Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1916natiuoft A, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION y^ ■" OF THE UNITED STATES rT«Oetf ^v-^ l^'" 1916 publisbeO bs tbc association SECRETARY'S OFFICE, ANN ARBOR, MICH. m Id Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois. U.S.A. CONTENTS Act of Incorporation . By-Laws .... Certificate of Incorporation Calendar of Meetings OflScers for 1915-16 . Secretary's Minutes of General Sessions GENERAL SESSIONS Addresses of Welcome: I. Whitman II. Finley III. Alexander IV. Mitchel ...... V. Willcox ......' VI. Maxwell VII. StraubenmiUler President's Address — Johnson A League to Enforce World Peace — Taft Organized Recreation — Foster The Elimination of Illiteracy — Stewart First Aid to the Country Teacher— A Suggestion as to Vitalizing the Country Schools thru Our Present Teachers— E^g/e^/ow The Secular Free Schools — Young The Place of the University in a Democracy — Van Rise The Place of the Normal School in a Democracy— ^«>ife . Citizenship in a Republic — Bryan : Preparation thru Education for a Democracy — Joyner The Common School as an Instrument of Democracy — Pearse .... The War and Education — Hall What the Public Schools Can Do toward the Maintenance of Permanent Peace — Andrews Mass Instruction thru Group Training — Martin The Socialized Recitation — Hunter The Education of the Negro — Frissell Vocational Education — Shoop National Aid to Vocational Education— ^e^r/ey Industrial Education — Redfield Preparing Teachers for Leadership in All Special Education — Crabtree . Educational Preparation for Foreign Service — Swiggett Salaries and Pensions of Teachers — Swain Pensions for Public-School Teachers — Furst Teachers' Cottages — Preston . . • The Junior High School — Johnston The Junior College— /awe^ M. Wood • • A Teacher— Inscribed to the Beautiful Memory of One Who Gave Her Life to Her Work — Johnson Universal Military Traming— Leonard Wood PAGI Z 5 12 13 IS 21 39 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 41 49 54 S8 63 68 73 77 79 83 86 93 97 lOI 106 III 114 119 122 127 136 137 142 145 151 157 159 vi NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE Chinese Education — Koo 165 Some International Aspects of Public Education — McAdoo 170 The American School and the Workingman — Gompers 175 Nationalizing Education — Dewey 183 The Possibilities of a National University at the Capital — Fess . . . . 189 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes — Detroit Meeting 195 Thrift — An Educational Necessity — Straus 196 Thrift in Its Relation to Country Life — Wilson 201 Thrift in Relation to Industries — Dempsey 205 Thrift and Its Relation to Banking — Bexell . * 210 Thrift in Its Relation to Conservation — Stuart 215 Thrift in Relation to the Home — Blake 220 A Memorial to Zachariah Xenophon Snyder — Keyes 222 The Function of the Graduate School of Education — Luckey . . . . . 225 Topic : National Welfare and Rural Schools I. Thomas D. Wood " 232 11, Rose 235 The New Ideal in Education — Better Parents of Better Children — Putnam 240 Secretary's Minutes — New York Meeting 246 Educational and Psychological Aspects of Racial Well-Being — Yerkes . 248 The Course of Study as a Test of Efficiency of Supervison — Yocum . . 254 Rural Education — Joyner 269 The Greater Thnit— Straus 274 Normal School Preparation for Thrift Teaching — Owen 281 Report of Committee on Health Problems in Education — Keyes .... 285 DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes . 289 Relation of the Kindergarten and the Primary in the School of Childhood, Univer- sity of Pittsburgh — Smith 290 Kindergartens of Yesterday and Tomorrow — Hill 294 The Demonstration-Play School of the University of California — Hetherington . 298 Literature for the Kindergarten Child — Greene 303 Art in the Kindergarten — Cornell 307 DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 311 Present Tendencies in College Administration — Duggan 312 The Elective System — Its Functions and Its Limitations — Balliet . , 318 The Baccalaureate Degree as an Obstacle to Educational Progress — Bradley . . 321 Possible Modifications in Our Educational Work Likely to Come as a Result of the Great War — Russell 324 The Service of Business Schools at the Close of the Great War — Egbert . . . 325 An Experiment in Practical Commercial Education in the National City Bank of New York — Schwedtman 329 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Secretary's Minutes . 337 Address of Welcome — Willcox 33^ The Education of School Committees — Lee 340 CONTENTS vu Functions and Methods of Boards of Education — Winser After the Architect — Snyder Functions of the State in Local Administration — Finegan The Business Man and the Public Service — Loeh A Reply — Young PACK 343 34S 348 351 356 361 362 365 367 370 375 379 383 387 391 393 393 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes Fundamental Aims in the Teaching of Bo6)sktti>m.g— Bartholomew ..." Penmanship in Business High Schools — Healey Typewriting in the Public Schools — Beygrau The Organization of a Business-Practice and Office-Routine Course and How to Make It a Success in Business High Schools — McCarty Economics in the Commercial High School— FemcJfe The Relation of the Library to Business Education — Krause The Teaching of Business English and Advertising in Business High Schools— Hotchkiss How Teachers Can Increase the Efficiency of Accounting and Bookkeeping Courses — Montgomery Committee Reports Commercial Geography as an Element in Business Education — Goode. Business English: A Summary of Principles — Hosic The Content and Presentation of Shorthand and Typewriting — Collins DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 397 The Peculiar Psychological Conditions and Social Needs of the Seventh and Eighth Grades — Snedden 398 The Organization of the Upper Elementary Grades Contrasted with the Organiza- tion of the Lower Elementary Grades and the High School — Shoop . . 403 The Necessity of Changes in the Curriculum of the Upper Elementary Grades, Both in Subject-Matter and in Content — Bradford . 407 The Intensive Study of Large Topics — McMurry 411 The Place of the Corporation and the Continuation Schools— CowweZ/gy 415 Will Standard Tests Economize Time, Lead to a Broadening of the Subject-Matter, and Make for Efficiency of Both Teacher and Pupil ?—ra// .... 426 The Educational Values Which the Child Carries Over from the Kmdergarten mto the Primary Grades— £^^7/ 429 Practical Means of Unifying the Work of the Kindergarten and the Primary Grades I. Meriam 433 11. Palmer 435 III. Balliet 438 DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS Secretary's Minutes — Detroit Meeting 44^ Extension Work in Normal Schools — Salser 44i Secretary's Minutes — New York Meeting 449 A Differentiated Course of Study for Normal Schools— P«7wa« . . • • 45° Normal School Curricula — A Cniiqner— Balliet ....,•••• 45 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICAL ARTS Secretary's Minutes ' , The Home from the Standpoint of U.taMh—Bigelow 4 3 The Influence of Architectural and Decorative kri— Warren 4 7 Viii NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE Education for an Age of Service — Appel 473 Vocational Education and Government Aid — Dodd 479 Art a Vitalizing Force in Education — Warner 483 Art Education for House Furnishing — Coffin . . 489 The Domain of Art Education — Balliet ......,.,. 493 Art Teaching vs. Practical Life — Chamberlain 496 The Relationship between Museums and Schools — Rea 500 Gallup 503 The Art Instinct Universal — Ellis 504 The Essentials in Making Art Practical — Woodward 508 Differentiation in Art Training to Suit Individual Pupil's Needs — Farnum . . 512 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 517 Socialization of the High School — Rynearson 519 Making the High School Democratic — Churchill 524 Our Old Friend, the Examination — Mc Andrew 527 What High-School Studies Are of Most Worth ? — Herrick 533 The Library in the Modern High School — Davidson 538 The Need for an Aggressive Campaign for Better High-School Libraries — Johnston 539 The Relation of the High-School Library to Vocational and Technical Courses — Hood 543 Libriiary Administration — Sullivan 546 Report of Committee on Problems of High-School Libraries — Certain . . . 547 I. Hall - 548 II. Morgan 552 III. High-School-Library Committee of the Southern Conference for Educa- tion and Industry A. Educational Guidance thru the High-School Library — Davis . . . 553 B. The High-School Library and History Teaching — Morgan, Stewart . 555 C. Instructional Phase of School-Library Work — Hopkins .... 556 D. The Librarian's Contribution to the Educational Standards of the High School — Logasa 557 A Brief Summary of the Forthcoming Report of the National Joint Committee on the Reorganization of High-School English 559 The Reorganized High School — Mills 567 Military Training in the High School: Why and How? — Small . . . . 57° DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 575 Absolute Music in the Elementary Schools — Ripley 577 What Should Be the Musical Equipment of the Secondary-School Graduate— ^Aerw 582 Music in the Normal School — Beach 5^7 The Child Voice: Responsibility of the Community toward It — Baker-Low . . 592 Music Education and Public Libraries — Kinkeldey .... . . . 59^ The Psychology of Esthetic Experience in Music — Washburn 600 Mechanical Inventions as an Aid to the Teaching of Music — Lewis . . . 606 The Folk-Song— ^am/er 608 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 613 The Farm Bureau as an Agent in Local Development — Burrit 614 Field Exercises in^Their^Relation to Agricultural Teaching— Dam . . . . -619 CONTENTS The Home Project in Secondary-School Agriculture— DenmV 'ij°* The Rural School and the Reading Jiabit— Sanborn ... fi^fi Rural-School Extension Work by the New York State College of Agriculture— TuUle , 632 DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Secretary's Minutes , Moral Education: What the School Can Bo—Fahey .... 68 Vocational Guidance thruout the School Course—Johnston ... 64^ Waste in Education — Hosic ^ « LIBRARY DEPARTMENT Secretary's Minutes 5-, Report of the Committee on University and College Libraries— Farne^ Wood . 655 Joint Administration of the High-School Library by the Board of Education and the Public Library — Smith 5^6 General Principles Involved — Bostwick 660 Educational Value of Bibliographic Training — Austen 664 Normal School Libraries — Rice 669 Report of Committee on High-School Libraries — Hall 671 Report of the Elementary-School Committee — Power 67s The Rural-School Library I. Peters 676 II. Stern 678 The Drama of Life in the Lyrics of the Folk — Crawford 680 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 681 Physical Training in the Schools — Straubenmilller 682 The New York System of Physical Training— Crampton 685 Physical Training versus Military Tra-ining— Warden 686 The Health of College Women— ^aer 690 The Organization of Athletics for Girls in the Elementary Schools— O'Keefe . 693 Defining the Work of Physical Training in Relation to Playground and Recreation Activities — Haynes "95 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Secretary's Minutes ^99 Applied Chemistry in Secondary Schools— Cwr/w 702 Method in the Teaching of Chemistry— An Abstract— W^/fJ/wflw .... 704 The New York State Syllabus of Applied Chemistry— Hancock . . • • 705 What Elementary Science Needs— Pa/wer 7o8 The Relation of General Science to Later Courses in Physics and Chemistry— £/A«/ 7.10 The Relation of the Bureau of Standards to Physical Research and to the Teachmg of Physics— PFo// ' ' ' " ^^6 Applied Science in the College Course— Spahr • _ • 7i Local Industries as a Source of Illustrative Material for Science Teaching-^o// . 719 The Conservation of Natural Resources thru Education— Goldrtch * ' ' * ^^6 Studying Fungi as a Pastime— MwrrJ/i ^^ Method in Science-Teaching— Z>^ey ^^^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE Training of Science Teachers I. Rohison 734 II. Balliet , . 735 The Importance of Visual Instruction — Stitt 737 The Museum as the New Force in Public-School Development — Osborn . . . 739 The Value and Importance of the School Museum — Rathmann .... 741 Collection, Organization, and Circulation of Visual Aids to Instruction by State Bureaus — Ahrams 745 DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE Secretary's Minutes 751 The Work of the New York City Bureau of Child Hygiene — Baker . . . 752 Social Aspects of School Hygiene — Armstrong 756 A Practical Course of Study in Hygiene — Walters . . . . . . . 759 Child Hygiene, First Aid to the Uninjured — Hutchinson 762 Schoolhouses and the Fire Hazard — Cooper 764 The Teaching of Home Nursing and the Care of Children to Elementary- and High- School Pupils — Stewart 767 The Physical Care of Rural-School Children — Clark 771 Cooperation in Health Administration — Small 776 The New York System of School Hygiene — Goldherger 778 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS Secretary's Minutes 783 The Teacher's Responsibility as a Civic Factor in the Community — Harden . . 784 Education of the Immigrant — Alsherg 786 Report of Committee on Education, Council of Jewish Women — Long . . . 792 Report of the Southern Association of College Women — McKenny .... 795 Social Service in the Public Schools — McManus 797 Administration and Method in High-School Physical Training for Girls — B eider hase 801 The Boy Scouts of America — West 805 DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 811 Delinquency and Mental Defect — Davis 815 The Mis-fit Child— Salmon .817 Child Labor and Its Relation to Illiteracy — McKelway 817 Educational Work of a State Commission — Campbell 819 History of the Education of the BHnd — Methods and Ideals — Hayes . . . 819 Education of Blind Children of the City of New York — Edson .... 820 Public Libraries for the Blind — Bahr 821 Saving the Sight of School Children — Berry 821 Charitable Organizations Help — Goldman . .825 The Work of the Widener Memorial Industrial Training School for Crippled Children — Creamer 826 Cooperation between Educators and Physicians in Classes for Cripples — Taylor . 827 The Problem— Zeam^ 828 Introductory Explanation of the Analytic Synthetic Method of Teaching Reading to Deaf Children — Kaufman 829 Rhythm — Thomason 830 Teaching of Language — Taylor 832 The Physical Side of the Deaf Child— McAulife . > 833 CONTENTS The Utilization of Residual Hearing— IFng^/ . . . , 't^* Measurement of Efficiency in Schools for the Desii— Johnson 8^6 The Pintner Tests— Zi//>a/ncyfe • 8^ The Juvenile Court of New York City — Hoyt The Delinquent — Shimer _ The Girl Dehnquent— Ez^era^ •••••••• 8'*6 The Big-Sister Movement— 5org 8 Organized Charity and the Delinquent — Geisman 8«:i Preserving the Family — McClancy « The Social Worker — Thurston « The Work of the Visiting Teacher— rrwt . 8«c6 The Work of the Bureau of Attendance, New York City Schools— Dam . 858 The Need of Fresh-Air Classes in PubUc Schools — Tupper 860 Speech-Improvement — McDonald 3^2 The Mission of the Speech Specialist — Greene 85^^ What Is a " Speech Clinic " ? — Swift 35^ Tone and Hearing — McAulife 353 Speech-Improvement in the Chicago Public Schools — Lyon 869 Speech Work in the Detroit Public Schools — Reed 870 The Need of Speech Work in the High Schools — Bullowa 870 Speech-Correction as a School Problem — Reigart 873 Oral Deformities in Their Relation to Defective Speech — Mitchell .... 874 The Economic Value of Speech-Correction — Wile 875 The Principal's Point of View of the Selection of Children for Special Classes — Knox 877 The Binet Scale and the Diagnosis of Feeble-Mindedness — Terman. . . . 879 Training of Teachers for Special Classes — Riggs 884 The Work of the Teacher of the Special Class— Allison 887 The Necessity for After Care of Children Discharged from Special Classes— Banker 888 How to Fill the Gap between the Special Classes and Institutions — Fills . . 889 After-Care Work in Springfield, Massachusetts — Cheney 892 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Secretary's Minutes ^95 Address of Welcome — Keeler 9^1 Response to Address of Welcome — Blair 9 This can be done rapidly by lecture and investigation, when the interest and sympathy have been quickened by wrestling with the same problems. When it comes to teaching conservation of natural resources, let our teaching first of all be constructive. No youngster is going to grow enthusi- astic about preserving anything just as it is. He wants to do something to it. I verily believe the reason Httle boys shoot birds is not because their wicked souls long to destroy. It's because they want to hit something that is moving, and that is far enough off to present a problem worth while. Teach these same boys to build bird boxes, take photographs of wood birds up in high trees, where it's hard climbing, have contests for luring birds into yards — all this has been found to be real fun for boys. To give activity a patriotic turn, the history and economics courses present opportunities which the teachers are just beginning to realize. The work needs to be deepened, and made fuller of concrete problems of public responsibiHty in the high-school worid. Also both the history and geography courses need to be more concrete and graphic in detailed descrip- tions of those of our resources which are imperiled. Let the same construc- tive principle be applied to the teaching of botany. Boys and girls who have raised a garden worth while will not wantonly destroy plants. A boy who is brimful of plans for reforestation is not going to be won over to a destruction of forests. Even when the thing made has no connection with that which is to be cared for, the principle of training by constructive habit still holds. A boy or girl who has made anything well is thereafter more careful of every- thing made. Let a boy design and make a table in first-class style, and all furniture becomes to him a product of some mind and hand; all tools are things to be cared for, all stray pieces of wood present possibiHties. Let the metal trades be taught in a school, and the mines of our country become worth safeguarding. Conservation becomes a Kving, dynamic thing with a reason for being. More than that, the teaching of manual expression of one's thought and feeling has the effect of forming the habit of doing the things we contemplate. It's worth while td put something into execution, merely to make executives of us. It is a wondrous sentence description of a useful character of old: "Dorcas was full of good works which she did." If our training comes to be fuller of activity, it will be natural to this set of boys and girls not to rail idly at those who waste our resources and waste lives, but to form and to execute remedial plans. But even the formation of tangible habits is not the whole of the train- ing which we need in that phase of thrift under consideration. There is an appeal to the feelings, which can and ought to be a greater, a much greater, part of our American education. We need it sadly to counterbalance that commercialism which seeks to trafl&c in beauty of forest and river fall, in lives of plants and animals, and even in the lives of men, women, and children. After all, no boy nor girl can rightiy respect river, or mine, or 2^0 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National forest, man or woman, until he sees the autograph of a Divine Hand written on each. A reverent rehgion is the essence of all that our boys and girls need. We Americans fight shy of any hint of religion in connection with public-school teaching. But there are subjects the teaching of which occasions no question — subjects whose appeal fosters reverence and love of beauty. I refer to the fine arts of poetry, music, and art. K ever a nation needed these subjects reverently taught, we do. The final stand for conservation of birds, forests, rivers, mines, and also of human lives is always made by those who feel the lilt of bird song, who see the rivers as messengers from mountains to sea, who understand the throbbing of human hearts. There is hardly a boy or girl anywhere who cannot be reacht thru one of these three channels to the soul, and, being reacht there, he feels. No argument is as strong as a feeUng. If a boy or girl once thrills to the grandeur of Niagara, no mere water-power inducement can prevail against that appreciation. Our public parks are secured for us by the John Muirs who have from boyhood loved the trees almost as people. We have clast the fine arts as ornamental, and we wonder why our boys and girls are not more refined. It is time that we recognize these as moral necessities, certainly as essentials to the unselfish reverence for our natural and life resources. A nation without seers, poets, and artists, without those who hear — musicians — could not expect to have its great sources, not only of wealth, but also of beauty and music conserved. Conservation means both saving and using. It is these subjects which teach the use which cannot be money-reckoned. So, all told, this paper is a plea for the respect for natural resources and the reverence of man, taught thru the formation of habits of self- respecting hygiene; thru humanizing life by that insight which comes of making things; thru constructive training in care of birds and plants, in the use of wood, metals, textiles, and other materials; in general, thru an habitual expression of thought in action; thru deepened historic and geographic courses; and thru a genuine emotional training in those arts which place values far above a money basis. Beauty has use for you and me, The dainty violet blooms within our thought And we are better for its ministry. THRIFT IN RELATION TO THE HOME KATE DEVEREUX BLAKE, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 6, MANHATTAN, N.Y. Perhaps my remarks will not be altogether in line with what has been said before. You see I have had to practice thrift in the home all my life, and that is why I am not so enthusiastic over it as some of the gentlemen who Council] THRIFT IN RELATION TO THE HOME 221 insist upon having it there. You know men have always preacht economy to women. When we talk about thrift in the home, there comes to your mind, I think, a picture of the woman who does all her own cleaning, washing, iron- ing, turns last year's frock— and you know you can always tell a turned frock as far as you can see it— cuts down father's old suit to make some archaic adaptation that causes little Johnny many tears— an overworkt woman in a gingham dress, that is the good old-fashioned picture of the thrifty woman. There is no doubt that that woman will have savings of a pecuniary character, but there are savings that are more valuable than those of mere money. The mother with a broad viewpoint is not obUged to do all those things and is far finer; therefore, I am asking not so much for emphasis on thrift in the home, as for emphasis on the scientific manage- ment of the home. The home will not be what it should be until there is scientific management, until, when father gets a new mowing-machine, mother will have a new washing-machine, when he gets a reaper, she will have afireless cooker, a vacuum cleaner, all the things of scientific value that should be in the home as a matter of course. It will be money well spent, because mother prepares the rising generation for life, and when her time is con- served so that she may go intellectually hand in hand with her children and give them the viewpoint that she should be able to give, we shall have a better generation. The woman who looks outside her home has learned that her place is in the civic community just as much as it is in the little cricle. Mothers are beginning to realize that the capitol of the state controls their power to make both ends meet in their own homes, and decides whether they shall have fresh eggs or bad ones, whether they shall have all kinds of imitations coming into their homes from the grocery store, or whether they shall have the things that they should have to nourish their children properly. We must work for the civic viewpoint in the home, because that viewpoint is the only one that is going to make the home better. Of course, I am talking to a great extent from the standpoint of the woman of the city. I know my own city, and I know how imperative it is for the mothers of New York City to look beyond their own doorsteps and be able to have a hand in the control of what happens outside the home, because it controls in turn the home itself. I have just returned from the Ford Peace Expedition. I know what the war is doing in Europe, and I believe that our mothers must be tramed to know what is going on in the world everywhere and to have a hand in it. In closing let me say again: We need not so much the power to save, as we need the broad viewpoint. It is not the thrift in the home, but the scientific management of the home that I want you to teach the children. 222 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National A MEMORIAL TO ZACHARIAH XENOPHON SNYDER CHARLES H. KEYES, PRESIDENT, SKIDMORE SCHOOL OF ARTS, SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. At high noon on the eleventh of last November, death struck from our rolls the name of one of the most distinguisht, most influential, and best- beloved of our members. At the command of our president, I submit, on behalf of the National Council of Education, the following minute of his life and work. Zachariah Xenophon Snyder was born on a farm in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1850. For nineteen years he lived to learn all that the farm, the country school, and a good home might teach him. He then entered Mount Pleasant Classical Institute and prepared himself for admission to Waynesburg College, from which institution he was graduated in 1876, receiving the degree of Bachelor of Science and win- ning the highest class honors. He was almost immediately appointed principal of the graded schools of Wiconisco, in Dauphin County, of his native state. For six years he served this community with distinction, and at the same time pursued advanst study with such success that he was called to the chair of mathematics in his Alma Mater. Two years later he yielded to an insistent call to become superintendent of schools at Greensburg, Pa. When three years later a call from New England took Thomas F. BaUiet from the superintendency of the schools of the city of Reading, the board of education chose as his successor the gifted young man at Greensburg, who had the year before won the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Waynesburg College. It has never been an easy task to succeed Dr. Balliet; but Dr. Snyder rose to the demands of the situation with such distinction that two years later he was called to take charge of the great state normal school at Indiana, Pa. His inspiring leadership in this institution prompted the governor of Pennsylvania, within three years, to invite him to accept the oflSice of state superintend- ent of schools. But at this juncture the state of Colorado, seeking a man to develop a great state institution for the training of teachers, called Dr. Snyder to the presidency of their newly founded school at Greeley. Here the last twenty- four years of his service was rendered. Here he built up the Colorado State Teachers College, which today ranks as one of the foremost colleges of education in America. He won funds for its material development, and friends for its intellectual and spiritual ambitions. He called men and women of rare gifts and rare devotion to his faculty, and inspired them to great and continuous service. He gathered armies of aspiring young men and women to be their disciples, and inspired them all with his own high ideals of substantial scholarship and professional worth. The Colorado Council! A MEMORIAL TO ZACHARIAH XENOPHON SNYDER 223 State Teachers College is a great visible monument to the genius and devo- tion of Zachariah Xenophon Snyder. But he has left a greater, more imperishable, and more precious legacy to the wife who for forty years was his sympathetic and inspiring helpmeet, to his children, and to his host of friends thruout the country. The certain knowledge that his transforming and inspiring service of education is undying, and that it will assert itself effectively in the lives of his disciples and their successors, must be a solace to the bereaved wife. It must be an inspiration for his children to noblest endeavor. It cannot fail to be to all of us who knew him as friend and brother a persistent call to greater effort and greater consecration. It is now just twenty-one years since it became the blessed privilege of your memorialist to know with close intimacy our departed friend. In that time close association with him in the deliberations and the business of the National Council of Education and in the National Education Association, closer contacts with him in the work of his great institution, and delightful weeks in his charming and cultivated home disclosed to me the secret of his greatness. A constant student of men and affairs, as well as of academic and pro- fessional problems, an independent thinker with the courage of his con- victions, an aggressive administrator whom no opposition could discourage, he was blest with an unshakable faith that there is an element of worth and longing to be helpful to all right causes in every man and woman, and particularly in every teacher. In more than twenty years of the closest friendship, involving the most intimate discussion of many movements and of more individuals, I heard the words of unqualified condemnation fall from his lips on but two occa- sions, and these were called forth by situations, to condone which would have been possible only in the prayer of Calvary: "Forgive them for they know not what they do." This tolerance of opposition, this sympathy for even the uncooperative and the unsympathetic, at times led him to unrea- sonable self-sacrifice, but never to sacrifice of his ideals. When these were threatened, the courage of the warrior for the right asserted itself, and abuse of confidence was handled without gloves, but also without malice. Dr. Snyder was always a student with a growing philosophy of educa- tion. He never permitted even the important details of administration, however pressing and numerous, to engross him in a way that shut out the higher light and the larger outlook. He once said to me: "Determine the principle for the solution of such problems, convince your helpers of the soundness of these principles, and you may rely on their effective disposition of many of our worries.'* He was a close student of the work of his contemporaries, getting from them stimulus in divergence and inspiration in support. He was a particu- larly close student of every important utterance of three of these men— 224 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National William Torrey Harris, Nicholas Murray Butler, and Stanley Hall. He said to me once: "It gives one power to accomplish the otherwise impos- sible when he finds his thought and purpose justified in the agreements of these three men; but oh, brother, how their disagreements let in the light! I often wonder for which we ought to be the more grateful." No adequate estimate of the worth and work of a great man can be made which does not look at his deeds and accomplishments in the light of his faith and his philosophy. Zachariah Xenophon Snyder achieved great things because his was a great faith and a great philosophy. In this brief minute I can only set forth its high points, or, better still, let our brother himself declare them. At our meeting in St. Louis in 1904 he set forth his educational creed. In that address he declared his belief in the following theses: 1. The application of the doctrine of evolution is fundamental in the interpretation of an individual and in his education. All science, all art, all philosophy, all religion, is the evolution of mind and spirit. Hence all education is an application of the principle of evolution. 2. Every individual is an involution of possibilities. In him are race, national, and parental elements. The child is a concentration of the ages. The possibility to grow, to think, to feel, to purpose, to do, and to enjoy is within him. 3. The education of an individual is the evolution of the possibilities within him. Education for service is first for self, second for others, and third for God. It is devotion to vocation, to himianity, to destiny. 4. The possibilities in individuals are variable — ^no two being the same. This gives us our basis for individual treatment, and for the elective system that preserves the indi- vidual in the socialization of the school. 5. The biological principle that function precedes structure is equally a law of edu- cation. 6. Truly to socialize an individual is to transfigure his individual initiative into mutual aid for humanity. Education should individualize and at the same time socialize. To live in any stage of development is to share the sympathies, joys, sorrows, resistances, and labors of those with whom we live. 7. The child is bom with the instinct and impulse to know, to think, and to partici- pate with his fellows. The object of his training is individual; the aim, social; and the end, civic — ^not individual training that makes him selfish, but training that makes him powerful, just, and courageous; not social training that destroys the identity of the indi- vidual, but training that transfigures his ideas, sentiments, and doings into humanity; not a social training that makes the individual feel utterly dependent, but a social training that makes him feel independent in his ability and disposition to help his fellows, that eads him to seek opportimities to share benefits, whether they be physical, mental, or spiritual; not a civic training that enables him to use his state for his own personal ends, but a training that actuates him to regard the interests of the people above his own — a training that makes him battle for righteousness in public matters and for business and purity in politics. 8. The external sources of education are nature, miad, and spirit. There is a feeling in every soul that may be directed toward nature in such a way as to make him feel its beauty, its inspiration, and its uplift. Mind touches and quickens the possibilities within the forms of history and literature, the capitalized soul of the ages; history as a record of the will of humanity, and literature as an expression of the sayings, sentiments, aspira- tions, and inspirations of the race. These are indispensable in the expansion of a human Councill FUNCTION OF GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION 225 soul as it follows the track of civilization from the first rude beginnings to the present time. The spirit of the Divinity as it operates in a human soul is a conception worthy of attention. In this materialistic and commercial period in which our civilization is living the utmost importance should be attacht to the quickening of the spirit or the higher nature. It is not meant to decrease our interest in the industrial and scientific aspect of the people, but to feed the spirit. Religion is the life of God in the human soul. The spirit of nature, the spirit of literature, the spirit of the Bible, the spirit of God, should all touch the soul of the child. The pedagogical graces— truth, beauty, and good- should be emphasized more as fundamentals in the real life of the child and our civiliza- tion. Faith, hope, and love should be lived more, should be taught more, should receive time for their inception into the lives of the children and people. To study the Bible as mere literature is not enough. This conception would seem to degrade it to the level of all other literature. The four great world-bibles— Homer, Dante, Goethe, and Shake- speare— and the literature that has grown out of them and that clusters about them are powerful stimulants in the growth of a human being; but the Bible, which appeals to all classes, high and low, wise and ignorant, young and old, is the source of spiritual food, and should be recognized above all for aspiration, consolation, inspiration, and ideals of life. It alone portrays the lives of the prophets, martyrs, apostles, and the Christ. Teach it as life — the life of God in the human soul. Such is the creed set forth to all teachers who are leading souls toward destinies in this life and the life to come. The proper conception of the religion of the Bible among a people has been and is an index of its civilization. Surely none but a great man could have held such a creed. Surely none but a great man could have workt it out in his own life-activities. He was ours in a peculiar way, and for that, gratitude and pride are mingled with the memory of our loss. Great thinker and teacher, great friend and coworker, hail and farewell! THE FUNCTION OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION C. W. A. LUCKEY, DEAN, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, LINCOLN, NEB. In the time alloted to this address it will be possible to touch in the briefest way only a few of the essential points. It is now less than eighty years since the first normal schools for the training of the elementary teachers were estabhsht in the United States. They gave more attention to the "what" than to the "how." It is only about thirty years since the first departments of education were estabhsht in colleges and universities. These had for their chief function the train- ing of secondary teachers, and have Hkewise given more attention in their instruction to the what than to the how. Within the past two years there have been estabhsht in the United States several strictly graduate schools of education,- with the exprest purpose of preparing experts in all lines of teaching and school administra- tion, a laudable, but quite ambitious, undertaking. It is the function of these graduate schools of education that we are to consider. 226 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National A study of the mind of the child reveals three important instincts fundamental to intelligence. With the beginning of speech the child makes known his inner life by a series of questions. These questions are quite uniform, whatever the race or stage of development. They are not the result of education, but are instinctive, the essence of science and philosophy. Beginning with the third year, the child starts the questioning by, "What is it"; six months later, by, *'Why is it"; about the close of the fourth year, by, "How is it." These questions are not always put in this simple form, but the meaning is the same, however exprest. The "what" shows the child's belief in the existence of facts which he is curious to know; the "why" indicates his belief in the causal relation of things, the purpose and reasonableness of life; the "how" indicates his desire to know how things are made, that he in turn may construct and describe. These spontaneous questions of the child illustrate the three most important stages of intelligence; What are the facts? Why are these facts as they are? How were they establisht or brought about? It is the dominant interest of science to discover the facts; of philosophy to explain and interpret them; of education (teaching) to distribute and vitalize them. From a study of the individual, it is easy to see that teaching is one of the natural, inherent, fundamental processes of human development. The hunger and search for truth and the effort to understand and explain it are not more insistent than the desire to express and teach that truth to others. But since teaching is the final step in the process, it is the more complex and must contain all the others. Like the scientist, the teacher must know and appreciate the essential facts of life; like the philosopher, he must understand and be able to explain them; but more, he must live them and stimulate others to live them. True teaching consists in vitaHzing truth and purity. Since the desire to teach is so strong in us all, it is not surprising that many have been pusht into the field before their preparation was sufficient for the task. They are, almost without exception, hungry to learn, and desirous of rendering the best service; but their foundation is so faulty and the subject so complex, that they are scarcely ever safe from the toils of the wily demagog or commercial exploiter. Partly, no doubt, on account of its complexity and partly on account of its later development (being a social instinct), teaching has been the last of the learned professions to receive attention. The preparation of the teacher is usually considered under two heads: the academic and the professional. The academic covers the what and the why, the professional the how. Unless the former is deep and true, the latter cannot be made successful. No one can teach what he does not know, neither can he make others see what he does not himself see. But perceiving the truth is not in itself sufficient test of abihty to make others see CouncU] FUNCTION OF GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION 227 it. The tendency has been, and still is, to place too little stress on the how. The statement is frequently made, and doubtless believed by some: "If an individual knows a subject he can teach it." Often the teachers of the professional subjects are lacking in scholarship, scientific training, and genuine Christian character. Even with their good intention, it is but an effort of the bUnd to lead the blind. It is the shortsighted, self-assuming, unscientific, exploiting spirit of so many of our profest leaders that has brought disrepute to the teaching profession. I have endeavored to call attention to the fact that teaching is instinc- tive, based on a real need of evolution and human intelligence. Being the last and most important step in human progress, it is only possible, in its best form, to those who thru tribulation have reacht the highest stage of human development. The teaching profession is without doubt the highest calHng open to man. Its value to civilization is beyond measure. One-tenth of the money spent on battleships and war, if devoted to teaching and constructive service, would give us a new earth, if not a new heaven. The teaching profession ought to lead all others in influence and power. It should be the aspiration of every member of the profession to become a Jordan, an Eliot, or a Hall. This can never be done if we allow men in other professions to do our thinking, are satisfied with half-baked thoughts, or bloom out at the top before there is any depth of root. The teaching profession is too sacred a calling and too fraught with danger to human beings to enter upon its services lightly. In another paper I have called attention to the essentials in the train- ing of a teacher. Here I can mention only a few of the professional needs which it is the function of graduate schools to stimulate. First is the need of thoroness and going to the bottom of things; a clear understanding of the problem and the end in view; the best means of guiding others to higher levels with the least waste of effort and time. The teacher must be a biologist and know life; he must be a physiologist and know the way that life functions; he must be a psychologist and understand the workings of the psychic life; he must be a sociologist and have some knowledge of the group conscience and true human relations; he must be a philosopher and set up right standards of living; he must be religious and live consistent with his ideals and teaching. It may seem that I have set up a standard impossible of attainment. But such is not the case. In every individual all these quahties now exist in embryo. If they have not been developt in every individual, it is because of faulty teaching. Graduate schools of education must remedy this, at least in coming generations. How often we have wisht to live our school days over again that we might correct some of the faulty teaching. Thru smiles and flattery our teach- ers prevented us from seeing their ignorance until it was too late to remedy the evil wrought. With proper guides in our earlier and later development, we would today be living examples of the high ideal of 228 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National the teacher, as given above, and the difference in true happiness would be very great. All thru our study the effort should be to come into possession of a true philosophy of life. We should study to know the child, to know it in all stages, to know it in its evolution, to know it as affected by its environment. This again is possible to those who go at it right. Since by division only the protozoa multiply, it is easy to see that the present ameba must be as old in its parts as the parent ameba of a thousand years ago. Likewise in the evolution of man there are complexes and elements born with the child of today that are as old as the race itself. These complexes and traces of experience of a former generation accumulate with the ages, are workt over and recombined with other elements, furnishing the faith, the instincts, the curiosity, the desires of the subconscious life, upon which only is it possible to build a dynamic conscious life. How shortsighted we are in our methods when we do not take into consideration the force and push of this submerged four-fifths of man in our effort to guide and shape the conscious one-fifth or less. The purpose of education should be to develop a self-sustaining, self-directing, self-sacrificing, or altruistic, individual, keenly alive to the best interest of humanity. To accomplish this ideal, the individual must be free to work out his own inner life, and must be held responsible for the results. Broadly speaking, there are two ideals of civic life, imperialism and democracy. In the former there are two classes of society, the ruling and the ruled. It is the effort of one class to impose its will and thinking on the other. In a true democracy all are equally free, and are held together by the law which they in turn have helpt to construct. In education the tendency is nearly always toward imperialism. When the teacher tends to impose her will and thought on the child, she becomes, not an inspirer and guide, but a taskmaster. The individual develops thru natural stages in which the dominant interests almost completely change. There are two important cycles in development: the first, extending from birth to twelve or fourteen, during which the individual is self-centered, and all activities have their relation in the self; the second, extending from twelve to twenty-four, during which the individual becomes altro-centered, and every experience is workt over with reference to the new viewpoint. Each of these cycles has three important levels which, if understood, can be used to great advantage in our teaching. The first, extending from birth to four or five, is a period of sense development and the functioning of early instincts, a period of gathering; the second, extending from five to seven or eight, is a period of motor development, of dramatization — acting and doing; the third, extending from seven to twelve or fourteen, is a period of intellectual development, of the associative or higher brain centers and the accessory muscles, an excellent time for necessary habituation and drill work. At first the domi- nant interests seem to be aroused thru dermal changes, then thru the CouncU] FUNCTION OF GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION 229 development of the fundamental muscles, and finally thru the development of the accessories or finer muscles. With the growth changes that take place in adolescence, the three stages of development are again repeated in the same order. First come the changing sense-feelings and emotions due to the growth of the sex organs and related tissues, causing the restlessness, stress, and strain of the adoles cent. Thru this growth, the entire leverage of the body changes and makes necessary to the youth the need of refinding himself in motor habits and muscular control. And, finally, the medullation of the tangential nerve- fibers, the growth of the highest brain centers and the accessory muscles, enable the youth to select his Hfe's caUing, to speciaHze, and to Uve the life of a man. I have not time to enter into the discussion of ideals, but will merely mention three that have grown up in the process of education. Accordmg to the first, the purpose of education is to fashion the individual m the image of the past, usually the best past. It is the humanistic ideal, and tends to make the civilization conservative and static. According to the second, the purpose of education is to fit the individual to the conditions of the present, to the immediate needs of the social, poUtical, and industrial hfe. It is known as the utihtarian or vocational ideal, and lays stress on education for citizenship. According to the third, the purpose of education is to develop a man, the best man possible under the conditions; to assist nature thru nurture; to enable the individual to find himself, and to evolve natur- ally and rapidly to the highest levels and even to rise above them. Accord- ing to the latter conception of education, the initiative must come from within. Teaching becomes the effort to make others see and live what you see and live. Development results from the interaction of the organism and its eiivironment, by means of which both are modified. In this process of interaction there are four factors that should be noted: the surrounding physical environment; the surrounding social environment; the growing organism; and the self -active, organizing, directing, controlling force known as aspiration, longing, aim. Man is a great dynamo or generator of vital energy. This energy is constantly increasing thru nutrition and growth. It is the purpose of education to enable the individual to organize, control, and utilize this energy. The process brings more of happiness and real worth when it takes place under methods of construction. This accumulating energy of the growing individual must have an outlet, and will seek it in work or play, in channels of righteousness or in paths of evil Education should teach one to make the best use of his inheritance, to overcome difficulties, to live truly, and to act nobly. It is the function of the graduate school of education to give dignity and productive scholarship to the teaching profession; to add to the sum of human learning; to encourage scientific research in education; to create 230 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National a more intelligent and more efficient body of teachers; to direct educational investigations and school surveys, both state and national; to furnish inspiration and guidance to normal schools and undergraduate schools of education; to encourage able school men to make use of its laboratories in carrying on investigations that may be of value to the profession; to become a source of supply of the best- trained teachers; and to prove the fallacy of the thought that scientific research and productive scholarship are incompatible with the best teaching ability. These are a few of the things for which the graduate school of education should stand. But above all, these schools should create in their midst the true teaching spirit. They should stimulate men and women to become interested in research and productive activity; to discover, vitalize, and distribute truth; to live in harmony with that truth and to inspire others to do so. These schools should create for the teaching profession the confidence and scholar- ship that are enjoyed by the other learned professions. DISCUSSION W. P. BuRRis, dean, College for Teachers, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. — A rough analysis of the situation as we find it in this country shows that three groups or classes of institutions have developt as a result of an interest in teaching and education. To the first group belong the teachers training schools and the normal schools. Their function is mainly to prepare for teaching positions in schools below high-school grade. Graduation from a four-years' high-school course is a condition of admission to a standard institution of this group, and the standard course leading to a teacher's diploma is two years in length. Much variation is foimd in the curricula offered, but we may say, in general, that the institutions in this group place more emphasis upon training, or prac- tice teaching, than do those in the other two groups. A varying amount of academic work is found, including reviews of subjects to be taught, and there are courses in the theory of teaching and in the subjects from which this theory is derived. Psychology of one kind or another occupies a conspicuous place, with some attention to the history of education as a close second. School management and school hygiene also receive atten- tion, but it cannot be said that there is any thoro study of education in institutions of this group. There cannot be, and it is not the intention that there should be. The concern here is teaching rather than education — ability in teaching gained thru super- vised practice, with enough study in educational theory to show the difference between good and bad practice. To the second group belong the normal colleges, schools and colleges of education, teachers colleges, and regular colleges, so far as they maintain departments or divisions of education for the training of teachers. Their fimction is mainly the preparation of teachers for the secondary field. In some cases provision is also made for the training of teachers of regular elementary subjects, as well as of teachers of special subjects taught in the elementary grades. Courses are also provided for administrators, supervisors, principals, normal-school instructors, and critic teachers, but the characteristic work of institutions in this group is in relation to the secondary field. Graduation from a first- grade high school is required for admission to institutions of this group, and the courses in education fall mainly in the last two years of a four-year course leading to a degree. Less emphasis is placed upon practice teaching than in institutions of the first group and Councill FUNCTION OF GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCA TION 23 1 more upon subjects to be taught. More thoro courses in psychology, in history and pnnciples of education, and in other professional subjects are oflfered, and a more scien- tific attitude toward education and teaching is maintained. In several institutions of this group, notably those which are parts of universities havmg graduate schools, there is a growmg tendency to make education a graduate study as well as an undergraduate study. In some instances, education as a department in the graduate school has already begun to overshadow all other departments of the graduate school in importance. This would more frequently be the case if the tendency were not held in check, and if there were more instructors capable of conductmg courses m educaUon worthy of a place in a graduate school. It need be no surprise that such is the tendency for there can no longer be any question about education being our most important enter- prise, conceived as the chief agency of our social reconstruction. Out of this tendency, wherever education as a department in a graduate school assumes great importance, the graduate school of education is coming. In a few and favorable places, it is developing out of a department of education in the graduate school, just as teachers colleges have developt out of departments of education in colleges of arts and sciences. To the third group of institutions, then, developt out of a growmg interest m teaching and education, belong the graduate school of education and departments of education in graduate schools so far as they do work of a given character. What is the unique function of this group ? How different from the work of the other two groups ? In answer to these questions, I find myself, to some extent, in disagreement with Dean Luckey's paper, for the reason that certam phases of work which he emphasized in the graduate school of education more properly belong, in my judgment, to institutions in the other two groups. He dwells upon the preparation of teachers as a function of the graduate school of education — a function provided for without the necessity of a graduate school of education, so far as teachers in elementary and secondary schools are concerned. Assuredly the graduate school of education is not the place for the training of elementary teachers, and graduate courses in education in a graduate school suffice for the training of secondary teachers, where such training extends beyond the undergraduate period. On the other hand, a graduate school of education is the proper place for courses in educa- tion and teaching intended for the better preparation of those who expect to fill positions in normal schools and teachers colleges. Such a school is also needed for the better preparation of administrators, supervisors, principals, and research workers. Such a school should also provide appropriate courses in education for persons who aspire to positions in colleges of arts and sciences, or in colleges or schools of engineering, law, medicine, theology, agriculture, or commerce. How much "muddling" in the work of instruction, faculty meetings, and administration, foimd in colleges and universities at the present time, could be prevented if graduate schools of education were to become centers in which the efficient conduct of higher and professional education in all of its phases would be a serious concern of competent specialists in these fields! Such schools, indeed, are not only desirable, but necessary, in furnishing the very capstone of our edu- cational pyramid, but they must be schools of a higher order than any hitherto establisht, in order to be worthy of the name of graduate school of education. As such, they must be schools of research, and their problems must be the evaluation, on higher levels, of the aims, means, and management of every phase of our educational system. In relation to the elementary and secondary phases of our education their fimction is not the training of teachers, but of those who are to lead them. In relation to professional and higher education only is their function analogous to that of the first group of institutions in relation to the elementary schools, and to that of the second group of institutions in relation to the secondary schools. The graduate school of education is not merely an mstitution of the first group raised to the third power, nor is it an institution of the second group raised to the second power. Its function must be unique. The first and second groups of institutions, each witiiin 232 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National its own field, are concerned with what is to be done and how it should be done. The first is properly and inevitably concerned with education and teaching chiefly as arts. The second group makes a more scientific study of the questions involved. But in the graduate school of education, for the first time, a study of the philosophy of education can profit- ably be undertaken. The graduate school of education, therefore, has for its imique task the preparation of leaders who know what is to be done, how it should be done, and why it is to be done. As such, it should occupy itself with the same questions — ^What ? How ? and Why ? — with reference to academic, technical, and professional education, and, as a result of an experience in elementary, secondary, higher, and professional fields of education, I am convinst that this function is as necessary as the normal school in rela- tion to the common schools. Shall the graduate school of education undertake this work, or shall it be left to bureaus of public service, municipal research bureaus, and Carnegie Foundations? NOTICE Papers were presented by members of the Committee on Standards and Tests of Efficiency, as indicated in the minutes. These papers appear in Part I of the Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Sttidy of Education. NATIONAL WELFARE AND RURAL SCHOOLS I. THOMAS D. WOOD, M.D., PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. Rural-school children are less healthy and are handicapt by more physical defects than children of the city schools, including all the children of the slums. This is clearly proven by statistics taken from many states and is, in general, true of all parts of the country. The general death- rate in rural New York has for five years been greater than that of New York City. Apparently within the last decade or two the health of rural America has declined below that of the cities, or perhaps it is truer to say that within this period the standards of living and health of the cities have risen above those of the rural regions. The present inferiority of country life today, so far as human health and welfare are concerned, is apparently due, principally, to the following causes: 1. Much of the best human stock, particularly within the last half- century, has moved from the farms to the cities. 2. The science and art of human living have advanst much more rapidly in the cities than in the country. This appHes to the immediate human environment in the country as well as to all habits of life affecting health. The farmhouse is, on the average, less sanitary than the city home. The rural school is relatively the least healthful type of building in the entire country. The diet of the people in the country is less hygienic, on the whole, than the food of city dwellers. In general, the standards of Council] NATIONAL WELFARE AND RURAL SCHOOLS ~ ■ ■ — . «5o human living in the cities, in relation to health, at least, are superior to those in rural America. 3. The rapidly increasing extent of absentee ownership of the farms works to the great disadvantage of the standards of human life in rural regions. Tenant farmers have relatively less intelligence and less money than the absentee owners to provide the requirements of Ufe in the homes and in the schools. 4. The religious life and faith of the people are today weakening, or, at least, changing rapidly in the country as well as in the cities. In the rural regions, however, the idea and habit of social service are providing, much less rapidly than in the cities, a partial substitute and program for the religious life of the past. "Social responsibiHty is the most effective sacrament of religion." In spite of the fact that at the present time city life is more healthful than country life, it is still true with reference to the future, as to the past, that the best of our human stock for leadership in country or city— *for the nation as a whole — must come from the farms. The valuable raw material of every type (for human needs) must still come from the soil. The improvement of human health and welfare in rural America must, then, be recognized as of pecuhar importance in relation to our entire national welfare. The problem of bringing about sujficient improvement in the healthfulness of rural life to provide a worthy birthplace and nursery for the best human stock is not simply a problem of the rural school, of the farm, or of rural life in general, but it is a great, pressing problem of the nation, affecting national safety, national prosperity, and national per- petuity. It is the problem dealing with conservation of the most essential and most endangered of all our national resources. It is a problem which must enlist the services of the national and state, as well as local and volun- teer, agencies. There is apparently no problem of fundamental character and national scope more vital than this, calling for solution at the present time. No factor is of greater basic significance than this with reference to promoting national preparedness either for peace or for possible war. The most vital phase of this problem of rural health relates to the health and welfare of the children. Country children deserve as much health and happiness as city children. Country children are entitled to as careful cultivation as crops and live stock. The rural school is the universal, the official, the strategic agency thru which these health influences may be most effectively exerted, directly and indirectly, not only for the care of the health of children, but for the improvement of rural health in general. The Health Committee of the National Council of Education, in cooperation with the corresponding Health Committee of the American Medical Association, after careful consideration of this problem, strongly recommends the following measures for the improvement of the health 234 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National of rural-school children and for their influence in the promotion of rural health in general. 1. Health examination and supervision of all rural-school children. 2. Dental examination and dental care for the teeth of all children in the rural schools. 3. The service of the school or district nurse to provide the practical health service and follow-up work which, as has been so clearly demon- strated in our cities, can be best accomplisht by the school nurse. The work of the nurse is even more vitally important in rural than in city schools. 4. Warm school lunches for all children in rural as well as in city schools. The indirect educational benefits of the school lunches upon the children and the homes are even more important than the immediate health improvement of the children themselves. 5. Correction of physical defects which are interfering with the health, the general development, and the progress of rural children. For this remedial and constructive health service, practical rural equivalents of medical clinics, dental clinics, and community health centers of the cities are urgently needed in all parts of the United States. The county unit of organization and administration for health as well as other rural interests has already proved successful, and promises the best results. Every county should have one full-time health oflScer, one or more school and district nurses, and one or more community health centers, to provide rational, self-supporting health and medical service for all the people. 6. Cooperation of physicians, medical organizations, health boards, and all other available organizations in the rural-health program. 7. Effective health instruction for the rural schools which shall aim decisively at the following results: establishment of health habits and inculcation of lasting ideas and standards of wise and efficient hving in pupils; extension of health conduct and care to the school, to the homes, and to the entire community. 8. Better trained and better paid teachers for rural schools, who shall be adequately prepared to cope with the health problems as well as with other phases of the work of rural education. 9. Sanitary and attractive school buildings, which are essential to the health of pupils and teachers. 10. Generous provision of space and facilities for wholesome play and recreation. 11. Special classes and schools for the physically and mentally deficient, in which children may receive the care and instruction requisite for their exceptional needs. Better health is to a striking extent a purchasable commodity and benefit. Vast sums of money are expended from pubUc and private funds for the amelioration of human suffering and disability in the attempt to salvage the wreckage resulting from unfavorable earlier conditions which, Council] NATIONAL WELFARE AND RURAL SCHOOLS 235 with foresight, and at very moderate cost, might in large measure have been prevented. Our schools are spending millions in educating, or trying to educate, the children who are kept back by ill health, when the expenditure of thousands in a judicious health program would produce an extraordinary saving in economy and efficiency. A dollar spent in a wise, constructive effort to conserve a child's health and general welfare will be more fruitful for the child and for the general good than a thousand times that sura delayed for twenty years. The principle of thrift in education finds its first and most vital application in the conservation and improvement of the health of the children. n. WICKLIFFE ROSE, DIRECTOR GENERAL, INTERNATIONAL HEALTH BOARD, NEW YORK, N.Y. The most effective agency yet devised for the spread of disease or for the promotion of public health in the rural communities of this country is the rural pubUc school, and whether its efficiency is to be made manifest in the one direction or the other depends upon the way in which the school is conducted. In the rural community, with its sparse population scattered over wide areas, the school is the one important point of contact; it is the central exchange thru which useful information, idle gossip, or communi- cable diseases may be transmitted with equal facihty. There are about 250,000 such rural exchanges in the United States at the present time, and in these are assembled each day for five days in the week during school term some 12,000,000 rural children coming from and returning to homes in which live more than half the people of this country. The question, therefore, as to whether the rural school is operating as a help or as a hindrance to the public health is a matter of serious national concern. Recent investigations of health conditions have been made in many thousands of rural schools in more than twenty-six states in different parts of the country, and the facts disclosed by these surveys seem to leave no room for doubt that, as at present administered, the rural school is in no small degree a menace to the physical welfare of the child which it is supposed to teach and to the health of the community which it is supposed to serve. In detail, the facts show that rural schools fail to supply proper sanitary conditions in school buildings and grounds; that they fail to make adequate provision for the discovery and cure, as far as possible, of those physical defects which impair the child's health and working efficiency and tend to retard his physical and mental development; and that they fail to make adequate provision for guarding the children and the com- munity against the dangers of communicable disease. These general statements are borne out by an exhibit of facts: I. To pass over such minor deficiencies as lack of washing faciUties, wet playgrounds, inadequate playgrounds, or no playgrounds at all, one 236 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National survey reports that 64 per cent of the schools inspected were kept at a temperature too high for good work; that many of the children were com- pelled to sit too near the stoves and radiators; that in less than 3 out of every 100 schoolhouses heated by stoves had provision been made for supplying proper moisture to the air; that in 34 per cent of them no window boards or other satisfactory ventilating device had been installed; and that in 36 out of every 100 schools inspected no care was taken to flush the room periodically by opening the windows. 2. On the basis of an investigation in detail of some 600 rural school- houses in 18 different states, it is estimated that classrooms in rural schools receive only about half the amount of Ught which they should receive, and that even the light which they do receive is not properly distributed. In another study of rural schoolhouses it was found that in 3 out of every 5 of them blackboards were so placed as to produce harmful eyestrain, and that in 60 per cent of them the window shades were unsatisfactory in color and were so attacht as to hinder rather than to help the proper distribution of light in the room. 3. In a study of 1400 rural schoolhouses it was found that 965, more than 56 per cent of them, had dirty, dusty floors as a chronic condition, and that by occasional sweepings, which did not clean, the dust was being distributed to the desks, window sills, and all possible ledges thruout the room. In another similar study it was found that in 81 per cent of the schools the floors were washt not more than once a month, and that in more than 56 per cent of them the floors were washt not more than once in two or three months. The use of oil to protect the children from the dangers of flying dust has not become general in rural schools. Of the 1400 schools referred to above, it was found that in 12 cases out of every 100 the children were subjected directly to the dust of sweeping. In view of the appalling tuberculosis rate and trachoma rate in rural communities in many parts of this country, these facts need no comment. 4. Under the head of water supply, these reports show that of 1258 schools examined in 18 different states, 691, or nearly two- thirds, depended on springs and wells over which they had no control; and that in one inves- tigation the majority of all springs were found to be without protection from surface drainage or animal pollution; that in one inspection of 139 wells, 49, or 35 per cent, were found to be in danger of contamination from the school privies; that in a large proportion of cases the water supplied to the schools has never been tested as to its purity; that the tanks or buckets in use are left uncovered, are seldom or never scalded, and that in a large proportion of schools the common cup or tin dipper is the prevailing custom. 5. Under the head of sewage disposal, these reports exhibit a condition the concrete details of which are better omitted, but a condition which in the interest of common decency and pubHc health cannot be ignored. It C°"°cill NATIONAL WELFARE AND RURAL SCHOOLS 237 is the consensus of opinion of health officials that the biggest single health problem of rural communities is the problem of soil pollution, and that complete control of this one thing would eliminate typhoid, dysentery, intestinal parasites, and other enteric infections. In the study of 140CI rural schools in 18 different states referred to above, it was found that nearly half of them had only an open pit, that 601 had no pit at all, that less than 20 had protection against flies, and only i in 100 had priviesthat were regarded as satisfactory. Eleven states, in a vigorous and systematic fight against soil pollution, made a sanitary survey of 280,685 farm homes in 752 counties. Of these, 135,831, or 48 per cent, had no privies of any kind, and at only . 58 per cent of the homes were the provisions against soil con- tamination reported as satisfactory. The conditions found at the homes were repeated at the schools, where the dangers of the condition were multiplied by the fact that the school is the one point of contact or central exchange for the whole community. 6. The reading pubHc is well informed as to the large percentage of physical defects which medical inspection reveals among school children. These reports of conditions among rural-school children show that of one group of children examined 7 J per cent had defective hearing; in another group 27 per cent had defective vision, 31 per cent had nasal defects, 27.7 per cent had adenoids, 30 per cent had enlarged tonsils, 47 per cent had defective teeth, and a large proportion were poorly nourisht, or from some other cause exhibited lowered vitality. These conditions are not pecuhar to the children in rural schools, nor are they pecuKar to the children of this country, but they do show that the rural school must follow the example of the well-administered city school in providing for the detection, and as far as possible for the remedying, of those physical defects which endanger the child's general health, impair his working efficiency, and tend to retard his mental and physical growth. 7. The final count which these studies of health conditions have scored against rural schools is that they have not made adequate provision for protecting the children and tlie community against communicable diseases. This count has been sustained with sufficient emphasis by the exhibit of unsanitary conditions displayed above. But in the reports under review it is recorded that in 138 small rural schools, having a total enrolment of only 1000, the pupils lost 8j years of time in one year on account of scarlet fever; that they lost 3 years 4 months and 13 days on account of chicken pox; that the total time lost during the year amounted to 37 school years; and that 76 per cent of this loss was due to sickness, 60 per cent of which was preventable. In an examination of 21 .rural schools, it was found that 10 per cent of the pupils had trachoma; in four schools the infection was 35 per cent, 43 per cent, 44 per cent, and 46 per cent, respectively. A microscopic examination of specimens from 403,719 chil- dren in II states showed that 43 per cent of them had hookworm infection, 238 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National and that in many schools the infection ran as high as 100 per cent, including the teacher. These records of high percentages of infection are not offered as typical of conditions in all rural schools; they are not intended to imply that the school is the cause, or that it is responsible for the occurrence, of every case of conmiunicable disease that may appear among its pupils. Of the cases of trachoma or hookworm infection referred to, many were doubtless contracted at home and were brought into the school. But, granted in case of any given school that all cases of infection were brought into the school from the homes, it remains that they are in the school, and their unguarded presence there points the responsibility which* I desire to empha- size. One case of trachoma in a school is a menace to every other child in that school and to every family in the community from which children attend the school. And here are rural schools in which 10 per cent, 35 per cent, and even 46 per cent of the pupils have trachoma, with no apparent recognition that the disease is communicable, and with no precaution against its transmission to the other pupils and thru them to the whole conomunity. I have seen many rural schools (and six years ago there were hundreds of them) in which from 25 per cent to 100 per cent of the children were carriers and distributors of hookworm infection. At many of these schools complete soil contamination prevailed, and the majority of the children were barefoot during the spring and summer season. Without thought, word, or act of precaution on the part of anybody these infected children, by being brought together in larger groups at the schools and made to live together there under insanitary conditions, were augmenting the infection among themselves, were transmitting it to the uninfected, and were thus distributing it thru the communities. I have no hesitation in affirming that rural public schools have thus contributed directly and in no small measure to the distribution of hookworm infection thruout hundreds of rural communities, and to the intensifying of the disease and its devitalizing results in the case of thousands of children who otherwise would have escapt with a much lighter infection. On the other hand, let me hasten to say that, in the work now under way for the relief and control of trachoma and hookworm infection, there is no more important working agency than the rural school. And this brings me to the second and last point which it is the purpose of this paper to emphasize, namely: The rural school under intelligent administration may be made the most effective agency we have yet devised for conserving the life and health and working efficiency of the people in our rural communities. It is not possible, within the limits of a ten-minute paper, to exhibit in detail how this is to be done; but four things at least are fundamental, and are within the bounds of reasonable expectation: (i) the school when efficiently administered will safeguard the health of its pupils and will cease to be a serious menace to the community; (2) it will give definite and CouncU] NATIONAL WELFARE AND RURAL SCHOOLS 230 systematic instruction in personal hygiene and community sanitation- (3) it will form a system of well-establisht health habits by having this instruction translated into appropriate action; and (4) it wiU so conduct its health-teaching and its health work that its instruction will be made effective thruout the community which it is intended to serve. And m the doing it will be found that these four things are inseparable. Effective instruction in health subjects may well begin with recognition of the fact that the school is itself a community, with its diseases to be relieved and prevented, and its physical environment to be made sanitary and kept under control. Sanitary inspection of the school and medical inspection of its children will supply both motive and material for instruc- tion of the most direct and definite character. Discovered pathologic conditions of teeth and gums, for example, will be made the occasion and the basis for the practical teaching of mouth hygiene; the finding of malarial infection, of trachoma, or of a typhoid carrier will be made to educate the whole school in the control of these communicable diseases; the proper care of the school building with its problems of heating, lighting, and ventilation, the care of its floor and furniture, the protection of its water supply, and the prevention of soil contamination about its grounds will be made to teach fundamental lessons in sanitation. This instruction, growing out of the practical needs of the school, will be supplemented by means of books, leaflets, charts, and systematic oral teaching — all made simple, definite, direct, and concrete to the last degree, and illustrated in every possible detail by means of drawings, photographs, and lantern slides. These lessons will be driven home by the pressure of some practical situation to be met: the 43 per cent hookworm infection in the school must be eliminated, and reinfection prevented; teeth and gums must be made sound, and kept so; the water-supply must be protected, the dust kept down, and the temperature regulated. The school community will thus educate its members in the fundamentals of health by ascertaining what its own health requirements are, learning how these requirements may be met, and then doing the things which the situation calls for. This rural schools may do, for they have done it and are doing it now. I have referred to the service which the schools are rendering in the work now under way for the rehef and control of hookworm disease. The cooperation of state and county school authorities and of the teachers has been indispensable in carrying out the work. Hundreds of schools have had their pupils examined, have had the infected treated, and have made the proper sanitary provision for the prevention of reinfection. And more important than the control of the disease has been the educational result of the work. The intelligent doing of this one bit of health work in the school has given every child and the entire community an object lesson m the control of disease. Each chi d has been taught in concrete detail what this one disease is, what it means to him and to the community, how it 240 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National may be detected, how it may be cured, how the infection is spread, and how it may be prevented. This instruction has been carried out in action; and thus has been formed a system of health habits which will determine future conduct when these children come as men and women to preside over the homes and to direct the life of the community. The school authorities have been enlisted, and parents have shared in every step the children have taken. The community has been assembled at the school to see the demonstration that has been carried out, and to hear the story of it told in simple, straightforward language and abundantly illustrated by means of objects, charts, and lantern slides. The work of relief and sanitation carried out in the school is now being repeated in the homes. And one may see in many of these communities that a tide has set in — a tide of public sentiment which is bringing this disease under control, and which will in the end eradicate it. This sentiment, thus created, will continue, and will express itself in a demand for better health laws and larger appropriations for health work, and will be the basis for general advancement in personal hygiene and public sanitation. THE NEW IDEAL IN EDUCATION— BETTER PARENTS OF BETTER CHILDREN HELEN C. PUTNAM, M.D., PROVIDENCE, R.I. The only men and women society needs are those whose living betters the children that are and are to be. The disorders in civilization, the long destruction with powerful explosives, chemicals, and inventions directed by murderous wills, gives some little countenance to the query. What if human- ity should be wiped out within the decennial ? If it should be, sciences, arts, enterprises, personalities, would have no further usefulness. The corollary of this is: The supreme test of living is the next generation — our conservation of its quaHties primarily, its numbers in part. For the living many details are already settled. Heredity is beyond alteration, conditions of birth and early environment likewise. Later environment and reactions to it are still open to changes within limits of natural and political laws. Non-conformities to certain laws of well-being result for the next generation in imperfections, degeneracies, premature deaths. The next generation cannot be all it might be when the Uving prepare for it a heredity and environment either of which violates certain laws of well-being. The individual's inheritance of life is made of infinite blendings thru infinite ages. No possession transcends it in antiquity, in costliness. It is beyond possibility of duphcation, of restoration if destroyed or specifically injured. And yet it is a fair statement that no possession is more abused by its holder and by society. The responsibiUty of the living one to the Council] THE NEW IDEAL IN EDUCATION 241 future for the right management of this ancestral trust gives him literally infinite power. If he chooses, this trust that has escapt annihilation up to the present may end with himself, eliminating from the race the strain con- fided to him. This is of infinite concern, somewhat to the past, somewhat to the future. Or the individual may contaminate a clean inheritance by choice of mate, or may handicap the next generation hopelessly thru prenatal abuses and evil conditions of birth and infancy. Again, the individual, even if not a parent, inevitably helps make the material, social, and spiritual environment of the next generation. He may help set the fashion for wages below possibiUty of decent living, for huge fortunes, for human maelstroms— great cities; for slums, alcohohcs, prosti- tution; for suicide; for domination of democracy by wealth, by mihtarism, by competition instead of cooperation — domination of humanity by individuahsm. Or he may help estabUsh the well-being of the next genera- tion above greeds, lusts, vagaries, ignorance, and degeneracy of individuals. The individual for his little moment has infinite power. Around his responsibilities are concentrated and heapt up all the vulgarities and vices, follies and shams, that twentieth-century civilization tolerates in the indi- vidual. Beyond these are national irresponsibiUties. In Europe males selected for physical excellence are slaughtering each other. By-products of war are destruction of women and children, homes, means of Uvehhood. It is an incalculable price for the race to pay — ^for what ? Others accuse our nation of feeling "self-righteous" because not in the great embroilment. We have too many reasons for dissatisfaction with ourselves for that. The horrors of peace as disclosed in our census rival the horrors of war. They attract less attention because spread over more years. In our past nothing in authentic history equals our waste of natural resources by individuals seeking wealth under a government pro- moting its accumulation, with mutual indifference to rights of the unborn apparently as great as the indifference to rights of the North American Indians, for whose wrongs we thereby receive punishment. Reckless economic waste continues. It has meant vast individual fortunes, increas- ing numbers around the poverty line, exploitation of the masses, govern- ment by an oligarchy, not by all the people. When other civilizations are being questioned, we are doomed if we do not recognize our own weaknesses. They are best measured m terms of human life. The census does this. In a decade of peace our people die by hundreds of thousands from preventable diseases, suffer by miUions from preventable illnesses, endure, again by miUions, preventable accidents. Our mortality rates of the very young are two and three times those in cer- tain other countries. The preventable physical handicaps afflicting three- fourths of school children usually begin under parental care, and usually are continued and added to during school years, except under efficient medical inspection, which is very rare. Our mentally defective multiply 242 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National at rates faster than the average. The next generation is Hkely to have a larger burden of their support, robbing the normal, as we do, to provide for degenerates whose creation we allow, and who are already estimated in the miUions. These are logical results of the ideal of "the rights of the individual" overshadowing humanity's rights. All this that I have been recalling to mind is obvious. If humanity is to survive, individualism and nationalism must conform to laws of racial well-being. The only men and women society needs are those whose living betters the children that are and are to be. Acceptance of this standard is urgent. That nations are being exterminated in our own life-span reminds us that nations usually have had but a few hundred years of existence; that the length of life and power of our own country depends absolutely on what the living do for the next generation, delivering to them their inheritances of Ufe and of environment not only no worse than received, but improved. Our books are audited by the Bureau of the Census, whose reports hitherto give grave cause for serious thought. The evils of peace involve the whole people. Their prevention is determinedly thwarted by organized and unorganized individualism. Dis- content with civilization under existing ideals is shown in grim and extended contests between labor and capital. There is unrest in the churches, in education, both accused of being unfairly influenst by wealth. Coercion of truth by money interests is as dangerous as coercion by violence. This is the risk in the foundations that people are resenting. It is one of the objections to great cities, whose abnormal crowding produces abnormal conditions and their abnormal treatments, that great wealth — abnormal too — ^advertises, influencing the whole country, leveling to expediency for commercial considerations standards and ideals that more wholesome environment creates and makes possible. This enlightened discontent is, Hke war itself, confession of failure, confession that peace such as we have had is not the kind of peace humanity wants. It is said that democracy is on trial. Democracy has not existed — it cannot be on trial. Government that excludes from representation half the adult population because of sex, and possibly more than half the remaining adults because in so-called minorities (where progress always begins), is a vast oligarchy. It exhibits the imperfections that all forms of tyranny have always exhibited. The unrest of these unrepresented people is helping to urge the saving ideal of a better next generation. Neither democracy nor rights of individuals are ideals, as commonly claimed. They can be used as agents in establishing what appears to be the Creator's proffered possi- bility— a better human race. For many months pubHc attention had been occupied with plans for an international trade after the war such as has never been known. Competi- tion is devised on a scale unprecedented. All signs point to even mightier preparations under the surface. The renewed struggle for wealth has all CounciU THE NEW IDEAL IN EDUCATION 243 the world for an arena, especially South America, with its miUions of Indians and half-castes, some of them in all probabiUty with quahties desirable to conserve in the racial inheritance, as had older peoples that have been exterminated under individualism and nationalism. The resources of South American forests, waters, and soils have hardly been sampled. Con- ditions promise a repetition of our colonial and early national history, whose crimes are not yet outgrown. To help on this commercial world war, public education plans commercial, trade, and industrial classes, encour- aged by federal and local assistance, and strongly seconded by business interests. But thrift, commerce, and wealth that injure the hving, and thru them the next generation, experience proves are undesirable. Unless some higher ideal directs them, we can expect nothing better than we have had. We may well expect worse— our powers for good and evil are greater. On the other hand, demand is definite that we have a new kind of peace in which the race — not merely some of its living individuals — shall thrive. It comes from various honest and trustworthy sources, not always exprest in the same terms, nor professing the same immediate object, but when analyzed all converging to one ideal— a better next generation. Experts in research and specialists in experimentation, commissions and surveys, studies and reports, magazines and newspapers, forums and mass meetings, are presenting statements of wrongs, accounts of remedies under way, under consideration, asking consideration, or proved ineffective. The more we learn of our mistakes, the farther back in the lives of chil- dren many are traced. Their susceptible organization stores influences more lastingly and deeply, whether bacilli of tuberculosis or effects of cruelty, selfishness, ignorance. During these highly sensitive years, as during pre- natal Hfe, the child's development is wholly in the hands of parents, its heredity also. Education omits preparation for this most critical business of life — making a human before school age. A hundred years ago teachers and nurses, like parents today, had only pickt-up knowledge. Half a century ago, preparation of the first two was under way. Today prepara- tion for the responsibilities of parents is beginning, largely thru insistence of women backt by statistics from the census. We think economically. We need to think biologically. To an audi- ence of biologists this statement would have certain definite meaning. It would mean such actual educational experiences that there remains in con- sciousness or subconsciousness a composite of details convincing the indivi- dual that life is a racial trust, that the quaUty of the next generation is the supreme test of human worth. But society is cultivating humans without preparation in elementary science of life, and with ambitions for economic competitions and successes. It is a law of mind that we do not appreciate until we understand. We shall always abuse life until we understand at least its essential laws. That during every decade in the United States four 244 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National million children die under five years of age, more than half of whom we could save if we would, should seem more humiliating than European carnage thru haK a decade of passion. The deepest impression our holocaust makes is when we put it in dollars, of which more is understood than of the deprecia- tion of the race by loss of family strains and of the waste of motherhood and fatherhood. Not all children who die are inferior. We have no reason for thinking that even the majority are. Not only the need and the demand, but the opportunity for teaching racial responsibilities is greater than ever before. The recent extension of public-school teaching to those not in the regular grades, both children and adults, and increasing extra-mural instruction by colleges and uni- versities are partly stimulated by demands of parents for help in their duties. This and the admirable work by the Department of Agriculture afford the opportunity. To assist each age in its special activities will pay in the end if, and only if, the ideal of a better next generation dominates the present economic ideals of those urging vocational and extension instruction. Eight hours of labor daily, forty to sixty weekly, or less, leaves more than three times as many hours without the protection of our greatest blessing — work. It is in unoccupied intervals that most of the crimes against the race are committed. Spending wisely is harder than earning. Society does not profit when its educational product earns twenty-five dollars a week and, for example, chooses a mate whose father was a moron. The National Council of Education has a great opportunity to serve, and a great duty to use this opportunity. With vision of the future, under- standing past failings and present resources, the Council can help establish another peace whose ideal of a better next generation shall prevail over existing follies. Deliberately to adopt the policy of teaching concrete facts, making real to individuals that each holds an actual trust from an infinite past to an infinite future — it can be imprest even in kindergartens — would be the greatest help to morals that exists. Probably the commonest trouble with young people, and with older also, is that they see no reason for being, no mission, no real responsibility; believing that what they do is of no consequence to anyone but themselves. This can be disproved more convincingly than most false assertions by those who know how to do it correctly. The Council should aid by all means in its power the making of teachers who know how. It should have a committee to study ways and means of doing this. If we may indulge in fancy, with this ideal the ancient East and the new West are coming together — the East with its ancestor worship, a not wholly unworthy inspiration, measured by the graces of its civiUzation; the United States said to have a child-worship, much of it vague sentiment, much sensational and harmful. When society thru education fulfils its duty to give each age according to its needs truths correctly relating Coupcm THE NEW IDEAL IN EDUCATION 245 ancestors and descendants with the Kving, the meeting of East and West promises an era more nearly complete and therefore more enduringly satisfying. DISCUSSION Adelaide Steele Baylor, State Supervisor of Household Arts, Indianapolis, Ind — In the Uttle state of Indiana, with a population of somethmg over two and a half r^uUions, are 524 charitable and corrective institutions with 20,000 inmates, or one for about ever>! 140 inhabitants. Recently the governor of that state in a public address advised the people that these institutions were filled to overflowing, and declared in no uncertain terms that instead of appropriating more money for new buildings steps should be taken to lessen the constantly increasing number of those who were daily becoming a burden to the state. In the still smaller state of New Jersey, with a population of about two millions, there is spent a little less than $1,000,000 annually for dependent and neglected children alone, or about fifty cents per capita of the population. The sum is so enormous that the last report from New Jersey suggests: "It might be well to ascertain, if possible, some of the causes which make so great a dependency of children in this state. If some of the causes could be ascertained, then measures should be taken to remove the cause." Such conditions and such vast expenditures of money for dependents, defectives, and delinquents are widespread, and succeeding generations view the constantly increasing burden as one of the unavoidable accompaniments of progress, and mechanically make out their expense budgets with a certain amount for charity. And such statistics do not represent by any means the sum total of subnormals and their support. They do not touch upon the children in our schools who are under the direction of special experts, and are demanding the time, attention, and money that could well be expended for a more profitable education for the normal child. They do not include the thousands of dollars expended by individuals in charity not reported to managing boards. They do not include the families and children not yet discovered and classified that are a menace to the present and succeeding generations. The physical, mental, and moral stability of every citizen is the very essence of race preservation, and the weightiest problem for the public-school oflficials and teachers to solve today is that of discovering some method for enhghtening the people, men and women, and for instructing the children, boys and girls, in the practical application of rational principles for the betterment of the present and future generations. The outcry against the vast expenditures in New Jersey is an economic one. We need to make it a humane one as well, one that pleads for a newer and broader sense of responsibility, reaching beyond the individual self, family, community, state, nation and present generation to our successors, to the race itself without reference to time limits. ^46 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National SECRETARY'S MINUTES NEW YORK MEETING OFFICERS President — Robert J. Aley, president, University of Maine Orono, Me. Vice-President — Augustus S. Downing, first assistant commissioner of Education, Albany, N.Y. Secretary — William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal College Chicago, 111. FIRST SESSION— Saturday Afternoon, July i, 1916 The meeting was called to order in the Ballroom of the Hotel Astor at 2:30 P.M. with President Aley in the chair. The president appointed J. Y. Joyner secretary. "Educational and Psychological Aspects of Racial Well-Being" was presented by Robert M. Yerkes, assistant professor of comparative psychology, Harvard University, and psychologist to the Psychopathic Hospital, Boston, Mass. Discussion: Carrol G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.; Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.; Ella Flagg Young, Chicago, 111.; and Helen C. Putnam, M.D., Providence, R.I. "The Course of Study as a Test of EflSdency of Supervision" was presented by A. Duncan Yocum, professor of educational research and practice. University of Penn- sylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Following this paper J. W. Carr, chairman. Committee on Superintendent Problems, presented the following resolutions which were adopted: 1. That the report as submitted by Dr. Yocum be printed, and that the members of the Council in general and those of the Committee on Superintendent Problems in particular, suggest in writing to him the modifications, omissions, and additions to the report which they deem necessary. 2. That he be requested to rewrite the report, enlarging on the topics treated in such manner as may be necessary to set forth the subject in proper form, and that the same be considered by the Committee on Superintendent Problems. 3. That the subject come before this Council at a later date, if the committee deems it advisable to ask the Council to take official action in reference to the matter. "Rural Education" was presented by James Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction, Raleigh, N.C. J. Y. Joyner, Secretary SECOND SESSION— Saturday Evening, July i, 1916 The meeting was called to order in the Ballroom of the Hotel Astor by President Aley at 8:00 p.m.' The following program was presented: "The Greater Thrift"— S. W. Straus, president, American Society of Thrift, Chicago, 111. "Normal School Preparation for Thrift Teaching" — ^William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111. "Teaching Thrift thru the 'Common Branches'" — ^J. D. Shoop, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. "Thrift and the Teacher" — Arthur H. Chamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education, Chairman Thrift Committee, Los Angeles, Cal. William B. Owen, Secretary THIRD SESSION— Monday Forenoon, July 3, 1916 The meeting was called to order at 10:00 a.m., Vice-President Augustus S. Downing in the chair. J. Stanley Brown of Joliet, 111., was appointed secretary. In the absence of the chairman of the Committee on Health Problems in Education, Charles H. Keyes, president, Skidmore School of Arts, Saratoga Springs, N.Y., presented CouncU] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 247 the report of the committee. This report was discust by Walter B. Cannon, M.D., Harvard University Medical School, Boston, Mass., on behalf of the American Medical Association. It was moved, supported, and unanimously carried that the Council of Education recommend the appropriation of $1000 for the use of the committee during the coming year. A round table on pensions was conducted by Joseph Swain, president, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa., chE^irman, Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions. The discussion was participated in by Clyde Furst, New York, N.Y. ; Kate D. Blake, New York, N.Y.; O. S. Westcott, Chicago, 111.; C. H. Keyes, Saratoga Springs, N.Y.; J. Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C.; and W. M. Davidson, Pittsburgh, Pa. J. Y. Joyner presented the following resolutions which were unanimously adopted: 1. That the National Council of Education appoint a committee of ten to investigate the status of rural education in the United States, to make full report thereon to this body and to the National Education Association embodying therein recommendations for the improvement thereof, and to cooperate with the United States Bureau of Educa- tion and the United States Department of Agriculture and the Federal and State governments for the study and promotion thereof. 2. That this Council recommend to the Executive Committee such appropriation as may be necessary for the expense of such investigation and report. The Committee on Nominations presented the following report: William B. Owen, Chicago, 111., President Term expires 1919 Aj>elaide Steele Baylor, Indianapolis, Ind., Secretary Term expires 191 7 David B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S. C., Executive Committee Term expires 1919 Jacob A. Shaw an, Columbus, Ohio, Committee on Membership Term expires 1919 Walter R. Siders, Pocatello, Idaho, Committee on Membership Term expires 1919 MEMBERS terms to expire in 1922 L. R. Alderman, Portland, Ore., to succeed D. H. Christiansen, Salt Lake City, Utah. Payson Smith, Boston, Mass., to succeed himself. James H. Van Sickle, Springfield, Mass., to succeed hunself. Grace Shepherd, Boise, Idaho, to succeed James A. Barr, Berkeley, Cal. J. Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C., to succeed himself. Robert J. Aley, Orono, Me., to succeed himself. Charles E. Chadsey, Detroit, Mich., to succeed himself. Davis Snedden, New York, N.Y., to succeed himself. J. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111., to succeed himself. Albert E. Winship, Boston, Mass., to succeed himself. TERMS TO EXPIRE IN I917 Fletcher B. Dresslar, Nashville, Tenn., to fill vacancy. Thomas W. Palmer, Montevallo, Ala., to fill vacancy. The secretary was authorized to cast the unanimous ballot for the above-named officers and members. On motion duly made and carried it was recommended that hereafter the first meeting of the Council be held on Monday instead of on Saturday, of the week precedmg the general sessions of the Association. It was also recommended that future CouncU meetmgs be held in a room seating not to exceed two hundred people. J. Stanley Brown, Secretary 248 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF RACIAL WELL-BEING ROBERT M. YERKES, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, AND PSYCHOLOGIST TO THE BOSTON STATE HOSPITAL, PSYCHOPATHIC DEPARTMENT, BOSTON, MASS. 1. The proximately desirable, suitable, fit, in human nature, versus the ideal. — The reasonably successful, contented, and socially valuable individual is easy to find and describe; the ideal individual has never been discovered and is difficult to imagine. We know in a practical way what to work against in human nature; we are less certain what to work for. But our efforts toward racial well-being should not be hindered by diversity of opinion concerning the ideal man. Tasks of the utmost importance are at hand for each of us, and we may not ignore or neglect them without violating our social conscience. 2. Education at present strives to perfect the individual. It concerns itself primarily with the nurture of man. It should strive also to improve human nature. — As educators, we habitually and conventionally regard human nature as the proper concern of the Creator and of biologists, and nurture alone as our concern. It appears that this is a socially and racially unprofit- able division of interest and responsibility, and that education should promote racial well-being thru the proper training of the individual. It lies within the power of us educators to effect racial improvement. Our work reaches from generation to generation. What the children of today are effectively taught will, as appreciation of the educational aspects of eugenics develops, determine in ever-larger measure the quahty of the next generation. 3. How may education most effectively promote racial well-being as con- trasted with merely individual development? How may we, thru educational effort, guarantee that posterity shall be well born and well reared? — Two lines of endeavor seem especially promising of good results: (i) we should educate to a sense of responsibility for the race, as well as for society and for the self; (2) we should educate to an appreciation of the values of research. An ever-present consciousness of responsibility for human nature may be developt by appropriate and adequate instruction in (i) the sciences which deal with man's physical environment; (2) the sciences of life: botany, zoology, physiology, psychology, sociology; (3) the study of actual and possible relations of organisms to their world— as, for example, in hygiene; (4) the study of the self — as an organism among organisms, as a conscious and self-conscious being, as a member of social groups and, as a moral being with ideals, rights, and obligations. Such instruction should tend to give the individual fuller and more valuable knowledge of himseK and his place in nature, while at the same CouncUl ASPECTS OF RACIAL WELL-BEING 249 time bringing him to feel that the future of mankind depends partly upon hun. We need above all thus to increase educationally the sense of responsi- bility, dignity, and social value in every individual. Our modern concep- tion of heredity modifies, but does not lessen, man's responsibility for man. Today we train ourselves for almost everything in our catalog of voca- tions and avocations except the tasks of parenthood. Dare we still argue that instinct adequately prepares us for this racially important and most complex group of activities? Racial well-being demands that the nature and conditions of life be made objects of systematic and intelligent instruc- tion thruout our educational system. The kmdergarten is not early enough for the beginnings ; they should, if possible, be made in the home; and the col- lege age is not too late for wise instruction in heredity, eugenics, and euthen- ics. Where is the parent or teacher who has not keenly felt the inadequacy of his knowledge, insight, and skill. Our human duties call for mfinite wis- dom and devotion. Truly, "the proper study of mankind is man." Appreciation of the values of research by the child seems impossible until one considers the matter in the Hght of genetic psychology. Then it appears natural, inevitable, and essential to racial welfare. For the creative impulse or instinct is ever present, awaiting the command of the wise and skilled teacher. Alike in play, daily tasks, art, science, and procreation, it finds expresssion, and, indeed, tends to sweep everything before it. It can- not be wholly supprest; it may be effectively guided. Education can ill afford to neglect either the creative tendency or the values to the individual and the race of creative endeavor and its fruits. To educate to an appreciation of the values of research means so to direct the interests and activities of the individual that the satisfactions of originating, initiating, discovering, working out problems, adding to human knowledge instead of merely using what is offered, will be experi- enst repeatedly and will stimulate to further effort. Life offers no greater satisfactions than those of free creative activity. Is education doing all that should be done toward racial well-being thru the stimulation and guidance of the impulse to research? Are we as teachers living up to our insight and opportunity in this respect? Readily we admit that the control of Ufe depends upon knowledge of characteristics of the world, of the organism, and of their relations, but all the while we continue to regard research — and particularly scientific research — as something remote from human interest, impractical, the result of an acquired taste. Is not the search for knowledge, the creative impulse, the most natural of tendencies, which, if lacking, must have been supprest ? Surely, a little wisdom, insight, pams, on the part of teachers, will greatly .increase the satisfaction of individuals, while so adding to our knowledge as to prepare the way for racial improvement. 4. Racial well-being demands also that an adequate scientific basis for the art of education be created.— Socidl, psychological, and educational measure- ments have abundantly demonstrated that Uke tends to produce Hke. The 250 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National educator can no better afford to ignore this fact than can the farmer, gar- dener, stock-breeder. If we are to attain new levels of racial welfare and individual achievement, we must, in the light of the facts of environmental influence and heredity, treat man educationally as an organism among organisms. In conformity to this necessity, the newer ideal of education calls for discriminating treatment of individuals in accordance with their nature, nurture, and probable value to themselves and to the race. Such discrimi- nating and individualistic treatment can become possible only if adequate methods of studying the individual are developt and extensively used (i) for purposes of statistical research and (2) to supply facts for diagnostic statement and educational treatment. Today we educate, or attempt to educate, the individual, while ignorant or heedless of his characteristics. What shall be true tomorrow ? Summarily exprest, the promotion of racial well-being thru educational effort calls for: (i) the thoro study of the individual; (2) the scientific study of methods of achieving educational ends; (3) the careful relating of educational treatment to individual characteristics; (4) the segregation of subnormal individuals and their commitment to social and medical agencies; (5) increasingly discriminating individualistic treatment of the normal or average child; and (6) special study and supervision of the supernormal or exceptional individual. The individual should be studied by reliable methods from every significant point of view, but especially as to: (i) family history or heredity; (2) individual history in home, school, etc.; (3) physical and medical history and status; (4) social relations, economic efficiency, and dominant traits of temperament and character; (5) mental constitution; (6) educa- tional needs; and (7) vocational fitness. The so-called "testing" of school children, now the fashion, is a poor substitute for the kind of individual study that is needed. We must not imagine that the child is easily analyzed, measured, described. Only experts, highly trained, experienst in their special tasks, and wise, are fit for the work. Incompetence is rife today in the mental examining of school children; and unless harm is to result where good is expected, we shall be obliged to look sharply to our methods and to the quality of our examiners. Reliable individual study should lead to practical, valuable classification with respect to mental and physical characteristics and to special educational diagnosis. The special attention which is now being given to the subnormal child in certain of our school systems might much more profitably be devoted to the supernormal. The former is the handicap of the race; the latter, its hope. We should not neglect our social responsibilities to those physically and mentally unfortunate beings who never should have been born, but neither should we attempt for them the impossible. The supernormal Council! ASPECTS OF RACIAL WELL-BEING 251 child is supremely important, for he is ahnost certain to prove in markt degree a blessing or a curse to the race. More than his feUows he needs careful guidance, intelligent nurture. It is not generaUy known that delinquents, criminals, vagabonds, geniuses in vice, as weU as our social and racial leaders, are commonly recruited from the supernormal and the ill-balanst groups. 5. As a means to social progress along educational and eugenical lines, the intensive study of a single school system is proposed.— The plan may be briefly outlined thus: In a fairly stable community (town, township, or county), the school population should be studied systematically by a staff of experts, over a period of ten to twenty years. The work should include: a) Careful and accurate study of each pupil, physically, mentally, socially, genetically, educationally, and vocationally. Each record should be rendered as complete as possible by the cooperative labors of experts in medical, psychological, sociological, and educational measurement and diagnosis. The individual records or descriptions should be supplemented from year to year. b) So far as possible every individual should be followed up after leaving school, in order that social, economic, and genetic data may be obtained. c) Finally, the varied sorts of information should be skilfully arranged for statistical use, thoroly analyzed and studied comparatively, for the solution of varied educational, psychological, and broadly social or racial problems. Ultimately, the information from such a survey should indicate impor- tant relations of characteristics of mind, body, and environment to social and economic achievement or value. A multitude of pressing problems should be illuminated if not solved. Much, for example, should be learned concerning the nature of the children who later become social blights or blessings — ^paupers, criminals, mental dependents, the insane, inventors, artists, reformers, leaders in various walks of life. Much should be learned about the marriage and mating tendencies in their relations to individual traits, about the results of various sorts of matings, about the values for different natures of certain modes of educational treatment. This catalog might be indefinitely extended, since most human problems would come within the scope of such a survey. I submit that economy of effort in the interests of educational and eugenical progress demands the intensive and prolonged study of a human community. 6. Summary.— RsiciaX well-being or eugenical progress must be achieved primarily thru educational effort. It must be recognized that the mterests of the individual are inseparable from those of the race; that self-realization is conditioned by a measure of subordination of individual desires to racial 252 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National and social ends. As educators, we must learn to work for the next genera- tion, because by so doing we shall best serve the interests of the children of today. Our responsibility for the conduct of our own lives may not be lessened, but we must accept a larger measure of responsibility for posterity — even for the unborn — and for social developments. Education must at once become more highly individualized with respect to treatment, more highly socialized with respect to immediate ends, and more highly racialized with respect to its chief purpose, aim, and ideal of achievement. To shape humanity is nobler than to strive toward the perfecting of the individual, and yet we must not forget that racial well-being may be achieved only by and thru the development of better individuals. DISCUSSION Helen C. Putnam, -M.D., Providence, R.I. — The committee to study methods of promoting the ideal of racial well-being has substantial progress to report for the five months since its appointment. In April we invited certain institutions training educators — ^universities, colleges, and normal schools above a specified minimum of requirements — to cooperate in studying the proposition, "The supreme object of education should be to make the next generation better than living generations." We also offered honorariums to the amount of $250 in each of four sections of the country, totaling $1000 in 12 states, as acknowledgment of special excellence in these studies by graduating classes of 19 17. A gratifying proportion has accepted our invitation. About a thousand men and women training to become educators are definitely engaged in this study. They work in cooperation as classes. The results will be collective, from the whole country, as it is our intention to extend this invitation next autumn to the class of 19 18 in 12 other states, and so continue each year until we have reached the 48 states and our $4000 fund is consumed. During these summer months numerous groups and individuals are doing research work in their own neighborhood, or in their own families. Most of it is simple and ele- mentary, some of it comparatively difficult, and likely to be of permanent usefulness. We have, for example, received requests for methods of study of the family, and Charles B. Davenport, of the Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor, who is one of our advi- sory committee of specialists, sends in reply his blank form for this purpose, a duplicate of which, when filled up, is preserved at the office for studies in heredity. Some inquirers secure the blank form for "Study of the SeK" that Robert M. Yerkes, of the psychologic laboratory at Harvard University, has issued, which contains Mr. Davenport's family study form. In this and in certain other ways some of the work will be standard work. These group studies or experiments will be reported to the classes when they reassemble next September. Such plans for the winter's work as have come to us promise cooperation between different departments, such as pedagogy, or education; biology, or nature study; civics, or sociology; home economics, or domestic science; and training schools with children's classes. It is desired to afford all possible assistance to an institution asking suggestions, that it may do all it has opportunity to do in developing the study. The rivalry stimulated by honorariums we intend to be constructive — a rivalry in usefuhiess. It is constructive rivalry that distinguishes civilization from the barbarism whose supreme manifestation has always been slaughter of one's kind and the winning of others' possessions, either in a Waterloo or a Wall Street. But struggle is a law of being, even in the inanimate world, where form and energy exist as resultants of opposing forces. In organic life struggle is t^°"°<^"l ASPECTS OF RACIAL WELL-BEING 25^ the supreme law, and may be destructive as among barbarians, or constructive as we are finding IS the secret of that civiUzation we hope to realize. Peace without struggle i! death. And peace devoted to fighting with one's fellows for a liveUhood or for wealth to a stniggle that exploits the poor and a sex and chHdhood, to a struggle of economic unco- ordmation, such as peace has ever been, invites degeneracy-the degeneracy of poverty crime, disease, and defectiveness, physical and mental. ' The difference between the destructiveness of barbarism and constructiveness of a possible new kind of peace lies in the aims of the two sorts of struggle. To go no farther back than our own democracy, we have progressively enlarged our conception of the kind of individual entitled to Ufe, liberty, and pursuit of happiness, untU the beginnmg of the twentieth century found us in the midst of struggles for rights of labor agamst institutions favoring capital; for rights of women to fulfil their duties in human betterment against hampering laws made by men; for rights of children to be well bom and weU cared for against use of liberty by adults to pursue "happiness," meaning self-gratification, in unsanitary, immoral, ignorant, idle, and other individuaUstic living. These struggles for rights of labor, of women, of children, are all constructive, are against conditions mam- tained by the majority under dominatmg ideals of individualism and its by-product, commercialism. These struggles, still unfinisht, are already large factors in such reduc- tions of rates of mortality, morbidity, and perhaps crime, as the Bureau of the Census has reported; rates that are still, however, higher in some instances than numerous similar rates in certain other countries. Reversion to war among civilizations nearest like our own, and the enormousness of our own preventable losses of life, health, and happiness during struggles in peace times are proofs that racial interests should supersede individuaUsm as the ideal. Educa- tors must prepare for these constructive rivalries m reduction of degeneracy, crime, disease, defectiveness, and mortality rates; must prepare for international contests devoted to this creative efficiency. Instead of recording battles, conquests, and exterminations of peoples as proud events, instead of exalting generals, admirals, governors, and multi- millionaires as great individuals, historians should encourage other ambitions by narrating methods which were successful in replacing evils by excellences in communities and among nations, and the individuals who were leaders in these battles— the Pasteurs and Mendek, the Roger Williamses and Abraham Lincolns, Henry Bamards, and Matthew Vassars, Susan Anthonys, Mary Hunts, Ellen Richardses, and their contemporaries who workt with them — will receive the new hero-worship, inspiring further achievement in universal well-being. This requires all-round abler men and women than does destructiveness. We are not — or are we ? — weaklings to shirk the challenge of the age. The traitors to the United States are they who actively or passively thwart such preparedness. The optimist believes that some nation will "arrive." A national ideal, or an international ideal, one which the people deputize their schools to develop, can thrive only when enough of all the people believe in it. Its cultivation means widely extended efforts according to methods adapted to distant parts of our great territory and to our varied population. The first requirement, that a considerable number believe in concrete effort for the higher ideal, racial well-being, has been coming to pass rather rapidly and more or less unconsciously for a half-century. The second need in establishing an ideal is that educators shall use effective methods. It is because of the fact, too often ignored, that one institution, or one group of students and teachers, or one commonwealth in a great nation does not and cannot know all there is to know in a great new venture— it is because of this human limitation and consequent fallibility that we are distributing our study thruout all educators' courses in the country, inviting their assistance. My own observation has more than once con- vinst me that the best work is not infrequently done in some obscure little schoolroom, and if we could adopt some of these methods extensively thruout the country, several of 254 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National our urgent educational difficulties would be solved. It is, therefore, by the collective assistance of this multitude of councilors dedicated to educational affairs that we are likely to arrive at best methods, as well as extended efficiency in future use of them. THE COURSE OF STUDY AS A TEST OF EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISION A. DUNCAN YOCUM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND PRACTICE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA. This report has been prepared in the hope that it may lead to some general agreement by the Council concerning the fundamental character- istics of an efl&cient course of study. With this end in view, effort has been made to make the following propositions general enough to apply to any type of course, and yet definite enough to specify what is most essen- tial to the efficiency of each. The term "course of study" is used as the popular substitute for educa- tional "content." In deference to Dr. Snedden's insistence that clear distinction should be maintained between "course of study" and teachers' manuals and school textbooks, I would have substituted the expression "material of instruction," were it not for my wish to avoid all technical expressions non-essential to the purpose of the report. Schoolmen in general understand "course of study" to include all the educational ma- terial that is to be brought to bear upon the pupil. Sometimes it merely enumerates school textbooks; sometimes it is supplemented by definite suggestions in teachers' manuals. It is usually taken, however, to include all that is authoritatively prescribed for the pupils; and it is in that sense that I use the term. Indeed it is only in the sense of authoritative pre- scription that I can speak of it as the test of supervision. Here again Dr. Snedden very properly insists on distinction between executive and legislative educational authority: A course of study should be very analogous to the plans and specifications which an architect prepares for the guidance of builders. Supervision follows to see that the plans and specifications are complied with, and this supervision may itself be tested. The plans and specifications, however, are fundamentally the general and specific directions under which people are to work. This, of course, I accept, but some authority or other must be responsible for the working plans, and the only expert authority that can be held responsible for the course of study is the superintendent or principal at the head of the school system or school unit. Committees of assistants or teachers may detail the course, and boards of education approve it, or select and adopt the textbooks that take its place, or on which it is based. But it is supervisory authority, either in the person of superintendent or principal, or usurpt by the board, that finally details the course and is primarily responsible for it. Council] A TEST OF EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISION 255 1. Distinction must be drawn between a mere paper course of study with its textbooks and its manuals, and its results in actual practice. A course of study is a test of supervision merely in what it includes and omits, in the aims which it specifies, in the detail and definiteness with which it seeks to attain them, in its provision for readjustment, in its relative valua- tion and emphasis of details, and in the organization which results from definiteness. 