had the active support of an advisory board of college presidents who have been in constant touch with the entire movement. They bear no relation to drill in the schools, but provide educators with the opportunity of showing their practical patriotism, not only by attending the training camps themselves, but also by promulgating information with regard to them to students who are eligible. They are the one concrete activity that citizens can take to aid in establishing universal military training under the existing laws. Twenty thousand citizens, 90 per cent of them of college caliber, and including some of the most important men in the country, have attended the camps. The president of the Rockefeller Foundation, the Episcopal bishop of Rhode Island, ex-ambassadors, mayors of several cities, a repre- sentative of the Board of Trustees and every department of the University of Pennsylvania, and prominent business and professional men in all the cities have given their services to the government for one month at these camps. The physical benefits and mental quickening developt thru the strenuous month of outdoor exercise have been appreciated by all who have attended. So great has been the success of the camps that a junior camp was estab- lisht last year at Plum Island, N.Y., for boys between their fifteenth and eighteenth birthdays, to provide work adapted to the ages and needs of these embryo citizens. The spiritual effect on the boys and their improved attitude toward their country are most noticeable on their return from the training camps. Superintendence! THE HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHER'S PREPARATION 775 Senior camps and junior camps will be held this year on a national scale in every section of the country, and the government will provide sub- sistence, transportation, and uniform for all between the ages of eighteen and forty-five. The government is depending upon this Association to interest the citizens of America in these camps and has provided free official literature and motion pictures which will be exhibited without any cost at any institution that makes a request for them. The attendance at the camps does not increase the moral nor legal obligation for further military service other than citizenship already demands, and this Association would welcome an opportunity of giving complete and official information to anyone who desires it. These camps present to the National Education Association a great opportunity and should be fostered because they foster the very objects of the new-formed policy of this Association past today : Military training should be universal and compulsory, and provided and directed by the national government, and at its expense, and given by expert instructors provided by the national government including physical exercises, setting-up drills, .... simuner camps, and otitdoor life wherever possible for the whole or part of the vacations .... ■intensive and graduated and adapted to the ages and needs of pupils aiming to train in stealth, strength, vigor, alertness, endurance, self-reliance, and self-control .... safety precautions for the purpose of guarding against disease and injury. For this purpose voluntary camp life during vacations should be encouraged, as well as outdoor exercises and hikes to the country, including also the study of the history of our country, accurately and frankly presented, the sacrifices of our great leaders, a stimulation of the love of our "country, and the opportunity for rendering service. All of these mandates of your resolution are inculcated into and fostered fby the government military training camps. THE HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHER'S PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION WILLIAM H. SMILEY, SUPERVISOR OF HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION, DENVER, COLO. , The risk of formahsing any subject-matter of instruction in accordance with some logical order other than the logic of its use as intellectual food for students, is a grave and ever-present menace. The logical order of the historic development of a subject may be the very best for displaying a body of information, and at the same time the very worst for holding interest and securing power to think in the students to be stimulated by its use. Many subjects of instruction have proved disappointing in results as measured by the development of students, because the choice of matter and order of presentation have been determined on psychological and peda- gogical grounds other than those fixt by the maturity of mind and heart of the ones who are to be insured growth thereby. But in no subjects should greater care be exercised to avoid this danger than in those subjects thru the use of which students are prepared for 776 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IKansasCity service in the high-school classroom. One who questions a university graduate as to the philosophy that underlies the group of subjects that has earned him his state certificate, a graduate possibly who has taken a sixth of his work in the college of education in order to secure his state license to teach, is likely to be disappointed by finding that the student is rare who has ever askt the question how any single subject will better enable him to function successfully before a class and with a class. In high-school classes in physics it is easy to find students who so docilely follow the formalized instruction sheet prepared for laboratory guidance that they come successfully to the conclusion desired at the end of an experiment, with results formally correct, but with very little con- sciousness of the vital relation of the experiment to the main subject of inquiry. The apparatus used and the series of steps followed fill so com- pletely the student's field of vision that he often misses seeing the one object within his field of vision of which he was supposed never to lose sight. We acknowledge today that, from kindergarten thru the university, the growth of the individual student is the prime consideration, and that our main business is to determine and differentiate the quantity, quality, and kind of work that is best adapted to the mental age and physical growth of students of all sorts and conditions. The emphasis is no longer upon information for information's sake, but the field of knowledge is presented that the student thru his thinking, feeling, and willing about the same may acquire habitual skills, capacities, feelings, and aims. We know in the reorganization of education from the kindergarten thru the university that the obstacles ever standing in the way are the traditions, prejudices, and fixt habits of teachers as reflected in curricula based upon the idea that the abiUty to recall memorized acquisitions is the great test of the progress of students. The chief problem of the school of education is how to fix in the mind and heart of the prospective teacher a point of view radically opposed, at the present time, to all the habits of his own learning, and, in the majority of cases, to the habits of those who have taught him. If this revolutionary attitude were a part of the endowment for parenthood assured by a college education, then the professional education of a host of teachers who now enter high schools with only the equipment of training thru academic subjects would at least have been begun. If this were true, we should not have so many young teachers eager to make use of the last thing learned as the first thing to be taught. The state ought to require of all graduates of its higher institutions, both technical and academic, for the purpose of securing to the future an intel- ligent fatherhood, motherhood, and citizenship, the fundamental general psychology, physiology, sociology, and community civics that every teacher is now assumed to possess as basic for professional education. The democ- Superintendence] THE HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHER'S PREPARATION 777 racy in the interest of self-preservation needs to demand, and has a right to demand, of its university graduates appreciation of democracy's problems, which I believe can come only thru the culture incident to the studies named above; and in proportionate measure, if there are to be any constants in high-school education, these are the studies that have first civic claim. Every institution would thus emphasize the necessity of professional train- ing, and the schools could be sure that all graduates employed would possess some apperceptive basis upon which increasing professional skill, thru growth under helpful supervision, could be gradually acquired. It ought to be made impossible for the high-school teacher of every high-school sub- ject, manual arts no less than academic, to have less of a start than this on the professional road. Now what are the vital things that ought to be spoken to adminis- trators of schools and colleges of education who, by malice aforethought, are conferring licenses to teach, or degrees in education, upon young men and women whose services we must have in our high schools. First this, that in no field of study is it so important to have the teacher the vigorous personality, the innately skilful soul with constructive imagination, who can in deft ways draw from his students and exhibit what there is in them upon which to build, in order to show where instruction can profitably begin. Nothing so impresses a student with reverence for the sacredness of a pro- fession that deals daily with individual minds and souls like contact with a great teacher who gives daily such concrete exhibitions of habitual power. When such is found, hold him at any cost, for he is priceless. That there are minimum essentials in psychology, pedagogy, and the history of education needs to be remembered by deans and professors of schools of education just as much as by elementary or high-school teachers in their special fields of instruction. Do not forget that in the professional field the problem is still one of individual growth, and that the student grows upon what he apprehends and uses, not upon what he gets by. Insist that he make part of himself the vital truths of applied psychology and pedagogic method. The history of education demands for its understanding an experi- ence of life and a knowledge of the story of humanity not likely to be attained until later; and therefore, outside the inspiring biographies of a few great teachers, the subject may well be postponed for later graduate study. The university that furnishes fine facilities for research, but inadequate facilities for observation and for teaching practice, fails to meet the most important professional needs of its graduates in education. The best that can be done in this latter field will be none too good, and no amount of excel- lence in the former field will compensate for meager opportunities in the latter. It is precisely here that the normal schools are doing their work more efficiently than the colleges. And now a word to superintendents and high-school principals. The time has past when beginners in high-school teaching can be left to Snd 778 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kansas City their way alone, or flounder hopelessly, or save themselves as some of us did in wasteful experiments with the time of overconsiderate youngsters. We must know minutely the extent of their professional preparation or lack of it, and supplement the same by such helpful and charitable supervision as we can give, hoping that they may continue to grow in lines of profes- sional work already well begun, and that the light of past professional study under masterful teaching may illumine the dark places of the beginner's way. Opportunity for some kind of probationary experience it is our duty to provide. A final word to young teachers is suggested by an experience of many years gained from listening to the questioning of such teachers before a state board of examiners. The danger of highly specialized instruction is that no one has the responsibility of testing its fruit to prove whether the 3tudent has gained any unified philosophic consciousness, any educational creed that shall be steadfast and sure and make him confident in his own aim and of his own judgment of values in his influence upon his students. The school of education, if it fulfils its duty to the state, will try to do its share in surrounding its students with an atmosphere that will make its graduates powerful factors by the certainty of their convictions in shaping the moral, religious, and social ideals of all to whom their social responsibility extends. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON MILITARY TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS A resolution, adopted last year at Detroit, instructed this Committee " to report upon the proper place for, and purpose of, military education of American youth." In complying with this instruction, your Committee has had no difficulty in reaching its conclusions, but has not found it easy in some instances to find forms of expression which clearly reflect the full consideration of the subject in all the aspects considered by the Committee, because of the confusion and misapprehension of terms employed in its general discussion, and because of the prevalent difference in the conception of the purpose of military education. Military education makes a strong appeal to many citizens because of the influence which, in their opinion, it exerts upon the physical bearing and the mental attitude of its recipients. This is especially true in times when the prospect of war is remote or non-existent, when there seems to be no need for the soldier. Your Committee cannot take this view. At the present time, when the demand for trained soldiers is frequently heard, there is less tendency to evasion, and the real purpose is more commonly exprest. Military education must mean the education or preparation of the man for the life and work of the soldier and for his effective participa- Superintendence! MILITARY TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS ^70 tion in warlike operations, otherwise the limitation of the idea or the speciali- zation of the term by the word "military" would be meaningless. It must be understood, therefore, that in this report it is this evident purpose of the comprehensive term "military education" which the Committee has in mind. The terms "military education," "military training," and "military drill" are commonly used synonymously. While there is no objection to this, inherent in the etymology or use of the terms, there are very wide differences in the minds of those who use them and in the thoughts which they are intended to express. It is this confusion in the use of these terms which is responsible for many apparent differences of opinion in discussions regarding "military education." In order that statements made in this report may not be misunderstood your Committee deems it necessary to limit or isolate the use of each. The comprehensive term "military educa- tion" and the term "mihtary training," which is made more specific by its general use in official military treatises and reports, refers, according to the understanding of your Committee, to the direct, practical, intensive training which is given to the recruit in the army, or to one who is preparing for actual warfare as it is now carried on — a form of training which differs widely from that formerly in use. The term "military drill" has long been used to designate the exercises which in former years were intended to train the soldier, and included " training with a musket, manual of arms, and close order formation. In a word, an imitation of the sort of training which a young man receives at the armory when he goes into the mihtia." Be- cause of the long use of the term in this way, and of its common acceptation in this sense, its limited application is retained in this report. The military training of boys, in the sense in which we use the term, may be establisht in several ways. Three may be mentioned as most worthy of consideration: (i) it may be made compulsory upon boys of prescribed ages attending elementary and secondary schools, and upon boys of similar ages not attending school; (2) it may be made compulsory on boys attending secondary schools; (3) it may be optional with boys of school age who are acceptable. Of these the first two plans are most conamonly suggested. When we think of the ages of the boys of the elementary schools and con- sider that the great majority of those in the high schools are under sixteen years of age, we must realize that they are too immature, intellectually, to grasp fully the significance of the training and its responsibilities, or to take it seriously. When we think of the bodily immaturity of the great mass of boys, even of the secondar>' schools, and consider that only a very few of these may be regarded as sufficiently develop t, we must realize how impos- sible it is for them to perform satisfactorily the arduous work of training, and must agree with Dr. Eliot, who says that " training in the real work of a soldier, that is, marching under a heavy load, digging as rapidly as possible in the ground, and using effectively rifles, machine guns, hand grenades, 78o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City bayonets .... heavy and light artillery .... should not be before the twentieth year." We must remember also that just at the time when military enthusiasts would force the boy into military training, somewhere between the ages of twelve and eighteen, he is undergoing most important life-changes, during which his mental attitude toward the relations and activities of life is sub- ject to the most serious readjustment and he is passing rapidly in physique from boyhood to manhood. It is an educational and moral offense to snatch him from the natural life of boyhood and place him in what ought to be a man's job, and