2. The evidence offered by a non-detailed course of study is conclusive only in what it omits. If, for example, it fails to provide for drawing, domes- tic science, or esthetic training, and no cooperative social agencies exist in the community to supplement the work of the school, it is safe to assume that what is not prescribed does not exist as a systematic phase of school work. If it exists at all, the course of study is not responsible for it. On the other hand, the presence of certain forms of work in a general and undetailed course of study — the direction that " teachers at this point shall give lessons in morals and manners," or the mere Hsting of lessons in hygiene — does not insure sufficient instruction or necessarily result in any instruction at all. A course of study which limits itself to apportioning sections of textbooks to successive school terms and years without emphasizing, omitting, or adding particular details, is usually so inclusive that selection is left to the individual teacher. The ordinary textbook designed to meet the needs of many communities contains more material than is required for anyone. Without detailed prescription, essentials and trifles are usually given equal emphasis in the vain effort to master the text as a whole. Absence of a detailed course may stimulate individual initiative and result in a high degree of efficiency in particular phases of work, with the form of efficiency largely differing for each teacher. But even if supple- mented by individual teachers' plan-books and problem-schemes, it is just as likely to result in such omission of essentials and overemphasis of minor details that investigation must look as carefully for fundamental failure as for exceptional success. 3. A detailed course of study not only insures sufficient data for a test of efficiency, but is in itseff a favorable condition to efficiency, if it provides for initiative on the part of individual teachers with a view to continual readjustment. If absence of detail lays supervision open to suspicion, a merely logical detailing, whether in the course or in specified textbooks, neither menaces individual initiative nor insures efficiency. It may include sufficient data to determine quite fully what is taught as well as what is omitted. It may in itself thru its inclusions and omissions become a favorable condition to efficiency, but only so far as it makes possible the far greater pedagogical definiteness, yet to be described, that is gradually resulting from the scientific determination of educational values, and so far as provision for continual revision gives opportunity for additions and modi- fications. Since the individual initiative on the part of teachers that 256 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National effects efficiency thru the course of study must express itself in scientific contributions, or suggestions based upon them, rather than in individual inspirations and enthusiasms, its safeguard lies rather in opportunity for individual expression and provision for readjustment than in indefiniteness and lack of detail. Where the detailed course takes the form of individual teachers' plan-books and problem-schemes, self-satisfaction with individual achievement lacks the counteracting incentives to progress which result from collective criticism of a common course. 4. A just and adequate test must be broad enough to include all pre- vailing standards, current readjustments, and scientific determinations. The absence of provision for readjustment does not necessarily result in inefficiency, but confines the course of study to particular kinds of efficiencies. Standards not only change, but existing standards differ. A test or a survey that sets up a theoretical ideal, especially the ideal of an individual, and makes it the unit for measuring a course of study or any other phase of supervision where a different ideal prevails, is misleading and unjust. Even a test or survey that is based upon scientific determina- tions must show how the course of study measures up to its own particular standard as well as to that of educational science. If this is true, the fact that educational thinkers and experts are not agreed upon all standards, in place of making tests and comparisons indeterminate, makes it necessary that they should be analytic and definite enough to measure what is peculiar to each and to compare what is common to all. The distinction between existing standards and scientific determinations will gradually disappear with the development of education as a science. Every type of school, especially the pubUc school, is, after all, quick to adopt what is scientifically demonstrated to be essential to efficiency. Meanwhile, every test will in itself become a means to popularizing scientific standards, if always accom- panied by comparison and ranking based on the aims and standards of the institution or system tested. Dr. Snedden is right when he says: I can readily understand why, when dealing with a selected circle of educators or an experimental school, we should wish to go beyond what is available in the ordinary text- book; but for the rank and file of teachers, I am wondering whether we are not increasing rather than diminishing confusion. 5. A just and adequate test must take into account local conditions, but only in judging the limited amount of subject-matter for which they are determining. The necessity for adaptation to local needs limits itself almost wholly to specific or social phases of education, and there mainly to the industrial. Later discussion will show the possibiHty of adaptation to local or individual tastes and interests, where different details of subject- matter within a particular branch of study, or in different branches, can accomplish the same essential aim or have in themselves equal proba- bility of usefulness and survival. Limitation thru poverty of local resources bears less upon the selection and organization of subject-matter Council! A TEST OF EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISION 257 than upon the quality of instruction and the more material provisions for carrying out the course of study, such as textbooks, Hbrary, and apparatus. No more serious blunder can be made by an investigator than to judge the quaUty of any course of study, or even the efficiency of instruction, thru the nature and extent of school equipment. 6. It must sharply distinguish between (i) essential details, the "irreducible minimum" to be memorized by all individuals in common; (2) optional details which, while presented to all in common, will be partially and variously retained by each individual; and (3) impressionistic details which serve to concrete or emotionalize useful things, but which should not be memorized at all. Since this distinction is ''beyond what is available in the ordinary textbook," most teachers will vainly attempt to exact all details, if the course of study does not specify those which are to be given emphasis. As yet the distinction between essentials, optionals, and impressives has not been scientifically made. Supervisory authority m different localities will therefore not fix wholly upon the same essentials even where they are requiring the same branches. The fundamental require- ment, however, is not that essentials shall be uniform or identical, but that they shall be sharply distinguisht from optional details, and optional details from impressionistic. This distinction is the essential purpose in a scientific determination of the relative worth of details within the various branches. When courses of study specify an essential minimum for each grade small enough for it to be required of all pupils, the problem of gradation and retardation will be largely solved. Meanwhile, such minimums as are required of backward children, immigrant groups and defectives, represent attempts to select essentials. In the case of optional material, efficiency demands something more than its specification as nonessential. The course of study should include a sufficient amount and variety of equally useful details to appeal to indi- vidual interests, selected with a view to their greater likelihood of retention in the absence of drill. More than this, the partial and varying retention of different details by each individual, in as high proportion as native retentiveness permits, should be an end in itself rather than evidence of failure to remember all. It is necessary that all educated individuals shall be well informed, but not that they shall possess the same information, outside of minimum essentials. In the case of such details as minor causes and effects and the great mass of exact statisdcs— height of mountains and population of cities, the names of Columbus' ships, or the bones in the human ear— where usefulness lies, not in the things themselves, but in their concreting or emotionaHzing of larger truths, the course of study should durect that they are not to be memorized at all. 7. It must make all practicable provision for individual abihties and interests which does not involve sacrifice of the minimum, essendal to indi- viduals in common: (i) Thru variation— that is, thru making the optional 2S8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National material presented to all include a sufficient variety of equally useful details to appeal to individual abilities and interests conspicuously involved in retention. This largely reduces itself to insistence upon the use of a variety of visual, auditory, and motor illustrative material and occupations, and a variety of school readers and library books which collectively include all forms of emotional appeal. (2) Thru subjective specialization — that is, thru adequate opportunity for the early and continuing development of per- manent individual abilities and interests. This must be sharply contrasted with that phase of Montessorian work which encourages temporary whim or impulse, but limits its exercise to choice among a variety of useful things — all of which must be finally mastered in common by every individual. Sub- jective specialization recognizes only permanent individual abilities and interests, and makes their development and use a different end in itself for each individual rather than a varying means to the mastery of identical things. Specialization must not be at the expense of minimum essentials, because they are fundamental both to society and to the highest develop- ment of individual efficiency itself. The irreducible minimum of common essentials must be small enough to leave time for subjective specialization for all but exceptionally backward learners. Provision for subjective specialization does not include classes for backward children and schemes of grading or individual instruction that are intended to insure the com- pletes t possible mastery of common essentials by all individuals. It does include: provision from the earliest school years for teaching exceptionally talented pupils such special subjects as music, art, the languages, etc.; recognition of work done outside the school, including not only music and art, but all forms of industrial occupation and preparation for the enjoyment of individual leisure; and, where complexity of administration does not make it impracticable, promotion by subjects, vocational guidance, elective subjects, and various types of higher schools, etc. 8. It must avoid definiteness in exhaustive detail which is without regard to relative educational values, but must present each relatively useful detail in the definite association on which its educational usefulness depends. Existing standards often require definiteness, but more fre- quently a definiteness that fails to suggest educational usefulness. Mere definiteness is not in itseK educationally useful. Facts are not educationally useful as facts, but in what they suggest or effect. The educational usefulness supposed to lie in the exhaustive or "thoro'* study of pecuharly definite subjects is more economically and effectively gained thru frequent occasion in different subjects, for judging whether or not exhaustive detail is useful for a particular purpose, and thru enough experience with occasional and not too exhaustive topics to insure the will and abihty to do exhaustive study when it is useful. The course of study that insists upon a particular branch of mathematics or a particular ele- mentary science to the last detail is not necessarily efficient; but the course Council] A TEST OF EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISION 350 that offers no requirements, or no adequate requirements, with a view to judgments, incentives, and abilities involved in thoroness or exhaustive detail, is to that extent inefficient. On the other hand, the presence of educationally useful details in a course of study merely insures possi- biUty of usefulness, unless the definite association of each possibly useful detail with the one or more ideas upon which its highest usefulness depends makes its usefulness certain or probable. There are two sorts of definite associations which serve this purpose, and with one or another of which each relatively useful detail in the course of study should be associated, at least in its presentation: (i) Those definite associa- tions which specify, not only the things which make the detail certainly and specifically useful, but the things which in themselves constitute its greatest specific usefulness. The relating of ventilation to health makes it specifically useful, but it has no certainty or even probabiHty of usefulness until it is related to the habit of raising windows in bedrooms, and of insur- ing fresh air in various specific ways in any crowded room. As so-called social education, as well as academic, is ineffective in the absence of speci- fication, it is not going beyond existing standards to criticize non-specific courses. (2) Those definite associations which help make usefulness general by suggesting further useful associations, which otherwise may or may not result. The chief forms of generally useful definiteness are the association of a general idea with its type — ^popularized by Dr. McMurry — and what I have personally insisted upon — the memorizing of the most useful general ideas in firm association with the three or four words or phrases which most definitely suggest their most frequently recurring and varying associations. The helpfulness of the type is limited to mere identification. The sug- gesters or interconnection-makers compel the learner to look for particular sorts of new ideas and experience. For example, many mountains are sufficiently typical to result in the identification of all new mountains as they are encountered by experience. If a variety of mountains is presented thru illustration, it is to bring out their common characteristics, for that constitutes the type. But the firm memorizing of a mountain in its associa- tion with scenery, forests, minerals, boundaries, and watersheds definitely suggests new experiences yvith each identification. The suggesters are not only common to most mountains, but definitely point out further and more or less different ideas for each. Mineral may in turn be identified as matter without life, or be made to suggest a number of things. Perhaps the primary suggesters would be kinds, parts, and uses, as associated in the kindergarten and earliest grades with every material thing. Mineral, then, like any other thing, would suggest kinds of material, uses of minerals, and their raw materials; and, thru this latter suggestion, the minerals from which other things can be manufactured identified as such. Here thinking and inquiry end, if raw 26o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iNational material has not habitually associated with it such further suggesters as source, locality, production, use, manufacture, market. But if they are so associated for each mineral found in a particular mountain, each may suggest still other ideas. For iron, source may suggest iron ore or even iron pyrites and hematite; locahty — Pennsylvania, Lake Superior, Cuba, etc.; production — mines, veins, shafts, furnaces, coal, limestone, slag, and pig- iron; use — cast-iron, stoves, iron dogs on a lawn, steel cutlery, structural steel, industrial implements, war, material, automobiles, etc.; manu- facture— ^iron foundries and foundrymen, patterns and pattern-makers, coke ovens, rolKng-mills, Bessemer process, American Bridge Co., muni- tion plants; and market — anything from the city, with its skyscrapers, and the farm, with its ploughs and harrows, to the African explorer bartering knives for gum and ivory. With a different set of suggesters, form, color, weight, hardness, and fracture, the identification of each new natural object as mineral may result in selective observation and famiharity with the name and characteristic quahties of a great variety of stones. The association of particular speci- mens with locality, stratum, fossil, etc., points the way to still broader and more varied knowledge. The point illustrated is that while the vast wealth of associations possible for each educationally useful thing, word, or idea cannot be memorized by all pupils or even presented to all, the few most far-reaching suggesters for the most useful details can be and should be memorized, reviewed, and cumulatively added to thruout the entire school course. Identification adds to vocabulary; definite suggestiveness varies and multipHes information and mental interconnections. The pupil must know what a gas is, both physically and chemically, or what it means to have two triangles equal; but if compressibiHty of gas or vapor surely sug- gests elasticity and condensation, it is more likely to suggest steam-engine and projectile, while the mechanical association of equality of angles with every way of proving them equal is often the necessary link in demonstrat- ing triangles to be equal. War or settlement, Kuklux Klan or Abraham Lincoln, should not be included in history without the association that makes it educationally most useful — not merely thru identifying it for what it is, but thru making most probable the useful ideas which it should call to mind. I believe that the time will soon come when not a single fact will be put into the course of study that is not definitely associated with the ideas that specify its immediate or specific usefulness or suggest its further or general usefulness. Only a few can be retained by all pupils in such associations — the limit to efficiency here lying in individual reten- tiveness and effective memorizing and drill. Without permanent memoriz- ing there is no permanent definiteness, and without suggestive definition the greatest educational usefulness is impossible. The results of experimentation now under way will lead course-of-study makers to add these specifiers, suggesters, or interconnection-makers to the CQ"°"« ^ TEST OF EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISION 261 usual forms of definition, because they compel pupils to think habitually and carefully more surely than the temporary "problems" and mcentives now popular in method teach them how to study. Preliminary to any determination of the relative worth of different details in all branches is the determination of the definite associations thru which each is given its highest educational usefulness. 9. Its definitely suggestive details, whether specific or general, must be suggestive for every form of mental training or control on which their usefulness depends. This is merely a more definite way of saying that all knowledge contained in the course of study must result m power or in ''behavior" in the broad sense in which I understand Professor Thomdike to use the term when he writes me urging "a definition in the actual change of behavior to be brought about grade by grade." Nothing is educational that does not result in some form of control over future experience. Hence, no course of study is likely to be a means to efficiency of supervision that does not definitely indicate what subject-matter is to result in each form of mental training or control — in impression control that emotionalizes, in vocabulary control that merely identifies, in variation control that suggests growing and varying mental interconnection, in habit and system control which makes useful things sure, and in conditions favorable to the transfer control which makes the most general usefulness probable. No branch as a whole is essential to mental training. Each distinct form of mental training or control requires the selection and emphasis of quite different forms of subject-matter. Efficiency demands that the details included in the course of study from each branch shall definitely call for each form which it can usefully and economically develop: impression, in the sense of permanent interests and incentives, ideals, tastes, appreciations, and points of view; vocabulary, thru increasing the number of words in general, or particular kinds of words; variation, thru mental intercon- nection, either as the result of multiplying information and association in general, or of making particular ideas suggestive of variety in particular sorts of experience; habit and system, either in the sense of definitely associated essentials, or unvarying activities or complexes following an easily identified stimulus; transfer, thru the presentation of ideas in their most generally useful form, and in definite association with the conditions favorable to their application when identification is difficult, whether in the branch itself or in remoter fields of experience. The course of study that is truly educational must not specify mere facts, but rather controlling impressions, vocabulary and vocabulary-makers or suggesters, multipUed and varying associations and interconnection-makers or suggesters, habits and systems of habits, and the conditions favorable to transfer. To illustrate— whether we follow the popular current and look only for social values in the teaching of history, or for the unique phases of general training that it alone can give, its contributions to each of the five forms 262 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National of control must be determined and assured thru the selection and emphasis of the material which definitely specifies or suggests it. a) Great care should be taken that the right feelings, interests, opinions, admirations, realizations, ideals, and incentives should grow out of the life of the past thru making them the definite center for cumulative impres- sion assured by emotional passages in history itself, and by the still more emotional appeal of Hterary masterpieces. Should it be left to chance whether it is Napoleon or democracy that the pupil idealizes, or whether the impression made by reading Tennyson's "Revenge" is hatred of the Spanish or pride in the Anglo-Saxon spirit? What characters should be emotionalized, which of their characteristics are most ideal, what incidents definitely point them out, and what material in history, biography, or litera- ture surely suggests the emotion they should evoke ? The efficient course of study will make right impressions strong and sure. Then each school subject should result in unique impressions that the course of study should specify. Only properly prescribed historical study, for example, can develop consciousness of historical cause and effect, realization of the neces- sity for adjustment to changing social, economic, or political conditions, and realization of human betterment as the result of civilization and Chris- tianity. h) Oversimplification must not prevent history from contributing the vocabulary which it alone affords, or which is earlier gained thru historical study. Era, reign, epoch, settlement, government, forefather, campaign, general, administration, reconstruction, tariff, etc., are examples of a multitude of terms that the study of history involves. The efficient course of study should not only include those readily understood and retained, but should see that each general term is associated with the suggesters or vocabulary-makers that make its suggestion and retention of other words more probable. The passage in "Marmion and Douglas" which begins, '*Sir Marmion turned, great was his need," emotionalizes rowels, steed, warder, portculKs, and drawbridge, and makes it easier to remember them. Castle, definitely associated with parts and uses, can suggest turret, dungeon, keep, rampart, moat, etc., and the use to which each is put; ruler, associated with kings, duties, powers, ceremonials, can suggest an endless round of otljer terms, from "king," "emperor," and "duke," to "throne," "scepter," and the "royal touch." The course of study should specify for each subject taught the words easily retained, the passages that contain them in the form that makes retention most probable, the words that are the most useful centers for vocabulary building, and the vocabulary-makers or suggesters that should be memorized with them. Even in arithmetic, Troy weight, caret, gram, and pennyweight may be so presented that they are remembered as units of measure without any effort at memorizing the tables, and endow- ment poHcies and assest values are understood without a useless solving of problems. I Councai A TEST OF EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISION 263 c) The growing but varying interconnection of ideas should add to the mere identification insured by vocabulary the further suggestion, variation, and multiplication of associations insured by suggesters. For example associated with war in definite sequence, cause, campaign, result, effect, will suggest different events for each war in history, especially if cause is asso- ciated with immediate, remote, or final, campaign with ground-gaining, destruction, or capture of an army, or cutting it off from its base of supplies, etc. In every branch the course of study should specify the general training and the suggesters which thru frequent recurrence lead to the greatest variety of new experience. But varying interconnection is furthered, not only by general ideas, with their suggesters, but by interconnecting locations. Both constitute interconnection centers, but the suggesters are what should be definitely associated with an idea, and the locations what an idea should be associated with. The unique value of history and geography to interconnection, for example, Hes in location and sequence in time and space. The course of study should specify for each essential fact the particular location, general, relative, or exact, which can suggest the greatest variety of associations for it. Rarely will this be an exact date or parallels of latitude and longitude. It is usually only the more general periods and locahties that are rich in associations actual and probable. Similarly, the course of study should specify the general logical sequences, or groups of ideas, in each academic subject, and the fields of experience, in which an essential idea should be located, with a view to furthering suggestion and variation. In biology, for example, the general sequence — evolution, origin of species, adaptation, survival of the fittest, and De Vries' variation or mutation, constitute such an inter- connection location. Any course in "nature study" or "general science," from the standpoint of interconnection, should provide such centers as these in each fundamental science, adapted to the age of the learner. A college course that omits them, for the sake of "discipUne" and intensive study, cannot be inclusively cultural. The final interconnections and locations that should be specified are those phases of the learner's experience which are suggestive of the most recurring associations for the particular idea to be located. It is from this point of view that the maker of a course of study must determine whether otherwise isolated facts in elementary natural science, geography, and history shall be related to food and clothing, farm life, the city, or a reproduction of Hiawatha or Robinson Crusoe. d) The course of study in history or in any other subject must prescribe the associations that are to be transformed thru drill and review into habit and system. If they are definitely prescribed, every subject becomes " disciplinary." If they are not, the so-called " disciplinary " subjects may compel the memorizing of an unnecessary amount of subject-matter, or the 264 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National repetition of specifically useless processes to form a few generally useful habits. Habitual associations should include: (i) the definite association of ideals with what will certainly emotionalize them, of vocabulary-builders or centers with mere suggesters of other words, and of the most useful general ideas and locations with suggesters of further information and experience; (2) the associations specifically most useful in themselves, and (3) the associations favorable to transfer. e) The course of study in history, as in every other subject, contains details that are general in their application both within the field of history and outside of it — the habit of logical grouping, a moral quality, the ideal and habit of selection, thoroness, etc. They must not only be specified as generally useful, but prescribed for development thru particular subject- matter and under conditions favorable to their transfer. By ordinary application I mean applications so apparent that they are matters of course; by transfer, applications in fields of experience or situations so different that they are hard to discover. The course of study is Httle likely to insure transfer that does not prescribe the material that makes it probable. Pupils may be led to idealize the patriotic seK-sacrifice of a Revolutionary hero, but if it is to be carried over into their own experience as citizens it must be associated with present-day activities and their personal experience; they must look for similar instances in the lives of present-day citizens, seek applications in current events, etc. These illustrations are not fully adequate for course of study-making, but they should make clear what is meant by a course of study that definitely suggests what is essential to each form of mental training or control. 10. It must adequately provide for every phase of the social aim that can be justly or effectively taught thru the school system or institution in which it is to be used. While the social aim has been variously outlined and exprest, it includes morahty and religion, individual and public health, industrial efliciency, social service, good citizenship, and the enjoy- ment of social intercourse and individual leisure. After the exclusion of all classes of socially useful details that cannot be justly or effectively taught thru a particular course of study — such as sectarianism in a public school, or possibly sex hygiene in schools as wholes, as distinct from individuals and social groups — every course of study should adequately contribute to all phases of the social aim. a) As social development is continuous, its direction and control should be continuous thru every stage and variety of instruction. An elementary course that confines the teaching of truthfulness to the second grade and honesty to the sixth, or a law school that fails to teach legal ethics and social service, is non-social. h) Adequate provision for social training, however, does not involve the selection and emphasis of every socially useful detail that can be Councaj A TEST OF EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISION 265 included in the traditional school subjects regardless of relative values and to the exclusion or neglect of material that is generally useful. The current movement toward the social may readily enough interfere with general training without resulting in social efficiency. Indeed any interference with general training is in itself a menace to social efficiency. This statement needs to be put more concretely, or Dr. Snedden would not write: "Your calling attention especially to the moraHty and citizenship phases of the social aim is good, provided you state clearly, also, where in the same connection belong arithmetic, English speech, nature-study, etc." I mean not only that every academic subject makes social contribution, but that the individual who is not generally efficient is limited in his social efficiency. c) Adequate social education demands the emphasis of all material that has unique social value, such as selected portions of sociology, civics, economics, domestic science, etc., and the designation, among various details and branches having a common usefulness for each social aim, of those that most effectively teach it at each stage of development. In this selection and emphasis it must not be forgotten that a fact may be social without being educationally useful. d) The adequate teaching of any social aim involves facts only in so far as they insure the development of impressions, vocabulary, varying inter- connections, habits, and the conditions favorable to transfer. The omis- sion of any one of the five controls, for any social end, may render its teaching inadequate. A "scientific temperance" instruction that consists solely of facts that may not become incentives to action is ineffective if it neglects the formation of ideals, tastes, and habits; while a hygiene that is taught thru school baths and school dentists, in the absence of conscious efforts to create conditions favorable to transfer, may not carry over to home environment. This necessity for the inclusion of all forms of control to the adequate realization of each social aim throws certain subjects and activities into social prominence on account of unique or exceptional educational values that would not be involved in the teaching of mere facts. For example, literature is essential to the emotionaHzing of ideals; and the organized social activities, which President Wilson used to call the side shows that distract attention from the main academic tent, become essential to personal habits involved in social service and social intercourse. II. It must adequately provide, thru selected subject-matter, for each definite form of general training, instead of expecting it to result incidentally from the teaching of a few subjects as exhaustive wholes.. General training, as distinct from specffic and social, reduces itself to the development of permanent impressions and habits, more or less general in their applica- tion, plus the conditions essential or favorable to their transfer; and, 266 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National prominent among these conditions, generally useful vocabulary, and the varying interconnection of generally useful ideas. No branch as a whole gives general mental training, but only as its parts contribute to one or another of these definite forms. The effective course of study must specify each definite form of general training it means to exact from the prescribed parts or uses of every branch. The important test here is not what branches are included to insure general training, but whether each of its forms is definitely assigned ma- terial, thru which its certain and economical development is required, and, in the case of generally useful ideals and habits, thru which the conditions favorable to transfer are insured. It is equally ineffective to assume that general training is incidental and matter-of-course, whether thru the inclu- sion of particular subjects as wholes, or thru the selection and emphasis of specifically useful material. But it is more effective to prescribe the tra- ditional abstract subjects which uneconomically but certainly develop general useful ideals and habits — even tho under conditions that make their transfer less likely than if they are associated with more many-sided material — than a course so completely and unnecessarily socialized — ^in the specific sense — that general ideals and habits are forgotten. 12. While no course of study which adequately provides thru definitely suggestive details for each practicable phase of the social aim and each form of general training, can be regarded as inefficient, courses in which these definitely suggestive details are most many-sided, recurring, and strong in emotional or sensory appeal are of relatively greater efficiency. There can be no division of details into essential, optional, and impressionistic, without an attempt to estimate their relative worth. And, more or less consciously, course-of-study makers and textbook writers have recognized many-sidedness thru giving prominence to general terms and principles; recurrence thru including "the practical"; and emotional and sensational appeal thru emphasizing what is interesting. While it would be unjust to apply a scientific standard before it is generally accepted, and to condemn as ineffi- cient the course that fails to meet it, it is just to point out that many- sided details that are not presented in the association that definitely sug- gests their most useful many-sidedness, recurring details that fail definitely to suggest what makes recurrence useful, and emotional details that do not definitely associate their emotional appeal with the thing that is to be usefully emotionalized, are not necessarily useful at all. For example, the British evacuation of Boston on the mounting of guns on Dorchester Heights is a potentially many-sided fact, but its many-sidedness is improb- able if it is not associated with an army's surrender or retreat, when cut off from its base of supplies. Identification of river is a recurring experience, but not educationally useful if "river" fails to call definitely to mind such suggesters as scenery, fertihzation, navigation, and power. The picture play, The Making of a Nation^ is strongly emotional, but it may result in CouncU] A TEST OF EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISION 267 race prejudice if it is not definitely associated with the need for impartial judges and just laws. It is also just, even in courses that definitely distinguish between essentials, optionals, and impressives, to condemn as inefficient the memor- izing of the relatively less useful, the impressive presentation of what is little useful or has little chance of survival, and failure to omit insignificant details that fail to concrete larger truths and can be displaced by what is relatively more useful. With the exceptions of details uniquely useful in the sense that nothing else can take their place, the apparent presence or absence of definitely suggestive many-sidedness, recurrence, and emotional appeal is an essential criterion for emphasis, inclusion, or omission. 13. The efficient course of study must have ehminated or rejected all details (i) antagonistic to any phase of the social aim, (2) useless to the majority of individuals except thru the speciaHst, and (3) incapable of efficient furtherance thru the particular system or institution concerned, or that have been adequately provided for elsewhere. The two social aims most likely to. be antagonized in a course of study are moraHty and good citizenship — moraHty, especially in higher schools, thru literature or art that pleasurably emotionalizes wrong characteristics, experiences, and ideals; and citizenship, thru failure definitely to guard against undemocratic ideals, viewpoints, and attitudes of mind in historical subjfect-matter, or definitely and emotionally to associate war with its horror and suffering, as a check upon militarism and a stimulus to preparedness. Most courses of study, and especially textbooks, have failed fully to eliminate material useful only thru the speciaHst, a failure which usually takes the form of the study of particular branches as exhaustive elementary wholes at the expense of what is of relatively far greater educational use- fulness in other subjects. In rejecting the material of specialization from the general course, however, care must be taken not to omit so much as to close the door to future speciaHzation in any subject requiring years of habit formation as preparations for advanst work, and essential to a great variety of occupations. This appHes with especial force to mathematics. The movement toward socialization, with its tendency to ignore aU that is not immediately and specificaUy useful, must be carefuUy safeguarded from this extreme. The same movement here and there is resulting in demands for phases of instruction that the school cannot effectively or economically provide. Absence of such provision— as class instruction in sex hygiene, or training in the care and nurture of infants— cannot be lookt upon as inefficiency. 14. The efficient course of study (i) must be organized from the stand- point of educational usefulness and relative educational worth; (2) must include the most useful parts, or selections from the most useful parts, of every branch in the earliest school grade for which their usefulness becomes immediate; and (3) must provide for the continual review of aU definitely 268 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National associated essentials until they become a firmly memorized and an increas- ingly complex efficiency system. The immediate effect of the movement toward the socializing of the school course, adaptation to genetic and indi- vidual development, and the selection of the most useful details from a great variety of subjects, is disorganization. Famihar academic systems are being torn into fragments. But the cumulative result of definitely sug- gestive associations in the order of their educational usefulness, both specific and general, is a pedagogical system more complete, more complex, and more probable of retention and appUcation than the most exact of special sciences. Immediacy of usefulness, and not natural interest or readiness of develop- ment must determine the grade in which particular essentials are first intro- duced into the course of study. When definitely suggestive details suggest in a many-sided way ideas and experiences that are recurring in a particular school year, lack of natural interest and readier development later on must not prevent the most many-sided and recurring from being taught. Imme- diacy of usefulness must include, however, as early preparation as is neces- sary for what is of high immediate usefulness farther along the course, but no activities should be included merely because they are natural, nor material merely because it can be readily mastered. Much academic or logical organization will be found to have either social or general usefulness, but mere logical outlines, however elaborate or systematic, have no educational usefulness in themselves. The test of organization is not the recollection of headings and subheadings, but the fact that a detail suggests the ideas on which its highest educational use- fulness depends, and each suggested idea what is necessary to still further usefulness. It matters not at all how detailed and exactly organized a branch of knowledge may be, if its specifically useful facts fail to suggest similarly useful details in other branches, or its generally useful ideals and habits, the conditions favorable to their transfer. This test of organiza- tion is just alike to the course that sticks to the traditional subjects and to the course that is socialized, and can be applied with increasing complexity from grade to grade. If the product of any type of course is isolated facts, or outlines that suggest nothing and effect nothing, it is not educationally well organized. Obviously, the final test of organization is in the mind of the learner. But while an effectively organized course of study may be taught by such inefficient method that it is not effective for all learners, in the absence of an effectively organized course there is little like- lihood of efficient organization in the minds of most teachers or of most pupils. 15. While the task of course-of -study-making will be greatly simplified when school textbooks more fully measure up to the standards discust in this report, each suggested standard has been so qualified as to make it a just basis for judging all varieties of existing courses. CouncUl RURAL EDUCATION 269 So qualified, general standards may be agreed to, which are capable of being applied in a great variety of textbooks— each with its ardent cham- pions. All experts may agree upon standards such as these, yet each would write a different- textbook or plan a different course. I none the less heartily agree with Dr. Snedden when he writes: Would it not be a great deal better for men in your position, instead of giving so much attention to courses of study, to go to work and produce actual textbooks that would exemplify the details of what we have in view ? I am thinking, of course, of a textbook as being chiefly a teachers' guide to what is to be taught in particular subjects, and I have always desired that this teachers' guide should be supplemented by a small booklet which would give specific recommendations as to method. At least, tho unwilling to give less attention to courses of study, I agree with Professors Chamberlain and Suhrie that experts should apply their scientific conclusions in actual school texts. Historically, actual reform in course of study has usually been preceded by pioneer work on the part of school-book writer and pubUsher. Textbooks, already increasingly inclusive and selective, will soon become more definitely suggestive of the educational usefulness of their details. Some of them will surely be written by professors of research, and may even seU, if their writers are experts in teaching, supervision, finance, and textbook-making as well as in theory. Occasionally courses like the early Detroit course in hygiene will go further in reform, thru courageous local initiative, than can be expected thru textbooks seeking a general market. One thing is clear. Agreement upon definite but adaptive standards for both textbooks and courses of study by representative experts in research, supervision, and textbook-making, would surely constitute what Mr. Elson has called in this report "a distinct forward step" toward both more efficient textbooks and courses of study. RURAL EDUCATION JAMES Y. JOYNER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, RALEIGH, N.C. Rural education bulks big in public thought and public discussion today. It is a problem of national as well as of state and local importance, of urban as well as of rural interest. Quantitatively it is 58 .4 per cent of the whole educational problem in the nation; a much larger per cent of the problem in all distinctly agricultural states; and at least 80 per cent of the problem in the states known as the "Southern States." It is of vital interest to the city as weU as to the country, because the country is vitaUy related to the well-being of the city. According to the evidence of past history and of present observation, the city is largely dependent upon the renewal of its population from the countryside for leadership m aU lines of business, commercial and professional, for civic righteousness, ^^0 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National for spiritual guidance, and for the preservation and the perpetuation of the best in its civiHzation. Truly has Emerson said that if the cities were not reinforst from the fields, they would have rotted, exploded, and disappeared long ago. A reliable authority states that five-sixths of the ministers and six-sevenths of the college professors of this country were born and reared in the country; twenty-six of the twenty-seven presidents of the United States were country-born; three-fourths of the men in authority in our city churches and about the same percentage of the influential men of affairs, merchants, manufacturers, bankers, lawyers, were born and reared in the rural regions. From such evidence the supreme importance of this problem of rural education is apparent. To make clear in the outset the viewpoint from which this subject wUl be discust, let me submit for your consideration this simple definition of rural education: "Rural education is the education of country folks in the country, for the country." This definition includes the three things that, in my opinion, should be the determining factors in rural education: (i) rural education is primarily for country folks, and therefore should be adapted to the needs of country folks; (2) the purpose of rural education is primarily to educate country folks for the. country, not for the towns; (3) the best place for the education of country folks for the country is the country itself, not the town. These seem to be self-evident truths, and yet in the rural education of the past, and in most of that of the present, they have been almost ignored. The content of the course of instruction should be determined by the purpose of it. In rural education the purpose of instruction should be to prepare country folks to make the most, and to get the most, out of country life and country things for themselves and for others; to make life in the country as profitable, as comfortable, as healthful, as beautiful, as joyous as Hfe anywhere, that country folks may love it more, and be more content to live it. The course of instruction, therefore, should be closely related to country life; should be adapted to the general and special needs of country people; should give a knowledge, an appreciation, and a mastery of country things and country environment. The fundamental needs of country folks are, of course, the fundamental needs of humanity, namely, economic, social, spiritual; but the material, the opportunity, the means for supplying these are so different in the country from what they are in town and city, and the specific needs of country and city life are so different as to necessitate different courses of study, differ- ent types of school, differently trained teachers. The chief sources of wealth in the country, and, for that matter, in the world, are soil, plant, animal. The chief business of the country is farming, which deals with these. The economic needs of the country and of the world must be met by the wise and intelligent handling of these. The efficiency of farming depends upon a knowledge of them and the way to handle them most Councai RURAL EDUCATION 2*, inteUigently and profitably. Yet such has been and is now the inefficienqr of rural education that the farmers who live closest to these greatest sources of wealth often know least about them and get least out of them. The majority of these farmers do not get enough out of them to supply the bare necessities of the meagerest Ufe, and have nothing left to contribute to the wealth of the community or to supply good schools, good churches, and other necessaries for the inteUectual, social, and spirit- ual needs of the community. Should not country boys be taught in country schools by teachers prepared to teach them the simple principles of the conservation, the fertilization, the tillage, and the drainage of soils, and their practical appHcation; a knowledge of plants and plant life and their adaptation to soil and environment, how to grow them and how to handle them most profitably; of animals, how to feed them, how to care for them, how best to utilize them ? Health, food, raiment, and shelter— these are the elemental needs of life. They are more easily suppUed in the country than an)rwhere else, and yet, on the whole, more poorly suppHed there. How much does the country teacher know about either ? Should not sanita- tion, food selection and preparation, canning, sewing, dressmaking, miUinery, home-making, and decoration have a place in the preparation of the country teacher, and in the curriculum of the country school for country girls? You may cry, "Back to the country! Stay on the farm!" but I declare to you that until you teach country boys in the country schools how to make money out of soil and plant and animal by better farming and better market- ing, how to command in the country the modern conveniences of life, and how to break up its isolation and barrenness; until you teach the country girls in the country schools how to use the money to make country fife and country homes as comfortable, as healthful, as beautiful, as attractive, as sociable, as life and homes anywhere else, your cry will be all in vain. Good houses, good churches, good schools, good roads, good vehicles, good clothes, modern conveniences, and all other things that reduce the drudgery, break up the isolation, add to the sociabiHty, the comfort, the beauty, and attractiveness of country life, are costly— and the country boys must be taught in the country schools how to make money out of soil, plant, and animal; and the country girls must be taught how to use it m the making of country homes and for the enrichment of country life. For 95 per cent of these country boys and girls never see the inside of any other than the country school. Rural education must minister not alone to the economic needs of country life thru bread-and-butter studies, thru vocational training for country life; it must supply the means for meetmg its economic needs— but it must do more than this: It must also supply the means for meeting its social needs. The country school must be adequately equipt in buHding, grounds, and teachers, to be a social and recreational, as well as an intel- lectual and industrial, center for the country community, for the adults 272 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National as well as for the children. And the country teacher must be prepared for social and recreational leadership and instruction. It must never be for- gotten that the making of men is more important than the making of money; that life is more than meat, and body more than raiment. Finally, rural education, thru the country school, must be made to minister to the spiritual needs of the country people, and the country teacher must be prepared for this. I use this term, not in its restricted religious sense, but in its broadest sense, the esthetic, the imaginative, the emotional — in a word, all that is "likest God in man." How reads the record? "God formed man of the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul" — Spirit, the breath of God in man. God has revealed himself to man in three great books; the book of direct revelation the Bible; the book of humanity, God incarnate; and the book of nature, the Universe. "The heavens declare the glory of God and the firmament showeth his handiwork." "God made the country, man made the town." God first placed man in the country. The Garden of Eden has remained ever since the ideal home of man, ever since man has wandered thru the earth bearing in his heart a life-long hunger for it. God commanded man to dress and keep it. The country child and the country school are closest to this book of nature — in the heart of this heaven-ordained home of man. The country child, thru the country school, should be taught to dress and keep the garden, might be taught to transform it into a veritable Eden again. Instead, thru neglect of his education and training, he is allowed to grow up to kill the birds, to destroy the trees, to trample down the flowers, to waste the soil, to defile the streams, to mar the beauty of forest and field. How many country children, how many country teachers, know even the names and uses of the commonest trees and plants and flowers, can even recognize the wild birds and their songs, know or feel aught of the miracle and the mystery of forest, field, and firmament ? Oh, the pity of it! Oh, the folly of it! Oh, the tragedy of it! For the lack of teaching the majority of our country children pass from the cradle to the grave surrounded by this revelation of the glory and the beauty of God in his wonderful book of nature, with eyes that see not, with ears that hear not, with hearts that understand not. To them that book is sealed; to them the world is a dull and an ugly place. The infinite harmonies of earth and heaven, the very music of the spheres, if heard at all by them, are but discordant and commonplace noises. My heart grows sick within me sometimes as I watch the little country child in the towns and cities rushing to the moving^picture show, seeking to satisfy his little famisht soul with these poor husks of imitation and artifi- ciality, and I have thought: "Back there in the country whence you came, everyday from the rising of the sun unto the going down thereof, there Council] RURAL EDUCATION 273 moves before your eyes God's great moving-picture show, its scenes shifted every moment by his own hands for the delectation of his children, and, in the midst of it all, you move every day with unseeing eye, with unkindled imagination, with unmoved heart." Sometimes I have watched these little ones wandering thru the artificiality of town and city, caught by the music of the brass band, with its toot of horns and rattle of drum, and I have thought: "Oh, hungry little souls, feeding upon this poor imitation of the melodies of God, while back yonder in the country whence you came, every morning at the rising of the sun, in spring and summer and autumn, and at the going down thereof, the earth is filled with the orchestra of the birds, the myriad- voiced music of nature; and you surrounded by these entrancing melodies of God, because untaught, hear them not, under- stand them not, enjoy them not." How long, oh! how long, before we shall teach these country children to understand and appreciate these mysteries and melodies of heaven and earth — to enter into their rich heritage? After all, 'Tis heaven alone that is given away, 'Tis only God may be had for the asking; No price set on the lavish summer, June may be had by the poorest comer. And what is so rare as a day in June ? For such rural education a new type of country school must be pro- vided— a country school with house enough, land enough, teachers enough of the right sort, children enough, money enough, and equipment of every sort, to furnish cultural, occupational, and recreational training for country boys and girls at home; to fit them for more profitable, more comfortable, more efficient, more complete living in the country; to prepare them to make the most and to get the most out of all that is about them, and to put the most into the life around them; in short, a country school that shall be adequately equipt for adequately ministering to all the needs of the coim- try people, and that shall become the social, intellectual, and industrial center of the whole community— the unifying, uplifting force in its life. In order to do its work, the country school must be made a permanent influence. At present the prevailing type of country school is a transient, unpermanent influence, because of a transient, shifting population, and of transient, shifting teachers. Statistics seem to indicate that about two- thirds of the teachers in the country schools teach not more than one year in the same school. Rural education of the right sort for any country community must, of necessity, be an organic growth of many years out of the life and needs of that community. Permanency and continuity thereof are absolutely essential to its success. To make the school a per- manent, continuous influence, a permanent, or, at least, a long-tenured teaching force is necessary. The rural school of the new type, therefore, 274 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National like the Danish schools, must have its teacher's home, and its resident principal employed for life or during good behavior. The new t5^e of country teacher must have special training for her special work — training that will give her a knowledge of country things, country people, country needs; a sympathy with them, and a love and appreciation of them. Above all, the country teacher must have rural- mindedness, a sympathetic attitude of mind and soul toward country life and country things born of a scientific and practical knowledge of them, and of a love and an appreciation of them. Such a country teacher is beyond price. The virtue of rural-mindedness passes out of her into the children that touch the hem of her garment; and, tho they may forget many things that she taught, there will abide with them the "vision splen- did" of the country and the country life that will never "fade into the light of common day," and they will never forget how their hearts burned within them as they walkt along the way with her in God's great out-of-doors. Let the agencies for rural education cost what they may, they are cheap at any price. They will not come in one generation, for all the greatest things in civiUzation are of longest growth. This generation may be well content to sow in faith the seeds, assured that from them shall grow some day a finer flower and fruit than ever were before produced. THE GREATER THRIFT S. W. STRAUS, PRESIDENT, AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR THRIFT, CHICAGO, ILL. I have chosen as the subject which I shall discuss tonight "The Greater Thrift." Your organization has undertaken to investigate the situation as it exists in America today with reference to the practices of thrift among the people, with the view of ultimately making recommendations along the lines of teaching thrift in our schools. I think that, generally speaking, there is a misunderstanding as to the scope and purposes of the thrift movement in this country. The lack of understanding lies primarily in the fact that to the popular mind thrift means simply saving money. In striving to differentiate between mere money-saving and the practices of the greater thrift, I am reminded of the truth of an utterance by Benjamin Franklin, who said: "Learning, whether speculative or practical, is, in popular or mixt governments, the natural source of wealth and honor." The difference between mere money-saving and the greater thrift is learning — which, as Franklin declared, is the natural source of wealth and honor. Education, taken in the sense of mental discipline, is the foundation of all wealth and all honor, national or individual, and it is only thru its processes that we can bridge the chasm between money-saving and the Council] THE GREATER THRIFT 2^^ greater thrift. Saving money is one of the foundation stones in the building of a thrifty character— but it is no more the sum total of thrift than one stone is the sum total in the foundation of a great house. A man may be a money-saver, and yet, if he dissipates or is immoral, he is not thrifty. A man may save money— yet if he works eighteen hours a day, to the detri- ment of his health, he is not thrifty. True thrift consists in the judicious use of all our mental, material, and physical resources, and when we merely save money, we have only gone part way. A miser is an undesirable citizen. What, pray, would be the fate of a nation of misers ? The wheels of industry are turned by men and women who spend and employ their money wisely, and live sanely. Perhaps I can more clearly indicate the point I have in mind at this time by telling you a story: Last summer in San Francisco, while I was conducting the Thrift Congress held by the American Society for Thrift, a lady came to me and said: "Mr. Straus, you are preaching thrift, but do you personally practice what you preach ?" And I replied by asking her if she referred to financial matters or to thrift in health, time, and energy. She said: "I notice you are living at an expensive hotel in this city— and that you are giving away money for essay contests and things of that sort. Now, you must either be a very rich man or a very extravagant one." And I said: "If I were a very rich man, or if I were a very poor man, and were spending any money unwisely, I would be extrava- gant; but if I spend what I can afford for worthy purposes which will result in good to myself and to others, I am not extravagant. Suppose we take a school teacher who is earning $800 a year, and of this sum she saves $400. Would you call her thrifty ? Of course you would. Now, suppose this woman is promoted to a principalship and receives $1200 a year, and spends $600. Would you still call her thrifty?" "Yes," was the answer. "Now, suppose this woman is promoted to a superintendency," I continued, "and receives a salary of $2500 a year, spending $1250 and saving $1250. You would still call her thrifty, altho she would now be spending over three times as much as she spent at first. Let us fancy now that she has become more ambitious, opens a private school, and earns $10,000 a year. Would she be thrifty if she saved $5000 and spent $5000?" "Yes, she would," was the reply. "Now, let us presume that prosperity continues to smile on her and her school grows to the point where she is earning $40,000 a year. With a changed environment, a broadened viewpoint, and wider opportunities, she is able to do much for her family, to donate to charities, and to live well on half her income, while the other half, $20,000, she saves. Now, you will admit, will you not, that she is still thrifty, altho she is spending exactly fifty times as much money on herself, her family, and the community as she spent at first ? But if this woman had continued to increase her income and had not increast the amount that she spent, so that when she was earning $40,000 she was only spending $400 a year, what would you call her then ? Why, you would call her a miser, of course. Yet there was a time when she lived on $400 a year and you called her thrifty. And as a miser she would be as useless and as undesir- able in her citizenship as if she were a spendthrift." The man who pays $50,000 for a work of art, the product of the brain of a genius, and hangs it in his home, or donates it to an art gallery, is not thriftless or extravagant— altho many would believe that the advocacy of thrift is against such practices. The man who pays $50,000 for a work of art places a glorious premium on genius and brains, giving impetus to 276 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National artistic progress, refinement, and civilization. In Chicago a man died recently, and left $700,000 to the Orchestra Association of that city, to be used subsequently in the founding of a school for music the equal of any in the world. That man has given impetus to artistic development, he has exemplified the greater thrift. It is thru such deeds as these that the world progresses. The man who is penurious and tight-fisted is a dead weight to civilization. We who have the interests of the great thrift movement in America at heart must realize that one of our chief problems is to teach our fellow-men that merely putting money in a savings bank is not the sum total of thrift. The prudent use of money, and the practice of liberality where it could be afforded, have brought about the development of the arts and sciences, and the manifold blessings of civilization. Nothing ever has been accomplisht solely thru selfishness and greed. Men who acquire wealth by merely piling one dollar on top of another are not good citizens in the broadest sense. The man who adorns his home with expensive period furniture, with costly rugs, and who maintains beautiful grounds is, if he can actually afford these things, a benefactor, because he is rewarding skill and artistic accompUshment. The man who dines from costly china is a more useful citizen, if he can afford these things, than if he uses cheap crockery, because in the purchase of fine chinaware and costly linens he places a premium on the development of the applied arts. The woman who buys fine gowns and fine hats, who employs a costly modiste, and who uses expensive fabrics in her gowns, is not thriftless, if she can well afford these things and lives up to the tenets I have heretofore stated in the true meaning of the greater thrift. She might purchase a suit or a gown that would cost $20, and it would serve the purpose of the one for which she pays $100, but the $20 goes to unskilled labor and the sweat shop. On the other hand, the $100 goes to skilled labor and to a designer whose work is art. The French probably have had a keener understanding of the signifi- cance of the greater thrift than any other people, and they have been known for many generations as an exceedingly prosperous nation. They have done everything to encourage art and the industries that demand skilled labor and the employment of persons of education and refinement. That is why the average woman in America today thinks that anything, from a hatpin to an evening gown, if it comes from France, is a little better because of its origin. There is a happy medium between extravagance and penuriousness. One of the evils of the day Hes in the fact that many of us live far beyond our resources. Jealousy, social ambitions, business rivalry, personal ego- tism, false pride, all play their part in the strife and the stress and mad rush of the twentieth century. Many of our false economic conditions are due to this baneful tendency to overHve, to overspend, to overindulge, Councfll THE GREATER THRIFT 277 and to overplay our part in life's daily round. On the other hand, we have those citizens who are cheap and tight-fisted in their habits, who are un- willing to reward their fellow-men for work well done. With them progress halts; they contribute little or nothing to the upbuilding of the things that are worth while. Midway between miserliness and extravagance hes the pathway of the greater thrift, and I say that it is in the better under- standing of this fact and the application of it in our hves and in the Uves of those around us, that we have a problem and an opportunity. What is the "greater thrift" ? It is constructive thrift; it is scientific thrift; it is liberal thrift; it is thrift that builds character. It is the thrift that comes thru education. It is the thrift that is the basis of all progress in art, in science, in business. It is the advancement of civilization accom- plisht thru the reward of education, moraUty, and industry. Summed up, the greater thrift is personal economics in its broadest sense, and, in a general way, the true art of living. This should be the spirit of the twentieth century. Money-saving is but one link in the chain of a perfect character; econ- omy is only a strand in the thread of thrift, and it is only thru the process of education that it can be developt. It cannot be taught in a haphazard manner. Thru our schools the practices of this great virtue must be intro- duced. We are teaching our boys and girls arithmetic, history, and geogra- phy. Our agricultural schools are teaching them to till the soil scientifically, and to develop the resources of the land thru education. We are teaching household economics. We are teaching morality and hygiene. We are teaching everything worth while but practical thrift; and I say to you, my friends, that we are neglecting one of the most important branches of education. If there is any merit in the greater thrift as I have pointed out, if he who practices the greater thrift is a valuable citizen, a benefit to his fellow-men, an encouragement to genius, an aid in the progress of civihza- tion, then is it not worth while to look into this problem more carefully, and to discover how and by what means we may develop this virtue in our people ? If there are a million citizens in America today who are practicing the greater thrift, and whose fellow-citizens are deriving the benefit there- from thru their well-regulated lives, would it not be better if there were two million such citizens, or five millions, or one hundred millions ? These are simple facts. If every citizen in the United States today were familiar with and practist the greater thrift, what a power of strength for good and righteousness and peace this glorious land of ours would be! We speak of wonderful America— and it is wonderful. Yet if we turn to the statistics on thrift in America we find our enthusiasm tempered; and we perforce wish that America were as wonderful a nation in the practices of thrift as it is in wealth and material resources. The last census of the United States gives the number of families occupying homes as 20,000,000. Of this number more than one half, 10,700,000, are renters. Of the 9,000,000 278 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National who live in their own homes, 6,000,000 are free from debt, and 3,000,000 are carrying mortgages. Some idea of the thriftlessness of the Americans, with all their opportunities, is gleaned from the last national census, which shows that of the 84,198 paupers in institutions, one-half were born in this country. The native-born number 44,254, the other 40,000 are composed of persons from foreign countries, who were handicapt by ignorance of our language and our working methods. Let us take the statistics dealing with the average American citizen. We will take one hundred men at the age of twenty-five. In 10 years we find that 5 have died, 10 have become of independent means, 10 are in good circumstances, 40 have moderate resources, and 35 have not improved at all. In another 10 years, at the age of forty-five, 11 more die, making a total of 16, and all but 3 of those who had anything have lost their accumulations; 3 have become wealthy, while 63 are working, and, while self-supporting, have no other resources, and 15 have ceast to become seK-supporting. In another 10 years 4 more have died, making a total of 20 deaths, and i more has become wealthy; 3 others, at the age of fifty-five, have reacht good circumstances, but i of the 3 who was wealthy at the age of forty-five has lost his fortune, so that of the original 100 there are but 3 who now are independent or wealthy; 46 are still working for a Uving, and have no other resources; 28 become more or less dependent upon the charity of society, their children, or their relatives. In another 10 years 16 have died, making a total of 36 deaths. Of the remaining, at the age of sixty-five, i is very rich; 4 are wealthy; i of those who lost everything before he reacht the age of forty-five has regained his hold and has become wealthy; 6 are self-supporting, with no other resources, and the other 53 are dependent upon charity — not alto- gether public charity, but the kind indulgence of children and relatives. In another 10 years 63 of the original 100 have died, 60 of whom left no estates whatever; 2 of the 5 who were rich have lost their fortunes; the remaining 34, at the age of seventy-five, are dependent upon their children, or others charitably inchned. The records of the Surrogate Courts show that out of 100 men who die, 3 leave estates of $10,000; 15 others leave estates from $2000 to $10,000; 82 of every 100 leave no income-producing estates at all. Thus out of every 100 widows only 18 are left in good or comfortable circumstances, while 47 are obliged to go to work, and 35 are left in absolute want. I believe you will agree with me that a thoro appreciation of the greater thrift is a national necessity, and you members of the National Educa- tion Association, you school teachers, school principals, school superin- tendents, and college professors are the ones thru whom this must be accomplisht. It is only thru education that we can become a thrifty nation, and it is you, more than anyone else, who should understand and study the greater thrift, its economic value, and its importance to the industries, arts, and sciences. I am making a plea here tonight that the educators of this CouncUl THE GREATER THRIFT 279 nation take up this question, because here is a great opportunity and a great duty. If character-building and sensible Uving and thrift in its broadest sense are worth while, then why not lay the foundation aright, why not teach these things scientifically, as we teach farming, cooking, and all branches of education ? Knowing these things, and understanding these things ourselves, are we doing our duty to our children and to posterity, if we fail to do that for which I am pleading tonight? You understand better than I can tell you the influence of the pubUc schools and of the parochial and private schools. You understand that the nation of tomorrow will be no greater than the truth you are teaching your pupils today. You understand that the boys or girls who go out from your schoolroom into actual life with only a haphazard idea of frugality will without doubt never become frugal men nor frugal women. They will, in all likelihood, live haphazard lives, saving and spending alike, unwisely. But if they had been taught lessons in thrift, if there had been as much attention paid to teaching them personal economics as geography or any other one study, their equipment for practical life would have been much better. I think we are just beginning to understand these things, and the fact that your body now has a committee which is investigating the question of teaching thrift in our schools shows that we have become awakened to a realization of these necessities. We cannot, in the schools or elsewhere, teach a boy how to make money. Making money is a knack. But if the boy is not endowed by nature as a money-maker, we can teach him to live a sensible life, to spend his earnings wisely, to the best advantage of himself, his family, and society. We can teach him thru the practices of thrift, good citizenship. On the other hand, the boy who is a natural money-maker will, in spite of everything, acquire wealth when he matures, and in his school days we can so mold his character that when he becomes a prosperous citizen he will employ his accumulations as a sacred trust, using them to the greatest good of himself and his fellow- man. We can teach him, by the examples of the lives of worthy and suc- cessful men, that it is more praiseworthy to succeed in good citizenship than to be a glorified butcher on a battlefield. From plow boys to captains of industry — how many great Americans have trod that path! How many of our citizens begin life with the handicap of poverty and gain the heights! Let the children learn that success does not mean only the winning of great political or industrial battles, or the slaughter of human beings, but that the men who build factories, banks, railroads, hospitals, art galleries, colleges, and churches do so because they have learned how to save and how to spend wisely, and have mastered the science of living. . A few weeks ago I received a letter from a western governor, who told me that a wealthy citizen of his state had written him regarding the advisa- biKty of endowing a chair for the teaching of thrift in an institution of higher learning. I beheve that the time will come in America, my friends, 28o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National when the greater thrift will be taught in our colleges, universities, and academies. I believe this just as firmly as I believe that the time is near at hand when thrift will be taught in the primary classes, the grammar schools, and the high schools; and I believe, above all things, that thrift should be taught in our normal schools, so that our teachers will be especially well equipt to instruct their pupils in personal economics. In one way only has the doctrine of the greater thrift influenst our curricula. I refer to thrift in human material. In past ages feeble or defective children were so much mere human wastage, to be thrown on the scrap heap. Two thousand years ago, the Spartans deliberately put to death children who seemed to be below the physical grade demanded by the code of that fiercely militaristic nation — abandoned them to the tender mercy of the storms and wild beasts in some rocky glen of the mountains. Today we conserve this human material. The declining figures of infant mortality show vividly our care for the less robust members of the race. Our schools for backward children, our asylums, our charitable homes take the human material that would have been thrown away as worthless a few centuries or even a few decades ago, and eventually turn the feeble, the backward, the subnormal child into a good citizen. Yet this is the only instance, with the exception of school savings banks, that I can find in which thrift in any of its aspects has even toucht our educational system of the twentieth century. But whatever comes, the American of the future must be individually prepared. He must be strong in character; he must be frugal; he must be sensible. He must be able, not alone to save money, but to spend money wisely. He must be educated in the ways of correct Uving. And I trust that we, today, have in our hearts the steadfast purpose to add to the curriculum of our schools the broad principles of the greater thrift, of scientific character-building, of personal economics in their most compre- hensive sense. This is the patriotism of the greater thrift. This is the duty that the America of tomorrow is calling to us to perform. Let us not fail! Let us be loyal and true to the purposes of this republic, and let us feel that as this nation goes forward in its lofty mission that we shall be known thruout the world as a people which is moral and clean and right — which wastes not its substance in debauchery, nor saves to the point of miserliness — a nation of men and women who are happy in the peace and prosperity and joy that come to those who live the lives of the greater thrift. Coundl] NORMAL SCHOOL PREPARATION FOR THRIFT TEACHING 281 NORMAL SCHOOL PREPARATION FOR THRIFT TEACHING WILLIAM B. OWEN, PRINCIPAL, CHICAGO NORMAL COLLEGE, CHICAGO, ILL. In undertaking to discuss the teaching of thrift in the normal school, I assume that it is a practical, rather than a theoretical, motive that has led to the selection of this subject. On this assumption, then, I shall consider the practical difficulties to be met in introducing the subject into the normal-school curriculum, and suggest some possible ways of meetmg these difficulties. First, let it be understood that the normal-school curriculum is abeady greatly overcrowded. This is not only testified to by principals and teachers of normal schools who are in practical contact with the situation, but is proved by the recent changes in the normal-school curriculum designed to relieve the pressure. It is a simple, literal fact that the two-year normal- school curriculum designed to train teachers for the elementary schools is filled beyond the saturation point. During the last quarter of a century, we have added so many new subjects, and the development of the subjects themselves has been so great, that the normal-school student is now required to assimilate a mass of material that is excessive. It would be interesting and perhaps pertinent to the present inquiry to discuss the question as to how relief is to be secured. The curriculum of the normal school, unlike the curriculum of the college, for instance, must, in the nature of the case, be affected by the curriculum of the elementary school which the normal-school graduates are preparing to enter as teachers. The overloading of the normal-school curriculum is directly due to the over- loading of the elementary-school curriculum. We have been fondly hoping that the congested elementary-school curriculum was going to be relieved by elimination of unnecessary material; by closer correlation between subjects; and by new methods of teaching the new subjects, whereby the old would get in incidentally. In spite of the theoretical discussions on this topic, and the promises held out by enthusiastic advocates, the fact still remains that little relief has been found. Two different methods, there- fore, have been adopted recently which give some promise of reUef. One plan is frankly to disavow any attempt to give students an all-round training for the elementary school of eight grades, but to set up curricula which train them for either the kindergarten, the primary, or the grammar grades. Thus, by narrowing the scope of the training, it is hoped to get some relief. The other plan is to depart from the custom of requiring but two years for the normal-school course, and to add another year, making a three-year course. Theoretically this would be the desirable solution of the difficulty. There would be a gain of a year's study; increast maturity on the part of the students; a much needed increase of the time given to practice teaching under supervision; and other advantages from a scholastic point of view that cannot be developt here. Under unusually favorable conditions, this 282 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National scheme has been inaugurated in Boston and in Cincinnati. It would seem at times as if in other places conditions were ripe for the lengthening of the normal-school course. This will be brought about, however, under the pressure of the law of demand and supply. As long as there is a dearth of normal-school-trained teachers, it will be difficult to increase the years of study required for receiving a diploma. On the other hand, as salaries increase, and the tenure of office becomes more secure, and more teachers go into the profession for a life-work, we may naturally expect competition to lead candidates to seek and obtain a more extended training. The better trained, then, will have better opportunities to secure better posi- tions, and it will be a relatively easy matter to lengthen the course to three and even four years. Furthermore, the recognition given to normal-school work by the great universities, taken together with the fact that gradu- ation from college with a Bachelor's degree is coming to be one of the requirements for teachers in high schools, makes it easier to convince students that they should take the more extended training. It is this situation that we must have in mind, therefore, as we think of taking up the question of teaching thrift to normal-school students. We naturally ask, Is there anything that can be eliminated ? If we are to take the answer of the heads of departments now represented in the normal schools, the negative answer is the only one to be expected. The teachers of every subject represented in the curriculum are complaining that they have not sufficient time to do the work as it should be done. Then arises another question. Is it possible to find a legitimate place for the teaching of thrift within the time allotted to any of the subjects already represented in the curriculum ? The answer to this can at best be only a hypothesis. Within the subjects, education, educational sociology, civics, and history, it would seem theoretically possible to find the proper place for considering this very important question. There are signs that indicate a growing consciousness on the part of educators that we shall have to find place in our elementary-school curriculum, and therefore, in our normal-school cur- riculum, for instruction in the actual processes and in the methods of con- trol of our industrial, economic, and social life. The traditional American history, valuable as it was as a source of inspiration and patriotism, and civics, which has so long been a description of the structure rather than of the actual processes of government, are even now being transformed in- ternally to meet the demands for a more vital connection with the actual everyday life. If this new point of view finally gains the field, the teaching of thrift will fall into its natural place as being one of the virtues on which financial prosperity and power of the individual, as well as of the nation, are founded. If the teaching of thrift can come into its rightful place in such a plan for instruction, the result will be not only the spread of desirable knowledge among the pupils of the school, but it will serve to enlarge and vitalize the Council] NORMAL SCHOOL PREPARATION FOR THRIFT TEACHING 283 social studies of the curriculum. If on the other hand, the normal-school course should be lengthened, there would inevitably be found a larger place for social studies, and the teaching of thrift would naturally find a place in this enlarged <:urriculum. Passing from the question of the time and place for the teaching of the subject, let us discuss briefly some considerations that cannot be overlookt if any teaching on the subject of thrift is to have any real value. Teaching about thrift and teaching thrift are two fundamentally dififerent things. We have not recognized this distinction in the older subjects of the school curriculum. The fundamental principle that knowledge must be trans- lated into action may be regarded as the most fundamental factor in trans- forming our school practice in the last few decades, in laboratory science, in the school shop and school kitchen, in dramatization, in art. This principle is clearly recognized and made fundamental. It has not been so easy to work out a method of applying the same principle in history and the social studies. This is the great desideratum of the elementary and high-school curriculum. How can we impart standards of conduct when it is so difficult to provide suitable opportunity for putting the knowledge of these standards to a practical test? If we could answer this question, the problem of modern instruction in schools would be solved. Thrift is a matter of habit, and involves the use of a scale of values. Merely to understand this scale of values without applying it practically in deter- mining conduct is a very abstract and meaningless performance. In the modern movement for improved teaching in some of the social studies, that of civics, for instance, we may find suggestion as to how to proceed. Those who are the leaders of the movement are experimenting successfully in the direction of selecting problems from the immediate social environment of the pupils, and are teaching the pupils how to proceed to solve these prob- lems, and to get a check on the validity of their methods thru the practical results secured. Questions of pubhc health, the proper care of the streets and alleys, obedience to city ordinances, and the like, are practical problems in civic life that are furnishing real opportunities for a new kind of civic training, which is teaching government, not about government. If we are going to teach thrift, we shall have to find some practical way of making the children's activities themselves the means of imparting knowledge about thrift and its results. If this general point of view is accepted as sound, let us set forth, then, a possible program of thrift-teaching in the normal school. Such a pro- gram will involve, (i) a minimum of theory of economics, and (2) the use of the students' own contacts with economic problems. In expressing a demand for the teaching of economic theory, I wish to emphasize again that our teaching must not be merely hortatory. There must be gathered a basis of economic fact within the range of the students' own interests and experience. The economic principles and ideas which 284 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National interpret these facts should constitute the theoretical element in the instruc- tion. Methods of economic control, money, banking, investments, the function of capital in production, and other elements of economic theory should furnish the groundwork of ideas and the classification of motive that would justify such a course of instruction. Whether this instruction in theory should be given in a special course, or should be a part of the courses in history, sociology, and education, is a matter to be determined. But there is no question that the ideas involved in the modern economic interpretation of history, in setting forth the economic basis of social organization and the economic need and justification of industrial education, furnish a body of economic doctrine that would suffice for the purpose of teaching thrift and that should, on other accounts, be in the possession of every school teacher. As to the students' own contacts with economic problems, it would be unnecessary as well as impossible to enumerate them all. As typical of the possibilities within the range of the subjects of the curriculum, we may mention home economics, with its emphasis on the relation of expenditure to income, the proper buying of food and clothing, the keeping of family accounts and the like, the cost-keeping and cost-reckoning practist in the work in industrial arts. As t3^ical of the extra classroom activities that are at hand as a means of vital instruction, we may mention school gardens, with records kept of the earnings of the pupil-gardeners, the home-credit system, with its emphasis on the economic value of the work for which credit is given, the practice instituted by many schools of publishing an account of the earnings of pupils outside of school hours. Perhaps the most effective means of building up the habit of thrift is the school bank. Its effectiveness is due to two things: (i) it makes saving relatively easy by providing faciUties for deposit; and (2) it brings social pressure to bear on the pupil by reason of the power of suggestion and emulation inherent in a movement accompanied by such publicity. Other opportunities are capable of use for this purpose. The subject of school resources is of vital interest to the community, the teacher, and indirectly to the pupil. The school as a financial enterprise on the part of the community is a topic capable of yielding both theoretical knowledge and practical motive. School entertainments which are cooperative enterprises for some specific good that the school community can understand and appreciate might well serve as a means of sound economic instruction. The care of school prop- erty, taken in connection with the subject of school resources, can be made a means of inculcating the habit of community thrift and individual responsi- bilities so sorely needed in America. There is a timeliness in the discussion of teaching thrift that should not be overlookt. If we are wasteful in America it is because we have grown so as a people on account of our abundant natural resources and the relative ease with which, until recently, we have been able to make a living. Our Council] REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS 285 forefathers came to this country with the habits of thrift that European conditions had imposed on them. We have lost those habits because we have not been Hving under European conditions. As our population increases, and our natural resources in land, timber, coal, mines, etc., are either exhausted or appropriated, we begin to approximate to European conditions. The European war will perforce teach us many lessons. It is possible that the economic competition that will follow the end of hostiUties will serve to emphasize in striking fashion the advantage that accrues to the man or nation that learns to eliminate waste. If no such economic pressure comes to bear upon us, we can still appeal to the real genius of the American mind by emphasizing the importance of thrift, not so much as a niggardly saving of a little money, but as the proved method of attaining financial and industrial power, with its consequent social good. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION CHARLES H. KEYES, PRESIDENT, SKIDMORE SCHOOL OF ARTS, SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. The committee held its annual meeting in Detroit, and authorized as the work of the current year: (i) the printing of a small introductory edition of a second report of twenty-four pages on the health care of rural- school children; (2) the reproduction of the committee's health charts in pamphlet edition to be distributed as effectively as may be and if possible thru the Bureau of Education; (3) the reproduction in actual size of an edition of one hundred copies each of all, or some, of these charts to meet the demands which we are receiving in considerable and increasing num- bers (the committee would hope to lend some sets of these charts in answer to requests for them, and to sell the sets or individual charts at cost in response to requests that may be received; it seems desirable that the com- mittee should have sets to lend to state or county fairs and to other exhibits attended particularly by people from rural regions) ; and (4) to undertake when there may be sufficient funds made available for the purpose, under the auspices and supervision of the committee, a national investigation in ten or fifteen states of the health and welfare of teachers. The second report of the committee, entitled "Health Requirements for Rural Schools," has been printed in an edition of 800,000 copies, and all but a small portion of these have been distributed by the United States Bureau of Education. The printmg of 750,060 copies of this report was made possible by a generous gift of approximately $3,000 from the Eliza- beth McCormick Memorial Fund in Chicago. This report, from the evi- dence of many expressions received by the chairman of our committee, is exerting a very extensive influence for better health conditions in rural schools in many parts of the country. 286 .NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National The third report of the committee, a twenty-four page pamphlet, entitled "Health Essentials for Rural-School Children," is now in press and a preliminary edition, made possible by a small balance of the joint- committee budget of the year just closing, will be ready for distribution in the near future. The purpose of this report is: (i) to state the health conditions of rural-school children at the present time; (2) to propose and recommend the practical measures which seem necessary and possible for the health care of children in country schools; and (3) to report praise- worthy efforts which are now being made in a few instances to provide for health care of rural-school children, and which may result in giving to rural-school children at least as much health care as is provided for children in the cities. Commissioner Claxton, of the United States Bureau of Education, has already stated the desirabihty of having 400,000 copies of this last report provided to meet the needs of the whole country. Our committee exhibit of twenty charts was installed in the Panama- Pacific Exposition with the exhibits of the United States Bureau of Edu- cation. These charts attracted much attention, particularly from the representatives of Japan and of South-American republics. A revised and enlarged chart exhibit of our committee was displayed at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence at Detroit. After further revision, selected charts from this exhibit are being reproduced, first in pamphlet form for general distribution, and, secondly, in full size for loan and for sale at cost. A large number of requests have been and are being received for sets of these charts. The small balance of the joint-committee budget will provide only for the beginning of this program of reproducing and distributing the com- mittee charts. The chairman of the committee is constantly receiving requests for committee reports and for information and advice relating to matter included reasonably within the general program of this committee. With reference to its future program, the committee recommends as of great importance the following phases of health work in the field of education. 1. Experiments in, and demonstration of, improved health work in the schools (particularly in the rural schools) to which our committee has given special study and attention. Proposals for such experiments and demon- strations (particularly for improved health of rural-school children) have received cordial approval from leaders in the field of public health, educa- tion, and social service. 2. A comprehensive and authoritative study of physical conditions and characteristics of children for the purpose of establishing physical norms of child-development. Such standards would improve greatly the value and efficiency of health examinations and health supervision of children generally. All those who are engaged in work for children agree in endorsing a study and report of this kind. I I Council] REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS 287 3. A national investigation of the health and general welfare of teachers. The present study of health and welfare of teachers in New York State points convincingly to the need for a national study in this field. 4. A thoro investigation of the health effects of athletic games upon school pupils of various ages and of both sexes. Such an investigation is recognized as of great present importance by leaders in the medical field as well as by educators. 5. A study and report on health-teaching and training in the schools. Health- teaching is in a period of rapid and significant transition. An investigation of the work of the schools brings to light many valuable efforts in this field. A report in the near future which might authori- tatively support the principles of sound health-teaching and make con- veniently available information regarding some of the best efforts in this field would provide a valuable document for the guidance of teachers. The support of the committee during the last four years has come from annual appropriations from the National Education Association, which have been duplicated by the American Medical Association. That great Association stands ready today to appropriate from their treasury for the coming year any sum up to $3000, that shall be appropriated by the National Education Association for the use of this committee. We are asking that this Council recommend to the Board of Directors an appro- priation of $1000 for the support of the committee's work for the ensuing year. In this connection, I desire to call attention to the fact that no part of the funds appropriated in previous years to the committee has been expended for traveling or personal expenses of members of the committee; all such expenses have been cheerfully borne by the individual members. The same policy will be continued with any appropriation which may be granted for the ensuing year. The committee desires to express its appreciation of the continued encouragement and help of United States Commissioner Claxton. We desire to record our high appreciation of the continued splendid support and cooperation which the American Medical Association has extended to this work thru its Council on Health and Public Instruction and thru the special cooperation of its members on the Committee on Health Problems. This report cannot be closed without expression of the very deep feeling with which members of the committee learned of the sudden death of Henry B. Favill, who has been such a tower of strength. Dr. Favill was chairman of the Council on Health and Public Instruction of the American Medical Association, and has been considered in interest and by courtesy an active cooperative member of our joint committee. His death causes an irreparable loss to the country, removing as it does one of our most influ- ential personalities, devoted unselfishly in spirit, and effectively in con- structive action, to many vital interests in our national welfare. DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Mary B. Fox, dean of women, Chicago Kindergarten Institute Chicago, 111. Vice-President — Ella C. Elder, supervisor of kindergartens Buffalo, N.Y. Secretary — ^Fannie A. Smith, principal, Smith-Froebel Training School Bridgeport, Conn. FIRST SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 1916 The department was called to order by the president, in Concert Hall, Madison Square Garden, at 9 130 a.m., and the following program presented: Topic: Educational Trend as Shown in Some Recent Experiments {with Lantern Illustrations) "Relation of the Kindergarten and the Primary in the School of Childhood of the University of Pittsburgh" — Meredith Smith, School of Childhood, University of Pitts- burgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. "Kindergartens of Yesterday and Tomorrow" — Patty S. Hill, head of Kinder- garten Department, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "The Demonstration-Play School of the University of California" — Mrs. C. W. Hetherington, director of Play School, University of Cahfomia, Berkeley, Cal. At the close of the meeting the chair appointed the following Committee on Nomi- nations: Luella A. Palmer, New York, N.Y., Chairman Emily Pryor, S. Pasadena, Cal. Lucy Wheelock, Boston, Mass. May Murray, Springfield, Mass. Pearl Johnson, Cleveland, Ohio SECOND SESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July 6, 1916 Reception and story-telling at 4:30 p.m. on Columbia University Campus, by local kindergartners of Greater New York. Madam Kraus Boelt6 was presented as one of the oldest and most loved kinder- gartners; at one time a president of this department, and a member of the Association since 1873. STORY-TELLERS Mary Adair, Normal School, Philadelphia, Pa. Marietta Stockard, Wilson Normal School, Washington, D.C. Anna Tyler, Children's Department, PubUc Library, New York, N.Y. THIRD SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 7, 1916 The department met in joint session with the Department of Elementary Education, at 9 : 30 A.M. The following program was presented: Topic: The Relation of the Kindergarten and Primary Grades "The Educational Values Which the ChildXarries Over from the Kindergarten into the Primary Grades"-Mary D. Hill, supervisor ^f kmdergartens, Louisvm^^^^ "Should the Kindergartners and the Primary Teachers Teach an Equal Numb^of Hours and Receive the Same Pay ? "-Charles E. Chadsey, supermtendent of schools, Detroit, Mich. 289 290 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten "Practical Means of Unifying the Work of the Kindergarten and the Primary Grades " : (i) "The Elementary Point of View" — Junius L. Meriam, professor of school super- vision, School of Education, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. (2) "The Kindergarten Point of View" — Luella A. Palmer, assistant director of kindergartens. New York, N.Y. (3) Discussion — Thomas M. Balliet, dean, School of Pedagogy, New York Uni- versity, New York, N.Y. The papers will be found in the report of the Department of Elementary Education. FOURTH SESSION— Friday Afternoon, July 7, 1916 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:30 p.m., and the following program presented: Topic: The Arts in the Kindergarten "Literature for the Kindergarten Child" — Marian P. Greene, Public Library, New York, N.Y. (An exhibit of books suitable for children of all ages was presented for inspection.) "Art in the Kindergarten" — Grace Cornell, Fine Arts Department, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. (An exhibit of work done by children and adult students was presented for inspection.) ^ ^ , "Evolution of the Dramatic Arts in Child Life" — Caroline Crawford, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. (Interpretative illustrations of the moods and feelings of the child were given by Miss Crawford.) The following officers were elected on recommendation of the Nominating Com- mittee: President — Elizabeth A. Woodward, instructor, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y. Vice-President — Gail H. Calmerton, supervisor of primary instruction, Fort Wayne, Ind. Secretary — Mary HiU, supervisor of kindergartens, Louisville, Ky. A vote of thanks was given to the various committees which had made our sojourn in the city such a pleasant and profitable one, to the Press for its generous publication of the Proceedings, and to the ofl&cers for the pleasing and helpful program which has been an inspiration to those present. Fannie A. Smith, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS RELATION OF THE KINDERGARTEN AND THE PRIMARY IN THE SCHOOL OF CHILDHOOD, UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH MEREDITH SMITH, SCHOOL OF CHILDHOOD, UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH, PITTSBURGH, PA. With this question of relation of kindergarten and primary grades is bound up the problem of so correlating the work of both as to make the education of the early years a more consecutive process — one which elimi- nates the break in education at the period of promotion from kindergarten into the first grade. We all know that no markt change appears in the child of six years. He has the same impulses and tendencies and about the same capacities and powers as the child of five years. The same principles should determine and govern the education of both. Department] RELATION OF KINDERGARTEN AND PRIMARY 201 In our School of Childhood in the University of Pittsburgh, we have not considered particularly the problem of the relation of the work of one grade to that of another. We have been very deeply concerned with the problem of the relation of education in each particular grade to the child, his impulses, capacities, and needs. If the child is a growing, developing organism, and if the work of the school is adapted to his needs at each stage, his education, as he passes from one grade to the next, must follow a process of continuous development. The attempt has frequently been made to work out a solu- tion to the problem of relationship from another standpoint. We have expected the teachers in the kindergarten and first grade to become acquainted with each other's work to the end that the primary teacher may carry over into the first grade valuable phases of kindergarten work, and that the kindergartner, recognizing the needs and demands of the primary school, may prepare her children to meet them. The problem of psychology is here involved. Psychology is a com- paratively recent science, and many believe we have made a mere beginning of the understanding of the human mind and its processes. But psychologists have told us enough about child nature to give us a basis, at least, for reconstruction of early education. We know children are essentially active beings; that the period of childhood is pre- eminently the time when they are interested in doing and making. It is the time when they are educated thru and by means of their activity. Kindergarteners have recognized these facts, and they have, as part of their equipment, a wide variety of materials, such as blocks, dolls, clay, sand, trains, hammers, nails, etc., which make many forms of activity possible. However, we cannot say that the use they have made of these has always been in accord with child nature. The kindergarten furniture is not sta- tionary, so that floor space is available When needed. But the primary teacher is not so provided. She may have clay, possibly a sand table, pencils, and paints, and, of course, books. But this is, as a general thing, the limit of the material provided for her children. In such a situation, how can she adjust her work to the child's needs and capacities ? In our attempt to work out a scheme of education adapted to child nature, we have found it necessary to equip our first grade with even more material and a wider variety of material than is provided for the younger children. They are older and they need more material to carry out their ideas. They have as much available floor space as the younger group, and they keep it nearly covered with their constructions most of the time. The absorption of the children in the work, their joy in it, and the results achieved lead us to feel that we are on the right track. Another great handicap to the primary teacher in adjusting the edu- cation of the first school year to the children's needs is the absolute necessity imposed upon her to teach all the children to read before the end of the year. Reading has very little relevancy, it seems, to the activities of a chfld 292 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten of six years, or to his mental needs. Interest may be aroused in a more or less artificial way, but it is generally independent of other interests of child life. Someone will say very truly, "But children want to learn to read." The traditional idea that reading holds the key to enlargement and enrich- ment of life is past on to children. Learning is identified with acquiring ability to read, and children come into the primary grade eager to learn. So it was with our children. They did not care so much at first for the material, but askt for reading. It was enlightening to see the change of interest as the possibilities of the constructive occupations opened out before them. They became more and more absorbed in working out their ideas and had less and less time for reading and soon ceast to ask or care for it. The vision of a child, psychology tells us, is adapted essentially to seeing large, moving, and somewhat remote objects in the mass. They are warning us of the danger to the child of undue nervous strain conse- quent upon this ejffort at so early an age to make the fine and accurate adjustments of the eye necessary in following printed or written words. The age of eight years seems to be considered early enough for axhild to give more than incidental attention to the written language forms. The processes of production, transportation, consumption, etc., which are most significant in our social life, may be reproduced by children in a miniature way. In their spontaneous play they do this to a certain extent, but, as an educational agency with direction and proper management, it has possibilities that have not begun to be realized. Such reproductions played by the younger children are the simple activities of the home and immediate neighborhood, furnishing and caring for the playhouse, providing for the needs of the doll, buying and selling, visiting each other, etc. Our younger children are supplied with large blocks, five-inch cubes, and bricks 10X5X2I in. so that they may build stable houses large enough to live in, sometimes with roofs, often with walls only a foot or two high. In these they relive the life they see about them, assuming obHgations and responsibilities in play that they are not afforded in real life. The expe- riences of the primary children are wider, and their constructive work is developt along the line of reproductions of city and country Ufe. With development we find the objects made become smaller, allowing for greater complexity and detailed representation. Thus we have different sets of materials for these children. In the work of the primary grades as well as that of the younger group, the children largely determine their own ends. There is guidance and sug- gestion, of course, but they are carrying the play on themselves. They suggest a great deal to each other. For example, one day some one said, **We ought to have a hospital," and a group of children took up the idea, erected a building and equipt it, making beds for the patients and tables on which were placed boxes of clay pills. They had a storeroom filled, it seemed to me, with everything that could be shipt there — barrels of apples, Department] RELATION OF KINDERGARTEN AND PRIMARY 293 oranges, etc.