thus expose him to the risk, if not certainty, of mental and physical injury. The force of these objections has been recognized by advocates of mili- tary training, who sometimes suggest that it be limited to pupils of sec- ondary schools. Besides the objections to this plan which have been offered, others present themselves. The amount of time which must be devoted to special military training, whether it is conducted in or out of school hours, must be sufficient to make it of apparent value. This is bound to interfere with the pupil's progress in his school course. The pupil of the high school has entered the period when he must choose his career and has begun accord- ingly to specialize in his studies. He is devoting more time to self-selected study and work. For these all the time he can devote to them properly is needed. The added duty of military training must necessarily divert his attention from his aim in life and take time which ought to be devoted to preparation for it, and must place too much emphasis on a special activity in which he will probably never be engaged. In recent years much attention has been devoted to vocational educa- tion, which has been encouraged and aided by state and national laws. Military training, by occupying the time and diverting the attention of the pupils, will greatly interfere with its development and operation. By subjecting secondary-school pupils, or, indeed, any selected class of pupils, to military training, and relieving others of it, the duty of the national defense will be imposed upon those who seek a better education. To quote from the Report of the New Jersey Commission on Military Training in High Schools: Military training and service, if they are necessary, are an obligation of citizenship, not of education alone. It is difficult to contemplate with satisfaction or even complacency the social cleavage which is bound to result from a system of military instruction which is applied to high- school pupils and not to other boys. To assign or reserve the privilege, or duty, or obliga- tion, however it is regarded, of preparing to fight for the country, to the better-educated class, is just as repugnant to democratic ideals as was the practice in days long gone by of leaving it to the nobility. To select high-school pupils for this training is open to the same objection as would be a plan of selecting adults for actual military service solely on the basis of their occupations or professions, a plan which would receive no considera- tion. Superintendence! MILITARY TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 781 If the obligation of military training is imposed upon any boys who are attending school, they may easily evade it, if they so desire, by leaving school. In the efforts which we are constantly making to keep pupils in school, by means of compulsory education and child-labor laws, state and national, by means of personal and social influences, we shall be confronted with a superior force which will draw pupils out of school, or be a barrier to their entrance. The entire scheme of military training for scljool boys is useless if not followed by thoro training when they become mature enough mentally and physically to receive and endure persistent, strenuous, practical preparation for actual warfare. If, moreover, this universal practical training is required of mature young men by state or national laws, the military training of schoolboys must again be considered not only useless and unnecessary for the very purpose for which it is required, but seriously detrimental to the welfare of the pupils and to the community. Enough has been said to indicate our firm conviction that any plan of military training of schoolboys, or boys of school age, which is based upon the option or choice of the individual is objectionable, not only from the military and civic, but also from the educational viewpoint. It ignores the fundamental: principle taught in all schools, namely, that loyalty and service are due the nation from all yout^i. As persons in many ways interested in the guidance of the education of the young, in the formulation of educational processes and the use of educa- tional materials, and in the application of these processes and materials to the purposes of training the young for all activities of life, we must look at military training from the educational point of view. We thus consider all the elements involved in the courses of instruction of elementary and secondary schools with a view to the results to which they lead and which have an influential bearing upon adult life. We frame courses of instruction which lead to all the occupations, professions, and interests of everyday life, in which pupils eventually engage. With the constant changes in com- mercial, industrial, and professional conditions, and with the wider appre- ciation of the value of intellectual growth, we are confronted with new educational problems or demands which we endeavor to solve or meet with appropriate educational courses or processes. We know the beginning, and the end of every such course or process. With military education the situa- tion is quite different. There appears to be no suggestion on the part of the advocates of military training for schoolboys that those who are engaged in the work of the schools and are competent to direct it outline profitable forms of instruction for pupils of elementary and secondary schools which shall be fundamental to the serious military training and service of adults, but we are urged, without consideration of the propriety of processes or their logical results, to impose on schoolboys a fragmentary course of instruc- tion which, it is admitted, is a mere beginning, and whose completion, in 782 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City the foYm of a subsequent military training or service of men, has not thus far been provided for either by any state or by the nation. It must be considered remarkable that legislators of the different states and of the national Congress, who urge this proceeding upon us, seem to shrink from exacting military training of the young men who have reacht maturity and who are competent to undergo it, and at the same time seek unhesitat- ingly to require it of schoolboys. For reasons which have been given and which we believe are dictated by sound educational policy, we must object to such an imposition. We cannot condemn too strongly this practice of violating well-establisht educa- tional principles and procedure, and of evading the dictates of civic and military propriety. If military training is necessary in this country, if we have reacht the time when we must, besides continuing the pursuit of peace- ful arts, prepare also for the art of war, this training should be given to men, or at least to those who have attained the maturity of mind and body which will enable them to receive it seriously and successfully. What has been said has special force in the present crisis in our international relations. The training of boys for the future is of no value now. If a large army is needed now it is men who must be trained. We cannot wait until the boys grow up. We do not wish to be understood as advocating the policy of training men for war. On the other hand, we are opposed to such a policy, if it is at all possible to avoid it. We wish simply to assert strongly that military training has no proper place in the educational course of schoolboys. The opinion which your Committee has exprest finds abundant cor- roboration in the practice of the nations of the world. The great military nations, Germany, France, England, Russia, Japan, whose efficiency in the operations of the present war has been demonstrated, have not relied on the military training of boys. Australia is the only participant which may properly be regarded as providing for it. Altho it has also required the training of men, it has recently rejected by popular vote the proposition of compulsory military service, which ought to be the logical result of com- pulsory training, and has thus practically denied the wisdom or efficacy of such training. The miUtary system of Switzerland, which is often com- mended as peculiarly appropriate to this country, requires military training and service of men over twenty, but does not require military training of schoolboys. Leading military authorities in this country, whose point of view is, of course, different from ours, do not advise the miHtary training of boys. Generals Wood, Goethals, and Young have exprest opinions which this report accurately reflects. New York State is the only state of the Union, so far as we know, which has adopted legislation providing for the compulsory military training of boys. The action of this state is open to the objections which have been ^■Tii Superintendence] MILITARY TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 783 noted herein. We call attention to the discriminatory feature whereby "any boy who is regularly and lawfully employed in any occupation for a livelihood" is not required to take the training, and to the omission of the state to impose the compulsory training upon men, or at least on those over nineteen years of age. For similar reasons we must record our objection to that section of the law of the national Congress, approved June 3, 19 16, which invites school- boys over fourteen years of age in bodies of not less than one hundred to undertake a course of military training which must be an officially recog- nized part of the estabHsht school curriculum, under national control and direction and with national support. We note that Congress has not yet provided funds enough to make the plan effective, and must conclude that it does not regard the plan seriously as a measure of defense. We are opposed to this plan, as well as that of the state of New York, primarily for educational reasons, but also because of the pretense which prompts them. Finally, we cite the reports of the Special Commission on Military Edu- cation and Reserve, of Massachusetts, of 19 15, and the Commission on Military Training in High Schools, of New Jersey, of 19 17, both of which, after thoro investigation and consideration, rejected the military training of boys as inadvisable. What, then, is the place of military education or military training of American youth ? We should like to say that there is no place in this age of advanst education which recognizes the supremacy of humanitarian ideals, which recognizes the mutual dependence of the nations of the earth and of their peoples upon each other, which recognizes the brotherhood of all races and creeds, that enlightened nations can acknowledge as such. We have said that as teachers of the young we must look at the subject from the educational point of view, but as citizens who have a vital interest in the welfare of the nation and in the protection of the people we can and must look at it from the national point of view, from the point of view of the nation's needs. If, therefore, we cannot realize peaceful ideals, if it is necessary for us to resort to force, we are compelled to say, as we have said, that the obligation of military preparation should be borne by those who are pable of it, and that the required age should not be less than nineteen. Just as competent authorities agree that it is inadvisable to require mili- tary training of schoolboys, as we have shown, so there is practical unanimity among them that profitable training can be begun at the age of nineteen or twenty. To be specific, we favor a course of military training which shall be universal and obligatory for all young men of nineteen years of age and over who are physically qualified, which shall be required of them at some time during the twentieth and twenty-first year, and which shall be maintained, directed, and paid for by the federal government. It is only by making 784 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kansas City this training universal and compulsory and thus recognizing the equality of obligation which loyalty to our country and the demand for service in her behalf impose upon all citizens that we can satisfy truly democratic ideals. By limiting the ages during which the training is given, the number of those in training is fixt, the period during which the training is likely to be taken with the greatest profit and the least personal inconvenience is determined, and opportunity is afforded to the young men for the neces- sary adjustment of personal, educational, or occupational interests. As the military service toward which the training looks must be made efficient and must be rendered in behalf of the whole country, the training should be administered under national direction and at national expense. We feel compelled, moreover, to say that if we must prepare and train men to be soldiers, our legislatures, national and state, must not evade the issue by shifting the burden to the shoulders of schoolboys, but should frankly and courageously place it where it belongs. In this discussion we have referred only to the training of boys and men. Those who advocate military training for boys sometimes urge that girls receive corresponding training of an appropriate kind in the form of first- aid instruction, sanitation, and nursing. We have not referred to this because we do not regard it as exclusively military. It is rather personal or domestic and may be defended as proper training for all young women for all the experiences of life. We do not favor military drill, using the term as we have defined it, in elementary and secondary schools. If it is claimed to be military training, as it sometimes is, its military results are negligible, as most military author- ities assert, and as may easily be determined when its exercises are compared with the vigorous and varied activities of actual training. A careful examination of the exercises conducted in some of the high schools of Wyo- ming leads to the conclusion that these do not constitute a plan of military training, but must be clast as a form of military drill, to which special athletic features are added. That military drill gives little stimulus or inspiration for actual service is proved by the small number of cadets who enter the national guard when eligible. As a matter of fact, in the cases of most companies of cadets which have been maintained in schools for many years past, the military purpose has usually been concealed by teachers and ignored by parents, and arguments for their existence have been based upon claims of their general disciplinary value. If words mean anything, the serious ultimate purpose of military drill must be efficiency in military service, altho this may be remote. There is just as much objec- tion to disguising this purpose, if it exists, as to exaggerating its importance. If its purpose is not a military one, but personal discipline, the term is a misnomer and the word "military" should be omitted. Mihtary drill has been maintained in the schools of a number of cities of Massachusetts for many years. The opinion of the Special Commis- Superintendence! MILITARY TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 785 sion on Military Education of that state, referred to above, is therefore important. To quote the report: The overwhelming weight of opinion from school teachers, military experts, officers of both the regular army and the militia, and the general public is against military drill. It is generally agreed that the military drill which a boy receives in school is of little or no advantage to him from the point of view of practical soldiering. As far as available evidence goes, drill in the schools has had no beneficial effect in promoting enlistments in the militia except in a few isolated localities. It is often claimed that military exercises, whether we call them military training or military drill, offer the best method of training pupils in obedi- ence, promptness, truthfulness, industry, and other desirable personal traits, in short, of developing personal character, and of training pupils physically. Those engaged in the work of education are practically unanimous in asserting that these claims have no justification. The New Jersey Commission on Military Training makes the following comment: It is sometimes claimed that military training is the best agency for inculcating obedience. But if this claim is carefully considered it will be found that obedience to military authority is generally unthinking. It is often blind and superficial, not real. During actual war men willingly undergo training because the work is definitely motivated; but when peace comes and men go into barracks, they feel that there is nothing of value in drill, and there is a consequent tendency to evade its requirements. This kind of obedi- ence has been, and may be, secured by similar school methods. It is obedience under restraint. When this is removed, laxity in discipline often follows. The discipline of the schools aims, not at isolated acts of obedience under special circumstances, but at the habit of obedience to elders and persons in authority. It is a psychological fallacy to suppose that obedience to military authority, indeed, obedience exacted under any peculiar circumstances, may automatically be translated into the general habit of obedience. The same may be said of such qualities as alertness, promptness, industry, truthfulness, etc. It is by no means capable of demonstration that those who have had military training, or been subject to military discipline, are superior to other citizens in the possession of these qualities. The ideals of the kind of obedience and of general personal conduct aimed at by military exercises are best represented by the word "martinet," which these exercises long ago contributed to our educational vocabulary — ideals which every teacher who aims at real character-development seeks to avoid. Those who favor military drill maintain that it is the most effective means of