— Hailman beads— sacks of flour, meal, etc. As they were working on it, one of the children said, "We ought to have some place to buy beef tea and other things for the hospital." And in time a drug-store was built and equipt. Another day it was said, "We ought to have a fire department; these buildings might take fire." Two or three boys took up the suggestion, built the fire-engine house, with apartments upstairs for the firemen, constructed an engine, made ladders, and completed it, all just in time to put out an imaginary fire in one of the buildings. Later many of the children became interested in reproducing certain phases of country life. They built barns with a hayloft and a pulley and string to draw up the hay. They made bins for then: corn and hauled it in wagons to the train, which carried it to the mill. Sacks of meal were then shipt from the mill to the grocery store in the town. These children all had broken bits of experience regarding farms, farm products, etc., and this play helpt to organize the knowledge they had, and enlarged and made more definite their conceptions. They went to their store one day, bought meal, and made corn-meal mush for luncheon. In connection with these plays children should have the opportunity to enlarge their experiences by excursions to museums, parks, and pubUc buildings, to every available place of industry, and to the country, or, if country children, to the city. On the side of mental training, more distinctively, these children are acquiring control of the method of experimentation which, with certain regulations regarding observation and verification, is the method of science. It is the method by means of which human beings gain access to the new, the unknown. It is the method we all must use in any new or problematic situation if we are exercising control of experience, and if we are making adjustments in a thoughtful way. When analyzed, we find in all experi- mentation an element of inference. From something observed, something known or believed, an inference is formed regarding what will be or may be brought to pass. It is by means of this ability to look ahead, to anticipate possible results of action, that we gain control of experience and are not left to the mercy of the immediate, of habit, nor of instinct as an animal is. As we cannot be certain in advance that what we infer will come to pass, all inference and consequently all thinking involve risk. Training and experience are necessary to make inference accurate and reasonable. If this is a method so significant in our modern life that progress is dependent upon it, and if training is necessary to make it trustworthy, would it not be the part of wisdom to expect education to make some pro- vision for it, especially when it is a method children may become acquainted with and use ? They are using it contmually m their spontaneous activities, but before Dr. Dewey gave us his analysis of thinking we failed to recognize it. A child building a barn, when perhaps he has never seen one, infers from buildings he has seen that shelter for an animal would be of a certam 294 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten kind. As he works out his ideas and gets the consequences of his endeavors, he tests the reasonableness of his inferences and thus develops power of judgment. If education has any influence at all, it will make a great difference in our social life whether children are trained in the attitude of passive, unquestioning acceptance of authoritative material, mastered by a process ,of memorization under conditions of external control, or whether they are trained to think and plan for themselves, in situations where they are receiving the natural consequences of success or failure which follow the execution of their ideas, and where knowledge acquired and skill developt in the process make it possible to conceive and execute ever more adequate ends. It seems a far cry from the education of a child to the development of democracy; but the analysis of the mental processes of child and adult, and the increast understanding of the educational value of play in all its phases, are giving us a new conception of the significance of childish occu- pations, not only for individual development, but for social and national progress as well. KINDERGARTENS OF YESTERDAY AND TOMORROW PATTY S. HILL, HEAD OF KINDERGARTEN DEPARTMENT, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. While the kindergarten is the youngest member of the educational organization, it has now been in existence for three-quarters of a century, and has been an organic member of our public-school system in America sufficiently long to play its part in the history of education. The history of the kindergarten is worthy of study in so far as we may profit by its mistakes and make them the stepping-stones to kindergartens of a higher type for the children of today, while the radical reconstruction which the kindergarten is undergoing today is our sole guaranty for a future kinder- garten far better than the best ones of the present time. As we cast a retrospective glance over the kindergartens of yesterday, we can trace three distinct stages thru which they past. In the first period the kindergarten was far in advance of current education and was struggling to voice a superior message. The second period was one of arrested development, when the kindergarten fell in love with itself, and formalism threatened further development and progress. In the third period the kindergarten was torn by opposing factions within itself, one in favor of radical reconstruction, the other fearing the results of any attempts to improve upon the theory and practice of Froebel and his immediate followers. No impartial judge can doubt the fact that during this first period the kindergarten was nearly a half-century ahead of its time. The struggle was a noble one — the battle of the new against the old, the modern against Department] KINDERGARTENS OF YESTERDAY AND TOMORROW 29s the traditional, the superior against the inferior in educational thought and practice. Faulty as these kindergartens appear, when measured by our present-day knowledge and standards, they were so natural and so happy compared with the schools of that day, that the average teacher could not conceive of such activities as educative. The kindergartens of this period were based upon so much truer conceptions of the nature and needs of children, and the children were surrounded by so much more freedom, that they naturally developt into "misfits" when they entered upon the deadly regime of the elementary schools. The kindergarten suffered greatly from the demand made by the schools at this time. They lookt upon the kindergarten solely as a place to prepare the children to enter the primary school. As the primary schools were devoted almost exclusively to a mechanical method of acquiring the three R's, had the kmdergarten yielded to the criticisms made from above, its specific message and contribution to education would have been lost. While the enthusiasm of the kinder- garten for Froebel's theory of self-activity, appealing to and based upon the instinct of play, was ill understood by the schools of the day, still, when the happy results on both children and teachers were observed, the primary school began to adopt the best the kindergarten had to offer. In this way the original order was reverst. The school grades above gradually adapted themselves to the new ideals in the lower grades, and in time the theory and practice of the primary school was transformed, and rivaled the kinder- garten in its intelligent appHcation of self-activity. All would have gone well had the kindergarten continued to develop, following the spirit and outgrowing the letter of Froebel; but unfortunately, in this second epoch of our history the kindergarten became self-satisfied and consequently entered upon a stultifying period of arrested development. In the preceding period the kindergarten was in the lead; during the following one it fell behind. The cause of this is not difficult to trace. The era was that of genetic psychology and child-study, and when new data from these sources were offered the kindergarten, they were measured by those conceptions of the child past on from the days of Froebel; and when they ran contrary to these they were denounst and declined. This attitude arrested the development of the kindergarten for some ten or fifteen years, and had it continued, or been universal among kmdergartens, the kindergarten would already have sunk into obUvion. Fortunately there are in every generation leavening elements — those who refuse to bend the knee to the god of custom or tradition. A few kindergartners timidly gave a Hstening ear from the very first, and grew bold as they were more and more convinst that the returns from the experts in child-study talHed with and illuminated their daily experience with little children. As this conviction demanded some renunciation and much modification of the kindergarten procedure of the day, decided difference of opinion arose and initiated the thu-d period in the kindergartens — a period of struggle 296 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten from within, as one wing fought for the right to renounce much of the past or to alter and reconstruct radically in the light of the new psychology. This conviction grew rapidly and finally resulted in a widespread demand for progress which has emancipated the kindergarten from slavery to the traditions of a half -century ago. But what may be said about the kindergartens of the present ? Are they the blind worshipers of Froebel, as they are frequently accused of being? Are they isolated from other educators and falling behind the times? Most decidedly, no! It must be granted that kindergartners may be found here and there who still belong to the primitive period, but they are diminishing rapidly and are losing the race. On the other hand, it can truthfully be said that kindergartners as a body are thoroly awakened to the demand for progress and reconstruction. They are an open-minded, developing body of teachers, eagerly searching for ways and means of bettering their best. A survey of teachers studying now would, it is believed, find as large or a larger number of kindergartners in proportion to the kindergartners as a whole than of any other body of teachers. It must also be acknowledged to our credit that the proportion of kinder- gartners studying primary work is far greater than the number of primary teachers studying kindergarten work. There should be no sepa- ration between the two. The kindergartens and primaries of tomorrow will be taught by teachers thoroly trained in the psychology and educational procedure for the period from four to eight; but in the meantime all teachers trained separately should familiarize themselves with both fields; and kindergartners are actively preparing themselves along both lines. Experimental kindergartens are springing up here and there, with kinder- gartners leading who are absolutely free from any desire to cling to Froebel, or to prove him superior to his critics. These experimental kindergartens have but one aim, namely, to discover what is best for the child at this period, be it kindergarten, Montessori, or whatnot. The experimental kindergartens are permeated with the spirit of service. They are eagerly endeavoring to discover the native tendencies of the child at this period of life, and the most developing materials for these instincts and impulses to feed upon. They are trying out many new materials and methods, and are eager to have their results put to the test, so that all false claims of value may be eliminated and all worthy ones verified. It is actuaUty, not conjecture, which we must face. It is the period, not the system, we are striving to protect and enrich. Many of us are more than wiUing to for- swear both the name and the system when better ones are found. We believe this period is rich with possibilities for the child and the race, and we believe that it is one which will prove worthy of all the best that civil- ization can offer in environment and equipment at any cost to the com- munity. But in order to secure these advantages for little children, we must prove that the investment of the best is not only worthy, but a good Department] KINDERGARTENS OF YESTERDAY AND TOMORROW 297 investment from the economic point of view. As J. J. Findlay, professor of education in Manciiester University, says: "The chief reason why governments support education is because the investment is sound." The results must be proved actual, not potential only. If we claim develop- ment in initiative, in self-control, self-dependence, abiUty to solve problems independently, habits and acquirements which carry over into the schools, the home, and society, we must invite investigation of our claims. Better tests and investigators must be found or made if need be. So far neither the tests nor the investigators seem to be such as will get at the best that the kindergarten legitimately has to offer in results. We need a new curriculum of stories, songs, games, and materials which will hold the child at the kindergarten period with the minimum of coercion and persuasion from the teacher. The test of worth in these should be their actual holding power under conditions of freedom. The test will not be the teacher's ability to hold the child to the material, the story, the game, or the problem in hand, but to cause these to present an appeal to the child as his own, whether the teacher is present or absent. Can the teacher leave the individual or the group with any assurance that activities will continue to hold when she withdraws her authority, her influence, and her personaUty ? It seems safe to prophesy that one of the greatest assets in the kinder- garten of tomorrow will be health. The kindergartners of the future must be so convinst of the priority of health over all other demands at the kinder- garten period that they will educate the boards of education, the parents, and superintendents to the fact that they should not crowd little children into small, dark, ill- ventilated rooms; that they should not increase the number of little children to the teacher in order to add to the educational resources of the older pupils who are mature enough to protect themselves by protest or request; that the child at this period must have the largest space possible for exercise and air, the greatest amount of hght, and the cleanest and most dust-proof quarters it is possible to procure. The child must not lose ground when he enters school, as at present. It is not sufficient even that he hold his own. He must add to his capital in weight, height, vitality, and resistance to all of those cruel diseases to which he is so peculiarly susceptible at this period. We will now turn to the stereoptican, hoping to give some convincing proofs of the immense progress made by the kindergartens of today over those of yesterday, urging all who are interested in the protection and wel- fare of helpless little children to unite with us in protecting them from all evil influences on mind and body at this impressionable age. We mvite the cooperation of parents, boards of education, superintendents, physi- cians, psychologists, and sociologists in our effort to make this period of childhood yield the richest output for the child and the race. Truly should it be said hereafter of every child in future kindergartens, "He grew m wisdom and stature and in favor with God and man." 298 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten THE DEMONSTRATION-PLAY SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA MRS. C. W. HETHERINGTON, DIRECTOR OF PLAY SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL. The Play School was organized under the Department of Education of the summer session of the University of California in 19 13. The demon- stration was conducted during the summers of 1913, 1914, and 1915, cul- minating during the Exposition year, 191 5. Our schoolhouse consisted of about three acres of ground covered with fine old oak and eucalyptus trees. The Uttle equipment we used was, in general, of the crudest character, consisting of tables quickly thrown together by the carpenters of the university, a large platform for the rhythmic and musical activities, large sand boxes, quantities of large blocks and boxes, and about two dozen blackboards nailed against the huge eucalyptus trees which groupt themselves obligingly close together. The work benches for the manual activities were constructed of heavy boards also nailed securely to the eucalyptus trees. Nearly all the books and tools were borrowed from the university and the city public schools. Large boxes fastened with padlocks served as storage cases for the tools and work- ing materials. Water was pipt to the grounds for drinking and toilet pur- poses as well as for the animals which the children used in their animal experimentation. Pianos were rented for the rhythmic and musical activities, and vocophones were purchast for the band. In the pictures which I shall show later you will see the band in operation. Near-by the Agricultural Department furnisht a plot of ground for experiments with plant life. All of the activities were conducted outdoors, but the outdoor feature, while important, is not an essential one in the play-school plan. The play school is a demonstration of a school organization covering the child's whole active life thru the 365 days of the year from birth to establisht adolescence. The organization is based on a present-day inter- pretation of child nature and its institutional control and direction to meet the conditions of modern social life. If we consider child nature and child education broadly thru all stages and conditions of human development, there are two conspicuous outstand- ing phenomena: (i) the child's spontaneous active life or play, with its evolved forms; and (2) the child's dependence, complemented by parental instincts for protection and control with their evolved institutional forms. In considering the organization of the child's education, the points of view presented by these two conspicuous but complementary phenomena have equal weight. The child is a bundle of hungers and instinct tendencies, and in these hungers and instincts are found the fundamental springs of all his conduct. He acts spontaneously because he is driven from within. He is sponta- neously a manipulator of things and of ideas. He is spontaneously Departmeptl DEMON STRA TION-PLA Y SCHOOL A T CALIFORNIA 299 linguistic and talks until he can express what he thinks and feels. He is spontaneously social and enters into social relationships. He is sponta- neously suggestible and educable; he is a follower, an imitator, craving leadership and instruction in ways of acting that will satisfy his hungers and give him adjustment. Now, this spontaneous and expanding expression of energy (impelled as it is from within by the power of hungers) is play. Thus you see that play is not the popular "just play" nor the schoolman's "mere play," but is identical with the child's spontaneous Uving. In this expanding play Hfe the child develops all his powers for response. Among other things he learns to work. We emphasize play, but the child must learn to work; for his needs— supplied in early Hfe by parents— he must later satisfy thru work. Moreover, if he is to become an efficient social being, he must learn to perform duties that frequently are not pleasant, and his later social adjustment will be flexible and complete in proportion as he masters the essential culture of the race. The abiUty to satisfy needs, to perform onerous duties, demands the capacity for long-sustained voli- tional effort under the control of an idea of need or duty. Play activities frequently take forms that are not efficient from the adult or educational standpoint, owing to lack of leadership; and it is this aspect of play that the educator thinks of when he rebels against it. Leader- ship is as necessary in play as in work. To identify the child's play with fooling, or futiUty, only shows a twisted understanding of child nature that is a very subtle survival of mediaevaUsm in modern educational thought. One sees this attitude exhibited so often by our educators when play is even suggested as an educational force in the life of the child. They fairly shrink away and tremble at the thought. During the play-school demon- stration this attitude was often displayed by teachers. A woman teacher of perhaps fifty-five years, after a short period of observation, said to me one day: "Well, you may call this teaching, but I don't believe you can teach children anything unless you put them into seats and make them study their books. I believe in discipline." She could understand neither the method nor the organization of the play school. Contrast this attitude with that of a well-known professor of biology from another university, who, after observing the groups of children in their various activities, said at a pubhc gathering on the evening of that day: I walkt about the play-school grounds this morning and it is hard for me yet to say that I have not been dreaming. All my life I have dreamed of a school organization that would allow children to live and develop normally while they are being instructed in the arts that man has developt. I could only dream, because I couldn't get far enough away from our traditional school organization to see how my ideal could be accomplisht. But I saw it this morning — my life-dream realized. Play is a better developer of the capacity to work than work itself, because of the emotional content in play. Play is more intense, more 300 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten varied, and of greater duration because of the sustaining power of enthu- siasm which postpones the onset of fatigue and reduces the consciousness of effort. Enthusiasm is the very spirit of healthy childhood. It carries the burden of sustained voUtional effort until the capacity for sustained effort is establish t as a habit. Play, therefore, is a better developer than work, of the whole work mechanism. It develops organic vitality, nervous energy and skill, interests, volitional attention, and enthusiasm together as a unified and efficient working-whole. Work is less effective because enthusiasm is lacking, and enthusiasm is necessary in the development of volitional capacity. The capacity to work, therefore, is best developt in the child's natural life or play. It is developt only in a negative way when the child sits still and does things foreign to its nature in obedience to the command of adults. The capacity to work from its simplest to its highest form is acquired most efficiently by living out in activity, broadly and intensely, the instinct hungers of each age period. By realizing a progressive series of aims in play, the child learns how to work and how to achieve life thru work. This is the law of child progress. But no aims can ever be accomplisht without leadership. The child must have leadership if his activities are to be satisfying or educationally efficient. So in the play school we shifted the emphasis in our organiza- tion from subjects of study, that are selected products of racial achieve- ment, to the organization of the child's own spontaneous active life; from the attitude of teaching primarily to that of leading. Thus it seems that the natural, the most economical, the most effective method of educating the child is to organize his natural, spontaneous activi- ties— his play life — and to bring all the resources of the adult into the lead- ing, the guidance, and the discipUne of these activities. At the present time there are three classes of institutions that control the child's active life: the home, the school, and the play centers or play- grounds. In the past the home was the center of life and experience. The majority of homes were not only the centers of family life, but industrial and social centers as well, furnishing large opportunity for the child to see and participate in all the essential human activities. The factory took from the home both the industrial occupation and the machinery of manufacture, with all their stimulus and opportunity for child activity. Hence the function and the size of the home have contracted. Moreover, the size of the family has decreast, leaving children not only without generous oppor- tunities for activity, but without even the stimulus of an ade.quate character- building companionship. Parents are helpless in their efforts to supply the leadership needed. So, instead of the home and its immediate environ- ment supplying practically all the opportunities for the child's activities, these must be furnisht by the school and the playground. The school has absorbed an increasing amount of the child's time, but it has not, except Department] DEMON STRA TlON-PLA Y SCHOOL AT CALIFORNIA 301 in a very limited way, attempted to supply what has been eliminated from child life by modern social changes. The public playground has come in to help fill the need for educational activity and experience otherwise limited by a physical environment that is unnatural, and a social one that is complex and specialized. The playground, if properly equipt and directed, not only furnishes many of the opportunities for activity which have been squeezed out of the home, but it also furnishes leadership. As the home approaches the apart- ment type and the family the one-child type under the pressure of modern socialized conditions, the relative importance of the play center and the school increases. In this new social situation child welfare requires a new spirit and a new organization of the school and of the playground. Both are extra- home institutional centers of child life, and both exhibit the inefficiency of an incomplete organization of child life. As the playground is a center of life and education organized from the child's standpoint, and the school is a center of child experience and education organized from society's stand- point, the two institutions should be combined to unite the two points of view and to unify the child's educational experience. It is not sufficient that a playground space be added to the school nor that a group of manual or other activities be added to the games of the playground. The play center and the school center must become one in spirit, aim, and organ- ization. Thus the play school purposes to organize the child's whole active life. It is a single extra-home educational center in which the child's spontaneous, natural activities are organized; and, by means of leader- ship, all the essential culture of the race is loopt up to these natural activities. The organization of the child's whole active life requires a classification of his activities for administrative purposes. The classification must include all the natural phases of his complete living, and the activities when organized must be as natural as when unorganized. The difference consists in the educational results which are possible thru organization. When these activities are thus organized they furnish a progressive cur- riculum that is as easily administered as a subject-of -study curriculum, and it includes everything that the latter includes and more. The following classification of activities gives the divisions of the child's whole active life. It provides for the development of all powers, feeds all the native hungers, and will evolve naturally into the racial forms of adjustment. 1. Vocal and linguistic activities 2. Social activities 3. Environmental and nature activities 4. Rhythmic and musical activities 302 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten 5. The manipulating and manual activities 6. Big muscle activities 7. Economic activities 1. The linguistic activities arise from the vocalizing and communi- cative instincts. These instincts are the primary elements in the evolution of the languages and the literatures of the world. The linguistic activities are naturally associated with each group of activities, and develop in ques- tions and discussions, or in organized intercommunication. This is espe- cially important in the environment and nature activities. Under this class the mechanics of reading, the mechanics of number, and foreign lan- guages develop, and are used as tools in intercommunication. 2. The social activities arise from the social instincts. These tenden- cies in human nature have created society. In his social activities the child develops his social habits and ideals, and his fundamental sex and civic consciousness, as well as the art expressions of these adjustments. The miscellaneous social contacts of the school and the social life of the several activities are unified in the special social hours of song, exhibits, discussion, dancing, dramatics, etc. In these activities are centered the spirit of the school. 3. The environmental and nature activities arise from the investigating and interpreting tendencies. They include all environmental exploration and all experimentation with the physical, biological, and social environ- ment. Racially, these activities have discovered continents and produced science and philosophy. In the child they are the source of experience with, and information about, the environment and life. They include geography, history, and all science. 4. The rhythmic and musical activities arise out of vocal and manual experimentation, and the pleasures derived from rhythm, tone, and melody. In the race these tendencies have produced the musical arts of man. In the child they are the source of a developt capacity to enter into the most influential art-expression and form of community social recreative life. 5. The manual activities arise from the manipulating and constructive tendencies and needs. Racially they are conspicuous in all survival efforts. They have produced the vast range of industrial enterprises and the graphic art of man. In the child they develop the constructive powers. They are the direct avenues to industrial skill, adaptability, and economic adjustment. 6. The big muscle activities arise from the primary hungers for activity and the instincts controlling locomotor adjustments to the environment. Thus they include spontaneous hiking, playful gymnastics, dancing, vigor- ous games, and athletics. In the history of the race these activities have been the great socializers and primary sources of many fundamental art- expressions. In the child they are the sources of organic vigor and general nervous power. While regarded usually as mere muscular exercise, these Department! LITERATURE FOR THE KINDERGARTEN CHILD 303 activities carry the discipline of racially old instincts, and are therefore fundamental in their influence on character-development. 7. The economic activities arise out of the acquisitive impulse and economic needs. The organized leadership of these activities ranges from incidental money-making to vocational training and guidance. Now, if this analysis of activities is correct, we have a natural grouping of the child's activities susceptible of practical organization and administra- tion for efficient educational results. Thus the play school is a demonstration of a school organization— a larger school and play center, that fuses the child's play life with his need for instruction and society's demand that he be instructed. It is adapted to meet the needs of the child and the demands of society arising from changes in the home caused chiefly by the introduction of modern ma- chinery. The functions of the school and the play centers are fused, edu- cationally fused, so that we have one extra-home institutional center in which, thru leadership, the child can satisfy all his spontaneous growth hungers and play enthusiasms. LITERATURE FOR THE KINDERGARTEN CHILD MARIAN P. GREENE, PUBLIC LIBRARY, NEW YORK, N.Y. It is more than a hundred years since Froebel taught the world that children need play to help them in learning to work. The kindergarten embodies principles that have come to stay, and FroebeUan methods are now introduced in every grade and in every school, from the baby class, just entering, straight on thru coUege. The modern teacher is so accustomed to the idea of "learning by domg" that she does not often stop to think that there ever was any other way. Play — ''healthful play" — has come to be generally accepted as a factor for good. The very foundations of a love for literature are laid by play and at an extremely early age. It is thru the real, old-fashioned "Mother Goose," for instance, that we teach poetry; for rhymes and jingles are poetry in its simplest form, and are invaluable aids in developing a sense of rhythm in the child which may train its ear, in later years, to catch the throbbing beauty and music of real poetry. Few, if any, children are born utterly prosy. Very often a child who is full of imaginative poesy loses this quality as the years go on. To be kept alive, our powers must be exercised constantly, and grown people are too much inclined to forget that poetry is language at its highest power, and consequently they neglect to give it to children at the age-when they would accept it without question to be enjoyed and understood like any other form of story. The love of literature is not a thing to be forst upon us at this age or that. It must just grow, simply and unconsciously. A tiny 304 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten child invariably responds to rhythm. There is hardly an English or Ameri- can home where "Pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake" has not brought a smile to some baby face, and the babies of Germany, France, Italy — every country of the world — have their own rhymes and jingles, constituting a Hterature of the nursery that is common to all nations. In my own childhood poetry was read aloud to us almost as much as prose, and tho a great deal of it went over our heads, we loved the music of the words and the beauty of poetic descrip- tion. In those days our elders had to hunt about for poems that were suitable for childish ears, whereas we now have such collections for little children as Kate Douglas Wiggin's Posy Ring, Thachers' Listening Child, Lucas' Book of Verse for Children, Burton E. Stevenson's Home Book of Verse, and other delightful anthologies. The child loves first anything rhythmic, whether it is understood or not. We all remember the charm of mystic words which meant nothing, but nevertheless delighted us by the mere sound. All children sing words that have absolutely no meaning; the sound alone, apparently, is all they care about. Soon, however, words begin to have the value of pictures. Any five-year-old who cares for fairy stories would be sure to love such a descrip- tion, for instance, as that of the tiny warrior, the *' Culprit Fay." He put his acorn helmet on; It was plumed with the silk of the thistledown; The corselet plate that guarded his breast Was once the wild bee's golden vest; His cloak, of a thousand mingled dyes, Was formed of the wings of butterflies; His shield was the shell of a ladybug queen, Studs of gold on a ground of green; And the quivering lance which he brandisht bright Was the sting of a wasp he had slain in a fight. We may, therefore, safely include simple poetry in the literature for children under six. Among the minor poets who have given us stories in rhyme are Jane and Ann Taylor, who chose their subjects from the daily life of normal children, described them in language that children use and understand, and also imagined them much as a child would have done. AUce and Phoebe Gary wrote in the same style; but Phoebe, at least, had more charm and wit. The "Grow's Ghildren," "That Galf," and the "Ghicken's Mistake," among others, are thoroly clever and entertaining. We have, however, real poetry, written by a true poet, when we read the Songs of Innocence of William Blake, poet, dreamer, philosopher, as well as painter and engraver. Tho written long ago — he died in 1827 — ^his poetry for children is so full of tender charm that it will appeal to childish hearts forever. Many passages from the Bible, tho written in the form of prose, are really poetry of the purest type. Read the Songs of Solomon, or the Psalms, and try to think of anything more poetically beautiful. Since I have spoken of the Bible, it seems natural to discuss the telling of Bible Department] LITERATURE FOR THE KINDERGARTEN CHILD 305 Stories to the child of kindergarten age. Personally, I believe that Bible stories are better left to the child over six. Many disagree with me, and I must leave the matter to your own judgment. I feel that the very small child gets nothing more from these stories than from fairy tales, and I am not satisfied with any of the rewritten versions of the Old Testament stories that have come to my notice. The very titles of some of these col- lections excite my prejudice. Truly Stories from the Surely Bible was the name of one that appeared this year. I am narrow-minded enough to decide from the title alone that I do not like it! By training the child's ear, thru poetry, we develop in him that most important thing, a feeling for English. Just as necessary is it to train his eye, by presenting to him correct form and harmonious color in the many delightful picture-books that are now available. In the picture-books of today we find everything that the child needs to satisfy his inherent love of color, his awakening imagination, and his developing sense of humor. This last is a precious thing to encourage, but why should vulgarity so often be mistaken for fun? The "Charlie Chaplin" variety of humor is cheap and degrading, yet that is the kind widely exploited by the newspaper supple- ments and the moving-picture films. When I saw the spectacle of twenty- five little children drest as "Charlie Chaplins," marching in a "Baby Parade," drunkenly staggering and stumbling in piteous imitation of that hero of the "movie" world, my heart was sick within me. We can, at least, oflFer an antidote to these pictures and to the comic supplement in presenting to the children picture-books provided for them by the best- known artists and illustrators of Europe and our own country. Leslie Brooke's Three Little Pigs, for example, is full of clever fun. Kate Greena- way will always be beloved by children. Her very name brings sunny memories of green fields, neat village streets, with bright-colored roofs and gay, blooming gardens, where rather sedate little boys and girls roll hoops, skip rope, pick flowers, or walk peacefully, hand in hand. Nothing is vio- lent, everything is cheerful. New York with its humor, its tragedy, its gaiety, and sordidness, has been rightly termed "the greatest melting pot of the world." Here Jew and Gentile, every nationality and every type, are all in a great process of amalgamation. How are we to reach them all? How help? The best and biggest answer is, "Thru the children." Picture-books and fairy tales are the first means by which we win the interest of the little strangers within our gates, and, thru them the interest of the older members of the family. Much informal work has been done with picture-books, and for about ten years some libraries have made it a practice to hold picture-book^ story hours for kindergarten classes with markt success. A little girl in the kindergarten for cripples told her first coherent story after one of these visits. Thus, thru interest in the subject, is the desire for expression aroused and stimulated. 306 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten There have been story hours for foreign children in the German, Italian, and Bohemian languages, and at the Seward Park, branch mother's meetings have been held in Yiddish. Tho those who come to the story hour are older than the kindergarten child, they retell the stories to younger brothers and sisters and even to the parents. One little girl in my own branch had a regular story hour for the little ones in her neighborhood, at which she told stories read or heard in the library. "I listen very hard and try to do it just as you do," said Bessie, as she told me of her "club," "and when I grow up I am going to be a 'liberry' teacher too." And now we come to the literature that seems most to belong to the small child — the great field that is covered by fables, fairy tales, and folk-lore. How many of us, in our daily conversation, realize the origin of count- less phrases borrowed from Aesop and La Fontaine — expressions we have used ever since we first began to understand language? "Sour grapes," "a wolf in sheep's clothing," "counting our chickens before they are hatcht," "dog in a manger" — all these are actually literary references which are, or should be, familiar to the smallest children. Fables and folk-tales appeal to children in many ways, but perhaps the characteristic they love best in these stories is the constant presence in them of animal life, the naturalness of relation between animals and human beings. The child himself lives in a world of wonder, and to him all things are seen with a sort of glamor. The ordinary occurrences of daily life are often, to him, fairy marvels. I knew of a little boy who came from the country to visit an aunt who lived in New York. The basement kitchen was never seen by him, nor were the unknown intricacies of a dumb-waiter explained. What wonder then that he should tell his brother when he returned to his home: "Auntie doesn't have to bother about cooking. When we are hungry we just sit down at a table, and a little magic elevator brings us all the food we want!" Excellent collections of fairy tales are those of Kate Douglas Wiggin and Nora A. Smith; and there are many books to help in story- telling. Edna Lyman's Story-telling; What to Tell and How to Tell It is a practical one, but, to my mind, the best of them all is The Art of the Story-Teller^ by Marie Shedlock, herself a true fairy godmother to all story-tellers and story- lovers. Miss Shedlock is a real artist. It is so easy to confuse art with artificiality, and that is what many would-be story-tellers do. Art is not a thing assumed; it is something felt, and unless you feel a story you never can tell it at its best. Once more I desire to emphasize the necessity for giving the child the very best that you can find,^ whether it be poetry, pictures, or stories. It is better to cling to the things that have stood the test of time rather than to search constantly for something new and won- derful. In an age when mediocrity and vulgarity are presented in new forms on every hand, not the latest thing, but the finest thing for children should be the concern of every parent, teacher, or Hbrarian. Department! ART IN THE KINDERGARTEN 307 ART IN THE KINDERGARTEN GRACE CORNELL, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. I recently read this paragraph in a book on the sense of beauty: "We know on exceUent authority that beauty is truth, that it is the expression of the ideal, the symbol of divine perfection, and the sensible manifestation of the good. A litany of these titles of honour might easily be compiled, and repeated in praise of our divinity." In this talk I shall try to show art as a structure, a building-up of harmony by means of arrangement and fine choices. The material out of which we build our structure is three- fold. It is shape, tone, and color— or line, dark and light, and color. To be sure, everything has shape, tone, and color, everything that we can see, but in art we think only of the fine or beautiful shapes, lines, tones, and colors. The artist is able by appreciation to choose and combine lines and colors so as to produce harmony. He composes or puts together ele- ments in such a way that beauty results. Many people do not think of art in this way. The old Greek stories of the painter whose picture of fruit was so natural that birds peckt at it, or the one who deceived a brother artist by pamting a curtain, show only the childish view of art as representation. Henry James has said: "Nothing counts in art but the excellent." Let us accept that as absolutely right. It is the excellent, the fine, not the true, nor accurate, nor anything else, that makes a work of art. Kindergartners have askt this question, "How shall we put art into the kindergarten ? " Other kindergartners have askt, "How shall we bring out and develop the art which is in the kindergarten?" The kindergartners who ask the second question show the right thought about art and its relation to the kindergarten, because the art faculty is a common human possession which is given to each of us, and, while it is frequently allowed to remain inactive, it may be developt thru use. We do not put this gift into the mind of the kindergarten child, but we either do or do not lead the child to use its gift. If the children are to be led, it is important for them to have efficient leaders. The efficient leaders are those who have developt their art faculty thru appreciative study of fine things and thru the exercise of their own creative thought. I emphasize especially one's own preparation as a leader thru doing. Many of us read about art in books, we travel and visit museums, and some of us possess beautiful things; but each of us can choose and create, if we wish to, and that is the surest and quickest road to art-appreciation. There is the person who says, "I know nothing about art, but I know what I like when I see it." Then there is the one who says, "I know nothing about art, but I can feel it." We forget, however, about these people when we meet the people with sincere art interest who say, " What can we do with art ? " Since the development of the kindergartner's own appreciation thru doing is so important, I shall tell about this in the first part of my talk 308 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Kindergarten and in the second part shall tell you a little about its application in the kindergarten. Quality is the one thing sought by the artist, and quality is obtained thru choices. All art has grown up from simple arrangements and spacings, from something where there was opportunity to choose as to size, shape, placing, tone, and color. The exhibit which is on the wall back of the plat- form is the work of students in the training school of the New York Kinder- garten Association. This work was planned so that the student could have opportunity to choose and invent good arrangements of space, mass, and color. These three elements, line, dark and light, and color, might be called the *' language of art." Beauty of line is seen in architecture, sculpture, or metal work. When you visit the MetropoHtan Museum of Art, you will see some Gothic figures, part of the sculptured detail from Rheims Cathedral, which are examples of beautiful line. Beauty of dark and light lines is one of the chief elements in the textiles, and laces, the porcelains, and the paint- ings which you will see there. Then there is the beauty of color, which is seen in textile design, stained glass, embroidery, pottery-decoration, and in painting. If we study the art of the world, we find this language exprest in many different forms. There is the idea of good proportion, which is illustrated by such great examples as the Parthenon and Giotto's Tower. These simple line exercises are the result of an effort to invent some good proportions of space. One of the oldest and most common ways of creating harmony is that of rhythm, the production of beauty by repeating the same lines or groups in rhythmical order. Rhythm, in fact, forms a large part of our lives. There is the march of the seasons and the alternating days and nights. Each season gives us its rhythm. In the winter there is the falling snow, in spring the sound of the rain. In the summer we see fields with rhyth- mical patterns of flowers, and in the autumn we watch the fall of the leaves. There is the rhythm of clouds in the sky, and at night the rhythm of stars. We like the rhythm of marching figures in processions and the rhythm of the dance. By rhythm I do not mean mere repetition or placing of things in a row. By rhythm I mean the ordered arrangement of shapes or masses which are finely related to each other. This art principle is shown in primitive art, in textile design, in Byzantine mosaic, in the decoration of Greek vases, in architecture, in sculpture, and in painting. There is another art principle which is the opposite of rhythm. This is the creating of harmony by having one great central idea and other parts subordinate to it. Salisbury Cathedral is a great example of this kind of beauty. The idea of principality does not belong to visual art alone. In an epic poem the principal thought may be some grand event of historic or religious importance, to which all the other events that are mentioned are subordinate. In drama principaUty may be given to some character, like Department] ART IN THE KINDERGARTEN 309 Hamlet or Lear, to whom all the other characters and their actions are in some way subordinated. These elements, rhythm and harmony, are some of the great principles of spacing and dark and hght. This study of line and tone helps very much in the study of colors. Color may be reduced to three simple elements: (i) hue, as red and green; (2) value, as light blue, dark blue; (3) intensity, as bright red, gray red! These three elements may be called the language of color. I refer you to Albert H. Munsell's book, A Color Notation, for a very clear statement of color theory. There are violent differences of opinion among artists, teachers, and critics as to what constitutes good color instruction. The most that I can do in this short talk will be to show you how different kinds of color harmonies may be created with the three sunple elements of hue, value, and intensity. Let us consider difference of hue. If we wish a color scheme which is full of vitality and life, we choose bright contrasting hues. Sometimes we harmonize these bright, contrasting hues with black or gray. If we choose, we may harmonize them with white. Any of these three are great harmonizers of bright contrasting hues when they are used in the right proportion. Again, we might harmonize the bright hues by contrastmg them with each other. If we wish a color harmony which is delicate, poetic, and subtle, we choose neighboring hues, as blue and violet blue, or we choose hues which are not very intense. After we have selected our hues, either bright or gray, we need to know how to use them. It is here that the study of good spacing helps. Beautiful hues, when used in a poor space arrangement or, in other words, when used in the wrong pro- portions, frequently produce a disagreeable discord. One of the simplest ways of creating color harmony is to choose different values of one hue, as light blue, middle blue, and dark blue. If we wish the color scheme to be vigorous and forceful, we choose values with a decided difference of dark and light. If we wish a subtle scheme, we may choose the lighter and more delicate notes with slight differences of value, or if we wish a rich, mysterious scheme, we choose the dark, low-tone-value notes. Sometimes it is interesting to have a large quantity of dark color surround- ing small starlike shapes of light, or one may prefer masses of dark groupt against a light background. It has been my experience that difference of intensity is not understood by students as readily as difference of hue or value. This may be because much color-study is based upon color as having two quaUties, hue and value, or "tint" and "shade," as they are sometimes called, and not upon the fact that color has a third quality as well, that of intensity. Arranging color notes of one hue, from bright and gray, gives a simple and beautiful kind of color scheme which is often delicate and iridescent in its effect. Another way of using this idea of intensity is to arrange small starlike shapes of very bright color against larger contrasting masses of dark or gray. 3IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten These are a few of the things which the kindergartner who wishes to become a leader toward art might do toward developing her own appre- ciation. You may say, "I have no talent for art." Of course, some people have more talent than others, but each of us has the art faculty, and this power may be developt. After emphasizing the importance of the kindergartner developing her own appreciation thru doing, let us consider some of the ways in which the art-principles studies may be applied in the kindergarten. One would not, of course, talk about art principles to little children. But it is possible, thru simple art activities, to give children the experience of using these principles. The kindergartner, and not the art-teacher, is the one best fitted to say how this experience shall be given to the children. Surely there are opportunities in many of the occupations to use the ideas of spacing, invention, and color. It is not necessary to limit art activity to so-called "art materials" such as paints, brushes, crayons, or the like. Art is broad and it enters into many things. The choice of pictures, their proper mounting, the arrangement of the room, the sense of order, the breadth of interest, are all things in which art has a finger. And it is inspiring to think of what the kindergartners will do with art. They will lead thousands of children to make choices which bring forth the hidden treasures of the mind. They will start them on the road to good taste and sincere art-appreciation. They will aid in forming a vast throng whose desire for beauty will help to create great art. DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President— Ehwoov P. Cubberly, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. Vice-President— SiDVisv E. Mezes, president. College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y. Secretary— Jon^ E. Rouse, head of School of Education, James Millikin University, Decatur, lU. FIRST session—Friday Forenoon, July 7, 1916 The department met in the Horace Mann Auditorium, Teachers College, Columbia University, at 9: 30 a.m., and was called to order by President Cubberly. The following program was given: "Present Tendencies in College Administration" — Stephen Duggan, professor of education. College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y. "The Elective System — Its Function and Its Limitations"— Thomas M. Balliet, dean, School of Pedagogy, New York University, New York, N.Y. "The Great War in Its Relation to the Study of History, Politics, and Sociology" — Edward Krehbiel, professor of history, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stafford University, Cal. "The Baccalaureate Degree as an Obstacle to Educational Progress" — Barclay W. Bradley, College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y. SECOND SESSION— Friday Afternoon, July 7, 1916 The meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m. in the Horace Mann Auditorium, with President Cubberly in the chair. The following program was given: "Possible Modifications in Our Educational Work Likely to Come as a Result of the Great War"— James E. Russell, dean. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "Education and Militarism "—George W. Alger, of the New York City Bar. "The Service of Business Schools at the Close of the Great War"— James C. Egbert, dean. School of Business, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "An Experiment in Practical Commercial Education m the National City Bank of New York"— F. C. Schwedtman, director of efficiency, National City Bank of New York, New York, N.Y. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President— Edwa,Td C. Elliott, chancellor. University of Montana, Helena, Mont. Vice-President— ChsLiles H. Johnston, professor of secondary education, Umversity of Illinois, Urbana, 111. , ,,.,,.,. tt • •* Secretary— John E. Rouse, head of School of Education, James MiUikin Umversity, Decatur, 111. „ ^ ^ , John E. Rouse, Secretary 3" 312 NATIIONAL EDUCATON ASSOCIATION [Higher PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESENT TENDENCIES IN COLLEGE ADMINISTRATION STEPHEN DUGGAN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, COLLEGE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK, NEW YORK, N.Y. The body of i&nal control in the American college and university at the opening of the twentieth century was the board of trustees or board of regents. In state universities the board was usually appointed by the governor, as in Wisconsin, tho sometimes elected by the people, as in Michi- gan. In private institutions the choice was by cooperation, tho there were some institutions, chiefly of a larger size, in which the alumni were permitted to choose trustees either directly, as in Columbia, or indirectly, as in Har- vard. All powers not specifically delegated to any other body or individual were understood to reside in the board. A board of trustees was, and is, almost wholly made up of business men and lawyers. From its personnel as well as its method of appointment it was essentially a conservative body. The average lawyer is guided by pre- cedent and has his face turned to the past; the average business man usually wishes conditions as they are at present to be maintained. The board of trustees appointed the president and all the instructing staff. Tho it had legal control over the educational as well as the financial and material interests of the institution, it usually turned over the educational interests to the president and faculty. But practically nowhere did the idea prevail that the faculty was a body coordinate with the board of trustees. In most institutions the principle of relation was that of the employe and employer. Just as the board appointed teachers, tho nearly always upon the recom- mendation of the president, so it dismist teachers sometimes of its own volition and against the advice of the president. Appointment, tenure, and dismissal were wholly within its discretion. As stated, the board usually turned over the whole matter of edu- cational policy to the president and trusted him to work out the details. Since he was held responsible, he was given great powers. He was the sole means of communication between the board and the faculty. As he nomi- nated all candidates for appointment and recommended promotions to the board, he practically controlled the teaching staff. For the same reason he dictated the policy of the institution, as few of the faculty cared to oppose his wishes unless he were personally very democratic. He organized the budget and thereby controlled departmental policies. In practice the president held the heads of departments responsible for the good working of the departments without making prescriptions as to how it should be done. Sometimes the president was also president of the board of trustees, e.g., in Dartmouth, with a vote, or in Michigan, without a vote. President Eliot believes that the president of the college should be chairman of the Department] PRESENT TENDENCIES IN COLLEGE ADMINISTRATION 313 board of trustees. As the trustees knew very Uttle of the actual running of the college, the president usually imposed his views upon them, and with the great growth of higher institutions of learnmg m the United States he became more and more a business-manager and often introduced into coUege administration the ideals and methods of business-management. In few great American corporations was there an individual who had such auto- cratic power as the American college president. The principle of autocracy ran down the line.- The senior professor was usually the head of, the department and determined the policy of the department; he also recommended appointments and promotions withm the department. In many institutions the faculty was made up only of heads of departments, or if assistant professors and instructors were admit- ted, it was only to express views, not to vote. The student body was usually under the control of the president, the dean, or a faculty committee on student affairs; and this control usually extended to most student activities, athletics, publications, organizations, etc., as well as to matters of discipline. As to the relation of the institutions to the pubUc, only in a few places was there maintained the idea that the college or university existed dhectly for the public welfare and that it should interest itself in all kinds of social activities looking toward a better organization and administration of society. But as the result of changed conditions, the pressure of public opinion, and the growth of new ideals, it is undoubtedly true that where changes are taking place they are usually in the direction of placing the educational affairs of colleges more in the control of the faculty than of the president; the affairs of departments more in the control of the entire staff of the department than of the head; and the control of student affairs and activi- ties more in the control of the students themselves than of the faculty committees. Let us take up these points seriatim. The relation of the board of trustees to the faculty and president. There is a decided movement away from cooperation in the filling of vacan- cies on boards of trustees of private institutions and toward the granting of increast alumni representation. It is noticeable, however, that the new spirit has not yet affected the representation of different vocations and interests on the board of trustees. It is still made up almost exclusively of lawyers and successful business men. A second tendency is the growing recognition that the trustees and faculty occupy something approaching a coordinate position. In an increas- ing number of institutions it is expUcitly provided in new constitutions or amendments to constitutions that all appointments and promotions shall be recommended by a committee of the faculty (Pennsylvania, Bryn Mawr, Reed) . In a still greater number the tendency has no expUcit recog- nition in trustee by-laws but has in actual practice. President Hyde, of Bowdoin, writes: "In an informal but not in a legal way, the full professors are given an increasing influence in determining the poKcy of the college." 314 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher This is the report that comes from the great majority of those who have answered my questionnaire. In William and Mary faculty govern- ment is absolute in everything not involving finances. In Randolph-Macon all matters of educational policy are settled by majority vote of full pro- fessors. The desire that the board of trustees and faculty should have something approaching coordinate position is, of course, especially mani- fested in the faculty. The report comes from the University of California that a considerable number of members of the faculty would like to see faculty representation on the board of trustees (non- voting). The most exphcit recognition of this desire was given in Cornell. In his annual report for 19 12 President Schurman recommended that the faculty of the university have "a larger measure of participation in its government." The board of trustees appointed a special committee to confer with a special committee of the faculty, and the conference committee reported two recommendations: (i) that the university faculty elect three representa- tives to the board of trustees who should have all the powers of trustees except that of voting; (2) that there should be councils representing the several colleges of the university for conference with the trustees on matters affecting the several colleges. The board of trustees on April 29, 19 16, adopted both recommendations. The tendency on the part of boards of trustees to get the advice of the faculty on matters of policy is shown by the increase in the number of insti- tutions where the faculty appoints advisory committees to confer with the trustees, e.g., Lawrence College, Wisconsin, and the College of the City of New York. The plan adopted by the board of directors of Bryn Mawr on May 29, 19 16, provides for the election by the faculty of a committee of three which shall have the right to attend and take part in the discus- sions at all meetings of the board of directors. It must be evident from all that has been stated that the position of the president is nearly everywhere becoming less autocratic, as a result either of legislation or of practice. In some large institutions, especially univer- sities, the tendency is for the maintenance of a cabinet or a council (Reed and Kansas) to which the president submits proposals for changes in policy and administration before bringing them to the board of trustees. Clark University organized recently a "senate consisting of full professors only, who advise upon all matters pertaining to the conduct of the university, leaving ordinary matters to the faculty." Even where such advisory bodies do not exist, the tendency is for the president to yield to the faculty's desire upon educational matters (Lehigh University) and to throw the administrative work more and more into the hands of the faculty committee (Earlham College). The president has ceast to be in some places the autocrat that he was in the matter of appointment, promotion, and tenure. In most institu- tions it had always been the policy of the president to consult heads of Department] PRESENT TENDENCIES IN COLLEGE ADMINISTRATION 315 departments in these matters, but in recent years in new constitutions or amendments adopted by a number of institutions it is explicitly stated that appointments and promotions shall be upon recommendation of the department or school concerned, e.g., lUinois, Reed, Kansas, Pennsylvania. The new plan at Bryn Mawr provides for a faculty committee of five, whose duty is to become familiar with the teaching staff. This committee must be consulted by the president before he makes any recommendations to the board of directors on reappointments or refusal of reappointments. When- ever practicable the committee is also to be consulted on initial appoint- ments. That the *' hired-man" principle is gradually passing into obUvion is evident from the explicit provisions for security of tenure that have been put into all the more recently adopted constitutions and amendments to constitutions. Pennsylvania now provides that professors be appointed for an indefinite term, assistant professors for a first term of three years and then for periods of five years, instructors for one year. Kansas provides that "professors and associate professors are on permanent appointment, assistant professors are on one-year appointment for the first two years, after which their appointment, unless otherwise stipulated, is permanent." Illi- nois provides that appointment as professor or associate professor shall be for an indefinite term. This shall be construed to mean definite tenure. Illinois, moreover, provides that "only immorality, gross neglect of duty, or conspicuous and continued ineflSciency and incompetency shall be considered cause for discharge. No appointee shall be removed before the expiration of his term of service without the filing of formal charges and a hearing before the board of trustees." Pennsylvania and Bryn Mawr, which have most recently adopted new principles with reference to tenure, provide that no teacher shall be dismist until after a conference between a faculty committee and a trustee committee and only after a written report of the findings of such conference shall be made to the board of trustees for consideration and action by it. It is evident that the old conception of the college teacher as "employe" of the board of trustees is rapidly passing away. The former conception was natural to boards of trustees made up of business men solely, but the newer conception and the one rapidly gaining ground is the one exprest last January by the committee on academic freedom of the American Asso- ciation of University Professors. There is a growing tendency to distmguish between two functions of the faculty, (i) policy-determining, and (2) administration, and for the faculty to give more and more of its attention to the former and leave the latter to be done by committees and individuals. Possibly it is for that reason that departmental organization has felt the democratizing influence less, per- haps, than other elements in college and university administration. Even the last constitution adopted (Kansas) provides that the senior professor shall be chairman of the department. This is still the status in the great 3i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher majority of institutions, but there is a growing number, especially among the larger institutions, organizing departments in the manner of Wisconsin. Wisconsin provides that each department shall have a departmental com- mittee, which shall consist of all members of professorial rank. The immedi- ate government of each department shall be vested in such departmental committee, which shall have jurisdiction over all the interests of the depart- ment with power to determine all matters of educational and administrative policy pertaining thereto. Harvard and Yale in the East, Chicago and Illinois in the Middle West, and Idaho in the Far West are typical of a grow- ing number of institutions which are abandoning the old system of perma- nent headship of departments upon the part of the senior professor in favor of temporary chairmen appointed by the president from the members of the department for a limited period. In Mt. Holyoke, in two departments which have no professors, the experiment is being tried temporarily of having the chairmanship rotate among the associate professors. In Yale the chairman of the department is elected by its full professors. This year in the College of the City of New York, in the case of two departments whose heads had retired, the department was put in commission, i.e., departmental policy was to be determined by the members of the depart- ment in departmental meeting, the chairman, who is appointed by the president for two years, being merely the executive officer of the depart- ment. This is also true of smaller institutions. In Middlebury College, Vermont, "heads of departments have no distinction in salaries or powers. The department is run by its most influential member, if he has the presi- dent's approval." This tendency toward greater democratization is more evident in the organization of faculty committees. In a growing number of institutions it is now true that the chairman of a committee, who naturally guides its activities, need no longer be a full professor. A few years ago the Harvard Committee on Admission, one of the most important of all committees, had as its chairman an instructor who had proved himself especially efficient in that kind of work. Of course, this principle is not everywhere accepted. From Union College comes the information that "the increase in the number of the faculty makes necessary an increasing subordination of those of lower rank to the heads of departments." It is a gratifying evidence of a willingness to share powers that the faculty, which has been demanding an increasing voice in the conduct of affairs, has shown its belief in the democratic principle by giving an increas- ing share of power to the students in the administration of their own affairs. Not only is it true that the student council is called more and more into consultation by the faculty, but the responsibiUties placed upon it or assumed by it are astonishing. The better means of getting evidence possest by the students and their more appreciative viewpoint undoubtedly make the student council a safer organization for discipline than the faculty. The administration can get many things done thru the student council Department) PRESENT TENDENCIES IN COLLEGE ADMINISTRATION 317 which would be difficult to secure by the exercise of authority, e g the abohtion of hazing. Chicago is typical when it writes that the decisions of the student council are usually accepted without question by the uni- versity authorities. California writes that the facult)* committee on student affairs has had but one meeting in seven years. The great confi- dence shown in the integrity and fairness of student councils was well illus- trated in William and Mary College two years ago when the parents of two students appealed to the faculty against a penalty of expulsion imposed by the student council, and the faculty refused to interfere. The student council has control of the widest variety of interests as well as of discipUne in most institutions. The publications of the students, including financial responsibility, then- dramatic and musical organizations^ athletics, and those who participate in them, are under the control of the student council. Several institutions write that the student council decides how much extra-curricular activity a student may undertake. In Ohio Wesleyan the student council not only establisht a budget fee to cover ex- penses for athletics, student publications, etc., but a hospital association which they maintain by a fee paid by each student. This is also true of California. No c6llege representative wrote in disparagement of the work of the student council, and the great majority wrote enthusiastically about its advantages. The desire to be of greater service to the community may not necessarily be a democratic tendency, but it is certainly a present tendency in college administration. Of course, we are all familiar with the wonderful work done by the state universities, practically all of which is a twentieth-century product. The summer sessions, extension work, seasonal courses, corre- spondence courses, bureau of general information, public-welfare service, are only the most striking of these. But from small and relatively unknown institutions comes the information that their libraries, art buildings, hospi- tals, and material plant generally are at the service of teachers, farmers, and the community. Another illustration of this spirit of service is the entrance of the college teacher into civic employ as an expert on state and city committees, library boards, etc. Too great emphasis cannot be placed upon the amount of time and energy given by college teachers to this kind of service. Another tendency is that of extreme frankness on the part of the university in its dealings with the public. It is only comparatively recently that the urban institutions were inspired by the example of the state universities. Two years ago there was formed an association of urban universities, and it was then discovered that the amount of work that is being carried on by urban institutions for the public welfare, is truly remark- able. The faculty is a sort of professional body of consultants for the municipal government in its various departments of administration, in health, public works, finance, and education. Moreover, there is a wide- spread tendency in both state and urban institutions to provide training 3l8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Higher for the improvement of those in the public service. Cahfornia even has courses for poUcemen in abnormal psychology and in sociology. On the other hand, the college and the university are taking advantage to an increasing exten.t of the great laboratory possibilities of organized society in the city itself to give field experience to their students in the various departments. If space permitted, it would be interesting to continue the discussion of this aspect of college and university administration. But I think enough has been said to permit the generahzation that the present tendencies in college and university administration are toward democrati- zation and socialization. THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM— ITS FUNCTION AND ITS LIMITATIONS THOMAS M. BALLIET, DEAN, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. Widely differing views have always prevailed since its introduction and do now prevail among educators as to the true function and scope of the elective system in American high schools and colleges. Four reasons have been assigned in justification of it: (i) the field of knowledge has become too wide for any one student even to sample all departments of it; (2) the student gets more profit from a study which appeals to his native abihty and interest than from one which is forst upon him against his taste; (3) it enables a student to elect his undergraduate studies with reference to his later professional studies; and (4) it enables him also to elect teachers, which is quite as important as to elect studies, and which may, incidentally, have a wholesome effect on teachers themselves. These are the reasons assigned by educators; to the student there appears a fifth reason, which has had no little weight with some, to the effect that it enables him to elect easy courses and secure his diploma or degree at a minimum cost of labor. This last type of student is the "pass degree" man of the English university and the man who makes a "gentleman's grade" in the American college. The merits and the evils of the system are well understood; they need not be discust here; but its specific function and its specific limitations have been but vaguely conceived; and its administration, both in colleges and in high schools, has been correspondingly lacking in definiteness of aim. Is it possible to formulate both its functions and its limitations more definitely ? Every person needs at least four types of education: I. It is essential that he must master those fundamental studies a knowledge of which is not only universally necessary for practical life, but is basic for all further scholastic attainments. This includes the curriculum of the elementary school and certain studies of the high school and college. These must be required studies. Department] FUNCTION AND LIMITATIONS OF ELECTIVE SYSTEM 319 2. Every individual is entitled to a training which fits him for some specific calling in which he may not only make a Uvelihood, but in which he may realize the aims of his life and render to the world the service which he owes it. This is vocational education. In this type of education elec- tion is limited to the choice of the vocation. There is no room for the election of studies, except in so far as a specialization within the calling or profession is possible. After the student has chosen his calling, it is for the school to prescribe the curriculum. This applies not only to trade schools, but to all types of vocational schools, including the professional schools of the university. 3. Each person must have such training as his native capacity enables him to receive, which shall fit him specifically to discharge the duties of citizenship. In a broad sense, all legitimate education fits for citizenship, but there are certain studies which specifically and directly aim to do M]is. What are these studies ? They are not— for the secondary school at least— the study of the national and state constitutions which form the whole course in so-called "civics" in most high schools. Such a study is useless for secondary schools, and properly belongs to the college, where it should form only a part of the larger subject of political science and govern- ment. Briefly stated, most of our political questions today have an economic basis and cannot be understood without at least an elementary knowledge of economics. An elementary course in economics should therefore be a required course in every secondary school and in every college. Many of our political problems have an immediate sociological basis; hence an elementary course in sociology should be required of all pupils in every secondary school and college. A few generations ago it was a dogma of writers on economics that the laws of economics, like the laws of physics and of chemistry, have nothing to do with the principles of ethics. Today we recognize a most intimate relation between the two. Furthermore, no one can comprehend the mean- ing of economics and of social conditions who is blind to their ethical significance. Hence a course in ethics should be a required course in all sec- ondary schools and colleges. Such a course should, however, not be based on metaphysics nor theology, but should be a practical course, based on sociology, and should deal with the actual ethical problems which arise in life. Morality is a social phenomenon or fact, and the force of ethical principles can be felt only when seen in the light of the concrete social facts of life. Hence the effectiveness of the parable in moral instruction. In city high schools and in all colleges a course in municipal problems should be required as a part of the specific trainmg for citizenship. This is but a very crude and brief statement of the courses which should be required as a training for efficient citizenship. 3 20 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION It is obvious that in this type of education — the ethical, or moral — there is no room whatever for either an election of calling or an election of studies. No one can be allowed to elect, if native-born, whether he will be a citizen or not; and it is for the school to prescribe the studies which fit him to discharge the duties which citizenship makes incumbent upon him. 4. Everyone should be educated for leisure as well as for work. For the working classes, at least, the eight-hour law will soon be universal. Then there will be eight hours for work, eight hours or more for leisure, and the remainder of the twenty-four for sleep. The way in which a man spends his leisure hours, whether he finds his pleasures in activities which are elevating or in activities which are debasing, is of great importance to the community and of the greatest importance to the man himself. Public and private morality depend far more on how the hours of leisure are spent than on how the hours of work are spent. We must educate for leisure to prevent leisure from becoming mere idleness with all its proverbial con- sequences. In this education for leisure must be included legitimate amusement and recreation, as well as the more intellectual pleasures of books and of art. It is obvious that an education which is intended to fit a person to find elevating pleasures during his leisure hours cannot be forst upon him. There is no room for prescription here. After relatively mature years have been reacht, as in the high school and the college, election must be absolutely free. To summarize: there is no room for election in case of the studies fun- damental for practical life nor for all further study; in vocational education there is room for the election of the vocation (under advice) but none for the election of studies, except in so far as specialization within the vocation is possible; in the education for citizenship there can be no election at all; in the education for leisure there must be absolutely free election. It may be added, in conclusion, that the need for an elective system in this country has grown out of the fact that our secondary education has been too little differentiated, and out of the further fact that our colleges are continuing general and undifferentiated education farther by two years than any country in Continental Europe. The need for election has been especially felt during the last two years of college, and in some colleges election has been limited almost wholly to these years. Secondary and higher education is in process of radical reconstruction. We have recently developt four types of high schools in place of one — namely, the literary, the technical, the commercial, and the agricultural, or rural, high school, each providing a distinct type of training. Children now elect, in the main, schools, and to some extent courses within schools, but rarely individual studies. Departmentl THE BACCALAUREATE DEGREE 321 We are developing a junior high school which will ultimately take not only the two upper grades of the elementary schools but also the first two of the present high school. These schools will be of various types as to courses, but will have each a definite aim, and will therefore make election of schools, rather than election of studies, a necessity^ The strong city high schools will soon incorporate the first two years of college; and general education will end, as in all European countries, with what is now the sophomore year in our best colleges. The junior and senior years will be incorporated in the professional schools of the univer- sity, with possibly some telescoping, and the college of arts in its present form will disappear. The academic studies of the present junior and senior years, when incorporated in the professional schools, will naturally become, in the main, required studies. In short, with the differentiation of our secondary and higher education, the need for election of studies will be reduced to a minimum, and the problems which the elective system was invented to solve, will be solved by this differentiation. THE BACCALAUREATE DEGREE AS AN OBSTACLE TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS BARCLAY W. BRADLEY, COLLEGE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK, NEW YORK, N.Y. In the days of chivalry the page at the age of seven began a seven-year term of service, and then was bounden to seven more years as squire before he was accepted into the fellowship of knights by the touch of a veteran. Likewise the normal period of apprenticeship in the manual crafts was seven years. It would take us afield to trace even a little way the origin of this use of the number seven. But those were days when not all human institutions were under the control of pure reason. Have those days yet ended ? It was in those days that the baccalaureate originated. Whether the baccalarius was first a cowherd, the tenant of a stock farm, or something entirely different, it is certain that in the universitas, or corporation— whether of smiths, tailors, or scholars— for some time before 1200 the term was practically a synonym for apprentice. Three stages m its history are pertinent to this inquiry: (i) the cause of its restricted use in the academic field; (2) its crystallization as a university degree; (3) its revival m America. . ,-„ • The baccalaureate under the faculty of arts in the University of Paris- which alone may be lookt on as the ancestor of our own degree-was con- ferred in a student-initiation ceremony in which the university officiaUy had no part. The important features of it were (i) that it depended upon 322 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher the time unit as the measure of scholastic standing, and (2) that it was pre- liminary to the study which was to follow. In respect to control the cere- mony was more nearly akin to a cane rush or sophomore cremation than to commencement day. There was reason for measurement of proficiency by time, in that knowledge then was not acutely subdivided, and consisted chiefly in acquaintance with certain books. The baccalaureate ceremony was part and parcel of the great wave for fraternization and organization that swept over Europe in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Within a hundred years the originally voluntary and half-playful ceremony had become a necessary preliminary to the ecclesiastical license to teach. And by 1400 at Paris, as elsewhere on the continent of Europe, it became synonymous with matriculation. At Oxford, however, it took a different turn, which is reflected in the early history of Harvard University and of American colleges. In the first statutes of Harvard the baccalaureate is referred to only as the "first degree.*' It was given at the end of four years of residence, to be followed immediately by three more years leading to the Master's, which was called the *' second degree." Note the total of years. There is no evidence of any intention or thought that anyone would stop at this inter- mediate stage. The development since then is obvious. As preparation has been more fully given before college-entrance, the baccalaureate has been pusht up toward the end of the course; and the Master's degree has crumbled away until it now represents the work of one supplementary year and recently was given without resident study after the baccalaureate; and but few .Bachelors proceed to it. The usurpation of the final place by the bac- calaureate is justifiable provided the course which leads to it is modified to accord with the new position, so as to give it always a rational basis. In this very brief sketch I have tried to give prominence to two thoughts: (i) that the time unit is the traditional standard of measurement for the Bachelor's degree, and (2) that in its origin and after transplantation to America it was a preliminary step to higher academic study. To these one other consideration should be added: that the Master's degree was always a vocational degree and par excellence for one profession — teaching; in lesser degree it was a prerequisite to the study of theology and law. To what extent are these characteristics in accord with present educational thought and conditions ? Permit me to assume that there are two conceptions of education, one as growth or general development, the other as specific preparation for specific ends; that the trend of modern educational thought is toward the latter, namely, that every element which enters into an educational course for an individual should work for a specific end in a specific way; that these ends may be vocational (concerned with the livelihood), avocational (per- taining to general human duties, such as citizenship, domestic life, social Department] THE BACCALAUREATE DEGREE 323 betterment, etc.), or liberal (directed solely to personal enjoyment); that every course should be centered around the vocational, with the addition of such avocational and (possibly?) liberal material as is adapted to the temperament and capacity of the individual and can be included without unduly deferring vocational maturity. There is now apparent a great contrast in present educational conditions. In comparison with the mediaeval university or with Harvard in the seven- teenth century we have now an infinite differentiation of vocational ends to serve. It stands to reason that these vocations require various periods of time of preparation, from the elementary school plus zero years to seven, eight, or even more years after high school. The tradition of the bacca- laureate has caused us to pad our college courses to fill time units. Is there any reason why a person who requires less vocational prepara- tion should have a greater amount of avocational and liberal, and vice versa, for the sake of making the totals equal ? Should not the quantum of each of these, ideally, be adapted fully to the individual ? Finally, is not any artificial stimulation to depart from the ideal the antipode of useful ? The first effort to get away from the time unit in this country was probably the elective system. But it was imperfect, because it still required a fixt number of unit courses. The next effort was first made, I think, in this university (Columbia), the conferring of the baccalaureate after one year of study in a professional school. This plan is manifestly applicable to a very limited number of vocations. The question has become acute in the secondary field, and you see the secondary schools reaching down two years into the elementary and reach- ing up two years into college domain. Two-year and three-year commer- cial and other courses have been given for a long time. The secondary school is comparatively unhampered by graduation day— shall we say- thanks to the fact that the baccalaureate got away from its original position. Shall the baccalaureate be discarded ? The whole question is involved with the doctrine of general training. Any action based upon faith m specific training for specific ends will be confounded by its opponents unless vocational value and avocational value are both interpreted in the very broadest manner, with accurate regard— so far as may be— to the ultimate effects of each study. For example, I should not hesitate to say that for many persons— other than teachers— Latin is the most vocational of all studies. (Some of you may not agree with me in this. A just decision can be reacht only as we are able to measure the effect of the study upon the individual. You will grant, at least, that it is conceivable that in a certam type of mind the study develops a certain kind of abiliiy or certam habits which are indispensable to the highest success in a few professions.) Agam, certainly no other study has in general greater avocational value than literature; yet for some its effect may be nil. 324 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher An alternative to summary execution of the degree is suggested by the plan of Columbia, and now of other universities. The degree might be given to those who have satisfied the college on the avocational side, after they have practist efficiently for a certain time the vocation or profession to which they have been trained in the Alma Mater. The unit of scholar- ship should be a course starting somewhere in the secondary field and con- tinuing one, two, three, four, or more years beyond it, the length being determined (as stated above) by the amount of institutional training requisite for the specific vocation combined with the amount of avocational training that can be had simultaneously with it. Similar courses might end, as they do now, within the secondary period; and others, parallel with those final in the college, would, as now, meet merely a definite stand- ard of preparation for higher university work. We have been accustomed to think of our college courses as standing like piles ready for laying the flooring of a pier. We should think of them rather as the pipes of a great church organ — as many in number, perhaps as there are individual students at any one time. POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS IN OUR EDUCATIONAL WORK LIKELY TO COME AS A RESULT OF THE GREAT WAR JAMES E. RUSSELL, DEAN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. {Outline) In a world- war a world-wide adjustment is taking place. Even America niust reckon with a new concept of the state, and with it expect a new type of public education. The power of the schoolmaster stands clear in the record of German education. A few generations have seen the German schools, almost single-handed, develop loyalty to a cause and obedience to authority, culti- vate the arts and sciences, develop industry, and direct trade — all in a way that is the envy and despair of the rest of the world. The Prussian of the nineteenth century just had to be a soldier. The first duty of the German school has been to prepare boys fit in mind and body for military service. MiHtary rule demands obedience; the German school fixes implicit obedience irrevocably in the character of the German boy. Everything comes from authority; the boy does not recite; he learns what is given him. Religious instruction begets respect for authority and obedience to superiors. Patriotism is taught in the language, the history, and the literature of the Fatherland. For purposes alike of peace and war, productive industry is needed. German trade and commerce have grown as no other country's, owing to the skill and training of the workmen and to intelligent direction from above. Department BUSINESS SCHOOLS AT THE CLOSE OF THE GREAT WAR 325 The German continuation schools have led the world m supplying skilled workmen, while higher education has cooperated m furthering a world- wide trade. The German state takes full control over this system of education. It trains the teachers, inducts them into office, fixes their salaries, pensions them in old age; prescribes the curricula, defines methods of instruction, and by a system of examinations at once judges the output and controls the entrance to all professions and the public service— all to the successful "making of God-fearing, patriotic, self-supporting subjects of imperial Germany." Our business is to consider anew the rights of the American citizen and his duties toward the state in order that our professional experts may do their part in the realization of those ideals for which this nation stands. What we need in America is a system of educational administration that shall eliminate the politician; a professional spirit that shall put the pubhc good ahead of personal gain; teaching and school-management that shall appreciate reasonable law and secure voluntary obedience to constituted authority; and finally, educational leadership that shall rise indeed to the heights of patriotic statesmanship. THE SERVICE OF BUSINESS SCHOOLS AT THE CLOSE OF THE GREAT WAR JAMES C. EGBERT, DEAN, SCHOOL OF BUSINESS, COLUMBIA UNR'ERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. We are all familiar with the old adage *'In time of peace prepare for war." The appropriateness and force of this saying have been deeply imprest upon the world recently by reason of the course of the war in Europe. The advantage held by nations known to be prepared stands in sharp contrast to the serious danger which threatened those who have been compelled to devote their energies during the last two years preparing for the great conflict in which they were already engaged. Our own land, in which has existed, as among no other people, a sincere devotion to the cause of peace, is reluctantly compelled to accept as a truism the saying which calls for preparedness for war in time of peace. Regret- fully, to be sure, but nevertheless unhesitatingly, we must prepare for war. As a natural reaction from this candid acknowledgment we turn from preparedness for war to preparedness for peace. This is the burden of our theme. In the morning, after a dark and stormy night, the brightening of the sky in the east often foretokens the clear and cloudless day. Thus the glimmer of light, altho so faint and dim as yet, appearing in the east, gives promise of the peace so earnestly lookt for. Even such an uncertain sky calls upon us to prepare for the day. How often do we hear the 326 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Highe* prophecy as to what will take place and will be done when the war is over and the dreadful night of horror has past! Of course, the pacifist will turn his thoughts and energies to preventing war in the future. The soldier will become a pacifist and think of home and his future career. Nations will adjust themselves to the new situation which the war has produced. But that nation which, like the mihtarist, prepares for the future will reap the advantage which is sure to come to those who are ready. It is in this respect that our own theme is most appropriate and its consideration most timely. By reason of the great war in Europe, the center of power and influence in the business world will be found, at its close, in the United States. This is due, mainly, to the fact that this nation is the only great people not in- volved in the terrible conflict. To this country financiers of other lands have already lookt for aid and must, of necessity, do so in the future. The dollar, rather than the pound, will become the standard of value, and Ameri- can gold will take the place so long held by the gold of England. Again, the cessation of manufacturing, or at least the interference there- with, in the countries at war must, of necessity, lead to the transfer of busi- ness of this character to the United States. Goods formerly produced exclusively in Europe will be manufactured in this country. Hence, the other nations will look to us for these goods, and we ourselves, being com- pelled to engage in this new and strange form of manufacturing during the war, may readily claim the control of such productions, and that finally with little competition. We should, therefore, be ready for this service, so that we may not only supply the demands of our own country, already deprived of essential materials by reason of the war, but may produce for the nations now at war in a manner and to an extent never known before. This trade, formerly maintained by the belligerent powers, should fall to the United States. The allurements of foreign trade will be extraordinary and will demand the best service of our American business men, who should seize the advantage placed in their hands thru the folly of the warring nations and the disasters of the conflict. The control of the world's trade is at hand and almost within our grasp. This is particularly true of South America; hence, we are confronted with the greatest opportunity that ever offered itself to an ambitious people, and our own neglect and lack of fore- sight will be at fault if this passes from our hands. It is well for us to consider what our share in this great achievement must be. Is this the duty of the business man alone ? Will the financier or the manufacturer alone be responsible if this opportunity is lost ? We should rather say that every institution, every individual, should feel the responsibility at this time of crisis, even if this is a crisis in the world of trade and business. Educational institutions, particularly the collegiate schools of business which have now assumed an important part in the development of education in this country, should be a most powerful factor Department) BUSINESS SCHOOLS AT THE CLOSE OP THE GREAT WAR 327 in this venture. Time will allow us to consider only a few of the duties and services which these schools can render. In the first place, there never was a time when the well-educated, well-trained business man was so much needed as today, for education, if seriously employed, produces men of large vision. Small men cannot always see the opportunity afforded them, much less grasp it. Our schools of business must produce men of large vision. They must be well educated, using the term in the broadest sense. Their general education must give them foresight and judgment, and their techni- cal training must enable them readily to grasp the new problems of finance and trade. In other words, we must educate men so that they may become professional business men. Only in this way can our country produce those who shall reach the marts of the world and obtain and control the trade so long held in other hands. In days gone by we have given men a cultural training, then left them to obtain their knowledge of business alone thru practical business experi- ence. Years have been wasted when time is so precious in the lives of young men. General cultural training is as indispensable as ever as the foundation, but it must be supplemented by the technical knowledge of business which may be obtained in our schools as professional training. The schools of business must also arrange for practical training in the laboratory of business, just as in the schools of science. Schools of business must make an impression on the business world that they may accomplish what is so greatly needed in these respects. This can only be brought about by their coming in close contact with the busi- ness world and by earning the confidence which educational institutions have never hitherto held. This is not all. The business house should be of help in supplying practical experience and thus aid schools of business in furnishing fully trained men. Cooperation between educational insti- tutions and the bank, the factory, and the store is the epoch-making feature of this new development and is of the greatest importance in our attaining the objects which the European war has made possible. This reciprocity imphes the careful training of young men for service in business houses and the consequent establishing of confidence on the part of the business world. These, in turn, may find in the work of the special- ists associated with such institutions opportunity for the solution of prob- lems in their own experience. Their own part will be one of suggestion and advice in general, but, in particular, the furthering of the practical training which must not be disregarded in the education of business men. The professional schools of business have certain special duties to per- form because of the possibilities which are at hand by reason of the great war. There are fields of study and research which should be brought to the attention of students, and emphasized with peculiar force. Our schools must produce men who have a knowledge of foreign exchange and foreign systems of banking. These students must be familiar with the geography 328 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher of trade, with the institutions — commercial, political, and social — of the people with whom trade may be desired, and, finally, with the languages of those with whom they expect to carry on the peaceful arts of business. A knowledge of commerce and commercial opportunities, a clear conception and understanding of the products of various lands, a grasp of the history and institutions of nations, a famiHarity with foreign languages — all must be supplied by our schools of business in view of the possibilities of the future and after the close of the war. We, of course, need not emphasize in this connection the prosperity of the position and the importance of the history of our own land, its institutions, its trade, and, above all, its language. There is one phase of this question which we might be tempted to overlook. I refer to the moral influence which schools of business should exert in the commercial world. When I employ this word "moral," I do not restrict it to the sense in which it is commonly used. It is presupposed that institutions of learning should inspire and establish a final moral sense in their students. The field of business certainly demands such an influence from these institutions of business training. Honor in business is yet an uncertain quantity, and a spirit of fairness in competition is not unduly prevalent. Hence, we should look for the encouragement of this spirit of fairness in our schools of business. We readily think of this as belonging to individuals, but that between nations is likewise of importance, and never so fully as in these days of recovery from the hatred and ills of war. We all know of the declared intention of the Entente Allies to form a league of trade which shall have for its purpose the exclusion of the central powers from trade reciprocity after the war. It is already generally accepted by those who are neutral that such a spirit will endanger the peace of the world in the years to come. Here is the work of our institutions of learning, especially those devoted to studying problems of trade, namely, to show the folly and wickedness of such a spirit. We must, therefore, stress what some have called the international mind, which can bring one to understand the problems of other nations and realize their point of view, a characteristic which is vital, particularly in the development of trade and commerce. Here is plainly the duty of the higher schools of business in view of the great future which Hes before our beloved land. We must remember that "peace hath its victory as well as war." In summing up, let us emphasize the necessity for a form of education adapted to the possibilities which the war has .placed before us so that future generations may be equipt for added responsibilities in both the world of finance and of trade. We are almost startled with the immense expansion of our foreign trade and are becoming rapidly aware of the rela- tions which we hold as world-bankers. We must not neglect cultural training which gives breadth of view, and will enable us to consider properly the terms of human responsibility which the war is defining for the present Department] EXPERIMENT IN PRACTICAL COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 329 generations and the generations which are to come. The technical pro- fessional training must be of a character adapted to our new responsibihties in banking, finance, and trade. Our young men must know, as never before, the lands, the people, and the institutions. Finally, we must estabHsh a moral sense in business which will render us capable of appre- ciating the point of view of our neighbor and the rights which belong to him. We must train our students to consider the trade welfare of others while we are eagerly thinking of our own. In this altruistic spirit we may train our students to build up trade with all the world. Surely, there is a great field for the new school of business in accomplishing the ends which I have indicated and which lead to the preparedness in economic policy for the resuming of international, commercial, and financial relations after the war. AN EXPERIMENT IN PRACTICAL COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN THE NATIONAL CITY BANK OF NEW YORK F. C. SCHWEDTMAN, DIRECTOR OF EFFICIENCY, NATIONAL CITY BANK OF NEW YORK, NEW YORK, N.Y. Success in international commerce demands the highest development of the individual, the least possible waste in business-organization, and the highest efl&ciency of the combined nation. It is a well-establisht fact that nations as well as individuals have accomplisht most when bitter necessity compelled extraordinary effort. Most of the nations that under normal conditions have been our successful competitors in the world's markets are at present engaged in a struggle which will tax their future heavily. This struggle, however, will bring out also ability and ingenuity which will astonish us when conditions have again become normal. - • There is a need for realizing on the part of our educators and business men that cooperation in the business education of the coming generation is by far the strongest, if not the only, factor that can balance the scale of future international trade in our favor. The foundation of a national educational system which is to endure must rest upon something more discernible and substantial than the somewhat elusive things— " ethics " and "precedents"— which many have talkt about, but nobody has ever been able to define to everybody's satisfaction. I realize that to provide students with means for earning a liveUhood possibly should not be the strongest object, and certainly not the only object, of our schools and colleges. High ideals, good citizenship, and indi- vidual and collective happiness are higher motives for teacher and pupil. However, judging from my experience with hundreds of young people with every possible kind of training— from grammar schools to postgraduate coUege courses— 99 out of 100 have studied, not so much for the love of knowledge, not so much for the sake of high ideals or ultimate happiness, 330 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher but primarily and principally for the purpose of greater or more rapid success in making a living. And after all, if higher and more general edu- tation can be the result of a desire to get on in the world, is it not a good thing for all concerned? We find, as an illustration, that the possibility of attending educational classes, conducted primarily for the purpose of fitting individuals for higher and better-paid places, brings to the National City Bank the very best applicants from all parts of the globe. If our experiment results in benefiting the pupils as well as the bank, and at the same time is a step toward bringing our country to a higher place in national and international banking, then, surely, it is highly beneficial and desirable all around. This need is being met by educational classes in the large commercial and industrial institutions of the United States, and they are no longer experiments. Leaders in educational, commercial, and financial life have for some time agreed that theory and practice must be closely coordinated in training the successful men of the future. Such coordination spells sound patriotism as well as good business; it assures the success of the individual so trained, and it guarantees the pre-eminence of our country among the nations of the world. Before I enter upon a description of our classes, let me explain a few underlying principles of our class-organizations. We believe that our success depends in a large measure upon our ability to develop the indi- viduality of each member of a class: we endeavor to standardize the work of the individual, not the individual. The greater the opportunity for individual self-expression — always, of course, with proper regard for class unity — the greater will be the happiness and efficiency of the whole insti- tution. Each class has its own committee; instead of depending primarily upon outside forces to make the class-organizations effective, we depend upon these selected committees for efficient class performance. The whole organization is thoroly democratic — there is no distinction, no preference, except that based upon class and bankwork well performed. Under such a system fellowship and teamwork are developt to a remarkable degree, and these in turn kindle and sustain a spirit in the whole organization which spells certain success. The National City Bank employs approximately looo clerks at its home institution at 55 Wall Street. Approximately 700 attended the educational classes during the last school year with an attendance efficiency of 81 per cent. The needs of the institution dictate the number and kind of classes. That these needs are great is illustrated by the fact that this year we had 29 classes composed of 14 different subjects and taught by 19 instructors. The enrolment of classes varies from 10 to 120. The first group of classes are those for our younger boys. We found that these boys, the best we could get, lackt enthusiasm and push. They had little conception of their place in the world, and failed to realize the Department] EXPERIMENT IN PRACTICAL COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 331 importance of individual effort in making good. We started an office- practice class, and each Monday morning one of our officers gave these boys an inspirational talk with good results. We saw that most of the boys, who were to be our future ledger clerks and bookkeepers, were poor pen- men, so we taught them penmanship. They made poor figures, so we taught them how to make proper figures. Their grammar was poor— they exprest themselves badly— therefore we taught them grammar. Then we drilled them in the simple operations of addmg, subtracting, mul- tiplying, and dividing, showing them simple but effective methods, which they should have been taught at the pubUc schools, to increase speed and insure accuracy. In the next group of classes come English, stenography, and an ele- mentary class in practical banking. A better knowledge of EngUsh, espe- cially letter-writing, is quite necessary for our junior clerks and younger stenographers. A speed class in stenography keeps the older stenographers ever improving, and a beginners' class makes it possible for the bank to train stenographers who are already acquainted with bankwork and routine. Our first-year, or elementary, banking class performs the needful service of giving the young men a thoro grounding in the elementary principles and facts of banking. And so I might go on thru the various groups of classes, illustrating the special need which has prompted the organization of each class and showing how each need has been met. The results can be measured, not in terms of college credits, but in terms of definite progress and advancement in business. Until the establishment of branch banks in foreign countries, our edu- cational work was confined to the training of the employes to increase their worth and to insure their progress to the home institution. But with the establishment of branch banks in various parts of the world came new responsibilities. The need for the special training of men for foreign serv- ice soon became apparent. A number of the bank's regular employes, who had won distinction because of exceptional work and ability, were first chosen. In addition to being rotated thru the various departments they were enroled in classes in foreign exchange, practical banking, com- mercial geography, political economy, and in language classes— French, Spanish, Russian, or Portuguese. It soon became evident, however, that the available places m the branch banks could not be filled by this method alone. We then turned to the universities. Twenty young graduates were chosen to come into the bank and enter upon a year's course of training to fit them for foreign work. During the day they workt in the various departments of the bank getting actual experience, and for an hour in the morning, at noon, and in the eve- ning they attended classes. In choosing these young college graduates full account was taken, next to personaUty, of the kind of courses they had selected at college. So far 332 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IHigher as a college training could do so, they were as well equipt for foreign branch- bank service as any college men in the country. A year's work and study were absolutely necessary, however, to fit them for work abroad. They studied international commerce and commercial geography, and formed an adequate conception of international trade and trade relations. Special emphasis was laid on the growth and development of American commerce and the opportunities for its expansion. They listened to talks on the customs, manners, and habits of foreign people, with a view of obtain- ing a better knowledge of their needs and preferences and a better under- standing of their temperament and point of view. Under this broadening influence much of the native provincialism of Americans was dispelled. They learned about foreign exchange, tracing shipments from their origin to their destination, famiHarizing themselves with the kind of documents used and the method of handling documents to protect both the bank and the customer. Special classes were instituted to give the students a speak- ing knowledge of the language of the country to which they were to be sent. To make this most effective, special textbooks based on the practical banking and commercial terms of each language were written by the lan- guage instructors of the bank. I am aware that there is a decided difference of opinion as to the effect- iveness of the present methods of teaching languages in most of our uni- versities. The universities, of course, will have to work out that problem for themselves, but the evidence we have collected from our training classes demonstrated, to our satisfaction at least, the inefficiency of the general methods now used. Students with four and five years' training in French, or with two and three years' study of Spanish in college come to us unable to carry on a simple conversation in either language. With six months' training in our conversational methods, young men who had never before studied Spanish and Portuguese have gone to our branches equipt to start their work in the language of the country. After one year's experimenting with the college men, we find it necessary in defense of our ledgers and for the general efficiency of the bank to put the students thru our elementary course of penmanship and banking arith- metic. I mention these points and the larger fact that the students come to us wholly unequipt for the work that is expected of them in no spirit of criticism but for the purpose of calling attention to the need for a close scrutiny of our college courses with a view of determining how they may more properly fulfil the requirements of the present-day business world. In this much can be gained by a closer cooperation between the universities and the business interests of the country. In selecting our first class of 20 young college men, we were in a way but following the example of several large manufacturing organizations in selecting young engineers for their force. The coUege in^ii, fe banking Department] EXPERIMENT IN PRACTICAL COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 333 on the scale we had planned, however, had not been tested out, and the plan was started with the skepticism of many of the older practical business men. It will take years before the last word can be said in connection with our experiments. We can report, nevertheless, even now that the taking- in of college graduates for training in banking is to a large extent a demon- strated success. It is true that most of these young men could hardly add a column of figures, that their writing was merely a scribble, and that their knowledge of banking was decidedly lackmg. Their enthusiasm and keen young minds, however, overcame the obstacles imposed by lack of practical training, and their fine college-instilled spirit of sportsmanship and their splendid teamwork not only won for them our support and establisht the reputation of the college man, but brought into the bank an atmosphere that is of material aid in improving the spirit of the insti- tution. Encouraged by the experience with last year's class, we have selected 40 college nien this year with the aid of 16 universities. With them we have inaugurated a plan which, if successful, may prove, in a measure, an answer, or at least point the way, to the solution of the problem of closer cooperation between the universities and business, and thus bring about a closer coordination of the theoretical and practical training of young Americans for success in commerce — both domestic and international. May I quote you the purpose of the plan as we have conceived it: In order to bring the universities of the United States into closer touch with the needs and demands of the large commercial institutions of our country for the purpose of help- ing the university student to come to an early decision as to his life-work, and, at the same time, of assuring him of an opening in a business for which he has been specially trained, and with the view of furnishing the National City Bank each year with specially trained men for its foreign and domestic service, the National City Bank of New York purposes the establishment of a business fellowship. This fellowship will enable certain students selected by the universities and colleges of the United States to spend one year in the employ of the National City Bank during their four years or more in college, and in con- sideration of the practical work obtained at the bank, and certain courses of study pur- sued while there, the universities will allow the students to graduate with their A.B., B.S., or some like or higher degree, along with their class. The National City Bank wants the pickt young men of the country for its service; yet in putting this plan into execution it was not unmind- ful of the college student and also of a larger service that may be rendered to our educational system if the plan proves a success, as we all hope it will. I need not dwell upon the fact that most of our young men gradu- ate from college with no definite purpose as to their future. By accepting young sophomores under this plan, and by giving them three months' training during summer vacation, we help them to determine for themselves and inspu-e in their classmates the necessity for determining early in their college course what their life-work will be. Immediately upon graduation, when they wiU have had one year's banking training 334 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher along with their four years' of college work, they are promoted into per- manent positions. There are 567 universities and colleges in this country, graduating approximately 25,000 young men and women — not counting the professions. Think of what it would mean for these young people if in their sophomore year they could tie up with some bank, insurance company, mercantile house, firm, or corporation, that would assist them in determining their futures and help them in shaping their college course to best equip them for their life-work. Think what it would mean for the development of the industries and commerce of this country to have their ranks recruited with the best young minds of the country. The possibilities of the universal appHcation of such a plan startle the imagination. There are 27,000 banks in this country alone — every one of which would be materially improved by the addition of some college men to its force. There is a proper place in the industrial and commercial life of this country for every young graduate of our colleges — commerce and industry need them, and they need to find their life-work. Such a system working on a large scale would emphasize as never before the need and advantages of education for success in business, and demonstrate to the practical man the ability of our American universities to rise to the occasion and meet the country's need for young men who can succeed. We hear a great deal about convincing the hard-headed matter-of-fact business man of the need of education. To the educators of this country I can say, as a business man with experience in training men in industry and banking, that the business man is already convinst; he is waiting for our educators to meet him half-way; he will do his part and go more than half-way. Underlying the success of this plan for closer cooperation between the universities and business is: (i) the necessity for recognizing the fact that some things our universities are teaching can be taught equally well, if not better, in the practical laboratories of business; (2) the needed concession on the part of our universities of the principle that college credit can be granted for work done off the campus, if it meets with college requirements and comes up to university standards. On this point I am glad to report that in connection with the National City Bank's plan 4 colleges have taken favorable action on the question of granting credits for work done in the bank; 5 others believe that favorable action will be taken by their faculties, who have the matter under advisement; 5 colleges cannot give college credit, and several more have not been heard from. College and business, however, have many means for cooperating, not measured in college credit. Cooperation in selecting the best-fitted students, super- vision of studies in business houses by college faculties, suggestions of new subjects for college work by business men, all these are required to give us the ideal business- training course of the future. Department] EXPERIMENT IN PRACTICAL COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 335 We have found the greatest wiUingness on the part of all the colleges we have dealt with to be of assistance, and, on the other hand, we have had requests from business concerns all over the United States for informa- tion with regard to the development of cooperative educational schemes similar to ours. Let us hope that the day is near at hand when colleges and business institutions in every part of the United States will lay aside prejudices and precedents and get together on a common-sense basis to supply the clear-thinking, right-minded, and well-equipt youths, from whom may be developt future captains of commerce, of industry, and of finance. DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President— O. M. Plummer, director, Board of Education North Portland, Ore. Vice-President — George W. Auch, president, Board of Education Detroit, Mich. Secretary — Frank M. Bruce, manager, American School Board Journal Milwaukee, Wis. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July s, 1916 The meeting of the Department of School Admmistration was called to order in Aeolian Hall at 10:00 a.m., President O. M. Plummer presiding. An address of welcome was given by William G. Willcox, president, Board of Educa- tion, New York City. Addresses were then delivered by Joseph Lee, member, School Committee, Boston, Mass.; Cora Wilson Stewart, president, Kentucky Illiteracy Commission, Frankfort, Ky.; Edward C. Elliott, chancellor. University of Montana, Helena, Mont.; P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.; Thomas W. Churchill, member, Board of Education, New York, N.Y. The following Committees were appointed by the chairman: COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS Joseph Lee, member, School Committee, Boston, Mass. Ossian Lang, member, Board of Education, Mount Vernon, N.Y. Thomas W. Churchill, member. Board of Education, New York, N.Y. COMMITTEE ON THE STANDARDIZATION OF SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION Frank Irving Cooper, architect, Boston, Mass., Chairman. S. A. Challman, state commissioner of school buildings, Minneapohs, Mmn. Louis M. Terman, supervisor of hygiene, Pittsburgh, Pa. Leonard P. Ayres, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y. C. E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich. At noon a luncheon was tendered by the Department to David B. Johnson, president, National Education Association, at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, at which 367 members and guests were present. SECOND SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 1916 The meeting was caUed to order by the president at 10:00 a.m. in the ballroom of the Waldorf. The following papers were read: "Functions and Methods of Boards of Educations-Beatrice Wmser, member, Board of Education, Newark, N.J. j e t?a „«-;«« m*™ Vnrt "After the Architect"-C. B. J. Snyder, architect, Board of Education, New York, ^'^"Functio^s of the State in Local Administration "-Thomas E. Finegan, deputy state commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y. 337 338 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration "The Business Man and the Public Service" — Jacob M. Loeb, president, Board of Education, Chicago, 111. "A Reply" — EUa Flagg Young, formerly superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. The following resolution was then introduced by B. F. Montague, chairman, School Board, Raleigh, N.C.: 1. Resolved, That this department request P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, to address a letter to the commissioners of education of each state of the Union, suggesting and urging that each county of the several states send a representative to our next meeting of this association. 2. Resolved, That we request said state commissioners to urge every board represent- ing a city or town of 10,000 population to send a representative of the administrative department of the schools of that city or town. 3. Resolved, That said state commissioners of the said several states be requested to issue a circular letter to the commissioner of education of each county in the several states setting forth the advantages to be derived by sending delegates to this Association, and that said circular letter be issued to said county commissioners and to the school authorities of each city or town with a population of 10,000 in the month of May in the year 191 7. 4. Resolved, That the secretary of this department of this Association be requested to forward a copy of these resolutions to P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, and that a copy be sent to the American School Board Journal and any other educational journals of like nature with the request that they give the same publicity, particularly in the month of May or June in the year 191 7. The report of the Nominating Committee was read and the following officers were elected: President — O. M. Plummer, member. Board of Education, Portland, Ore. Vice-President — Frank D. Wilsey, member. Board of Education, New York, N.Y. Secretary — William C. Bruce, editor, School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis. Frank M. Bruce, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ADDRESS OF WELCOME WILLIAM G. WILLCOX, PRESIDENT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. It is my great privilege to say a word of greeting and welcome, as you are met this morning to discuss school administration. It is perhaps but natural that a business man who comes as a recent recruit into the educa- tional ranks should view the problem of school administration from a busi- ness standpoint. Others will discuss it on the professional side far more ably than I could do, but I wish to speak briefly of some general principles of eflicient administration which apply alike to all forms of organized effort. The fundamental basis of any effective organization is such harmonious cooperation as utilizes the powers and faculties of all its members to the greatest advantage, and combines them in effective teamwork. Indi- vidual ability is important, but individuals, however able, accompUsh but little as an organization if they work at cross-purposes. Different qualities, different methods, different points of view supplement and strengthen each other if they pull together, but neutraUze each other if they pull in opposite directions. This does not mean, however, that individuality must be submerged or lost, and that individual incentive has no place in the program. On the Department] ' ADDRESS OF WELCOME 330 contrary, no organization is effective if it is merely a machine; and there is no more important problem in any organization than the problem of securing, retaining, and utilizing individual initiative, enthusiasm, ambi- tion, and pride of workmanship, while at the same time promoting harmo- nious cooperation. Careful selection of competent, trustworthy, and loyal individuals is important; intelligent appraisal of their capacity and careful assignment to the work for which they are best fitted is important, but as both will fail without effective teamwork, so also both will fail if these individuals are denied opportunity and incentive to grow and develop. It is by no means rare to find at the head of a business organization a strong, forceful leader who has built up a large business by the sheer force of his own personahty, but who has failed to develop an effective orgam'za- tion because he has been unable or unwilling to tolerate any opposition or independence among his subordinates. The stronger an executive the more danger there is of his dominating his whole organization with his own individual ideas. Strong, capable assistants and successors are often spoiled in the educational field, as they are in the business world, thru lack of responsibility, lack of appreciation, and lack of encouragement in indi- vidual initiative. To hit every head that rises above the common level, to snub every expression of diverse opinion, is not the way to develop strength and efficiency in any organization. Good administration does not suppress nor discourage subordinates. A good executive has no occa- sion to assert his own dignity or superiority. His task is to train strong and effective men and women under him. To give every individual as much responsibility as possible, to hold him accountable for results, to encourage and help him over difficulties, to praise and reward him for success, is as vital in school administration as it is in business administration. On the other hand, there is danger also in the oft-repeated assertion that the administration of the schools should be left to professional experts without interference from laymen. If education were an exact science, if the work of the educational engineer were based upon establisht and recognized laws and principles such as guide civil or electrical engineers, then indeed might the educational expert reasonably ask for freedom from ignorant interference, but so long as experts differ radically among them- selves, and no one can say with assurance and certainty what should be taught, nor how it should be taught, how long or how short should be the hours or the term, how heavy or how light should be the individual task- so long as these and a thousand other questions of school administration are debatable questions there will always be room for the views and advice of laymen. It is one thing, however, to influence the judgment of a super- intendent or principal and quite another thing to force a superintendent or principal to act against his judgment. It is one thing to act thru the superintendent or principal and quite another thing to act over his head. No one can do his best work and no one can develop his own power if con- 340 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration stantly exposed to interference from above. Teachers, principals, directors, examiners, and superintendents in their own departments should receive loyal support from their superiors. Anything tending to humiliate them before their subordinates or to undermine and weaken their influence is bad administration. Principals must help teachers to hold the respect and confidence of their classes; superintendents must help principals to hold the respect and confidence of their teachers, and boards of education must be equally jealous of the position and influence of their superintendents if the best results are to be obtained in school administration. Loyalty from subordinates is universally recognized as a vital part of any organization, but loyalty from superiors toward subordinates is no less vital. Mutual appreciation and mutual confidence are imperative for good teamwork, and they are no less imperative for the development of individual initiative and individual power. THE EDUCATION OF SCHOOL COMMITTEES JOSEPH LEE, MEMBER, SCHOOL COMMITTEE, BOSTON, MASS. I will proceed in this talk on the true educational principle: from the known to the unknown, from the bromide to the bomb. I. My first piece of wisdom is for school committees, and it is included in the well-known saying of Solomon: "If you keep a dog to bark, don't bark yourself." This saying contains the law and the prophets for all amateur administrators, whether in schools or elsewhere. It applies even to the dogs of war. But what is barking ? a) Don't appoint teachers. Don't promote teachers. That is the superintendent's job. Don't prescribe irrelevant qualifications for teachers. The qualification now most insisted on by school committees is geographical. Not what she knows nor what she can teach — nor whether she knows any- thing or can teach at all — but where she lives is the question most passion- ately askt. The teacher must be a resident of the city in which the voters reside, preferably in the part of the town, best of all, in the family of the chief or master voter. The requirement is, of course, all right in my own town, because living in Boston is itself an education. But what a deprivation to the rest of the country ! School committees outside of Boston should drop this time-honored test. You think the voters will not let you. Then educate the voters to a new idea: that the schools are for teaching, not for poor relief. b) Don't bark at the teacher after she is appointed, nor at the principal, nor at the superintendent. People who cannot get used to a stranger, and must bark whenever they see one, are not fitted for service on school committees. Butting into administrative affairs (the dog here fulfilling the office of the goat), whether for the purpose of discrediting an appointee Depaftmentl THE EDUCATION OF SCHOOL COMMITTEES 341 without the geographical qualification or, worse still, of "helping teacher," is a second way in which the school committee exceeds its province, and is only second in its ill effects. 2. And yet, tho it may surprise long-suffering superintendents, there is a place even for school committees. And there is something for them to do beyond the selection of a superintendent, namely, legislation. For legislation is not barking. It is what the amateur administrator is for. It is the scene-painting part of school administration, containing those fea- tures of it that are on so large a scale that even the pubHc may see and understand. And the school committee represents the public, the great body of citizens who support the schools and on whose educational purposes the future of every school system ultimately depends. Here in the larger decisions about the extent and direction of public education the school com- mittee is not only justified in thinking for itself, but as trustee for the public it is obHged to do so. For if it cannot understand what the schools are doing and cannot justify their operation to itself, what chance is there that the general public will understand and justify them? In these larger matters upon which the people have a conscious opinion, be it right or wrong, it is the school committee's business to take the advice of the experts, but not to swallow it whole. They must somehow Fletcherize it, get it assimilated in their systems, before they act upon it. And I say to superintendents: Be not too impatient with your school committee. It is your safety-first, your shock-absorber. In this legislative sphere it is itself the dog, not now to bark, but to try things on. If you cannot get by with those whom you have seen and labored with, what chance have you with the great pubHc whom you have not seen? Rail not, therefore, at your school committee and its stupidity. It represents the public, and in mental capacity as in other respects it must be a true sample. The slower it is to understand the more valuable are the tests applied to it and the greater your protection. And then, be it said with deference, sometimes a school committee may know something. It is indeed interesting to notice how often in teaching, as indeed in every other human interest, progress has come from outside the profession. Taking the case of my own town of Boston, the contributions of outsiders to our present school system have included the kindergarten, cooking and sewing, sloyd, playgrounds and physical education, the licensing of minors, medical inspection and nurses in the schools, the social centers, the High School of Practical Arts, the Girls' Trade School, classes for stammerers, and (practically) the special classes for the mentally defective. And Horace Mann was himself a lawyer. Law had its Bentham, medicine its Pasteur, and school administration— may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it. Be not utterly scornful, therefore, of suggestions from amateurs, even from those upon the school committee itself. It is the ambition of most 342 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration professionals, and of practically all officials, to escape from every experience without learning anything. And it is wonderful with what skill they manage to come out unscathed, to keep their shields unspotted from profane knowledge, to emerge from every ordeal of suggestion with the same purity of knowledge or of ignorance with which they entered it. Do not take this attitude. Out of the mouths of babes and sucklings, even of school com- mittees, wisdom may occasionally proceed. There are, in truth, two ways in which superintendents may deal with their committees. They may put things over on them, or they may educate them. Each way has its advantages, but it is a drawback to the former that it does not improve with time; it gets thinner, in fact, is Hable to wear out altogether. Against the other method, that of educating your committee, the objection may justly be made that it is slow. But, on the other hand, it is solid and it is cumulative. School committees have shown, on occasion, almost human intelligence — I have seen it in other members and have felt it working in myseK. And then education is after all your business, is it not? All that is necessary is that you should apperceive your job (I have been planning to get in that word ever since I began, and this is the first chance) a Uttle more widely. And then thru the school committee you educate the public, and thus build up what is, after all, the only solid basis for advance. It may be difficult at first to have faith in the public understanding. When you have seen the people apparently more indignant over the dismissal of an unfit teacher than they have ever become over wasting the time of forty or fifty children every year, when you see them apparently more interested in getting their friends a job than in having their children educated, you are inclined to wonder whether anybody really cares at all for education. But, courage! What is most needed in a democracy is faith. People really do care if you can once get the thing before them. Make the school visible, develop your parents' associations, let them know your hopes and plans, have school and home visitors, give stereopticon lectures and show the measurable results obtained. I believe that in time we can get the idea accepted by the general public that the schools are for education. The notion is revolutionary, I know, but I think I see a dawning possibihty in that direction. For one thing, I think the teachers will back the idea when they understand its implications. Schools for education and not for poor relief means, for them, appointment and promotion by merit. It means teaching treated as a profession, the teacher accepted as a true professional, not as the creature of pull or politics, or as an object of public charity. The teacher will help to educate the public. And once the public takes it into its head that the schools really are for education, all other good things will follow. \ Department] FUNCTIONS AND METHODS OF BOARDS OF EDUCATION 343 FUNCTIONS AND METHODS OF BOARDS OF EDUCATION BEATRICE WINSER, MEMBER, BOARD OF EDUCATION, NEWARK, N.Y. If I had been askt to talk to educators, I should have been, most reluctant to do so, because what I am about to say is so obvious and so much a part of the creed of the educator that only the fact that I am talking to fellow-laymen, members of boards of education, gives me courage to attempt to define our functions. As a librarian I have for years been interested in our schools, and when I was appointed the first woman on the Newark Board of Education, as well as the first woman appointee to any municipal office, I took keen pleasure in the thought that I was to help shape the poUcies of our system. From being a desultory reader of matters educational I became an omniverous one and devoured educational periodicals, city-school reports, surveys, and books. As I read I became more and more convinst that the opinions with which I began my studies were correct, and that a school system ought to be managed hke a large business enterprise. As I listened to the matters brought to our attention as members of committees on buildings, grounds and supphes, and instruction and edu- cational supplies, I found that the attitude of the board members toward the superintendent and his associates — and I say this, not in a spirit of carping criticism, but simply to show you the effect of that attitude upon one accustomed to managing a business — was that of employers toward employes and not of directors toward experts. I decided that this fault could in a measure be attributed to our rules, which perhaps served their purpose well when nine years ago the large elective board of thirty members was superseded by our appointive board of nine, but have long outlived their usefulness. I began then to study still more seriously the functions and methods of boards of education. As a result of that study I prepared a set of rules, comprising 1653 words, which simply put the members of the board of education in the position of directors of a corporation with legislative functions and with the superintendent as their executive officer. The reason for not shortening the rules still more is that there are certain unfortunate provisions in the state law which prohibit it. In the rules under which the board of education is still conducting its business there are 5445 words. They put the members of the board in the position where they administer as well as legislate. This is illustrated by the facts: (i) during 16 months there have been held 38 meetings of the whole board and 127 meetings of the two committees of seven members each, and 25 meetings of a committee of six members, a total of 199 (I regret to say that as a member of the board and a member of two com- mittees I felt it my duty to attend 151 of these meetings); (2) nearly all the business brought before the committee has to do with details which 344 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration should have been settled by the board's experts under the direction of the superintendent. The conclusions I reacht, of course, had very little value merely as conclusions of my own, because, after all, I am a layman only. But I sub- mitted the important points in them to leading educational experts of the United States today, men like Paul H. Hanus, Nicholas Murray Butler, G. D. Strayer, Leonard P. Ayres, John Dewey, Frank W. Ballou, Charles H. Judd, George H. Melcher, and P. P. Claxton, and I have their letters of hearty approval. Then I askt a few leading business concerns, like the General Electric Co., the Whitehead & Hoag Co., the American Oil and Supply Co., the Sphtdorf Electric Co., the Lister Chemical Works, and R. C. Jenkinson & Co., whether they would approve of a general-manager plan of adminis- tering a $3,000,000 business such as ours is, and I have also their unqualified approval of my plan, the essence of which is making one man responsible to the board of directors, the executive head of our whole system. My ideas of the proper functions of a board of education are stated in 148 words, as follows: (i) members of a board of education are directors of a large corporation and should apply the principles of good corporation- management to educational affairs; (2) their executive officers should have authority and be held accountable for results; (3) a board should supply funds, supervise expenditures, and determine the general policy and the extension of the system; (4) its duty is to see that the schools are properly managed, and not to manage them itself; (5) it is not appointed to erect buildings, but to see that they are built; (6) it is not appointed to super- vise teachers, but to see that they are supervised; in short, it is appointed, not to do the work itself, but to get it done. As running a school system is an expert business, directed to one end, the education of children, it should be managed in all its aspects by an expert manager, and that manager should be an educator. NEEDED CHANGES IN THE PRESENT METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE BUSINESS OF A BOARD OF EDUCATION AND REASONS THEREFOR 1. Eliminate standing committees. A city looks to the board of nine members to manage its schools. With standing committees the board breaks itself up into several smaller boards, loses some of that unity of imderstanding on the part of the whole body which is so essential, scatters its energies, and wastes its time. 2. Systematize its business and give to its executive staff full responsi- bility for executive detail, and devote itself only to oversight and direction of all that is done. 3. Make the superintendent the executive officer, give him full powers and responsibilities, and hold him strictly accountable for the successful conduct of all departments of the^system. Department] AFTER THE ARCHITECT 3^5 4. Appoint the superintendent for a three years' term. 5. With the superintendent's aid define the functions of every member of the educational service. The board should say to the superintendent: Everything to be done here is for one end, the education of the child. Everything you recommend we shall ask you to justify in one way only— by showing that it is necessary to the running of a good school system. You are the expert whom we have put in charge of it, and we shall see that you do your work, and you are to keep us fully informed and at all times convinst that the work is being done as we wish it done— in as complete and effective a manner as funds permit. If you recommend new things, you must convince us that they are necessary. You will be held strictly accountable for every expenditure. We shall watch the results which you get with the utmost care. 6. The superintendent shall plan a policy of development and submit the same in great detail; the same to include a report on the school system as it is, with recommendations as to what it should be. The board should study the report with great care and decide either for or against the policy laid down. This procedure should be repeated at frequent intervals. 7. The superintendent, as an expert in education, should convince the board, by frequent reports thereon, that the schools are continually pro- gressing in two respects particularly — in the efficiency of teachers and in the character of the training given to the children. The superintendent's business is to secure this progress; the board's duty is to see that he secures it and to give him ample powers with which to produce it. 8. If the board makes its executive officers take full responsibility for the proper workings of the school system, one regular meeting a month of the board will be ample to transact all its business. 9. Adjourned and special meetings may be called when needed. 10. Special committees can be appointed to investigate and report in writing to the board on matters that require very special attention. In conclusion, let me say that I have discovered by observation and reading that boards of education are fearful of losmg prestige, power, and a certain dignity if it is not noted thru the public press that they manage details and give orders to their educational experts, whom they unfortu- nately look upon as mere subordinates. This fear of losing publicity and prestige is a prime cause of the constant interference by boards in matters of which they are quite ignorant, and con- cerning which they can do nothing that is helpful, but much that is harmful. AFTER THE ARCHITECT C. B. J. SNYDER, ARCHITECT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. By this alliterative title I do not refer to those occasions after the erec- tion of a new school building where the dissatisfied schoohnasters get after the architect with a sharp stick or mayhap a club. I prefer, rather, 346 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration to have your thoughts concerned for a few moments with what happens to the building after the architect turns it over, completed. The school building is put to various and, perhaps, changing uses. It must be equipt for science classes, housekeeping, dramatics, physical culture, and many forms of industrial training — each with its own* particular type of equipment. Every provision is bound round with restrictions, not only from the schoolmaster's point of view, but also as to financial limitations, rules and regulations of the state and municipality, and others which, with the necessity of making the buildings structurally sound and architecturally beautiful — or at least pleasing — altogether affords abundant opportunity for intellectual exercise. The Old World has long since accepted, as beyond argument, the prin- ciple that public buildings must not only serve the protective uses whose needs they supply, but must also adorn the city. There is no class of build- ing to which this quality more fittingly belongs than the schoolhouse. Its occupants are in a plastic state. Whatever lessons of beauty the community is to teach by its parks and buildings, its monuments and its paintings, they are presumably productive of greater results if directed toward the child before its tastes have been blunted by the too-prevalent ugliness of our average American city. The requirement that the schoolhouse be a lesson in beauty, or at least in good taste, is particularly strong in that it is a material possession of that department of the city which is concerned with the preservation and extension of culture and refinement. More and more in America has the architect been permitted, and even encouraged, to perform this function; to design and construct buildings that are municipal lessons in good pro- portion, harmonious coloring, and pleasing influence to the eye and mind and spirit of the beholder. Further, the people have come to recognize that this provision applies with particular emphasis to the school building, as not only is the respect of the citizen for his municipality enhanst thereby, but the very purpose of the structure — the education of the children themselves — is greatly furthered. There are numerous and well-proved instances where there has been a remarkable increase in the efficiency of all the teaching — literary, mathe- matical, scientific, and all other branches of the work of a school — where the organization as a whole has been transferred from an old, out-of-date structure to one designed and equipt in accordance with latter-day ideas. It reaqts very strongly upon the personnel of both the teaching force and the pupils. We all know that there is a certain pleasure in doing even routine work in agreeable and convenient surroundings. This has now become a recognized factor in the manufacturing world, where returns on the investment are far more carefully scrutinized and more easily measured in dollars and cents than is possible in public educational matters. For with the maintenance of pleasing, even if not beautiful, physical surroundings Department! FUNCTIONS OF STATE IN LOCAL ADMINISTRATION 347 there is a stimulation of the mental processes, a reduction in fatigue, and hence an improvement in the efficiency among the operatives that results in a very great increase in capacity or output. The architect does delight in the fact that thru the medium of stone and brick and other rough materials he may perhaps design a buUding that will be pleasing to the eye and prove adequate and convenient for its occupants. But in the mind of the man giving the best that is in him in the design of a modern school there is also the hope that he is making easier, pleasanter, and more effective the tremendously important work of educa- tion which is to be done in the buildings that come from his hand. The architect, however, like the shipbuilder, launches his product and leaves it in other hands; and we have come to believe that unless the fundamental truths I have referred to are graspt and lived up to by those into whose care the buildings come the whole doctrine of beauty and utiUty is lost. The schoolmaster is in this respect a most important member of the community, and should lead in the spirit of appreciation, and hence pres- ervation and improvement of not only the building and equipment, but its external setting. To those who have given thought and study to the spirit of protection thrown about the public buildings of Europe there is the ever-present hope that the civic spirit which prompts this, and of which we see certain evidences here and there in our own country, shall quicken and expand so that it soon shall become a part of the everyday education of the child. There is nothing new, I am sorry to say, in the fact that in very many instances those who were responsible for a beautiful school building with adequate setting of shrubs and flowers, and who have relied upon the civic pride of a neighborhood to care for grass, hedges, and flowering shrubs, have had their faith in human nature shattered and almost lost upon returning at some later date to find the building defaced, the flowers stript, the shrubs destroyed, and the grass worn down to the ugliness of a dog with the mange. We have laid out open grounds with generous, unobstructed space and have otherwise, as opportunity offered, provided for the develop- ment of civic pride, only to find it necessary to inclose the premises with a high iron fence, as if it were a jail instead of a public school. In Italy, in France, in Germany, and elsewhere you will see open projects which it would be folly to attempt now in New York City. The school child of those countries does not think of destroying the shrubbery nor of defacing the building, knowing, as he does, that should he do so punishment swift and sure would inevitably fall upon him. The preservation of school grounds and buildings is essentially the responsibility of the schoolmaster. He comes after the architect. The advantages of order, symmetry, and beauty are chiefly assets for his business. We have school buildings which receive from their intelligent masters a care that not only makes them attractive and pleasant, but is 348 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration easily translated into dollars and cents, since it materially reduces the cost of maintenance. It pays. It is a splendid provision of mind to see that the purpose for which a building was made pleasant and attractive is given an opportunity to function. Teachers, pupils, and the custodian learn from an intelligent and alert principal the pride and enjoyment that spring from the use of a beautiful building. Neatness and order in such use engender like qualities in the minds of all associated therewith. Careless- ness and lack of interest on the part of the principal in this particular matter are reflected in the minds and acts of the pupils. It thus becomes a damage to a community. But a principal or schoolmaster who realizes why a school building was constructed and equipt with an eye to beauty and con- venience, who appreciates that its mission cannot succeed unless he becomes its missionary, who maintains a well-ordered, well-cleaned, well-preserved school building — such a one is, as he should be, an agent of civilization and refinement with whom it is a pleasure to work. FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE IN LOCAL ADMINISTRATION THOMAS E. riNEGAN, DEPUTY STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N.Y. What I regard as one of the great fundamental principles of school administration in this country is that public education is a function of the state and not a function of a municipality nor of any local division of the state. Every school system of every state in the country has been founded upon that principle, and whenever it has been challenged in any state of the Union, and the courts of the state have had the opportunity to pass upon the question, they have weighed the matter and held that public education is a function of the state and not a function of a locality. No one can point to a single decision of a court of final jurisdiction in any state in this Union which has held to the contrary. Now, what is meant by "education being a function of the state"? Do we mean that the state is to put itself in place of the locality and is to dominate the administration of public education in a city or any other section of the state ? That is not it at all. It means that the controlling power in public education shall always be reserved to the legislative power of the state, and the locality may exercise such powers as are delegated to it by the legislature. Let me give you an illustration of what I mean by public education being the function of the state and not of the locality. A few years ago in a city in one of the states of this country there was what is known as a "bipartisan board of education." Now, that sounds good — bipartisan- equal representation in public education of the two great parties. Why think about representation of parties on a board of education? Why I Department] FUNCTIONS OF STATE IN LOCAL ADMINISTRATION 349 should parties as such be given representation upon a board of education? We have no business to take into consideration the question of parties when we are determining what the personnel of a board of education shall be. We are to take into consideration just one thing, and that one thing is, What is for the best interest of the children of the state ? Now, they did have on the board of education in that city representation from both political parties. There were four men on the board, good men— two Democrats and two Republicans— and they sat down to select the teachers. There were only ninety teachers in that city. These four men intended to do just what was the absolutely right thing for the people of their city, and so the first teacher chosen was taken from the Democratic faith, and the next teacher chosen was taken from the Republican faith, and so they proceeded. In this way each of the two great parties had equal representation in the teaching force. There were forty-five teachers taken from the Democratic families and forty-five from the Republican families, and the board of education believed it was discharging its faithful obligation to the people of the city because it was a bipartisan board of education. That workt very well for two years, but the city grew somewhat, and it soon became necessary to appoint ninety-one teachers. The board convened to make their annual appointments, and they proceeded tentatively to assign one teacher to the Democrats and one to the Republicans until they had ninety appointed. The board then proceeded to appoint the ninety-first teacher and the Democratic representatives said: "Now, we carried the election last fall, we elected the mayor, and we think we should have this additional teacher." And the Republican representatives on the board said, "That is very true, but we have carried the election four times out of five; therefore we are entitled to this additional teacher." The board could not agree upon the appointment of that one teacher, and so it decided not to appoint any teachers, and no teachers were appointed. The first of September came, and the schools were not opened; the middle of September came, and the schools were still closed, and on the first day of October the compulsory- attendance law became operative. There was a state law which durected that every child in the state, of school age, should be under instruction on the first of October. Under such law it was the duty of the municipahty to provide for the instruction of the children from the first of October until the end of June, and for failure to do this penalties were imposed. This board could not agree, and the head of the state school system had given notice to the board of education that if the schools were not opened on the first of October he would appoint teachers and see that the schools were opened and properly administered On the first of October the commis- sioner of education of that state appointed a temporary superintendent of schools, ninety teachers, attendance officers, and janitors, and the schools were opened. The board of education challenged the legality of the power thus exercised by the commissioner of education and applied to the Supreme 3SO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration Court for a writ of prohibition to restrain the commissioner of education from performing such function. The court held that the commissioner was not only within his constitutional rights, but was obeying a mandate of the constitution adopted by the people, which required the maintenance of a system of free common schools wherein all the children of the state should be educated, and that it was a question of interest to all the citizens of the state as to whether or not there should be 5000 children in any city of the state deprived of the privilege of attending school. The state was bound to protect every child in its right to an education. The law of the state makes it the duty of every locality to supply the personal staff necessary for the operation of its school system, and when any community fails to meet such obligation, the state possesses the power to take such action, unusual as it may be, to open and operate the schools. There are questions coming before the public continually in all sections of the country which involve this principle. In many of the states educa- tional measures have been before legislative bodies which, if enacted iato law, would contravene this principle. The assaults which have been made upon school systems, by forces in no way responsible for the management of schools, for the promotion of selfish interests at the expense of the schools make it necessary that educational administrators, who know the evils which will result from the abandonment of this time-honored fundamental American principle of school administration, shall insist upon legislation in every state which shall preserve the independence of officers charged with the administration of public education. A few years ago I was askt to speak before the educational committee of a legislature where this question was under consideration. In that instance the state had prepared a bill to reorganize the school system of its cities. A bill applying to one city was also introduced. This bill had been prepared by the corporation counsel under the direction of the mayor, and I want to tell you some of its essential features, and see whether or not you would be willing to substitute the principles on which it was based for the great fundamental principle on which the school systems of the several states in the Union have been founded. The first important feature of that bill was to abolish the board of education and to provide that the mayor of the city should be ex officio the board of education. The bill further pro- vided that the mayor should be given the power to make annual contracts with teachers; that the mayor should have the right, at his pleasure, to discontinue contracts; that the mayor should have the right to purchase all kinds of supplies used in the school system; that the mayor, as the ex officio board of education, should be given the authority to let all con- tracts for repairs of school buildings and for the construction of new build- ings. The mayor who had this bill prepared went just a little farther than any man I have ever known in attempting to devise a scheme for the Department] THE BUSINESS MAN AND THE PUBLIC SERVICE 351 administration of a public-school system, and provided that he— the mayor— should further have the power to examine and license teachers. Now, I submit to you, is there any person in this room who believes that there should be written upon the statutes of any state a law which provides, in effect, that city officers shall have the absolute control and jurisdiction of the administration of the public-school system, and that the prmciples involved in the proposed legislation should be substituted for the principle that public education, being a state and not a municipal function, shall be administered by the school officers who are independent of municipal authorities ? The several states have universally reserved the power to determme the general policy of public education, but at the same time have recognized the principle that local school authorities should be given the power to administer such policy within the limitations imposed by the state thru legislative enactment. THE BUSINESS MAN AND THE PUBLIC SERVICE JACOB M. LOEB, PRESIDENT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, CHICAGO, ILL. Generally speaking, we Americans know two types in the public life of our municipalities. One is composed of men of legal training, the other of men of no particular training. Both make a business of politics and find a profit in its pursuit. Politics is always the main and often the sole business of their lives. Briefless lawyers or misfits from various vocations fill the large places in the public service. An aptitude for forensic declama- tion characterizes one type, the ability to control votes, the other. *' Neither," to quote James Bryce in The American Commonwealth ^ "has any comprehension of political questions or zeal for political principles; politics means to them merely a scramble for places or jobs." These political conditions arise largely out of social and economic ones. There is, as yet, no large leisure class with time to give service to the community, no intellectual group with minds bent on political science, no independent wealth with inclination toward public affairs. Those who have leisure are engrost in the pursuit of the light and vapid pleasures of life. Those who have education are devoted to less vital, or perhaps more profitable, studies. Those who have wealth are striving for still larger accumulations. In the main there is no public spirit, and the public service is left to the ill-equipt and the unfit. With a better social attitude, with a more universal higher education, with a greater economic security, there should be promise of considerable and important changes. To speak of one of these is the purpose of this paper. I refer to the advent of the business man to public service. I come to you as a business man, and— in all modesty I say it— as a successful one. The busmess maJi need make no apology because of the fact that he is 352 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration in business, nor because of the fact that he is successful. Neither is he to be condemned either for his business or for his success, provided only his busiuess has been properly conducted and his success honestly attained. He should not be excluded from, but should be welcomed into, the public service; for the very capacity which has made for the development and success of his business will make for the good and betterment of the public service. Business-management and busiuess methods are needed, sadly needed, in the public service. No one is better qualified to apply them to the public service than the independent and successful man of affairs. We must differentiate between the business man in the public service and the politician who has a business. One is a new, comparatively rare, and a desirable type; the other is an old, familiar, and undesirable type. One brings business ability and experience to the solution of the problems of the public's business; the other uses his public trust and oflScial position for the advantage of his private business. One enters the public life because he has ideals; the other because he lacks them. One works for the benefit of the municipality; the other for personal profit. One strives for the good of the service; the other for the good of the servant. The business man who enters the public service has no easy road to travel. The conduct of our municipal business has, in the main, been such as would involve a private business in bankruptcy. Its management has been loose, its methods slipshod, and its trend shiftless. It has been char- acterized by favoritism, spoils, and corruption. Political futures and party fortunes, not sound fundamentals, have been its determining factors. Contracts have been let and positions assigned with a view to currying favor or influencing votes regardless of economies or efficiency. The business man who deliberates and seeks the truth, who demands the elimi- nation of waste and decries extravagance, who wants to put the municipal business on a business basis, meets with opposition. He is urged to do what is expedient rather than what is sound. If he refuses, he is threatened with political annihilation. The business man who enters public life must be prepared to make sacrifices, not only of time which might be valuable to his own business, but more. He will be abused, his motives will be impugned. An establisht order resents interference. It resists change. The professional politician has so long been in undisturbed and comfortable control of municipal affairs that he cannot comprehend the participation of honest, capable, and independent business men. He has drunk so long at the public trough that he cannot understand why anyone should come to the trough except to drink. He has stabled so long in the public stall that he chafes at sharing it with a newcomer. That the trough is not his alone, or that the stall may need renovating, is to him inconceivable. So the business man who contests for a place beside him and who, forsooth, differs from him has his purposes questioned, is vilified and vituperated. All of this must not Department] TEE BUSINESS MAN AND THE PUBLIC SERVICE 353 deter him from continuing in the public service. It is part of the sacrifice which he must make in the community interest. It is part of the necessity which compels him to remain. It is part of the goad which drives him to persist. It is part of the proof positive and convincing that he is needed in the public service. You will pardon me if I speak, nay, you will expect me to speak, of the business man in the branch of the public service in which most of us here are engaged, namely, public education. There is no place which is more worthy of his time, his thought, and his energy. There is no place for which he is better fitted, none where he is more needed. The business of the public schools is big and various. There is a large investment of the public moneys. There are large holdings of property, real and personal. There are tremendous incomes and expenditures. The product of that business is second in importance to no other. The child who is to be the future citizen of our municipalities and our nation is here in the making. That the investment may be safeguarded, that the property may be managed in a business-like manner, that expenditures may be wisely adjusted to incomes, that the interests of the school child may be conserved, that they may not be subordinated to those of designing partisans — for this the business man is fitted by experience and training. It is true that he is not qualified to arrange the curriculum nor to select school teachers. That these functions lie far from his proper field is beyond question. But it is also true, and should be beyond question, that they are neither the function of any persons nor power other than those of the trained educators — the general superintendent of schools and his staff. It is for no faction nor class to say what the child shall be taught nor who shall teach him. I have no quarrel with trades-unions, properly conducted and in their proper place, but a trades-union in the public school is intolerable. Teach- ing is not a trade. It is a profession and one of the noblest professions. In principle and in practice trades-unionism is inconsistent with, and unneces- sary to, a professional career. In the schools it makes for a divided alle- giance; it breeds suspicion and discontent; it destroys harmony and creates strife; it interferes with discipline and halts efficiency. The young teacher comes into the service full of enthusiasm for her work. Her thoughts are engrost with the children. But no sooner is she engaged than the union sets to work poisoning her minti. She is told that she cannot stand alone, that her enthusiasm and her capacity will not win her recognition, that she must look to the union, as if she were in a trade, either for promotion or salary increase. "The slogan of the union," she is told, "is not children first, but teachers first." She is made to view her- self as a victim. "Her employer, the board of education," she is led to believe, "is trying to crush her and to keep her down." Class prejudice is encouraged and class hate engendered. Her ideals are shattered. She had hoped to devote herself to a noble and sacred calling. She finds herself 354 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Admbistration in a sordid, salary-grabbing and self-seeking occupation. She is cajoled, then threatened, should she still not affiliate herself with the teachers' union. If she submits, she pays her fees as peace insurance and keeps silent to avoid trouble. If she resists, she feels the subtle and intriguing lash of the persecutor. In either event, she is terrorized, and the school children suffer. The inner circle, the few in synapathy with, and in control of, the union — openly dissatisfied, contemptuous, and rebellious toward those in authority — send forward children who in turn are likely to be dis- satisfied, contemptuous, and rebellious toward authority, and to have no regard and no respect for law and order. I am not theorizing nor drawing on my imagination. I am stating facts as I have actually found them. Not fitness, but allegiance to a class, not efficiency, but membership in a trades-union, in my experience, have been the tests by which a teacher's right to position or promotion were deter- mined. Beside the subterranean influences at work in our public-school system; beside the high-handed methods employed — sometimes secretly, sometimes openly and barefaced, but always thoroly organized — the influ- ences, the fraud and trickery which characterize the lowest type of ward politics; the violence and graft of the labor movement, which even its most ardent admirers will not defend, pale into insignificance — pale because those influences are at work and those methods employed to the lasting detriment of the most delicate, the most plastic, the most sacred charges which God has given us — the mind and soul of the school child. They are made the plaything, the shuttlecock, of a small, ambitious, and designing coterie, blinded to everything but self by a lust for power and dominance. No other learned profession presents such conditions. No other is unionized. Bar associations, medical societies, and engineers, architects, and ministers of the gospel in groups are maintained for the free interchange of new and valuable ideas. They are intended for the good, not the degra- dation, of the professions. Men devoted to higher education and scientific pursuits have their associations. But none of these meets and exists to discuss fees, pay, and so-called working conditions. By all means let us have a teachers' organization. But let the leadership go to the best teachers, not to the most astute politicians. Let the organization discuss problems of education, not the problems of self. "No servant can serve two masters, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will hold to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and mam- mon." So spoke the greatest Teacher of them all, the greatest Teacher the world has ever known. No father with children in attendance at the public schools, no citizen who loves his country's institutions, no man with red blood in his veins can sit idly by and let conditions as they are go unchallenged. No true business man who, in his private business, selects workers with a view to their ability, Department] THE BUSINESS MAN AND THE PUBLIC SERVICE 355 who advances them for merit and rewards them for loyalty, can do other than register his protest when he finds a different and a demoralizing set of standards fixing the selection, the advancement, and the reward of servants in that branch of the public service in whose administration he has been chosen to participate. If he has had success in his private business and his success is lasting, it is because he has brought energy, hard work, eflSciency, and high ideals to it. Competition has been constant and persistent. To succeed he has had to offer his consumer a better product or his clientele a more attractive service than was offered by his competitor. To accom- plish this, skilled workers, capable assistants, and conscientious lieutenants were required. Pull and " outside " interfetence have prevented neither the elimination of the unfit nor the recognition of the competent man or woman in his employ. He cannot understand why the same principles and the same course of conduct which he has successfully applied to his private business cannot and should not, with equal success, be applied to the business of the public schools. So he undertakes to apply them. Of course, here again his task will be a difficult one. He will be reviled by the press. Let him remember that the press is not always independent. It has news to sell. Not infrequently it gives its readers what it thinks they want instead of what they ought to have. He will be discouraged by his political sponsors. Let him remember that success of party, not the best public service, may be their predominant aim. He will be abused by the "sob- sisters." Let him remember that they are moved more often by maudlin sentimentalism than by a knowledge of the facts. He will feel the pressure of public opinion. Let him remember that too often "public opinion is a controlled opinion," and that the controllers are not always disinterested nor honest. He will be betrayed even by an associate who may be a fellow- business man with political aspirations, standing in mortal dread of that bugaboo, that myth, "the labor vote." Let him but strive the harder. His will be the unpopular position. Let him defend it fearlessly. His is the task of helping to introduce sound business-management into a vital department of the public service. His is the task of helping to reclaim the profession of teaching and to free it from the baneful influences which threaten to prostitute it to base purposes. It will take of his time. It will be worthy of his best thinking. It will require all of his courage. He may be courting political oblivion; but withal he is a business man and he prefers good business to bad politics. 356 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration A REPLY ELLA FLAGG YOUNG, FORMERLY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. I thought this morning that I should speak on the subject of "The Relation of the Superintendent to the Teachers," but some statements in the last paper oblige me to move somewhat from that subject and get the truth before you. The feeling of authority which possesses the human soul when it gets into a position of recognized influence is something that no one can fully estimate. Have you read Bury's History of the Freedom of Thought, publisht within the last two or three years ? If you haven't, I wish that all of you, every man and woman in this room, would buy a copy of that book and learn something about what the human race has suffered and done in order to attain a fairly respectable right to freedom of thought and its expression. No one realizes more fully than I the difficulties in carrying out that plan which has been referred to by the president and was very finely outlined in the first paper — having the members of the board attend to all the administrative business affairs, and the expert — the superintendent — attend to the educational affairs. And in the last part of that first paper was the gathering up of the main difficulty — that the men and women who are on the board of education, almost without exception, are there with someone behind them. If they are successful business men, the commercial organizations are behind them, and the successful women have the women's clubs behind them, and so they must maintain the standards set by the men or the clubs or the organizations which have put them there as the mouthpiece. Labor unions, teachers in federations, teachers whose federa- tions are affiHated with labor unions, seem to be the main points in the mind of the business man who has just addrest you. The teachers of this country have the great work of preparing the chil- dren for efficient membership in this democracy when they become voting citizens. The teacher has to prepare the pupils, not, as in common par- lance, to become as those who are taken to the polls and referred to as "voting cattle," but to become men and women who know the duties and the rights of an American citizen and are ready to meet them and fulfil them. That is the work of the teacher. I have a theory — I know it will not be supported here — that first and foremost, no person should ever be on a public board of education who does not send his own children, or did not send his own children while they were of school age, to the public schools. And why should that restriction be made ? Because sympathy with the work of the school should be given, and can be given, only by one who believes in the public-school ideals laid down in the state constitutions in this country with their system of public Department! A REPLY 357 schools freed from sectarianism, freed from everything except that which makes citizens of this American country, and not by one who takes his money and his children, and puts them into a pay school because they will get into better society, or by one who for religious purposes draws away from the 46 constitutions of the 48 states that laid down the law that there is to be no sectarianism nor any religious instruction in the public school, and who, because of that, must turn to the sectarian school and send his children there — these people ought not to be on the board of education. They cannot have sympathy with the aim that animates the pubUc school. When I began teaching in the city of Chicago, the teaching force was so small that the superintendent, who had his institutes once a month, had in one schoolroom the teachers of the high school, the principal of the high school — there was then only one — the principal of the elementary schools, and all the grade teachers. There we met and discust, on the same level, the subjects which were presented to us, or which were raised by persons present. But today it is simply impossible for the teachers in a great city or for even the principals, in a city like New York, to meet and discuss freely the questions — a few do the talking, and they talk to the galleries. With this growth of the public-school system in cities like New York and Chicago, where a large proportion of the membership of the pubUc school is made up of the foreign element and of Americans who have not yet learned to be successful business men — and it is true, not only in these two cities, but wherever there has developt a good-sized school system— there has been a tendency toward factory-evolution and factory-management, and the teachers, like children who stand at machines, are told just what to do. The teachers, instead of being the great moving force, educating and developing the powers of the human mind in such a way that they shall contribute to the power and the eflSciency of this democracy, tend to become mere workers at the treadmill, but they are doing all thru this country that which shows that it is diflScult to crush the human mind and the love of freedom in the hearts and lives of people who are qualified to teach school. As a result they are organizing federations to get together and discuss those questions which are vital in the life of the children and m the life of the teachers— you cannot separate the life of the children and the life of the teacher if you know what you are about. In Chicago— I might as well say Chicago outright; you know that what has been said referred to Chicago— as a district superintendent I saw the beginnings of the Chicago Teachers' Federation, and I felt very uneasy; I feared those teachers were becoming too grasping— else why were they organizing the federation, independent of the superintendent and the board of education ? I was not large enough in the beginning to see, I had not the insight to see, that these women were reaUzing that they had not the freedom, the power, which people should have who are to train the 358 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration minds of the children. They came into the committee (I used to attend the meetings of the Committee on School-Management when I was a district superintendent), and askt that the board consider increasing their salaries. I can see that committee now, as they sat there and listened calmly, with immovable, expressionless faces. When all had spoken, the chairman askt whether there were any more to speak. There were no more; hence they were dismist; and then the smile that went around that table ! They had had their say. I don't know whether you take that situation in fully or not. The result was — nothing! And again they came, and the same courteous reception and the same dismissal and the same nothing! And after a while they said, "This is silly." When they were affihated with the Labor Union I was sorry. I thought they had made a great mistake, and I said publicly that I thought it was a mistake, and on general principles I would be willing to make that state- ment today. But what affected my general principles and brought me down to something special? It was this. They found that in order to get anything done they must have voting power behind them. And they found that the people, the men, in their own station and rank in life, the college-bred men, were not ready to do anything for them; therefore they were compelled to go in with those who had felt the oppression and the grind of the power of riches. That is why they went into the Federation of Labor. With regard to their browbeating young teachers: if a person desires to make friends with one in authority, and that person has a noble mind and dare speak what is in it, and speak it properly, he can go to those in authority and lay his condition or wishes before them; but if a person has a mean mind, he will go and tell the one in authority the petty thing against somebody which is concocted to please the person in authority, and that, I think, is the main source of this talk that was given here more dra- matically than I can repeat it. Small-minded persons have gone to those who are opposed to the Federation of Teachers and have described those things as they have been described here. My friends, which shall we accept ? The words of a body of teachers who have studied the way to lead children to the higher lights and the broader spheres and the dignity and nobility of citizenship in this country, or shall we accept the tales told by those who curry favor? That is what I need to know, and I speak in all sincerity, just as I assume that the speaker before me believed what he said. But I know more about it. I know what I am talking about, and I know that these talks of intimidation and browbeating are the results of a currying of favor with those members of the board who are known to have such affiliations as to believe that teachers must come to realize that they are the great army of the employed, and it is their business to be careful and walk circumspectly before their employers. Department] A REPLY ^^g I am very sorry— I had no idea that I should hear the teachers of Chicago attackt as they have been, and if the reader of that paper had workt in those schools, or if he had gone thru those schools, or if he had patronized those schools, he could not so attack these teachers. I desire to make one more point. In every body of people there will always develop two parties. It is for the good of the nation that we have the radical and the conservative. It is for the good of any organization that there be two parties, but not necessarily factions. But what are you going to do if bitterness is developt? And what develops bitterness? That is the question. There is evidence and report of great bitterness be- tween some members of the board and the teachers. That bitterness originated in the class antagonism, developt by the teachers in bringing wealthy tax-dodgers under the law. It has no basis in the classroom. I believe — and I have visited the schools of almost every large and middle- sized city and town in this country — I believe that nowhere does there exist a clearer vision of the aim of the public schools, and nowhere is there more life that indicates the conduct of the work in harmony with that vision than in the city of Chicago. DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President— J. L. Holtsclaw, director, High School of Commerce Detroit, Mich. Vice-President— L. Gilbert Dake, Soldan High School St. Louis, Mo! Secretary — Clyde Blanchard, instructor in business economy, extension division. University of California, Bericelqr, pj. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 4, 1916 The department met in Room 804, Washington Irving High School, at 9:30 a.m., with President Holtsclaw in the chair. The secretary of the department bemg absent, the chair appomted H. G. Healey, New York, N.Y., secretary pro tern. The following program was given: "Fundamental Amis in the Teaching of Bookkeeping"— W. E. Bartholomew, specialist in commercial education, state department of Education, Albany, N.Y. "Penmanship in Business High Schools"— Horace G. Healey, editor. Business Journal, New York, N.Y. "T3rpewriting in the Public Schools" — Frederick R. Beygrau, instructor in type- writing, High School of Commerce, New York, N.Y. "The Organization of a Business-Practice and Office-Routine Course and How to Make It a Success in Business High Schools" — ^W. J. McCarty, director, business-practice department, Packard Commercial School, New York, N.Y. SECOND SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 1916 The department met in Room 804, Washington Irving High School, at 9:30 A.M., with President Holtsclaw in the chair. The following program was presented: "Economics in the Commercial High School" — Cheesman A. Herrick, president, Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa. " The Relation of the Library to Business Education "—Louise B . Krause, ex-president, Chicago Library Club, and librarian, H. M. Byllesby & Co., Chicago, 111. "How Teachers Can Increase the Efficiency of Accounting and Bookkeeping Courses" — Robert Montgomery, ex-president of the American Association of Public Accountants and assistant professor of accounting, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "The Teaching of Business English and Advertising in Business High Schools"— George B. Hotchkiss, professor of business English and head of the advertising and market division. New York University School of Commerce, New York, N.Y. The report of the Committee on Research, Standardization, and Correlation was in the form of three papers, as follows: "Commercial Geography"— J. Paul Goode, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. "Business English"— James Fleming Hosic, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, HI. "Shorthand and Typewriting "—Ada R. Collins, Colorado Springs, Colo. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year : President— Cheesmam A. Herrick, president, Girard CoUege, Philadelphia, Pa. Vice-President— Hoia.ce G. Healey, Evander Childs High School, New York, N.Y. Secretary— Geoige H. Van Tuyl, High School of Commerce, New York, N.Y. Horace G. Healey, Secretary 361 362 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Business PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS FUNDAMENTAL AIMS IN THE TEACHING OF BOOKKEEPING W. E. BARTHOLOMEW, SPECIALIST IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N.Y. Bookkeeping is the pioneer among commercial subjects. The earliest business schools taught bookkeeping primarily, altho penmanship and commercial arithmetic were given a measure of attention in their relation to the main subject. The high schools taught bookkeeping long before commercial courses with their complete list of commercial subjects were thought of. At one time it was a required subject for one of the academic diplomas issued by the University of the State of New York, the idea being that a knowledge of bookkeeping was desirable in a general high- school education. The teaching of bookkeeping thus markt the beginning of commercial education. With the development of commercial work in the high schools and the consequent increase in the number of commercial subjects, bookkeeping has retained an important place in the curriculum of commercial studies. Today a high-school commercial course is considered scarcely worthy of the name unless it prescribes two or three years' study of this subject. Aside from the "momentum of an early start," the general conviction that bookkeeping has direct value in the preparation for business life tends to make it still the central subject in the commercial group of secondary-school studies. There are two points of view from which one may judge the value of bookkeeping training — the vocational and the educational, the former look- ing toward values directly practical, the latter looking more toward informa- tional, disciplinary, and cultural values in the subject. The vocational viewpoint presupposes that the subject-matter has a close relation to the work of the business office, and that the school training will assist the boy or girl in taking up readily the duties of a clerical position. It is evident at once that the extent to which the teaching becomes practical must be deter- mined by the success with which the work of the school is adapted to the needs of the business office. The character of the work of the business office has changed greatly during the last twenty or thirty years, so that what was formerly vocational instruction in bookkeeping would not now be so con- sidered. During that time we have observed the remarkable develop- ment of "big business" and the gradual elimination of the small estabhsh- ment. The simple methods of keeping accounts, requiring not much more than the use of the daybook, journal, and ledger, have been supplanted by elaborate systems of accounts and statistical bookkeeping involving all the modern labor-saving devices. The work of the modern business office, Department] FUNDAMENTAL AIMS IN TEACHING OF BOOKKEEPING 363 like that of the factory, which it may control, is highly specialized. This condition is quite in contrast with that in the small business office in which one person frequently is charged, not only with making the bookkeeping records, but also with performing the variety of details incident to the transactions that occur in the course of a day's business. While the book- keeper in charge of the small office needs to have a faurly comprehensive knowledge of bookkeeping principles and practice and of business pro- cedure, the clerk in the larger office has very little occasion to apply even the elementary principles of bookkeeping. As you know, bookkeeping instruction, as generally carried on, centers about the so-called "bookkeeping set," a series of connected and related business transactions designed to typify business routine from the making of the investment to the closing of the books and the preparation of state- ments. Business practice — that is, the preparation and the handling of business papers — forms usually a large part of the work of the set. Now, if our pupils were still going chiefly into the smaller business offices, there might be some reason for emphasizing the routine of business transactions. Since, however, the majority of boys and girls who take clerical positions find themselves confronted with the specialized work of the modem office, the value of the routine form of bookkeeping instruction becomes very slight indeed. It is desurable, therefore, to make a change from this old- time method of presentation to the topical method by which the various phases of the subject may be treated intensively in order to develop skill in doing the work of the single and specialized task. Furthermore, the topical method will permit the application of sound teaching principles not possible by the other method. In the intensive treatment made possible by this method there is an opportunity for giving a traming suited to the requirements of the modem clerical positions. A few illustrations will serve to make my meaning clear. Take, for example, the subject of billmg or invoicing. After the pupil has learned the correct method of writmg an invoice and has become familiar with the various types of invoices, exercises typifying the work of the invoice clerk should be introduced. With a given price list, a stack of orders, and a pad of billheads he should be mstructed to prepare the invoices, list them on a sales sheet, which may contain columns for different departments of a business, and make a recapitulation of the totals. Similar exercises may be prepared for the writing of notes and the subsequent recording in the billbook. The work of the cashier may be illustrated by giving the pupil a page of the cashbook with instructions to enter the cash receipts from the record slips or the original cash papers, and the cash pay- ments from the stubs of a checkbook, the page to be properly balanst as at the close of the day. . The distribution of charges from vouchers to a voucher register may also be made an excellent exercise. Exercises of this character afford drill in "working under pressure," something that is 364 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Busmess demanded of all office workers. In every bit of this work accuracy and fecility in execution must be emphasized and insisted upon. I have not said anything about the adaptation of subject-matter to the requirements of the clerical positions. The great variety of methods for doing the same kind of work makes it inadvisable to model too closely after the practice of any particular office. The vocational purpose will be realized better by duplicating as closely as possible some of the working conditions in which the pupil will ultimately find himself than by attempt- ing to embody the exact duties of any specialized clerical positions that happen to come to the attention of the teacher. But there is something more to be accomplisht in the teaching of book- keeping. Properly taught, the subject possesses important educational value and may thus become a factor in the general training, not only of commercial pupils, but of all high-school pupils. A knowledge of the general principles of accounts and of business procedure will enable the clerk in the specialized position to imderstand better how his particular unit of work forms an integral part of the whole accounting system. With an intelligent apprecia- tion of the application of bookkeeping principles in the system in use in his office, he will be better qualified for the advancement that every office clerk has reason to expect. The bookkeeping or business practice set with its dis- tracting business routine and its superabundance of business practice has hindered the sort of teaching that gives the subject its real educational value. While most people are wilUng to admit that bookkeeping, properly taught, furnishes a field for the development of mental qualities, there are few outside the commercial teaching profession who have any apprecia- tion of the disciplinary value of the subject. This is partly explained by the fact that the written record or statement is so much in evidence in bookkeeping work. They do not appreciate that this is, or should be, merely the formal expression of results obtained by the very best applica- tion of the trained powers of the mind. Of course, if the instruction stops with giving directions for the mechanical work involved in the preparation of the written record, it results in little or no mental discipline. In a recent report on commercial work in the city of Cleveland is given the following list of mental qualities most desired in business: Ability to associate ideas and to group facts Habit of seeing part in relation to whole Ability to note resemblances Ability to make deductions Sense of system; classification and subordination Judgment Conscious habits of attention, observation, memory Ability to assimilate ideas and facts Accuracy As the writer says, bookkeeping furnishes the practice field for all the reasoning quahties and an abundant chance for drill in the habit of accuracy. Department! PENMANSBIP IN BUSINESS HIGH SCHOOLS 365 If time permitted, it could be shown wherein these qualities are trained to a greater or less degree in one or another phase of the subject. Aside from the routine work of making entries, posting, etc., the problems involved in the preparation of an income and profit-and-loss statement, in opening and closing entries, in partnership settlements, and the like furnish an excellent opportunity for developing the ability to associate ideas and to group facts, the habit of seemg part in the relation to the whole, the sense' of system, judgment, and accuracy. The study of such topics as deprecia- tion and reserves affords excellent training in reason and judgment. The ability to make deductions is exercised in the analytical study of the accounting facts that pupils should be required to make all thru the course. We should not overlook the fact, however, that disciplinary training results from the quality of the teaching rather than from the subject- matter itself. It is not necessary that the teacher have in mind a conscious aim in this direction. He must regard a thorogoing treatment of the sub- ject as the important consideration, and, in accompUshing his desired pur- pose, he will obtain, as a by-product of his teaching, the trained minds of the pupils. Just as the by-product in an industry may possess greater value than the primary product, so the mental qualities the pupil acquires may ultimately be of greater value to him than the knowledge he has gained of the subject. Finally, the subject of bookkeeping can be given cultural value, if we take Dr. John Dewey's definition of culture as the vital union of information and discipline, designating the socialization of the individual in his whole outlook upon life and his mode of dealing with it. Many of the economic forces operating in the different phases of activity are defined in a language exprest in accounting terms. Bookkeeping, therefore, in its proper presen- tation, not only should contribute a broader understanding of the activities of commercial life, but should enable the possessor of a knowledge of its principles to appreciate more fully the significance of the phenomena of business in their relation to the rest of his affairs. PENMANSHIP IN BUSINESS HIGH SCHOOLS HORACE G. HEALEY, EDITOR, "BUSINESS JOURNAL," NEW YORK, N.Y. It is an open question in the minds of many educators whether pen- manship is, or is not, a high-school subject. For many years I maintained the position that, if properly taught and if sufficient time were given to the subject in the grammar grades, there would be no need for specific instruc- tion in penmanship in the high school. That was before I had had high- school experience. After several years of active work as chairman of the department of writing in one of the largest high schools in America, and after having had many opportunities to inspect, not only the work, but the 366 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business methods employed in teaching the subject in a large number of other high schools, I am willing to go on record as saying that the subject should not only be taught and carefully supervised thruout the high-school course, but it should be continued even into the college course, if the student has not acquired sufficient skill in movement, sufficient degree in quality of line, and sufficient accuracy in application of form. In other words, I do not believe there is a period in the course of the pupil's education where we may arbitrarily say that supervision of the subject of penmanship may be auto- matically discontinued. To give sufficient time in the elementary grades for the thoro mastery of this subject and the perfect crystallization of correct habits in posture, position, and execution, would make it necessary to neglect other and equally important subjects in the course of study. Another obstacle lying in the path leading to the point where adequate preparation and training in the subject of penmanship has reacht the stage where it no longer need receive the attention of the teacher, is the fact that pupils leaving the elementary grades at the age of thirteen or fourteen years have not suffi- ciently matured to warrant our belief that muscle and nerve coordination, strength of character and definiteness of execution, will still retain their present degree of efficiency. Pupils from this age on undergo great changes physiologically and psychologically. If this period be not carefully super- vised, there is great danger of relaxation and reversion, to say nothing of the unwelcome entrance into the intellectual and physical natures of those characteristics which are sure to become impediments. The subject, I believe, should be treated somewhat differently in the high schools. Individual-instruction, as against class-instruction, should predominate. At the beginning of the course a careful examination should be made of the writing of each student, and at once a process of elimination of serious faults, both in form and execution, should be entered upon, and that which is correct should be substituted. Particular attention should be given to assisting the pupil in adapting his style of writing, not only to immediate school needs, but to the needs of the business world in general. To this end considerable drill should be devoted to writing in circumscribed spaces similar to those found in the blanks of business papers, journals, ledgers, etc. Short loops, small capitals, and compact grouping should characterize this part of the work. There will be little, if any, need to devote time to elementary movement drills as such. Whatever practice work is done in this line should be upon either word or sentence drills. By reason of the more extensive experience and matured judgment on the part of the pupil, a closer mathematical analysis may be made of letter and word forms. Pupils in the elementary grades are inclined to rely upon the imitative faculties alone in mastering these forms. We should now appeal to the constructive faculties — those faculties which enable one to Department] TYPEWRITING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 367 measure and compare. I would require pupils to block out in proper pro- portion, not only the letters themselves, but the proper spacing which should be found between various letters. The chief cause of the failure on the part of students to maintain correct letter and word forms after they leave school is that they make these forms a matter of memory and not of reason. If they know, for instance, that the capital M is only three-fourths as wide as it is high, they will not, in their practical work, make it two or three times as wide. During this period the matter of correct posture will be the object of the greatest care. The adolescent age is almost synonymous with the "slouchy" age. Pupils who have never appeared tired or lazy or careless before will frequently show many evidences of these traits of character during this age. This is a good period also to train the pupil in the exercise of proper choice and discrimination in the matter of materials and equip- ment. On the whole, the teacher of writing in the high school will find that each pupil presents individual problems requiring the exercise of patience, judgment, and common-sense. While some pupils will possibly need to have instruction and supervision thruout the first part of their high-school course at least, others may enter the school who have well-formed habits and who should be excused from the writing class in order to devote their time to their other studies. I would place a premium upon conscientious effort and application by excusing pupils from the writing class just as soon as they have shown by their work and interest that they are qualified to con- tinue without the teacher's help. On the other hand, I should reassign to the writing class those students, in whatever grade the work may be, who show the least signs of slipping back either in their writing or in their posture. TYPEWRITING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS F. R. BEYGRAU, INSTRUCTOR IN TYPEWRITING, HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, NEW YORK, N.Y. Carlyle says: *'Man is a tool-using animal. He can use tools, devise tools; with these the granite mountains melt into dust before him; he kneads the glowing iron as if it were soft paste; seas are his highways, winds and fires his unwearying steeds. Nowhere do you find him without tools— without tools he is nothing; with tools he is all." Typewriting is one of the preliminary steps in business Hfe— the young man or the young woman at the right hand of the employer has an excellent opportunity to learn the business. Typewriting widens the reach and the powers. The typewriter is an aid to the poor speller, the poor penman, and the sluggish thinker. It is therefore of little wonder that many of our leading educators advocate the use of the typewriter in the early stages of a child's education, 368 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business and it is indeed the right course. From my experience in the High School of Commerce, which has one of the largest typewriting departments in the world, I have long since come to the conclusion that typewriting should be taught in the first year of the high-school course; in other words, " the earlier the better." Anyone who has the will power may learn to operate a type- writer scientifically. Interest, attention, and will are three most important psychological factors. It is presumed one has the interest when one desires to learn typewriting. Then all other things must be sacrificed to atten- tion. Every mistake in typewriting is due to an error of the mind and not of the fingers. However, the mind is not wrong when it simply wanders with some other line of thought and the necessary concentration is lost. The only remedy for errors in typewriting, then, is the development of this concentration, which is one of the most important faculties the typist can possess. A great opportunity is given for this development in memorizing the keyboard in a darkened room by means of a stereopticon, as will be explained later. The development of a degree of concentration which enables one to keep the mind on one thing alone is essential. This is not easy to do. Few have the power naturally; it must be developt, but it is worth cultivating. The mental side of typewriting rarely receives much attention from the beginner. The reason for this is that it is lookt upon as being purely mechanical. This is far from true. The more attention you give to the mental side of the question at the beginning the deeper and more lasting will be the impression of the location of the keys. Time is wasted if one practices while the thoughts are flitting from one subject to another far from the one which should have undivided attention. Real progress can be made only when the attention is concentrated upon the subject and the will is used in pushing the work steadily along. Success in typewriting means the breaking of a bad habit, already formed, rather than a creation of a new one. Break the student of the habit of looking at the keys, and one of the hardest tasks in typewriting will have been accomplisht. Shields or blankt keys are not altogether satisfactory, because there is always a tendency to look at the keyboard. There are some excellent textbooks on the market which teach the stu- dent how to operate a machine by touch, but I have found that it requires something more than a textbook to compel a student to break the inborn habit of "not thinking when it is not absolutely necessary," and to force him to write by the sense of touch. It is true that shields and blankt keys have been successfully used in teaching touch typewriting, but not in very large classes. No matter how vigilant the teacher may be, there will always be a temptation to look at the keys when the attention of the instructor is momentarily distracted. I hold that the proper way to teach touch t3^ewriting is by visual instruction. In my classroom I use a stereopticon, by means of which the Department] TYPEWRITING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 369 lessons in the textbooks are reproduced on slides and thrown on a screen in a darkened room. This method is continued until the student has mas- tered the keyboard, or until the student is able to associate a particular finger with a corresponding key. I have yet to find a student who has not, by these means, mastered the art of writing by touch better and m less time than by the other method. The students, being in the dark, are compelled to concentrate, and being unable to watch the keyboard are forst to locate the keys by the sense of touch. Another claim that I make for this unique method of instruction is that the teacher is enabled to cover more ground in less time. To illustrate: any teacher of typewriting will agree with me that it is practically impossible to explain to a whole class the mechanical construction of a typewriter, or the way to put on a new ribbon, because it is not feasible to demonstrate these things to more than five or six at a time. By the new method a photograph of the particular part of the type- writer is thrown on the screen in full view of everybody in the room, and in this way the correct method of holding the fingers and wrists may also be presented. Typewriting, however completely mastered, would not be fulfilling its highest function were it not properly correlated with its sister art, short- hand. Just as soon as a student has acquired sufficient skill in typewriting to enable him to write by touch at a low speed, he should be required to transcribe his shorthand notes. No student should ever be graduated from the shorthand and typewriting departments who cannot write at least forty words a minute net, with the rating based upon the international rules. If an ideal condition is to exist in the shorthand and typewriting depart- ment, then the importance of perfect correlation must be emphasized. It must be borne in mind that the student is paid for the finisht product of his labors, which in this instance is the t3^ewriting. Unfortunately this fact is lost sight of by the average pupil, who seems to lay more stress on the proverbial one hundred words a minute in shorthand than he does on the more important matter of the finisht product. The War and the consequent changed conditions in commerce thruout the world have had their influences on shorthand and typewriting. The demand for stenographers with a knowledge of Spanish and French is greater than the supply, and the opportunities for well-trained American stenographers who are able to take Spanish dictation are unbounded. The extension of American trade in South America is primarily responsible for this condition. Within the last few months two organizations for the promotion of artistic typewriting in the United States have come into existence. Every progressive shorthand and typewriting teacher will welcome this innovation, as it will fill a long-felt want. Their purpose is to help teachers to keep up the enthusiasm of their students so that they may be inspired to strive for the highest degree of accuracy and speed of which they are capable. 370 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Busines Now we are in the day of the expert typist; tomorrow I expect it to be a common art. As the scribes of the Bible times gained their living and their title from their ability to write, so in our times many thousands of people are gaining their living from their ability to write shorthand and use the typewriter. THE ORGANIZATION OF A BUSINESS-PRACTICE AND OFFICE- ROUTINE COURSE AND HOW TO MAKE IT A SUCCESS IN BUSINESS HIGH SCHOOLS W. J. MCCARTY, DIRECTOR, BUSINESS-PRACTICE DEPARTMENT, PACKARD COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N.Y. There are three prerequisites to the estabUshment and successful conduct of a business-practice and office-routine course in a business high school of a large city. They are the director, the student, and freedom of action. I wish to offer a few remarks on the first two — the director and the student. It is not within the province of this paper to dwell upon the third — the freedom of action— except to express the opinion that it is of paramount importance that such freedom be vested in the one who will direct this course of study and practice. The director should be a man of many capabilities. His preparation for this work should consist of a broad, general education, which should be supplemented by a down-to-the-minute technical training. The technical training should embrace theory, as found in textbooks, and accurate knowledge of conditions prevaiHng in the business world; and there is no better way to obtain the latter than by engaging in a general practice as a public accountant. The director must be strong in the work of organ- ization and management, be familiar with the principles of efficiency, and be able to make practical application of them in his own work. One of the duties of the director will be to prepare the narrative for the guidance of the student while he is a member of the department. Now, as to the student, the English training should be the equivalent at least of a grammar-school course. Previous training in bookkeeping should result in ability to write up, in the simpler forms of posting mediums, such transactions as purchases, sales, receipts, and disbursements. He should be able to post the transactions to a ledger, and to test the accuracy of his work by the use of a trial balance. But the abiHty to prepare income, profit-and-loss statements, balance sheets, schedules and abstracts, and, finally, close the ledger or ledgers by journal entry is not required. It is better that no instruction be given, as to the latter operations, prior to the entrance to business practice than that the method employed and illustrated in the standard texts on bookkeeping be attempted. I wish to make the observation at this time that it is not the object of a business- practice and office-routine course to teach bookkeeping. But bookkeeping, Department! BUSINESS-PRACTICE AND OFFICE-ROUTINE COURSE 371 accounting, and business are so closely allied that a practical knowledge of bookkeeping and accounting should result from properly directed study of the organization, conduct, and liquidation of a representative business. The director prepares a "narrative" which outUnes the business opera- tions of the student. For example, at certain places the narrative will say, "Buy dry goods, groceries, grain, fruit, provisions, produce," etc. The terms are given, such as "on account, ten days"; "on note, five days"; "on account, subject to sight or time draft." Similar instruction is given as to the matter of sales. The parties to the transaction and other details are left to the student. Later, instruction will be given as to the disposition of the note or account. Information for the initial pay-roll is given and other necessary suggestions are offered touching the distribution of the expense of the labor. Effort is made to impress upon the mind of the student the expense incident to the launching of a business enterprise, as well as the cost of keeping it in a vigorous condition as a going concern. There is a minimum and maximum to the extent of purchase or sale. A large variety of commodities may be represented by printed cards as effect- ively as notes, checks, and drafts of real value can be represented. Manu- facturers', wholesalers', and retailers' prices can be maintained. These prices change at least weekly. No two sets of records will be similar. There is no key for use in locating errors nor for testing the work. The department at once becomes a bustling, busy, business-like community. Every student commencing business practice is a sole owner. He finds himself in a new situation — the owner of a business, in possession of goods which are fluctuating in value; he has capital to protect; he has banking connections; he is surrounded by fellow-students who are eager to receive his signature to an order for goods or are insisting on the payment of an account due, perhaps past due; or they may wish to call his attention to an error in a bill which they have received from him; or they may be calling for his note, as per the terms of a certain transaction. It may be that a note which he gave to a creditor was discounted at the bank and is due at this time. The indorser is prevailing upon the maker to pay it and avoid pro- test charges. Thus many new situations will arise daily which will develop in the student power of action, and in a general way will result in the accu- mulation of practical knowledge and mental culture. The records of the sole proprietor's business are made in a simple set of double-entry books. Following the directions given in the narrative, proper exhibits are prepared, such as income, profit-and-loss statement, balance sheet, schedules of creditors' balances and customers' balances, and a schedule of the stock of goods on hand at the time of the accounting. At this time accruals, prepaids, the provision for the depreciation of property, and the provision for doubtful accounts comes up for consider- ation. This is work for an intelligent proprietor, not a bookkeeper, and his deliberations and conclusions should be in accord with certain principles of 572 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business accounting. The student experiences no difficulty here, for he is working under proper direction. The books are closed by journal entry. The sole proprietor is ready to meet with other proprietors who have completed this feature of the course for the purpose of creating a partnership relation. The partnership firm results, in this instance, from a number of sole proprietors combining their cash, property, and labor for the purpose of conducting business under a firm name. There should be a sufficient number of partners that one or more members of the firm may be present at all periods of the school day. The use of a personal-efficiency card was establisht at the beginning of the course. This card will play a more important part when the student becomes a member of a firm. It reflects the degree of interest which he manifests in the welfare of his firm. There will be an assignment of the various kinds of work to be carried out by the different members of the firm, such as, student A, purchasing and recording of the bills; student B, the soliciting of orders and writing up the going-inventory ledger; student C, collections; student D, the treasurer, receipts, disbursements, and cash- book records; student E, general bookkeeper; student F, business-manager; student G, president. The asignments are rotary, thus giving each member an equal chance to become familiar with the different lines of work and responsibiHty. There will be ample time during the period of this kind of ownership for assigned readings on the following subjects: personal salesmanship, sell- ing methods, retailing, purchasing problems, credit and collection methods, keeping up with rising costs, office-management, business-administration. The bookkeeping will receive the attention the subject demands. The system employed will be strictly modern and as brief as is consistent with good accounting practice. The inspection of these books, at the proper time, will be made by a committee selected by the director from the advanst students. Upon completion of the audit, a written report will be filed. Here is most excellent practice for the cultivation of dormant powers which the earlier part of the course failed to awaken. The expansion of the business necessitates additional expenses. The selling, administrative, and capital expenses are kept in close harmony with the business at this stage. The subjects of good-will, drawing accounts, loans by partners, interest on investment and on withdrawals, the division of the net profits or the sharing of the net loss, come in for special consider- ation. The accounting at the close of this period is in keeping with the best practice of our times. Everyone should be able to read balance sheets correctly. The ability to do so cannot be obtained by the reading of books alone. A rather intimate knowledge of each element which enters into the entire business structure is necessary. The student's next step in the study of business-organization and finance will be under that form of ownership known as a corporation. It Department] BUSINESS-PRACTICE AND OFFICE-ROUTINE COURSE 373 will be remembered that a number of sole proprietors joined in the forma- tion of a partnership. In this instance a number of partnerships are con- solidated. The members of the firms become the stockholders of record. Sole proprietors are also subscribers, if they wish to invest some of their capital in this way. In the determination of the amount of stock each firm is entitled to, it will be necessary that the assets and liabiUties undergo a process known as elimination. The new company will be granted the privilege of issuing two classes of stock, viz., preferred and common. The common will have no par value prmted on the certificates. Each firm will receive a certain number of shares of preferrred and common in settlement for the firm's net worth. Each partner will come in then for his share of the stock. It will readily be seen that some very interesting problems arise here; yes, fascinating ones. But they are all true to the business world of today; and the information gleaned from the transactions of this division of the work will be invaluable to the student in after life. Among the books selected for the corporation will be a voucher-payable register. There will be quite a number of controlling accounts set up in the general ledger. Scientific classification of accounts, if I may refer to it in that way, will obtain in the ledger of the company. The narrative so directs the trans- actions of the company that each student directly connected with the business will be made familiar with such accounts as capital stock, impair- ment of capital, stock-donation account, mortgage payable, reserve for sinking fund for mortgage payable, sinking fund for mortgage payable, and a number of others which cannot be mentioned owing to the limited time allotted to this paper. The same plan for carrying out the narrative in the corporation as was used in the partnership will be continued. Here we have more officials, more clerks, a larger pay-roll, increast expenses. But the sound judgment, business ability, and ease of carrying out intricate business-transactions, which will be in evidence now, will be a great source of gratification, not only to the student, but to everyone connected with the conduct of this department of work. Eventually the company will go thru liquidation. All obligations will be met as the assets are converted into cash. The dis- tribution of dividends and the taking-up of the stock marks the final step of this division. The students who complete the work under the sole proprietorship, partnership, and corporations will be advanst to the office-routine feature of the course. The offices will consist of banks, trust companies, a stock broker, a real-estate and insurance agency, wholesale, commission, and some form of transportation companies. A post-office will be likely to be found of advantage. However, this branch of service may be conducted in con- nection with some other office. In the real-estate office will be found a notary pubUc for the acknowledgment of signatures, the protesting of 374 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business paper, and in the event of "holding court," the notary will make a good magistrate. The systems of books and records for the offices, while not the most difficult part of the work, are, however, of no little importance. There is an excellent field here for the development of practical sytems of accounting. Labor-saving devices together with books designed for proofs by sections will assist in overcoming the usual annoyance resulting from students working but part time. There will be directions for conducting each office, and free use of the bulletin board for announcements. But there is no need for a narrative to create business. Students engaged in business practice deal directly with the offices. For example, the banks receive deposits, discount notes, receive notes and drafts for collection, issue certificates of deposit, certify checks and honor checks by payment when presented properly, provided, of course, that the drawer has sufficient funds to his credit to meet them. The wholesale companies will receive orders for the various lines of mer- chandise. The orders are filled by the delivery or shipment of cards which designate the kind and quantity of the commodity sold. Bills may be made out in duplicate. The copy may be filed as a ledger card. At the close of the week or period assigned an abstract is taken of the "unpaid'* file. Another abstract is taken from the unpaid sales, as reflected in the sales journal. The footings of the abstracts will agree with the balance of the accounts-receivable account in the general ledger, this being the con- trolling account for the customers' balances. In the library maintained in the department will be found many good books for supplementary reading in connection with the work of the office- routine course. From the office force will be drafted, from time to time, committees whose duty will be the inspection of the offices and the books of the students of the business-practice department. Every opportunity of leading a student to take the initiative will be recognized. It is this phase of the work which results in the greatest development. A brief course of assigned readings from the more technical presentations of advanst business and accounting subjects preparatory to the final examinations has proved to be invaluable to the majority of students. I do not wish to leave the impression that the director, single-handed, can develop this course of study and practice to the extent indicated. He needs two instructors to assist — one in business practice and the other in the office-routine feature of the course. The foregoing will be recognized by teachers who are familiar with business practice and office routine as a very brief review of the work. However, it is submitted in the hope that it may lend encouragement to those who may be contemplating the establishment of a course of study along the lines indicated. The fact that the work and the merit flowing therefrom are so little understood by educators generally is a reason why Department] ECONOMICS IN THE COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL 375 those of us who teach it and believe in it should permit no opportunity to pass unimproved to assist in giving it publicity, so that eventually business practice and office routine may be assigned a prominent place in the curriculum of our public business schools. ECONOMICS IN THE COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL CHESSMAN A. HERRICK, PRESIDENT, GIRARD COLLEGE, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Political economy was long regarded as the "dismal science." An acquaintance of mine once likened it to a man in a room looking out into a dark night for a black man who isn't there. Practical men and those in other fields of specialization have alike lookt askance at poUtical economy. But for the earlier discredited and threadbare subject of poHtical economy there has, in late years, come into use a new term, "economics," which carries with it a different connotation, and which commands a new interest. The term political economy originated from an effort on the part of govern- ments to get the largest revenue for states with the least inconvenience to their peoples. And it was long used to mean "the housekeeping of the nation." As thus conceived, political economy was of keen interest to publicists, but made little appeal to others. In the early period of its development political economy took form as a body of doctrinaire theory, far removed from the everyday interest of the man of the world. Much of the early work in political economy was not wholly bad nor useless, altho in itself it had little value, and at best it was an incomplete work. The newer and more correct notion of this branch of social science is conveyed by economics, which has come to mean a wide range of descriptive, historical, and theoretical study on the phenomena of our present industrial and commercial order. Economics, in a broad sense, is the science of wealth, dealing with its production, distribution, exchange, and consumption. The study may well be defined as a "science of business," and men who do business in any sphere are consciously or unconsciously employing economics, just as one who navigates a ship uses astronomy, an engineer uses physics, or a manufacturer uses chemistry. Men in all callings will be more efficient as a result of a training in the sciences which are fundamental m their callings; and as all men have to deal with business affairs, they will be better equipt by a study of economics. The commercial high school should be particularly interested in this study. Economics, as thus conceived, is not narrowly the science of getting money, but broadly the science of welfare, and it is of supreme mterest to the individual, the family, the state, and the world at large. Fundamentally economics is the science which shows how individuals and associations of individuals can provide their necessary food, clothmg, and shelter, and whatever else is deemed a proper part of their life. 376 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business It will readily be seen that economics is an art and a science. Every person must practice it as an art, and the suggestion is here made that similarly all should study it as a science. Men can scarcely escape some form of economic study; in all walks and callings they must guide their activities by calculations of supply and demand; they must deal with investments and securities and reckon on incomes and expenditures. People should be more largely interested in what has been well termed " the backward art of spending money." It should be obvious, tho it seems to be little understood, that skill, wisdom, and discernment in the con- sumption of wealth are quite as important to the individual as is his added income thru increast producing power. As a science economics offers an educational instrument of first impor- tance. The study is largely informational, and it gives information which appeals to those of varying ages and diverse attainments. But more than this, the study is a universalizing or generalizing one, which will give valuable lessons in dealing with details and reducing these to a system. From this last aspect of the subject it becomes of large significance to our systems of education. Economic phenomena have so multiplied and claim so large a place in present thought that the abiHty to handle these phe- Qomena and to reduce them to an orderly system is a highly desirable, if not a necessary, element in present education. Economics properly conceived is a statement of the principles which are fundamental to present life. There is a grave present necessity for coordinating and applying the great body of social knowledge. Economics as a science seeks to accomplish this. In determining the worth of economics we should first consider its value to the individual. In brief, this subject teaches men to care for tliemselves and those directly dependent on them. It teaches the lesson to the indi- vidual of living for the better time to come. The habits which pupils form during their school lives are likely to have a large influence in their later experiences. The possibility and the wisdom of small savings, the knowl- edge of savings banks and building and loan associations, should be a part of the preparation for complete living. Those trained to understand the meaning of savings will understand that a limited amount set aside each year not only gives immediate pleasure, but affords a guaranty for future safety. But this provision for the future goes farther than the savings to pro- tect oneself. It teaches that duty which everyone owes to posterity, to preserve and perpetuate the material blessings with which he has been endowed, so that each generation may rise to a higher plane of living than would be possible if each generation attempted to live to itself alone. Economics should teach, furthermore, that the range of occupations commonly termed "business" are of real service to society, and from its study the business man can be made to feel the responsibility for a larger circle than his immediate family. This branch of knowledge will show 1 Department] ECONOMICS IN THE COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL ^yj that those who are in legitimate forms of business are helping to feed, clothe, and shelter their fellows, and thus busmess will be given its true place in the list of occupations. The study of economics will make clear, as pointed out by Bishop New- man, that it is no more a sin to make money, if men aid their fellows in so doing, than it is to seek honor by similarly attempting to aid their fellows. Such a point of view will give a new notion of success, and it will be found that success is not limited to a few chosen occupations, and that, in the best sense of the word, large numbers can succeed. Thus, and only thus, can men who are in the commercial and industrial callings be given a pro- fessional attitude toward their work. Economics will, m the next place, furnish a largeness of view by which men can recognize the rights of others and see the interdependence of all the factors in the modern mdustrial system. Class distinctions are the most baneful influence of the present age. Landlords against tenants, employers against employed, capital class against debtors, and other antagonisms threaten the safety of society. Ignorance and self-interest have led to a partial and prejudiced view on these questions, and too largely the condition of our economic system is that of a primitive society in which every man's hand is against his fellow and his fellow's hand is against him. Economics teaches, unmistakably, that labor and capital are not enemies, but friends, and a proper understanding of its lessons will lead the capitalist to ask, not how little, but how much he can pay his laborers; and similarly will lead the laborers to ask, not how little, but how much they can do for their employer. One-half of the ills of our social system would be cured if men could be led to view their fancied differences from the point of view of those whom they are opposing. But there is a larger view with which the schools should be vitally con- cerned, and that is the preparation for what may be denominated an economic citizenship. Modern society is going thru a sort of economic revolution not unlike the intellectual revolution of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries known as the Renaissance, and the religious Reformation of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It is not sufficient that leaders only be intelligent on the troublesome questions of public policy. Ours is a government of public opinion, and in the minds of the people, in the last analysis, is found the true stability of governmental institutions. John Morley well says that to bid a man to do his duty, and then to forbid him to study economic questions, utilitarianism, and kindred subjects which are the means of determining what his duty is, is but "bald and naked counsel." Andrew D. White long since made the observation that man is an economic animal as well as a political animal; and that he is bprn into an industrial system just as surely as he is bom into a political state. In an enumeration of the ideals for a course of study President Butler once put as fundamental the statement, "The dominant note of^our society is 378 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business economic." In a larger sense political questions, state's rights, individual liberty, constitutional privilege, etc., have been settled, and the alignment of parties is now on economic questions, such as government ownership of public utilities and the regulation of insurance. Momentous conse- quences are bound up with our economic citizenship. "Moneymania" and "dollarhood" are terms more apt than one could wish in description of our present social standards. The United States should be something vastly better than the "land of the almighty dollar." Life in this country should not be permitted to degenerate into a mad race for wealth; and the standard of success should never be the amount of money which one can accumulate. Of our own country we can say, as Goldsmith said of his "Sweet Auburn": 111 fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, Where wealth accumulates, and men decay. We are in greatest danger from the failure to regard the gravity of present problems. In health one is likely to disregard the laws of health, and in the bountiful prosperity and seeming security of our eco- nomic system we are in danger of disregarding the basal principles for the well-bemg of society. This is all the more seductive in America because our prosperity has largely come from rich endowments in natural resources and the fortunate conditions under which we have lived. The conservatism of the schools is well noted by President Butler, who says, "It is a constant fight to get any proper teaching from an economic point of view" — a statement which he held true of both schools and col- leges. Those who are deemed mature enough to handle the intricacies of foreign languages or to study the abstruse principles of higher mathematics are thought by educators too immature for any economic study. Eco- nomics is held to be speculative, impractical, etc. It often seems that schoolmasters seek to isolate from the present world those whom they train, and to "orient" them instead to an earlier age. It is probable that economics can be considered with profit as an inci- dental subject in grammar schools and hi the earlier high-school years. It may also be introduced as a part of the general exercises of the school and in popular form as lectures. The subject, however, is altogether too impor- tant to be left wholly to any haphazard treatment. In the third or fourth high-school year students are suflSiciently mature and so grounded in history and acquamted with the world that they may safely be askt to undertake this subject. A few years ago President James suggested a syllabus of economics and social science for use in both elementary and secondary schools. Such a syllabus would serve as a guide to teachers, indicating topics to be studied, and their order, treatment, and relations to other subjects; also methods of study and the like. A syllabus which cannot fail to be of great service has Department] RELATION OF THE LIBRARY TO BUSINESS EDUCATION 379 been workt out by the faculty of political economy of the University of Chicago. Many manuals of the sort here indicated are already available for English, mathematics, geography, science, etc., covering both subject- matter and methods of instruction. There are three divisions of economics, or three methods of treatment: First, there should be an inductive, concrete, descriptive treatment based on the observation of the student and on an accumulation of familiar industrial and commercial facts. In this aspect of the subject the study should con- form to the principle, not words, but thmgs. It is this method of approach which will give economics a point of contact with the world outside of school. The most natural introduction to economics is a study of the place and meaning of industrial and commercial employments in modem social life. Secondly, there should come a study of the more general laws and principles which make up the body of doctrine ordinarily passing as theoretical economics. This should naturally follow the introductory study suggested above, and may well be based on a textbook. This method is necessary in order to give unity and cohesion to the introductory studies. Thirdly, there should be forms of applied economics along such lines of study as transportation, insurance, money, banking, and regulation of business. The first of the three methods suggested above may very well take the form of the study of the local community, its manufacturers, and com- mercial operations. It can well be introduced in the early high-school years, and serve at once to give valuable information on the community which the school serves and the material which afterward may be used in the more formal course in economics. The study of more general aspects of the subject may well come in the third year, while the fourth year may be reserved for applied economics along the lines indicated > Whatever the course in school, whether long or short, or whatever the type of school, it appears desirable that the three elements mentioned above should be in- volved in the study of economics, so that those being trained in the schools may have the information and point of view which will enable them to understand and serve their own community. THE RELATION OF THE LIBRARY TO BUSINESS EDUCATION LOUISE B. KRAUSE, LIBRARIAN, H. M. BYLLESBY & CO., CHICAGO, ILL. The recognition of the important relation of libraries to education in general has been one of the markt features of modem library-development, and the subject has long since past the stage of question or discussion; for the library is recognized as a permanent and vital factor in secondary, as well as in college, education. Not only have our educators put the emphasis upon the use of many books in place of a single textbook in the 380 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business Study of a subject, but they have gone even further and have incorporated into the curricula of elementary and high schools, normal schools, and college courses giving instructions, not only in the use of books and libraries in general, but also in the most effective use of them in the study of a particular subject. The relation of the library to the studies which are commonly called the "humanities" is therefore permanently establisht; but the relation of the library to courses of instruction for business education has not yet been definitely formulated. Courses of instruction for business education are comparatively new in educational institutions, and there still exists in the minds of some a sense of incongruity in associating the two words, "busi- ness" and "education." Thoughtful investigation of existing conditions, however, reveals some definite facts in regard to the relation of business and education. Business is no longer conducted on a rule-of-thumb basis, but according to organized and systematized methods, and there is a science of business just as truly as there is a science of law or of medicine. Altho the conception of the vital relation of books and libraries to education in general has taken root in our educational systems, the prin- ciple has not been applied systematically to business education, and it is this subject in particular which we are to discuss in this paper. Business literature differs from the literature of other sciences in that it is a widely scattered literature, varied in form, related to many subjects, and drawn from so many different sources that no public library is able to bring it together on its shelves with the exactness with which the Uterature of other subjects can be assembled. The literature which pertains to business activities must be sought in many different directions, and it is therefore all the more important that one know where to find it. The recognition of this fact has led to the estabUshment within large business organizations of business libraries, in order to meet the intimate and specific needs of the particular business with a special collection of material adapted to its needs, in addition to the help which may often be obtained from the technical, civic, and business departments which have been organized in many of our large public libraries to help business men. Small business firms, which are in the majority and which cannot afford to employ a librarian, have often just as vital, tho not as many, needs for information as large business organizations have, and the burden, therefore, of knowing what printed information exists and how to get it falls upon the various workers in the organization, particularly upon the young men and women who are filling secretarial or stenographic positions. Intimate acquaintance with business conditions reveals the fact that the stenographer in a business firm without an organized library is expected to know, or find out by some hook or crook, what his chief wants to know in matters of general information. 1 Department] RELATION OF THE LIBRARY TO BUSINESS EDUCATION 381 I wish to give in this paper an opinion, based on experience as a business hbranan, of the kind of training in the knowledge of books and the use of libraries which should be given to young people studying for business positions, and which would give them some general equipment for knowing how to find desured information. ^ In order to present this subject in as practical a manner as possible, I wish to give first of all some genuine illustrations of questions which are constantly arising m a number of business houses with which I am acquamted. Most of these questions have been askt first of the secretaries or stenographers, who m turn have appealed to the librarians of the business organizations for assistance, where they have been fortunate enough to have one. You will note that the nature of these questions is such that any student trained in the use of reference books should be able to find the answer to them without the special aid of a busin^gs Kbrarian: Where is the periodical Power publisht, and by whom ? What is the address of Mills College? (The business man, a college graduate, who wanted to know was found endeavoring to locate it in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.) What is the educational record of a prominent professional man who is under con- sideration by a company to be engaged on a special investigation? A letter is received from the head of a department of the government, but the signa- ture is blurred. Can the correct name be ascertained ? A telegram is received containing a hotel address which is not plain. Can the names of hotels in a certain city be found ? What is the latest official population of a given city? What are the latest crop statistics of the state of Oklahoma? How to use Lieber's code in wording a cablegram. Where to purchase in Chicago the back number of a periodical which is publisht in New York City. How can a copy of a certain government publication be obtained ? Is it necessary to write to a senator or representative for it ? Has the United States government issued any publications dealing with a given subject? What are the industries of a given city ? There often arises need for information which the inquirer thinks might be found at the public library, but in nine cases out of ten I have found he does not know how to use the public library nor to whom on its staff to go for help. A frequent question is, "How can I find out if the public library has anything that will answer what I want to know?" The reference department and its workers are unknown, and the card catalog and printed finding-lists are unexplored labyrinths. This practical experience in working with business people has led me to the conclusion that all students taking business courses should be edu- cated to know what the public libraries of their cities (both circulating and reference) can do for them. They should know how to get lending privi- leges; how to use card catalogs, finding-lists, and open shelves; how to use the special reference collections and the help of the reference librarians. 382 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business They should also be informed as to what special material the public library- has to offer in technical and civic rooms or business men's branches. In addition to knowing how to use the establisht library facilities of the com- munity, the student should also know the names of the reference books that are helpful as aids in answering business questions, and how to use them. This would include a knowledge of encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks of statistical information, indexes to periodical literature. The Hotel Red Book; Rand McNally's Commercial Atlas; Lippincott's Gazetteer; Who^s Who in America^ and similar reference books. Training should be given in a knowledge of government publications which are valuable for business use, and students should know also how to use the Office of Superintendent of Documents and the monthly catalog of government publications. Students should be made familiar with the best periodicals and hand- books bearing upon the work of large and important industries; for example, in the public-utility corporation which I serve as librarian the stenographers and clerks are often able to locate information they need in their work and about which they dislike to ask the busy man "higher up" by the use of the Electrical World, Electric Railway Journal, McGraw's Central Station and Electric Railway DirectorieSy Poor's Manual of Public Utilities and Manual of Industrials; Thomas' Register of American Manufacturers, and similar books to which the library of the company has introduced them. The ability to find information is not a matter of intuition, but of training, and it will not suffice merely to tell students of existing resources. The knowledge of these resources should be drilled into them by thoro instruction and lesson assignments which will demand the mastery of the contents of the reference books studied. I saw not long ago a very plain and practical application of this statement in an engineering periodical edited for men whose business it is to work with boilers and engines, and who, we might think, would not need to know much about books, which is as follows: "Books and papers are just as much engineers' tools as wrenches, hammers, or cold-chisels; and it takes practice to successfully manipulate them." Another contribution which library science can make profitably to business education is the application of some of its methods of work to the subject of office filing. The term "filing " in business may be briefly defined as the arranging and indexing of all correspondence, also printed and manu- script data pertaining to the transactions of a firm, not only for permanent preservation, but especially for quick consultation as the need arises. There is no department of modern business which presents so crying a need for intelligent and trained workers as the one which, in business phraseology, is called "the files." Sometimes the filing difficulties of a business organization are the result of inadequate systems of fiUng which have been installed, but 90 per cent of the difficulties are due to the fact that those in charge of this work are not sufficiently well educated to Department] BUSINESS ENGLISH AND ADVERTISING 383 understand the content of the papers they are handling, and also have had no preliminary training in the principles of filing. All the filing schemes which are being used in business organizations today are adapta- tions of the principles of classifying and cataloging as taught by modem library science, and it is entirely practicable to take this small portion of library science and make it the basis of well-defined instruction for the vocation of filing. At my earnest request this spring the president of the Department Library of the National Education Association, Miss Irene Warren, took a class of file clerks who are employed in the file departments of some busi- ness houses in Chicago, and who have plenty of practical everyday prob- lems, and gave them a course of twelve lessons on the science of filing, using as a basis certain well-defined principles of library science. The results were most gratifying, and made very patent the fact that such a course could be given with profit in our schools of vocational training. May I be permitted to say, in closing, that after seven years of service in the business world I believe there are no two subjects related to business education which need more earnest attention than the ones outlined, namely: a working knowledge of books and printed material which give business information, and a knowledge of filing methods combined with personal efficiency in putting them into practical operation. May I also be permitted to go on record as stating that my acquamtance with many classes of business workers and the demands made upon them make it clear, in my judgment, that business education must be built upon the solid foundation of a thoro general education, and, in fact, I do not beHeve that vocational training should be divorst from it, if the rank and file of employes are to be adequately equipt for successful business careers. THE TEACHING OF BUSINESS ENGLISH AND ADVERTISING IN BUSINESS HIGH SCHOOLS GEORGE BURTON HOTCHKISS, PROFESSOR OF BUSINESS ENGLISH, AND HEAD OF THE ADVERTISING AND MARKETING DIVISION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, NEW YORK, N.Y. "Why Business English?" is a question I often hear, and I presume you do also. I might answer it as the March hare answered Alice: "Why not?" Or I might dismiss the matter with the statement that business men demand that high-school graduates shall have a better preparation for writmg busmess letters and other business messages than the ordinary course in EngUsh composition gives them. However, I prefer to treat the question seriously, for it deserves serious consideration. On the answer to the question "Why" depends the answer to the question "How." This latter question, I assume, is the more important one for you, because I am 384 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business sure that you need no argument to convince you of the necessity of having business English taught. And so I ask seriously, "Why English at all?" In view of our recently reawakened Americanism, it really seems a pity that our forefathers, when they brought forth on this continent a new nation 140 years ago, did not also bring forth a new national language. As a matter of fact, we have a national language at the present time, tho it is not called "American," as it well might be. It is called "business Eng- lish" in honor of the business men who discovered it and first used it — altho it is no longer confined to business uses. Business English first appeared in business as a matter of practical necessity. When you write a letter to induce somebody to buy your goods, or pay a bill, or modify a claim, you must write in the reader's language and adapt your message to him. Your power to evoke a favorable response depends, not upon what you give, but upon what he receives. Your object is not merely expression but impression. We who teach boys and girls who are going into business must teach them to write that kind of practical, result-getting English. A mastery of the King's English will not serve the purpose if it cannot move the hearts and hands of the reader. The only test of good business English is results capable of translation into terms of dollars and cents. The ideal and the test of business English is service. For the motto, "The king can do no wrong," it has substituted the slogan, "The customer is always right." The writer of business English does not seek to impose his will upon another. He tries to transmit his point of view and win acceptance for it. He conceives of a message as a two-ended thing, in which the receiving end is more important than the sending. Now, I do not maintain that all business men have this ideal, nor that all English used by them measures up to this standard. But they are working toward it, more perhaps than writers in other fields. They have, at least, discovered that the task of writing is not completed when words have been put on paper, but only when the letter has been received, understood, and responded to. This business-Enghsh ideal (or American ideal) is gaining steadily. Our newspapers and magazines are tinged with it, for they voice public opinion, and their circulation is the foundation of their revenue. Our advertisements are charged with it, for they are the hands and arms that get and hold our business prosperity. Even the Standard Oil Company of New York and the National City Bank have the spirit of service to the public who reads. And yet I look forward to the time when business English will not be taught, or, rather, when it will be so generally taught that the name will be unnecessary. At present the King's English is being taught in a great majority of schools, even in some that call it business English. The great majority of students are still learning to write compositions instead of learning to convey messages — which is about the only use they will ever have for the English language. Department] BUSINESS ENGLISH AND ADVERTISING 38s ther books in the library. Many cross-references are used to answer the ime question as it presents itself to different seekers after readings. 