developing patriotic feeling. If this theory were well founded we should all be eager to adopt it, for, as teachers of the young, we acknowledge the responsibility which regard for the patriotic citizenship of our children places upon us, and agree that we must be unceasing in our efforts to plant the virtue of patriotism in their hearts. But, if we look beneath the surface, we find that military patriotism may be no deeper and no more lasting than military obedience. We must not confuse excitement with patriotism, the showy exhibition with real love of country. The quiet, peace-loving citizen may be the most devoted patriot. All who are familiar with the develop- ment and guidance of right emotions in children know that genuine, abiding 7^6 NATIONAL EDVCAflON ASSOCiAftOK [Kansas dty patriotism is the result of intelligent, continued study of our country's history, reflection upon the lives of the men who have made it great, and the sacrifices which they made in its behalf, thoro understanding of our institutions, appreciation of the provisions which our laws make for the prosperity and happiness of the people. It is studies such as these, and the mental activities which they inspire and stimulate, which make our chil- dren loyal, patriotic citizens in times of peace, willing to sacrifice themselves, if necessary, when war comes. In decrying military drill we devote our- selves all the more willingly and eagerly, especially in the crises of our coun- try, to the processes which are known to produce the truly patriotic men and women whom the country needs. But we go farther. We must teach our pupils to make the passage from love of country to love of mankind, love of humanity, a transition which civilization teaches us to make, but which the spirit of military drill cannot make, but rather tends to prevent. It is customary for enthusiasts to emphasize the value of military exer- cises for purposes of physical training. It is the almost universal testimony of educators and physical- training instructors that military training and military drill, in the sense of training with a musket and other military accoutrement, do not give school pupils the best possible physical develop- ment. Any exercise, made in close-order formation, with outer garments often heavy and close-fitting, does not permit the free movement neces- sary to the full and symmetrical growth of young people. The routine, automatic action, and uniformity incident to it tend to repress individual freedom of action. Furthermore, the monotony of the work is shown by the general difficulty in retaining cadets in the companies. Dr. Dudley A. Sargent, of Harvard University, states the case very clearly in these words: Our principal objection to military drill as a physical exercise is that it does not to any extent meet the physiological demands of the body. In other words, it is not of sufl&cient interest as a means of physical development to arouse any moral earnestness and enthusiasm on the part of the boys. The exercise of the manual is not performed with sufficient force and rapidity to insure the energetic contraction of the muscles employed. It is essentially a one-sided exercise, bringing into excessive action the elevators of the right scapula, the deltoid, biceps, flexors of the forearm, wrist, and fingers of the right side; while the other muscles, excepting the legs on parade days, do not get sufficient employment to keep them in good condition. It does not increase the respiration and quicken the circulation to a sufficient extent to secure the constitutional benefits that should accrue from exercise. During the drill the clothing is buttoned close around the chest and natural respira- tion is hindered. The muscles are not alternately contracted and relaxt but are tetanized, or kept in a state of prolonged tension. This, as we have seen, not only impairs the tone of the muscles used, but also puts an additional strain upon the brain and nervous system at the time when both should be as much relieved as possible. Finally, the mere exercise of the manual of arms does not give sufficient breadth and scope of movement to secure the cooperation of the muscles, and as a training for the central nerve system it is of little or no value. In reference to the gracefulness that is thought to characterize the movements of cadets, we can only say it is not the outcome of drilling and marching. The soldier is Superintendence) MILITARY TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 787 trained to square comers, straight platoons, and angular movements; curves and embel- lishments are not encouraged in speech or in action. If you would account for the graceful poise of our national cadets, you should visit West Point in summer and see them from one to two hours a day in charge of the dancing master. After taking the most favorable view possible of military drill as a physical exercise, we are led to conclude that its constrained positions and closely localized movements do not afford the essential requisites for developing the muscles and improving the respira- tion and circulation, thereby improving the general health and condition of the system. We must further conclude that in the case of any malformation, local weakness, or con- stitutional debility, the drill tends, by its strain upon the nerves and prolonged tension on the muscles, to increase the defects rather than to relieve them. Dr. W. E. Darby, of London, adds: It [physical training] should not be military, and for the following among other reasons: because as a method of physical training military drill is both inadequate and injurious. Experiments which were conducted in a public school, with a view to ascertain the relative value of gymnastics and of mere drill, showed that the average results yielded by the former were more than three times as great as those yielded by drill alone. Rela- tively, therefore, this method of physical culture is inferior Ex-President Charles W. Eliot, of Harvard University, affirms: Military drill seems to me one of the poorest forms of bodily exercises, very inferior to most gymnastic exercises and to all free sports. There is too much routine and auto- matic action in it and too much repression of individual freedom. The only good part of it is the "setting-up drill," which can easily be made a gymnastic exercise without military accompaniments. The opinion of Captain H. J. Koehler, instructor of physical training, West Point Military Academy, is especially significant. It is as follows : The use of the musket as a means of physical development for anyone, be he man or boy, is more than worthless. It is, in my opinion, positively injurious. I deny absolutely that military drill contains one worthy feature which cannot be duplicated in every well- regulated gymnasium in the country today. A thoro physical training develops all the necessary soldierly qualities to the greatest degree and it does it without injury. If we have athletes, we shall never be without soldiers. Abundant testimony of a similar nature from the highest authorities can be advanst to support the contention that health, strength, vigor, alert- ness, endurance, self-reliance, and self-control can be taught more effec- tively by a well-graded course in physical training than by any form of so-called military training. The superior value of thoro physical training, not only in general, for all the purposes of life, but, what is particularly noteworthy in this discus- sion, for the specific purpose of preparing men for war, is acknowledged by military authorities, as we have seen, and is demonstrated by the practice followed in the present war of detaining men in training camps a whole year before sending them to the fighting line, not merely to train them in the technical att of fighting, but to render them able physically to endure the terrific strain of battle. The general prevalence of physical incapacity is shown by the results of physical examinations, wherever and whenever they have been conducted 788 NATIONAL EDUCATION Association iK:ansascity systematically, by examiners of life-insurance companies, by the medical inspectors of schools and colleges, and by the surgeons of the army. Much as the War Department has needed men, it has been able to accept less than 21 per cent of the men who have offered themselves for enlistment. Of those who sought enlistment in the United States Marine Corps only 9 per cent have been accepted. In view of all that has been said, your Committee must urge most strongly the pre-eminent importance of thoro physical training to all pupils of the schools and to the men and women of the country. Your Proceedings and the expressions of all thoughtful teachers have for years shown that the need of it has been recognized and urged by those who are directing the work of the schools and has not merely been made evident by present condi- tions. The present apparent imminence of the call for physically competent men has compelled an analysis of the results of agencies which provide them and has accentuated our educational deficiencies. It is true that physical health and strength are emphasized in all schools and that thoro physical training is given in some; but your Committee recommends that a most comprehensive plan of bodily training, health- protection, and sanitary precaution be provided by all the states, thru statutory enactments, for all pupils, and that all the instruction and exer- cises included in such a plan be made obligatory upon all pupils, boys and girls, of all ages who attend the schools. As Dr. Thomas D. Wood, of Columbia University, says: We ought to have provision for a national program of compulsory health and physical training in both elementary and high schools. This should be developt in such a compre- hensive program that our children and youth would be assured of a higher degree of efl&ci- ency for the whole progress of civilization. Such a plan ought to include: 1. Physical drill exercises for the purpose of building up the body. These exercises should include setting-up exercises with emphasis on posture and discipline, gymnastics, marching, organized and supervised play, recreation, athletics, including also summer camps and outdoor life, wher- ever possible, for the whole or part of the vacation. This work should always be intensive, should be graduated and adapted to the ages and needs of pupils, should aim to train pupils in health, strength, vigor, alertness, endurance, self-reliance, and self-control, and should include suitable provi- sion for the correction of bodily defects. 2. Personal hygiene for the purpose of caring for the body. Inspection in this line should include frequent medical inspection that will devote special attention to the laws of health and strength, and to the discovery and removal of defective bodily conditions. 3. Instruction in sanitation and safety precautions at home and in camp for the purpose of guarding against disease and injury. While thus showing our eagerness for the welfare of the children of the schools, we also recognize the obligation of the public-school system to Superintendence! MILITARY TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 789 consider and provide for the physical well-being of the thousands of boys and girls who are compelled to leave the schools early in life, an obligation which is partly met by the maintenance of evening and continuation schools and recreation and community centers. The comprehensive plan of physi- cal training which we have in mind contemplates the application of the measures which we have mentioned to all these, as far as possible, so that all young people, whether in school or out, shall have the advantage of effective physical instruction and exercise. The result must be a much higher standard of health and strength for our people. In line with these thoro provisions for the physical education of the youth we must array all the civic and social forces of school and home, which develop and intensify intelligent and appreciative loyalty to our country and its institutions and all personal, civic, and social virtues, in short, which can be made to assist in developing upright, sturdy personal character. Our efforts should be vigorously extended to the thousands who come to us from foreign countries, so that we may be a people homogeneous and united in loyalty to our country's laws and institutions and appreciative of the value and responsibility of American citizenship. The Boy Scout movement and the activities of similar associations of young people, which avoid military exercises, but which involve features designed to promote health and strength, and inculcate courtesy, mutual respectfulness, upright- ness, and patriotic devotion, should be encouraged. It would be an easy matter to show that the plans for military training or military drill which have been proposed in state legislatures or in Congress would, if adopted, cost the people many millions of dollars, while its results would, without doubt, be disappointing in every sense. How much more valuable to the youth of the country, whether for all the demands of every- day life or for military service, would be the expenditure of part of this vast sum for the purpose of benefiting all boys and girls physically and thus giving greater assurance of their happiness in life ! Finally, we wish to assert that our recommendations are dictated solely by our deep sense of the responsibility of the schools for the complete and effective education of the youth — education which may be used both for the advantage of the individual and for the welfare and protection of the nation. The conclusions and recommendations of your Committee are sum- marized as follows: I. Since it appears that we have not yet reacht the time when we may escape war, the Committee favors and recommends the adoption of a plan of intensive and specific military training for young men of nineteen years of age and over to be conducted during the twentieth and twenty-first years. This training should be universal and compulsory upon young men of the ages mentioned who are physically qualified, should include all the features necessary to prepare young men practically and effectively for the work of the soldier, should be provided and directed by the national 790 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City government and at its expense, and should be given by expert instructors provided by the national government. 2. The Committee is opposed to the introduction of military training and military drill, or any form of instruction which is distinctly or specifi- cally military, into the elementary or secondary schools. 3. A thoro and comprehensive plan of physical training should be pro- vided and made compulsory upon all boys and girls of all ages attending the schools. This plan should include physical exercises, setting-up drills with emphasis upon posture and discipline, marching, organized and supervised play, recreation, athletics, gymnastics, summer camps and outdoor life, wherever possible, for the whole or part of the vacations. This work should always be intensive, should be graduated and adapted to the ages and needs of pupils, should aim to train pupils in health, strength, vigor, alertness, endurance, self-reliance, and self-control and should include suitable pro- vision for the correction of bodily defects. At the same time, provision should be made for the extension of similar kinds of instruction to young people who are not in school, thru agencies already establisht, such as evening and continuation schools, recreation and community centers, and others which may be establisht. 4. Special attention should be directed to personal hygiene. This should include the care of the body, frequent, thoro, compulsory medical inspection, and a consideration of the laws of health, strength, and vigor. 5. Provision should be made for instruction in sanitation and safety precautions for the purpose of guarding against disease and injury. For this purpose voluntary camp life during vacations should be encouraged, as well as outdoor exercises and hikes into the country. 6. Patriotic and civic service should be a prominent feature of an Ameri- can education. This work should include the study of the history of our country, accurately and frankly presented, a study of the people, the aims, efforts, and sacrifices of our great leaders, stimulation of a love of country, the opportunities for rendering service, the Americanization of the thousands of foreigners coming to our shores each year, and the development in them of an appreciation of the value and responsibility of American citizenship. The spirit and purpose of the Boy Scout movement, as contributing to these purposes, should be recognized. Respectfully submitted, Henry Snyder, Jersey City, N.J., Chairman W. M. Davidson, Pittsburgh, Pa. F. B. Dyer, Boston, Mass. J. M. GwiNN, New Orleans, La. F. B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash. C. S. Meek, San Antonio, Tex. A. W. Edson, New York, N.Y. Superintendence] REMARKABLE ACHIEVEMENTS IN RURAL SCHOOLS 79I SOME REMARKABLE ACHIEVEMENTS IN RURAL SCHOOLS A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, "JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON, MASS. How to make the good contagious is one of America's greatest educa- tional problems. There are more really great revolutionary and evolutionary activities in rural schools and in country life than were ever known before, but how to make these virtues contagious is the problem. This places upon educa- tional leaders, lay and official, great responsibilities. There are three phases of approach which are useless if not foolish and censurable. For fifty years state and national officials, committees of this Association, and experts innumerable have done their best to terrorize people by portraying the worst rural conditions. Learned experts have made rural-school reform absurd by throwing scientific language into the