3. One history teacher gives the following exercise to provide a short rill upon the directions given in a lecture by the librarian, and to aid the mpils in preparing a Ust of references. Before the recitation, the students issist in selecting and carrying to the classroom the books to be used, len the class meets, each pupil chooses a book, and using the index and ible of contents, selects topics and writes the pages upon the board (the topics bearing upon the subject on which the list is being made). The references are then evaluated by considering the standing of the author revealed by title-page, introduction, and explanations of the teacher, 'he attempt is made to secure a general view of the work by considering 'whether the books are "history" or ''textbooks," scholarly or popular. ^As far as possible in a brief period, the class gets the author's point of view, inally each pupil copies the list for future use. 4. One Hbrarian never gives book numbers on her lists, preferring that le pupil shall have the author's name and the title of his book imprest )n his mind by looking up the number in the catalog, or by going to the shelves for it. 5. Some teachers require pupils at the beginning of the term to bring a list of books (number specified) concerning the subject to be studied 'during that term, thus familiarizing them in a general way with the Hter- ature on the subject. Author, title, and date of each book must be given. 556 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary In place of book lists the following means are sometimes employed : 1. Dolls drest in foreign or historical costumes may sound childish, but have proved of keen interest to freshmen and seniors alike in one large high school. The Scotch Highlander is exhibited when border wars are under discussion in history classes, and again when Burns's poetry is being read in English classes. Having been drest by the sewing classes under the watchful eye of the design, history, and EngHsh pupils, the dolls are a real result of "coordination of departments." 2. Clippings from the daily papers relating to current events are placed on the library-bulletin board by two pupils who have been assigned to this daily task of selecting and putting them up for a period of two weeks. The civics teacher recognizes it as a part of the recitation work. One school, wishing to preserve its clippings, mounts them on the heavy manila paper which the library bureau prepares for the purpose. This comes once folded to fit pamphlet boxes. With the subject plainly printed on the upper edge for vertical filing, the folders are as durable as they need be and easily available. A simple subject card in the catalog directs to ''Clippings." 3. Current events are taught also in a fascinating way by a history- teacher who, once a week, shows to the class cartoons thrown upon the screen. 4. United States Commerce Department reports and weekly finance reports in the papers are followed by the economics class conducted by an Idaho teacher. C. INSTRUCTIONAL PHASE OF SCHOOL-LIBRARY WORK FLORENCE M. HOPKINS, LIBRARIAN, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. A school library is supposed to furnish information to any number of pupils, on any topic conceivable to the human mind, within a moment's notice, and without suflScient resources, or duplicate copies, or helpers. Now, while this cannot be wholly realized, yet the situation may be relieved in part by giving definite instruction in the arrangement and use of great reference books and reference guides to classes regularly assigned for that purpose. Work of this character has a double value: it makes students familiar with the kind of information which is usually readily accessible and makes them realize that some kinds of information cannot be found without a long and hard search. It also makes them grateful and appre- ciative of the regular avenues of information and much more intelligent in their questions and research. One of the requirements for graduation from high school should be the ability to know where to look for simple references which have a standard medium of arrangement, such as yearbooks, indexes to magazine articles, familiar quotations, the enormous range of encyclopedic information given Department) PROBLEMS OF HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES 557 in the recent dictionaries, and many other points. No one will attempt to find a.house in a strange city without learning something of the map of the locality, yet we turn our students loose in a library with the requirement that they look up certain points and report upon them the next day, little reaUzing what a wilderness we have thrust them into, nor how unjust the request really is unless the student has some compass to guide him. Instruction in the use of reference books is now given in many high schools and even in some grammar schools. Sometimes this work is under the direction of the public-library staff and sometimes under a regularly appointed librarian of the school. Each plan has advantages and dis- dvantages. The following extract is from a bulletin of the United States Bureau of ducation: Many educators of note, as well as college and university librarians, have empha- the urgent necessity for instruction and training in "book-using skill." The place of the library in the work of all departments is one of increasing importance, e library is a resource or reservoir from which the student should draw constantly r information and inspiration, whether his interest lies in history, literature, or science, very month of delay in instructing him in the meaning and use of the library lessens the ciency of his course. Every new student should be required to take some course in which is given definite tical instruction in the handling of library tools. It is not enough to instruct those ho happen to choose history or literature. Such a course, moreover, should not only required, but it should constitute a definite part of the work required for a degree, erhaps the best way of securing its recognition would be to give it a definite credit ward a given degree. Is not instruction in the use of books as mental tools as worthy of being corporated among the regularly establisht subjects as is that of teaching e use of manual tools ? Would the creation of a position known as that f "teacher librarian" be a very radical one in this day of rapid develop- ment of both libraries and schools ? Even if it should be incorporated, it ould be behind such appointments as teachers of sewing, of dancing, of athletics, and of many other interests. The status and salary of a librarian should be at least a full faculty member, if not a department head of the chool in which her library is located. D. THE LIBRARIAN'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE EDUCA- TIONAL STANDARDS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL ^SCJ H HANNA LOGASA, UNIVERSITY HIGH SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, H CHICAGO, ILL. H The high-school library is not a unit in itself but a part of a system, ^t is in itself not an end but a means to an end, and that end is measured in terms of education. RThe administration of the library should be uniform with the other epartments of the school. If the library is to serve the school it must be S5^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary an integral part of the school, not an outside agency. Hand in hand with this school relationship comes an educational responsibility. Unlike the public library, the duty of the high-school library does not end when the right reader and the right book have been brought together. The high- school library has an added function, to see to it that the book is so used by the pupil that a certain result is obtained. That result is measured by the pupil's ability to react to the library assignment given by the teacher. The classroom efficiency of the pupil is the test of the Hbrarian's ability to contribute to the educational standards of the school. The influence of the librarian is far-reaching. She can by a timely suggestion convert an idle pupil into a busy one. On one occasion I remarkt to Lazy Tom, "Let us surprise your English teacher by having that theme written and handed in today." Tom entered into the spirit of the suggestion and the paper was finisht. The unusually good grade he received on it gave him an impetus for better work, and Tom confided to me that he was astonisht at his own ability. Term papers in history assigned a month in advance were handed in early because the librarian was interested in the pupils' efforts and by encouragement, and oversight of their work kept them from putting off their task until the last moment. Getting the library material was not the only reason why the assignment resulted in a high type of work. Keep- ing the pupils interested in their work, having them utilize every moment, making them feel that their efforts were worth while, pointing out the relation of their present efforts to future work, was accountable for the promptness with which the pupils met the assignment. To make the library a necessary part of the educational scheme the librarian must put the major stress of her efforts on her relation with the pupils and the correlation of her department to other departments of the school. Books, maps, and pictures can be effective or ineffective in proportion to the. librarian's ability to make them practical by the test of classroom results. Lesson-organization can well come into the province of the high-school library, and should form a part of the instruction in the "Use of Books and Libraries." The importance of lesson-organization and plan is evident. Pupils entering the high school, change from the rote or repetition method of learning to the logical method which consists of forming association with the principles already learned. Teaching freshmen pupils how to organize their work will help them to make these adjustments to the new conditions confronting them. Supervised study in the library is an educational problem which the librarian can share with the teachers. This educational cooperation gives the library an added point of contact with other departments of the school. The more interest the library has in common with other departments of the school the more valuable is the library in the school organization. Departmeutl REORGANIZATION OF HIGH-SCHOOL ENGLISH 559 A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE FORTHCOMING REPORT OF THE NATIONAL JOINT COMMITTEE ON THE REOR- GANIZATION OF HIGH-SCHOOL ENGLISH For over five years a committee, known as the Joint Committee on the Reorganization of High-School EngKsh and representing both the National Education Association and the National Council of Teachers of Enghsh, has been gathering material for a report on the improvement of instruction in the vernacular. The report is nearing completion and will be available in three forms: (i) this brief summary; (2) a longer summary, to be pub- lisht as a part of the report of the Commission on Secondary Education; (3) a bulletin of about 250 pages, to be publisht by the United States Bureau of Education. The nature of the report as a whole may be inferred from its table of contents, which is as follows : (i) " The Movement for a Reorganiza- tion of the Enghsh Course " ; (2) '' The New Point of View " ; (3) " Aims and Organization of the Course"; (4) "Typical Subject-Matter in Literature and Composition for Junior and Senior High Schools"; (5) "General Reading"; (6) " The Library " ; (7) " Classroom Equipment " ; (8) "Articu- lation with the Elementary School"; (9) "Separation of the Teaching of Literature and the Teaching of Composition"; (10) "Size and Number of Classes"; (11) "Extra-Classroom Activities"; (12) "Preparation of Teachers"; (13) "Cooperation of Departments"; (14) " Differentiation of Courses"; (15) "Measures of Attainment"; (16) "Economy of Time"; (17) Bibliography. THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE COMMITTEE 1. The college-preparatory function of the high school is a minor one. Hence the high-school course in English should be organized primarily with reference to basic personal and social needs. School life that is genuine and hearty is the only satisfactory preparation for either "life" or college. 2. The chief problem of articulation is with the elementary school and can best be solved by regarding the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades as the first stage of high-school work. 3. A varying social background must now be assumed and provided for. Nevertheless, the chief elements of the English course are universal and may furnish typical experiences for all. 4. English is not a merely formal subject, capable of being mastered at a certain point in the curriculum and then dropt. Life and language grow together; hence the study of Enghsh should continue thruout the school period. Only so much of technique should be taught at any one time as will actually enable pupils to improve their use and understanding of the vernacular. 5. Language is social in nature; therefore the study of Enghsh should appeal to pupils by reason of actual social use and recognized social value. 56o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Composition should be regarded as a sincere attempt to communicate ideas, and literature, both classic and modern, should become an expression of the pupil's own interests and ideals and an interpretation of his own experience. 6. The study of English as a training for efficient work should be dis- tinguisht from the study of it as a preparation for the wholesome enjoyment of leisure. This will make possible that cooperation of all departments which is essential in estabhshing good habits of reading, of thought, and of expression. 7. The conducting of a school paper and the organization of literary and dramatic clubs should be encouraged and directed because of the oppor- tunity they afford for free play of the mind and practice in expression. The spirit of the club — and of the laboratory and the shop as well — should animate the English classroom itself. This is now much hindered in the cities by the excessive number of pupils imposed upon the teacher. A second limitation to free, individual effort is found in the absence of suit- able libraries and reading-rooms. Good English work requires adequate equipment. 8. The supreme essential to success in high-school EngHsh, however, is neither the course nor the conditions, but the properly trained teacher. He should be a professional imbued with the amateur spirit, having good scholarship, mature judgment, rational educational standards, and objective methods of measuring results. THE AIMS or HIGH-SCHOOL ENGLISH English comprises two subjects, composition and literature. These are complementary to each other, but by no means entirely identical, either in aim or in method. The chief aim of composition- teaching is to develop the power of effective communication of ideas in both speech and writing; it seeks to supply the pupil with an effective tool for use in both public and private life. In common with other studies, composition also develops power of observation, imagination, and inference and makes substantial additions to one's stores of useful knowledge and range of ideas and interests. It involves guidance in gathering, . selecting, organizing, and presenting ideas for the sake of informing, persuading, entertaining, or inspiring others. It recognizes that good speech demands a sense for establisht idiom, distinct and natural articulation, correct pronunciation, and the use of an agreeable and well- managed voice; that good writing demands a large vocabulary, a clear and vigorous style, and firmness and flexibility in the construction of sentences and paragraphs; also correctness as to details of form, namely, a firm and legible handwriting, correct spelling, correctness of graromar and idiom, and observance of the ordinary rules for the use of capitals and punctuation. I Department! REORGANIZATION OF HIGH-SCHOOL ENGLISH 561 The aims of literature-teaching are to quicken the spirit and kindle the imagination of the pupil, open up to him the potential significance and beauty of life, and form in him the habit of turning to good books for com- panionship. It involves guidance in the gaining of a clear first impression of a book as a whole, the thoughtful consideration of parts in relation to the whole, and a vivid reahzation of the meaning of both the part and the whole in terms of the reader's own experience and imagination. It recog- nizes that good reading requires a definite understanding as to the purpose to be realized by the reading, whether only knowledge of essentials, inti- mate famiharity with details, or acquaintance with certain selected facts; the habit of careful observation, reflection, and organization; and, in the case of oral rendering, an accurate and sympathetic interpretation of the meaning thru well-controlled voice and manner. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE COURSE In the fact already stated, that the acquisition of ideas and the develop- ment of skill, habits, ideals, and attitudes which the EngUsh studies are designed to provide for have reference to the two chief aspects of life — work and leisure, production and play— may be found the basis for a vital and economical organization of the English course. The study of books of an informational or persuasive character should support the study of oral and written expression for utilitarian purposes; hkewise the practice of Uterary or creative composition, of reading aloud, and of dramatizing should aid the appreciative reading of novels, dramas, essays, and poems. The terms "composition" and "Hterature" are used to designate these two types of activities in this report; they should represent separate units with equal credits in the high-school course. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF COMPOSITION Ideas to be exprest and the theory of how to express them effectively together constitute the subject-matter of composition. The teacher's first duty is to seize upon or create a situation actually conducive to sincere communication; his next, to inspire and guide the pupil in using facts, P inferences, and imaginary conceptions to produce on other minds the effects sought; his last, to instruct the pupil in those principles of the art of composition which will make the practice of it as fruitful as possible. Putting the last first, either in time or in importance, cultivates slavish I imitation rather than initiative, and results in knowledge that is merely 1 formal instead of knowledge born of experience and reflection. IHt The course in composition must be laid out, then, primarily with ■ " reference to the expressional activities of the pupils of the school, not with reference to the logic of rhetorical theory. Necessary facts and principles S62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Secondary in the senior high school, the entire system of such facts and principles which it is wise to build up is comparatively small. The gauge is the pupil's own range of observation, power of abstraction, and capacity for practical application. This limitation should be observed, not only in the larger matters of structure and style, but also in such minor elements of correct- ness as grammatical inflection, punctuation, and spelling. With proper emphasis on the essentials, instruction in correct form may be made to keep pace with the expansion of the pupil's thought. This implies a distinct advance in the theory of composition from year to year. Subjects for oral and written composition should be drawn mainly from the pupil's own Hfe and experience in the home, the school, and the com- munity. The individual should be encouraged to draw upon his peculiar resources and to exploit his dominant interests. These will vary from time to time and from place to place; hence only the general fields within which proper topics for treatment may be sought can be indicated in any course of study or textbook. The best results will flow from encouraging each pupil to form a specific project or point of view with regard to a limited subject to be presented to a particular audience, to observe how well he succeeds in his purpose, and to learn from the successes and failures of himself and his classmates what the most effective methods of communication are. Writing should frequently be done in school under the supervision of the teacher, and provision should be made for conference between the teacher and each individual pupil. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF LITERATURE Novels, plays, and poems for class study or individual reading by high- school pupils should be selected with reference to what the pupils can bring to them as well as with reference to what they are expected to get out of them. In the end the stable portion of the literature course will consist of books of universal human interest that appeal strongly and increasingly to the pupils, provided the pupils gain adequate familiarity with them by means of repeated reading under the wise leadership of stimulating, tactful, and enthusiastic teachers. With increasing freedom to serve their constituencies, high-school teachers and principals are com- ing to know more and more certainly what these books are and how to distribute them according to their intrinsic difficulty. They should be supplemented with a variety of selections, old and new, to give the pupil an adaptable method of reading, a catholic taste, and a discriminating judgment. With maturing years, as first-hand acquaintance with literary works justifies it, knowledge of biography and of literary and social history should be brought to bear and systematized. Such knowledge should not, however, be sought primarily as an end in itself, and it should never be expected to assume more than modest proportions. Department! REORGANIZATION OF HIGH-SCHOOL ENGLISH 563 The continuity of the literature course should depend chiefly, not upon chronology nor the logical development of the theory of literary form, but upon the relating of each piece read to the maturing experience of the pupil. In the senior high school, however, distinct advantage may be gained from reading consecutively several pieces of the same type, as drama, for example, in order to habituate the pupil in the interpretation of that type. Likewise, pieces belonging to a certain period may gain added force and interest from association with each other. But neither type- study . nor period study should be made the occasion for generahzations necessarily meaningless to the pupils. ARTICULATION WITH THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL At the end of the sixth grade pupils should be able: (i) to express clearly and consecutively, either in speech or in writing, ideas which are famiHar and firmly graspt; (2) to avoid gross grammatical errors; (3) to compose and mail a letter; (4) to spell their own written vocabulary; (5) to read silently and after one reading to reproduce the substance of a simple short story, news item, or lesson; (6) to read aloud readily and intelHgently simple news items, lessons from textbooks, or literature of such difficulty as "The Ride of Paul Revere," or Dickens' A Christmas Carol; (7) to quote accurately and understanding^ several short poems, such as Bennet's "The Flag Goes By" and Emerson's "The Mountain and the Squirrel." Building upon the attainments which the elementary- school pupils are found to possess, each high school should organize a course in English in accordance with the aims and principles set forth above. The details of such a course will of necessity be varied to satisfy the require- ments of different communities. A highly condensed outHne of such a course follows. A Suggestive Outline of the High-School Course in English Composition and Hterature, alternately by semesters or by shorter periods, five recitations or conferences a week. General reading by indi- viduals thruout. Equal emphasis upon speaking and writing, and upon oral and silent reading. Promotion based upon qualitative standards. GRADE VII A. Composition. — (i) Material and motive: topics from recreation; work in school and out; observation of processes, scenes, and objects; occupations; books; imagination. (2) Form: narratives, explanations, descriptions, letters; grammar, including subject and predicate, object, predicate noun or adjective, recognition of the parts of speech by chief function of each, inflection of nouns and personal pronouns for number and case, the idea of tense, clauses and phrases as groups with functions of single words; spelling of words used; necessary punctuation. (3) Results: S64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary sentence sense; larger vocabulary; increast power of observation, organi- zation, and expression; correctness; broader interests and knowledge of environment. B. Literature. — (i) Material for class work: shorter poems of Long- fellow and Whittier; Miles Standish or Evangeline; The Great Stone Face, Rip Van Winkle, and the Legend of Sleepy Hollow; Treasure Island or The Gold Bug; Stories of King Arthur; the Jungle Books. (2) Individual reading: list provided. GRADE VIII A. Composition. — (i) Material and motive: as in Grade VII plus civic questions; imaginary journeys; admirable characters in life or in books; questions of school life; trips. (2) Form: expositions, narratives, descrip- tions, conversations, discussions, letters; grammar, including essential elements of the sentence (subject, predicate, modifiers, connectives), clauses as parts of compound and complex sentences, common and proper nouns, classes of pronouns, person, number, and voice of verbs, comparison and classification of adjectives and adverbs, choice of prepositions, conjunctions as coordinating and subordinating; planning of themes; manipulation of sentences; spelling, punctuation. (3) Results: greater variety of sentence- structure; better paragraphs; larger vocabulary and better choice of words; enlarged power to gather, organize, and present ideas; interest in vocations and in public questions. B. Literature. — (i) Material for class work: poems of Holmes, Lanier, Riley, Field ; Snow-Bound; Lay of the Last Minstrel or Horatius; Tales of a Wayside Inn and Norse Myths; Last of the Mohicans, Kidnapped, Captains Courageous, or Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm; Midsummer-Night's Dream or the Tempest; Franklin's Autobiography; In the Wilderness. (2) Individual reading: list provided. GRADE IX A. Composition. — (i) Material and motive: as before; also particular vocations, current events. (2) Form: grammar as needed to complete a working knowledge to assist composition and reading, but without attempt- ing scientific completeness; most available means of attaining clearness, force, and interest in composition presented informally; chief features of explanation and narrative learned inductively; social letters for various occasions; spelling; word-structure; punctuation. (3) Results: ability to avoid or correct any ordinary error in grammar and to improve expres- sion by varying grammatical structure; the foundation of a system of rhetorical theory; facihty in writing social letters; increast power of thought and of expression; broader interests. B. Literature. — (i) Material for class work: narrative poems such as "Atlanta's Race," "The White Ship," "Herve Riel," "The Courtin'," "The Lady of the Lake"; lyric poems such as Shelley's "To a Skylark," Departmenti REORGANIZATION OF HIGH-SCHOOL ENGLISH 565 Emerson's "Concord Hymn," Keats's "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer," Whitman's "My Captain," Poe's "To Helen," Garland's "The Wind in the Pines"; short stories such as Poe's Purloined Letter, liidiVf- thornt's Ambitious Gwe5/,0 'Henry's The Chaparral Prince, Davis' Gallegher, Brown's Farmer Eli's Vacation, Hale's The Man without a Country; Ivanhoe, Quentin Durward, or Kim; Julius Caesar; Palmer's Homer's Odyssey or Bryant's Iliad (in part), with related myths and legends. (2) Individual reading: list provided. GRADE X A. Composition. — (i) Material and motive: as in Grade IX plus new school studies, social relations, knowledge of the world's work and play. (2) Form: building of paragraphs; sentence-manipulation, particularly clearness thru connectives, correct placing of modifiers, unmistakable refer- ence; conciseness, word-building; speUing; punctuation; business letters and telegrams; briefs and other outlines; news stories, editorials, advertise- ments, and dramatization of situations. (3) Results: greater clearness and force in both speech and writing; fair mastery of the elements involved in short themes; increast ability to persuade; abiUty to handle typical problems of business correspondence near to experience; the habit of right use of the newspaper. B. Literature. — (i) Material for class work: (a) poetry such as Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal," Tennyson's "Enoch Arden," Keats's "The Eve of St. Agnes," "Ulysses," Coleridge's "Ancient Mariner," Burns's "Bannock- burn," Arnold's "Sohrab and Rustum"; (b) plays such as Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, Henry V, and As You Like It, Maeterlinck's Blue Bird, Peabody's The Piper; (c) fiction such as Lorna Doone, Silas Marner, Tale of Two Cities, Ben Hur; (d) other prose such as The Alhambra, Travels with a Donkey, Essays of Burroughs, Grenfell's Adrift on an Ice Pan, Van Dyke's Salt, Lincoln's "Gettysburg Address." (2) Individual reading: list pro- vided. GRADE XI A. Composition. — (i) Material and motive: as before but more defi- nitely the product of investigation and study. (2) Form : expository outlines and themes of two thousand words or more; debate; parliamentary usage ; related letters, short articles, editorials, and descriptions. (3) Results: ability to gather valuable information on the scale of the magazine article and make it pleasantly available to others, employing a working knowledge of the more commonly recognized principles of effectiveness and of the rules of correctness in doing so. B. Literature. — (i) Material for class work: {a) poetry such as Tenny- son's Idylls of the King ("The Coming of Arthur," "Gareth and Lynette," "Lancelot and Elaine," "The Holy Grail," "The Passing of Arthur," and connecting links), "The Lady of Shalott," short poems of Browning, 566 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Arnold's "Balder Dead," nineteenth-century and contemporary lyrics; (Jb) fiction such as David Copper fields Mill on the Floss, House of Seven Gables; (c) plays such as Macbeth, Coriolanus, Twelfth Night, She Stoops to Conquer; (d) speeches on citizenship; (e) other prose from the best current magazines. (/) Individual reading: list provided. GRADE XII A. Composition. — Pupils who have done the work outlined for previous grades with credit should be permitted to follow up their special interests, whether in newspaper work, commercial correspondence, advertising, debating, the short story, verse-writing, dramatization, or scientific descrip- tion, in order to prepare themselves for the calling to which they look forward. Current literature, including the magazines and newspapers, will prove invaluable for such work. Pupils who show markt deficiency in any of the matters outlined for earlier years should be given individual attention or groupt according to need. Many schools will find it impossible for the majority of their pupils to complete the work outlined above for the tenth and eleventh grades before the end of the twelfth. B. Literature. — (i) Material for class work: selected pieces to fill out the list of representative English and American authors read chronologically and connected with previous reading into an outHne history of literature; such as Chaucer's Prologue, Old Ballads, Hamlet, U Allegro, II Fenseroso, and Lycidas, songs from Books I and II of Golden Treasury, Pilgrim's Progress I, Sir Roger de Coverley Papers, Poems of Burns, Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats, and Byron, essays of Lamb and Stevenson, Macaulay on Johnson, Emerson's Fortune of the Republic. (2) Individual reading: collateral list provided. Note. — Two alternative arrangements of the literature course of the senior high school are recommended: First, devote the work of each year to two or more types: for example, poetry and fiction in the tenth; poetry, drama, speeches, and miscellaneous prose in the eleventh; and drama, essay, short story, and miscellaneous prose in the twelfth. In this case literary history is incidental. Secondly, give pupils in large schools an opportunity to elect any one of several courses in the third or fourth year; for example, a course in drama, in the short story, in great speeches, or even in the work of a single author. GENERAL READING Since one of the chief aims of the English course is to establish the habit of reading good books and magazines in the right way, pupils should be encouraged and directed to read freely as individuals thruout the school period. To provide for this, lists must be made up, library cooperation secured, informal class conferences planned, time allowed, and credit given. To many pupils general reading will prove more valuable than any formal subject in the high-school course. Department! THE REORGANIZED HIGH SCHOOL 567 THE REORGANIZED HIGH SCHOOL JOHN M. MILLS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OGDEN, UTAH Education that makes character is the kind that is worth while. Self- expression in wood, stone, iron, or bronze gives character; or it may be acquired thru self-expression on canvas, thru the vocal organs, thru any form of the divine art, thru agriculture or any of tlie industrial arts, or thru the arts of pleasure. The real inspiring thrill comes thru the accom- plishment of a task well done. The end is the completion of a creative task. The object completed gets the child's admiration, and the task of doing the work trains his senses, his muscles, his judgment, his intellect, his will, and his sympathies. This is education and it is education for use- fulness. He learns how to work and to be useful. Such a sentiment should be created in every community that any boy would be ashamed to graduate from high school not knowing how to work and make a living. This senti- ment should be so strong that he would not only consider himself imedu- cated, but disgraced. The high school is the college of the masses. It is within easy access of the homes of the people, but does not always fit the needs of all the people. Modern thought is rapidly forcing its reorganization. Education has too long been considered an accumulation of facts, which may leave the possi- bilities of a student undevelopt. Education is the acquisition of power and character. A majority of those who go to school are not of the bookish- student type. They are of the motor type, and the bookish school is to them made up of a meaningless collection of disconnected, dissociated, abstract formalities. The motor-type boys are as much worth while in the world's work as the student type, and the school should be adjusted to make use of their abiHty in the affairs of life. These boys and girls cannot reason out the necessity, any more than some of the rest of us can, of working along lines that lead away from life. The only way to train for life is to begin to do life's work. The boy who is ready for this, and who is put into the school machine, fails to do his part. He considers school an institution of torment and becomes a bad boy. If the shackles were taken from him and he were allowed to grow while in school he would be found to be one of the best of boys. I sometimes think we have no bad boys, but we do have teachers and parents who fail to comprehend them, and they are slightly spoiled by tie treatment applied to them. A bad boy is a misfit. Rembrandt was a bad boy, and when his evil acts— drawmg pictures- excluded him from a school which he did not fit and which did not fit him, he rapidly rose to be one of the world's masters. School should be so shaped as to fit all the children of all the people, and those whose chief characteristic is self-expression should be given a chance. The junior high school — seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, — In this school much of the work formerly done in the four-year high school can be placed. 568 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary The languages, mathematics, history, and science can be brought down into the seventh and eighth grades by adapting it to those years. Students here begin to find themselves awakened by new subjects, and their interest is strengthened. They study with an eagerness and curiosity to know what these subjects will reveal to them. Their minds are alert and they are ready and willing to take part in discussions. They are no longer promoted by grade, but rather by subject, each subject giving a unit of credit, except in cases where a student thru natural ability or excessive industry acquires an abihty far beyond the other students. He may be given a unit and a fifth or some other fraction of credit. This not only rewards him for his efforts, but encourages others to be more energetic. One who happens to be superior in all his studies is the honor student of the school, and, by acquiring the excessive credit in all subjects, he may shorten his term of residence considerably. If he be successful thruout the junior and senior high school in acquiring "A" in every subject, he will shorten his road to graduation by more than a year. This plan helps to break the perfected scjiool machine, where the bright and the dull, the bookish child and the motor-type child, the boy and the girl, are all marcht thru together in lock- step fashion to graduation, and gives an opportunity to each child for ample reward for every effort he puts forth. During these three years of junior- high-school work the most important period of adolescence is covered. The students are under the discipline that fits their needs. The teachers can be selected to fit those important needs. Specializing here begins, but is not so pronounst as in the senior high school. Bringing the pupils of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades together makes it possible to do better grading, which makes for efficiency and economy. In this school, too, work, play, and study should be the program. The school could be lengthened, making twelve thirty-five-minute periods each day, each pupil taking five academic subjects in classes not to exceed thirty pupils. Each pupil could devote some time, then, to one or more of the following specialties as elected: art, music, woodwork, sewing, physical culture, and recreation — including play, games, and educational moving pictures, swimming, etc. If the child is given some practical problem to work out it strengthens him and makes him more capable of grasping his theoretical problems. Work gives the youth a point of view, an incentive, a motive, and a power to grasp the meaning of intellectual problems. I would also make further provision that in this school a boy or girl who can find better industrial work at home or elsewhere than the school can provide should be allowed to accept such work in place of the industrial part of the school day, provided a careful report is made concerning the quality of the work done, and provided further that this work is proper and suitable for boys and girls of that age. Great care should be taken that work which is injurious to either the body, the mind, or the morals of the child should not be allowed; and that no child should be exploited by greedy and selfish Department] THE REORGANIZED HIGH SCHOOL 569 parents for mere financial gain. Teaching children to work is more impor- tant than the academic studies of the school. A system of child labor is a disgrace to the state. In Ogden our junior-high-school plan provides that boys and girls be kept under supervision from eight-thirty in the morning until four-thirty in the afternoon, except in cases where boys and girls of proper age may be excused for one, two, or three hours of the day to do home work under proper supervision. Woodwork, sewing, cooking, art, music, with other special subjects to be added, provide ample opportunity for self-expression. Boys who have been termed outlaws have become our best pupils, and girls are wearing the clothing that they made with their own hands. The home is thus partly relieved from anxiety and the com- munity of a mischievous burden. School should be so made that bad boys will run away from other places to go to it. The school should be the social center of the community where men, women, and children may meet and learn from one another, either day or evening. The senior high school — tenths eleventh^ and twelfth grades. — This school, having lost its freshman class, is given a little more dignity in the com- munity, and becomes still more of a practical school. Every subject should have good laboratory or good library facilities and should be made practical. The student should be encouraged to g^t into the work of real life while attending school. The bad custom of relieving young people of responsi- bility until they finish high school should be abolisht. The students in high school who are most worth while are those who must work at home or elsewhere while attending. Many students in every high school are under the necessity of making their entire living. The troubles incident to dis- cipline never come from these. The sentiment should be developt that any boy who graduates from high school and does not know how to work to make a living is improperly and imperfectly educated. Much can be done for high-school students by working on the cooperative plan, as is done in some of our leading communities. Taking a part of a student's time from frivolity and nonsense and putting it to some serious use is not a bad plan. Recreation and play are necessary in every life, but no more so than serious work done under the real practical conditions of Hfe. That father or mother who relieves a child from learning how to work until he gets his education misjudges what an education is. It is not merely knowing what others have done; it is the acquisition of skill, strength, and abiUty to do things ourselves. Anyone who gets these qualities, whether he gets them in school or out, is being educated. The school should be adjusted to fit the needs of the community and the individual. It may strain and wrench out of place our -preconceived notions of a school, yet every boy and girl should be trained for service, and should be made to know that service is the greatest thing that can be rendered the world by them. They should not wait until they have their education before they begin to work. A little work done each day thru the student's life will be productive of ability and capacity in that S70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary student. The primary duty of a high school is not to train for college, as very few graduating from high school ever go to college. The function of the high school, therefore, is to train for Ufe. It will not be long before the colleges will recognize the fact tliat the best training for life is the best training for entrance to college. The high-school program can be so adjusted that the building can be used for at least twice the number of students. Our Ogden plan calls for sessions in the forenoon, in the after- noon, and in the evening, in all subjects. Some young people find work in the afternoon which compels them to take their four subjects in the fore- noon. Others take their four subjects in the afternoon and work in the forenoon. Many others who work all day take their four subjects in the evening. These are above the age of eighteen, many of them married men and women, some attending with their own sons and daughters. All the subjects of high school are given, and many practical subjects are con- ducted by competent men in the community: for example, architectural drawing, given by an architect, for brickmasons, carpenters, and contractors; business law, given by a lawyer, for merchants and others; millinery, given by a milliner, for women; salesmanship, given by a practical salesman, for clerks; woodwork, sewing, cooking, typewriting, bookkeeping, etc., are given by experts in their Hnes. There are also classes given in physical culture, folk dancing, social dancing, dramatics, etc., for fathers and mothers. Thus the high school is being made to reach into every family in the community. The senior high school should therefore have its pro- gram made up (as should all other schools) of work, play, and study. It should be open day and evening as a social center and educational head- quarters for the conmiunity. The modern idea should be that the school is the center, the community is the campus, and all the shops, gardens, stores, and parks should be the laboratories of the students. Work done by young people under the real conditions of employment is better than the substitute offered by the schools, and wherever possible young people should be encouraged to get into the real work as a necessary training for life. MILITARY TRAINING IN THE HIGH SCHOOL: WHY AND HOW? W. S. SMALL, PRINCIPAL, EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL, WASHINGTON, D.C. I am glad to have a place on this program devoted to the reorganization of secondary education because the thesis I support, if ever reaHzed, means a distinct reorganization of certain aspects of secondary education. Because I advocate military training of high-school pupils some of you will be sure that I am a sinister mihtarist with half my cards up my sleeve; because I am opposed to making this training compulsory, some of you will be equally sure that I am a pacifist ass, ill-disguised in a lion's skin. If, Department] MILITARY TRAINING IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 571 however, your misunderstanding resolves itself into either active opposition or active inquiry, I am content to be misunderstood; I shall be dissatisfied only if your misunderstanding simmers down to indifiference. Why. — The common and uncritical idea of miUtary training in the high school is that its purpose is to stimulate the martial spirit and make boys lovers of war, and to make trained soldiers of high-school graduates. This is an erroneous view. The age and physical status of the boys preclude the latter, and the experience of school systems that have maintained military training in the high school for many years negatives the former. The purpose of such training is to capitalize the ancient, fundamental, and ineradicable fighting instinct; to exercise, train, and educate it; to make of it a productive educational investment, and compel it to yield adequate dividends in physical and moral discipline. Accurate data in regard to the physical status of high-school boys is not to be had, but I believe I am not hazarding my reputation for sanity when I say that the average of physical fitness is far lower than it should be. In the year 19 14-15 there were in round numbers 160,000 applicants for enlistment in the United States army. Of these, 1 17,000 were rejected upon preliminary examination, and of the remaining 43,000, 7000 were rejected upon detailed medical examination. Finally 30,000, or about 25 per cent, were accepted. I do not present these figures as properly indicative of the physical status of high-school boys. Probably few high-school graduates apply for enlistment. On the other hand, the physical standards for recruits are justly very exacting. Does anybody here think that more than 50 per cent of our high-school graduates would meet those standards ? And what of that host of boys who drop out of high school before the third year ? Are the results of high-school education from the moral point of view any more satisfactory ? Leaving out of account the criticisms of the fanati- cal and the captious, we who are in daily serious contact with this problem know full well that they are not. Our efforts are not at all vain, but we have not capitalized our resources so as to get the fullest returns. The evidence is before us in a striking way in the existence and labors of our Committee on Social Studies. The basic problem with which that committee is wrestling is in the problem of so reorganizing the social studies as to make them productive of civic morality. The immediate object of the courses of instruction this committee recommends may be right social ideas; but the ultimate object is right — that is, moral — social action. We are fond of repeating Dewey's maxim: "The school is Hfe, not preparation for life," the meaning of which is that the school must have emotional reality and must capture the imagination of the scholars. It's almost as iridescent a dream as the Golden Rule in politics ; but it's a dream to be cherisht and pursued. Any plan of organization that promises even a partial realization of the dream is worth trying hopefully and thoroly. In the field of physical and moral education, I believe with conviction that a 572 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Secondary wise system of military training is capable of just that appeal to high-school boys, and that it will vitalize and unify these aspects of high-school education. Up to the present time we have relied upon systems of gymnastics and athletics to effect physical education. Both are inadequate. They lack comprehensive and unifying motive. All systems of gymnastics are individualistic. Their appeal is to the desire of the individual for physical perfection. Competition is narrowly individualistic. Systems of athletics are mostly based upon group competitions, and if properly managed are very valuable, not only for physical development, but also for training in the very fundamentals of social morality. But the philosophy of athletics is the philosophy of play and the philosophy of play is the philosophy of instinct — a philosophy that is not comprehensive enough to serve as a sole basis of physical and moral education. Military training rightly conceived includes these motives and subordinates them to the ideal of patriotism. How. — The common and uncritical conception of high-school military training is mihtary drill. This corresponds with the orthodox fact. The characteristics are a company of boys, in rather gaudy uniform, going thru the forms of the regular army-drill procedure with special emphasis upon the punctilios and the millinery effects of this procedure. The drills com- monly are held two or three times a week and occupy an hour and a half or two hours. Generally there is a competitive drill at the end of the year which is more or less spectacular and exciting. The net result is a fair knowledge of the manual of arms and some acquaintance with the super- ficial aspects of military tactics. Student officers get some valuable training in leadership and responsibihty. Military drill, however, is not mihtary training. Military training in the high school, to accomplish the purposes I have already indicated, must be con- ceived as an educational, not as a purely military, problem, and it must be administered and conducted by the educational authorities. This means that it must be solved in the light of recognized principles of secondary education and in accordance with the practical demands of our democratic institutions. 1. It must be voluntary. You may ask. Why not compulsory, if it pos- sesses the virtues you have credited it with ? The answer is simple and direct: We are not ready to make it compulsory even if it were desirable. It is useless to compel a few boys to do a thing that they or their parents object to when the great majority will do it voluntarily and joyfully. 2. It must be free from any suspicion of conscription; must involve no relation with militia or national guards and imply no reserve obligation, but must be purely a school discipline and organization. The content and the form must be determined by the interests and capacities of the human material with which we have to deal. This material is boys of the early or middle adolescent stage. They are physically and intellectually and morally unformed. Three markt tendencies of adoles- cence must be utilized : to compete, to cooperate, and to play. Graded and Department] MILITARY TRAINING IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 573 diversified exercises are necessary. Adequate and frequent physical exami- nation must be provided. By far the best plan yet formulated is that workt out by Lieutenant E. Z. Steever, of the United States Army, in the state of Wyoming, and popularly known as the Steever plan. A description in outHne has been issued by the Army War College under the title of ''Outline of Plan for Military Training in the Public Schools of the United States." A good popular account of Lieutenant Steever's work in Wyoming may be found in Everybody's for February, 19 16. Lieutenant Steever's plan utilizes effectively the three instincts specified above— play, cooperation, and competition. Without taking the work out of military training, he has put the play motive into it. He has utilized the competitive instinct without narrowing competition to individuals or to selected groups — commonly the bane of our present administration of athletics. He has capitalized cooperation in such a way as to make it general and genuine, not the cooperation of petty artificially selected groups. The essential competition is between groups so selected that abihty will be evenly distributed. Success depends, not upon markt differ- ences in natural ability of the individuals composing the groups, but upon the intelligence, faithfulness, and loyalty of the whole group. The outstanding features of the program are a succession of competitive group activities running thru the year, and a period of two or three weeks in camp. The group competitions as develop t are wall-scaling, infantry drill, troop-leadership, scholarship, field firing and camp and field activities. This kind of group competition is a guaranty of sound training in morality, both personal and civic. Success is infallibly achieved by the cleanest- living groups. Compulsion within the groups insures clean living. A group of boys will not long tolerate an individual member who imperils the success of the group. Under the fiercest kind of competition and a new and fascinating interest in life, the adolescent is better enabled to negotiate that difficult period of life. Similarly, group compulsion takes care of an important phase of civic morality. The groups elect their own leaders. Election of inefficient leaders is punisht swiftly and surely by failure. Cause and effect are seen in naked sequence. Respect for true leadership is cultivated coincidently with the development of self-respecting subordination of self. Doubtless this plan of Lieutenant Steever's is imperfect and will be developt and expanded, but the principles upon which it is founded are profoundly true and enduring. Just as it stands it means much for the physical and moral upbuilding of high-school boys. It is essentially American and democratic. It is indigenous, and therefore better for us than the Swiss or AustraHan systems. Once in a generation, or it may be in a century, the public mind is so aroused and unified that far-reaching reorganizations of education are 574 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Secondary possible. I believe we are in such a mood at this time. We cannot buy- preparedness for national defense with millions of dollars spent for material equipment or mercenary battalions; we can buy it only by a real education of our high-school youth. There is plenty of hysteria and ghost dancing in the preparedness psychosis, but there is also a real searching of the national heart and a forming resolution to achieve spiritual preparedness. This is a national, not a local, issue. It is a matter that should be promoted by the federal government. The federal government is moving in a large and far-sighted way at the present time in the encouragement and support of rural and industrial education. It should move in the same large and far-sighted way in the encouragement and support of military training in our high schools. I believe the following tentative plan for such support would be both feasible and economic. The federal government should provide the necessary financial support for the maintenance of mihtary training in the pubHc high schools of the nation, whose school boards may agree to the following conditions: 1. To maintain in the high schools under their jurisdiction a graded and prescribed course of military training extending thru two years of the high-school course; such training should be open to all boys as a voluntary and elective study, provided, of course, that when elected the study should be continued for at least one year, and should not be dropt within that time except by permission of the school authorities for adequate reasons. 2. The schools should give credit for military training to the extent of at least one-sixteenth of the total requirements for graduation, provided the course in military training consist of not less than two hours a week for not less than thirty weeks of the school year and the conduct of a camp for not less than two weeks each year. 3. The school boards must provide adequate physical examination for all candidates for mihtary training, the standards for which should not be, of course, the standards that prevail in the selection of applicants for enlist- ment in the regular army, but standards that shall be workt out by compe- tent physical-training experts who shall be conversant with the physical character of high-school boys. 4. The actual teaching of the military training should be done by a regular teacher in the school, preferably a teacher of physical education. This work should be done under the direction and supervision of an officer of the regular army detailed for that purpose. The teacher who gives the instruction might be designated the school director of military training. He could qualify for this work by attending for a period of about three months a school for the training of school directors of mihtary traming conducted by the supervising army officer mentioned above. Any live, well-trained young man of good physical capacity who has had some experience in athletics and physical training could qualify for this work by completing the three months' course of training. DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Frances Ellen Dotting, assistant professor of music, Hunter College, New York, N. Y. Vice-President — Charles H. Farnsworth, associate professor of school music, Teachers Col- ^ lege, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Secretary — Constance Barlow-Smith, assistant professor of school music, School of Music, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 5, 1916 The first session of the Department of Music Education was called to order at 10:30 A.M. in the Auditorium of Hunter College by President Frances Ellen Diitting. P. C. Hayden, Keokuk, Iowa, editor of School Music, was appointed secretary. The following program was presented: "Address of Welcome" — George Samler Davis, president, Hunter College. "Ideals of Music Teaching in School and College" — Thomas Whitney Surette, staff lecturer on music for the extension delegacy of Oxford University, Concord, Mass. "Absolute Music in the Elementary Schools" — Frederic H. Ripley, principal, Prince School, Boston, Mass. "What Should Be the Musical Equipment of the Secondary-School Graduate: What Should the Graduate Take into Home, College, Community?" — ^John F. Ahem, director of music, Springfield, Mass. "Music in tJie Normal School" — Frank Beach, director of music, Kansas State Teachers College, Emporia, Kans. Round-Table Discussion: Frederic H. Ripley, principal. Prince School, Boston, Mass.; Frank R. Rix, M.D., director of school music. New York, N.Y. SECOND SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 19 16 The department was called to order at 10:30 a.m. by the president, who announst the appointment of the following Committee on Nominations: Charles H. Farnsworth, Frank A. Beach, and Margaret L. Humphreville. The following program was presented: "The Child Voice: Responsibility of the Community toward It" — Henrietta Baker- Low, associate professor of music, Peabody Conservatory, Baltimore, Md. "Community Music" — Edgar B. Gordon, director of music, Winfield, Kans. "Music in a Democracy: The Spread of the Community-Music Movement" — Peter W. Dykema, professor of music, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. "Music Education and Public Libraries" — Otto Kinkeldey, chief of the music division, New York Public Library, New York, N.Y. Mr. Gordon's paper was read by Frederick Goodwin and Mr. Dykema's paper was read by Henrietta Baker-Low. The following committee was appointed to consider some means of putting into effect the suggestions which had been made by Mrs. Baker-Low: A. J. Gantvoort, Charles H. Farnsworth, Henrietta Baker-Low, Frances Ellen Diitting, and Fallie F. McKinley. S7S 576 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music THIRD SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 7, 19 16 The committee appointed at the second session made the following report: Your committee, appointed to consider the many valuable and timely suggestions contained in the paper read by Henrietta Baker-Low, after due and careful consideration, begs to recommend for immediate action, the appointment of a committee of ten members of this body and one member of the Department of Child-Study who has considerable musical knowledge, to consult, and, if possible, act with a similar committee from the Music Supervisors' National Conference and the Music Teachers' National Association upofli the following: 1. A selection of six standard songs for each grade to be used when introducing music in the public schools of a community, these songs to have some such scientific evaluation as is suggested by Professor Yocum, in a recent National Education Association address, in the following words: "Those {a) which are most many-sided in their relationships, {h) which are most frequent in useful recurrence, (c) which inherently make the strongest sensational or emotional appeal that is useful." 2. The formulating of a simple statement of ideals in public-school music that will aid in predisposing school boards to the introduction of music into their schools. This statement to include a definite minimum requirement as to artistic and sight-reading aims. 3. The selection of a list of twelve artistic unison songs suitable for use in the upper grammar grades, high school, and the social circle, with the advice that these be committed to memory by all. Your committee further recormnends: (i) that every supervisor of music make every effort to secure the adoption of the religious songs already compiled by a conunittee of the Music Supervisors' National Conference for use in Sunday schools as a help to proper singing by the children; (2) that this conmiittee of ten in joint cooperation with the committees heretofore mentioned be given the power to appoint, in every state, a super- visor who will agree to furnish information to anyone asking help in music work. The committee further recommends that the other suggestions contained in Mrs. Baker-Low's paper be considered at next year's meeting of the department. The report was adopted and the following committee was nominated from the floor: A. J. Gantvoort, musical director, teacher of public-school music and sight reading, College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio, Chairman. Frank R. Rix, director of school music. New York, N.Y. Henrietta Baker-Low, assistant professor of music, Peabody Conservatory, Balti- more, Md. Frances Ellen Diitting, assistant professor of music, Hunter College, New York, N.Y. Will Earhart, director of music. Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Edward B. Gordon, director of music, Winfield, Kans. Frank A. Beach, director of music, Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kans. Hollis E. Dann, head of department of music, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. Frances E. Clark, director of educational department, Victor Talking Machine Company, Camden, N.J. Charles H. Famsworth, associate professor of music. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. It was agreed that the member representing the Department of Child-Study, should be selected by the committee. The following program was presented: "The Psychology of Esthetic Experience in Music" — Margaret Floy Washburn, professor of psychology, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N.Y. "Music Appreciation" — Leonard B. McWhood, instructor in music. Drew Theo- logical Seminary, Madison, N.J. "Mechanical Inventions as an Aid to the Teaching of Music" — ^Leo Rich Lewis, professor of music. Tufts College, Tufts College, Mass. "The Folk-Song" — Luise Haessler, assistant professor of German, Hunter CoUege, New York, N.Y. Mr. Lewis used a piano-player to illustrate his paper, and a number of costumed singers were present to illustrate Miss Haessler's paper. Department] ABSOLUTE MUSIC IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 577 C. H. Congdon, Josephine Duke, and Nellie Dee presented the following resolutions, which were unanimously adopted: Whereas, The Music Section of the National Education Association has been pro- vided with a program that stands out distinctly as one of the best that was ever presented to this body, representing the broad phases of music education by a phalanx of distinguisht educators; and Whereas, These educators, coming as they do from different sections of the country and representing the various branches of music education, have exprest a remarkable unanimity of opinion and ideas showing the high trend of modem music education; and Whereas, The discussions have revealed that public schools, normal schools, colleges, and libraries are united in one proud aim toward the achievement of our ideals that will result in the fulfilment of our hope for a musical America; and Whereas, Owing to the great calamity that has befallen the art centers of Europe which brings about a condition pointing to America as the hope of the world, therefore belt Resolved, That we give full credit to the president, Frances E. Diitting, for preparing this unusual program, which is a decided step toward the realization of our hopes and ideals; that we extend our thanks to the president of Hunter College for the use of this hall and for the splendid cooperation of his assistants; that we thank one and all who have so ably contributed to this program; and that we here pledge ourselves to the furthering of the nation-wide cause which has here received such a tremendous impetus. The report of the Committee on Nominations was presented and unanimously adopted as follows: President. — A. J. Gantvoort, musical director, teacher of public-school music and sight reading. College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio. Vice-President. — Agnes Benson, music department, Public Schools, Chicago, 111. Secretary — Florence Schute, St. Louis, Mo. FOURTH SESSION— FRn)AY Afternoon, July 7, 1916 A complimentary organ recital was given by Samuel A. Baldwin, professor of music at City College, in the Great Hall of the College of the City of New York, who repeated the program of the five-hundredth recital, as follows: I. Sonata No. 5, in C minor. Op. 80 Alexandre Guilmant I. Allegro appassionato; II. Adagio (1837-1911) '' li.'^As^s DeaTh""^ } ^"^^^ ^^^' ^>^^ ^^^^^ ^°- ' ^'^^'^ ^''^ 3. Fantasie and Fugue in G minor J. S. Bach (1685-1750) 4. Vorspiel, "Lohengrin" Richard Wagner (1813-1883) 5. Prize Song, "Die Meistersinger " Richard Wagner 6. Will o' the Wisp (Scherzo-Toccatina) Gordon Balch Nevin 7. Prelude in C sharp minor Sergei V, Rachmaninojff 8. Am Meer ("By the Sea") Franz Schubert (1697-1828) 9. Toccato, Fifth Symphony Charles Marie Widor P. C. Hayden, Secretary pro tern PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ABSOLUTE MUSIC IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS FREDERIC H. RIPLEY, PRINCIPAL, PRINCE SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. Absolute music is music which does not depend for its interest on any art outside of itself. The word "absolute," however, is usually applied exclusively to instrumental music, in which field of art it is used as the 578 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music antonym of "program'* music. But music which depends for its interest on variation in relative pitch and duration of tones, however produced, may be regarded as absolute music: for example, in Grove's Dictionary of Music reference is made to the teaching of relative pitch by means of syllables as teaching absolute music. The study of absolute music simply means, therefore, the study of music itself, dissociated from all other arts. I quite agree that it is impossible to advance far in the study of any art without discovering that a relation exists between all forms of art which makes some knowledge of all essential to the understanding of anyone. That is, there are certain fundamental principles common in all art. It is equally true, however, that each art is based on elements which are peculiar to itseK and that a knowledge of these elements underlies the true appreciation of all works which employ them. A study of the printed reports of the papers read at the meetings of this association reveals some very interesting matters to which I desire to direct your attention for a few moments. The department of music as a branch of the National Education Asso- ciation was the eighth to be added to the original organization. It came into existence in 1868, and the publication of its deliberations appears to have begun in 1870. An analysis of the forty-seven programs presented during the life of the department shows a fairly well-markt progress of thought that divides easily into three stages. The first stage is fairly well indicated by the address delivered in 1870 by Dr. Eben Tourjee, entitled "A Plea for Vocal Music in the Public Schools." The second period is markt by the discussion of methods of instruction and of systems, including the Tonic Sol-Fa system, the principles of which seem to have become so generally adopted that no further consideration has been given to it. It is to this system that we owe the presence of the three features which distinguish our method, namely, the use of syllable names for the scale tones, the movable "Do," and the treatment of the minor scale as a derivative of the major scale. The third period may be regarded as the period of expansion. High-school music appears with increasing frequency as a topic for consideration, and college professors have frequently contrib- uted papers on this subject. An excellent course for high schools was presented in 1904, which was adopted by the Association. In this course, however, no standards are set up, and no idea of the preliminary preparation of candidates is sug- gested. The papers show that in all this time there has been no agreement as to just what the elementary schools should contribute to music, nor any clear announcement of the thing to be obtained by the effort made. This indefiniteness which prevailed at the beginning still remains. It is with the hope of suggesting a common ground on which we may possibly agree Department) ABSOLUTE MUSIC IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 579 that I have chosen for my subject "Absolute Music in the Elementary Schools." My hope of a general agreement on certain points is based on the testimony of college and conservatory professors that pupils who present themselves for courses in harmony, composition, and appreciation have no real "appreciation of tones in relation as real thinkable objects, as distinct and clear in the mental conception as color and geometrical forms are." They report that these pupils gaze at the notation without gaining a clear idea either of the tonality or of the movement, because the elements upon which true appreciation is based are wanting. This condi- tion arises from the fact that these pupils have had no adequate training in tone-appreciation dissociated from other objects of thought. Appar- ently the power which may be best acquired in the elementary school is the very power which is most prized by musicians. It is on this power that appreciation depends, unless appreciation be interpreted in terms of general feeling. The most ignorant person may be moved to tears by a beautiful song, but those tears are emotional and not appreciative symbols, unless we hold that emotion and appreciation are s3nionymous terms. The untrained person may admire a beautiful piece of architecture; he may love to gaze upon it, but we must admit that what he see.s and feels has little or no relation in kind or in degree to what the artist sees and feels, and we may agree that this difference arises from differences in knowledge, and that the differences in knowledge arise, not alone from capacity, but from differences in training and experience. All artistic objects, however complex, are truly appreciated proportionately to the degree of our appre- ciation of the elements of which they are composed. On viewing a mag- nificent interior, for example, the trained mind at once passes from the consideration of the whole to an examination of the component elements, the materials used, and the arrangement of the parts; and the more intimate the knowledge of these elements the deeper, fuller, and more inspiring is the appreciation. It is true that some effort is made in the elementary grades to cultivate tonal and rhythmic perception, but this effort is made with a view to the cultivation of the power to read music, and the effort ceases as soon as sufficient reading power is obtained to secure the rendition of the simple music which the books contain. A real working knowledge of the funda- mentals of music is rarely secured by the pupil; and what knowledge he has is so unclassified and erratic that no structure of musical importance can be reared upon it. To illustrate the benefits of an opposite course and to show what defi- nite organization of the elementary work accompHshes, I shall give some facts in regard to the work done by the Tonic Sol-Faists in England. Mr. Grove's account of the Tonic Sol-Fa system of music-teaching, as given in the fifth volume of the latest edition of his adnurable History of Music and Musicians, contains some statements which come under three heads: 58o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music (i) object to be obtained, (2) the reason for making the effort, and (3) the success which has attended the effort. 1. The object of the effort is to train the pupil to recognize the mental effect of one sound as distinguisht from another by relative pitch and relative duration. Helmholtz, commenting on this point, praised the work because it gives prominence to the relation of each tone to a tonic, and he exprest his astonishment at the certainty with which a class of forty children interpreted simple notation, and at the accuracy of their intonation. 2. The reasons which Mr. Curwin, the promoter, if not the inventor of the system, gives for the great effort which he made is exprest in these words, "In too many schools still, the children only learn tunes by memory." Again he expresses his desire to remove the "poor trumpery" in song material, in which the chief interest is found in the words, and to direct attention to the true material of music — tones in relation — with a view to estabKshing an appreciation of really good music. 3. The result: according to the report of the Tonic Sol-Fa College, in 1908, 20,684 certificates were granted that year to students who had mastered tone relation, and since the organization of the college 847,852 certificates of qualification have been issued to persons who have past the required examination; further, choral societies have increast to an aston- ishing degree, and the power to read music and to participate intelligently in choral performances has become general thruout the British Empire. Musical progress must be based on appreciation. True appreciation must be based on knowledge as well as on feeling. Knowledge must be based on perception. The thing to be perceived, and hence to be appre- ciated, is tone. Tone has three perceivable attributes, namely, relative pitch, relative duration, relative quality. There is no such thing as the absolute in matters musical. What is called "absolute pitch" is simply an expression of the relation of the given pitch to the pitches of some standard instrument with which the musician is familiar. The plea for absolute music in the elementary schools is really a plea for the more careful study of tone entirely dissociated from the elements of all other arts. A beautiful song is a successful combination of two arts. Each may be heightened in effect by the presence of the other, but the learner inevi- tably suffers from having a double object for attention before him. The study of tone relation by itself need not interfere with the develop- ment of choral music, and does not, as shown by the wonderful spread of choral art in the British Empire. The study of absolute music, too, includes form and harmony which, in their simplest development, fall easily within the range of the elementary- school period. To hear what one sees and to see what one hears in music is a power easily secured. The time required is not great, but persistent, II Department] ABSOLUTE MUSIC IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 581 systematic effort is necessary. Shall we, then, really teach music in the schools, or shall we merely sing for diversion and recreation ? Under strict analysis the fact is revealed that very little systematic music teaching is being done in the schools, and this little seems likely to become less if music is taught with an ulterior motive. If the music teachers in this country would consider what music teaching really is, and deliver even a little absolute music training in each grade, a result far transcending that secured in England would be obtained, because, since the development of the Tonic Sol-Fa system, great advances have been made both in theory and in practice, and the staff notation has proved to be a far better means of expressing tonal relations, even for Httle children, an any of the devices which have been invented to supplant it. But so ng as we persist in performing choral work, small and great, without ttempting to secure true appreciation of the music, so long music in schools rest on an unstable foundation and be subject to every wind of doc- ine that chances to arise. Assuming that a real study of music is to be undertaken, it remains to te just what should be taught and how the work should be distributed er the several grades. The course divides, naturally, into two distinct es, one of which deals with the relative pitch of tones and the written ression of these differences, and the other with the relative duration f tones as exprest in varying note values, the grouping of these values into igures or motives, and the final development of form as applied to small mpositions. Beginners would learn the names and character of the tones of the ale and become able to name from hearing, and to sound from naming, y scale tone which can be represented on the lines and spaces of the ff. There are but eight tones to be mastered. A few moments of stematic drill, given daily for a year, fixes the tones with far greater curacy than is secured for number work from one to ten during the me time. The second year's work would continue the same drill with greater tention to the written expression and rhythmic variations. The third year would advance the work by adding new tones and more ried rhythms. So the work would advance till the chromatic scale and e modes were completely exploited, and the study of form had advanst to elude a consideration of the choral, madrigal, glee, round, catch, and such er musical expressions as time had left us; and at the same time atten- lon would be called to the effect of tones in harmonic combination, so that e effects of major and minor thirds and sixths would be easily recognized; d, in the highest grade, triad harmony would be carried to a point which would allow the free use of the primary chords in major and minor, and enable the pupil to harmonize simple melodies which involve nothing beyond the resolution of the dominant seventh chord. 582 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music This course corresponds in kind to that which has been so successfully- carried out by the Tonic Sol-Faists in England. It is a course which will appeal to the heart of the evaluation experts and general critic of music work, because it is easily divisible by grades, the standards of requirement are readily establisht, and testing and credits definitely provided for. An element of study running parallel with chord practice would place music upon a working basis as a subject ranking in dignity and importance with any other in the curriculum. But, you may justly inquire, what is to be done with those who show neither interest nor capacity for this training ? You are all aware that this is the era of reform in school-management. .Those who think about these things have already discovered that what is sure to be true of music is true of all other subjects. By the time the end of the sixth year in school is reacht certain well-markt differences in incli- nation and in capacity have developt in the pupils along nearly every line of study. It is here that d.ifferentiation in courses should begin, and it is here that a stronger, more specialized treatment of music would naturally begin. No subject will be more easily tested than music. No segregation wiU offer relief to uninterested pupils or be more advantageous to those who elect the study; and, when the high school is reacht, an intelligent selection of pupils ;for advanst work can be made which will easily raise music to the level of a ranking subject and solve the vexatious problem which music now presents in the high-school course. WHAT SHOULD BE THE MUSICAL EQUIPMENT OF THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL GRADUATE? JOHN F. AHERN, DIRECTOR OF MUSIC, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. Since it is, or should be, an axiom in education that the value of a^ study is measured by its usefulness in the life of the student, I propose to consider my subject from the point of view of its usefulness. My proposi- tion, therefore, is that our aims and efforts in shaping and conducting our^ particular line of work in secoiidary schools should be governed and guided by experience which deals with the past, and by an| ideal which has to do with the present and future. Suggested by both the experience and the] ideal comes this question. What kind and degree of musical equipment will prove to be most useful to the graduates of our secondary schools? Immediately our thoughts are busy with consideration of the probable future environment and activities of the graduates. As the social or economic value of these boys and girls is not fully establisht until they have past the stage of existence covered by what may be called the collegiate period, let us first consider them and their musical usefulness in their adult life. Department] MUSIC IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS 583 Since time is lacking for anything even approaching a close grading of the musically inclined, we may as well proceed with the assumption that the men and women of our time are, in the words of the old Latin grammar of more or less sacred memory, "divided into three parts": (i) those who do not care for music — a small percentage, I am fain to believe; (2) those who practice and applaud the t)^e of music known as popular; (3) those who enjoy and appreciate the performances of the kind of music that we believe is worth while. The recruiting of the last class should be the constant endeavor of everyone interested in the advancement of the art of music by the raising of standards of knowledge and performance. What can be done to raise lese standards ? To an encouraging degree the process is already under [way and has been for some years, as witness the increasing interest in, and support of, such projects as the music festivals in Cincinnati and Springfield, [to mention only two of the large number given annually all over the country. [But this is not the most promising field for the propagation of a higher ippreciation of the best music. In my humble opinion we must devote our tin efforts toward the upbuilding of higher standards of knowledge and )erformance right in our secondary schools, where the boys and girls who fill be the men and women of tomorrow, are — boys and girls whose ideals id standards are in process of formation and development. Upon the id and degree of musical experience and educational opportunities which ire coincident with their high-school and academy days depend the kind id degree of interest in, and support of, music on the part of these present- lay boys and girls of ours in their adult years. This is a fact which we are too prone to forget or overlook in the stress )f our daily work with our classes; nevertheless, it is a fact with which we lUst reckon. We must not forget nor overlook, either, the fact that these )oys and girls, by virtue of the shorter school day in vogue in the secondary :hools in most places have, and, I am grieved to say, embrace, opportunities for attending places of amusement which, by reason of the comparatively small admission fees, cannot afford to provide music of a high order, either '^ocal or instrumental. Who is there among us that does not recall, with a shudder of disapproval at least, the contemptible offerings of the so-called singers or players at some of these places during an indiscreet and regretted dsit ? It must be admitted, at once, that the boys and girls are attracted to lese places and exposed to influences which, since they are not elevating, lust be harmful, because they like to go and like to hear what is there set )efore them. Why do they like this sort of thing ? I believe it is because It is all so obvious or easily comprehended. By this I mean that no exertion )f the intelligence is called for in listening to these baneful offerings. The jar is tickled merely, no stimulus resulting. The best than can be said of the sort of music in question is that it entertains by helping to pass away 584 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music the time. That much of it is suggestive of local color camiot be denied, as witness the songs that are built around the distinctive rhythm of the negro music, commonly known as ragtime. There is also the peculiar effect pro- duced by the extravagance of the text in the attempt to make the words rhyme. Numerous examples might be given, if they were worth the time. Of late the popular fancy of the song-writers has been diverted from our Southland to the islands of Hawaii, possibly as a result of the San Francisco Fair, with its ukelele and other strange instruments, so strangely played. To sum up, popular music, as it is reflected in the apparent preferences of the vaudeville and movie devotees, is non-enduring and follows the fad of the day, whatever it may chance to be. There are many reasons why this situation exists and is likely to con- tinue to exist to some degree. The first reason is a commercial one. It pays. At least, it pays and has paid princely sums to certain lucky com- posers whose success is the magnet that attracts a countless host of others hoping to "produce a winner." There is cause for thankfulness in the fact that very few succeed, but that very thankfulness is somewhat shaken by the deluge of stuff to be found on sale wherever we turn, all indicative of the misdirected energy of authors and composers, whose vanity is evidenst by the inartistic portraits of themselves invariably displayed on the cover pages among a riot of more or less hideous colors. The reasons for the situation have already been touched upon in this paper, such as the lack of standards of excellence in material and performance, the desire to be amused and entertained, and the hours of idleness to be disposed of, all on the part of the public, of which our boys and girls form so large a proportion. There is, however, another reason, and it should interest us because it points us to an opportunity. To take the reason first: These good people are fair game for the promoters of all that is cheap in the way of musical entertainment, to no small degree because this form of amusement and relaxation is all that offers and attracts. Put in another way, these people seek amusement at the hands of others largely because they do not know how to amuse themselves. Our opportunity is at once apparent. Give them something to do, something that is elevating and cultural, but something that is also attractive, because it is pleasing. We have all notist, at some time or other, the admiration felt by these young people when they have listened to a competent singer or players in a performance of good music. Whatever the dictionary says, admiration in this connection carries with it a desire or wish to be able to do as one has heard another do. How frequently do we hear the wish exprest by those who have been delighted by a Gluck, or a WiUiams, or an Amato, or a Bauer, or some of our fine orchestral or choral bodies, "I wish I could do that," or "I wish I could belong to that orchestra or chorus!" Why not take advantage of this desire to emulate something really fine and worthy ? It may be said that we are already engaged in this endeavor, Department] MUSIC IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS 585 but are we ? We have our choruses, our glee clubs, our orchestras, etc., to be sure, but too often are these organizations left to shift for themselves in the matter of supervision and support, while little or no incentive is afforded in the way of public appearances, in or out of school, save those directly promoted by the organizations themselves, or by individuals con- nected with them. Having considered the unfavorable situation, let us now look at the other side, which deals with what may be done to bring about an uplift in our national musical life. As a beginning, I wish to affirm my stanch belief in the musical ability of the rank and file of our people of all stations. From whatever land or race our people or their forbears came, they brought with them a love for music, together with varying ideals or standards of performance which are more or less reflected or develop t in their children. The theory is demonstrable, I am confident, that the vast majority of the people, young and old, like to sing or play, singly or in groups. This being the case, where does the secondary school fit in as a factor or influence making for uplift? The schools in this land which are next below our colleges in our scheme of education can and should offer courses in music of solid worth. There should be something more worth while than a period once or twice a week for the chorus, devoted in the main to singing songs of a varying degree of excellence. The choral classes should have the advantage of becoming familiar with cantatas, oratorios, masses, and similar composition, especially the masterpieces. I am not forgetting, in urging this form of musical activity, that not all the work of this character will be found to fit the vocal capabilities of the scholars in the choruses, but a goodly supply of judgment and common-sense on the part of the teacher will be all that is needed to eliminate the difficulty. The depart- ments of English, modern languages — French and German — all include in the material studied a goodly allotment of the masterpieces in their respec- tive fields. If Chaucer, Shakespeare, Tennyson, and others offer legitimate subject material for the study of our mother-tongue, why are not the compositions of Haydn, Handel, Wagner, Verdi, and others as rich fields of experience in getting acquainted with the best in music ? Should vocal music be elective or required? Since music is to enter more and more into our social hfe, and it is desirable to have a knowledge of what constitutes good music as widespread as possible, it seems to me that music should be put on a required basis. It is not left to the child to say whether or not he will take his part in the study in the grades. Why should it be different in the high school ? That it is not universally required is, after all, little more than a tradition which need receive little or no consideration in handling the situation. With music as one of the required studies, there should be such pro- vision of time and leadership as will make possible the organization of classes of reasonable size. Indeed, this will be found to be imperative, if 586 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music the work of the school itself is not to be more or less disorganized by the chorus, which, taking in all pupils of a certain class or grade, would deprive teachers of other subjects of their usual classes. The exact basis of organization of the chorus is a matter for treatment according to the individual school, since there are so many different plans or programs in vogue. I would have, as a logical result of the required choruses by grades or classes, one choral club or choir on an elective basis, membership in which would be open only to those scholars whose general standing, as well as musical aptitude or scholarship, warranted their acceptance. In other words, make membership in such a body highly desirable as an indication of ability above the ordinary. Glee clubs of girls and boys, on an elective basis, would be fostered by the conditions outlined above, a greater propor- tion of the student body in a school so organized musically being attracted to this particular form of musical activity as a result of the raising of the value of music as a study. Credits should be allowed for all this work, both required and elective, as points counting in securing a diploma. Such students as have voices of promise should be encouraged and advised as to the things they may or may not attempt to do with safety. So far only the vocal music has been considered, but we must also have regard to instrumental music, for talents differ in the mode of expression. A strong course in musical analysis, harmony, and musical appreciation could be made a valuable asset of any school on its practical, as well as its cultural, side. The marvelous fidelity in rendering vocal and instrumental music, both solo and concerted, of the modern mechanical devices of various names opens up a rich field of material and solves the problem of presentation for the teacher who is not especially gifted in performance. The natural curiosity of the child or grown-up to see "how it is made" can be gratified as to music in the classes last mentioned by the exempli- fication of the elements that enter into a composition. The pupil can be made, or enabled, to see that a theme or subject is a reality, not a vague term. The word "fugue" will take on a definite meaning of its own and cease to suggest, a certain confection of delectable qualities. He can be shown the entrancing possibihties of imitation, as shown by the playing of an orchestral record or a Bach invention. In short, he can be shown that there is an intellectual exercise as well as a source of pleasure in listening to music. This grasp of the intellectual side will but serve to enhance the pleasure of listening to good music, while it serves to expose the banalities of the popular stuff. A not-too-minute study of the history and evolution of music will prove valuable in showing how the various forms of music and the instruments employed in rendering them came into being. Orchestras, quartets, trios, and instrumental soloists should be encour- aged by credits where possible. Outside study should also be credited, when worthy, by cooperation between the school and the private teacher Department! MUSIC IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL 587 according to the plan outlined by the music supervisors in a recent national meeting. To sum up, the secondary-school graduate should receive opportunities for hearing, knowing, studying, and rendering, when possible, as much of the best in music as time will allow. In theory at least he will then become a powerful factor in raising the cultural and practical value of music in the community of his residence. MUSIC IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL fFRANK A. BEACH, DIRECTOR OF MUSIC, KANSAS STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, EMPORIA, KANS. In the last few decades music has come to play such a large part in life [that by common consent it has a place in some form or other in every [institution, whether social, religious, or political. Indeed, we expect to ind music in the home and in the church, in the schoolroom and in social gatherings, for the immediate contribution it makes to these organizations. fin normal schools and teachers' colleges music also has its place, but here [it exists, not so much for the immediate social influence, as for the effect it will have later upon the home and society at large. When we consider that the sum total of the musical taste of the nation is very largely molded by [the teachers in public schools, the music in the normal school becomes a fmatter of far-reaching and vital importance. Conservatories, music clubs, [and artists' recitals may raise somewhat the standard among music-loving idults in a community, but the average level of musical appreciation and [ability will not rise higher than its source, the public school; and the [public-school-music ideal in turn runs abreast of the musical standard of the related normal schools. The musical taste of the children of today will largely determine the standards of the nation of tomorrow; and since [these children are the folk upon whom music must depend in the next generation for patronage and encouragement, the question of music in the [normal school becomes an issue of no small significance. When the request for this paper came, it immediately resulted in the [perpetration of that valuable annoyance, a questionnaire, sent to some [200 normal schools and teachers' colleges. Full and prompt replies gave [evidence that many institutions are clearly awake to the present situation md are earnestly striving to meet their responsibiHty. This discussion is [based upon replies from 117 institutions, together with information secured from an investigation of music in the public schools made in 19 14 by Mr. Earhart, of Pittsburgh. These combined reports, supplemented by a I large number of letters, emphasized three facts of importance: (i) the rela- j tion of the normal school to the equipment of the supervisor, (2) the prob- lem of the training of the grade teacher in music, (3) the responsibiUty of 11. 588 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Musk the normal school to the rural community. We shall necessarily consider these three phases of music in the normal school, as they cause it to func- tion in the public schools. From the returns it is evident that only 26 per cent of the supervisors receive the teacher training of the normal school. This is explained in part by the fact that but 23 per cent of the normal schools reporting offer a course for supervisors. To those who have in mmd any one of a number of well-organized school systems in charge of competent supervisors, these statistics will seem unimportant; but investigation reveals the startling fact that in many small cities and towns the local school board appoints as supervisor a pianist, a vocalist, or a violinist as a reward of merit for success in studio teaching and for tax-paying residence. Such individuals are wanting in the professional knowledge necessary for teaching; they bring to the schoolroom the atmosphere of the studio, and often they are utterly' lacking in ability to develop the grade teacher into a teacher of music for her own room. The failure in the past on the part of normal schools to offer courses for supervisors has been one reason, tho not the primary one, of course, for the establishment of summer schools by the book companies. The briefness of these courses, their probable bent toward a particular t)^e of pedagogy, and their inabiUty to offer related academic work and practice teaching is turning students to the normal schools and colleges, where the courses for supervisors are from one to three years in length. The graduation, as supervisors, of students who have never finisht a high- school eclucation, as practist in numerous schools of music and conserva- tories, can be checkt only by a propaganda in which normal schools should lead — a propaganda for the state certification of supervisors. Beginning September, 19 16, no teacher of music may teach in public schools in Kansas with less than two years' work of college grade, consisting of music and pedagogical subjects. Where courses for supervisors exist, whether in normal schools or elsewhere, a rigid entrance standard should be estabUsht. Chief among these- requirements should be natural musicianship and not less than one year's teaching experience prior to entrance. If one were forst to choose between the unmusical teacher and the musician who is not a teacher, he would doubtless say, "Give me neither." Of the 117 normal schools reporting, 98 have sight singing; 90, chorus; 73, methods; 49, history and appreciation; and probably all practice teaching. Manifestly the normal school must take a more definite part in the supervisors' training, but in the schools here mentioned only 30 have given it attention. In one normal school enroUng more than 1000 students, no one has yet been prepared as a supervisor. In another school, where one teacher does all the music teaching, there was graduated two years ago a young woman who is today one of the most promising supervisors of the Middle West. The small normal school affords opportunity for training a few select teachers; and these hand-pickt supervisors will, with experience, Department! MUSIC IN THE NORMAL ^CIIOOL 589 market better than those shaken from a heavily bearing tree, pruned and mulcht for the sake of a record yield. Music as a subject in the regular curriculum of our public schools started with comparative ease because of its cultural value. It gained momentum from the easily demonstrable sense training it afforded. In the last decade the added weight of instrumental classes, community music, musical exten- sion, and appreciation has developt a startling speed, until it would almost appear that the craft is flying before a steady wind, or, still better, has been transformed into an *'automobilous" type of vehicle. Tho it has been held in the middle of the road by the supervisors, they are, under present conditions, unequal to the task of the inevitable uphill pull. Who then will do this? A glance reveals the fact that the only members of our party who have hold of the rope are the grade teachers. Many of these have not been taught to pull, while others seem woefully lacking in any sense of direction. From Mr. Earhart's survey we discover that the average supervisor visits each room once in ten days or two weeks. In other words, the grade teacher does more than 85 per cent of the teaching. While \i credit is allowed for music in 75 per cent of the schools where it is taught, in two-thirds of these schools grade teachers are not examined as to their fitness to teach the subject. To this anomalous situation add the fact that of the schools organized to equip the grade teacher, 20 per cent in 1914 offered no courses in music; while in 19 16 this percentage has been reduced ^to perhaps 5 per cent, not one-half the normal schools make music a required subject for the grade teacher. If to the above we add the statement made by the commissioner of education that probably not more than half of the 500,000 teachers of this country receive normal training, one need not be considered a musical pessimist nor infidel when he characterizes the situation as chaotic. The following means are suggested for bringing order out of this condi- tion: 1. A movement in the several states which shall lead to the inclusion of music as a regular subject for the certificates of all grade teachers. In 1 9 14 not more than ten states required the study of music of the teachers in the common schools. 2. Two classes of normal schools demand consideration: {a) those so unprogressive as to offer no music at all, and {h) those so progressive as to place music in the elective column. 3 . Supervisors in organization should prepare a recommendation to their respective boards which will permit them to devote a reasonable time to the coaching of the grade teachers. The average grade teacher remains in her t position long enough to warrant a partial neglect of the childr-en for a year, if need be, in order that she may be equipt for the succeeding years. 4. We must recognize the limitations of the grade teacher. No super- 590 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music Since the present plan has not won the approval of the judges of sight singing on the one hand, nor the lovers of artistic interpretation on the other, why not give the departmental plan a trial? A questionnaire sent to fifteen of the leading supervisors of the country indicates that more than haK favor a special teacher of music wherever possible, and a still greater number would departmentalize the work above the sixth grade. The crux of the matter lies, not in the fact that the grade teacher cannot follow an outline, but in the fact that often she cannot teach music. In regard to music in the rural schools we have become so accustomed to hearing discussion of various phases of rural life that we take it for granted that the discussion stands for results accomplisht. While it is readily apparent that rural conditions have changed for the better in the last decade, a superficial study discovers that the betterment has been largely along the material lines of intensive farming and stock-raising. Not dis- satisfaction with the result of his working hours, but the emptiness of his leisure hours, leads the country boy to go to the city. The character of the home life, the amusements, and the opportunities for improvement demand consideration; and in this connection the giving to music its place claims attention. So largely does the life of the rural community focus about the school, and so completely must the culture which is to exist come thru the medium of the teacher, that the assertion that the music training of such a teacher should be included in the normal-school curriculum needs no argument. While in the city system the work neglected by the grade teacher may be supplied by another teacher, the rural teacher is the only channel thru which the boys and girls of the country will receive a taste and love for good music. That any school designed to train leaders — and such the rural teachers should be — could overlook this essential seems incredible. The recent questionnaire, however, indicates that 30 per cent of the normal schools offer no courses that would fit the rural teacher to carry music to her pupils. To many persons present the term "rural school" brings the image of a one-room building whose attendance of ten or twenty pupils seems negligible as compared with the army of children in the immense systems of the cities. The problem of the rural school looms large, however, when we learn that of the 18,000,000 children in this country 60 per cent, or about 11,000,000, are in small communities to which these teachers from the normal schools, or others with less preparation, will go. Consider this and tell me, if you will, whether our scheme of music education is sufl&ciently comprehensive to be worthy of the title democratic. Let us remember too that the 40 per cent of the school children who are receiving music instruction in the cities are so situated that they may hear an abundance of good music. Thus do we make real the prophecy, "To him that hath shall be given." This appalHng need for music in the coun- try demands the attention of every music-loving citizen, of every musical organization and institution. Three things devolve upon the normal school Department! MUSIC IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL 591 which we have already loaded heavily with responsibility: (i) The awaken- ing of the rural teachers to the social possibilities and opportunities offered by music. In a small community the preeminence of the teacher is greatly enhanst and she becomes a more important individual if she can make, thru music, a contribution to its social life. (2) The normal school should give practical training to every teacher in the rudiments of music. Such training will include acquaintance with the best in song literature, singing, appreciation, and the development of the power to listen, together with the quintessence of musical pedagogy. Simple suggestions in the related field of dramatics will be exceedingly valuable. (3) The normal school has a responsibility for stimulating county superintendents, agricultural leaders, and women's clubs to the inclusion of music in rural-community gatherings of every sort, and to its introduction into the school curriculum. Institutes should be supplied with teachers, not those who are music abecedarians, but leaders who love music for itself and possess the gift of arousing others to an appreciation and participation in music. Many rural communities do not know what music may mean to them for the reason that they have had little opportunity to judge real music. Normal-school students should be given sufficient vocal confidence that they will not hesitate to sing and lead in the singing of folk-songs and other songs of the so-called community type. One normal school reports concerts given by its students in ten neighboring towns. Because of the physical impossibility of reaching more than a limited portion of the field, the institution at Emporia has inaugurated what we have termed "The Parcel-Post Music Course for Rural Communities." This equipment consists of a phonograph, a selected set of twelve records with an accompanying "talk," photographs of instru- ments and artists, and instructions for the teacher as to its use. This equipment is loaned for three days to any school paying the postage. Six of these sets have been in motion in Kansas thruout the year, and the reports, which are a required feature of the plan, indicate several things of interest: (i) The music is not considered "canned" by the children. To them it is real and they readily learn songs by imitation with or without the assistance of the teacher — who in many instances does not sing. (2) The music of the better type grows upon the youngsters even in the short period of three days. In the total recorded vote "Funicula" heads the list as first, with "Humoresque" as a close second. (3) The schools invariably carry out the suggested plan of concluding with a musical evening, when the parents hear the records, the children have a part, and all join in com- munity singing. (4) A desire for more music is aroused and an occasional request is made for suggestions for the introduction of the subject as a part of the school program. There are three important features of music in the normal schools, namely, the training of supervisors who will be teachers as well as musicians; the practical equipment of the grade teacher with sight singing, and love 592 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music for the song of birds and children, with the forward look toward depart- mentalizing music teaching when possible; and the development of a musical missionary spirit which shall arouse a Macedonian call from the rural communities where it is not already audible. To the accompUshment of these and other aims the normal schools must, with all related institutions, make common cause. A prime essential is that they should seek thru every means to acquaint themselves with what is being done in similar institutions. This knowledge should form the basis of a definite campaign in which all interested forces should unite to secure the adoption of advanst legislation for certification and formulation of extension plans for the various states thruout the Union. The knowledge of what is being done in certain states will be the strongest incentive to the most backward states and an encouragement to the most progressive. THE CHILD VOICE: RESPONSIBILITY OF THE COMMUNITY TOWARD IT HENRIETTA BAKER-LOW, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF MUSIC, PEABODY CONSERVATORY, BALTIMORE, MD. In 1 9 14 the Bureau of Education issued a report on music in the public schools. Mr. Earhart, of Pittsburgh, the compiler, tabulated answers under certain queries which were sent to 681 towns and cities. Under the query, " Do you give particular attention to voice-building ? How is this done?" Mr. Earhart makes the following note: It is a pleasure to state that nearly every school reported afl&rmatively as to the first part of the query. The only divergence was with regard to the voice-building being done incidentally or by special practices. No feature of school practice shows more intelligent and careful treatment than this; and few questions elicited such interested and sym- pathetic replies. With all this careful attention to the voice in school, one should, there- fore, expect to see good voice habits functioning in life, one might look for better tone in church and Sunday school, for a better quality of tone in the home singing group, for better speaking voices, for a more intelligent attitude of listening to tone at voice recitals, for better community singing, for better taste, in short, in all use of tone. But is this true ? Is right use of voice a general habit in life ? If not, what is wrong with our teaching ? Or is our teaching modified or thwarted by contrary or opposing habits in the child's world outside the school ? Not only do music departments bewail their powerlessness; in every phase of teaching one finds the same thing. Professor Canby, of Yale, in a series of articles in Harper's Magaziney treats the same problem with regard to English. In his summing up he lays the remedy in the home attitude toward education — the outlook on life which the home, more than I Departmentl THE CHILD VOICE 593 the school, always gives. And a right attitude in the home means the general education of those who are at the head of the home. Educational practice varies with educational ideals, and educational ideals change faster than the community can be made conscious of that change. In an address delivered before the National Education Association in perhaps 1901 a famous educator said something like this: "Education is for living, not for a living, and trades schools or vocational training have no place in such an educational scheme." See how educational opinion has changed in a few years ! But if that opinion was woven into the mind fabric of the average man at the time he went to school, it will take more education to give him a viewpoint in consonance with the changed ideal. Granting that the public is wilHng to give cooperation but does not know how, let us ask whether we really take practical means to insure the cooperation of home and community in the use of good voice habits ? Do we educate our communities to the point of having a right attitude toward public-school music, and do we actively assist in improving the avenues of musical expression in our community ? A child's voice is at the mercy both of the musical stuff upon which it is used, and also of the great ocean of ignorant voice usage that surrounds its little island of school habit. No wonder he jumps from his isolated and inane little "island" into the "ocean" where exciting "stunts" take place and real things happen. Community music is not a separate field for the music supervisor; it is the field in which the greater part of the practice of his carefully taught voice principles takes place, and it must, perforce, loom large in his plans. Theoretically, we all believe that voice is as much psychic as physiologic. Granted voices of equal physiologic perfection, the richer and more imagina- tive nature is capable of the finest expression; but that richer and finer nature will also exhibit itself in its choice of material to express; for much music material, in school or out, does not hold within itself the possibilities of rich and fine expression. We in school are hoping, not only to instil correct voice principles, but to make rich and fine natures. The material with which we work is the song material, the method of teaching, the method of procedure of the lesson which develops certain habits of work, and the personality of the teacher. The last is largely responsible for the pupils' attitude toward the subject and toward life, and for the pupils' taste. The feehng attitude in music I hold the great thing. We hear much about the refining value of school music, the ethical value of school music, the social value of school music, etc. Hardly a meeting of the National Education Association has been held which has not given place on its program to some such topic. Some music is not ethical. Some singing, even of good music, has not necessarily an ethical value. Technically, good singing of good material (lacking the feeling attitude) may not have much ethical value. A lack of spiritual quahty in a director may reduce a performance to a thing of form without content, in which 594 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music case a vital thing is missing from the tone as well as from every other detail of performance. Tone is a resultant of forces; and we are still groping in a very unscientific manner for the laws that govern the forces. Now if we are to be of any help to the community in its care of the child voice, we surely need to have our own educational data scientifically assembled. A series of experiments is being made in a well-known school for the purpose of testing music abihty. Some of the experiments (which are yet in their infancy) seem to show that the training lessens musical ability instead of increasing it, and the experimenters ask: ''Are the usual methods for training in the technic of an instrument detrimental to the ability for musical expression?" Is any- method that is connected with an art harmless ? I can conceive as a bare possibility that any method in some subjects might not injure the child; but in music — ! Bagley, I think it is, says something to this effect: "The reason our result in the teaching of the arts is so barren is that we appear to be teaching the arts with the same method we use in teaching mathematics." In the report on music in the schools, referred to in the beginning of this paper, Mr. Earhart makes a telling note under the query, "What are the steps in your method of teaching children in primary grades to sing by note?" He says: The replies were most disheartening because of the revelation they brought of a deplorable lack of pedagogical training and understanding. It is not that faulty methods were revealed, for it is not the intention here to imply that any well-considered and well- administered method is wrong; but the absence of any method, the lack of any known reason for the features of practice adopted, with the implication this carries of wasted hours, injudicious and untimely effort, uncertain and wavering procedure — this is lamentable. If in just these matters of material and method we might have a scien- tifically determined basis for our teaching we would save inestimable time and energy which we are now expending in haphazard usage. We need a sound basis for arguments to use with school boards and with our communities, and those arguments should be founded on wide experiments whose results are carefully evaluated and put within the reach of all communities. Why cannot it be done on a large scale and put forward with authority? Of the eighteen million children of school age, only five millions, I believe, are taught music in school. The other thirteen millions are mostly in rural districts and in so-called private schools. On the proposed program of the Music Supervisors National Conference there is a suggested topic, "How to introduce music into schools which at present have none?" How can we approach school boards and superin- tendents with arguments for school music until we can afi&rm that educa- tional opinion has defined our aim and suggested our method ? Recently a music supervisor was selected by some visiting board members, who chose her because they said they could see definite work in each grade. Askt what the definite work was, they said, "Each grade could read harder songs Department] THE CHILD VOICE 595 than the one before it, and besides, she was pleasant to the children." These were honest men seeking the best person possible; but the aims of public-school music were not known to them, and they lookt for only one result. I am not decrying the result — I am only regretting that only one result was lookt for. Suppose we could mail to each inquiring school board a definite statement of the aim in public-school music with a minimum outline for accomplishment? Suppose we could tell them in just what places in the community they might expect this training to function? Suppose we offered definite help for the improvement of all community- music agencies, beginning with the church and Sunday school — the latter often the most powerful rural agency? This help should come with authority — it should have force because of the educational consensus of opinion behind it. This help is what community-music bureaus aim to give. We have several now, well establisht. What we need is a chain of operating bureaus giving such help a national force. And then we need a publicity committee to let the general public know where it can find the help. A very earnest woman from a small town in the Far West is interested in school music because she has children in school and she herself is a musician. She is organizing "community-song evenings" in the place, because she believes this the quickest way to stimulate music interest of all kinds. She said she was at an utter loss what to sing — she had never heard of the Eighteen Songs for Community Singing nor of the Music Supervisors National Conference. Only a few weeks ago a supervisor said he wisht there was any kind of reliable information regarding the kind of music for high-school curriculums. Organization and publicity for the furtherance of information about people's music — not musicians' music but people's music — these are two things we need. In closing, therefore, I make the following suggestions, which look (i) toward a better evaluation of our own material and methods in the schoolroom, and (2) toward a definite organization and publicity for the help of the public: 1. That it would be well to appoint a committee of ten to formulate a very simple statement of ideas in school music which any layman may understand; that this statement append a definite minimum requirement as to artistic aims and sight-reading aim. 2. That the school-music section of the National Education Associa- tion and of the Music Teachers National Association, together with the Music Supervisors National Conference appoint a joint committee looking to the establishment of some long-continued experiments in various sight- reading methods; that before any method is tried it shall have a pedagogic and psychological approval, so that theoretically it may be correct before it is tried out in practice; that an able member of the Department of Child-Study, Pedagogy, and Psychology, with an artistic musician, be askt to serve as an additional advisory committee so that expert scrutiny of every detail may be made. This committee must also experiment with 596 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music the preliminaries (quality and amount of music) which a child should have before beginning reading. 