game. For instance, this sentence was recently written by a high-speed rural expert: " Rural teachers should observe any tendency toward Otitis Media in the children." Within four months I have heard an expert on rural schools tell an audience of rural teachers that a man was offered an industrial position at a salary of $10,000, but when he got there he left his spoon in his coffee and because of it lost the $10,000 job. Therefore, O ye country school teachers, beware that no boy (nor girl) in your school jeopardize a $10,000 job by leaving his spoon in his cup ! There will be no improvement effectual in rural schools nor in country life by making the public "throw a fit" over conditions, nor by hurling learned lingo at country teachers, nor by trying to make a city dude of a country rube. We need less puttering with rural problems and less sputter- ing about rural conditions. There should be less nagging of country folk. We need to intern the holier-than-thou city fellows. There should be less reporting on low spots and more supporting of high spots, less measuring of weakness and more treasuring of strength. With a vigorous physical system one does not know that there are a thousand million disease germs floating about him, but a scared man sucks them all in like the undertow of the retreating tide. There should be less irritation and more inspiration. Brilliant red lanterns on the rear platform are for trains that are standing still or going slow. The greater need is of headlights on educational trains that are plowing thru the darkness of superstition, prejudice, cheapness, and narrowness. There are a few great movements which should be magnified and empha- sized so attractively as to make them easily contagious. Of consolidated schools there is no occasion to speak further than to say that where it is possible to have a consolidated school it is, beyond question, the ideal con- dition, but since there are 8,000,000 children now in rural schools that will not be consolidated in their day, it is vicious to give the idea that there can 79i NATIONAL MDUCATION ASSdCIAf 10^ (Kansas City be no good rural schools that are not consolidated. The improvements are: in the teacher conditions, in the community conditions, and official leader- ship. Of teacher conditions two features are indispensable, the retaining of the teacher for several terms, and the residence of the teacher in the district in the long vacation. Both of these are now accomplisht in many rural districts by providing about five acres of good garden land for the teacher, either having the district own it or lease it; by having an inexpensive cottage for the teacher on or near this lot; by providing the teacher with a good poultry yard stockt with a beginning of a flock of thorobreds, and in the case of a man, with a pig or two, and a good heifer. A woman teacher can get a good share of her year's living from five acres, while the pupils get a lot of education by taking care of her garden, and she can make her poultry yard quite profitable. I know women teachers who made all the way from eighty dollars to two hundred dollars besides having all the poultry and eggs they needed for the table. A man can more than get regular salary for vacation in this way. All this is being done in many places, thus solving the problem of making the teacher stay many terms and staying in vacation also. With adequate promotion all this can be accomplisht in thousands of rural schools. Few of you would be here today with your expenses paid, but for a persistent campaign made for three years. See what has come from Josephine Corliss Preston's campaign for the teacherage, from Cora Wilson Stewart's campaign against adult illiteracy. Promotion of demonstrated efficiency is all that is needed. Fewer aimless dreams, fewer nightmares, and more visions are needed. Community problems can be solved by a few skilful efforts. Consider all young people of eighteen years of age and under as members of the school in athletics, and in home school projects. It is a little thing, but it is big with possibilities. Edward J. Tobin and the Chicago Tribune builded better than they knew when they adopted this rule. All in the district from four- teen upward should be regarded as members of the school for social events, in school and out, summer and winter. Hetty Brown started something of far-reaching import at Oak Ridge, Rock Hill, S.C. Official leadership loomed large upon the horizon when Inez Johnson Lewis, of El Paso County, Colorado, began correspondence with every child of third-grade rank and upward in rural schools. It is too great a story for this time, but it is a new conception of official life for a county superin- tendent's office. Margaret Schallenberger McNaught started something as big as Horace Mann's conception of supervision when she connected up the State Depart- ment of Education with every child in every rural school in San Benito County in 1915, and in Placer County in 1916. Official perfunctionaries will have past entirely when official life in county and state connects up with every country child individually. There Superintendence! REMARKABLE ACHIEVEMENTS IN RURAL SCHOOLS 793 are more districts ready to pay $100 a month, furnish a teacherage and five acres, and stock the place with heifer, pig, and hens than there are teachers ready and wiUing to defy tradition and do what the country needs as the country needs it. Within four months a county superintendent wrote me that several districts were ready to pay $100 a month and provide every- thing needed if he could find the teachers equal to the new requirements, adding: "I cannot find them. Tell me where to go for them." Five years ago an earnest young woman went to a state normal school, but it was too traditional for her and she would not stay. She went to a department of education in a state university and things were too scientific to suit her and she would not stay. She soon drifted into a one-room school in California and found the trustees ready to give her freedom. They built her a schoolhouse without screwing the desks and chairs down, built a veranda, bought a cottage for $200 which came by parcel-post, and there was a school to make angels sing for joy ! Two years from the time she went there with no normal-school nor university training, she had entire charge of the rural summer-school department of one of the largest and most scholarly universities in America and is now at the head of the rural-school extension work of a great state normal school. That was the woman who made many districts in that county ready to pay $100 a month and meet all conditions if a teacher like Lura Sawyer Oak should be provided. In selecting one school of the hundreds I do it because its four years of great success have been attained without any affiliation with any other school or institution, without any county, state, or national connection, without any outside aid or backing, philanthropic or otherwise, without any important extra dis- trict expense, without the issuing of any bonds, without any bonuses from anybody anywhere. It has done more without these aids than any other school of which I know has done with every conceivable aid. A worse school property is inconceivable, a worse state of affairs in rural jealousies is unimaginable than was found there by the teacher when she signed her contract in July, 191 2. Last autumn a stranger, uninvited, blew into that district and remained for a week, observing everything, taking all sorts of notes, asking every imaginable question, pertinent and impertinent, of the teacher, of the pupils, of the young people and older people in the district and in the near-by city, and departed without divulging the object of this "survey." A month later the teacher was askt to come to New York^ all her expenses to be paid — and she talkt at a state association, at a uni- versity, at all sorts of clubs of women and of men. Before she was bidden to return to her school she received an announcement that a very modest society was greatly pleased with what had been learned of herself and of her school and she would receive a salary four times as great as the country folk had paid, that she was to stay in the little school, was to have an assistant to do the detail school work, was to have a personal private secretary, and an emergency fund at her disposal 50 per cent greater than 794 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City her salary had been. It was all done because, after studying many plans and plants, these noble-spirited people, these friends of country life, beUeve that it is the greatest independent demonstration of what can be done, of what has been done, and of the way to do it that can be found between the seas. All this without the slightest ''pull" or "push" on the part of any of her friends. Wonders have not ceast. Miracles can be wrought in the educational world in the twentieth century. What has happened in four years to make such substantial recognition possible? The complete triumph under one woman's influence over powerful feudists and factionists, local rivalries and traditional jealousies. The worst school building I have seen in a decent community was transformed into the best plant I have ever seen made out of an old one. All this was done without any tax-appropriation, but by the friends of the school as a labor of love, a demonstration of devo- tion. In the garden by the teacher's cottage home the children have each year raised half a hundred varieties of vegetables and small plants, and in the cottage yard have cultivated half a hundred flowering plants, shrubs and vines, learning almost everything about everything they raised. They leased seven acres of fine field land for five years, raising all sorts of grains and grasses and orchard trees of many varieties. There is a community boys' band with actual achievement which means real earnings at various public functions in the county. There is a "Shakespeare Club" of young people who do most creditable work. There are celebrations of public days at which persons come out of the city to enjoy real life in a real country com- munity. The difference between having city young people come to a rural school on a Fourth of July evening, and having country boys and girls go to the city, is a difference as great as that of a rainbow and a thunder cloud. An annual Farmers' Short Course attended by hundreds of enthusiastic people is the first establishment of a Farmers' Short Course in connection with a one-room country school in the United States. The state university has always been represented on these occasions. It is no betrayal of con- fidence to say that this school plays an important part in Herbert Quicks' greatest of rural-school stories. The Brown Mouse. And now the New York society makes it possible for the real story of the real school to be told in the real way and all its virtues made widely conta- gious by the teacher of the Porter School of Kirksville, Mo., Marie Turner Harvey. Who are these wonder-working rural-school scouts in New York City ? Lucy Sprague Mitchell, a teacher of yesterday, inspires a noble woman of abundant means to establish the Bureau of Educational Experiments administered by Jean Lee Hunt, from whose offices in Educational Building in New York City a scout like A. M. Hulbert, of Park Ridge School fame, goes to seek demonstrations like this of the Porter School. This is not the place nor have I a brief to tell of the vision of Mrs. Mitchell and Superintendence] THE ALL-YEAR SCHOOL 795 Mrs. Coolidge, whose representatives discovered the matchless achievement of Marie Turner Harvey. Why cannot all rural schools be as good as the looo best rural schools ? Why were there no telephones, electric cars, typewriters, type-setting machines, automobiles, flying machines, and wireless telegraphy one hun- dred years ago? There was everything available in 1817 that is available in 19 1 7 except the adaptation of brains. That is the only reason all rural schools are not as good as the best today. Give us men and women with brains and skill to adapt their brains, and country life will be one great joy. Will rural schools in 191 7 be mineralogical and geological, fossilized and petrified, or shall they be free to inspire country folk to solve the problems of nature and of human nature all about them ? THE ALL-YEAR SCHOOL J. WILMER KENNEDY, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEWARK, N. J. The all-year school has been a growth, a development from the summer schools establisht in 1886 in Newark. These schools, started for the purpose of removing children from street influences and preserving their school habits, have broadened their original purpose and enricht their curriculum by the addition of many elementary and high-school activities including attractive sports and games and varied forms of manual training. An epoch in the history of summer schools was the establishment of "promotion classes" in 1910. The result has been surprising. The enrolment of these classes reacht 11,000 in 19 15. Pupils in the promotion classes comprise two principal groups: (i) backward pupils seeking to make up deficiencies or work off conditions, (2) ambitious pupils wishing to qualify for a higher grade. By far the larger number of pupils in these groups go back to their schools in September bearing recommendations for promotion to higher grades. Principals at first demurred to these recom- mendations, refusing to believe that serious deficiencies could be mended or that grades scheduled for twenty weeks' study could be skipt by means of a six weeks' summer session. The eye-opening came when it was found that nearly 90 per cent promoted on summer-school credentials sustained themselves. What ambitious children of talent could do when given a chance was a revelation to teachers and principals obsest with the graded- school notion that all must march lock-step. These promotion classes brought clearly before the schools three things: (i) that hundreds of children were eager to study in the summer time; (2) that their minds and bodies received no damage from such study; and (3) that the time gained by these pupils in the summer school meant a financial gain to the city because of the fact that they would be able to finish their respective courses in a shorter time. 796 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kansas City The logic of these summer schools with their promotion classes led inevitably to the all-year school. In the superintendent's report for 19 lo the all-year school, both elemen- tary and high, was first recommended, and the recommendation was repeated and urged with additional and forcible arguments in the reports of 19 11 and 1912. In 1912 the Board of Education decided to try the experiment in two elementary schools. The arguments set forth in these reports in favor of establishing the all-year school were : 1. More pupils would complete the elementary school and get into the high school. 2. Boys would be helpt to go to work. The laws of New Jersey require that a child, to get his working papers, must be fourteen years of age and have completed at least the fifth grade. Pupils, by reason of the all-year school, could be prepared sooner to meet the requirements of the child- labor law. 3. The wider use of the school plant was urged. The extended and aggressive propaganda against the waste involved in permitting the most expensive municipal buildings to lie idle a good part of the year helpt the all-year-school experiment. The people welcomed a scheme that promist a larger use of the schoolhouses. 4. A fourth point was urged at this time, namely, that a pupil passing thru the elementary school would save two years. 5. By reason of shortening the time necessary to complete the elementary-school curriculum by 25 per cent, the total cost of educating a pupil will be to that extent reduced. This will be offset in a measure, of course, by the larger number who will be likely to take advantage of high schools and industrial schools. 6. By reason of the more rapid progress made in going thru the school, 25 per cent more pupils may be accommodated with the same outlay for plant. The two schools selected for the experiment were located in what is known as the "hill district," where the attendance in the half -day summer schools had always been large, where the residents had come largely from European countries where the longer school year is in vogue, where people because of economic conditions were not able to send their children away from the city in the summer time, and where the population was greatly congested — twenty-, thirty-, even fifty-family flats being no uncommon thing, giving rise to great discomfort, to say nothing of unhygienic condi- tions, in the heated term. Both were large schools enroHng upward of 2000 pupils each — a number large enough to secure a safe, as well as econom- ical, trial of the plan. In the preliminary canvass the objections that seemed most serious were: (i) the child and teacher would be overwork t — objections based on the opinions of physicians and parents; (2) the proposed all-year school Superintendence) THE ALL-YEAR SCHOOL 797 meant an increase of 20 per cent in the cost of the schools. To the first objection it was answered that weak children would be excluded on the advice of the medical inspector; that the summer is the safest time of year y DIAGRAM SHOWING RATE QF PROGRESS I? r^ .SEPT. 1318 JUNE 1918 r«lAB.13I8 DEC. 1317 SEPT.1917 JUNEiai? MAR. 1917 DEC. 1916 ;SEPT. I9JB JUNE I31B MAR.19I6 DEC. 1915 :SEPT.]9IS JUNE1915 MAR.191S DEC 1914 /SEPT1914 JUNE 1914 MAR. 1314 DEC1313 ; SEPT 1913 JUNE 1313 MAR. 19)3 DECISIS "^ SEPT. 13 E BA ADV. SB AI3V. BC 7»A Aov T'B ADV. TC BA ADV. 6E3 ADV. sc SA ADV. SB ADV. -^A ADv -4 0 AOV. 4 C BA SB -PA T'B BA BB 5A SB ArA 4B JULYl9eo>^*-« IS FEB.I3SQ > JULY 1919, rZB. 1313 JULY 1918; FEB. 1918 JULY 191?: FEB. 1917 JULY laG : FEB, 1316 JULY 1915 All VEAR PLAN REGULAR PLAN on on eee wee»