3. That the Music Supervisors National Conference, the Music Section of the National Education Association, and the Pubhc-School Music Department of the Music Teachers National Association would make a valuable contribution to school music and to all musical education if they should appoint committees to formulate statements of the ideals, principles, and features of practice appropriate to the several courses, to the end that supervisors could choose wisely one path or another, and then within that path could adopt methods of procedure that would be consonant with the ideals, of course, and therefore efficient and successful. 4. That these same three agencies (Music Teachers National Associa- tion, National Education Association, and Music Supervisors National Conference) appoint a committee to formulate ways of obtaining the cooperation and support of all possible agencies for the improvement of American speech in tone, quality, and enunciation. 5. That these three agencies urge a song- vocabulary of not more than twelve songs, which we will endeavor to give a nation-wide use in school and out; these songs to be artistic and ethical, satisfying to a musician and to an educator, and to be absolutely committed to memory. 6. That these three agencies appoint a committee to look into the matter of song material for Sunday schools. This has been done by the Music Supervisors National Conference under a most able committee, but the work needs support, for most Sunday schools use publications of their own pubHshing boards. 7. That the community-music bureaus thruout the country cooperate to formulate ways of helping the cause of people's music specially. 8. That the three organizations appoint a joint publicity committee to find ways of bringing musical help before the public. Mr. Dykema has done a nice and wise thing when, in his capacity of president of the Music Super- visors National Conference, he appointed'an adviser in each state to look after the cause of music in the state. We need an organization that will have its workers in every state to bring home to the community in simple, direct ways the best thought in music for school and community. In conclusion I would say that life is a whole, the school is a part of life, and to improve the whole environment is often the quickest way to improve one's teaching. MUSIC EDUCATION AND PUBLIC LIBRARIES OTTO KINKELDEY, CHIEF OF THE MUSIC DIVISION, NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY, NEW YORK, N.Y. The problem of education has a twofold aspect. There is, first, that phase of the subject which involves the direct contact between teacher and pupil in the schoolroom or elsewhere. It is the problem with which the Department] MUSIC EDUCATION AND PUBLIC LIBRARIES 597 teacher, as such, is most directly concerned, and with which, as a rule, educators have chiefly concerned themselves. But direct teaching by word of mouth is not the only factor in the education of a nation. There is another which is not less important. In every community there are indi- viduals whose thirst for knowledge and whose desire to advance themselves do not stop with the cessation of instruction in the classroom. In fact, one mark of a teacher's success may be discerned in the extent to which he has inspired his pupils to go on learning by themselves. In our struggle with the more immediate problems of pedagogy we are prone to forget the importance of the work of self-education, its significance for ourselves as teachers, and its value to the pupils who are in, or who have past out of, our care. After all, the measure of the intellectual stature, of the mental caliber, of a nation, is to be found, not in the amount of knowledge which has been poured into its people in the classroom, but in the intensity and genuineness of their desire to improve their own minds, and in the degree of their success in satisfying that desire. The chief instruments in this process of self-education are books. Its method is that of many-sided, but systematic, reading and study. The institution which offers the easiest access to the means of study is the library. With respect to the organization of these means for popular self-education, we in America are more fortunate than the people of many European coun- tries. Our American libraries have made great and well-directed efforts to foster the ideal of popular education. Access to books has been made far easier here than in most European libraries, which have remained primarily scholars' libraries. Unfortunately for us who are interested in music, the development in our libraries and in the use of those libraries has not been uniform in all fields of mental activity. Along literary and scientific, along social, eco- nomic, and political lines, our libraries have done superior work; but the field of art, of musical art, at any rate, has been comparatively little culti- vated. This is not entirely the fault of the libraries. It is due in great measure to the demands of the people who use them, to the lack of activity on the part of those who profess to be interested in music. There are some factors which make the use of musical works more diffi- cult than that of other books, even of books dealing with the other arts. But even tho we recognize this difficulty, there is no reason why it should not be possible in every good-sized community to have access to a public library, at any rate to the classics, for the voice and for such instruments as the piano and the violin. And in larger cities, which enjoy orchestral concerts or opera, even the orchestral scores and the vocal scores of the great masters should be available for the student. There are in America just a few fairly large pubhc music collections, such as those in the Public Library at Boston, the New York PubUc Library, the Library of Congress at Washington, and the Newberry Library at Chicago. 598 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music To these we might add a few of the university libraries. Some of the cir- culating libraries in the smaller cities, as well as in the large cities named, have attempted to provide material for musical readers. Some libraries have begun to circulate the perforated rolls used on player pianos and records for phonographic instruments. Some have even tried to encourage the use of these latter by practical exhibitions, little weekly recitals, which are a parallel to the weekly story-telling hour which many of our libraries have establisht for children. This is evidence that the awakening of the musical sense of our ordinary citizens, which has markt the last few decades, has not been disregarded by our libraries. But much remains to be done. And it is for you as teachers to do your share in fostering the newly awakened sense and to call upon the libraries to aid you. All these new movements for the study of school music, community music, and folk-song, and for work in what is called appreciation, could be materially advanst if the libraries, especially in the smaller cities and towns, provided suitable material, and if (this is every bit as important) that material were put to use. I call upon you teachers to use your influence with librarians, boards of trustees, town councilors, boards of education, or whatever other authority regulates the purchase of books, to secure aid in this matter and by your own efforts to see to it that, where your appeal has been heeded, the books do not remain on the shelf to be covered with dust. I might add that there is not a single large library, like those I have mentioned, which would not joyfully aid such efforts by making suggestions, quoting prices, or giving advice as to the handling of musical material; and they would one and all welcome the appeal which might come to them either thru you directly or thru your library. It has just been intimated that the presence of books on the shelves is not enough. The books must be used. And here we touch one of the sorest spots in our whole American educational and intellectual life, particularly that second aspect of the problem before emphasized — study and self- improvement. Here we fall far behind European nations, in which the work of seK-education is beset with greater difficulties than in America. We want to get our knowledge too easily. We are not willing to work hard and systematically for it. We like to take it in tabloid form with no effort at digestion or assimilation. We would rather have someone lecture to us about it than dig for it ourselves. And as to the quaHty or fitness of the lecturer we are too often absolutely uncritical, provided only he be enter- taining. That is particularly and painfully true in the field of music. There is an appalling number of people in our country lecturing on musical subjects or writing in our magazines whose whole knowledge of the matter they pretend to teach or to comment upon is gathered from some one book. In my short experience as the custodian of the musical books in the New York Public Library it has happened repeatedly that a reader, com- ing into the Music Division and introducing himself with the remark, "I Department! MUSIC EDUCATION AND PUBLIC LIBRARIES 599 am preparing a lecture on folk-song" or on some other topic, askt, "Which is the best book on the subject?" When several books were put before him, instead of trying to become familiar with them he repeated his query, ''Which is considered the best?" and then, if one were recommended, par- ticularly if it were a small book, he would push aside the rest and make no effort to get beyond that one. Of course, there are exceptions, but they serve only to make such instances as I have mentioned seem more shocking. As it is with the teacher so it is with the pupil. So far as mere technical matters are concerned, our American music students as a whole compare very favorably with European students. We turn out numerous musicians whose voices and whose finders can do as startUng things as voices and fingers across the ocean. But that, in many cases, is all our students care about. In matters of musical knowledge, taste, and judgment they are far behind their European cousins. It is true that many of our music schools have compulsory courses in subjects that look toward a broader musical culture, but — and I say this in all seriousness and with all the emphasis I can give it — our average music student does not care enough for the deeper things of his art, and cares still less to spend any great part of his time in those more serious studies, which are not of immediate use from the viewpoint of technique, but which are absolutely necessary to the broadening of his musical horizon. Our so-called musical public is in no better case. Its musical life is centered almost wholly in the opera house, the concert hall, or other place of public musical performance. It cares for nothing but the highly paid opera singer, the astonishing virtuoso, for much-advertised or much-criticized musical works — in fine, for the spectacular and sensational side of the art. So long as the various new impulses which our national musical Hfe has received, so long as the new interest and enthusiasm with which our people have responded to those impulses do not find a counterbalance to this external glamor in the quiet work of the study and the library, in the effort of the individual music teacher, music student, and music-lover to acquire a broader view and a deeper comprehension of his art (such as the intelligent perusal of the classics and of many good books on music alone can bring), all signs of awakening and of progress will be but a flash in the pan. The effort will be vain. The benefit cannot be lasting. In this connection we come to the difficulty upon which I toucht before. It is almost useless to read about music so long as the musical signs which we see before us on the printed page mean nothing to us; so long as the musical sounds represented by the notes do not assume a living presence in our inner consciousness. Here again my experience in a large public music library has revealed to me a most surprising condition of affairs. It has happened to me repeatedly that writers on music, even such as enjoyed a fair reputa- tion, were almost utterly helpless before a page of music without the aid of an instrument. They could repeat glibly the things they had read in 6oo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music books about a musical work, but they were powerless to hear the sound and to divine the meaning of a few bars of even fairly simple music which they had before them. One theologian who talkt learnedly about hymns and hymn tunes, and who was in search of a particular tune, askt, when several compositions were laid before him to choose from, ''Have you a piano handy? I want to see how this sounds." The extent of this musical illiteracy, even among students in our higher institutions of musical training, would astound the uninitiated. We try to teach our children to appreciate the beauties of Longfellow and Tennyson in school. But we also teach them to read, so that they may help them- selves to do this. We expect them to be able by their own reading to com- prehend in a measure the greatness of an epic by Milton or of the dramas of Shakespeare. We do not wait until they have seen performances upon the stage of every play by Shakespeare, nor until someone has recited for them the whole of Paradise Lost. To be sure, the art of reading ordinary words has other and more practical uses than this, but even so the parallel between ordinary reading and the reading of music is not so far-fetcht. Even the most elementary musical education, such as we attempt to give those of our school children who have any musical instinct at all, must fall short of the ideal if it fails to enable them to make their own, by their own unaided efforts, such simple music as their intellects can grasp. And any further advance in the musical capacity of the nation will be impossible if this fundamental faculty be neglected. The stigma of illiteracy is for the music-lover as great, comparatively speaking, in his art, as ordinary ilUteracy is for any civilized nation. In closing I would utter a twofold plea to you as musical educators: In the first place, let your own work in musical self-education be such that your musical horizon may become wider, your interests more manifold, and your feehng and comprehension deeper. Be willing to devote some of your time to conscientious reading and serious study. Do not hesitate to make use of the collections of books and of the custodians of these collections, which are always at your service. It matters little where you begin, if only you do not stand still. And in the second place, see to it that the pupils who come under your care learn to read, that they may not be so utterly helpless, as they too often are, when their turn comes to increase their knowledge and to widen their horizon for themselves. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ESTHETIC EXPERIENCE IN MUSIC MARGARET FLOY WASHBURN, PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY, VASSAR COLLEGE, POUGHKEEPSIE, N.Y. It is only a moderate statement of the difficulties involved in the psy- chology of music to say that the problem of human enjoyment is one of the most puzzling that psychology encounters; the problem of esthetic enjoy- Department] PSYCHOLOGY OF ESTHETIC EXPERIENCE IN MUSIC 6oi ment is harder than that of any other form of enjoyment, and musical enjoyment is apparently the most mysterious form of esthetic enjoyment. Moreover, the researches of very recent years have revealed an unexpected complexity in the problems of tone sensation itseK, so that while a psychological textbook of a few years ago speaks simply about the pitch of tones, one publisht last year requires the student to distinguish between pitch, tonal character, and mellowness or shrillness of a tone. It is not my plan to discuss the general problem of the esthetic experi- ence at all this morning. I shall confine myself to two aspects of the esthetic experience as derived from music, namely, the relation of music to pleasure, and the relation of music to the complexer emotions. And I shall further limit myself to the discussion of one question with regard to these two aspects of music, namely: In what respect, if any, is it true that the pleasantness of music and the emotional appeal of music depend on laws that have no validity anywhere else in our experience ? How far, in other words, is the musical experience really unique and mysterious; how far is it an illustration of more general psychological laws ? You will appreciate the distinction I have drawn between the significance of music for pleasure and its significance for the complexer emotions. It is a distinction which we must draw in the case of all the higher arts. The effect of a great work of art such as Hamlet or the Fifth Symphony would be very inadequately described by calling it pleasant; it should indeed not leave an unpleasant impression, but its main function is to stir up much deeper and more complex emotions. We shall therefore consider (i) how far musical enjoyment or pleasure depends on principles not governing our other enjoyments, and (2) how far and why the relation of music to emotion is unique. What are the general laws of human enjoyment? Amid all the con- tradictions of individual tastes one central generalization does emerge. Our likes and dislikes are, broadly speaking, connected with the welfare either of the individual or of the species. On the whole, the things which we find agreeable are the things which are actually beneficial to us. It seems seK-evident, if there is any truth in the doctrine of the survival of the fittest, that such creatures as likt, and therefore sought, the things that harmed them should have perisht; and that surviving animals should therefore be those with a natural taste for the normal. If we can show with regard to any source of pleasure that it contributes to the welfare of the organism, we feel that we have approacht as nearly as possible an explanation. We dislike all forms of stimulation that are too intense or too long continued; intense and prolonged stimulation acts unfavorably on the nervous appara- tus. We dislike rapidly intermittent stimulation, such as that given by touching a rough surface or looking at a flickering light; this kind of stimula- tion, too, may readily be conjectured to be injurious. We like anything that suggests to us free and unhampered movement; we dislike anything which, 6o2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Music like a Cubist picture or a moral dilemma, throws us into a baffled and un- certain motor attitude. It is bad for us to be baffled and uncertain; it is therefore unpleasant. Further, we like to recognize the famihar in the midst of the novel; the familiar is the safe, the beneficial. We hate to be surprised; we like to have our expectations satisfied. Surprise is, under primitive conditions of life, a dangerous experience. On the other hand, the too familiar becomes the fatiguing; thus temperaments fall into opposed classes, one of which enjoys the familiar and hates the new, while the other, more readily fatigable, is less unpleasantly affected by surprise. Such, then, are some of the corollaries, applying in all departments of our experience, of the principle that we like what is good for us. Can musical enjoyment be wholly derived from these corollaries, or does it demand laws of its own ? One of the first points to be noted with regard to musical enjoyment is the pleasantness of thc'raw material of music, the single tone sensation. A simple tone, struck on a tuning fork, has a quaUty of agreeableness perhaps greater than that belonging to any other equally simple sense experience. When we were children, seizing for a few instants the forbidden joy of drumming on the piano, our unjaded senses, as Kenneth Grahame has reminded us in The Golden Age, appreciated to the full the delightful quaUty of the single musical tone. "The pure, absolute quality and nature of each note in itseK are only appreciated by the strummer." Altho the freshness of childhood is needed for the full savoring of the pleas- antness of a single tone, yet no one who is really capable of hearing tones can conceive that a musical tone of moderate pitch, loudness, and duration can be anything but pleasant. Is there, now, any connection between the natural pleasantness of the single tone and the general laws of human enjoyment ? Such a connection has been suggested by Vernon Lee, with the principle that our enjoyment of sensations is dulled by too great familiarity. Musical tones, compared with other sensations, are rare experiences, and have not had a chance to lose their native delightfulness. This suggestion would find support if, as some recent researches indicate, the sensory apparatus for tones should turn out to be quite different from that for noise. In any case the pleasantness of tones is connected with a rarely used and hence wholly unfatigued mode of functioning of a sense organ. Another way in which the comparative rarity of tone experiences may be made to account for their pleasantness, in accord- ance with general psychological laws, would be thru the fact that tone sensations as such have no disagreeable associations. Certain single colors that would otherwise be agreeable are unpleasant because of the objects they suggest: thus a dark yellow is the color of mud. Single tones have no such suggestions as these. While, then, musical enjoyment has as a peculiar asset the naturally agreeable character of single tone sensations, this character may be traced to the working of a general psychological law not confined to tonal experi- Department) PSYCHOLOGY OF ESTHETIC EXPERIENCE IN MUSIC 603 ence — the law that a sensation from an unfatigued sense organ, with no unpleasant associations, is naturally agreeable. A more complicated prob- lem is presented by the pleasantness or unpleasantness of tone-combina- tions, simultaneous and successive. All theories of consonance make some attempt to refer the cause of the agreeableness or disagreeableness that is produced when two tones are sounded together to laws that transcend the field of music and are based on human nature as a whole; but some theories must travel a long and weary road of speculation before the con- nection is establisht. For example, Stumpf finds that consonant tone intervals are those in which the two tones sound most like one — those which have what he calls the greatest fusion degree. In the dissonant intervals of the second and the seventh it is apparent to the ear that there are two distinct tones. In the supremely consonant interval of the octave, on the other hand, the two tones blend almost indistinguishably, and the intervals of the fifth and major third make an impression of greater singleness and simplicity than do the second and seventh. But there is no obvious reason why simplicity of impression should be more agreeable than a reasonable degree of complexity. We do not enjoy a solo more than a duet. It is only dissonant complexity that is disagreeable, which leaves the question where it was before. Much theorizing, into which we have not time to follow him, is needed to enable Stumpf to bring the pleasantness of consonance into relation with any other esthetic principle. A similar criticism may be made of another famous theory, that suggested by Lipps. As you all know, the vibration rates of the air waves that produce the tones used in the musical scale stand in certain fixt ratios to one another. If the vibration rate of the first tone in the octave be regarded as i, that of the octave above will be 2. The ratio of the rate of a tone to that of the fifth tone above it is 2 to 3 ; that of a tone to the major third above it is 4 to 5 ; that of a tone to the fourth above it is 4 to 3. Thus the pleasant or conso- nant tone-combinations are those whose vibration rates stand in simple ratios. On the other hand, the tones which are unpleasant when sounded together have their vibration rates in complex ratios; the minor second has the ratio 16 to 15; the major second the ratio 9 to 8; the seventh, the ratio 15 to 8. Lipps says that a tone-combination is pleasanter the simpler the ratio of the vibration rates of the tones combined. But how can this be when people who are perfectly ignorant of the simplicity or complexity of these ratios still find fourths agreeable and sevenths disagreeable ? It is a matter, Lipps says, of unconscious rhythm. If two vibrations, falling on the ear, have frequencies that are in a simple ratio, such as i to 2, every second nervous impulse will coincide; if the ratio is complex, like 8 to 15, there will be a perfectly irregular and unrhythmic excitation. Altho we are not conscious of this rhythm as such, yet Lipps seems to think we can explain it as we explain our enjoyment of the consciously experienst rhythm of a drum. Certainly this is a far-fetcht and unattractive hypothesis. 6o4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music One hesitates to simplify where such authorities as Stumpf and Lipps have found it impossible to do so, yet I cannot refrain from hoping that in place of fusion degree or unconscious rhythm some of the principles which we have already mentioned may be found sufficient to explain the pleasant- ness or unpleasantness of tone-combinations. One of these principles is that we like what we are used to, so long as its familiarity is not so great as to pass over into fatigue. We are all thoroly used to the intervals which have the highest degree of consonance, namely, the octave, the fifth, and the major third, not because they are used in music, but because nature con- stantly provides them for us as partial tones. The first overtone is the octave, the second overtone is the fifth, the third overtone is the second octave, the fourth overtone is the major third. To these tone-combinations our ears are forst to respond in the great majority of cases where tones are heard. The cross-principle, that we grow fatigued with the too familiar, will explain a whole series of phenomena in the range of musical appreciation, from the fact that most people find the octave and fifth insipid compared with the fourth, to the fact that some people find Haydn insipid compared to Richard Strauss. Again, one of the earliest theories of consonance, that of Helmholtz, correlated the disagreeableness of a dissonance, such as the second or the seventh, with the law that all rapidly intermittent stimulation is unpleasant because somehow injurious to the nervous apparatus. Dissonant intervals, he held, always involve the roughness of beats, either between the funda- mental tones or their overtones, and the disagreeableness of beats is like that of a rough surface or a flickering light. One of the most recent theories — that of Krueger — seems to explain consonance as due to the absence of interference from difference tones. There is some experimental evidence against the supposition that beats are the source of dissonance, but into this we have not time to go. If all unpleasant tone-combinations are those which produce fatiguing interference phenomena, such as beats, one would have to explain the pleasantness of consonant-combinations on the same principle that makes the single tone an agreeable experi- ence— if a single tone is pleasant, the more tones we hear simultaneously without disagreeable roughnesses due to interference the more pleasure we get. This principle, again, may be applied to the theories which relate the agreeable character of a consonant interval to what is called tone relationship. Two tones are more nearly related the more overtones or partial tones they have in common. Since all the overtones of the upper tone in an octave are also overtones of the lower tone, the octave has the greatest degree of direct tone relationship: the upper tone of the fifth has four overtones in common with the lower tone within the compass of three octaves, while the dissonant intervals of seventh and minor second have no common over- tones at all. When overtones do not coincide, we may get interference Department) PSYCHOLOGY OF ESTHETIC EXPERIENCE IN MUSIC 605 phenomena; when they do coincide, we get more pleasantness because more tones are present. On the whole, it seems probable that all the facts regarding the pleasant- ness of simultaneous tone-combinations may be derived from laws whose generality transcends the special field of music. The same may be said, I think, of the pleasantness of successive tone-combinations. There are two groups of facts which fall under this head : the facts of melody and those of rhythm. Authorities on musical esthetics tend to explain melody on the same principle that they use to explain consonance; thus Lipps applies the law of simple ratios, and Stumpf even declares that fusion occurs between one tone and the memory image of its predecessor. There is, however, the added problem as to how a melody, a series of tones, gains unity for the mind. Apparently the agreeableness of recognition applies to our satis- faction with the return to the tonic; we enjoy everywhere and always the safe return to a recognized starting-point after wanderings. Thus we enjoy the recurrence of a musical phrase in a composition as we enjoy the recurrence of a motive in a decoration; to recognize in the midst of diversity is a reassuring experience. The pleasantness of a rhythmic series of sounds, as distinct from its deeper emotional appeal, of which I shall speak presently, rests mainly on two principles: first, there is the law that we enjoy whatever suggests free and unhampered bodily movement, as we enjoy the upward sweep of the Gothic arch. Free movement, owing to the construction of the human body, is naturally rhythmic; unrhythmic movements are for the most part constrained and difficult. The second principle is that we like to have our expectations satisfied. We like not only to meet the same motive repeated in a decoration, but to have it recur at equal and sym- metrical intervals, just when we expect it. A rhythmic series of sounds is one in which the accents occur just when we expect them. In an unrhythmic series, we feel precisely the same kind of irritation that we experience when someone makes a mistake in a familiar quotation. The disappointment of expectation is closely related to that primitively dangerous experience of surprise. I think we may sum up a discussion of the sources of musical pleasure by saying that all of them are sources not peculiar to music. We enjoy music for the same reasons that we enjoy other things. There is a problem of musical enjoyment — a problem of great complexity — but there is no mys- tery of musical enjoyment. The case is somewhat different with regard to our second topic, of which I must speak in a very few words — the emotional appeal of music. The uniqueness of music's appeal to the emotions is, as you all know, its power to reach them directly. It gets at them without the use of any associ- ations derived from the individual's experience. The other arts suggest emotion to us by giving us thoughts or mental pictures which our past personal history has associated with emotions. The musician cannot sug- 6o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music gest thoughts, except musical thoughts, and he cannot suggest imagery with any definiteness. In an investigation carried out by Weld, at Clark Univer- sity, a piece of music of the most pronounst program type, intended to de- scribe a hunting scene, called up in its hearers images of a circus, an auction sale, an amusement park, and a battle. Yet there is no such inconsistency in the emotions and moods awakened by music. Since, then, its emotional appeal is thus independent of association with individual experience, it must be based on racial experience. I believe that this direct appeal to emotion, which constitutes, if any- thing does, the real mystery of music, is due to its profound and ancient social significance. Herbert Spencer, you know, found the origin of music in impassioned speech, and Stumpf derives it from signal calls. These theories tell only a part of the truth, but we cannot overlook the fact that the sense of hearing has a more direct hold than any other sense on our emotions, because it is the medium of human communication, the means by which one soul reaches another; and nothing in the world is so compelling to the emotions as the mind of another human being. Again, as you know, Wallaschek accused Spencer of leaving out of his theory the most funda- mental element in music, rhythm. We must not omit rhythm in speaking of the emotional appeal of music. And the emotional power of rhythm is derived from the immense emotional power of the mob. All concerted action by a mass of individuals must be rhythmic. In the wild dances of primitive man, in which the individual merges himself in the crowd and feels his powers increast a thousand fold by the contagion of its emotions, we find the source of the magic of rhythm. The sense of hearing reaches the emotions directly because it is the medium of social intercourse; musical sound is the kind of sound that is produced under the stress of emotion; rhythmic sound means that/ the emotion is magnified and exalted by being shared with a whole mass of one's fellow-beings. MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AS AN AID TO THE TEACHING OF MUSIC LEO RICH LEWIS, PROFESSOR OF MUSIC, TUFTS COLLEGE, TUFTS COLLEGE, MASS. Let me give you a few results of twenty-four years of belief in auto- matic instruments. Let us first observe that there are three different uses of these instruments: (i) in concert, (2) in classroom demonstra- tion, and (3) in the ^'laboratory." As to the first, these instruments, in their most recent developments and in the hands of a skilled performer, can do remarkable things. Educationally, these possibilities are of impor- tance, but not of prime importance. As to the second, they make it possible for the technically unskilled but well-informed teacher to present to a class Departmentl MECHANICAL INVENTIONS IN TEACHING MUSIC 607 the representative works of all periods of the art, and, with the aid of copious existing literature concerning music, to lay a firm foundation of musical taste. But the third phase of their usefulness is, it seems to me, the most important. These instruments make it possible for the student to study music exactly as he studies biology, physics, chemistry. But these devices are doing more than that. They are helping us to practice principles of pedagogy which are now, as it seems to me, being too much neglected. I may be in error, but, in viewing the course of things pedagogical, I seem to find that we are failing to devote our attention to the organization of the mind. We make millions of imprest minds, but few organized minds. We college people are finding it necessary to do what the secondary schools have been supposed to do in many branches; and, even at that, we are finding ourselves unable to develop a real power to " tackle" a new problem. We can blame no one, certainly no individual teacher. But, in music, I prize the automatic instrument because it can fully and definitely organize the mind as to musical art; and I confess an intense regret that it is not more generally used specifically to that end. But I must not Hnger on this topic. It would lead us too far afield. But you have, in the automatic player, the means by which the pupil can clarify his own ideas. And you naturally ask, "Do you expect that we shall have player pianos in such abundance that every student shall have that opportunity?" My answer is: "Probably not ievery student in the school, for not every student will wish to study music; but I do believe that not until we accept the principle that only by such laboratory methods can any fruitful study of the art be attained shall we be making real prog- ress toward a respectable minimum of attainment in the study of music — not in the performance of music, which department is now fairly well pro- vided for. And let me mention one other point of the many which might be taken up if time allowed. I select this point because I have not seen it discust anywhere. As things are at present in our schools, pupils are restricted to acquaintance with music which they themselves can perform, and largely to vocal music. The great monuments of the art are never presented to them unless they live in a large city. It is as tho in the study of EngHsh no Shakespeare, no Milton, could be studied, but only the lesser masters, or passages of the great authors, "arranged for school use." What a change in this respect is bound to come when the possibilities of automatic instruments are thoroly understood by those in charge of our schools! And yet the possibilities of the player piano are not exhausted as to showing features of interpretation, for the recording instruments can bring to us characteristic renderings by great artists; and the talking machine can be of the greatest service in presenting vocal works of all sorts. These matters claim our attention here less than others, however, because we are continually reminded of them by the manufacturers of the instruments. 6o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music Indeed, I have sometimes thought that the enthusiastic emphasizing of these wonders of the inventor's art prevented our seeing the value of the machines in the less fascinating but more serviceable phases of music-study. Here we are in the midst of an epoch which we confess ourselves unable to grasp. Not merely do world-convulsions daze us, but we look almost despairingly upon the future of a movie-educated generation, with imprest, but unorganized, minds, and we wonder whence shall come the force which shall keep alive in the world the educational ideals which are so dear as well as definite to us, no matter how imperfectly we have been able to realize them. The pessimist has a right to be limply hopeless. And yet who shall say that the spirit of this careless, but marvelously inventive, age, this materialistically imaginative epoch, has not begotten a child that shall have power to keep alive the very art which, in view of the tendencies of the times, seemed most likely to languish. That the Siegfried of the immediate future of music should be a machine is no more unfitting than that the hero of the present war should be a machine. Let us rally to the Machine's support with the conviction that its influence can be wholly beneficent, if we so will it. THE FOLK-SONG LUISE HAESSLER, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF GERMAN, HUNTER COLLEGE, NEW YORK, N.Y. What is a folk-song? The word itself sounds almost as foreign as '^ fatherland," altho the former is applied to all countries, while the latter is practically a proper noun. It is perhaps because of the recent naturaliza- tion of the word "folk-song" that the New English Dictionary does not mention it under a separate head, but only as an illustration of the meanings of folk, ''current or existing among the people; as folk-belief; -custom, -literature, -name, -song, -speech, &c." The German word Volkslied^ of which folk-song is a translation, was probably first used by Herder in the little pamphlet Von deutscher Art und Kunst, publisht in 1773; hence about a hundred years before it was trans- lated into English. Interest in the folk-song, however, goes back to 1580, almost two hundred years before Herder. Almost simultaneously Mon- taigne, in France, to whom Herder himself refers, and Sir PhiUp Sidney, in England, speak approvingly of the folk-song, but do not as yet distinguish its character from that of the art song. In 171 1 Addison tells us in the Spectator of his delight in the songs of the common people. It is a signifi- cant fact that Herder's great interest in the folk-song, and that of his disciples, arose at a time when Rousseau had electrified the world with his cry, "Back to nature." But the direct impulse was given by the publica- Department! THE FOLK-SONG 609 tion of Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry in 1765, and of MacPher- son's Ossian. Herder was not always consistent in his conception of the folk-song, but on the whole we may state his idea of a typical folk-song as follows: Any song of an author, known or unknown, that could be sung, especially one that was really sung by the people unspoiled by education, reflecting the character of these people in its natural, passionate, lively content, and its simple, partly imperfect, form. The Romanticists cast a veil of mysticism especially about the origin of the folk-song, the ill effects of which have not wholly disappeared even in our own time. Their notion, however, that the folk-song was somehow produced by the common people as a whole is entirely exploded. The creator of a song is always an individual who stands out above the surround- ing multitude. He is the gifted one. And it is gratifying to know that women play a prominent part in the creation of the folk-song; that in many, if not in most, cases they are the sole creators. There is no better answer to the assertion so frequently made that women have no creative faculty. Let those who have any doubt in the matter read chapter vii in Bockel's Psychologie der Volksdichtung: Die Frauen und ihr Anteil am Volks- gesang, and chapter viii in Biicher's Arbeit und Rhythmus — Frauenarbeit und Frauendichtung. It is a source of pride, too, to know thaf a woman, Talvj, was the first to formulate, in a thoroly scientific way, the characteristics of the folk-song, and that her definition, publisht in 1840, practically holds today. Talvj distinguishes two kinds of folk-song according to their origin: (i) such as the people themselves have produced, and (2) inherited possessions of the people, partly produced by poets of the higher classes. But she adds that the former must have had a distinct influence upon the development of the people; that the latter must for a long time have been the exclusive possession of the lower classes. Hence not every production of a peasant is a folk-song; it must be approved and accepted by the people. Today two points of view in regard to the folk-song are prevalent, one school insisting that the author be unknown, the other considering the origin of the folk-song of no moment, but emphasizing the attitude of the people toward the folk-song as a lordly attitude of full possession. The latter is the view of John Meier, who is probably the greatest authority on the German Volkslied today. The killing of a man may be accidental or it may be murder. It depends upon the mental attitude of the killer. Whether a particular song is an art song or a folk-song depends upon the attitude of the singer. John Meier cites the song "In einem kiihlen" Grunde," written in 1809 by Joseph von Eichendorff , which has become a true folk-song. If it is sung in school or by a singing society, it is an art song. If it is sung by a village girl who does not know the author and cares nothing about him — who sings the song for the love of it — it is a folk-song; but if this village girl tries to sing the 6io NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music song as Eichendorff wrote it, the song is an art song, even tho the girl should make some mistakes. It may be interesting to note the view of two poets in regard to the folk- song. In September, 191 1, the French writer, Marc Henry, calling atten- tion to his past efforts to bring France and Germany closer together, invited his friend, the German writer Hanns Heinz Ewers, to collaborate with him in editing a book of French folk-songs for the German people. The book appeared in the summer of 191 2. In the Introduction we find the following characterization of the folk-song: Nothing is more amusing than to follow up any folk-song thru time and regions. All possible circumstances change in a strange way, now the melody, now the content. Sometimes, like little marmots, or even, more poetically, like the Sleeping Beauty, they fall asleep, sleep more than a hundred years, until some event arouses them and makes them awake to new life. The popular imagination often confounds persons and deeds, it ascribes fanciful deeds to historical personages or, vice versa, historical events to imaginary heroes — life's fairy tales. The folk-song is in a constant state of flux, as the experience of Murko in Bosnia and Herzegovina shows. When he askt a singer why he had changed a part of the text, the latter answered, "It happens so while sing- ing." Another singer, when told that he had not sung a song as he had before, remarkt, "The song is not out of a book; when it gets into a book, then it is settled." But Murko adds that his records showed that not even that was true. Hence we cannot say that any particular version of a folk- song is the true version; all the versions are true versions. A folk-song " born of the people " has neither beginning nor end. We do not know what the first version was, and we cannot tell what the song may become. Meier sees in this constant change the fundamental characteristic of the folk-song. To understand the nature of a folk-song, we must therefore study a folk-song which has been derived from a known art song. Ankenbrand found 125 dififerent versions of the text of a folk-song about "the jealous lad" and 40 versions of the melody. The latter fact, by the way, shows that the melody is more stable than the text. How do these variations arisjB ? Primarily because of the oral transmission of the folk-song. Singers frequently have a repertoire of more than a hundred folk-songs. Similar expressions in different songs will cause two or more of these to coalesce, and the stanzas that become incongruous by the process are dropt. Often the similarity or identity of melody causes fusion or transference. The folk-song is not historical; its theme is that of humanity in general. Which of the rich harvest of German songs produced during the present war will survive ? Not Lissauer's " Song of Hate," which is already dying, if not dead. Only the songs which breathe truly human sentiment will live on. It is not surprising, therefore, that many songs are international, as for instance, the "Song of Marlborough," which we find, not only in France — where it originated — in England, and in Germany, but even in Egyptf sung by the Arabs in Arabic. Our own "Yankee Doodle" is Department! THE FOLK-SONG 6ll probably derived from a Hessian folk-song, brought to our country during the Revolution. The folk-song is generally composed in the literary language, not in dialect. This has been observed in France, in Germany, and in England. It is supposed to be due to the great awe and reverence people feel for the art of poetry. Most people in their early history regard the power of song as the inspiration or direct expression of the divinity. In this connection it is interesting to note that many of the smaller tribes of the Caucasus do not sing in their own language, but in that of the neighboring larger tribes. Just what the reason may be in these instances remains to be inves- tigated. In Germany the folk-song is a hundred years behind the art song, out of which it has developt or from which it has derived its inspiration. The interval of time, of course, depends upon the social and economic organiza- tion of society and upon the state of education of the various ranks of society. Thus in Germany the required years of mihtary training, broaden- ing the horizon of the individual by contact with men from all parts of the country and from all ranks of society, necessarily tend to shorten this interval. The more or less archaic character of the folk-song is borne out by the phonographic records of epic folk-songs which Murko took in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the summer of 19 13. Murko says that the epic song is of such nature that often only natives of the region, but not inhabitants of other countries speaking the same language, can understand it; and sometimes even the natives, if they have lost touch with the common people, understand it with difficulty. In the folk-song the melody is intimately connected with the text. Col- lectors have repeatedly found that singers of folk-songs were unable to repeat the words without the melody. In Ravno the priest Don Ivan Raguz, well verst in song and music, remarkt to Murko that epic songs were of value only when sung; that the singer, when dictating, immediately fell into prose. When the investigation of the folk-song got its great impetus thru Herder in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, and for a long time thereafter, the interest centered in the literary side. The musical aspect has not received the attention it deserves, altho present-day investigators are alive to the importance and the difficulty of the question. It is not easy to interpret and write down accurately melodic progressions that differ from those to which we are accustomed. There is always the tend- ency to substitute familiar progressions for unfamiliar ones. The Folk- Song Society of England admonishes its collectors to have the song sung^ several times before attempting to write down the melody, as it is never sung twice the same. Only an expert can judge what the melody probably i^ Even the most expert result is no doubt a new version of the folk-song. 6 12 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music Bockel says of the folk-songs in Oberhessen that one can get the true melody only when many sing together; that it is often difficult to recognize the melody when it is sung by an individual. We can readily see that the phonograph would not be wholly satisfactory, altho Murko has obtained good results with it. In histories and dictionaries of music we often read that our modern music forms are based on the song and dance forms. It used to be a puzzle to me in what respect the song form and dance form differed from one another; how one could tell whether a certain musical form had developt from the song form or from the dance form. Now a study of the folk-song teaches us that there is no difference. Until the beginning of the eighteenth century every dance form was also a. song form, for before that time purely instrumental dances were unknown. As a typical illustration we may take the following description given by Dirr of a Georgian dance: "The people generally form a circle, in the middle of which one person dances. One or two sing the words, the rest drone the bass without an}?^ words, and all beat time with their hands." What part may the folk-song play in education ? It should be culti- vated for its own sake because of its freshness and beauty. It may be a valuable aid in vivifying other subjects of the curriculum, such as reading, literature, geography, and history, especially geography. And finally we should foster in the children of our immigrants a pride in their contribution to our wealth. They only too often despise their mother-tongue and native customs. Let them learn to respect and love them by cultivating their treasure. Many of their folk-songs are already available. The Oliver Ditson Co. has publisht,' not only One Hundred- Songs of England J Seventy Scottish Songs, Sixty Irish Songs, Sixty Folk-Songs of France, but also Sixty Patriotic Songs of All Nations, One Hundred Folk- Songs of All Nations, and Folk-Songs of Eastern Europe. In all except the last named both the original text and an English translation are given. In the Folk-Songs of Eastern Europe only the melody is original. The words are by friends of the editor, Ralph Radcliffe Whitehead. Mr. Whitehead says in his preface: The folk-songs of Eastern Europe have been too much neglected owing to the diflaculty of singing the words of so many strange languages. The desire to bring some of these songs within the reach of the English-speaking public may perhaps be sufficient excuse for what at first sight appears to be the impertinence of providing these melodies with new words. The reason for so doing is that very few of these old melodies are found accom- panied by words as old as themselves. Most of them are sung to words put to them in the nineteenth century. These words are only occasionally suitable to the music; in most cases they are commonplace; sometimes they are vulgar. The only impertinence lies in the assertion that the words are not suit- able to the music. The suitability is wholly a subjective matter. If, however, the teacher will make clear that only the music belongs to the country, no harm will be done in singing the American words. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — George A. Works, professor of rural education, Cornell University. . .Ithaca, N.Y. Vice-President — ^Henry N. Goddard ,high school inspector. State Department of Education, Madison, Wis. Secretary — W. S. Taylor, associate professor of agricultural education. University of Texas, Austin, Tex. FIRST SESSION— Monday Forenoon, July 3, 19 16 The opening meeting of the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education was i called to order in the Ballroom of Hotel McAlpin at 9:30 a.m., by President George A. Works. C. H. Lane, chief specialist in agricultural education, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., was appointed secretary. The following program was presented: "The Farm Bureau as an Agent in Local Development" — M. C. Burrit, state leader of farm bureaus, thaca, N.Y. "Field Exercises in Their Relation to Agricultural Teaching" — K. C. Davis, pro- [fessor of agriculture, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. "The Home Project in Secondary-School Agriculture" — ^L. H. Dennis, director of [agricultural education. Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 4, 19 16 The second session was a joint meeting of the Department of Rural and Agricultural [Education with the Rural School Committee of the American Library Association, Presi- I dent Works presiding. The following program was presented: "The Rural School and the Reading Habit" — Henry N. Sanborn, secretary, Indiana [State Library Commission, Indianapolis, Ind. "Rural-School Extension Work by the New York State College of Agriculture" — [E. M. Tuttle, editor, Cornell Rural-School Leaflet, Ithaca, N.Y. The following oflScers were elected for the ensuing year: President — W. H. French, professor of agricultural education, Michigan Agricultural CoUege, East Lansing, Mich. Vice-President — Z. M. Smith, supervisor of agricultural education, State Department [of Public Instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. Secretary — C. H. Lane, chief specialist in agricultural education. United States rDepartment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. C. H. Lane, Secretary pro tern 613 6 14 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE FARM BUREAU AS AN AGENT IN LOCAL DEVELOPMENT M. C. BURRIT, STATE LEADER OF FARM BUREAUS FOR NEW YORK, ITHACA, N.Y. At the outset it should be recognized that the problem which the farm-bureau movement aims to meet is that of adult rather than junior education. Adult education involves many different factors, altho the underlying principles are much the same. Some of the factors which must be met are those of the greater experience of the adult and the tendency to fixity in ideas, habits, and methods of work. This frequently leads to strong prejudices, difficult to overcome. Moreover, the method of approach to the person taught is very different. The authority and the organization of the school are lacking. There is lack of continued teaching contact. This irregularity and infrequency of contact, together with the fixt ideas and prejudices are serious factors. There have been three great epochs in the development of agricultural science and of adult agricultural education in this country. The first of these was the establishment and early development of the agricultural college; the second was the establishment and early development period of the experiment station, or research work in agriculture; the third epoch, the one in which we find ourselves at present, is the development of the extension of agricultural fact and teaching. With the first and second of these we are not concerned now, save to remind ourselves that the foundation of the agricultural colleges rests on the Morrill Act of July 2, 1862, supplemented by the second and third Morrill acts of 1890 and 1907, and that the experiment stations were founded by the Hatch Act of March 2, 1887, and supplemented by the Adams Act of 1906. The extension movement in agriculture, which we may call the third great epoch in the development of adult agricultural education, had its beginnings in the decade just preceding this century. For nearly thirty years we have had what we commonly know as farmers' institutes, which are essentially a part of the extension movement. During the last five years most of the states have recognized that the function of the state to teach better agriculture must be extended beyond centralized institutions, and have granted small appropriations for the carrying-on of extension work. The real extension epoch in agriculture was, however, ushered in by the great Smith-Lever Act of May 8, 1914. Its objects are ''to aid in diffusing among the people of the United States useful and practical information in agriculture and home economics, and to encourage the application of the same .... to persons not attending or resident at said colleges." The amounts of money appropriated by this Act, supplemented by the state iM. Department] THE FARM BUREAU AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT 615 appropriations, will eventually enable the agricultural colleges to meet the problem in a fairly adequate manner. The maximum appropriation in 1922 and 1923, and thereafter, will be $4580, all but the initial $600,000 of which must be duplicated by the states in order to make it available. This extension work is organized as a branch of the agricultural college. It is carried on chiefly by means of extension schools, reading courses, public lectures, field demonstrations, and similar methods. The farm-bureau idea is partly an outgrowth, and partly a local develop- ment phase, of the extension movement. Its primary purposes in New York State are twofold: (i) the extension of the knowledge and work of the agricultural college and experiment station. This phase practically [amounts to a branch of the extension division; (2) the development, organi- zation, and stimulation of local rural forces. The second purpose of the work is no less important than the first, tho, in my judgment, it has been given inadequate emphasis in the majority of the states. This phase of I the work contemplates the taking of an inventory of the rural situation and [forces, particularly along economic lines at first, and the organization of these forces to meet the opportunities in each rural community. It further I contemplates the searching-out, stimulating, and encouragement of local [rural leadership, so that the extension forces of the centralized institutions [may be supplemented by the equally forceful and wholly rural community [effort. The beginnings of the farm-bureau movement are to be found in the [southern states, where since 1902 there has been developt a great central- jized, but chiefly federal, effort along extension and demonstration Unes. A tremendous amount of good has been accomplisht, but, in my judgment, a serious weakness is that, projected from the distant and centralized federal ^government, it does not adequately meet the rural problem in that it fails fto develop enough local rural responsibiUty, organization, and leadership. [A similar development is found in the province of Ontario, in Canada, where ^the work has been under way for nearly ten years. In the thirty-three northern states "outside the Cotton Belt," as Con- [gress designates the area, the farm-bureau idea was first developt in southern JNew York. Out of these small beginnings the work has spread in five years fto something more than 400 counties in the northern states. Local organi- zation receives more emphasis than in the South and the resident rural [forces have a larger part in the work. The work in New York State differs I most perhaps from that in the other states in the much greater emphasis ; placed upon local organization and the resident rural forces. I must, of necessity, speak to you chiefly from the point of view of the work in New York State. kFive years of activity in the conduct of the work have led us to believe that tliere are certain fundamental principles which should be observed ........................ 6i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural Any plan of adult education must take into consideration the experience and consequent comparative j&xity of ideas and methods of thought of adults. Among farmers one must also reckon with that natural conservatism, inevi- table with the great mass of men who deal directly with nature — the soil, the weather, plants, animals, etc. In the open country another manifestation of this element of human nature is reluctance to accept a new plan or a new line of effort. Another is an equal hesitancy to accept responsibility for the plan, even when finally convinst of its reasonableness. Experience has taught us, however, that both these considerations usually give way to the stronger element in human nature, especially among rural people — namely, the appeal to the natural desire to be independent. It is with this fact in mind that our efforts are first directed toward getting the county which is to have state and federal aid in organizing a farm bureau to provide at least three-fifths of the cost of the work. This tends to establish proprietorship and to arouse interest and respect for the plan. What men pay for they are more likely to appreciate. The next step is to organize a farmers' association and obtain the pledges of not less than 10 per cent of the farmers of the county to secure and maintain moral and financial support and to manage the enterprise locally. The fulfilment of these conditions on the part of the county accomplishes two objects: (i) it measures the real interest of farmers in the thing desired; (2) once started, it puts the promoters in a receptive mood toward a con- structive and efficient plan of organization which may be proposed to them, and which straightway becomes the locally accepted plan. A good part of the responsibiUty for the work then belongs to the community. Thus real and effective partnership between the agricultural college and the rural communities is secured and equal responsibility assumed at the beginning. Thus we have the community paying approximately three-fifths of the cost of the work and providing at the same time an organization of farmers to manage the enterprise locally. We have in thirty-six counties in New York State total estimated financial resources for carrying on the work in 1916, amounting to more than $145,000, or over $4000 per county. Of this amount the localities themselves provide more than $100,000, or about two-thirds of the entire cost. Again, approximately 13,000 farmers are identified with the organizations which are carrying forward this work. Of these about 300 are executive committeemen, engaged in managing the enterprise locally, and about 1600 are advisory councilmen. In addition, during 19 15 there were a little over 4000 cooperators in carrying on the field- test and demonstration work. We hold that the surest way to help a community is to help it to help itself, that is, to put it in the way of self-betterment. Communities, like men, grow by doing rather than by having done for them. For this reason effort to bring about agricultural improvement should be along the line of searching out, encouraging, stimulating, and developing local leadership I Department] THE FARM BUREAU AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT 617 and organization, and then utilizing these local resident forces to work out community problems. Not only is it easier to help such forces with sug- gestion, illustration, and demonstration of principles, but it is the most efficient way to bring about a solution of local problems that will be perma- nent in the community. Perhaps I can best illustrate this principle by outHning the New York plan of farm-bureau work. In doing so, however, I should like to call attention to the size and extent of the problem of adult agricultural education in the rural com- munities of New York State. Some careful analyses of the problem in several counties indicate that the number of communities in our rural counties varies from 26 (Tioga) to 98 (Cattaraugus). If we assume an average of 50, we have then in the agricultural counties of this state not less than 2500 such communities. Each of these separate communities repre- sents a problem by itself. An inventory must be taken of this problem and of the resident and non-resident forces which may be factors in its solution. There are necessarily two divisions of our effort in farm-bureau organi- zation— one administrative and the other advisory. The administrative function is carried out by a committee of from seven to nine farmers, elected by the county association. These men are responsible for raising and pay- ing out local funds, making agreements with the central office at the agricultural college, jointly employing an agent or manager, and for the formulation of local policies. This is a comparatively small number of men, but their leadership, initiative, judgment, and ability are exceedingly important in making work successful. The advisory committee has to do with the carrying-out of the plan of work with the farm-bureau manager in each community in the county, and is, therefore, much larger. The ideal is to have at least one, and preferably from three to five, such advisory committeemen in each com- munity in the county. It is expected that each farmer who accepts an appointment on the advisory council will (i) represent his community in the bureau, (2) represent the bureau in his community, and (3) meet in sectional and county-wide meetings to discuss and to determine upon the most important local problems, and to recommend a county agricultural- improvement program. Thus in this plan we have (i) a responsible local committee backt by an organization with which to deal administratively in the management of the work, and (2) an organization which reaches into each community in the county with the necessary local representation. When the farm-bureau manager, carrying out the program outlined by the advisory committee as a whole and adopted by the executive committee, seeks a point of contact or a place to get a hold in a particular community, he naturally, consults with the advisory councilman. This resident representative, selected because he enjoys the confidence and the respect of his community, and because he has knowledge of its local problems and conditions, is able to introduce him 6i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural to friends and neighbors best qualified and willing to undertake the coopera- tive work. In pursuance of this plan of organization and community co- operation, about 1600 such community representatives have been selected in the 30 counties in the state which are organized for the work, or about 40 per county. It is my belief, as a result of eight years of close, first-hand observation of rural problems in this state, that there exists in every community the forces and the abihty to solve that community's problems. They are frequently latent and undevelopt, but they are none the less there. These forces must be sought out, stimulated, trained, and developt, and then applied to the problems of the community. In view of the experience, conservatism, and prejudices of communities, it is frequently necessary to make a demonstration of what can be done by organization and leader- ship before the community can be started to work along this line. It has been said that farmers are poor business men. This is not necessarily so. What is probably true is that most farmers, because the total business which they have to do is small, and because their capital is usually turned over only once a year, do not get as much training in busi- ness affairs as business men of the same financial resources in the towns. Altho in limited numbers, farmers of our committees are getting some excellent training in business affairs, and in organizing and conducting this piece of educational work. This is especially true of executive com- mitteemen. But it is with the advisory committeemen, who are brought in constant contact with the manager of the bureau and with extension workers from the college, and upon whom is placed the responsibility of representing their communities, that this training for leadership, especially counts. To have their efforts combined with those of similarly minded men, to absorb the enthusiasm that usually comes when numbers of men are working together for a worthy object, and to bear the responsibility and the honor of repre- senting one's community, rapidly develops these men into real community- leaders. If this can be effectively done in every one of the 2500 rural communities in this state, and if these men carrying out the purpose for which they are selected, are able to organize their communities, to work with the agricultural colleges and the experiment stations, to teach them- selves and their neighbors better methods of production, better methods of handling and organizing their business, and of marketing and distributing their products, much permanent good will have been done. As I have already indicated, the work is yet young and there is great need for the general development and perfection of the plan. During the last year the membership organizations supporting the work locally have, as a whole, doubled numerically. Not only has the average number of members been substantially raised, but there are fewer inefficient organiza- tions and more of a strength which approaches a maximum of effectiveness. Department] FIELD EXERCISES IN AGRICULTURAL TEACHING 619 The development of the advisory councils is most gratifying, both in the number of strong local leaders taking up the work, and in the quality and activity of these men. The local farm-bureau associations thru their advisory councils and executive committees have assumed the responsibility for determining the kind of work to be done in their respective counties and communities, expressing this in carefully drawn semi-permanent agricultural programs, to be carried out by still more definite annual projects. A striking feature of the year's progress in the work has been the stimulation of interest, and the crystallization and organization of many latent forces in communities into associations to deal with specific problems, such as community breeding, seed-production, standardization of crops, and like enterprises. Field tests and demonstrations have become a generally accepted method of farm-bureau teaching and effort. These have been organized and carried out in most of the counties to an extent that has made the influence of the farm bureaus appreciably felt in modifying farm practice. FIELD EXERCISES IN THEIR RELATION TO AGRICULTURAL TEACHING KARY C. DAVIS, KNAPP SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN. At the Boston meeting six years ago I read a brief paper on "Field Laboratory Work," giving a few suggestions and a classification of exercises of this character. In the present paper I wish to be more specific, and state reasons for field work, suggest some methods of conducting it, and suggest more subjects somewhat in detail. Among the reasons or arguments for field-laboratory exercises, we may find the same arguments as may be advanst in favor of laboratory work in any subject, and in favor of home projects and demonstration plots, which are to be discust by others on the program here today. Let us briefly enumerate some of these points: 1. To make the instruction of all the subject-matter more concrete. In this respect agriculture has a great advantage over many subjects in the school curriculum. 2. To show the student the relation of the subject-matter of the class- room or textbook to scientific principles involved; or, to state it in another way, to show the relation between the scientific principles underlying the subject-matter and real things and real life. 3. To bring all the agricultural work into closer touch with the environ- ment of the student. 620 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Agricultural 4. To link the school work of today with the occupation and life of the student after finishing school. 5. To aid in stopping the criticism that agriculture is too bookish. Such criticism comes partly from the students, but chiefly from others less familiar with agricultural teachings. Naturally all teachers, as well as laymen, think of agriculture as founded on both practice and science. This is right, but there is danger that in an effort to make agriculture a culture subject, many schools will fail to main- tain the practical side. The cultural side can be emphasized without losing the practical aspect. I maintain that the more practical phases are given to the student thru field exercises with soils, crops, orchards, livestock, machinery, etc., and thru laboratory exercises, school and home demonstrations, school and home projects. When the values of these methods of training and instruc- tion are neglected, the instruction will become too theoretical and too abstract, and receive the criticism of being too bookish. Field exercises should find a place in all kinds of agricultural courses and in all phases of the subject-matter. Schools having no plots nor farm lands of their own should make far more use of the field exercises than schools which have their own plots. Field exercises can, to a very large extent, take the place of poor laboratory facilities; but it should not be thought for a moment that under ideal conditions a well-equipt laboratory can be dispensed with. The places for the field exercises may be on school plots, on the school farm, at the homes of pupils, or on fields and farms near the school, or perhaps in distant places. Consequently the exercises will need to vary in length from a single school period to a half-day, whole day, or even longer trips. We need to discriminate here between the field trip and the project. The time element enters strongly into this discrimination. Any exercise continuing for some days may take on the nature of a *' project," and is no longer called an "exercise." There are several essentials of a good field exercise : (i) It should have a definite aim with one or more definite points to be brought out. (2) It should be well planned by the instructor in charge, and should not fail for want of forethought and knowledge of the situation on the part of the instructor. (3) Too much energy must not be expended to accomplish a definite purpose. For example, the thought of the student must not be taken up too much with the means of going and coming, but should be centered on the lessons to be learned. (4) The purposes and points of the exercise should be planned with the students in advance. (5) Outlines covering the points to be studied should be in the hands of each student, with definite instructions for his observation and study. (6) Certain data should be required of each student, and reports prepared during the exercise, in the presence of the instructor, should be required. These may. Department] FIELD EXERCISES IN AGRICULTURAL TEACHING 621 or may not, become a part of the student's permanent record or notebook. But in all cases they should be examined by the instructor and returned, with criticisms, to the student. In large classes a device is sometimes used which will greatly aid the instructor in charge. The class is divided into groups of four or five stu- dents each. A leader, or monitor, is appointed for each group. The points in the exercise, or trip, are explained by the instructor to the leader of each group. And the leaders, in turn, bring out the points to the members of their own groups. Much better work can be done if the classes are not so large as to require subdivision during the same hour. There are certain classes of exercises which can readily be performed by students of high-school age, without the presence of the instructor during the exercise or on the trip. Monitors, or leaders, may be appointed. If the instructor is not to be present he should give a very full outline and require a detailed report from each student. Among the exercises which would fall into this last group, to be per- formed without the presence of the instructor, may be mentioned two groups: 1. Drill exercises, which are repetitions of those performed when the instructor was present. Care should be exercised to not repeat these too often. There is danger of the work degenerating into drudgery on one hand, or play on the other. 2. Trips may be taken to new places to study lessons similar to those which have already been studied by students when accompanied by the instructor. For example, garden plants have been sprayed for a particular disease in one garden, with the work under the immediate supervision of an instructor. An application then comes for the same kind of work in another garden. This time a responsible student may be placed in charge of a group to go to the new garden and do this "expert" work. They may readily be brought to feel the responsibility placed upon them, and the training is very valuable. I have mentioned the importance of having a definite outline for study before an exercise or field trip is undertaken. Let us look at a sample outline — the corn-root system. To determine the depth and extent of the feeding roots of corn, the following method is suggested: Go to field "A" near the water-supply. Drive four pegs level with the surface of the ground at the four corners of a square yard, between the two rows. With a shovel or hoe remove one inch of top soil between the pegs. Then with the water wash away the soil in this area until the feeding roots are exposed. If the ground be sloping the surplus soil may be carried away with running water. Continue I jK the washing, and with fingers and sharp eyes, carefully trace roots from near ■^" the cornstalk to the opposite side of the square yard, A number of roots Ife opposite side of the square yard, should be traced. 622 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural Notes should be made, and lessons learned thru the following inquiries : (i) To what distance from their source can you trace roots? (2) How shallow do you find them ? (3) How large and strong are they ? (4) Do they connect with the brace roots of the corn ? (5) Are the roots much brancht ? Sketch some of them. (6) Are corn roots damaged when the soil is tilled with deep-shoveled cultivators ? (7) How may corn be culti- vated without injuring the roots? (8) What relation has this to fre- quency of cultivation during the growing season ? (9) Why does corn suffer severely when the weather becomes dry ? Students should be askt to suggest an exercise by which the deepest corn roots may be studied. The outline may be taken down in a notebook by each student and the report made on the same, or following, page of his book. The following exercises are merely suggestive and not intended to cover any particular phase of agriculture completely: 1. Identification of annual weeds in a cultivated field. 2. Study and collection of perennial weeds in a pasture or hayfield. 3. Comparing the root systems of perennial weeds with those of annual weeds. 4. To determine which classes of weeds are most abundant along road- sides and fence rows. 5. To determine how rotation of crops will help control both these classes of weeds. 6. To make a school collection of ripe weed seeds. 7. The use of spray materials in combating mustard and other weeds. 8. The control of weeds in cracks of walks. 9. Weed-control by grazing sheep, 10. The influence of composted manure in comparison with fresh manure in spreading farm weeds. The foregoing scattered list of suggestions is presented merely as a beginning, but not as exhausting the list of possible field exercises. THE HOME PROJECT IN SECONDARY-SCHOOL AGRICULTURE L. H. DENNIS, DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, STATE BUREAU OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, HARRISBURG, PA. Very rapid progress has been made in the introduction and development of the teaching of agriculture in the elementary and secondary schools of the various states of the Union. We have past thru the stage of questioning as to whether or not this subject should be incorporated in the curriculum of public-school studies. We have definitely decided that the subject is entitled to recognition, and, moreover, we have come to the realization that it is a matter of necessity rather than choice. The problem con- Department] HOME PROJECT IN SECONDARY-SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 623 fronting educational leaders today is not whether or not the subject should be taught, but rather under what conditions and how it shall be taught. Agriculture as first introduced in the public schools was as one subject among many in a scheme to furnish a general education and for the purpose of enriching this education, with the idea of teaching in terms of the environ- ment of the boys and girls thus instructed. Serious attempts are now being made to train boys very specifically for the occupation of farming as a vocation. We now appreciate the fact that it takes brains and trained brains at that to make a farm produce maximum results with maximum efficiency. It is hardly necessary to state that educators are now fully aware of the economic need for developing our agricultural resources and for enriching of rural life. Our object in teaching agriculture on a vocational basis is really twofold. We are aiming first of all to increase the efficiency of the boy in a very specific manner, thus enabling him to do his work on the farm with greater ease, better results, and with increast profits to himself. Of almost equal importance is the agricultural development which is bound to be the result of such training for agricultural work. As important as this may be, however, I strongly feel that it is the boy's interests chiefly, and first of all, that we are attempting to serve by vocational agricultural educa- tion rather than to secure bigger and better crops and the enrichment of the land. However, I do not in the least minimize these economic aspects. The problem of vocational education for the farm boy is decidedly different from the problems connected with the training of plumbers, machinists, printers, textile workers, etc. The business of farming involves so much biology, chemistry, physics, and other general sciences, in addition to a specific application of the same, that necessarily this type of training must be very broad and inclusive. The problem is again different from the standpoint of practice or trade experience. In training a boy to be a plumber specific provision must be made for trade experience. In other words, if the boy is to learn the trade of a plumber, he must not only receive instruction in the theory of the trade, but he must have an oppor- tunity to become skilled in its technique by actual practice or work during a sufficient period of time. The boy of the open country comes to the secondary school with a rich practical or trade experience. It is not safe to assume, however, that because of this the boy needs no further contact with actual farm operations. He needs very definite instruction in the principles underlying the common farm practices with which he is already more or less familiar. Moreover, he needs definite training and even actual experience in the application of these principles, in order that they may become fixt, and, furthermore, that they may be put into actual prac- tice. Enough reliable, scientific, and technical data of an agricultural nature has already been compiled to save this country millions of dollars annually, could the principles herein establisht be put into actual opera- tion by those most vitally concerned. It is one thing to establish certain 624 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural scientific facts relating to farm practice. It is an entirely different propo- sition to bring about the operation of these principles in the everyday practices of the farm, even tho the value of them has been establisht beyond a question of doubt. Educators directing the development of vocational agricultural educa- tion have had this clearly in mind when work of a practical nature providing for the application ofscientific truths was incorporated into the scheme of vocational education for the country boy. As is now generally known, some states have attempted to solve this by means of the school farm con- nected with the district or county agricultural school. The majority of the states, however, which have undertaken this type of education have chosen to provide for this necessary practical work by means of the home-project plan supplemented by some group-project work carried on at the school or on some other land secured for the purpose either by the school or by the individuals involved. The word "project" is coming into about as general use as the terms "educational survey," "correlation," etc. It is a very popular term with those dealing with agricultural education. It might be wise here again to call attention to the distinction between an agricultural project and an agricultural exercise, as these terms have been somewhat confused in some sections of the country. The agricultural exercise is a simple experiment, or demonstration, or illustration, and is usually of short duration. It is not organized in the same manner as an agricultural project. It is not so comprehensive, as it usually deals with one principle or operation which can be completed in a short time. The agricultural project on the other hand is very definitely studied out, and planned on a systematic basis. It involves much preliminary study and organization of agricultural matter bearing upon the work to be undertaken. It involves, not only the learning of a scientific principle related to some farm practice, but the application of such principle or prin- ciples to farm practices. It usually extends thru a period of time. An agricultural project, to be of value, must be of economic importance. It must involve the improving of some conditions or the production of some crop, etc. It must be carried out on such a basis that the success of the project means financial gain, and the failure of the project a corresponding loss. In other words, a project is a business enterprise carried out on the farm or in the garden. The boy must be made to realize that he has an investment which, if possible, must be made to yield a satisfactory return or income. The scientific principles involved, and their relation to accepted principles, will be properly emphasized under such conditions. It does not seem possible to carry on successful projects without the close supervision of someone who has had special training along this line. The class in agriculture in the ordinary high school or rural school cannot be expected to carry on successful home projects unless there is a teacher Department] HOME PROJECT IN SECONDARY -SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 625 or supervisor of agriculture on duty during the time the project is in opera- tion. This means that the teacher of agriculture must be employed during the summer months or the growing season, as the majority of the boys' projects are productive projects. Great care must always be exercised in the selection of a boy's project. Many things should be taken into consideration. The teacher of agri- culture must have an intimate knowledge of the boy's home conditions, the land available for this purpose, poultry conditions, size and nature of orchard, etc. The inchnation, or natural bent, of the boy has an important bearing upon the selection of the project. The cooperation of the parents should, by all means, be obtained. To secure this sometimes requires diplomacy and tact on the part of the teacher, altho it has been our experi- ence in Pennsylvania that the parents of the majority of the boys are more than willing to cooperate in this work. The parents of the boys should be consulted freely relative to the choice of a project. The actual work incidental to the operation of the project itself must be preceded by a long and carefully planned study of the project itself and all that it involves. This requires organization of subject-matter, much reading and study, and the use of bulletins, books, and other reference matter. An accurate record of all the details of the project is absolutely indispensable. It should include a list of authorities consulted, method of procedure, and plans to be followed. A careful account should be kept of all receipts and expenditures. This should include a labor account with the project debited with the cost of the boy's labor at actual market value. Any other items of similar nature should be duly recorded. Such a record is only valuable when it is systematic and accurate. It seems to me that one of the developments of the future will be an efficient working relation between the home-project work of the vocational school and a certain type of work carried on by the farm bureaus. It frequently happens that a boy enroled in an agricultural school will take as his project the raising of an acre of corn. If there is a farm bureau in his county and this farm bureau is conducting a boys' corn club, he will prob- ably join this club. There should be no confusion, however, between the work of the boys' club and the home-project work as supervised by the vocational instructor. A home project may meet all conditions necessary for the club work. On the other hand, however, a boy enroled as a mem- ber of the corn club may by no means have his work on such a basis as to be considered a home project. It meets the requirements from the standpoint of practical work, and possibly from the standpoint of profit and loss. There is not, however, the same systematic study and supervision as in the case of the home project supervised by the vocational instiructor. Some definite relation will undoubtedly be establish t between the club work and the home-project work as one of the developments of the future. 626 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Agricultural The home project is an integral part of the scheme to furnish specific preparation for Hfe on the farm. It is, however, only one part of this plan of education. To my mind everything else does not depend upon it, and there is perhaps some danger of overestimating its value. On the other hand, to eliminate the home project from the vocational agricultural course would be equivalent to removing the means whereby theory and practice meet. While the home-project idea has already been extensively developt, its possibilities have by no means been exhausted. THE RURAL SCHOOL AND THE READING HABIT HENRY N. SANBORN, SECRETARY, INDIANA STATE LIBRARY COMMISSION, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. The United States government in the last census, I believe, adopted a new classification of urban and rural communities. Formerly any town of 8000 inhabitants was urban, and any smaller one was rural. Beginning with 1 9 10, the Census Bureau clast all towns of less than 2500 inhabitants as rural. When we discuss the rural school or rural life, however, we undoubtedly have in mind much smaller communities, very often isolated farms and tiny neighborhoods. Furthermore, the word ''rural" generally connotes, as it literally means, something belonging to the fields and hence to agriculture. It is districts of this sort that I shall have in mind par- ticularly as I talk to you this morning, altho much of what I say may apply equally to some towns having as large a population as 2500. It will be necessary, I think, to call to mind succinctly certain well- known conditions of life on the farm or in small communities before dis- cussing intelHgently the need and value of reading and the part of the rural school in forming and fostering the reading habit. Everyone here at least knows of the constant exodus from the country to the city, from the farm to the factory or the office. It is not possible, of course, by way of generali- zation, to give every reason why every individual has abandoned rural for urban Ufe, but the isolation and drudgery of farm life and the scanty opportunities for recreation in the country are given as leading causes for this migration. Not long ago I saw a moving picture sent out by the General Electric Company to illustrate the effect of electricity on the farm. It was an excellent illustration of the old-time drudgery of farm hfe, and it had a further helpful influence in showing that the son who ran away from this drudgery to the city did not find hfe there such a primrose path of dalHance as to prevent him from returning to the farm when very easy and logical changes had been made which ehminated unnecessary toil. What some agency must teach the rising generations in the country is the intelligent use of leisure and the emptiness of mere exciting forms of Department! THE RURAL SCHOOL AND THE READING HABIT 627 amusement; a return to certain forms of recreation peculiarly adapted to rural life, and a development of new forms of recreation equally suited to country conditions. For old and young at all times and in all places there is no pleasanter or more satisfying way of using leisure time than by reading. The book nowadays can reach the remotest farmhouse. So far we have given attention chiefly to the economic side of rural life, and I believe rightly. Our family and community life must be on a firm economic foundation before we can hope for a superstructure of culture. At the same time, however, while we are teaching more efficient farming methods, we can be sowing the seeds of a culture that will mean a higher standard of living and a more intelligent use of leisure. To increase the income of the farmer and also his amount of leisure without increasing his capacity for the right kind of enjoyment, is not best for the interests of country life. As it is now, too many farmers, after acquiring a competence, find no pleasure in a home in the country, but move to a near-by town or city to spend their last days, and as an acquaintance of mine says, will spend nothing else. They have no cultivated tastes. As I go about in Indiana, I find myself often conscious that too many farmers are interested almost entirely in how much corn and wheat they can grow, how many hogs they can raise, and how they can keep down taxes. Whether they live in sanitary and comfortable houses does not always trouble them, and even when they are surrounded with physical comforts, they have very generally no sense of how to make a real home, attractively furnisht, and suitable for anything more than a comfortable place to eat and sleep. Man cannot live by bread alone, and plain living and high thinking may be as important for the farmer as bumper corn crops and big profits. It is, then, a plea for the country school to take its place as. a promoter of culture as well as a trainer of farmers that I wish to make this morning. And as books are perhaps the most potent, certainly the most accessible, agents of culture, I am to talk of the reading habit and how it can be fostered by the rural school. If we were to stop the man on the street, or, to keep to our atmosphere, the man with the hoe, and ask him in what he considered lies the advantage of reading, he would, no doubt, without hesitation tell us that it gives a man information, especially useful information, and it serves to pass away the time. Indeed, any of us must needs think a bit before we can enlarge upon or subdivide these reasons for reading. I am not sure that these two purposes are not sufficient motives in the reader, if only, when he reads for recreation, he will read the right things. The value of recreational reading depends upon the taste which directs the choice of the reading-matter. Taste for anything is something that can be educated and improved. Three years ago there appeared a little book by Professor C. Alphonse Smith, of the University of Virginia, entitled What Can Literature Do for Me ? This book has been included by the United States Bureau of Education 628 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural in one of the reading courses for the National Reading Circle. I have not read the book and do not know how Professor Smith treats his subject, but his title appealed to me, and, more than his title, his six chapter heads, and to me, in collecting my thoughts for this talk, they seem especially to suggest ways in which reading can touch particularly the needs of rural life so as to make for contentment and real recreation. In the first place, literature, he says, can give you an outlet. All the pent-up sorrows and yearnings, the unattained, unfilled ambitions and the disappointments in the individual breast ooze away and leave comparative contentment thru the widened openings made in the mind by reading the experiences of others and thinking the thoughts of those who have drained the dregs of a bitter cup. Our very reading shows us how many men have found in books an outlet. Self-expression is not easy for many of us, and books are our satisfactory substitute. The lack of some outlet, it seems to me, is one of the chief causes of the nervous tenseness and the frequent dissatisfaction to be found in the country dweller. Even in hospitals for the insane books are now used as therapeutic agents to furnish this very outlet to the mind. If literature can furnish this escape valve, let us train men and women to use and appreciate literature. But one must not only have an outlet for one's feelings. One must also see visions and dream dreams. This, Professor Smith says, literature can do for you by keeping before you the ' ' vision of the ideal. ' ' The reading of biography is perhaps especially helpful in furnishing ideals, but all litera- ture can contribute its share. Merely as a means of improving manners, reading, and especially the reading of proper fiction, is a powerful help. A good novel is a picture of life, and reading about real ladies and gentlemen, or their opposites, will have a beneficial influence on the observant reader. There is no reason why country people should not observe the niceties of good manners as well as city people. Some of the best-mannered persons I know are New England farmer folk. There are, of course, higher ideals than manners, but none so high that literature cannot inspire them. With self-expression and visions we can do much, but we have also a knowledge of human nature and a knowledge of the past. Human nature we learn largely by rubbing up against our associates, and we can learn it in a small rural community as well as in the crowded city, but a large part of our theories of life come from our reading. Reading, if you will, coordinates our experiences with our fellow-men. In biography and history, and largely in fiction, we see how human beings behave in circumstances we may at any time be called upon to face. For our knowledge of the past we are dependent almost entirely on books. To know history we must read, and to solve the problems of the present we must know the experience of the past. Teaching the dignity of labor and the refinement of the simple life is not the only way, however, in which books can show the glory of the com- monplace. In my native New England I have often heard city dwellers. i I Department] THE RURAL SCHOOL AND THE READING HABIT 629 when admiring some beautiful view, wonder at the habit which the builders of New England farmhouses seem to have had, of deliberately building their barns so as to shut off from the house the most attractive outlook from the site. You will find many a countryman entirely untoucht by the beauty which surrounds him. Seedtime and harvest and a long winter of chores are all the seasons mean to him. The mountains, the flowers, the birds, have no message for him. If a country boy, or girl, has some one read him Burns's "Wee, sleekit, cowrin', tim'rous beastie," or "To a Mountain Daisy," do you not believe he will see the field mouse and the common flower with new eyes ? It needs the poet or the painter to show us the beauties which we gaze on unaware. Custom has a hateful way of showing the infinite variety of nature. If I could teach a boy really to love Burns, and some of Wordsworth, and much of Whittier, I should have little fear that he would find life in the woods and the fields and the farmhouse com- monplace. Finally, Mr. Smith tells us that literature can give us the mastery of our own language. I am a true believer in the teaching of the principles of literary composition; but just as firmly do I believe that except in rare cases no one can really express his thoughts well until he has read widely or deeply. Men like Lincoln and Bunyan are good examples of what familiarity with the Enghsh Bible will do to give ease of expression. The pages of Burke are covered with evidence of his familiarity with books. The first thing the rural school can do is to teach how to read. You smile at the obviousness of my remark; but I hope it is a wiser and less platitudinous remark than it appears at first glance. Certain I am that the greater part of print-devouring humanity cannot read. In my eight years of teaching English composition and Hterature to young men of from seventeen to twenty-two, pickt from all over the country, I proved over and over again that few of them could read even a simple piece of narrative writing and really know what they had read. Only the barest outline of the story — the most striking events — had made any impression upon their minds. All the finer touches that lend distinction to literature escapt. It was^s a man, partly blind, sees only the outlines and most blatant colors of the objects around him. Next to teaching how to read and to think, the school should develop taste for literature. It is always a comfort to remind ourselves now and then that taste can be developt and even acquired. Most of the finer tastes of civilized man are acquired tastes, and what the race as a whole has acquired the individual may acquire. Developing hterary taste in the young is possibly the most delicate task the teacher has to perform. Too great zeal creates suspicion. Most of the influence has to be exerted by indirection. To tell a boy that he ought to like a book is to give him sufficient reason for disliking it. To tell a girl the same thing is to make her pretend to like the book even if she does not. I 630 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural Reading aloud is perhaps the most effective way of teaching a love of books, especially a love of poetry. A great deal of the reading aloud should be done by the teacher if she is a good reader, and if she cannot read well aloud she should not be permitted to teach literature. Such reading by the teacher, with occasional comment on some beautiful passage, will never fail to hold a class. Such comment, if carefully worded, can be made, not a perfunctory teaching exercise, but the natural expression of the teacher's appreciation. Reading aloud by the pupils is also helpful, but, because the pupil will probably not read so well as the teacher, the effect upon the other pupils will not be so good. For the sake of teaching the individual to read aloud, however, the pupils themselves must do some reading. Reading dialogs and plays in class, with the parts assigned to pupils, always arouses interest even with the oldest pupils. Clubs for reading aloud can be organized by the schools among inhabit- ants of all ages, except those too young to read aloud with ease. Such clubs, in addition to encouraging a taste for reading, furnish an agreeable and wholesome form of amusement. Shakespeare, Browning, the modern drama, short stories, poetry — read aloud and afterward discust — are all suitable subjects for such reading clubs. Somewhat similar to these reading clubs is the amateur performance of plays. My personal experience has been that taking part in many plays was one of the most helpful experiences I underwent in forming my literary tastes. I am sure I learned more of Shakespeare by taking leading parts in two of his plays than I ever learned in any other one way. There is one means of encouraging reading in rural districts that is rather widely used in several states and has been recently adopted by the United States Bureau of Education — the reading circle. Indiana was, I believe, the first, certainly one of the first, states to start a pupils' reading circle. The conditions vary in different states, but generally credit is allowed and certificates and diplomas issued when a certain number of books from a recommended list have been read. In some cases there is a more or less simple examination designed to show that the books have actually been read. The books on these lists are generally selected by a committee of the state teachers' association or by the state board of educa- tion. The reading circles, it is entirely true, have been the greatest and often the only means of building up a school library or of getting books into the hands of the pupils. In Indiana alone, over 900,000 volumes have been purchast, and the average annual membership is 160,000 different pupil readers. But even better than these several ways of encouraging reading is the association with books themselves. To be surrounded with freely acces- sible books is sure to affect one's habits and tastes. To make books acces- sible in any number to children or to adults is one of the problems of rural Department! THE RURAL SCHOOL AND THE READING HABIT 631 communities, and here again the rural school can be of the greatest assist- ance. Where there is no public library in a community or where the library is at a considerable distance from the school, the school itself can build up a library of its own. The Hbrary in each school district, with its own permanent collection of books, has been the goal in many states for many years. In Indiana, for instance, there are at present literally hundreds of school libraries. N. M. McRea, writing in Harper's Weekly in January, 1909, estimated that there were 8000. This establishment of small school libraries in the various school districts of the state has resulted in a vast deal of unnecessary duplication. Reference books, as encyclopedias, dictionaries, and standard texts, every good working school library must have, but the number of titles of general reading that may properly be included in a school collection is great. As might be expected in the libraries of a few hundred volumes, there is much duplication of titles. In a small school library in a community that has no public library these few titles are soon read by the children and there are not sufficient funds to add enough books to keep up with the readers. The natural result is that both children and teachers soon lose interest in the library. The only present help in this situation in .most states is the state traveling-library system. In many states there are maintained at state expense and operated by one state department or another, generally a library commission, collections of books, often in fixt groups, that may be borrowed by rural schools for periods averaging from three to six months. In this way general reading that is frequently chang- ing is supplied to supplement the meager school library. For temporary reference and debate work, these state commissions can also supply material. The policy of supplying at state expense textbooks for instruction in such subjects as may be called vocational subjects is questionable and should be unnecessary. State traveling libraries, it would seem, should supply only general reading matter. Any state system, however, with the many demands made upon its proportionally small collection of books, can, at best, help but little here and there. Some system of cooperation and interchange between school libraries of convenient districts seems the most promising method of keep- ing fresh the stream of reading matter. In most states south and west of the Northern Atlantic seaboard, the county is a political entity of suffi- cient importance to serve as a unit of school-library service. In many of these states there are county superintendents of schools who might easily and property make their offices the administrative centers of the rural- school libraries. A supervising school librarian for each county would fittingly be one of the staff of the county superintendent's office. She could select the books purchast with the library funds of each school district and see that in the county there is no duplication of titles other than the abso- lute necessary references and texts. She could arrange to interchange these 632 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural collections so that each school could in time have the use of every other school's purchases. Such a system of supplementary purchasing and inter- change is being successfully workt out by Miss Archer, librarian of the Talladega (Ala.) Public Library. Such a supervising Ubrarian might also attend to the technical work of all the libraries, might instruct teachers at county institutes in the use of books and simple Ubrary methods, and might even herself give instruction to the pupils in the schools. In counties where such a librarian would be impossible, the superintendent himself could at least oversee the purchasing and arrange a system of interschool loans. The state library commission would in many states furnish instruc- tion to teachers and aid in many other ways. The agency, however, that more than any other, perhaps, has the greatest opportunity to mold the rural-school library of the future is the normal school. Trained school librarians can do much and library com- missions can give expert advice and supervision, but the teacher pre- eminently of all persons outside the home, can arouse in the child of school age the love of books. Special librarians in small schools are impossible, and librarians in large schools, or supervising librarians of several schools, cannot, say what you please, have the direct contact with, and influence over, the individual child as can the teacher who has the child under her care several hours a day. RURAL-SCHOOL EXTENSION WORK BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE EDWARD M. TUTTLE, EDITOR, "CORNELL RURAL-SCHOOL LEAFLET," ITHACA, N.Y. Very rapidly the education of boys and girls in the open country is finding its sources in the rural environment. In its broadest sense, this is what we mean by nature-study: the process by which a child comes to know and to appreciate the forces and phenomena with which he comes in contact in the world about him, the establishing of his relationship to Hfe. Children naturally reach out for knowledge when they can see tangibly before them the object or circumstance to which the knowledge relates. Interest can find its motive only in sense impression that produces desire. And interest means an awakened spirit and potential growth. A child is bom in the country. He lives for six years before he enters a schoolroom. Those six years are years of marvelous growth, as the un- folding personaHty struggles to find its bearings and learns to express its thoughts and feelings in the form of speech. The child's whole being is permeated and influenst by his environment as represented in the out-of- doors, the farming operations, and the home life. These three phases are included in the terms "natural history," "agriculture," and "home-making" as applied to elementary teaching. I. Department] RURAL-SCHOOL EXTENSION WORK IN NEW YORK 633 There comes a day when the child follows the road to the schoolhouse, a place of mystery, to be entered with a feeling of awe and of respect not unmixt with fear. He crosses the threshold and a new epoch in his life begins. Have we older persons forgotten what a tremendous moment that is to the six-year-old lad or lass ? The country child comes to school with a background experience derived from the out-of-door world, the farm, and the home. This experi- ence and the daily interests that contribute to it and are in turn suggested by it offer a natural starting-point for the teacher. Its right development constitutes environmental study, or nature-study. If the child finds that school and home have common interests, that each supplements the other, he will eagerly reach out for new knowledge under the teacher's guidance, and will grow in ability and power. If the school is merely a place of unassociated fact instruction, he may respond in a mechanical way, but the hfe has gone, the fact has no meaning and therefore can produce no real growth. This is the reason why rural schools are finding the motive and basis of their teaching in the rural environment. The state of New York has made great progress in this respect, and each year sees the movement become more far-reaching and fundamental. The state department of education has provided a suggestive syllabus of work in natural history, agriculture, and home-making. The New York State College of Agriculture suppUes to teachers subject-matter on these topics, together with suggestions for its use. The most important point, and the one which is constantly empha- sized, is that the work shall deal with real things and shall be a natural, spontaneous effort on the part of the children, and that under no circum- stances shall it be developt on a formal recitation, textbook basis. The subject-matter sent to the teachers is for the purpose of giving them a point of view and of broadening their background of knowledge to the end that they may guide the activities of the children more intelligently and effec- tively. Teachers who do not understand nor appreciate this method of approach ask for definite outlines giving in detail the time and manner of presenting the various topics. To supply these woul^ destroy the spontaneity and take the life out of the work. What is needed is to see that teachers have the ability and the desire to take advantage of the natural opportunities as they constantly arise. There are all gradations of success and failure but, on the whole, the work in New York State is well done and is already mani- festing itself in the Hves of the children. Another mistake sometimes made, and one which apparently has not imprest itself on all directors of education, is that of considering the accom- plishment, from time to time, of certain definite, but unrelated, pieces of work in one or the other of these subjects as the ultimate end to be attained. This is quite likely to be the case where all the work done by the children is 634 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural in the form of project or club enterprises. Undoubtedly there is valuable training for any child at certain periods of his life in doing some definite piece of practical work under competent direction; but far more essential is the need that his activity from day to day all his young Ufe long shall reflect his environment. Until natural history, agriculture, and home- making in some phase or other constitute the vital framework of the rural school and form the basis of its daily life, their greatest value has not been found. The real result to strive for in nature-study is an atmosphere, not a record, altho to a superficial observer the record may be the only evidence of accomplishment. Education is a very personal thing. The closer the bond of sympathy between teacher and pupils, the more fundamental the results. Likewise a close relationship between teachers and their supervisors and directors is a very desirable condition. There is no reason why officials should not show that they are human, nor why institutions should not have souls. This is a large factor in the rural-school extension work undertaken by the New York State College of Agriculture. By means of the regular publica- tion known as the Cornell Rural School Leaflet, by personal correspondence, and by attendance at conferences of teachers and gatherings of school folk all are led to feel, on the part of those in the institution, a friendly human interest that produces greater opportunities for service. Every letter is an opportunity, and may be made to carry a feeling of real, as well as of official, interest. Of course, this is a matter capable of being overdone and misused. There are no rules. No force is capable of so much good, nor of so much harm, as personal power. One who uses it wisely must be sensitive and fundamentally controlled. The limit of its use varies with different persons and with different conditions. The actual organization of the rural-school extension work from the New York State College of Agriculture includes the following considerations: 1. The work is centered in the Department of Rural Education, which also conducts courses of instruction for prospective teachers of agriculture and home-making, and which does some research work. 2. The chief extension enterprise, out of which all the others grow, is the publication of the Cornell Rural School Leaflet. The Leaflet owes its conception and development to Alice Gertrude McCloskey, who died last October. Years ago she saw the trend of rural education toward a consideration of the rural environment, and in 1907 she was given an opportunity to start the Leaflet, There is one large number for teachers issued annually in September. It contains material on a year's work as outlined in the state syllabus. The technical subject-matter is prepared by the various experts in the college, and publisht with notes and suggestions for its use. There are three smaller leaflets for children issued in November, January, and March of each year. These serve to stimulate and direct the children's interest and to supplement the efforts of the teachers. Department] RURAL-SCHOOL EXTENSION WORK IN NEW YORK 62,<, 3. The children's leaflets each contain, among other things, a message to the boys and girls in the form of a personal letter from the editor. The children are encouraged to reply, and their correspondence forms a large and interesting feature of the work. Every child who writes three letters in the school year receives a small gift picture representing some appropri- ate art subject. 4. Correspondence with teachers is extensive and covers a wide range of subjects. Many of the letters contain technical questions which are referred to the proper experts in the college for reply. 5. The district superintendents in the state hold local conferences of their teachers several times a year, and there are always more requests for speakers received at the college than can be met. The conference work is very important, however, and serves to supplement the leaflet and to direct its use. 6. There has developt an annual exhibit of rural-school work at the college, and this is held during the general Farmers' Week in February of each year. Effort is made to provide definite standards for each class of exhibit material, in order that the schools may prepare their work intelK- gently and with some degree of uniformity, altho great freedom is encour- aged in the detailed execution of the work, providing the essentials are covered. There is only a limited number of classes each year — about twenty — covering phases of natural history, agriculture, and home-making. Local exhibitions of various kinds are also encouraged and suggestions are given for making them definite and fundamental. 7. Within the last year a new phase of extension work has been under- taken by the Rural Education Department. It is known as the Junior Home-Project Work, and is analogous to the movement that in many states is known as boys' and girls' club work. In New York State there are several features of the work which are essentially different, and which seem to us important. These are: (i) that the junior home-project work, or any work of a competitive nature with boys and girls, shall be directed by the educational authorities — the state department of education and its local representatives, the district superintendents; (2) that all other agencies of whatever kind, including the College of Agriculture, shall cooperate with the educational authorities, and shall not organize such work on their own initiative; (3) that the function of the State College of Agriculture is to provide subject-matter instruction to teachers and pupils engaged in project work; (4) that, while effort is made to standardize the work for the state, there is no state organization or club in any sense of the term, for the movements are local; (5) that the work on the part of the boys and girls shall consist of a certain amount of school study plus a home project, the two to go hand in hand;^ (6) that the home project must be properly super- vised by a competent person — the district superintendent or someone designated by him; (7) that the successful completion of the work as 636 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION lAgricultural designated by the district superintendent shall entitle the child to regents' credit toward high school. The junior home-project work is limited to children in the seventh and eighth grades, or over twelve years of age, and while at any given time it will never afifect more than a small percentage of the children in rural schools, it has an important place in their educational development, especially if it grows out of a broad background of environ- mental study, or nature-study, which, as has already been stated, is the ultimate end to be attained in developing the work of natural history, agriculture, and home-making in the rural schools. Considered broadly, the use of the rural environment by the rural schools of New York State is growing quietly, steadily, and fundamentally; and the State College of Agriculture is using its resources freely to cooperate in the good work. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President— Mary E. Adkisson, teacher, East Denver High School Denver, Col. Vice-President — Isabel A. Ennis, president, Class Teachers Organization of Brooklyn, New York, N.Y. Secretary — Mary V. Donoghue, sixth-grade teacher, Stewart School Chicago, 111. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 5, 1916 The meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the Ballroom of the Hotel Astor, by Vice-President Isabel A. Ennis, who appointed Estelle M. Johnson, Richmond Hill High School, New York, N.Y., secretary. Sara Helena Fahey, teacher of English, Seward Park School, New York City, presented a paper on "Moral Education: What the School Can Do." In the discussion which followed. Miss Weeks, of Denver, emphasized the necessity of impressing upon the child the dignity of labor; and Professor Romain, of Syracuse University, urged that a distinction should be made between work that was useful and work that was simply parasitic. SECOND SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 1916 The meeting was called to order at 9: 30 a.m. by Vice-President Ennis. The following program was presented: "Teachers' Advisory Councils" — ^Thomas W. Churchill, former president, Board of Education, New York, N.Y. "Vocational Guidance thruout the School Course" — Emma L. Johnston, principal. Training School for Teachers, Brooklyn, N.Y. "Waste in Education" — ^James Fleming Hosic, head of the department of English, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111. Mr. Churchill spoke informally, outlining some of the changes which had been made in the course of study during the period that he had been a member of the board of educa- tion, and indicated that the rigidity of the course of study had been a drawback to progress in the public-school system. He gave it as his opinion that there was a greater proportion of efl&cient teachers than of eflScient lawyers, efficient doctors, or efficient ministers. He advocated greater cooperation between the teachers and the administrators. The paper by Miss Johnson was discust by Professor Romain, Miss Fahey, and Miss Ennis. The Conmiittee on Nominations consisted of: Anna Willson, principal of high school, Crawfordsville, Ind.; Jane McCarthy, elementary teacher. Public School No. 164, Brooklyn, N.Y.; Frances B. Meeks, Danville, 111.; Theresa B. Clark, Newark, N.J.; and Lonoda Newton, Denver, Col. Upon the recommendation of the committee the following officers were unanimously elected for the ensuing year: President — Sara H. Fahey, teacher of English, Public School No. 147, Brooklyn, N.Y. Vice-President — Anna Willson, principal of High School, Crawfordsville, Ind. Secretary — Mary V. Donoghue, sixth-grade teacher, Stewart School, Chicago, 111. Estelle M. Johnson, Secretary pro tern 637 638 . NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS MORAL EDUCATION: WHAT THE SCHOOL CAN DO SARA HELENA FAHEY, TEACHER OF ENGLISH, SEWARD PARK SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N.Y. In the limited time assigned to my theme I shall not attempt to present the subject of moral education in all its relations to school life. It is my purpose, rather, to emphasize the need of a revolution in our present lax attitude regarding the subject, to point out some serious obstacles to any effective scheme of moral education in our public schools, and to suggest a few lines of moral training which it is possible for the school to carry out with profit to itself and to the community of which it is a part. Education begins in babyhood. We all seem to agree that it should be simultaneously physical, mental, and moral, but because of our aversion to heated discussions on religious questions, the moral side is not strest. We eliminate God as a basis for inspiration for moral life. Reverence has given way to the moral-suasion ideal that we should be good because it is so beautiful to be good. Experience teaches us, however, that when moral crises have to be met, this ideal is not a sufficient stimulus to the ordinary human being. Some educators have assumed that the easiest way out is to leave moral education to the home and the church. They forget that, in a large number of homes, there is neither the desire, nor the intelligence, nor the time, to give children adequate moral training. Furthermore, they forget that, in our nation of over one hundred million souls, 55 per cent have not even a nominal church affiliation. The public school, therefore, is of neces- sity the great moral mentor of a majority of our people. It is of little use to deplore the growing alienation of the people from all forms of religious effort so long as a vast organization, maintained at public expense, devotes itself primarily to the physical and mental side. Young people are thus indirectly educated to undervalue moral and reli- gious life. The greatest thinkers of our age have exprest their concern regarding the evil fruits of non-moral education. Twenty-two years ago, Alexander Johnston, of Princeton, said, ''The moral quahties are developt in the same way that the bones, the muscles, and th^ mind are, by exercise. Our educational system falls short here. Every effort is made to develop the physical and mental qualities, but the moral qualities are left to take care of themselves." Last month President Hibben, of the same University, in his address to the graduates, on moral preparedness, said, "It is not the foe without, but the enervating forces within, which cause a nation to sicken and die, and this is our greatest menace." Department] MORAL EDUCATION: WHAT THE SCHOOL CAN DO 639 We rely upon the public schools to perpetuate institutions of which we are proud, institutions which have been establisht thru an immense expendi- ture of blood, and treasure, and toil. Yet when we examine the results, we begin to fear that our reliance has been misplaced. We are led to question whether the public school is really fulfilling its mission. If the moral possibihties of the public school were appreciated, the significance of compelling pupils to attend school would be seen. We boast an enrolment of over twenty-two million pupils in the public schools of the United States, yet this is Httle more than half of the actual number of children in our land from five to eighteen years of age. To be sure, many are cared for by parochial, or by private schools, but still a great number go uncared for. Furthermore, of the numbers actually enroled, about one- fourth are absent daily. Many, many young people in our country can truthfully say with Topsy, "I just grow'd up one fine morn." The morning, however, will not continue fine for them if the home and the school persist in leaving to chance their moral education. Someone has said, "Life forever keeps the keynote first struck." We know that, unless the school give positive moral training, the formation of character will be left to accident, and will be determined by the habits and ideals of those with -whom the child associates in his leisure hours. The characteristics of the street -gang chief, or of the leader in after-school play, have determined the future of many a lad. The "smartness" of clever youngsters outwitting their elders, as frequently shown in the movies, has been a stimulating ideal for the perversion of weak children. These and other untoward influences have developt among us today a class of young people who think that all morality is a farce, that religion is a myth, and that their aim should be to get all they can out of Hfe regardless of the interests of anybody else. To such people, country, flag, or God means little. We, as teachers, must set out to destroy these false ideals and to create worthy ones. We must help to establish moral and social standards for our time, and must help to influence public opinion as to the necessity for posi- tive moral education. The pivotal thought that teachers should force home to the community is the progress of the world thru proper education. The public needs much instruction on this point. The great American fetish is a superstitious reverence for book learning. Millions of hard-working fathers and mothers go without comforts to keep their boys and girls in school. The fact that they seldom ask what lessons the children are learning, aside from those found in books, makes it imperative that the school be awake to its responsibiUty. We must recognize that our age is strenuous, complex, and democratic. The individual is, perhaps, too much exalted. He finds it difficult to sub- stitute law for desire. His social instincts must be trained until racial re- sponsibiUty is developt. The public is learning, thru daily experience, that 640 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers neglected children become a menace to the world around them. This fact alone ought to make it clear that there is no economy quite so false as that which refuses to make adequate appropriations for education. The factor that miUtates most powerfully against effective moral education in the school is overcrowding. When we find, for example, that in the largest city in the world and the wealthiest city in this country, there are 836 classes of 50 pupils each, 102 1 classes of between 51 and 55, 314 classes having 55 or more pupils, and, to add to the evil, 465 classes in charge of substitutes, it at once becomes apparent that with such herding of chil- dren there can be little time or opportunity for moral training. Attention has been called to the physical harm of overcrowding, as shown by the spread of disease, to the mental evil, as exprest in retardation, but the high per- centage of moral failures among such groups has been little noted. When the numbers are so great, individuality is lost sight of. The absolute uniformity that becomes establisht is spiritually deadening. The pupils under such training actually lose the power to adjust themselves to new conditions. Another evil is an overcrowded curriculum, which makes follow-up work impossible. Teachers tend to be constantly on the jump in the class- room. A few minutes is given to one subject, and then a rush is made to another, as if the sole purpose of each successive lesson was to obliterate all traces of previous work. This practice destroys concentration of mind in the pupil. Professor William James, of Harvard University, many years ago called attention to this weakness in method when he said, " Educa- tion is preeminently a leisurely process." We should reflect seriously on this thought. Unless the teacher has time to enter into the Hfe of the chil- dren, she can do little for them in a moral sense. Another great obstacle to success in moral training is the inability of many parents to deal with moral questions that are constantly arising. This inability is especially markt in foreigners who are unable to speak our language. The influence of the parent is likely to be weakened when the family has to contend for existence in a congested American city. The parents cHng tenaciously to old customs and are slow to acquire new styles, either of clothing or of manner. The children, on the contrary, are quick to imitate. They are imprest by superficial values, and sometimes they feel ashamed that their parents are so slow. Here is the first loosening of respect and authority. The children imagine they have to blaze the trail, as it were. Undirected, they more easily acquire vicious habits than virtuous ones. Nature seems to tend that way. Another drawback to moral training is what is known as "soft peda- gogy." The aim seems to be to make children comfortable in the present, whatever the outcome in the future. It is an age of breathless rushing from one sensation to another. Children are led to think that there must be outward activity every moment, or school is dull; that unless they hke Department] MORAL EDUCATION: WHAT THE SCHOOL CAN DO 641 a subject, it is unworthy of their attention. They must be led to value the slow, silent, penetrating influence of steadiness and perseverance which makes for moral education. Another tendency of modern pedagogy is to shuffle responsibility from the child to the adult, to an alarming degree. If a child is brought before the court, the principal or teacher, rather than the delinquent, is put on trial. Finally, the reputation of the school becomes of more importance than the salvation of the child, and school officers will tolerate his wrong- doing rather than risk undeserved public censure. If all methods of correction are to be tabooed, then complete segregation of the vicious and abnormal should follow. The young rowdy should then be shown that he cannot successfully defy authority. The contrast today between the method of the school and that of the outside world, in dealing with offenders, is criminally cruel in its inconsistency. Common-sense suggests that we prepare children for what they must meet in life. They must be taught that the laws of the world are harsh, and are enforst by such penalties as failure, hunger, misery, and death. Another practice distinctly wasteful is that of keeping pupils on a general curriculum after vocational interests are aroused. This is a fre- quent cause of moral loss. Then there is the constant effort to standardize the human relations of child and teacher. The unobtrusive staying qualities, which often char- acterize the faithful, overworkt teacher, are not the first things in sight during a survey. There is often a startling contrast between paper effi- ciency and field efficiency. The efficiency of a shop can be computed when the completed product has been turned out, but it needs at least ten years after graduation for the efficiency of a school to show itself, if moral values are to be estimated in the count. It is the resulting impress left by a school upon its pupils working itself out in their future lives which determines whether a school has been truly successful. The energy wasted at the present time in the two greatest cities of our country in the search for efficient teachers could be more profitably spent in removing factors and conditions which create inefficiency. A hyper- critical attitude toward teachers tends to weaken their moral force. The prime need in moral training is the strong teacher with initiative, high ideals, broad sympathies, and education. If teachers are not encouraged to develop desirable traits of character in themselves, how can they develop them in others ? If they have no spiritual outlook, how can they recognize its value for others ? Teachers must be imbued with confidence if they are to arouse confidence. If they are forst to think of themselves as failures, how can they stimulate pupils to regard themselves as something more than failures ? I know of no better outline in ethics than that contained in the course of study for elementary schools in the city of New York. From it I quote 642 iV'^ TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers this statement: **The personality of the teacher is at the root of all moral education in the school. The teacher's poise, her self-control, ideals, and attitude toward life are inevitably reflected in the character of her pupils." If this be true, how necessary it is to eliminate as far as possible all forces that weaken this personality. We are all frail human beings, but the power we possess to cause ourselves to be idealized is the first step toward imitation by pupils. For this reason, those leaders in education who believe in vital- izing the schools by faith in the classroom teacher are rendering a distinct service to education and to youth. Then, too, in some communities the economic situation is destructive of moral ideals. The flagrant injustice which forces teachers to the courts to obtain what they have honestly earned makes teachers, and intelligent pupils too, feel that ideals of citizenship set by the school are mere theories to be exploded in real life, and that possibly education itself is not worth while. In the last analysis a community must do right, not simply preach right. If harmonious relations are destroyed, because of the attempts of the community to exploit the teachers, they cannot work with the same singleness of purpose for the good of the schools. Wherever workers have become machines in the mind of the employer, they quickly respond to the standard set. The business world is beginning to recognize this truth, and to apply a truer efficiency standard than mere output as a measure of success. And now a few words as to desirable moral traits, and to methods of developing them in the school. Habits which are merely the incidental results of school work, as punctuality, order, and neatness, while essential, do not assure us that moral life is in full vigor. The definite things to be establisht thru moral education, aside from training in useful habits for daily life, are a training to resist what is known to be evil, and a training in interests. Teachers must have in mind the characteristics necessary to a well-balanst human being. While differences of opinion exist among educators with regard to methods of teaching morals, agreement is well- nigh universal as to certain moral qualities, the absence of which makes for failure. Pupils need to have the will and the imagination thoroly developt. Then, one of the first things to teach them is a respect for useful work and for that knowledge which can be gained only thru steadfast application. Utilize school studies to teach thrift. Make pupils feel the sense of inde- pendence that comes as a result of paying one's bills. The school savings bank is a potent factor in developing this trait. Get the notion out of pupils' heads that they are entitled to an extravagant use of public money. They should be taught to care most scrupulously for books and other public property. Teach them to visualize the taxpayers. Give them some tan- gible ideas about this nebulous creature called '' the public." Train pupils in concentration for its moral value. The weakness of the ordinary man lies in being so easily diverted. Trivial social-service Department! MORAL EDUCATION: WHAT THE SCHOOL CAN DO 643 work is sometimes organized to side-track social reform. For example, overcrowding in our schools is to be cured by the duplicate school. The cor- porations that persist in endangering public health are the most active in forming safety leagues. Officials are not embarrast by these movements, while people get the illusion that the community is headed toward progress. Pupils should be trained to think of the body as a temple for the spirit. They must be ambitious to make it healthy and perfect. They should understand that nervous energy can be conserved or wasted; that, if it is diverted thru vicious habits from its proper purpose, it will eventually bring physical and moral disease, and death. Teach a sane patriotism. Pupils should be taught that there are a thousand lines of effort which demand finer courage and more intense devotion than those which center in the ordinary war. Service where our country needs us is patriotism in the best sense. This patriotism is shown in our use of the franchise and of the opportunities afforded by official position. What subjects in the school can be most effectively utihzed for moral education? As the will is synonymous with character, and becomes the starting-point, as well as the end, in all moral training, any subject or pro- cess that tends to develop the will of the student has a moral value. Historic traditions should be interpreted in a way that will help peace. Make pupils see that a pacifist is not necessarily a dove, but just somebody who has imagination — who wants to know whether the scrap is worth while, and whether the difficulty can be better settled in some other way. Effort should be made to wipe out race hatred. Train high-school pupils, when reading history, to note whether a war is waged in defense, of human liberty, or whether it is carried on because of the vaulting ambition of rulers, or the still more unrestrained ambition of plutocrats and political adventurers. Literature, however, is more fruitful than any other subject as a means of creating and stimulating worthy ideals. It opens up a wide range of moral questions that might not arise in the classroom, and yet are well within the intelligence of the child. If a bad habit is noted, a quotation to correct it should be taught. The offenders, without feeling that a personal criticism has been made, are helpt by the thought that great men and women had to combat similar weaknesses. The potency of quotations from the world's best thought, as moral helps, is recognized by the outside world. A few days ago I read a circular on ''Courtesy" posted in a station of the New Haven Railroad, signed by President Howard Elliott. The employes were shown that courtesy is a valuable asset to the road and to themselves. It closed with, ''Life is not so short but there is always time for courtesy" — (Emerson). If Mr. Elliott, with his knowledge of human nature, believed that Emerson's line strength- ened his advice to a body of men not distinguisht for literary tastes, the practice would seem to be significant for teachers. 644 N^ TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION IClassroom Teachers The greatest value that comes from this application of the ideals of great literature is that the habit is formed of communing with great minds and seeking to apply their wisdom. This practice gives young people resources for the future. The desire is created to go onward and upward — to attain perfection. "What shall I do," I askt an angel bright, "When age draws nigh?" "Then," smiled he from his height, "Keep growing." Lastly, I would say that we, as teachers, must keep growing ourselves. We must be so earnest in our desire to reach the ideals of our profession that we shall be able to make the community understand that its best invest- ment is in education. We must have the vision to see that our effort is not on bricks or marble that will crumble away; that our business is to train character and to shape human life. Your work and mine is in things eternal. Literature again points the way to the ideal in these beautiful lines: Build it well whate'er you do; Build it straight and strong and true; Build it high and clean and broad; Build it for the eye of God. i Department! VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE THRUOUT SCHOOL COURSE 645 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE THRUOUT THE SCHOOL COURSE EMMA L. JOHNSTON, PRINCIPAL, TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS, BROOKLYN, N.Y. The popular pastime of enriching the elementary-school curriculum has certain rules which those who have played the game successfully have usually followed. At its introduction the new subject is put in the hands of a specialist. The speciaHst, having the enthusiasm, the faith, the courage, the energy of the pioneer, makes a great success of his job, and convinces the school authorities and the general pubHc that the subject is indispensable; whereupon he is provided with assistants, their number increasing until in a great school system they become an important organiza- tion of teachers, one of whose objects is to obtain as much recognition and consideration for their specialty as possible. The study given by the specialists to their subject and to methods of teaching it results in a body of knowledge that is a more or less valuable contribution to the theory of the school curriculum. But sooner or later the specialists discover that without the sympathetic and intelligent cooperation of a certain other specialist they cannot apply their theories with much success. This other is the specialist in children, the name by which I like to designate the classroom teacher. The speciaHst in a subject presents a well-prepared, well-organized lesson, but after he has taken his departure, the classroom teacher sees to it that her Tom, Dick, and Harry clearly understand or intelligently practice; and she does this, not in one short lesson, but at intervals thru a long period of time. Vocational training is now in the hands of specialists, and since its field is as wide as human endeavor, it is likely to remain in their hands; but my subject is not vocational training, it is vocational guidance, and voca- tional guidance is, in most school systems, in nobody's hands. Yet voca- tional guidance is of great importance; it may be that it is as important as vocational training. Not all the misfits in the world of workers are those who have not been properly trained for their job; there are many who have chosen the job for which they could never have been properly trained. Vocational guid- ance is a more difficult work than vocational training, but all sorts and conditions of persons who would hesitate to train for any calling whatever are confident of their ability to act as vocational guides. Parents have been known to select their children's vocations as early as they have selected the children's names, and with as little deference to the children's opinions. Makers of courses of study have been known to select the same few voca- tions for ten thousand pupils with ten thousand kinds of native endowment. The reason vocations are selected for young people by their elders is that the young people are considered too inexperienst to choose for them- selves. This is where the classroom teacher, the speciaKst in children, can 646 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers be of service. She can put the children in the way of obtaining experience. She can do this without adding any subjects to the school curriculum and without increasing the already heavy burden of her own preparation. What she needs to have is a more specialized aim in her teaching. She has always meant, in general, to prepare her pupils for life; but her notion of life may have been rather vague or indefinite. Now let her think of life as the using of all one's powers for self-support, contentment, and service, and let her remember that every individual in her class is an individual with unique capacities and unique Hmitations. Here are oflfered a few suggestions regarding the way in which the class- room teacher may give her pupils some vocational guidance. It will be noted that there is nothing new in the exercises suggested. They are in general use, but they have not always been employed with the distinct purpose which is here set forth. In the first place, school children should have an opportunity to become acquainted with workers in many fields. The father of Benjamin Franklin gives parents and teachers of children a good suggestion regarding voca- tional guidance. In the Autobiography we read: At ten years old I was taken from school to assist my father in his business, which was that of a tallow-chandler and soap-boiler. I dislikt the trade and had a strong inclination for the sea; but my father declared against it. He was under apprehension that if he did not find a more agreeable trade for me I should break away and get to sea. He therefore sometimes took me to walk with him, to see joiners, bricklayers, turners, braziers, etc., at their work, that he might observe my inclination and endeavor to fix it on some trade or other on land. It has ever since been a pleasure to me to see good workmen handle their tools. The classroom teacher has many opportunities to lead her pupils to observe men and women at work. The kindergartner begins the course. Her purpose is clearly defined in her own mind. To use Miss Blow's words, " She means to select from the offerings of life those that will develop in children some faint presentiment of the beauty of universal service, some responsive feeling of gratitude, and some desire to share the work that all are doing." To this end, like Franklin's father, she takes her children to walk with her in order to observe men and women at work. The beauty of service, the duty of gratitude may be the ideas uppermost in the kinder- gartner's mind when the excursions to the bakery, the market, the smithy, the shipyard, are made; but it is the desire "to share in the work that all are doing" which is uppermost in the child's consciousness. This childish desire to engage immediately in some definite kind of important produc- tive labor is the first response to that call for service which will be sounded all thru childhood and youth for him that hath ears to hear. The call will be interpreted by the hearer in different ways, as his knowledge of the requirements of different vocations and his understanding of his own powers and limitations increase, but his teacher's constant aim will be to induce him Departmenti VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE THRUOUT SCHOOL COURSE 647 to heed the call, to try to discover for himself whence it comes, and to deter- mine as well as he can whether or not it is his call. Not kindergartners alone but teachers of all grades take their classes , on excursions to see workers at their labors. This form of school activity is so well known that it is not necessary to give instances of the variety of occupations observed by pupils above the kindergarten, nor of the many purposes served. The point to be emphasized here is that this kind of excursion, wherever employed, should be recognized as material or oppor- timity for vocational guidance. The classroom recitation or conference in which pupils give reports of their individual observations may be substituted for the class excursion and serve the same purpose. The teacher who gives the following assign- ment as an exercise in composition may have uppermost in her mind the formation of certain linguistic habits, but the pupils who make the reports, and their classmates who receive them have their minds on the occupations discust. Says the teacher, "Select the occupation you know most about, and prepare a report on it for your classmates; if possible, go where the work is being done, and prepare to describe it as an eyewitness; or else ask for information from some relative or acquaintance who is in the business. In making the report the following topics may be used: interesting features of the work; necessary outfit or equipment; kind of skill or ability required; preparation required of beginners; healthfulness; dangers; beginner's wages; opportunities for promotion." Besides being led to discover what different workers are doing, children should be encouraged to express and develop their impressions thru the activity most characteristic of childhood, namely, play. Here again the kindergartner shows the way. The young child plays everything he wants to be, and his play shows his choice of vocation for the time being. The normal child makes a new choice every day; for, like Bottom in Shake- speare's play, he desires to act each new character that is presented to him in the unfolding drama of labor, and, Hke Bottom, he believes that he [ would shine in each part. ^m Teachers of older children use vocational play, tho they do not call it ^pby this name. Such are the exercises in which "make believe" is an I element — ^playing store in the primary number class, representing the activities of a banking business in the higher-grade arithmetic class, imper- I sonating municipal government employes in the school city. Classroom dramatization frequently has forms of labor for its theme, and the school festival, especially that of Labor Day, dignifies and beautifies vocations , thru art, poetry, and music. ^K It is well known that one reason why boys and girls chafe at being " obliged to attend school is that they consider the time spent there wasted. They do not long to escape school in order that they may play, it is that they may work, that they may be about the business of life. They want to do 648 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION IClassroom Teachers something real, something worth while, something useful. In their opinion there is a great gulf fixt between school Hfe and real life. Vocational train- ing has been introduced into the curriculum in the effort to bridge that gulf; but as a result of this introduction another gulf has yawned, this one between the vocational branches and the traditional studies of the school, the so-called academic branches. It is the classroom teacher who can bridge this gulf. It is she who, thru her sympathetic attitude toward the pupil's desire to do something and to be something of importance, can make the three R's and kindred branches an indirect means of vocational guidance. She has only to see the aim clearly, to keep it ever before her mind, and she will have little difficulty in finding ways in which to reaHze her object. Every study furnishes its characteristic opportunity. Classroom teachers, it is not my purpose here to show you what any of these opportunities are. My object is merely to make this point, namely, that thru your teaching of the common branches, thru the activities connected with your classroom work and play, your pupils may come to know much of the world of labor and much of their own fitness or unfitness for the common types of vocations. WASTE IN EDUCATION JAMES FLEMING HOSIC, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, CHICAGO NORMAL COLLEGE, CHICAGO, ILL. Efficiency engineers are necessary in education as well as in building and commerce. That the applications of science have revolutionized methods of production and distribution in the world of commodities every well-informed person knows. SimpUfying the movements of the brick- layers is but one comparatively unimportant instance of what is going on thruout the world of affairs. That educators should be left behind in the race for effectiveness is not to be thought of for a moment. For some years the movement for economy in education has been gain- ing headway. Under the leadership of President Harper, President Eliot, and, later. President Baker, the movement was first of all an attempt to shorten the time necessary for obtaining a college degree. A study of the actual situation soon revealed, however, that the possibihties of economy were to be found, not so much in the higher institutions, as in the early years of schooling. Consequently, the various committees on economy including that of the National Education Association and several appointed by the states, have sought means of eliminating useless subject-matter and of strengthening the methods of the elementary schools. There need be no fear that this will result in impoverishment. The well-meant efforts of the learned specialists of the Committee of Ten resulted in overloading the grades. The result was dissipation rather than growth. We are just now seeking such simplification as will adapt the activities of Department] WASTE IN EDUCATION 649 the grades to the immature children found in them. As a contribution to the discussion of this problem I venture to suggest the following simple program for reducing waste. First of all, we must restate the aims of the school. Unless we are headed in the right direction we shall certainly fail to arrive at the goal. The older view was deeply colored with the theory of mental discipline. Pupils went to school to strengthen their minds. Added to this was some thought of the necessary rudiments of knowledge and skill as embodied particularly in reading, writing, and ciphering. The newer idea is that of growth — a natural development of latent powers and capacities. The busi- ness of the school is to provide an environment most conducive to the unfold- ing of the child's native being. To do this the school must become ;sentially an epitome of civilized Ufe, presenting its more simple aspects to ithe younger child and venturing to greater complexity year by year. The [activities of the school must take on for the child a sense of reality. The children must actually live and feel that they are living. The hope that the instruction which is being received may some day bear fruit is too vague md intangible to affect the conduct of little ones. In its place must come >ecific purposes which will result in definite access of ability. In other ^ords, the school must aim to form helpful ideals, right attitudes, and good ►ermanent interests as well as to establish habits, develop skill, and convey jeful knowledge. Secondly, in order to carry out the newer aims of the school, there must a sifting of the traditional subject-matter and the addition to it of activ- ities until recently thought to be no part of the life of the school. The >rting process is already well advanst. Anyone who will take the trouble read the Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu- ;ationy Part I, will be profoundly imprest with the progress which has been ,de. In the field of arithmetic, for example, there is a considerable lanimity in the dropping of subjects and problems which are obsolete :cause of the change in the world of business or because they are too com- >lex to be of real value. Geography and history are being analyzed from le point of view of the reader who seeks to keep himself informed about le progress of the world. Spelling lists have been reduced from ten or teen thousand words to less than a third of that number, selected w^ith reference to the actual writing vocabulary of the pupils themselves. At least half of the topics formerly dwelt upon in English grammar have been relegated to the limbo where dwelleth the gerund grinder. In composition, in the other hand, there has been a great addition to the projects under- j taken, with a careful minimizing of the accompanying theory; while in I literature there has actually come to be a fair agreement as to the selec- I tions from American and British authors and from world-literature which I ought to be made familiar to all Americans. There is every assurance that 650 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers standard subjects and will make these topics dynamic thru proper emphasis and the use of supporting details. Added to the traditional studies are handwork, music, drawing, physical education, survey of occupations, health, and the care of plants and animals. Here is an enrichment of the course on the side of motor activity and appre- ciation. These newer subjects are rich in possibilities, both on the side of practical appHcation to the work of life and on the side of culture, which is but another name for that maturity of experience and increasing sensitive- ness which enables a man to enter vicariously into the labors of others and enjoy them as tho they were his own. As a third important fact, waste in education is being eliminated thru the sociaUzation of school methods. Just as contemporary life will sug- gest what is most worth while to teach, so the life of the home and neigh- borhood will suggest the best ways of teaching it. The ''stiff and formal recitation" in which the teacher sat as daily inquisitor and played Sherlock Holmes to the more or less sparsely populated brain pans of the luckless youngsters is happily obsolescent. The idea of teaching is slowly but surely replacing the idea of examining. Learning is not now regarded as entirely synonymous with memorizing. Taking the cue from the newer functional psychology, the progressive educator of the day talks about producing changes in behavior, the formation of habits, the development of appreciation, etc. Above all, he regards the class as a group of equals who are to learn thru their mutual associations. One familiar only with the older type of rehash of the book would open his eyes in astonishment when introduced suddenly into the midst of a modern class in oral composi- tion, for example, in which the pupils were actually contributing one by one from their stores of experience for the enlightenment or entertainment of their fellows. This give-and-take of the classroom, this socialization of method, is vitalizing school work to a degree not easy to realize except as it is compared with the stilted and rigid methods of an earlier time. There is, however, the possibility that socialization of aim, subject- matter, and of method may be taken in too loose a sense, and may therefore result in a lack of continuity and thoroness. Fortunately, the tendency to more lifelike procedure in the classroom is balanst by another tendency in a very different direction. This is the tendency to apply to the results of school work far more definite and dependable tests than were available in the past. Economy is to come, furthermore, by the application of better measure- ments of results. These measurements are essentially objective in char- acter. They represent the united experience and judgment of many workers. They are freed as far as possible from idiosnycrasy and wavering moods. True, they are as yet limited. Nevertheless, the list includes such more or less valuable measures as the handwriting scales of Ayres and Thorndike, the arithmetic- tests of Courtis, the composition scales of i Department! WASTE W EDUCATION 65 1 Hillegas and of Ballou, the grammar scale of Starch, the drawing scale of Thorndike, and the reading-tests of Thomdike and of Gray. Applied hitherto mostly in the various surveys which have been carried on in the last three years, they are clearly destined to become a part of the working machinery of every progressive school administration. By means of them the judgment of the individual teacher will be clarified and steadied, and by means of them also the supervisor will be able to compare class with lass and school with school. Thus will be made possible the gathering >f a body of data that will enable us to determine whether progress is being lade and to what degree, at least in the case of the more tangible activities )f the school. Such a prospect is most gratifying when we consider that it means the removal from education of the stigma under which it has always rested, namely, that it is a matter of guesswork on the part of well-meaning ►ut rather easy-going men and women, fitted to be missionaries, but not to take any definite or business-like part in the world's work. Obviously the four factors in the program of reform thus far outlined •e dependent upon one other, which is more than ever indispensable. 'his is the teacher himself, or in America we should perhaps say, herself. 'he trained teacher is the indispensable means to advancement in education low as always — now more than ever. What the nature of that training LUst be, the factors already outlined may serve to indicate. That the teacher of children should know arithmetic, history, geography, composition, iterature, drawing, and the rest, goes without saying. But in addition to personal knowledge and skill the teacher must have professional point )f view and equipment. That this is being more and more recognized is tear from the fact that little by little the schools of the country are bemg losed to those who cannot offer themselves as specially prepared for the rork. To carry out our program of reform we must of necessity educate the constituency. Parents want their children educated, but they are obliged to ^^^depend mostly upon the teachers as to what that education shall consist of. ^^Mlost parents are certain that their own training has been inadequate. ^^Hrhey fondly hope that the school of their day, proudly announst in the real- ■■Bstate circulars as the best in the country, will do for their children much more than the little *' bulwark of freedom" at the crossroads did for them. ^K This merely passive, not to say pathetically trusting, attitude must ^Riecessarily yield to something more constructive if American schools are ever to rise to the level of their real possibilities. Teaching must be I regarded as truly a profession, and must be safeguarded as law and medi- I cine are beginning to be safeguarded. It must be recognized that teaching is a Ufe-work, not a task for girls in their teens, just out of high school, and expecting to marry any day. Something of the permanence and the dig- nity attaching to the schoolmaster of Germany and of France must some- Iow find its way into America before there will be much change for the 65 2 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers better. When there is added to sound scholarship and training in the arts a knowledge of educational psychology, of modern school methods, and the use of educational measurements, there is built up a task not to be sur- mounted in a day, nor even in a summer course at a normal school. Rigor- ous preparation is the price of success in the new education. It must be demanded by an intelligent and discriminating public, which is ready to pay the cost, recognizing that the conservation of the precious years of childhood and the development of those inborn possibilities dependent upon the proper environment for their unfolding, is at once our greatest privilege and our greatest duty. LIBRARY DEPARTMENT SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Irene Warren, librarian, University of Chicago Chicago, III. Vice-President — Casper Carl Certain, head, department of English, Cass Technical High School .... Detroit, Mich. Secretary — Grace D. Rose, librarian, Public Library Davenport, Iowa FIRST SESSION— Monday Forenoon, July 3, 1916 The Library Department met in the Auditorium of the Washington Irving High ool, and was called to order at 9:30 a.m. by President Irene Warren. Miss Warren tlined the plans which had been followed in preparing the program. Annie Carroll Moore, supervisor of children's work. New York Public Library, chair- n of the local committee, presented the following report: The ommittee of nine members representing the public libraries of Brooklyn, Queens orough, Newark, and New York, and the school libraries of the Brooklyn Training School r Teachers, the Girls' High School of Brooklyn, and the Department of Classroom libraries of the Board of Education, met once a month from January until June to con- der how it might best serve the interests of visitors to the National Education Asso- tion. The work of the committee was defined at the outset and has been divided as follows: 1. The preparation of a cooperative folder or brief handbook of library, school, and useum work of interest to teachers. The text was fumisht by the institutions included, h institution paying a proportionate amount of the cost of printing. The editing of is pamphlet was done by Alice Blanchard, of the Newark Free Public Library. 2. Thp preparation of a list of "Lists and Aids for Teachers" by Esther Davis and gnes Cowing, aided by Eflae Power of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh and the staff f the children's department of the New York Public Library. This list may be obtained m the H. W. Wilson Company. 3. The preparation of an exhibit based on this list for elementary schools. 4. The preparation of a high-school exhibit under the direction of Mary Hall. 5. Short lists on popular subjects: Camping, Photography, Plays for Children, A ew Girlhoods, Wireless Telegraphy, Adventure, etc., printed by pupils of the vocational epartments of the public schools under the direction of C. G. Leland. 6. Organization of personal service at the various exhibits and meetings. Harriet A. Wood, school librarian. Library Association, Portland, Ore., presented the port of the Committee on University and College Libraries. The following program was given: Topic: The Administration of the High-School Library "Joint Administration of the High-School Library by the Board of Education and the Public Library" — Bessie Sargeant Smith, supervisor of high-school libraries, Cleveland Public Library, Cleveland, Ohio. "General Principles Involved" — Arthur E. Bostwick, librarian, Public Library, St. Louis, Mo. "A Constructive Policy" — William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111. Discussion — Henry Legler, Public Library, Chicago, 111.; Purd B. Wright, Public Library, Kansas City, Mo.; Adah Whitcomb, Public Library, Chicago, 111.; Adelaide Zackert, Public Library, Rochester, N.Y.; Miss White, High School Library, Passaic, N.J.; S. W. Ranck, Public Library, Grand Rapids, Mich.; John B. Kaiser, Public Library, 653 Ift. 6S4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Library Tacoma, Wash.; Helen L. Price, High School Library, Oakland, Cal.; Casper C. Certain, Cass Technical High School, Detroit, Mich.; Sherman Williams, State Board of Educa- tion, Albany, N.Y. The president reviewed the general work of the department, and recommended that the chairmen of the various committees be continued from year to year, also the secretaries, as it is very diflScult to carry on consecutive work with constantly changing committees. The president appointed the following committees: Committee on Nominations Helen L. Price, High School Library, Oakland, Cal. L. Louise Smith, Lincoln Park High School, Tacoma, Wash. Patience Pegan, North Central High School Library, Denver, Col. Committee on Resolutions Willis H. Kerr, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans. Mary J. Booth, State Normal School, Charleston, 111. Sherman Williams, State Board of Education, Albany, N.Y. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 4, 19 16 The meeting was called to order by the president of the department at 9:30 a.m. in Room 213, New York Public Library. Annie Carroll Moore, chairman of the local committee, explained the various exhibits which had been provided for the benefit of the visiting librarians and teachers. The following program was presented: Topic: News from the Field "Educational Value of Bibliographic Training" — Willard Austen, librarian, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. "The Normal-School Libraries" — ^Willis Holmes Kerr, librarian. State Normal School, Emporia, Kans. Discussion— O. S. Rice, supervisor of school libraries, Madison, Wis. "Report of Committee on High-School Libraries" — Mary Hall, librarian. Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. "Report of the Elementary-School Committee" — Efl&e L. Power, supervisor of work with schools, Carnegie Library, Pittsburgh, Pa. "The Rural-School Library" — Orpha Maud Peters, assistant librarian, Public Library, Gary, Ind., and Renee B. Stern, editorial staff. Mother's Magazine, Elgin, 111. Discussion — O. S. Rice, State Board of Education, Madison, Wis.; James A. McMil- lan, University of Rochester, Rochester, N.Y.; Miss Bogle, director. Training School for Children's Librarians, Pittsburgh, Pa.; H. E. Legler, PubUc Library, Chicago, 111. THIRD SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 4, 19 16 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:30 p.m. in the Auditorium of the Washington Irving High School. The following program was presented: Topic: Source Material "Source Material in the Library" — May Massee, editor, A.L.A. Book List, Chicago, 111. Lecture Recital: " The Drama of Life in the Lyrics of the Folk " — Caroline Crawford, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y., assisted by Elizabeth Rose Fogg, New York, N.Y. The report of the Committee on Resolutions was read by W. H. Kerr, chairman, and was adopted. The Committee on Nominations recommended the election of the following officers, and the report was unanimously adopted: President— E&e L. Power, supervisor of school libraries, Carnegie Library, Pitts- Department! COMMITTEE ON COLLEGE LIBRARIES 655 Vice-President — Mary C. Richardson, librarian, Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash. Secretary — Nancy Thompson, librarian, State Normal School, Newark, N.J. The president of the department reported that the exhibits were being visited daily by hundreds of teachers who were asking help and advice of the librarians in charge, and commended the members of the local committee who had given so liberally of time and energy in providing for these exhibits. FOURTH SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 5, 19 16 The Library Department met in joint session with the Department of Secondary Education in the Auditorium of the Washington Irving High School at 9:30 a.m. The following program was given: " The Importance of the Library in the Modern High School" — WiUiam M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. "The Need of an Aggressive Campaign for Better High-School Libraries" — Charles Hughes Johnston, professor of secondary education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. "The Value of the Library to Vocational and Technical Courses in High Schools" — Walter D. Hood, principal, Gilbert School, Winsted, Conn. " The Administration and Maintenance of the High-School Library" — Mary Sullivan, department of English, Fifth Avenue High School, Pittsburgh, Pa. "Report of Library Committee" — C. C. Certain, head, department of English, Cass Technical High School, Detroit, Mich. "S)niiposium on the Uses of the Library in the Teaching of Subjects in the High School Curriculum:" "German" — Lydia M. Schmidt, German department, University High School, Uni- versity of Chicago, Chicago, 111. "French" — William L, Milwetzky, French department, Barringer High School, Newark, N.J. "Commercial Subjects" — Arthur M. Wolfson, principal, Julia Richman High School, New York, N.Y. "English" — James F. Hosic, secretary. National Council of Teachers of English, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111. The papers of this meeting appear in the section devoted to the Department of Secondary Education. Grace D. Rose, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGE LIBRARIES HARRIET A. WOOD, SCHOOL LIBRARIAN, LIBRARY ASSOCIATION, PORTLAND, ORE. This committee was organized because it was felt that the library work in our high schools depends largely upon the attitude and point of view of the teachers. It was found that many of our teachers came to us from leading uni- versities with very little idea of using a library independently themselves or of helping to train their pupils to do so. The committee recommends: 1. That every college and university should give training in the use of books and libraries in classes, including all students. 2. That there be a staff adequate to carry on this work. One of the leading universities reports in the June Public Libraries that "the increasing 656 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library number of students has made it almost impossible to set aside time for instruction in the use of the library. A small group of students is given some instruction in the library in the use of the library tools." Adequate provision for instruction in the use of books as tools should be made just as surely as adequate provision for laboratory work in science, and a senti- ment should be aroused among college libraries that will demand the neces- sary assistants. 3. As a large majority of college students teach in public schools, courses should be offered on the best books for school children in the grades and in the high schools either by the department of English, by the depart- ment of education, or by the Ubrary staff. As a part of the library exhibit, helpful outlines of college instruction in libraries are included. Attention is called to the outline prepared by Ida A. Kidder, Ubrarian of the Oregon Agricultural College. Mrs. Kidder has been carrying on this work syste- matically for a number of years and has brought it beyond the experimental stage. Lucy E. Fay has prepared an outUne that has not yet been tried. 4. Each college should provide its students with handbooks, either printed or typewritten, explaining the resources and arrangement of the library. The handbook prepared by Vassar College is an excellent example. In the library exhibit will be found a number of such handbooks for inspec- tion. 5. Special departments in colleges may add very much to the usefulness of the library by requiring the students to prepare bibliographies in proper form. The history department of Vassar College has issued two pamphlets which are an aid to the proper use of books by its students. It is the hope of this committee that the next year will see a markt advance in the introduction of systematic courses of library instruction, and that anyone interested in the subject will write to any member of the com- mittee who will be glad to make further suggestions. JOINT ADMINISTRATION OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION AND THE PUBLIC LIBRARY BESSIE SARGEANT SMITH, SUPERVISOR OF HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES, CLEVELAND PUBLIC LIBRARY, CLEVELAND, OHIO It is within the memory of many of us that public-school education consisted in learning facts which were between the covers of given textbooks, no matter how dry and seemingly without meaning for the present they might be. The pupil who most accurately and quickly learned those facts was held as the best student, and the pupil whose gift of imagination led him to venture on a new expression of the subject-matter of the textbook was reproved. I Department] JOINT ADMINISTRATION OF HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY 657 Happily for the child of today, teaching from the textbook has expanded into wide fields, and supplementary reading has grown to be a large part of the work which all progressive teachers require. This change in method has necessitated collections of books in the schools to furnish the child with this supplementary material. As this demand for supplementary reading has developt in all grades, the school Hbrary has followed of necessity. Classroom libraries have done much fine work in bringing this supple- mentary reading to the grade schools, thus laying the foundation for grade- school libraries. Where these grade-school libraries have been estabUsht, their great value has been so evident that demand for a library in every elementary school has been created. However, teachers in high schools have naturally felt most keenly this need of books to supplement their class textbooks. From this need has arisen a movement for high-school libraries resulting in their formation all over the country. It is obvious that the two factors which must be instrumental in the establishment of such high-school Hbraries, are the school and the public library. What then may we expect each to contribute to the work of the high-school library ? The school thru its teachers represents a specialized knowledge of the child, with an understanding of his needs from the kinder- garten thru the high-school age in particular relation to his learning capacity. The public library, because of its very organization, is able thru its Kbrarians to furnish a trained understanding of the way to use the world of books to the best advantage for the child. Altho the school and the public hbrary are in nearly every instance united in the administration of the high-school library, there are different ways in which the high-school library administration is workt out in various communities. Because of my familiarity with the plan of administration under the joint jurisdiction of the board of education and the pubHc library, I have been askt to discuss this plan as it is used in Cleveland. Here, in carrying out their plan of joint administration, the Board of Education furnishes the high-school libraries with their rooms and equipment, includ- ing shelving, tables and chairs, desks, exhibit cases, magazine racks, vertical files, catalog cases, and other minor articles of furniture, all of which they keep in repair. The Board of Education also buys certain books, chiefly those of a strictly reference character, such as dictionaries and encyclo- pedias, and "dupHcate" sets, rebinding them when required; also it sub- scribes for a large proportion of the magazines. The Public Library selects the high-school Ubrarian and pays her salary and that of any other assistants needed; but, in order that there may be entire agreement between them, no high-school Hbrarian is appointed by the PubUc Library before the principal of the school is consulted. The PubHc Library is represented by a supervisor with assistants,' whose duties consist primarily in unifying the work of all the hbraries, and in bringing the ideals of the public Hbrary to the knowledge of each high-school Hbrarian. 6s8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Library This is done by individual conferences and by regular joint meetings of all the high-school librarians. At these meetings the important new books of the month are inspected and reviewed, and special problems of high- school library administration are discust. The Public Library purchases the major portion of the books in all classes, repairing them at need. It also furnishes all the stationery, supplies, etc. However, speaking again of high-school-library administration in general, the chief point for our consideration is whether the combined administration justifies itself by producing better high-school libraries. To discover whether this be the fact let us analyze specific details. The library recognizes the importance of care in technical organization of the work for efficient library service, and therefore insists that its workers must have technical library training. It follows that when the public library shares the administration of the high-school hbrary, the Hbrarian has this point of view as to technical library routine, performing easily that which, to a teacher trained in other directions, is very difficult and often seems non-essential. The high-school Hbrarian stands in middle ground in relation to the pupils. She is regarded in a less formal Hght than are the teachers, and often because of this is enabled to become sufficiently acquainted with the pupils to suggest right lines of vocational work. Class instruction in the use of books is given by the high-school librarian to all freshmen. This instruction takes up the structure and care of the book, the printed parts of the book, the content and use of the dictionary and encyclopedia and a few reference books, the use of the card catalog, and the classification of the hbrary. Questions on the dictionary and encyclopedia are given each pupil, and credit is allowed by the English department for the work done. A real appreciation of the value of this work is felt by the teachers, and a spirit of cooperation is evidenst by the fact that the boys in the print- shop of our East Technical High School have been allowed to print 10,000 sheets of these questions for use in all our high-school instruction. This class instruction in the use of the hbrary given by the high-school Hbrarian is also a means of bringing her into a relationship with the pupils which affords her many chances for friendly talks or for making helpful suggestions for personal reading. The suggestions are usuaUy accepted by the pupil and a taste for good books is frequently formed in this way. The character of the high-school library should not be that of the schoolroom, but should maintain the viewpoint of a library. While teachers must look upon the matter of public education from the academic viewpoint, a high-school library should be a place where there may be less formality than in the schoolroom. Experience has shown that this sense of freedom is another aid in bringing about the closer touch needed by the boy or girl in the high Department] JOINT ADMINISTRATION OF HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY 659 school with a person of mature judgment and taste. As Miss Hall has so well said: The room may fulfil all its proper pedagogical functions as a reference collection for obtaining information, as a training school in best methods of securing that information, as a laboratory for special topic work and collateral reading in connection with the sub- jects in the curriculum, yet fail of one of its highest functions if it fail to be a place of inspiration and recreation as well. The public Hbrary, in its special technical departments, catalogs and classifies the books added to the high-school library, thus furthering the economy of high-school-library administration. The public Ubrary also has facilities for buying its books with much better advantage than has a school. It is the function of an order department of a public library to know the best ways and means to buy with the greatest economy. More- over, a public library can buy its books at all times, while often a board of education, owing to its organization, in order to procure bids, can buy only at infrequent intervals and in large quantities. This means that a book in immediate demand can be obtained only with difficulty. Many teachers testify as to the benefit their classes have received from the quick purchase by the public library of a new book which otherwise would not have been available in the time of need. All lists of books to be bought, either by the Board of Education or the Public Library, are compiled by the high-school librarian, and always include the specific titles which teachers suggest as meeting the needs of their work, as well as those suggested to the librarian by the more general needs of the school library as a whole. These lists are carefully compared with the books at the Public Library on the same subjects, that the best possible selection may be made for the school library with the funds allowed. May we not say, then, that the great contribution of the public library to the high-school library is in its function as a reservoir of books from which the high school may draw at need ? The high-school librarian, when, and because, she is a member of the public-library staff, knows more intimately the resources of the whole book-collection of the pubHc Ubrary, than could anyone not a member of the public library staff. She can therefore use the central collection more intelligently and effectively. This close affilia- tion makes possible a more discriminating selection of books for loans to the high-school library. The value of these loans for supplemental work is inestimable, as no high-school library could possibly afford to buy exten- sively books which, in many instances, are needed only for brief periods. New books may be borrowed from the public-library collection to test their usefulness, with a view of purchasing them for the high school. Such "trials" many times save buying of books which prove unwise for the par- ticular high-school library. The opportunity to borrow books from the public library keeps the high-school collection free of dead wood and makes 66o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library for a working library, live and active. A very real economy for the edu- cational funds of the community is effected on the books side; that is, needless duplication is avoided because the high-school librarian knows so well the collection of the central library and does not buy when a title borrowed temporarily from the library will serve the high-school purpose. In cases where there is more than one high-school library in the city, books may be exchanged between the school libraries. For supplying recreational reading the loans from the public library furnish an impetus which creates a lasting taste for reading and leads the boy or girl after leaving school to seek the rich stores of the public library in the way that only the lover of books knows. Lastly, books being the very tools of a public library, library workers, to fulfil their function, must have a comprehension and understanding of the world of literature thru their wide reading and specialized training, and must have the ability to evaluate those books needed for the high-school library. If "a fundamental truth is never trite," may we not once more say that the public library, the continuation school for life, can be brought to the high-school boy or girl more vitally when the librarian is herself part of that continuation school ? May we not also say the value is greatest when the public-library's reservoir of books is brought to the boy or girl by the cooperative interests of public library and public school ? GENERAL PRINCIPLES INVOLVED ARTHUR E. BOSTWICK, PUBLIC LIBRARY, ST. LOUIS, MO. Today's topic divides itself, in my mind, very sharply into two heads: (i) Shall the public library administer the high-school library ? (2) Shall it control the educational policy of that library ? Before proceeding to discuss these divisions seriatim it is only right that I should state my conviction that the second has been so worded as to create a prejudice in advance against public-library administration. The high-school library can have no educational policy apart from that of the high-school itself; and that the public library should control, or attempt to control, the educational policy of the schools is unthinkable. The way in which the subject is worded fairly creates the presumption that such con- trol is proposed, and for this reason I object to it; for I know of no such proposal. My advocacy of placing the machinery of administration under public- library control is based on the broader thesis that when various public bodies are conducting departments whose technic is identical, that technic may be profitably put in charge of the one of them that best under- stands it. Thus, when a library is conducting a training school for librarians Department) GENERAL PRINCIPLES INVOLVED 66i I believe it to be proper that the administration of the school should be intrusted to a local teaching body, where such a body is able and wiUing to undertake it. This is practically what has been done in Cleveland. Con- versely, where a school is operating a library, I believe that this library should be administered by the pubhc body that has been created for the purpose of administering libraries, that is fitted for this task by training, experience, and by the fact that it has no other aims to conflict with the proper performance of the task. I beg you to observe that where the public Ubrary is under the authority of the board of education, no one has ever proposed any other method of administration. Where that board has what is practically a Ubrary depart- ment there is no question that all the libraries under its jurisdiction should be administered by that department. Now the question is not funda- mentally changed, it seems to me, by the mere transference of the pubUc Hbrary to a separate board. The fact that objection arises as soon as this transference is made shows that it is an objection, not to the operation of school libraries by the public library authorities, but to intrusting any- thing under the jurisdiction of the board of education to what that board considers an alien body, without reference to the fact that it is an expert body. This attitude on the part of boards of education of wishing to assemble under their own jurisdiction everything that touches their work in the slightest degree is by no means confined to school libraries and has been frequently commented upon. It is doubtless a necessary attitude in instances where the city is under the rule of the ward boss and in the grasp of the spoils system — where the board of education is the only public body not permeated with graft and finds it necessary to preserve its independ- ence and liberty of action with jealous care. Complete duplication of many things may be allowable in such a situation, where, on general principles, it would be wasteful. I am assuming, of course, that this situa- tion does not exist. Where the feeling is very strong on the part of the board of education that it would be improper to let another board administer anything that goes on within its buildings, a working agreement between the two boards may solve the problem. Such an agreement is in successful operation in Portland, Ore., where school libraries are in charge of a supervisor who is an official of both boards and whose salary is paid jointly by them. One of the obvious advantages of library-control is that when such a course seems desirable the school Hbrary may function also as a branch library for the neighborhood. This plan has been successful in Cleveland, in Kansas City, in Gary, and elsewhere. There are differences of opinion about its desirability, but it certainly would not be practicable at all with ^— school libraries wholly under the control of the schools. ^H I fear, however, that I may weaken my case by seeming to rest it on ] 662 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Library them, but depends on the broad principle laid down at the beginning. What we are aiming at, of course, is to get good school libraries and to connect the habit of school reading with a general habit of reading thru life. That school libraries should be in charge of someone who has no other duties and who understands Ubrary technic, admits, I think, of no doubt. There is a priori no reason why such persons should not be employed wholly by boards of education; and they have, in notable instances, been so employed. But the fact remains that generally, where school hbraries are operated directly by school authorities, they have not been put in charge of experts and are unsatisfactorily administered. The public library is not seeking for aggrandizement, but it does beheve that it has the special knowl- edge and the machinery to reorganize and operate these unsatisfactory libraries better and more cheaply than if it were done by duplicate machin- ery and expert advice under the board of education. And the question is more than one of methods. The facts are that, still speaking generally, the public library does the work and the board of education does not. Boards of education have been accustomed for years to look on collections of books, outside of the text-book domain, as entirely subsidiary or even unnecessary. The present discussion is sufficient evidence that this point of view is chang- ing. If it is desirable that it should change completely and radically, why not allow the school libraries to be taken in charge by bodies who have had the broader view for a generation, who have thought for years in terms of libraries, and whose theory and practice is all directed toward making libraries eiGEective ? DISCUSSION Henry Legler, librarian, Chicago Public Library. — ^He reported new high-school libraries organized on the same lines as those in Cleveland. The Public Library under- took the work of organization for the Board of Education. Chicago has 22 high schools, and in the old buildings the libraries were in very small rooms, in closets, and even in cellars. In the newer buildings provision is made for large, light library rooms where the library will be administered by the Public Library. There has been cordial response and cooperation on the part of the school people. The first high school in which the library was establisht was the Carter Harrison Technical High School with large day and evening sessions, work shops, etc. The School Board appropriated $2500 for a first purchase of books. They also furnish the room and equipment, some of which is made in the school workshop. The Public Library supplies the staff of library workers, pays salaries, and buys additional books, making an annual appropriation to supplement the collection and furnishes 80 to 100 magazines. Cataloging and technical work is also done by the Library. This school library was opened in February, 19 16. In March two others were opened; a fourth will be ready in October, and plans are under way for the establishment of branch libraries in all the high schools under this same arrangement. These libraries will be for school patrons only. The cooperation and helpfulness both on the school side and on the library side is most favorable to both institutions. PuRD B. Wright, librarian, Kansas City Public Library. — It is too early to be sure that the public library is the only way of administration for high-school libraries. In ■ i Department! GENERAL PRINCIPLES INVOLVED 663 Kansas City the public library is under the control of the school board. There has been a public branch library in one high school, open for two years, and this is of great benefit to the school. It is open to a grade school and to the public after high-school hours, and connects the library with the practical as well as with the educational side of life. It has been notist that many boys and girls, when they quit school, also quit the library. When askt why, reply, "Why, I am thru school." And this is the reason why the branch and general work should be connected with the high-school libraries. Kansas City has also five branches in grade schools. Arthur E. Bostwick. — We will try the same experiment in St. Louis. Conditions differ in different cities, and what may be successful in one may fail in another. There is a large high school in St. Louis distant from any branch library and a good place where this joint-library experiment can be tried out. Adelaide Zackert, extension librarian. Public Library, Rochester, N.Y. — Rochester will try this experiment in grade schools, but not in the high-school libraries which are supported wholly by the board of education. The largest percentage of readers are chil- dren and it is difficult to get adults to come to the school and feel the same interest. Sherman Williams, supervisor of school libraries. New York State Board of Educa- tion, Albany, N.Y. — ^This discussion turns on large city high schools and their library conditions, and I know of many cities where the school is better able to help the library than the library the school. Often high school and the grades are in the same building and no such division as has been suggested is possible. The child who has not formed the reading habit before high school is reacht, seldom forms it at all. S. H. Ranck, librarian, Public Library, Grand Rapids, Mich. — Grand Rapids has had libraries in grade schools for twelve years past and has now ten, and from the educa- tional viewpoint I consider that to be the strategic point for work. The undesirable class is practically nil. The library strengthens the whole system because it does tend to bring adults to the school building. The library gives free lectures attended by adults. We have one high-school library for both the school and the community about seven minutes' walk from a branch library in a separate building. The place to serve people is where they congregate. Where there is a large foreign population they come only for the foreign books. In American neighborhoods adults do come after a little time. The free lectures help to bring them and on the slips announcing the lectures are always lists of books on the subjects which may be found at the branch library. The children also take books for their parents. School-deposit libraries are in all cases administered by the public library. A school library is valuable even near a branch and is often a nucleus sufficiently large to establish a branch, providing certain conditions can be met. New problems come up constantly, but we are extending this work with schools as rapidly as possible. We should all keep in mind the saying of Dr. L. P. Ayers, "An invincible love of reading is the most important gift that can be given to a child and both school and library should join in giving this invincible love to each child." In Grand Rapids the superintendent of schools is a member of the Board of Library Commissioners ex officio and the relations of the two boards are very close. John B. Kaiser, librarian, Public Library, Tacoma, Wash. — The library board in some cities is the final authority on budgets but often city councils decrease the budget and it may not be possible to carry on this joint work. In Tacoma a branch could not be establisht on account of the action of the council but we thought that it was better to have first a successful high-school library before making it a branch library. Bessie Sargeant Smith. — In Cleveland book lists are made out by the library and purchast by the Board of Education. 664 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library Miss White, librarian, High-School Library, Passaic, N.J. — ^In Passaic the school board pays to the public library $600 each year which is to be spent on this work and an average of $500 is spent for books for the high-school library. We think that grade- school branches are more important than high-school branches and the library work is continued from the grammar school to the high school. Helen L. Price, librarian, High-School Library, Oakland, Cal. — It is late to discuss libraries in very small high schools but this is a great problem and I hope it can be put on future programs. I visited forty such high schools last year and in many of them there was no library at all and often but from four to ten teachers. These teachers are most earnest and ask, "What can we do?" EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF BIBLIOGRAPHIC TRAINING WILLARD AUSTEN, LIBRARIAN, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N.Y. At the apex of the educational pyramid is commonly supposed to stand the scholar, the university scholar, or professor. Following in his wake comes the graduate student, in training for the scholar's position, working under his superior's direction, but reaching out into bypaths that lead from the main traveled roads. Then comes the so-called undergraduate in all stages of development. Finally comes the great group of general readers following out their free fancy, dipping into science today, literature tomor- row, liberally spiced with fiction of varying quality. Roughly cast, these are the groups of users that the library has to deal with, and the attitude of the library toward the several classes, changing as it has been, calls for a glance in passing. With regard to the great body of general readers, many of whom mentally crystallized at an early age, the task of helping them to develop into self -helpful readers has seemed in many cases well-nigh hopeless. The easiest thing for them, and, at the moment, the easiest thing for the librarian, is to find out what is wanted (not always an easy task) and put the book into the hand of the reader opened at the right page, or to learn what to him will prove an interesting novel and give it to him. This process must needs be repeated every time such readers come to the Hbrary, so that what seems the easiest method at first really involves the more expenditure of time in the case of all such readers who come with more or less frequency to the Hbrary. Thus far comparatively little is being done in most libraries to make this class of readers self- helpful, and perhaps little can be done. The feeling that many librarians have, that the public hbrarian is paid to be of service to the public leads many to decide that library assistants should go to any length in serving the public, as often as the readers reappear. The work with the school children, from the very beginning of their use of the library up to the time of entering college, and after, is a more hope- ful field. At least, it seems more worth while to teach them how to help themselves, and they are more willing to make the effort to learn. What- Department] VALUE OF BIBLIOGRAPHIC TRAINING 665 ever may be said in excuse for this practice with older readers, there is little to be said in defense of any failure to teach young readers how to use the library. Reading children are in possession of certain fundamental principles, altho we sometimes find them without a knowledge of the order of the letters of the alphabet, which is certainly a fundamental requisite in using a library, as it is in every form of mental activity, and when in possession of these the labor of giving them an insight into the general principles of using a library is small compared with the labor saved in the long run. Then the worth-whileness of doing this does not end with the economy of time to the library. We know not which of these young readers is a scholar in the making, and therefore all must be lookt upon as such and should be started in the training that plays so large a part in all higher research work, altho the ripe scholar is often slow to realize his own defect in this respect. The same principles hold true all the way up thru the college and university body. If the students have had no bibliographic training in the preparatory schools, and as yet few come to the universities who have had, then the college library must do what it can to supply this lack, realizing that a still larger percentage of college students than are found among the preparatory group are destined to be workers with books. Hitherto a large part of the work of training college students in using the library has been taken up with teaching them how to use a catalog, an index, or a cyclo- pedia, and other steps fundamental to doing anything more advanst; and until students come to the university with this preliminary preparation, such library training is inevitable. The great service that public and school libraries can do for students preparing to go to college is to teach them these preliminary steps toward more advanst research problems, to give them drill in the technic with little stress on the facts found, but all stress on the methods of finding them. In this way, when they begin their use of books in a university library it will be with some such appreciation as the musician has of his music after he has mastered the technic and has no longer to consider it. In the present crowded state of the preparatory-school curriculum and the lack of opportunity that prevents librarians from getting any syste- matic cooperation from the preparatory teachers, it is not easy to see just where such instruction can best be given. The Hbrarians know that the school teachers lack the training in the use of books that would enable them to instruct the pupils. It is maintained by some that teachers should get their bibliographic training in their college courses, but with the elective system prevaihng in nearly all our colleges, such training cannot be required, and unless room can be found for it in schools where work is required the problem cannot thus be solved. The student enters college and begins his special work in one or more groups of subjects. He is expected to gain more or less familiarity with the books on these subjects, but beyond those immediately brought to his attention, he has no time, inclination, nor 666 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library facility for getting bibliographic training. Cooperation between prepara- tory schools and college libraries may well be a subject for special atten- tion at some future discussion of our association. We now come nearer the apex of our intellectual pyramid and encounter for the first time the graduate student, one who is doing real research work, whose results are, perhaps for the first time, of some importance. To the student is assigned a piece of work, generally something that has not been fully workt out before. One of the first steps in the process is to gather his materials. To find just how much has been done by others along the same or similar lines. This calls into play the historical method. All this must be done by reference to the literature of the subject, if it has a literature, and there are few that have not. The master may know in a general way what has been done in the special field, but the investigator must find out for himself, and he goes to work. He begins with the most obvious thing, the latest authoritative work on the subject. Here he is sure to encounter, perhaps for the first time, citations to the literature of the subject, and his real difficulties begin. If he is working in science he is likely to encounter such references as Comptes Rendus, Silliman's Journal^ Poggendorfs Annalen, etc. He does not know that Comptes Rendus in science references probably refer to the reports of the Academie des Sciences y altho the same words may with equal propriety be used by other writers to refer to the Academie des inscriptions et belles lettres; he does not know that Silliman^s Journal is a loose way of referring to the American Journal of Science j started by Benjamine Silliman. If the student is working in literature or philology, then he will sooner or later encounter such references as W.Z. meaning Wiener Zeitschrift and be wholly unable to tell among at least a dozen Zeitschriften publisht at Vienna, which one is intended. And finally, a student working in the social sciences will find such refer- ences as the "Committee of Ten," or the committee of fifteen, or of seven, or some other meaningless number, and never know, until he is told, that the references are to the publications of special committees of the National Education Association or the American Historical Association whose num- ber happened to be ten or fifteen or seven. These are samples of many inaccurate and incomplete references found in the best classes of literature, that hundreds of advanst students are encountering every year. It is not too much to say that the literature of every subject is full of references to authorities that are so far from being even suggestive of the publications referred to that only a scholar of years' standing or an unusually clever reference librarian could guess what is intended by many of them. The attitude of writers making such references is well known to librarians. They argue first that because others have made such references before them, they should continue the practice. They have some of the lawyers' tenacity for following precedent. They say that all Department] VALUE OF BIBLIOGRAPHIC TRAINING 66y scholars in their field know what is intended, and, furthermore, bibliographi- cal practice should conform to the practice of scholars and not the scholar's practice to bibliographic law. They overlook the fact that the same pub- lication is cited by different writers in different ways. Witness the citations Leip. abh. Ges.y Wiss. Ahh. Sach,^ Ges. Gesell d. Leip., all intended for the same publication, viz., The Konig. Sdch. Gesell. d. Wissenschaft. Abhand- lungen. Often they do not know that the same abbreviation may be used for two entirely different works. If all scholars in a given field do recognize the usual references, which is far from being the case, they forget the hardship imposed on the rising generations of scholars who are looking up these citations for the first time. They consult the usual bibliographical lists, but fail to find anything that corresponds to their citation. In this way hours of time are wasted simply in the effort to find out what is intended by the author. These citations often bear no resemblance to the form that every bibliography worthy of the name must use to enter the work. Finally, reference to the librarian may put him right. Often it is mere guesswork with the most experienst librarian. The Umit of endurance is reacht when scholars refuse to recognize a body of bibliographic law which has grown up all unknown to them, and which has attained the same dignity of authority that the specialist claims for laws in his own field of work. It would be unjust to apply this criticism to all scholars, because many of them are conscious of their shortcomings in this direction and are wilHng to accept the bibliographer's law when it is pointed out to them, but, as yet, the number is not large and the majority will persist to the end in doing these things as their predecessors have done. Not only does this lack of knowledge work hardship to others, but the scholar himself suffers when he comes to use the great bibliographies of the world. Let me cite a recent case of a writer of many books who had occa- sion to look up the well-known history of the Civil War by the Comte de Paris y and not finding it, appealed to the Ubrarian to know why it was not in the catalog, he having lookt for it under "Comte," and of course, failed to find it. I have known an eminent classicist, familiar with all the literature of his subject, who has difficulty in finding his materials in a card catalog, particularly the learned society publications. He looks for Abhandlungefiy Sitzungberichte, Acte, and other catch words, and wonders why he does not find what he wants, never recaUing the simple rule regarding the entry of such materials he has been so often told. Now I am not telling these cases to hold anyone up to ridicule, but merely to show the real need that exists among the highest class of literary workers for a knowledge of bibliographic law. If this lack of comprehension of first principles exists among those who have spent years in looking up citations and following out chains of references, what can be expected of those just beginning the process, or still more, of those who haye never approacht the problem with ^ny serious needs ? 668 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library It will now be realized without much difficulty, I think, how great are the needs of a knowledge of bibliographic law among all classes of Hbrary- users, from the highest to the lowest, and how important it is that we train the rising generation in the right way that when they come to write books they will not follow their predecessors in the matter of citations. As yet the only workers in this field are the librarians. When the normal-school students hav.e been trained long enough to create a considerable body of teachers in our public schools with a knowledge of bibliographic law, then librarians will be strongly reinforst, granting the need for this bibliographi- cal knowledge. The problem that confronts us today is to find out what can be done to extend this instruction to the widest possible number and at the earliest possible time. As has been suggested, the elements of this instruction should be given in the preparatory schools. Two difficulties stand in the way of this. There is not room in the crowded school curriculum to add any more required courses, and the teachers are not trained to give instruc- tion in the subject. The schools that have trained librarians offer the most hopeful solution of this problem. College and university students, especially those going out to be teachers, should get this training before graduation, in order to be prepared to give instruction to their pupils. Here again the elective system that prevails in our universities, and the large number of students, prevent such instruction being required work, altho its need may be generally recognized. Every college and university should offer a systematic course in bib- liography, dealing, not alone with the several groups of books that every educated person needs to know about, but enough of the technic of classi- fication, cataloging, indexing, bookbinding, etc., to enable the student to use a library and to teach others to do so. The addition of a historical course dealing with writing, printing, illustrating, etc., is less imperative, altho decidedly valuable for the complete knowledge of the subject. In Cornell University a course covering one-half-year, two hours a week, dealing with the principles of classification, cataloging, etc., as well as the great groups of books in a systematic way, is offered to all students. The impossibility of requiring such a course in an institution with an enter- ing class of over looo students is apparent. A course in the history of writing and book-making of ancient times and printing and book-making of modern times is offered to those who have had the introductory course. A course in paleography is offered to those qualified to take it. For some years a single lecture on using the library was given at the opening of the college year to all new students. The difficulty of finding an hour for this lecture when any considerable number of students could be brought together, together with the fact that few students, so early in their Department) DISCUSSION: NORMAL SCHOOL LIBRARIES 669 college experience, realized their need of such instruction, operated to dis- courage the continuance of this practice. A handbook of general instructions for using the library is given to each student on registration. In this book an attempt is made to explain some of the more difficult parts of the catalog, together with a general statement as to the location of the main groups of books, and the general rules and regulations governing their use. Beyond this it has not been possible thus far to extend instruction in bibliography. DISCUSSION: NORMAL SCHOOL LIBRARIES O. S. Rice, state supervisor of school libraries, Madison, Wis. — ^The committees which have been formulating standards and collecting data relating to various phases of school-library work are doing pioneer service in an important field. The time is at hand when the indefiniteness surrounding the school-library problem, both in theory and prac- tice, must yield to clear-cut aims and plans carried forward with energy; the halo of good- will which surrounds this subject should be justified by good works. Standards bring about definiteness of aim and serve the double purpose of stimulating progress and of measuring the advancement made. They enable us to know "where we're at." When a standard has been set, it is likely to be subject to criticism and this leads to discussions, experiments, and modifications which result in its being more nearly fitted to the actual needs of the situation. At the same time its principles are being carried into practice on a larger scale than would otherwise be possible. The discriminating character of the questionnaire sent out by the committee whose report has been given by Mr. Kerr will of itself influence normal-school librarians to take stock of the condition and effectiveness of their respective libraries. At least an uneasi- ness will be created which only definite improvement will allay. The question relating to a children's department in the normal-school library, for example, touches a matter of vital importance, and those normal schools which do not have a children's room will at least study the question, and as a result some will establish them. I am of the opinion that a children's department should be maintained in every normal school. It is needed as a school library for the children enroled in the training school and as a laboratory for library instruction given to teachers. The questions relating to the librarians and assistants, their qualifications, pay, etc., touch a vital feature of normal-school library administration. Self-examination on the part of normal-school authorities here ought to result, in many instances, in adding to the dignity and effectiveness of the library staff. Only a few years ago the normal- school librarian's name was invariably found at the end of the list of faculty members in the annual catalog, there to dangle between the name of the latest and greenest addition to the "faculty" above and that of the "clerk," and mayhap of the janitor, below. Condi- tions as to the librarian's rank have greatly improved lately, but the proper standard has not yet been reacht in most normal schools. The teaching function of the librarian has been an effective help in obtaining for him proper consideration. I may say in passing that, owing to the teaching requirement, which is likely to increase as school- library work progresses, it would seem advisable and even necessary that the normal- school librarian should have, in addition to library training, preparation as a teacher. Not only will this questionnaire lead to self-examination on the part of the normal- school libraries, but it will also suggest profitable topics for discussion at gatherings of librarians and teachers. 670 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library Without doubt the most important part of the committee's investigation relates to the extent to which the standardized courses of study in library instruction are being used. Reference is here made to the report of the committee on standardizing the course of study in library instruction in normal schools, which reported at last year's meeting of the National Education Association, and of which Mr. Hosic was chairman. Only a very small proportion of the normal schools reporting reach that standard. We need not be surprised at this, but should feel encouraged that a start has been made, that a standard has been set. It must be borne in mind here that normal-school authorities are hard prest to find time and means adequately to prepare teachers to impart instruction in the subjects required to be taught in the elementary schools. They will therefore be hesitant about introducing standard library courses for teachers, if library lessons are not a required part of the elementary-school course. But has not the time come when lessons on the use of books and reading, including newspapers and magazines, should be made a part of the course of study in elementary schools just as definitely as geography, arithmetic, or any other traditional school subject ? President Owen, of the Chicago Normal School, in his address before this department yesterday, said that he favors a definite requirement that pupils before graduation from a high school shall prove their ability to find and organize information on any topic within the range of their powers. But most young people quit school in the grades. Shall we not, then, also make definite library requirements in the grades for the further reason that it is important to start the library habit early if it is to be fully effective ? The new watchword in education is not "training the mind," for the theory of formal discipline has lost its hold; it is not "cxilture" alone, for ideals not backt by deeds are futile; but it is preparation for life. In spite of this saner and better basis of education, the textbook to a large extent holds the fort against all comers. We give the pupils minute directions on how to use them — page by page, paragraph by paragraph, we follow them religiously; we proceed as if the child were going to consult textbooks daily thruout life. And yet we seldom, unless we are teachers, look at a textbook when school days are over. The kind of reading which is, or should be, done thruout life is represented by the school library. Logically, then, we should transfer much of the energy expended on textbooks to securing the effective use of the school library. But if the teacher needs to give such explicit directions for using textbooks, then, surely, the child needs instruction in the use of the library — a collection of books — which is a more complex situation than that represented by the textbook. Now this instruction in books and reading should be given in a definite course of study extending thru the grades. In order that this may be accomplisht the library lessons must be carefully outlined and specifically made a part of the required course. We cannot expect the teacher to prepare a textbook for her own guidance in library work any more than in geography, history, or any other traditional school subject. Real- izing this situation and finding no text of the kind on the market, the Wisconsin Depart- ment of Education had one prepared for use in the schools of the state. It is entitled Lessons on the Use of the School Library and was distributed at the beginning of last school year. Teachers receive many publications in the course of the year, and it was foreseen that, if this publication was to be used in all schools, it would be necessary to incorporate its lessons in the elementary-school course. Fortunately that course has been revised within the last few months and the lessons on the use of the school library were included with the following explanation, quoted in part: How to bring about such use of the school library on the part of pupils as will make them intelligent users of printed matter, both for reference and for general reading, is one of the most important problems of the school. In view of this fact the State Depart- Department] COMMITTEE ON HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES 671 ment of Education at the beginning of the school year 1915-16 distributed to the schools of the state a publication entitled "Lessons on the Use of the School Library." In this publication will be found definite lessons to be given in the various grades and classes of the school course The work thus outlined is an integral part of the common-school course as presented in this manual. We thus have in Wisconsin a series of library lessons thruout the grades as definitely a part of the course as the traditional subjects. Special classes are not required, since the work is distributed among the various school branches already establisht in the course. For example, the thirty lessons on the use of the dictionary, given from the third to the eighth grades, inclusive, are distributed among the reading, spelling, geography, and grammar classes. Each lesson in the course is assigned to that class to which its subject- matter is most closely related. For example, the lesson on the gazetteer in the dictionary is assigned to the geography class; the lesson on farmers' bulletins to the agriculture class; the literary reference lessons to the reading class; etc. It is difficult to see how normal schools can escape their responsibility in the prepara- tion of teachers to give such lessons, when they are specifically made a part of the elemen- tary-school course. Would it not be advisable for library workers to put much emphasis in this connection on impressing state departments of education in their respective states with the need of such a course in the elementary schools, and, as a corollary, the need of training teachers to give the library lessons effectively ? If we reverse the emphasis, we put the cart before the horse. Before library lessons can, with success, be made an obligatory part of a state course of study, however, there must be, at least, a small library in practically every school. In a growing number of states such a condition already exists. The spread of this condition to all the states, the incorporation of library lessons in the elementary course of study, and standard courses in library training in all normal schools, will constitute as great an advance in education as it has experienst in a generation of unpredecented educational progress. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES MARY E. HALL, LIBRARLA.N, GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, N.Y. The last year has been one of steady progress in the development of high-school libraries. The committee has followed closely the program of work as outlined in its 191 5 report. With the cooperation of various state and local committees and librarians of public libraries, much has been accomplisht. Our work has been greatly strengthened by the appointment of a cooperating committee on high-school libraries in the Department of Secondary Education. This committee promises great things for the future. The year has proved that each committee can made a definite contribution to the high-school library movement. That which we, as a committee of librarians, had failed to accomplish in the last five years is Ukely to be done by the new committee. In the past our greatest hindrance to progress has been the apathy of educational leaders and their lack of vision of the possibilities of the high-school library. The most important work of the new committee will be to secure the active support of school superintendents, state departments of education, high-school principals. 672 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library and boards of education. For the first time since we began this high-school library campaign in 191 1, a brief hearing on the subject was granted by the Department of Superintendence at the Detroit meeting. The Depart- ment of Secondary Education has set apart an entire session of the New York meeting for a discussion of high-school Ubrary possibilities. Our chief work this year has been along the line of the development of libraries in city high schools. Definite things have been accompHsht in the way of laying a foundation for constructive work by all committees in the country. We submit the following brief summary of what has been done: 1. Compilation of a directory of the leading high-school libraries of each state. This will be publish t in the American Library Annual , 191 5-16 (R. R. Bowker Co., 241 West Thirty-seventh Street, New York). The list will be revised and kept up to date each year. 2. A high-school library map. This has been prepared for the New York meeting of the National Education Association in order to show clearly just where the different cities stand in this reorganization of high- school libraries. By means of pins we have indicated the number of high schools in each city which are now on a modern efficiency basis and doing vital work. By the aid of the directory of high-school libraries similar maps can be prepared for exhibits at educational and library meetings. Many large cities are not yet on this map, and the lack of pins in whole sections of the country demonstrates how much is yet to be accompUsht. 3. Loan collection of architects' blueprints showing floor plans and equipment of modern high-school libraries. This has been lent to archi- tects, superintendents, and principals planning new high-school buildings or remodeling high-school library rooms. 4. Publicity work. The committee has spared no effort to bring before the public, especially the educational world, the possibiHties of the modern high-school library organized on an efficiency basis and in charge of a trained librarian. Its work has been along the following lines: a) Exhibits at educational meetings. b) Presentation of the subject at educational and Hbrary meetings. c) Articles in educational and library periodicals and in daily news- papers. d) Distribution of printed material on the high-school library. e) Compilation of a high-school library bulletin for distribution at this meeting. This was made possible by the courtesy and generosity of the H. W. Wilson Co., White Plains, N.Y. who devoted the greater part of their June bulletin to the material the committee prepared and contributed a large number of copies for distribution. During the last year the high-school Hbrary was a main topic for discus- sion at various important meetings of educational and library associations. An exhaustive library exhibit has been prepared for this meeting. Two Department! COMMITTEE ON HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES 673 large corridors and three rooms in the Washington Irving High School were assigned for this exhibit and an effort has been made to illustrate the entire work of the modern high-school library, showing its relation to each depart- ment, commercial, manual training etc., as well as academic. In the planning and preparation of this exhibit we gratefully acknowledge the help given by many teachers and Hbrarians in different parts of the country. That part of the exhibit which can be lent in the form of scrapbooks, pamph- lets, etc., will be kept by our committee as a permanent loan exhibit to be sent wherever it can be of service. There is great need at present that educational leaders be given a visible demonstration of what we mean by a modern high-school library. If they cannot actually see one in action the exhibit will prove the next best thing. For the loan of the exhibit or any section of it apply to Mary E. Hall, the Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. Borrowers are expected to pay expressage both ways. There is no further charge. PERMANENT LOAN EXHIBIT OF HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY WORK In order that leaders in the movement may know the nature of this exhibit we submit the following rough outline with the hope that it may be suggestive as to its scope and value for educational and library meetings. Librarians of high schools will also find sections suggestive to them in their own work. Planning and equipping a high-school library: 1. Collection of architects' blueprints showing floor plans of leading high-school librar- ies which are well planned and well equipt according to modem library standards. 2. Scrapbook showing photographs of interiors of high-school libraries, floor plans, etc. Aids in building up a high-school library: 1. Collection of the best printed lists of books recommended for high-school libraries. These cover all departments. 2. Scrapbook showing magazines on file in various types of high-school libraries. 3. Aids in buying pictures, lantern slides, post cards, and other illustrative material. Aids in organizing a high-school library: 1. Books and pamphlets on the administration of small libraries. 2. Scrapbook illustrating methods actually in use in different high-school libraries, changes in classification, charging system, rules, printed forms, etc. The work of a modern organized high-school library: The aim of this section of the exhibit is to illustrate as fully as possible what the modern high-school library contributes to the entire work of the modern high school. The most progressive high-school libraries in the country were askt to prepare scrapbooks fully illustrating their work. This section of the exhibit consists of the following scrapbooks at present. It will be augmented from time to time. 1. Chicago University High School. 2. Cleveland. High-school branches of the Cleveland Public Library. 3. Decatur, 111. High School. 4. Denver, Col. North Side High School. 5. East Orange, NJ. High School. 6. Grand Rapids. Central High School. 674 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library 7. Minneapolis. South Side High School. 8. Newark, N.J. Barringer High School. 9. New York City. Girls' High School, Brooklyn. 10. New York City. Julia Richman High School, New York. 11. Passaic, N.J. High-school branch of Public Library. 12. Portland, Ore. High-school branches of the Public Library. 13. Spokane, Wash. North Central High School. 14. Tyrone, Pa. High School. 15. White Plains, N.Y. High School. 16. Winsted, Conn. Gilbert School. Training high-school pupils to use a library. 1. Best pamphlets and books on this subject. 2. Scrapbook giving outlines and courses in different high schools. (Does not include courses already included in the scrapbooks made by high schools listed above.) The use of a modern high-school library by each department. 1. Art department. 2. Biology. 3. Commercial subjects. 4. Domestic science and domestic art. 5. English department. Home reading lists in various high schools. 6. English department. Oral English and the library. 7. English department. Collateral or supplementary reading for English classics. 8. Julia Richman High School. Supplementary reading list on R. L. Stevenson. 9. Scrapbook illustrating the use of magazines and newspapers in high-school English; compiled by B. A. Heydrick, High School of Commerce. 10. Hunter College High School, New York City. Scrapbook illustrating how the English department uses library aids. 11. History department, Los Angeles High School. Charts prepared by Miss Stewart to illustrate the use of a library in the teaching of history. 12. History department. Scrapbook giving history reading lists for European his- tory, ancient and modem. , 13. History department. American history and civics. Scrapbook. 14. Latin department. 15. Manual Training and Technical courses. 16. Modem languages: French, German, Spanish. 17. Vocational guidance. The report of the committee of the Department of Secondary Education which appears in the proceedings of that department should be read by those who desire to secure a good idea of the present situation of high-school libraries. In closing, the committee wishes to express its appreciation of the splendid cooperation given by Hbrarians and teachers in all parts of the country and to suggest the following new lines of work for the next year: 1. The estabHshment of a model high-school library in every college and university maintaining a school of education, where students preparing to teach in high schools may gain some knowledge of what their own high- school libraries in the future ought to be. 2. The maintenance of an exhibit of the high-school Ubrary aids in every college and university giving summer courses for teachers. If possible, Department] REPORT OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL COMMITTEE 675 an experienst high-school hbrarian should be in charge to meet teachers and principals of high schools and advise with them on the care of their small school libraries. 3. The introduction of a brief course in library methods in every college and university and that this be a required course for all prospective teachers. 4. Occasional informal conferences of trained Ubrarians in cities with teachers in charge of small high-school libraries in near-by towns. I REPORT OF THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL COMMITTEE EFFIE L. POWER, SUPERVISOR OF WORK WITH SCHOOLS, CARNEGIE LIBRARY, PITTSBURGH, PA. The Elementary-School Committee of the Library Section of the National Education Association was authorized at the St. Paul -meeting in 1 9 14 and has since been continued under the same chairman with a change in members. The first report made at the Oakland meeting was in the form of an outline of organization of departmental library work with elementary schools, and was not final. Its aim was to cover the field of library work in elementary schools in connection with public-hbrary systems in large towns and cities only, and not to encroach upon the work of the committees on rural schools nor of those on normal schools. During the last year the new committee has endeavored to develop one point in the outline submitted in 19 14; that is, the book-collection needed for departmental-Ubrary work with elementary schools. Such a collection should contain books for intensive work in literature in the classroom, supplementary reading on all class topics, but chiefly books of literature and information for children's home reading. It should differ from a collection of the same size for use by children in a library room in the following points: the standard of selection should be higher, and the number of titles less; there should be more duplicates of standard and classic books; the local-school course of study should be more fully con- sidered, and the collection should be correlated to all other collections in use in the local schools. In 1 9 14 the committee recommended five lists of books as aids toward book-selection, but was not able to find a satisfactory short Hst which could be used by libraries or schools beginning departmental-library work in ele- mentary schools on a small scale. To meet this need a tentative list of 800 books has been prepared to serve as a basis for such a collection. It con- sists of a selection of standard and classic books for children, together with a number of books on subjects in common demand. The latter have been tested and are recommended as the best available at the present time. It is the plan of the committee to extend this list to 1000 or 1200 titles arranged by grades, with descriptive notes on each book. [As long as the 676 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION . [Library supply on hand lasts, Miss Power will be glad to send a list on request. — Editor.] The committee has kept in mind the fact that any list made for general use will need to be supplemented by books of information to meet the demands of the curriculum of the individual school. The selection has also been made on the basis of a definite plan of distribution. The committee believes that the books used in the first grade should be limited to fifteen or twenty titles and that these should be duplicated to the number required. About five more titles have been allowed for the second grade. The oral presentation of selected folk-lore and poetry should be emphasized to little children, the book being introduced as a means toward the enjoyment of this literature. They should also be allowed to read some books in part, as a grown-up reads a book in a half-known foreign tongue, because their literature is often interpreted by means of pictorial illustration as well as by word symbols. Following these principles, the collections for the lower grades have not been limited to the child's capacity for classroom reading, and the books listed are not intended to be used as textbooks. The collection for grade three should be more miscellaneous in char- acter, but should be confined chiefly to folk-lore and poetry. More books of information should be included beginning with the fourth grade, emphasis being placed upon nature subjects and biography. The next expansion should come at the beginning of the seventh grade, when the number of books should be materially increast. At this age the child's love for reading stagnates, or grows by leaps and bounds, and more variations in taste are noticeable among members of groups. It is the age at which to introduce standard adult fiction and adult books of biography, history, and science. In listing the classics for children, particular attention has been applied to the selection of an attractive edition, but a cheaper one has been added in most cases. THE RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARY I. ORPHA MAUD PETERS, ASSISTANT LIBRARIAN, PUBLIC LIBRARY, GARY, IND. So much needs to be done toward placing the needs and possibilities of the rural-school library before the people that the question to be solved by the Rural-School Committee was. What is the most valuable piece of work this committee can do ? How can we best succeed in creating an interest in the rural-school library, in causing investigation as to the existing con- ditions, and at the same time get results which will be of real value in the national campaign for better school libraries ? Most people who have investigated the rural-school problem reahze the deplorable condition of the majority of these libraries, and are awakening to the fact that something must be done. What organization directs the Department! THE RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARY 677 work matters not so much as that the work be done. In any case the rural teacher plays a most important part in the rural school-library and can at least assist in its general supervision. There are those who contend that the rural teacher is too busy to bother with the library; that she has all grades and that every minute of her time is occupied by her school duties. Those who advocate this, however, are considering the library an adjunct to the school when it should be a vital factor in the school curriculum. Someone has said that the eflScient country school must be a "com- munity center of education, instructing both children and adults in terms of country life and pointing the way to community prosperity and welfare." To make the school such a community center, there must be provided, in some way, an adequate library, and the teacher should know how to judge good books and should know the fundamental principles in using and caring for them. Realizing these things, the Rural-SchooL Committee undertook as its [chief piece of work (in addition to a small rural-school exhibit) the prepara- tion of a bulletin on rural-school libraries which should serve as a handbook |for the rural teacher. Mr. Claxton, United States Commissioner of the bureau of Education, has kindly consented to print it, and it is now in his [ofl&ce awaiting publication. This bulletin, which will be distributed widely J will consist of a general survey of rural -school libraries in the United States, m article on the organization of a rural-school Hbrary, an article on chil- [dren's literature, a list of four hundred books for a rural-school library, and [a selected bibliography on the rural-school hbrary. Existing conditions in rural-school libraries are practically identical in many states. They con- sist of a collection of several hundred books in extreme need of repair, morganized and with no provision for use outside of the school building, ''or this reason, the survey is not a detailed statement of the conditions existing in each state, which would be of little value to a rural teacher, but >f what is being done in some of the states where experiments have been :ied and fruitful results have been obtained. For example, a good article is included on the county-library method which has proved so successful Jin California. The article on the organization of the rural-school Ubrary )y Helen L. Price, of the Michigan Library Commission, contains only the fundamental things which will be valuable to the rural teacher in making le school Hbrary of greater use, not only to the children, but also to the jrown people of the community. Most states issue a list of books for use connection with the course of study mapt out by the state, and therefore [the article on children's literature, written by Frances Jenkins Olcott treats )articularly (tho not entirely) of inspirational books. It also contains an mthne for a year's study, for parents and teachers, on children's books. ?he list of four hundred books for a rural-school library is based on the me-hundred-book Hst and the two-hundred-book Hst prepared by members )f former rural-school committees. In order to make the bibhography of 678 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Library the greatest value to the rural teacher, only references to articles which would be really useful have been included. To provide something which would be concise and truly a valuable tool for the rural teacher in making her school library a real factor in the life of the people of the rural community has been the aim of the Rural-School Committee. II. RENEE B. STERN, EDITORIAL STAFF, " MOTHER'S MAGAZINE," ELGIN, ILL. The opinions here stated are the outgrowth of several years' experi- ence as a librarian in charge of school deposits in connection with a large public library, and also in charge of rural libraries. The last year has brought a new angle of vision — that of the club and civic-work member of the editorial staff of the Mother^s Magazine. It is interesting to see a day's mail as it comes into that department. Here is a letter from a woman in a small town requesting a short paper on Equador, another desires material on American literature for a dozen club meetings, and here is one asking about the population of Topeka. There are many letters asking help on various phases of child-training and child-care. Now, when a woman lives on a rural route, seventeen miles from nowhere in particular, we prepare her paper for her on the theory that predigested food is better than no food at all; but, if she is within reach of a public library or a library commission, she should do her own thinking, and we send her references easily obtainable. But the fundamental lack is not with the woman so much as with the school she attended, in not training her to look upon books as tools, and then providing her with a few simple ones for her mind's use. A small library in the school, with an intelligent teacher to direct its use, will make our children mentally self-helpful, as few of them are today. Why write a thousand miles to ask the population of Topeka, when the gazetteer in the back of the dictionary at the school- house tells all about it ? More than enough for several dozen programs on American literature can be extracted from the history of Hterature owned by the average schoolhouse, and if there is an encyclopedia or school geog- raphy on the same shelf, there are the makings of a very fair paper on Equador. The trouble lies in the fact that pupils — and teachers too, some- times— fail to see that it is as necessary to teach the use of books as to teach the proper method of handling a pen or a hoe. A certain indexing firm lately set out to ascertain how many topics in the high-school course are covered by one book — Bryce's American Common- wealth— with the result that over 150 specific subjects were found in that single volume. We may not expect children to do this sort of intensive analyzing, but it well illustrates our lack of good business methods in using our school books. The by-products are wasted. No progressive business house would do that. Paraffine is a big income-producer today; a few Department) THE RURAL-SCHOOL LIBRARY 679 years ago it was a troublesome waste product, but business cannot afford waste products and so its use was found. If, by installing a dozen small libraries in our country schools, our children can be trained to use their minds in extracting information from the volume thus provided, we have added a valuable asset for after hfe when there is no teacher to provide the brains for them. Then mentahty ceases to be a by-product. Choose rather a small, well-selected library than a large collection of books without proper arrangement and supervision. Books alone are like a set of fine tools. A few bright youngsters will figure out for themselves the use of these tools, but the mass of students cannot handle them. So it is with the books — the teacher's direction is required if pupils are to get full value from them, and in a large consoHdated school, where there are special teachers, there should be a speciaHst in command of the hbrary also, [trained for her work, and ready to cooperate with the teaching force. It asking too much of a teacher to expect expert Ubrarianship in addition to ler regular training. Given the school Hbrary, children will be trained to get their own knowl- Ige. After graduation they may help their town to start a public library, that the ending of school days need not be synonymous with the ending )f education. Some three dozen of our states have state library commis- ions, while others supply books thru the state superintendent of public istruction. No two of these have identical rules, but most of them loan [books to town libraries, schools, and clubs; and some even loan to indivi- luals. Are you making use of these sources to freshen the school library dth extra-cultural reading matter for the leisure hour, to aid your students choice of vocation, or borrowing expensive reference volumes which your )wn slender funds prohibit ? Are you teaching the children how they can mtinue to borrow and use books provided by the state, or town, after [school is over, making of the library commission or the nearest town library continuation school thruout life ? If you would realize how much such training is needed, spend a week landling the mail that comes to an editorial desk. You will be surprised [by the proportion of these inquiries which the writer could answer for himself )y means of a Uttle thought, a good dictionary, an encyclopedia, and one )f the comprehensive yearbooks (Hke that issued by the New York World )r the Chicago Daily News)^ had his school taught the full value of these volumes. Not one in a hundred knows of the free publications to be >btained from the federal, state, and town governments. And one who ;eks the source finds the school rather than the individual at fault; for rhen the individual went to school he was taught to read, but he wasn't Lught to delve into books; he was taught to write, but alas! he rasn't taught to make full use of the writings of others. The people on le farms and in small towns are awakened to art, literature, and local Improvement. They want the best information obtainable on these sub- 68o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library jects, but they do not know how to get at it. The school Ubrary that will teach its pupils how to obtain information, to get literature "on the job," is the greatest source of cultural and civic improvement any community can boast. THE DRAMA OF LIFE IN THE LYRICS OF THE FOLK CAROLINE CRAWFORD, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. (Outline) While the folk-story has found wide use in education, folk music has never been presented in such a way that its great artistic, as well as educa- tional value, has been revealed. For these lyrics are, even more than the racial epics, character-studies of the human heart. They are glimpses of the great emotions that have stirred the souls of men. The first poetry of any people is always sung, and these poems present the spiritual history of the heart of man. Two sides of this history are portrayed in these lyrics: the personal and the social — man's relations to individuals; and his relation to society, nature, and God. Beginning with the music of childhood, the program continues with the dances and songs of youth and love. Then comes the music of adventure and conquest. After this, the thoughts turn inward, and there are the songs of dream and meditation, and those of sorrow and death. In the second part of this history, there are given the songs of man's communion with nature, the music of social life. And, the climax of all — the prayers and chants to the Great Spirit of Life, and the songs that reveal the birth of the Spirit, the awakening of vision in the soul. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Edward B. DeGroot, director of physical education, public schools, San Francisco, Cal. Vice-President — Baroness Rose Posse, president. Posse Normal School of Gymnastics, Boston, Mass. Secretary— Mary G. Long, supervisor of physical training, public schools Everett, Wash. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 5, 1916 The meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the DeWitt Clinton High School, with Vice-President Posse in the chair. Clara Gregory Baer, professor of physical education, Newcomb College, Tulane University, New Orleans, La., was appointed secretary pro tern. The following program was presented: "Physical Training in the Schools" — Gustave Straubenmiiller, acting city superin- tendent of schools. New York, N.Y. - "The New York System of Physical Training" — C. Ward Crampton, director, department of physical training, public schools. New York, N.Y. "Physical Training vs. Military Training" — Randall Warden, director of physical training, Newark, N.J. " Physical Training in Modern Education " — William Wirt, superintendent of schools, Gary, Ind. "A Real Field Day in a Rural District" — Orson Ryan, superintendent, Jordan School District, Midvale, Utah. " Folk Dancing and Athletics in the Education of Girls" (illustrated with folk dances) — Elizabeth Burchenal, inspector of athletics, department of education. New York, N.Y. Clara Gregory Baer, Secretary pro tern SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, July 5, 19 16 The meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m. with Vice-President Posse in the chair. H. E. Stewart, M.D., New Haven, Conn., was appointed secretary pro tern The following program was presented: "A Keynote to Physical Education" — E. H. Arnold, director. Normal School of Gymnastics, New Haven, Conn. "Physical Education from a National Standpoint" — Philander P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C. Discussion — Dudley A. Sargent, director, Henenway Gymnasium, Harvard Uni- versity, Cambridge, Mass. "The Health of College Women" — Clara Gregory Baer, professor of physical educa- tion, Newcomb College, Tulane University, New Orleans, La. "The Organization of Athletics for Girls in the Elementary Schools" — Emily A. O'Keefe, inspector of athletics for girls, public schools. New York, N.Y, . ^ "Defining the Work of Physical Training in Relation to Playground and Recreation Activities" — Rowland Haynes, secretary, Commission on Recreation, Board of Estimate and Apportionment, New York, N.Y. H. E. Stewart, Secretary pro tern 681 682 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical THIRD SESSION— Friday Afternoon, July 7, 1916 The department met in joint session with the Department of School Patrons in the Ballroom of the Hotel Waldorf-Astoria, at 2:30 p.m., with Vice-President Posse presiding. Charlotte Stewart, of Salt Lake City, was appointed secretary pro tern. The following oflScers were elected for the Department of Physical Education for the ensuing year: President — Baroness Rose Posse, president, Posse Normal School of Gjonnastics, Boston, Mass. Vice-President — C. Ward Crampton, director, department of physical training, public schools, New York, N.Y. Secretary — E. H. Arnold, director, Normal School of Gymnastics, New Haven, Conn. The following program was presented: "Sex Morality or Social Hygiene "—Mabel L. Ulrich, M.D,, St. Paul, Minn. "Social Science in the Public Schools" — Elizabeth McManus, Los Angeles, Cal. "Administration and Method in High-School Physical Training for Girls" (illus- trated by a class of 20 girls) — ^Josephine Beiderhase, assistant director of physical training, public schools, New York, N.Y. " The Boy Scouts of America " — ^James E. West, chief scout executive. New York, N.Y. These papers will appear in the section devoted to the report of the Department of School Patrons. Charlotte Stewart, Secretary pro tern PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE SCHOOLS GUSTAVE STRAUBENMULLER, ACTING CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y. As long as men were hunters, fishermen, warriors, and farmers, or followed occupations requiring suppleness of body and the exercise of a variety of muscles, there was no need of purposive training of the muscular system. Work was done in the open air, muscles were trained naturally in the round of daily Hfe, and the training was unconscious. Lack of strength and skill and endurance 'meant in those days dependence, or starvation, and contempt. As, however, life in the open air became more restricted, when people began to gather in large communities, when manufacturing began, when speciaUzation led to more processes with fewer processes for the single indi- vidual; when fewer and fewer muscles were called into play, from hour to hour, in the round of Hfe; when some muscles were overdevelopt and others neglected; when schools were establish t, restricting the free and unimpeded play of the children, then deterioration threatened the human race. It was seen that health suffered and mortality was great when the funda- mentals— good food, fresh air, sufficient sleep, and proper physical exercise — were inadequate, improperly distributed, and wantonly wasted. Thus the need of physical training to stop decay slowly began to make itself felt. Department) PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE SCHOOLS 683 Like all great movements, it asserted itself slowly, and finally reach t the schools. Great tho its progress has been in some school systems of the world, purposive training is only just beginning to take its rightful place in education. We know that the highest respect was paid to bodily eflSciency by the Persians, Greeks, and Romans. The knights of old, by virtue of their calling and aims, gave systematic attention to developing bodily strength, skill, and endurance. But there it ended. Sporadic attempts were made to introduce it in the schools by Basedow and the Philanthropines. Pestalozzi, in order to relieve the stress of mental education, introduced gymnastic exercises. Froebel advocated it. It grew out of its empirical stage a century ago in Germany, Denmark, and Sweden, yet its propagandists met with very little general encouragement. Sports were indulged in, it is true, but they usually meant exercise and benefit for the few with the neglect of the many. The writer, in his experience as pupil and teacher in the public schools, recalls the time when physical training was not thought of in connection with school children; he remembers the first gingerly approaches to it, ['when it was still regarded as a fad. He retains the memory of its final recognition, its embodiment in the course of study, and its development under the supervision of a director and special teachers. Now that it has been introduced in the city-school systems, exercises are being evolved, not only for the normal child, but also for the crippled, the mentally defective, the blind, and the deaf. There are now remedial exercises, not only for the handicapt, but also for the adult industrial worker. But why emphasize muscular training in schools and Kfe? Because [ it is said that one-quarter of the blood in the body is contained in the sub- stance of its muscles and nearly half of the body is muscular, and because man is a motor animal. What do we aim at in physical culture ? The ultimate aim, broadly stated, is the development of the race (i) by strengthening the body, (2) by safeguarding the cells of the brain in establishing an equilibrium between overworkt nerve tissues and neglected muscular ones, (3) by maintain- ing health, (4) by restoring health. But health and strength are not its only purposes; true physical training also promotes mental and moral discipline. Thus it establishes quickness of perception, it develops rapid muscular response to the dictates of the mind, it promotes good muscle habits; it fosters self-control, attention, honesty, and fairness to an opponent; lastly, it also gives pleasure. How can strength and health be developt and maintained ? How can good posture, a grace of bearing and of motion, be induced? How can joints be kept flexible? (i) By play, free and unimpeded, a great educa- tional force; by supervised play, sports, games, running, jumping, dancing, li 684 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical swimming, rowing, coasting, walking, hiking, throwing, wrestling, etc.; (2) by gymnastic exercises, including cahsthenics, and apparatus work, so graded and planned as to fit the individual, or a fairly homogeneous group; (3) by manual training, such as shop work, garden work, work at home; (4) by industrial work. By the practice of all these exercises for the muscles or the body, we are enabled to overcome physical obstacles, just as mind-training gives us the power to overcome psychical ones. But, in order that good physical habits may be acquired, and in order to make the muscles automatic agents, there must be a continuity of good training. In planning exercises we should be particularly careful not to require nor encourage such as are harmful to health. We should not allow exercises that are too strenuous, too uniform, too dangerous, and too extreme. Nor, to be efficacious, should the planned exercises be **too softy"; they should be done with snap and vigor so that every movement counts. Nor should we, in our enthusiasm, demand a disproportionate amount of school time for it. For as fatigue is very high in physical exercise, the proper place for it in the daily program is an important consideration. We should bear in mind and impress upon the pupil that muscular strength does not neces- sarily mean health, that a one-sided training should not be indulged in, that foolhardiness is not manliness, that winning in contests, sports, and games, at any expense, endangers health and morals. "Preparedness" does not consist merely in learning the manipulation of a gun and maneuvering, which can be learned in a short time. Of what use is a soldier who knows these things, but who has no physical endurance ? Physical endurance, good health, and intelligence, are far more desirable in a prospective defender of his country than a knowledge of the manual of arms. Thelatter he canlearn ina few days; the former is the resultant of years of good living and judicious exercise, that is, a proper balance of work, recreation, and muscular care. Physical-training teachers should motivate their work. The best way to get a pupil's interest aroused is to let him know "why" he is doing as well as "what" he is to do. Then he will return to the exercises again and again of his own accord, and thus he will accomplish more for himself. The child should also have the proper conditions under which to exer- cise, the proper paraphernaha, and a good gymnasium. Finally, physical-training teachers should insist upon more open-air playgrounds in order to restore to children, in a degree, opportunities for free and unimpeded play. The unnatural and restricted life in cities should be assuaged for children as far as it is possible for the teaching force to do so. Department! NEW YORK SYSTEM OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 685 THE NEW YORK SYSTEM OF PHYSICAL TRAINING C. WARD CRAMPTON, M.D., DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL TRAINING, NEW YORK PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y. The Department of Physical Training of the New York City Public Schools has three subdepartments: 1. Physical Training. — This provides for the teaching of gymnastics, games, athletics, and folk dancing to the children of the elementary, high, normal, special, and truant schools thruout the city. 2. Educational Hygiene. — This provides for the instruction in hygiene to all pupils; the inspection, investigation, and supervision of all matters per- taining to the health of pupils and teachers. 3. Athletics. — Competitive athletics for boys in running, jumping, and chinning, basket-ball, baseball, and the like, are provided after school, and folk dancing, athletics, and games for girls are given in clubs formed for the [purpose. The system of physical training used is one specially developt by the director of the department to meet New York City conditions. The typical lesson consists of introductory, corrective (postural), educational, hygienic, and recreative exercises. The introductory action is similar in purpose and content to the Swedish system. The corrective exercises, however, are different, emphasizing elevation of deprest chest, shoulders, and head, mainly by the use of static positions which are held for five or six seconds 'while stimulating elevation commands are given. Educational exercises develop subjective control, alertness, precision, and inhibition. Hygienic exercises are given to rhythmic serial commands. These are large, strong, j vigorous trunk and thigh movements calculated to stimulate circulation and develop endurance. In each lesson there appears some game or folk dance for the purpose of recreation and the development of objective control. In athletics, over two hundred school district and city athletic meets are held during the year. In addition, from twenty to thirty thousand athletic badges are awarded annually to boys who reach certain standards in running, jumping, and chinning. To get all boys into athletics, a sys- tem of interclass competition has been devised. The boys all make records in running, jumping, and chinning which are compared with others of similar classes thruout the city. A system of afternoon athletic centers for boys and girls has been introduced. One hundred and sixty- three were opened last year and the attendance exceeded four millions. For the girls, after-school instruction classes for teachers are formed. These in turn develop after-school athletic and folk-dance clubs for the '^ girls of their schools. The attendance is over twenty-five thousand. At the end of the year, festivals are held in the various parks. These are attended by over fifteen thousand. 686 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical In hygiaie, among many features of importance, a new course of study has been introduced. This provides for a daily morning hygienic inspection of every pupil, the teaching of a daily hygienic routine, the examination of the eyes by every teacher, and the supervision of a weekly lesson on the care of the health. The new state law provides for the military training of all boys between the ages of sixteen and nineteen after school for not more than three hours a week. This instruction will be conducted by specially qualified school teachers who, in New York City, have undergone military instruction in the specially organized Schoolmen's Battalion, and by officers delegated from the National Guard of the state of New York. It will probably con- sist of careful medical examination and a thoro physical and athletic train- ing as a foundation. Emphasis will be placed upon physical training and upon outdoor excursions; in addition, marksmanship and military drill will be given. The system of physical training., athletics, and hygiene of the New York schools is designed to use every possible means to make children healthful, vigorous, strong, happy, and efficient. PHYSICAL TRAINING VERSUS MILITARY TRAINING RANDALL WARDEN, DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL TRAINING, NEWARK, N.J. One should hesitate to talk on these subjects unless he knows by experi- ence what is meant by each, and the value to be derived from each kind of training. Congressmen and military experts are expressing opinions for or against one or the other of these subjects — opinions which are question- able, because these men know nothing of the conditions under which, at the present time, miHtary training or physical training must be given in our great public-school systems. It was my good fortune to be educated in Boston, where in the ele- mentary schools we had daily lessons of Swedish exercise. I was fortunate, too, in being brought up in the Young Men's Christian Association under the famous Robert J. Roberts. It was in Boston that I learned mihtary drill. As you know, this training continues to be the prescribed physical exercise for Boston high-school boys. These things I tell you as a sort of credential for my right to speak on the assigned topic. Just now our country is trying to get back to an ancient principle — namely, that one of the elements of education means training the youth of the land for national defense. The idea started two thousand years ago, and is what true physical education means in the last analsyis. The two questions therefore arise, what kind of physical training is best to make national defenders of America's school children and how Department] PHYSICAL VERSUS MILITARY TRAINING 687 shall this training be accomplisht? Can it best be done by offering physical training to the pupils, or by giving them practice in military drill ? It is a wise thing in argumentation clearly to define terms. We must understand each other when we speak of physical training or of military training. Both terms are as indefinite as the north pole. Physical train- ing is often made a farce, and to affirm that miHtary drill will make a soldier is to insult the uniform. Military drill, such as the usual platoon and company evolutions of "four's right," of "four's left in the Une," or "right forward four's right," given in the school, say two periods a week, is as puerile and useless a training toward making a soldier as could well be foisted on an already sorely confused city scholar; and by the same token, physical training, meaning exercises in the classrooms, moving arms, bend- ing trunk, raising legs, is often just as puerile and useless and fraudulent as the endeavor to make a soldier by teaching a smattering of tactics. Let me interrupt here to speak about the present status of physical training in our common schools. It seems unbelievable that most of our public-school systems have assigned in the curricula but fifteen minutes a day for physical training, when it is conceded that the product of the schools should be, to say the least, able-bodied, well-set-up citizens. When one reaHzes that this time (fifteen minutes), put in terms of days totals up in the entire school year to about forty-eight hours, one is overcome with astonishment. Think of business men countenancing an outlay of money on such a paltry subject as physical training must be, when it can be mastered in forty-eight hours a year. Can physical training do any good for the pupil where the instruction covers a period of forty-eight hours during the year ? Is fifteen minutes a day long enough time to develop delicate adjustments of the neural muscular centers, motor and sensory nerves, circulation and metaboHsm? Can curvature of the spine be corrected in the pupil in fifteen minutes' daily practice. Will fifteen minutes' training help anemia, flat foot, chicken breast, or lumbar curve ? There is a fallacy to be exploded if the public or the educators think that two days a year will correct any postural defect, and the field of physical training is infinitely larger than mere correction of physical defect. It covers exercise which will acquire and keep health and courage, dosage that wiU give a symmetry to the body and develop strength and endurance. What hope is there of preparedness if the physical efficiency of our future citizens depends upon forty-eight hours of physical training per year in the schools ? To go back to the definition of terms — we must fully understand when we speak of military training hereafter that we shall mean thoro efficient training for the soldier, training, not only in the school of the soldier, the squad, and the company, but training in camp, in the trenches, with the signal squad on scout duty, skirmishing, taking care of a gun, marksmanship, and the carrying of the soldier's pack on a test march. 688 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical So, too, let us define now what we mean by "an adequate course in physical training": it means (i) exercise tending to the acquisition of health and symmetry, (2) good carriage and correct posture, (3) perfect muscular coordination, (4) manly courage, and (5) the spirit of cooperation. These attributes will be acquired thru means of: (a) tactics, (b) free stand- ing exercises, (c) apparatus exercises, (d) group games, (e) athletics and sports. Now we have two big ideas before us: (i) the soldier, brave, resource- ful, disciplined, strong, and trained for fighting; (2) the citizens, well- rounded, living the laws of health, trained in the difficult feats of strength on the horse, bar, or ladder, individually courageous and having the spirit of team play and cooperation ingrained in character. Having these two ideas in mind, let us see what like or unlike elements will throw the choice in our public-school work for either one or the other. For the business man the element of cost will arise, to the educator the ele- ment of time will appeal, and by the philosopher the element of demand or necessity will be considered. 1. As to cost: The cost of training a soldier is perhaps little greater than the cost of giving a well-balanst course in physical training. To be sure, the various phases of soldiering require much more paraphernalia than the latter form of training; for instance, a soldier could scarcely be of much service if he did not have a uniform and a pack, and know how to put the pack together. He must have a gun and know how to clean it and keep it in order; he must have a tent and know how to set it up; he must be skilled in building fires, and the selecting camp sites where the drinking water is fit for his canteen; and in mounting guard duty at night. This would require a rifle range, a field for maneuver and an armory for winter training. Then count must be kept of the ammunition for rifle practice. 2. As to time: It will be out of the question to develop a skilled soldier in anything less than two hours a week, indeed, it ought to be an hour a day for the best results. As to the time required for a course in physical training, previously set down, thirty minutes a day is the minimum that should be allowed. Anything less will not allow of the full development of all-round strength and manhood. 3. As to necessity: Itis, however, on the third]element — that of demand — on which I shall make a deciding plea. And here I shall not maintain that we do not need soldiers; on the contrary, I insist that we do, but the thought of a nation trying to make seasoned campaigners or regulars out of inmia- ture school boys is so absurd that it is astonishing that anyone should con- sider it seriously. Even the attempt to prepare boys so that they can, after a few weeks' training, take their places in the ranks of the standing army, is unreasonable and lacking in common-sense. It is, however, per- fectly proper that boys, after they reach the age of eighteen, should be required to take up military training. At this time in life, boys are strong i Department! PHYSICAL VERSUS MILITARY TRAINING 689 enough in body and mature enough in mind to absorb some of the training wMch may be given to them, but before this time it is as absurd to try to develop soldiers and have them remember instructions as it would be to insist that all boys be given a course of medicine in the elementary or high school so that they could cure themselves of diphtheria or malaria. * - Soldiering is a mature science and requires fully developt bodies and mental and physical self-control. The smattering of the science that might be given to under-age pupils will do more harm than good. This has been proved by the experience of nations now in the throes of warfare. Both Germany and France have at different times required military train- ing in their public schools. But both nations have discontinued the prac- tice as unfavorable to the best interests of the army. Military training needs first a foundation of good health and of sturdy muscular development, and this can best be given in the gymnasium by class work on the floor, under the direction of a competent instructor; by turning on heavy apparatus, led by magnetic leaders; thru the stimulus f competition in climbing ropes and poles and ladders; by strife in indi- dual games; by the competition of the athletic field; and the influence of the coach in our great national pastimes of baseball, football, and swimming. In Boston, the oldest city in this country to provide military training in e high schools, you will find the training narrow and lacking the elements f physical development. The course teaches at best the manual of arms, e school of the soldier, the company, and the battaHon. There is no ractice in real shooting, no practice or very little in signaling, no camping, o marching, except around the auditorium, no training in the carrying of uggage, and what little physical development is given comes from carrying gun, which for the greater part of the time is carried on the right shoulder. This training is of undoubted value as a discipHnary measure, it teaches atriotism to some extent, and is effective in training careless individuals 0 work together for the sake of the personal appearance of the company. hese are strong recommendations for the subject, but on the other hand e gymnastic class under the proper teaching becomes just as strong a isciplinary measure and teaches quite as much the necessity for individuals orking together for the accomplishment of a given result as when the orders ome from a captain. The officers of the company perhaps have an advan- ge in that they get valuable training in self-reliance, judgment, tact, dig- ity, and self-control. But here again, only the fittest are chosen as officers, d they would be distinct in any line of endeavor. So, too, on the gymna- um floor, the squad-leader, while not having the advantage of the sword and niform, may become quite as efficient a leader of men as his more imposing rother. Let us take up directly the advantages of physical training over mili- tary training. The growing boy, from twelve to sixteen, is in, we say, the adolescent stage. This means he is in the formative period of his career. 690 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical He needs to learn a wide range of subjects. It is the plastic time of his life. It is the time when educators develop his powers of reasoning, and it is the time when the school should look out for the development of his physical powers. This unfortunately has not been fully realized except by some private schools. The public elementary and high schools must be brought to realize that their first duty lies in building a strong foundation for mental poise and effort. Schools are failing to do this with the present means at hand. What is needed is a thoro course in physical training with at least 150 minutes a week devoted to it. It should include, besides the gymnasium work, the teaching of swimming, and training on the athletic field. After a boy has had an elementary-school and a high-school course of this, let the military organizations of the country use such material as this will make to construct the finest army in the world. TEE HEALTH OF COLLEGE WOMEN ■ CLARA GREGORY BAER, PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, NEWCOMB COLLEGE, TULANE UNIVERSITY, NEW ORLEANS, LA. Just how far the college is responsible for the health of its students is one of the leading questions of the day. Granted that the college acknowl- edges its debt, the question still remains, does the well-equipt gymnasium and the well-organized department of physical education and hygiene accomplish all that is needed, if no direct provision be made for promoting the health of students individually, especially with those students whose general condition is below par ? We know that there exists a strong senti- ment, arising from reliable sources, against the physically unequipt student entering college at all. Just how far one is able to judge of the physical fitness of the applicant is the question (barring of course disease and deform- ity, mental and physical) . Then, too, who is willing to assume the responsi- bility of determining this fitness when the college stands for catholicity in education; when the great institutions of learning of today are saying, "Give us your boys and girls; we shall make men and women of them, strong and healthy in body, clear in mind, keen in thought, earnest in pur- pose, seK-con trolled and able to control"? What the larger opportunity has done for the college woman in teaching her the care of her health and the conservation of her powers only those who have spent years in educational institutions really know. Many of our leading women of today, who have had a childhood and youth of struggle against physical handicap and physical weakness, now acknowledge the wonderful power and opportunity given them to be the result of the fostering love and care of their Alma Mater. If education means anything at all, it means opportunity for overcoming weakness, not only of mind, but of body. We have left behind the in- i Department) THE HEALTH OF COLLEGE WOMEN 691 herited idea of college education — that it is merely a means of acquiring ceitain facts of history, language, and science. We have come to the broad concept of the dynamic, the grasp of the larger things of life by the actual doing of definite tasks, thru the education of the great motor system. Today ''hygiene" is the word that stands out beyond all others as the latest thought and purpose in education and in the upbuilding of the race. All avenues of education lead, or should lead, to efficiency. As Dr. Gold- thwait says, in concluding his Shattuck Lecture: One would certainly be a pessimist of the most profound type if he felt that the splendid work of our profession along preventive medical lines was a curse to the race by preserving the lives of the slender, or delicate, physical type, which Nature, in keeping with the law of the survival of the fittest, would have thrown off; or that the splendid work of the school and college is also harmful to the race by accentuating qualities of weakness; but such must be the fact, unless something else is added to the mere saving of the lives and to the common system of education, as it exists today. If the physician and the teacher recognize these facts and apply natural principles for the proper development of these individuals, the result must be inevitable — a stronger and a finer race. Never in the history of the world have as many intelligent influences been at work to bar the door to disease and degeneracy, and to open the gates to health by giving to men and women every opportunity to overcome inherited weakness, to fortify themselves against the inroads of modern civilization, and to enable them to join the large aristocracy of the mentally and physically fit. That the college, with reference to this matter, has one of her greatest opportunities for service is very evident. That she must take her place and do her part in the evolution of the social order of the future is also evident. The only way that she can fulfil her destiny is to stand shoulder to shoulder with the other great forces of education, working with the material at hand and making for the future a new order of man- hood and womanhood, based upon right Hving as well as high thinking. The character of specialized work in our colleges as suggested here does not refer, however, to those conditions that would be questioned as affecting the student's fitness to take up college work; but rather it is con- cerned with conditions already present, with the means employed when definite needs require specific treatment — a state of affairs brought about frequently thru the college life itself, as well as thru faulty living. Leaving out organic disease and all conditions that require medical attention, there is a gap between illness and health that can be filled by specialized gymnastics and personal attention. Between the class work of the gymnasium and the direct need of medical attention lie the mani- fold conditions wherein the student requires remedial exercise, and here it is that the physical director and the physician join forces for the student's good, working together along definite lines. The knowledge of the indi- vidual student's need, gained thru careful bodily examinations and personal histories, enables the physical director to be of peculiar service. This is especially true in our women's colleges where so much must be known of 692 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical the general health of the girl if she is to enter athletics. This, combined with the talks on personal hygiene, estabHshes a confidential relationship between student and teacher that cannot fail to work ultimate good. In the department of corrective gymnastics and personal hygiene these confi- dences are further developt as the needs of the student are more definitely ascertained and provided for. Among the conditions in our colleges requiring remedial exercises, most teachers will agree, are the following : 1. Psychic nervous conditions, sensitiveness, neuralgic headaches, fainting, insomnia, and continuous worry. 2. Defects of posture — scoHosis, kyphosis, and lordosis, drooping head, flat chest, and ptosis. 3. Defects of the respiratory organs — usually an inability to breathe normally and an utter lack of the fundamental principles of breathing; rigid chest with lack of muscular development of chest; also cases with inherited tendency to tuberculosis. 4. Derangements of the digestive organs — chief of which is constipation with its attendant ills, where frequently the student has no real understand- ing of how to remedy conditions. Here we often find a lack of practical knowledge as to diet and water and their bearing upon health and efficiency, altho lectures on dietetic hygiene have been given them during their college course. 5. Disturbances of the pelvic organs with functional irregularities. 6. Skin troubles, especially those that can be traced to constipation, diet, pelvic disturbances, and to the general lack of care of the body, due in many instances to a want of understanding of the efficient use of water as a therapeutic agent, and of the fundamental principles of personal hygiene. 7. Defects of the feet — especially flat foot. 8. Sprains, old and new. 9. Obesity, rarely serious, but affecting the student's general efficiency. During the current year the writer has had some remarkably good results from the special work referred to the department by tlie college, or the home physician, which involved a little less than 10 per cent of the total number of students registered in gymnastics, or about 58 or 60 students. This does not include the home work prescribed by the regular teachers of the gymnasium for ordinary postural defects and faulty carriage; nor does it cover all the work that might have been undertaken. These students were taken during the regular gymnastic periods. Some were assigned work additional to their regular classes in gymnastics; others were not per- mitted to take the class work at all. In addition to the cases regularly treated during the school year, the work in therapeutic gymnastics rendered temporary rehef in a number of cases. These and many other cases, not cited, of the students need from day to day, are their own greatest plea for the provision for specialized health work in our colleges. pepartmentl ATHLETICS FOR GIRLS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 693 One feels, in passing, that mention should be made of the head nurse in our college infirmaries. In this instance she has rendered valuable aid in discovering obscure cases where no definite opportunity had presented itself to acquire certain facts. [Several specific cases were cited to show the method of handling and the results secured. — Editor] We believe that the need exists. All over the country teachers of physical education are beginning to realize the full significance of special gymnastic work. For years there has been a feeling of unrest among us, a conviction that gymnastics as an educational factor was not fulfilling its great mission. A provision to reach all will go far toward the realization of one's hope for greater efficiency and service. Then let the vigorous, healthy students, those who can enter into the spirit of athletics and games, have the full benefit of the gymnasium and of its apparatus, but let us provide, also, for those who are not so constituted and who need personal super- vision and individual attention. Then we can truly feel that the health of our college women is the chief consideration, among the varied educa- tional and recreative activities of the college gymnasium. THE ORGANIZATION OF ATHLETICS FOR GIRLS IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS EMILY A. o'kEEFE, INSPECTOR OF ATHLETICS FOR GIRLS, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y. There is no longer any doubt in our minds regarding the advisability of girls taking part 'in athletics; there is no longer any doubt as to the type of athletics which girls should take part in, nor is there any longer any doubt as to the policy to pursue in conducting athletics for girls. The great problem which confronts us is how to bring athletics to every elementary-school girl of athletic age. I shall, therefore, only skim over the need of play in the form of athletics, of the kind of athletics, and the pohcy to pursue in conducting them, and tell you of our problem of organi- zation and how we are working it out in New York City. I am sure you will all admit that games played without law or order do not develop a sense of fairness in our girls, and I have observed that children like games with a certain amount of necessary restraint. The fundamental policy underlying our athletics for girls here in New York City is: 1. Athletics chosen with regard to their suitability for girls. 2. Athletics to include all girls rather than to develop a few stars. 3. Athletics in which teams rather than individuals compete. 4. No interschool competitions. 694 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical The type of athletics chosen for use by girls will be shown in the follow- ing list: walking, swimming, skating (both roller and ice), coasting, rope- skipping, folk dancing, basket-ball, end ball, captain ball, punch ball, relay races. Having workt out a poUcy and chosen kinds of athletics, the next thing to consider is how to bring these athletics to all girls in the elementary schools. For years we have depended and do still depend largely on volunteer service given us so generously by the class teachers. In exchange for instruction in the dances and games, they have consecrated their time and energy to the instruction of the children. The usual method is to organize an athletic club and meet with this club once a week. These clubs are necessarily rather small, and are often Hmited by scholarship requirements. They do not include the large mass of girls of athletic age (third year up). Out of 1500 or 2000 girls in one school, not more than 100 or 150 have been afforded athletic practice thru volunteer clubs. This is perfectly natural as there is a limit to the amount of volunteer service that can be askt of the class teachers after school hours. The relation between the teacher and children is usually a very sym- pathetic one, and the class teachers generally provide for the children what- ever is possible. We have had thousands of dollars worth of volunteer service in conducting athletics for girls, and still have to depend on it to a great extent. But it does not meet the wide demand. Two years ago we started to work out a plan to provide for athletics by estabhshing what we called athletic centers. We have operated these centers off and on for two years and a half and their success justifies our telling you of the plan. Certain schools are selected, and teachers paid by the Board of Education are put in charge to organize athletics for the children of the school from three o'clock to five-thirty. Some of these "centers" are open for five days a week, while others are open only three or two days. Any girl wishing to practice the athletic events which she has learned in her club or during her physical-training period in school is wel- come to come to the center. The centers are organized on the club plan, and all clubs are registered with the Girls' Branch Public Schools Athletic League. Each club chooses its own captain, and she in turn selects her assistants. The captains are indicated by a badge and are given charge of the records of the club. They keep a record of the attendance and of athletic activities in order that the members of the club may quaUfy for athletic pins at the end of the season. Each club chooses a significant name and color, and a group spirit is developt which makes the interclub contest interesting. The teacher inspects the playgrounds of the school and decides where the different activities can be played to the best advantage — folk dancing, for example, in some indoor yard where the piano is available, or in some outdoor space where a phonograph can be used. The punch-ball court is Department] PLAYGROUND AND RECREATION ACTIVITIES 695 markt out with paint in another part, and so on until every available space is accounted for. The next step is to plan a program assigning each club to a space for the different periods of the afternoon. The afternoon is divided into periods of a half-hour each. When the first half-hour is up, a blast of the whistle, blown by the teacher, brings all play to a standstill. The groups then pass to the next activity for which the program calls. In this way each group has an opportunity to practice several different activities during the afternoon. The afternoon is usually brought to a close by a short period of free play, roller-skating and rope-skipping in the outdoor courtyards. The children go home happy, having had an opportunity to play under proper supervision but without undue restraint. Opportunities for developing initiative and a capacity for self-direction on the part of the children are unlimited under this sort of an organization. By this organization two teachers can easily supervise several hundred children, and we have had as many as four hundred at one time in a center, all busy. We have encountered many difficulties. Different sections of the city offer their own problems. In one section it was only with the greatest difficulty that we were able to organize the girls, as they seemed to lack adhesiveness. It was an entirely new experience for them to play under the leadership of one of themselves. Whenever the teacher would leave a group it would dissolve. This was overcome however. In another section the difficulty is home cares and responsibilities. The mothers expect so much of the children that they have little or no time for play. We are solving this difficulty thru mothers' clubs and mothers' days at the centers. And so it goes, each section having its own problem. Our centers, however, are organized loosely enough to allow for the working-out of these problems. But it all costs money. With sufficient funds we could reach the great mass of girls in need of athletic practice thru athletic centers. We have increast the percentage of girls qualifying for athletic pins. In some schools where fifty or more girls used to quahfy for pins at the end of the season, now 75 per cent or 80 per cent qualify. Athletic centers seem to be the most economical means of providing athletics for all girls. DEFINING THE WORK OF PHYSICAL TRAINING IN RELATION TO PLAYGROUND AND RECREATION ACTIVITIES ROWLAND HAYNES, SECRETARY, COMMITTEE ON RECREATION, BOARD OF ESTIMATE AND APPORTIONMENT, NEW YORK, N.Y. This paper is based on the following convictions, gained from the observation of physical training and playground work in various cities thruout the country for a number of years. 696 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical 1. Physical training has a work of its own. 2. Playground and recreation work has a task distinct from that of physical training. 3. Much work now being done under the name of either physical train- ing or recreation is neither good physical training nor good recreation work because of confusion as to the task before each. 4. Correlation is possible between physical training and recreation work, but only when the different aims of each are clearly recognized. Much of the present correlation is superficial, consisting in the use of the same work- men and the same tools, rather than fundamental, consisting of a division of work with cooperation where that is possible and specialization where joint action is not possible. Because of these convictions, I ask your attention to the definition of the task of physical training and of recreation work, not as an academic exercise, but because it is necessary for us to know where we are going in order to know where we will meet and where we must part company. There would be no confusion if there were not similarities between physical training and recreation work. There is a fundamental similarity in purpose. Both are educative. Both seek to develop character. Physi- cal training does much more than build muscle. It builds will power, since psychologically will is the habit of having action follow thought. Physical training develops alertness in the way in which physical action obeys the command of the mind. Physical training develops self-respect which, in athletic terms, is a state of "feeling fit." Likewise, recreation work attempts to develop traits of character, initiative, teamwork, and abihty to meet new situations in new ways. Besides this fundamental similarity, the two are superficially alike in that both use part of the same kit of tools, namely, games. When I contrast the dull grind of stupid calisthenics, which were given me as the sole curriculum of physical training, with the enricht curriculum of physical training in the modern school, consisting of calisthenics, hygiene lectures, and game activities, I feel that we have come a long way. Because of this similarity, we are very likely to forget certain very radical differences between physical training and recreation work. A cabinet-maker is not a carpenter because both use a saw, and a physical- training worker is not a recreation leader because he uses games. On account of this confusion we are likely to have neither the physical-training worker nor the recreation worker make the most of his special field. Physical training and recreation work differ in activities, spirit, and purpose. It goes without saying that physical training has more in its kit of tools than games. It also should not need to be said that recreation work has more in its kit of tools than games, gymnastics, and athletics. Choruses, orchestras, story-telHng, dramatics, reading, moving-picture shows, social dancing, pageants, all are methods of work essential to a com- Department! PLAYGROUND AND RECREATION ACTIVITIES 697 plete recreation program, which have no particular value for physical training. The two differ in spirit. A man may be an excellent physical-training worker, and still lack characteristics which are demanded in recreation work. Thus I remember being taken around in one city to see the play- ground work under the school system. In one school I was led to a basement playroom where a man with an excellent turnverein training was giving a group of boys a wand drill, followed by a session with the chest weights. It was good physical training, but I had to stretch my imagination to the breaking point to see where it was play or recreation. I have had gym- nastic work myself, and the amount of zest in pulling chest weights I found to be distinctly Umited. In another city I visited a physical-training man's class in folk dancing. He had certain spots markt on the gymnasium floor. Each movement in the folk dance was analyzed. The music was sedate, if not mournful. Everything was done with precision and correct- ness and with about as much spontaneity as a street-car conductor ringing up fares. It was good physical training. The class was learning poise and self-control. They were having the joy of doing something just right, which in these slipshod days is immensely worth while. But the spirit of play was entirely lacking. I went into another class led by a real recrea- tion worker where the same folk dance was being given. The music had so much spirit in it that you couldn't keep your feet still and the children ; were laughing for the sheer fun in it. The two differ in purpose. Physical training has a man-sized job on its hands in combating the sedentary conditions of modern life. Its pur- I poses are to build muscle, to train muscular coordinations, to overcome [physical defects, especially of posture, to develop traits of character which 'come thru muscular control. Recreation work also has a man-sized job I in developing leisure time from a Hability into an asset. The failure to recognize these differences is hurting physical training [by crowding out, in the short time allowed to it, certain necessary develop- ments which it should make in connection with the physical examination !of children, and training in hygiene. Failure to recognize these differences is hurting recreation work because it is permitting games to be called [recreation work even if conducted without any knowledge of neighbor- lood conditions and without any analysis of the recreation needs of the [particular neighborhood in which the work is being done. The school is now changing into an institution which is trying to learn [the haK-conscious ideals of the society of our time and to interpret those ideals to that society. A good teacher, as we all know, does not try to turn I out the children from his class like so many bricks, all stampt in the same mold, but tries to find out what are the best capabilities in each youngster and to develop those individual capacities. The school as an institution is awakening to the fact that it is the teacher of society, that society as its i 698 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical pupil must be treated, in each generation, as a teacher of individuals in a classroom adapts the work to individual capacities. In this new conception of education for this generation both physical training and recreation work have a part to play. Physical training is to relate itself to the new era of preventive medicine in its hygiene work. Physical training in the United States is to relate itseK to that preparedness which is essential to a nation in the midst of international burglars, by furnish- ing the inescapable foundation on which all preparedness training must be based. On the other hand, recreation has its part to play in utilizing the unused educational asset of after-school, after-work time and in stopping the educational leak whereby the children outside of school form habits which waste much of their school training. Recreation work must play its part by molding together alien interests by having the people of differ- ent neighborhoods join in common purposes in their recreation life. As physical-training workers or recreation workers, we can render the best service to the subject to which we are devoting our lives if we make the correlation between these, not the superficial correlation of workmen and tools, but the fundamental correlation of division of labor between two specialized tasks. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — ^James E. Peabody, head, department of biology, Morris High School, New York, N.Y. Vice-President— WiLLUM Hedrice, head, department of science, McKinley High School, Washington, D.C. Secretary — ^John C. Packard, head, department of science. High School Brooklyn, N.Y. FIRST SESSION— Monday Forenoon, July 3, 19 16 The department met in joint session with the Chemistry Teachers' Association of New York, and was called to order by Henry T. Weed, Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, N.Y., at 9:30 a.m., in the Washington Irving High School. The following program was presented: "Applied Chemistry in Secondary Schools" — Chester B. Curtis, principal, Central High School, St. Louis, Mo. "Method in the Teaching of Chemistry" — W. G. Whitman, science department. State Normal School, Salem, Mass. "The New York State Syllabus of Applied Chemistry "—William J. Hancock, Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. "Household Chemistry for Girls" — Harold A. Holly, Manual Training High S hool, Brooklyn, N.Y. "What Elementary Science Needs" — Charles S. Palmer, fellow, Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, Pa. Summary of Session — W. A. Estabrooke, chemistry department, College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y. On motion of John A. Randall, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y., the chair was author- ized to appoint a committee of three to consider a course in chemistry adapted to those students who do not expect to go to college, and the chair named as such committee, WiUiam J. Hancock, Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.; Frank Huested, High School, Albany, N.Y.; B. W. Peet, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.; Chester B. Curtis, Principal, Central High School, St. Louis, Mo. Announcements were made concerning the excursions in the afternoon. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 4, 1916 The department met in joint session with the Physics Club of New York City and the Eastern Association of Physics Teachers. The meeting was called to order at 9:45 a.m. by John C. Packard, High School, Brookline, Mass. The following program was presented: "The Relation of General Science to Later Courses in Physics and Chemistry" — Lewis Elhuff, George Westinghouse High School, Pittsburgh, Pa. "The Relation of the Bureau of Standards to Physical Research and to the Teaching of Physics" — Frank A. WoLff, associate physicist, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. "Applied Science in the College Course" — Robert H. Spahr, State Department of University Extension, Boston, Mass. "Local Industries as a Source of Illustrative Material for Science Teaching" (illus- trated)— Clarence M. Hall, Central High School, Springfield, Mass. 699 700 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science The discussion was formally opened by Raymond B. Brownlee, Stuyresant High School, New York, N.Y., and was continued informally by F. D. Barber, State Normal College, Normal, 111; W. H. Timbie, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass.; C. R. Mann, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.; A. L. Williston, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass.; R. A. Wetzell, College of City of New York, New York, N.Y. Announcements were made concerning the excursions of the afternoon. THIRD SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July s, 1916 The department met in joint session with the New York State Scien'ce Teachers' Association, the New Jersey State Science Teachers' Association, and the Association of Biology Teachers of New York. The meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. by H. Morgan Campbell, High School, Bayonne, N.J. The following program was presented: "The Conservation of Natural Resources thru Education" — Leon W. Goldrich, principal. Public School No. 62, Manhattan, N.Y. "Studying Fungi as a Pastime" (illustrated) — W. A. Murrill, assistant director, New York Botanical Garden, New York, N.Y. "General Science in Secondary Schools" — Thomas H. Briggs, assistant professor of education. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Report of Committee on Biology — W. H. Eddy, High School of Commerce, New York, N.Y. The discussion was formally opened by M. C. Leonard, Dickinson High School, Jersey City, N.J., and was continued by William Grady, Public School No. 64, New York, N.Y.; Fred D. Barber, Normal University, Normal, 111.; Lewis Elhuff, George Westinghouse, High School, Pittsburgh, Pa.; C. C. Kohl, New York University, New York, N.Y.; W. H. Kilpatrick, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. On motion of J. A. Randall, the Science Council was directed to appoint a committee on biology and a committee to coordinate the work of aU the science committees. Announcements were made concerning the afternoon excursions. FOURTH SESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July 6, 19 16 The meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. by Arthur L. Williston, principal, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass. The following program was presented: "Method in Science-Teaching" — ^John Dewey, professor of philosophy, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "Training of Science Teachers" (a symposium) — C. H. Robison, Normal School, Upper Montclair, N.J.; C. H. Elliott, Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N.J.; Geo. H. Sherwood, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N.Y.; C. F. Hale, New York College, Albany, N.Y.; Thomas M. Balliet, New York University, New York, N.Y. Discussion — M. C. Leonard, Dickinson High School, Jersey City, N.J.; N. A. Harvey, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.; M. L. Stone, Manual Training High School^ Brooklyn, N.Y.; William W. Clennin, Wadleigh High School, New York, N.Y.; C. R. Mann, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. W. H. Timbie, for the Committee on Resolutions, presented the foUowing resolutions, which were unanimously adopted: Whereas, There is a never-ceasing demand for the introduction of new materials into the curriculum, to prepare the pupil to take his place in our complex modem life; and Whereas, Much time and effort on the part of both pupils and teachers in our schools would be saved by the early substitution of the international metric system for our cus- tomary system of weights and measures; and Whereas, This wasted time and effort constitute an enormous loss, estimated as aggregating hundreds of millions of dollars each year, to the people of the United States; therefore be it Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 701 Resolved, That the Science Department of the National Education Association respectfully recommends to the Congress of the United States that the substitution above referred to be made obligatory, reasonable time being allowed for the necessary adjustment, and that copies of this resolution be sent to the members of the Committee on Resolutions of the National Education Association, to the President of the United States Senate, and to the Speaker of the House of Representatives; and be it further Resolved, That the Science Department of the National Education Association express its obligation to its friends for the great pleasure and profit derived from the many entertainments which have been provided by them in such abundance. The report of the Committee on Improvement of Physics Teaching was made by J. A. Randall. On motion of C. F. Hale, State College for Teachers, Albany, N.Y., it was decided that all officers of the Science Department elected in future, including the present officers, be made permanent members of the Science Council. On motion of Miss Mullen, Washington Irving High School, New York, N.Y., the Science Council was instructed to appoint a committee of the coordination of the different sciences into a four-year course. On motion of W. H. Timbie, Went worth Institute, Boston, Mass., the Science Council was instructed to appoint a committee on the training of science teachers, the com- mittee to use the report of the Biology Committee as a basis, and to outline a definite program of action. The following were elected officers for the ensuing year: President — W. H. Timbie, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass. Vice-President — Chester B. Curtis, Central High School, St. Louis, Mo. Secretary — Fred D. Barber, Normal University, Normal, 111. FIFTH SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 7, 1916 This meeting was held under the direction of the Committee of Visual Instruction and was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the American Museum of Natural History, by Edward W. Stitt, district superintendent of Schools, New York, N.Y. The following program was presented: "The Importance of Visual Instruction" — Edward W. Stitt, district superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y. "The Value and Importance of the School Museum" — C. G. Rathmann, assistant superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo. "Collection, Organization, and Circulation of Visual Aids to Instruction by State Bureaus" — ^A. W. Abrams, chief, Visual Instruction Division, State Education Depart- ment, Albany, N.Y. "The Museum as the New Force in Public-School Development" — Henry F. Osborn, president, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N.Y. "Can the Moving Picture That Imparts Information Be Used to Educate?" — Louise Connolly, education expert, Newark Museum Association, Newark, N.J. "Motion Pictures to Aid the Educator" — A. H. Saunders, director, scientific educa- tion department, Cushing-Perine Company, New York, N.Y. Discussion — Clarence M. Abbott, assistant secretary. National Board of Review of Motion Pictures, New York, N.Y. At the conclusion of the meeting luncheon was served in the Philippine and South Sea Island rooms, thru the courtesy of the president and the board of trustees. Following the luncheon Sir Douglas Mawson's bird and animal motion pictures were shown by the courtesy of Lee Keedick. John C. Packard, Secretary 702 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS APPLIED CHEMISTRY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS CHESTER B. CURTIS, PRINCIPAL, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MO. Chemistry is essentially a practical science. Thru this agency only, or thru its aid as an ally of other sciences, the industrial, engineering, and medical problems of the world are being solved. It is a pragmatic science. To the layman, chemistry is an enigma; to the student, a body of theories, of laws to be rediscovered, and of historic experiments to be performed; to the manufacturer, the engineer, and the physician, it is a means to an end. As ordinarily presented to high-school pupils, chemistry is intended to be both an informational and a cultural subject. It was originally admitted to a place in high-school programs on the assumption that it would contribute something to the pupil's mental structure in the way of dis- cipline and knowledge. It came nearly in the form of pure science, relieved only to the extent of the descriptive matter and the simple experiments which were necessary as illustration of the theories and principles under discussion. Fortunately, chemistry is, first of all, an experimental, observa- tional science. This very inherent characteristic of its pedagogy saved the day. It still is, and must ever be, true that the best learning comes from doing; that the purpose of learning is doing; and that knowledge is of value just to the extent that it can be put to use in the needs of daily life. I, therefore, take thie pragmatic rather than the cultural point of view in the teaching of high-school chemistry. Indeed, chemistry taught with reference to its usefulness will include the cultural as an essential and valuable by-product; but if taught as an informational and cultural subject only, the very result which is most desired will lack those cultural factors which are supplied by examples of applied chemistry. I would not convey the idea that in secondary-school teaching we can omit the descriptive and the theoretical phases of chemistry. Not at all. These features are fundamental in any course, but they must be used with discretion. My contention is not for less theory and for fewer principles, but for the proper use of theory, the correct use of principles, and for an extension of the knowledge acquired, to its application in some concrete illustration by processes as nearly as possible those of technical chemistry. Chemistry as generally taught today does not satisfy. The trouble is not with nature, her laws, and principles; not with the tools of pure science; not with the mutual processes required for its enjoyment or mastery. Fundamentally our trouble is pedagogical. We have not properly adjusted the material at hand to the varying needs of our pupils. It is in part a question of vitalized presentation; in part, of practical application. Applied chemistry, as such, must wait upon the acquisition of fundamental principles and largely occupy the latter part of the course. Departmentl APPLIED CHEMISTRY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 703 But from the first day the teacher of chemistry should hold before his class the intensely practical aspects of the subject. Many pupils approach the study with the query "What's the use of chemistry?" Our first duty is to answer that question. The first day or two may well be spent in an enumeration and a brief discussion of the industries and their products in which chemistry is a factor. Pupils should make their contribution to the discussion from the objects and processes observed in and about the home, the street, the school. This unconscious vitalizing of the subject is a peda- gogical asset of rare value. It is the first step toward inspirational teaching. It should be continued at frequent intervals, by a period set apart as the instructor's hour — or "stunt," if you please — in which he may perform an experiment, give an illustrated lecture, or talk of the most recent practical appHcation of the science. Pupils have an increast respect for an instructor whose mastery of a subject is evident. In such an hour illustrations should be, not only up to date, but up to the minute. Wonderment should be created and satisfied. Demonstrations should be striking and skilfully performed. Pupils should be able to use chemical formulas and equations intelli- gently, and to apply them arithmetically in the solution of problems and projects. The usual course in high-school chemistry stops at this point — a blind-alley course. Just as the student is ready to use his tools of chemical science in a practical way, he lays them aside. The best training in chem- istry, as in mechanics, is obtained on the productive, or creative, side. QuaHties of analysis can be given to advantage if they too be considered as tools for use. Gas- and water-analysis are practical and not beyond the ability of high-school pupils of the upper years. Ammonia, its compounds, and solution mixtures as cleansing agents for paints, fabrics, and glassware, is an interesting field. Books on technical formulas should be used freely and experimentally. A study of ores, pigments, and paints is practical and commercial. A paint mill is an inexpensive acquisition to a laboratory equipment. But the work on paints should be carried to the point of mix- ing, and of application to small surfaces of different materials as finisht products. A comparison of different pigments of similar appearance, such as zinc and white and powdered silica, is valuable as a practical problem. The use of substitutes for pure paints is illuminating, at least. All the industries of a community should be investigated from the standpoint of a chemical survey, and pupils of the higher classes should have some part and responsibility in the work. The use of commercial formulas for the frosting of electric-light bulbs could profitably replace the old-time glass-plate fluorine-etching experi- ments. Other suggestions are the preparation of pure carbon from the k destructive distillation of sugar; the products resulting from the fractionat- ing of oils; the study of flash points; and the preparation of salts, in crystal. 704 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Science the making of chemical salts, mostly useful, with the attendant problems of atomic and molecular weights, balancing of equations, the weighing of ingredients, the preparation and execution of the processes involved, the purification, crystallization, drying, weighing, bottling, and labeling, of the finisht product, even to the name of the student, is an experience of rare value to young people. Photography, bleaching, tanning, and the study of baking powders are other good fields of practical work. Such a program for chemistry would necessitate an increast time- allotment to seven or ten periods per week for two or three years. With the coming of the senior high school this arrangement will be entirely practical. With the present tendency toward a few major subjects of three years each, and several minor subjects for varied culture and information, applied chemistry would fill a need and furnish opportunities for boys and girls who have no intention of attending college. Even with our present traditional 8-4 plan, such a course for high-school pupils would be, not only practical, but a boon to those whom it would aid in finding themselves. Boys who are permitted by law to leave school at fourteen or sixteen years of age may now attend night school and obtain, by free election, valuable technical courses which would not be possible in the day-school program. Moreover, the tremendous appeal of the night school, thru its practical courses, points the true method of retaining pupils in school. Hence I plead for changes in curriculum, such that courses and subjects may be provided which shall be adapted to the practical needs and to the capacities and interests of high-school students of chemistry. METHOD IN THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY— AN ABSTRACT W. G; whitman, science department, state normal school, SALEM, MASS. The one important thing to be considered in any course of study is the need of the pupil. The needs of the college-preparatory pupils and of the vocational pupils are well taken care of in the chemistry courses offered for these classes of pupils. But there is a third class — and this is the largest group — who finish their formal schooling with the high school, and who wish a general practical knowledge of chemistry as it touches their everyday lives. It is for this third group that we need to reconstruct our high-school chemistry course. The chemistry of formulas, equations, laws, problems, and theories, which so delights the enthusiastic teacher chemist, frequently arouses enthusiasm in the pupil; but the discourse on these subjects by the pupil at home does not spread the contagion to the parents. Some teachers have dared to break away from tradition and are teaching a minimum amount of the abstruse chemistry and a maximum of the concrete, practical, living chemistry. Where we formerly taught experimentally the Department] NEW YORK SYLLABUS OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY 705 volumetric and gravimetric composition of water, we now teach tests for purity of water, and treatment of contaminated water. Formerly, we never studied milk in a chemistry course; now we not only make an exten- sive study of it as a food-product, but even have pupils use the Babcock tester to see whether the cow at home had better be sold to the butcher. Where we formerly taught the principles involved in dyeing, we now teach how to dye faded garments, ribbons, and neckties. Where we formerly held strictly to pure science, we now admit — even strive — to coordinate the practical arts with the chemical principles. We formerly outlined a severe course which no appeal could change; now we court suggestions from outside our departments, and are governed to some extent by the attitude taken by the parents. It is a very good test of a chemistry course, planned for the general student, to see whether a pupil's account of what he is learning arouses the parent's interest. For this practical and useful chemistry the project method of study seems most suitable, and it is already used successfully in a number of schools. THE NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY WILLIAM J. HANCOCK, ERASMUS HALL HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, N.Y. Pursuant to the meeting of the New York State Science Teachers' Association in December, 1913, a committee was organized to consider the revision of the Science Syllabi. This committee decided to present two syllabi to the State Science Teachers' Association, one on general chemistry, the other on applied chemistry, and, if approved by the Association, to recommend the syllabi for adoption by the New York State Department of Education. Practically no adverse criticisms of the Syllabus in General Chemistry have been brought to my attention, but the so-called Syllabus in Applied Chemistry has been highly commended by some and severely criticized by others; I will therefore confine my remarks to this latter syllabus. The content of the Syllabus in Applied Chemistry begins, as other chemistry syllabi have often commenst, with the topic "Physical and Chemical Changes." The notion of chemical change is far from being easy for many beginners to grasp. The idea of an element losing its identity by entering into combination with another element is new to them and they feel that the oxygen, for example, of the compound must be in the compound as oxygen. Next, quite an extended study of the compound, water, is suggested. During that study the pupil is expected to gain an apprehension of the meaning of the terms "chemical decomposition," "element," '-'compound," "solution," and "suspension." He is also expected to acquire knowledge concerning methods used for obtaining hygienically pure water, and for 7o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science increasing the chemical purity of water. The preparation, properties, and uses of oxygen and hydrogen, the elements obtained from water, are next studied. The formation of a few oxids by the combination of such elements as magnesium and sulphur with oxygen, by burning the elements first in pure oxygen and then in air, is made use of to illustrate the formation of com- pounds by synthesis, and to give the pupil reason to believe that air contains oxygen. The topics combustion, slow oxidation, and spontaneous com- bustion follow the formation of the oxids by the direct combination of elements with oxygen. The condition necessary for burning to continue, and methods of putting out fires by the removal of one or more of the con- ditions necessary for combustion, give an extremely practical turn to the topic of combustion. Next come heat-distribution, heat-appliances — such as the Bunsen burner, gas stoves, heating stoves, the kitchen range, etc.; lighting-appUances — such as the fishtail burner, the Welsbach burner, the acetylene burner, and the oil lamp. A student who has made a careful study of the construction of a kitchen range and understands the scientific reason for each step taken during the building and regulation of a fire in it, has acquired knowledge that evoke as much mental ability during its acquirement as the committal to memory of the customary equation for the reaction between copper and nitric acid. But I must hasten on. The next portion of the syllabus has to do with weight relations, the law of definite proportions, the law of multiple pro- portions, atomic weights, molecular weights, valence, nomenclature, simple chemical formulas, equations, and problems involving weight relations. Then follows the replacement of one element by another, leading to the notion of an acid as a compound containing hydrogen replaceable by a metal. Hydrochloric acid is prepared and studied as a substance possessing the characteristic properties of an acid. The bases, sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide, are prepared and studied as examples of soluble bases. An alkali is defined as a base or a compound yielding a base in the presence of water. The following topics are of a general nature and were selected because they were closely related to everyday life. Common uses and methods for cleaning the household metals, aluminum, copper, silver, and gold, are to be studied. A knowledge of protective coatings for iron, galvanized iron, tin plate, and enameled ware is expected. The alloys, brass, bronze, solder, and fusible alloys are considered. Three allotropic forms of carbon and their uses are studied, and con- siderable time is devoted to the preparation and properties of carbon dioxid and carbon monoxid and the practical uses of these compounds. A study is to be made of substances used as fuels; of the textile fibers, cotton, linen, wool, and silk; of common cleansing agents, including soap, Department] NEW YORK SYLLABUS OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY 707 ammonia water, washing soda, borax, and the grease solvents, gasoline, benzole, and carbon tetrachloride. During this study the action of soap with hard water is brought out. The household germicides, hydrogen peroxide, h)^ochlorites, carbolic acid, formaldehyde, and mercuric chloride are mentioned because the committee felt that a knowledge of the nature of these substances would tend to decrease the large number of accidents that have occurred from a lack of such knowledge. The germicides mentioned are common ones, and the public should be educated concerning their use, reliability, and keeping properties, and warned against the careless handling and storage of some of them. The remainder of the syllabus — about one-tenth of it — ^has to do with foods. The food requirements of the body, and a knowledge of what constitutes a balanst ration — topics that are receiving more and more attention as the cost of living increases and the relation of food to health is becoming better understood — receive due consideration. Is the course merely an informational course ? I answer, most decidedly, ''no." It contains material for all of the equation writing and problem work that the average boy or girl of fifteen or sixteen years of age can master. Lastly we come to the most vital question, How does the course work in practice? In answering this question, I can only cite my experience with classes at the Erasmus Hall High School. The course has become establisht so that it is one of the features of the school. During the last term one teacher and one adult from outside the school were permitted to enter the class. These persons are today firm believers in the kind of work being done. We are conducting a college-preparatory course in chemistry and the course in applied chemistry. Of the two courses, I much prefer that in applied chemistry, but best results are obtained when the course in applied chemistry is followed by a course in physics, and this by the college- entrance course in chemistry. There is considerable enthusiasm over the making, and especially the discharge, of a chemical fire-extinguisher. Pupils will handle equations and problems in connection with it that would not otherwise appeal to them. When mother pronounces that a sample of baking powder made by Johnnie in the chemical laboratory is the best she ever used, chemical stock goes up in Johnnie's home, and Johnnie commits to memory the formulas for tartaric acid and cream of tartar, writes the equation for the reaction between sodium bicarbonate and cream of tartar, and calculates the weight of one compound that reacts with a given weight of the other. The alcohoHc fermentation of molasses can be used in connection with the equations for the inversion of cane sugar and the production of carbon dioxid and alcohol from the fermentable sugars thus produced. Pupils 7o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science like to test for carbon dioxid, and enjoy obtaining alcohol from the fermented* liquid. The preparation of a soap that is pronounst good at home helps over the difficult formulas for esters and the saponification equations. Later the pupil comes to understand why certain waters are hard. When the pupil finds that he can detect the presence of cotton in a piece of flannel supposed to be wool, and learns to distinguish between silk and luster cellulose, chemistry appears to be of practical value. And so we might continue with the large number of practical illustrations that combine practical information with sound mental discipline. Yes, I believe in applied chemistry. May it live long, and prosper! WHAT ELEMENTARY SCIENCE NEEDS CHARLES S. PALMER, FELLOW IN MELLON INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH, PITTSBURGH, PA. Some twenty or thirty years ago we science people had a somewhat lively scrimmage with some of our shortsighted classical friends against whom we have no grudge, for we have no quarrel with broad education. But, in brief, we did succeed in establishing in the curriculum of prepara- tory and high schools this safe course, as a starter, namely: after one year of general introductory science, such as physical geography, or the like, then one year each of elementary physics, elementary chemistry, elemen- tary biology, or related work, and preferably in this order. Now this has workt well, but it is not all. We have still everything to do, in advancing new standards, and in adopting our ideals to practical needs and conditions. We are often hampered by local conditions, and by being " sewed up " between the limitations of public-school predicaments and college requirements. We used to dream of more specialization in natural science in the prepar- atory and high schools — specialization such as that relating to Greek, Latin, and mathematics, where at least three years were devoted to each subject, and they did get results. But we were not sure which science — physics, chemistry, or biology — was the natural fundamental science; nor did we know whether the time had come for such specialization. President EHot, of Harvard, used to tell me: "Yes, you are right in looking ahead for more specialization in science in secondary schools, but you will have to wait for another generation to see it generally adopted and accomphsht." And the prophet was right. Each age has its possibilities and its limitations in possible progress. Each age, after a safe, conservative growth is then ready for further progress. It seems that just about now is the psycho- logical moment for further advance. But what is the special line of advance? What particular science is best suited for intensive specialization of three years in the preparatory. Department! WHAT ELEMENTARY SCIENCE NEEDS 709 secondary, and high schools ? — such speciaUzation as used to be applied to Greek, Latin, and mathematics, and such as is now coming to be practical also in English, German, or French. Now, it has come as a vision to many of us in the last nervous awakening months of world-history that the first subject of attack is the study of things, substances, and kinds of matter, and that is chemistry. And our question is answered. From now onward we should aim to specialize in chemistry, as the science of the secondary schools. Formerly we were in doubt. We did not wish to cut off all physics, tho beyond the elements it does become too mathematical for high-school students. For the student who goes on to college and university, we hear the clear call, " More chemistry." Equally — but a thousand times more insistently — for the student who cannot go beyond the high school we hear the same ill, "More chemistry." Let us then be thankful that our problem is so Lsily simpHfied. There is no conflict here between the interests of the )reparatory and the high-school student. Their claims are the same. But, specifically, what do we mean by " More chemistry " ? Does it not lean the following scheme for a three-year high-school course everywhere ? 1. A year of continuation and possible extension of our present course in general elementary inorganic chemistry; lecture, laboratory, recitation. 2. A year of the elements of good organic chemistry; lecture, laboratory, recitation. 3. A year of analysis, mainly qualitative, but just enough of a quanti- ttive character toward the end to perfect the crude qualitative notions and lethods; lecture, laboratory, recitation. And over all, above all, and thru all must be given continual parallels id illustrations from the practical and useful side. This must be empha- sed. (Note the use of such books as Weed's Chemistry of the Home, as [valuable reading.) Theory and practice must go hand in hand in all this general, analytical, and organic chemistry. With it all may well be given )me of the more definite and simple results of newer physical chemistry, 10 most of that may well be left to the more mature and thoro college rork, which will then be in good shape, and free further to train students ready started in the elements. But some may say, "Why all this general, organic, and analytical chem- >try in the high school ? Why rob the college of its quota ? " The answer simple : College is already loaded and overloaded with its burden, growing, lot only out of inorganic, organic, and analytical advance, but also from the lany phases of physical chemistry. There is a vast field which the college lould cover. And the college must cover most of this to prepare the col- jge student for his graduate work. If one doubts it, let him make a list >f subjects which now are not advanst work, but only elementary and )reparatory to research for the doctorate: spectrum analysis, crystallog- iphy, pyrometry, electro-chemistry, catalysis, mass action, phase rule, 7IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science dissociation, physical and chemical, argonoids and the periodic sequence, colloids, radiography, x-ray, etc. What are we going to do about it ? Why, do the right thing about the obvious duty for the obvious need. True, one mind cannot be well- trained and equally well- trained in all these Hues; but, in general, the good Ph.D. student of the future must have a speaking acquaintance with each and all these subjects to be able to do his research work, and to be able to compete with other eflScient men in the modern competition of theory and practice. And if the college man is tempted to go directly and prematurely into research work without previous adequate graduate training, all the more he needs college training far beyond what he gets at present. Therefore I present these resolutions: 1. That such a course as that outlined for three years in chemistry be recommended as a tentative scheme. 2. That this be so formulated and recommended as a part of the pro- gram of the next and all of the necessary succeeding years, as shall merit its due attention and speedy realization. 3. That we all **get next" to this idea and stay with it. THE RELATION OF GENERAL SCIENCE TO LATER COURSES IN PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY LEWIS ELHUFF, GEORGE WESTINGHOUSE HIGH SCHOOL, PITTSBURGH, PA. Approaching this subject from the standpoint of the teacher, I desire to divide all teachers into two groups. These two groups are suggested by the attitude which teachers take with respect to what is commonly known as "general science." The first group consists of those teachers who teach a subject or develop a subject from the standpoint of the subject itself, and make the student conform to the subject-matter which the teacher thinks makes an ideal course, because of the worth and beauty of the subject- matter itself rather than the usefulness of the subject-matter to the student pursuing it. This group of teachers desires students to be purposefully prepared for the courses which they teach. Under our present system of class grouping of students, it is a great advantage to have the students groupt according to their previous training. It is an advantage to the learners, because under proper classification they will get more training during a given period of time. The physics and chemistry teachers of this first group expect their students to have been trained or drilled in some of the fundamentals of these subjects and even expect them to know how to perform, in a pre- scribed way, experiments and write up notebooks in the form in which this group of teachers want them — ^just as tho learning to do experiments and writing up laboratory notebooks were a business in itself. Here I will Department] GENERAL SCIENCE AND LATER COURSES 711 suggest that the grandest laboratory of any high school is the whole com- munity in which that high school is located. To use this laboratory requires a different method from that used in many laboratories, and a different attitude on the part of the teacher toward his subjects and his learners. This brings us to the second group of teachers, namely, those who teach from the standpoint of the student and make the subject fit the student so that it will give him useful training for both the present and the future. This attitude requires the teacher to center attention on the learner and study his characteristics and previous training, and then adapt the subject-matter to suit the circumstances which the teacher has discovered. Here again may I suggest that learners who are groupt according to their previous training, will receive more training in a given amount of time than if they are not so groupt. This attitude on the part )f a teacher requires the teacher, not only to know the subject being taught, )ut to know it so well that the subject can be adapted to the conditions in rhich the learner is found. The learner should be first in the mind of le teacher and the subject-matter second. Keep in mind that living luman beings are to be taught and not science subjects. Is this idea new ? [o, the great teachers of the past, both religious and secular, who stand mt in educational history had this conception of the relation of the subject- latter to the learner. What should be taught in a general-science course given during fresh- len year in high school, considering the age and training of students now coming into our high schools? The answer is: "Teach the student what le needs, what he can use." To do this the teacher must be a student of )ciology as well as of psychology and pedagogy, and must study the social environment of the students in order to. learn as much as possible about le students' experiences and the extent and nature of their observations md previous school training. The previous school training that students lave received will largely determine the method which can be used at the )eginning of a general-science course or any other course. Of all the important things to which the general-science student should )e introduced, I suggest the following: (i) the students own health, (2) le health of the family from which the student comes, (3) the health of le community in which the school is located. These are to be treated )rincipally from the hygienic standpoint. The health of the family and ;ommunity is reacht thru the health of the student. Some of the things ^hich relate to health and are common to all communities are: habits of itudents in school, on the streets, in the home; the home, its heating, fighting, ventilation, and surroundings, including plants and animals; initation in and around the home; cleanliness, nature, and kinds of food :onsumed; apparatus and chemicals used in the home; water-supply and its purity. These are to be studied in detail to the extent of their usefulness to the students concerned. 712 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Science How should we teach general science to prepare students for physics or chemistry or any other subject ? The answer is : *' Teach them in the same way as you would if they did not intend to take up a more advanst subject — in other words, "Teach them how to live." We cannot teach a student how to live by his cramming and parroting, but by drawing out and develop- ing what capacities he has, that is, by leading the student to discover himself or herself. A general principle of all teaching is to proceed from the known to the unknown. Every student has a quantity of experience which is sufficiently understood by him to be used as a foundation and also as a basis for helping him to interpret new experiences and new facts. Every student also has a quantity of experience of which he understands a part. The part which he does not understand must be interpreted in the light of those of his experiences which are already clear and useful. The laboratory work for freshmen should be largely outside of the schoolroom. It should be in the home to a maximum extent for two reasons: (i) the learner will see a practical value in the experiment and the experiment itself will be practice; (2) it draws the parents into educational relations with their children and the school. The habits of whole famiUes can be changed by this method, thus producing a better environment in the home of the student. This will go a great way in preparing a student for future courses in physics and chemistry or in any other subject. No laboratory experiment should be conducted in the school unless an immediate application of the experience gained is made to life outside of the school. Students, even Seniors, easily fall into the habit of thinking that experiments have an end in themselves, and they fail to see the use of the principles involved except to perform experiments. Students can easily consume all their time learning the things for which they have immediate use. Virtually they learn only those things which they use. When a graduate starting in practical work says that he had to learn it all over again, he means that he did not learn it while taking his course in school. By a constant effort to teach only that which students can use immediately, and by teaching it thoroly enough so that they can use it, some mental processes are involved and developt which are very important, namely, power of selection, comparison, reason, and judgment. One very important thing which I desire to impress upon your minds is to retain in general-science courses only the subject-matter which can be. adapted to the life of the student, and to do the same in physics and chemistry. Later courses in physics and chemistry will then contain only that which is of practical use to the student at the time the courses are pursued. Later teachers of physics and chemistry will also see that their subjects are for the student's use, and not the students for the subjects. The first year of physics or chemistry in high school can be confined to the physics and Department] BUREAU OF STANDARDS AND PHYSICAL RESEARCH 713 chemistry of the daily experiences of the students. This will mean the elimination of much that is now superficially taught in some schools, and the addition of material with which the student is already partially familiar. If later courses in physics and chemistry become what I have suggested, then how will general science be related to them ? The answer is at once apparent, namely, that general science, when properly taught by adaptation to the life of the student, will have developt the student so that he will be able to think, judge, and apply information to new circumstances or conditions, and will have developt the habit of securing new information as needed to meet a new condition. These qualities in a student can be used in a home, on the street, on the farm, in studies pursued in the future, >r in remunerative labor. A student possessing these properties will never fail to be benefited by a course in physics and chemistry if these subjects ire adapted to his capacity and immediate needs. What then should be the aim of the teacher of general science ? Only lis: Adapt the subject-matter to the student and teach him in such a ^ay that he will be prepared for life now, and have no thought of preparing lim for any subject that is to follow, except the subject, " To live, to live :ompletely, to live abundantly." Let this be the aim of physics and lemistry teachers also, and there will be unity, continuity, and cooperation >f the highest type. ^HE RELATION OF THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS TO PHYSI- CAL RESEARCH AND TO THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS FRANK A. WOLFF, ASSOCIATE PHYSICIST, BUREAU OF STANDARDS, WASHINGTON, D.C. The National Bureau of Standards was establisht by act of Congress 1901, superseding the old Office of Standard Weights and Measures ^hich, with its limited scope, its small force, and its very meager quarters id facilities, had been endeavoring to look after the matter of weights id measures in the greatly restricted sense which had been in vogue before lat time. It dealt with pounds, yards, gallons, bushels, etc., with their iriegated multiples and submultiples; and with the corresponding stand- rds of the International Metric System, which had been legalized in 1866 )r permissive use in the United States. In 1894 the Chicago International Electrical Congress defined the iternational electrical standards, and a few years later the Office of Stand- rd Weights and Measures made an attempt, in a necessarily limited way, establish such standards. In the fifteen years of its existence, the Bureau of Standards has grown occupy a very important position among the scientific bureaus of the government. It now has over 400 employes of whom about two-thirds are engaged in scientific and technical work. The main laboratories are 714 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tScience located in the northwestern suburbs of Washington on a natural hill site of about sixteen acres. There are, in addition, two branch laboratories outside of Washington, one in Pittsburgh, Pa., for heavy-material testing and research work along certain lines; the other at Northampton, Pa., for the testing of cement furnisht to the government, principally for the Panama Canal. The Bureau endeavors to make its work available to the general public thru four series of publications. 1. The Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, now in its thirteenth volume. In this the results of the purely scientific work are publisht. The reprints of the individual papers, known as scientific papers, now number almost 300. 2. Technological papers. These are not publisht in volume form, since they include the results of work done along many technical hnes; these papers are therefore of special interest to workers along corresponding lines. Of these, 79 have been issued ta date. 3. Bureau circulars of information. These also are not publisht in volume form. They are intended to furnish to the public information regarding various topics of general or special interest with which the Bureau has to deal. Thus far 60 have been issued. 4. Miscellaneous publications, including the annual reports of the director, weights and measures, conference reports, and so forth. With the exception of the Bulletin^ for which a regular subscription charge of one dollar per volume is made, the scientific papers, technological papers, and circulars are obtainable free on request by addressing the Bureau, so long as the hmited stock lasts. All are enumerated in Circu- lar 24, list of publications, where abstracts of each separate publication, to guide in making selections, may be found. Turning now directly to the subject assigned me, "The Relation of the Bureau of Standards to Research and Teaching," I think it can be asserted without dispute that the establishment of the Bureau of Standards has had a far-reaching influence on the development of research work in physics in colleges and in universities as well as in the industries. Boards of trustees and executive committees are not wiUing to appropriate funds for buildings and equipment until they are convinst that they will serve a useful purpose. The liberality of Congress in providing funds for research work in physics, chemistry, and engineering has undoubtedly been of great weight in inducing college and university authorities to recognize the importance of such work and to provide properly for it, and the same may be said of industrial organizations. This influence has also made itself felt in greater liberality on the part of school authorities for better support to physics teaching and laboratory work in the high schools. The Bureau of Standards has also been of especial assistance to research workers having need of precision measurements in their work. The ! li Ik Department] BUREAU OF STANDARDS AND PHYSICAL RESEARCH 715 standards in terms of which such measurements are made are referred directly or indirectly to the standards of the Bureau. In addition, the Bureau undertakes to guarantee as far as possible an international basis by having its own standards checkt from time to time against those of foreign standardizing institutions. The importance of international uniformity has been recognized by us since the organization of the Bureau, and every effort has been made to bring about cooperation to this end. Another way in which we have assisted research is thru arrangements made to furnish materials of guaranteed purity or composition to inves- tigators, who are thus enabled to check the accuracy of their apparatus and results. Among the materials furnisht may be mentioned standard- analyzed samples and pure materials for chemists, pure sugar for testing polariscopes, and sugar, naphthaline, and benzoic acid for combustion standards. Arrangements have also been made to furnish samples of pure metals for use in connection with the determination of fixt points in the high-temperature scale. Important contributions have been made in the direction of improved construction of secondary standards and measuring apparatus, and in the development of improved methods of measurement and testing. In more recent years equally important contributions have been made to industrial research and technology. In this connection it might be well to consider the desirability of the cooperation of the Bureau of Standards and other scientific bureaus of the government with the various institutions which would be benefited if the Newlands bill now before Congress to aid industrial research should become a law. The Bureau of Standards endeavors to keep in touch with all the interests it serves, and that includes, most of all, the research workers and the investigators. This is done thru our publications, thru committee work, thru correspondence, thru conference and consultation, and thru meetings outside of Washington attended by members of the Bureau staff, and at Washington where an assembly room seating three hundred has been provided. Thus the regular spring meeting of the American Physical Society is held at the Bureau, and from time to time we have entertained the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Electro- chemical Society, and the local sections of various national scientific and technical societies, including the local branch of the Science Teachers Association. On such occasions the laboratories are thrown open for inspection, and visitors are given the fullest opportunity for famiharizing themselves with the work of the Bureau and with the methods and equipment employed. At various times we have entertained, as guests, scientific workers connected with educational institutions who desired to conduct researches on special lines, while on Sabbatical or on summer vacation. 7i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science Every year we have received visits from a number of graduating classes of various institutions in the East. In connection with one of the meetings of the Physical Society a manufacturers' exhibit of scientific apparatus was arranged at the Bureau, thru which the manufacturer and the purchaser were brought together in a way which was mutually beneficial. The Bureau has been frequently called upon to assist in the revision of data included in physical tables, handbooks, textbooks, etc. These are some of the ways in which we have tried to make ourselves useful to science workers. The subject may also be presented from a somewhat different stand- point. Each year the Bureau of Standards draws from the colleges and universities a considerable number of men to fill new positions and vacancies. Nearly all entering the scientific and technical branches have just com- pleted undergraduate courses, so that it is to their interest as also to the interest of the service to encourage them to advance and to extend their knowledge. This is done thru journal meetings, general and special, held weekly and designed to keep these men, as well as the whole staff, in touch with work done in the field of general physics and chemistry, thru the pres- entation of the results publisht in the scientific and technical journals; and also thru weekly seminary meetings in which work on particular topics of special interest to the Bureau is collated and reviewed. In addition, arrangements have been made for postgraduate courses, given outside of working hours, under the auspices of a committee composed of members of the Bureau staff. This work is arranged so that two years of a postgraduate course in physics may be completed in four or five years, and already a number of universities have given credit for such work as part requirement for the Doctor's degree. For the coming year courses in *'Advanst Dynamics," "Advanst Thermodynamics," and "Electron Theory" are announst, the instructors being drawn from the Johns Hopkins University, the Carnegie Institution, and the Bureau of Standards. APPLIED SCIENCE IN THE COLLEGE COURSE ROBERT H. SPAHR, STATE DEPARTMENT OF UNIVERSITY EXTENSION, BOSTON, MASS. With one or two exceptions science instruction has improved greatly during the last decade and a half. One of these exceptions which is very far from ideal is physics, a subject with which I am more famihar than with any other subject in the science group, a subject frequently hated by boys and usually despised by girls in both high school and college. Many times I have observed the following attitude upon meeting girls in different parts of the country: "Do you teach physics ?" "I hated that more than Department] ' APPLIED SCIENCE IN THE COLLEGE COURSE 717 anything I ever studied!" — a most disastrous dash of ice-cold water upon any probable ambitions of a bachelor physics teacher. Yet from experience I know that science, and especially physics, can be made an interesting subject of study, not only for boys, but equally so for girls. Any criticism which may be offered must of necessity cover especially my early methods of teaching. Brought up, as most of you were, under the "learn by heart" method, we were so thoroly drilled and redrilled that I believe we could have given most of the so-called fundamental laws backward as well as forward with Httle appreciation of what they meant, how they applied to practical life, and how they workt in with other subjects studied. There is no doubt that any subject in science is both vitalized and humanized for a large percentage of students by showing its application and usefulness in everyday life thru the use of "man-sized" illustrations. How many of our educators forget that the adolescent mind cannot and does not associate the little sticks, toys, "weightless beams," and "fric- tionless pulleys" used in a great many of our laboratories with real beams and working machines; I need not give you concrete illustrations. Then, too, with regard to the use of such units as the dyne, which is well enough for scientific research, it would be interesting to know how many engineers md other people in practical work have ever used it since they left the lassroom. We must not forget that pure science likewise claims its place in the sun. >ur research people are extremely valuable; we must have them; but that loes not mean that the students should be forst to swallow bitter pills of leoretical "dope" when capsules of application seasoned with theory Ln probably be prescribed, for a much longer period, rendering valuable jsistance to the patient. I am not radical, for I believe that both applied and pure physics have rery important roles to play, with applied physics predominating for :tual usefulness and cash value to the student. All applied physics, and specially that in the form of household physics for girls, is of very recent )rigin. To venture a personal allusion here. I had the pleasure of teaching class of girls in household physics for university credit in 1911-12. With le exception of courses offered at the Kansas Agricultural and Mechanical 'oUege, this was probably the first work of its kind recognized for credit )ward a degree in America. These girls may not now be able to explain le theory of cooling by evaporation; but I believe they do know, thru a ^omely method, how to keep baby's bottle of milk cool and sweet on a hot ly during an ice famine. I have attempted to enumerate some of the essential prerequisites iiecessary to bring the high-school student to graduation with the ardent lesire to seek that which is beyond. Are the doors of our American )lleges and universities open to him, or are obstacles thrown across his 7i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION • [Science path in the form of grueling entrance examinations, and notifications to the effect that he has not pursued the proper courses of study in the high school, that he must bring so many units of Greek, Latin, modern languages, history, EngHsh, mathematics, science, and perhaps others ? Concerning the first of these obstacles, I am glad to say that as few as six of our colleges and universities do not accept certificates from recognized high schools in lieu of examinations, thus ehminating the worthless cramming process so well known. A further step is that Yale, Harvard, and Princeton have decided to modify their rigid entrance requirements and permit students to enter their freshman classes after passing an examination in four subjects instead of the dozen or more heretofore designated. Certain of the specified units for entrance, as well as requirements for graduation, in our institutions of higher learning, are rapidly disappearing, and more latitude is allowed. Especially is this true of Latin and Greek. In 1895, 75 per cent of our leading colleges and universities required Greek for entrance to the A.B. degree, while today this is true of only 5 per cent. In 1895, 97 per cent required Latin for entrance to the A.B. degree against 41 per cent today. In more than 100 leading colleges and universities today neither Latin nor Greek is required for admission to a course leading to the A.B. degree. The number of units required for entrance has not been decreast, but, contraryivise, has been increast; in many cases practical, applied subjects are being recognized. The high schools of our nation belong to all the people; therefore they should be made to serve all the children of all the people. When we con- sider that the percentage of high-school students who go to college is very small, it is manifestly rank injustice to arrange the curricula to fit the few who do go to college, since they are, as a rule, better prepared financially to buy bread and butter than the masses. Sometime ago President Eliot made the following statement: In a democratic nation spread over the continent, and in which secondary education presents local diversities, colleges and universities, if they would retain the national character and influence, must be careful not to offer unnecessary obstacles to the admission of young men of adequate tho diversified preUminary training. True, the colleges have been slow to adjust entrance requirements, which in turn have had a wonderful effect upon the curricula of our high schools. Entrance by certificate practically eliminates the problem of any college's dictating to the high school just how and what shall be taught in preparatory physics so long as the proper time and study have been expended. No man, no school, no college, has a divine monopoly of the contents of any subject. Even where entrance examinations are yet required there is usually enough latitude to permit offering physics as an elective. Colleges and universities are coming to reaUze the tremendous value of applied physics. Every year brings forth many more announce- ments of practical applied courses in physics for both boys and girls from Department] LOCAL INDUSTRIES AND SCIENCE TEACHING 719 many of our leading institutions. I know of nothing more needed, more useful, than a practical, humanized course in physics for girls. Call it "household physics" if you like. Statistics bear out the contention that an interested student completing a practical applied course in physics will do just as well, and many times better, when admitted to more advanst work than when he has passively memorized the laws of pure theoretical physics. A person thinks at his best when he is working out something in which he is vitally interested. A serious obstacle which must be overcome is the attitude of some of our college and university professors. They are so thoroly imbued with a purely theoretical spirit as almost to forget that there is a practical side. Their ideal of a physics 'student is one who can derive formula after formula with no appreciation or thought of use in practice. In fact, I have known one (and there may be others) who estimated the worth of the student by his ability to derive and memorize formulas. I have heard him remark, "That girl is no good," basing his judgment entirely upon her physics record, even if she was a star student in other subjects. Transformation from the purely theoretical to the more practical is surely coming. It only remains to hasten the day. I offer, also, the following constructive suggestions : Adequate texts in applied physics must be obtained. Better-qualified teachers are necessary to replace those who teach their students that acceleration exprest in centimeters per second per second is an error in printing. Methods of presentation should be improved. The teacher must dis- card his machine-like work and instead exhibit interest and enthusiasm which will be contagious. The college instructor, where he has not seen the practical side, must be converted to the dual possibilities of applied and pure physics. LOCAL INDUSTRIES AS A SOURCE OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL FOR SCIENCE TEACHING CLARENCE M. HALL, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. The necessity for using illustrative material in science teaching is beyond question, but the value of such material is much enhanst if it be drawn from the environment of the pupil. It is the purpose of this paper to indicate briefly some of the ways in which such material can be obtained and how it can be used in the classroom. The city in which this work is being done is a thriving industrial com- munity of some 100,000 inhabitants, with a fine public spirit. Its manu- facturers are almost without exception very willing to cooperate with the schools to make the science work more valuable to the community, and to 720 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Science this end they are glad to contribute the pieces of material and the informa- tion about them. The city directory will be found useful in getting a list of industrial plants to which to apply for material. The Board of Trade also can be relied upon to furnish other information and to help in getting special sets of parts. Various ways of using specimens will doubtless occur to many of you, but we have found it convenient to mount them upon boards about 2 feet by 3 feet, having a green burlap background, and to cover them with glass before hanging them upon the walls of the laboratory. Before class, any exhibit is taken from the wall whenever we wish to call particular attention to it, for example, during some demonstration period. In the meantime they remain in the laboratory performing the function of silent educators in applied science. All are carefully labeled, and often the business card of the donor appears, which seems unobjectionable, as the advertising value to the manufacturer is rather small. It is, moreover, a distinct advantage to have pupils familiar with the names and locations of some of the promi- nent industries of their native city. Photographs of interiors of local plants such as the electric-lighting station, and of interesting local physi- ographic features, are excellent, as are also specimens of the minerals in the vicinity. Thru pupils who have relatives engaged along industrial lines, it is often possible to get worth-while parts illustrating processes. Since much of the illustrative value of industrial plants consists in the actual operations there conducted, it is advisable to make inspection trips to them. To accomplish this with the science classes on definite afternoon assignments has been found difficult; but the difficulty has, to some extent, been overcome by organizing a science club called the "Cosmos Club," which makes trips every two weeks to industrial plants, to places of geological interest in the vicinity, and occasionally spends an evening at the 6-inch telescope in our high-school observatory. The club is addrest from time to time by the municipal milk-inspector, the sealer of weights and measures, and city engineers. In closing let me sum up briefly the advantages of this method: 1. The material is inexpensive. 2. It adds much interest to the work in science. 3. Pupils gain some knowledge of the industries of their own city. 4. The collection of these materials brings the teacher into touch with men in industrial lines, and he gains thereby a first-hand knowledge of many applications which will increase his efficiency as a teacher of science. DISCUSSION Raymond B. Brownlee, Stuyvesant High School, New York, N.Y. — The question of the bearing of general science on later courses in physical science seems to me to be one of interrelation. There are several aims possible in general science. One, which I believe is common to all courses, is the awakening and crystallizing of interest in science, lb Departmentl LOCAL INDUSTRIES AND SCIENCE TEACHING 721 and the development of powers of scientific observation. Another is the presentation of an elementary body of scientific instruction reasonably complete in itself — essentially a cultural aim. The preponderance of physiography in one of the books mentioned is really a revival of the old-fashioned physical geography of our own school days, as opposed to first-year biology. This may be of particular value in cities and towns of such size and situation that physiographic features may be studied conveniently in the surrounding country. Under these circumstances such a course may be made to yield real scientific training in addition to its undoubted cultural value. Two other aims are: (i) to furnish the pupil with a scientific basis of principles and facts for the interpretation of his everyday experiences, and (2) to add science experiences as a foundation for future science study. The working out of these latter purposes is closely knit with the science courses which are to follow in the curriculum. The addition and interpretation of science experiences is particularly necessary for the city boy and girl. The Stuyvesant High School is a technical high school, whose graduates chiefly enter the engineering field, either directly, or after taking engineering degrees at college. For three years of the course a third of the time is devoted to mechanics-arts work in shop and draughting room. The student body is so large as to require double sessions. We have settled on five periods of elementary physical science for a group of twelve classes in the first term. In the second term all boys take either two or three periods in practical physiology, including personal hygiene, infection and its prevention, foods, and kindred topics. The pupils who take elementary physical science have two double periods and one le period each week for twenty weeks. This arrangement of periods is due to the fact that for these boys science takes the place of joinery. Two demonstrations are given leach week, one in physics and the other in chemistry, both considered particularly from [the applied point of view. Each demonstration occupies about half of a double period nd the remaining time is devoted to discussion of the experiments and the application f the facts and principles involved. We keep in mind that many of the boys will drop y the wayside before the more formal study of physics and chemistry in later terms. The topics in physics include properties of matter — impenetrability, ductility, alleability, tenacity, surface phenomena in liquids, capillarity. From two to three eeks are given to this work. It is followed by the hydraulic press, Archimedes principle f flotation, atmospheric pressure, pumps and siphon, simple machines, and centrifugal :orce. In heat the experiments include various methods of producing heat, expansion, eat transmission, vacuum bottle and fireless cooker, heat changes in evaporation, lution, crystallization, freezing mixtures. The remaining topics are magnetism, ilectromagnets and their application, heating and chemical effects of electricity. In chemistry the following topics are given: water and solution, chemical combination d decomposition, replacement, acids and bases, conditions for burning, liquid fuels, rticularly the behavior of gasolene, gas flames and the Bunsen burner, blast lamps d blowpipes, oil lamps, gas lights, acetylene generators and burners, products of com- ustion and extinguishing fires. Hard water is made and softened, alloys made, pro- lective coverings applied to metals, and solid, liquid, and scouring soaps made. The effect on the boys of introducing elementary physical science has been to arouse eater enthusiasm for science and to increase their power in attacking the later courses, other very important result is that of attracting to the school various boys who already ve a scientific bent. Many boys stay in school for the later courses who might other- have dropt out; and boys who are obliged to go to work after two or three terms ave had at least one term of physical science. The introduction of general science in the first year should not, ih my opinion, materially alter the content of the later courses, altho it will somewhat shift the emphasis on particular topics and permit a considerable enrichment of the course as a whole. Laboratory work should be left to the later courses in most instances. 722 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Science The effect of the later courses in physics and chemistry on general science then is to determine the selection of material and the method of presentation, so that all the work will be adapted to needs of the students concerned. The effect of the general science on the later courses is to stimulate scientific interest and enthusiasm, to inculcate scientific habits of observation and thinking, and to develop scientific power. THE CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES THRU EDUCATION LEON W. GOLDRICH, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 62, MANHATTAN, N.Y. The greatest problem of the industrial and commercial world today is to find ways and means for ehminating all forms of waste. Chemists, naturalists, and all other scientists are devoting their full attention to the transformation of hitherto so-called "waste products" into the rich by-products of industries. Modern efficiency demands that all human and natural resources shall be either conserved, or transformed to the best uses for present and future generations. Modern education must train for efficiency in life; and unless the content and the methods of education are so organized as to bring about maximum results with a minimum waste of time and energy, the educator's work will be considered a failure, judged by the standards of our twentieth-century social needs. We can no longer separate the welfare of society from the welfare of the individual. Social demands, social needs, and social progress must be recognized in the curriculum of our schools and colleges. The content of our courses of study must be fraught with social purposes, and the greatest social need of America today is the conservation of our natural and human resources. The teacher in our American schools has, therefore, the definite task of teaching the young the absolute necessity of eliminating all forms of waste in material, in time, in energy; of securing the greatest value from things now called "wasteful"; and of conserving for himself and for others those natural resources which are God-given. Our country has two kinds of enemies — those from within and those from without. To combat successfully the enemy from within, we need neither forts nor battleships, but an army of teacher conservators. Every schoolhouse must be a garrison and a recruiting station to aid in a campaign of conservation. America must be taught that society has an economic foundation as well as an institutional foundation; that our economic foundation consists of our natural resources, and is just as real and vital to the development and progress of our national life as are the institutional foundations composed of constitutional laws and charters. If the natural foundation be destroyed, the one reared by man will surely fall. Notwithstanding all the efforts of all the defenders of the forests and the wild life already in the field, notwithstanding all the national and state laws that have been enacted, and notwithstanding all the forest Department) CONSERVATION THRU EDUCATION 723 reservations and wild-life refuges that have been created, our forests and wild birds and quadrupeds are vanishing. Forests and wild life must have more friends if they are to be saved from complete extermination. Speed is a factor of prime importance in the conservation of all our animate resources. In view of the manifold dangers now threatening the very existence of our wild life and forests, it now becomes the duty of all educators to enter actively and permanently into the practical work of wild-life and forest protection and increase. Natural-history teaching in the classroom is of great importance and value, but the teacher must now seek to carry the work afield into the haunts of wild life and wild-life destroyers, into legislative halls, and even into the courts. The ethics of wild-life protection and the legitimate pursuit of game should be taught by every teacher in America; because thru faulty ethics, or none at all, millions of game birds and thousands of game mammals have been, and now are, being killed contrary to the principles that should govern all sport with the shotgun and rifle. The enormous value of insec- tivorous birds to agriculture, horticulture, and forestry must be taught in every school, college, and university in America; and every nature-study teacher should accept this duty as one of paramount importance. Four-fifths of all the forests in the country are privately owned. Only one-fifth is owned by the public. Forests cannot persist without protection and management. Private forests are not protected and managed. They are slowly but surely deteriorating, and in many places the noble species of the past are giving way to culls and weeds, much the same as our former rich bird life is yielding to the English sparrow. The enemies that are destroying the forests may be classified in the order of their destructiveness as follows : 1. The sportsmen, heedless boys, and others who intentionally or thoughtlessly set fires and thus help to destroy each year over fifty million dollars' worth of forest property in this country. 2. The lack of effective forest-fire laws in many states and the want of [public support in the execution of the laws that we now have. 3. The lack of public appropriations properly to organize and protect [all forest property from fire. 4. The cutting of the best timber from our private forests without regard for the crop that is to follow, altho present gains may be followed by future losses. 5. Unjust tax laws which yearly levy a tribute on all standing timber, I thus forcing the owners to cut it before its economic maturity. 6. The vast hoards of animal and plant parasites which make rapid and increasing inroads on all kinds of trees as soon as the forest is dis- turbed by man. 724 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science 7. The great lack of public education regarding the economic, recrea- tional, and esthetic value of forests and how they can be conserved. The enemies of wild life may be classified in the order of their destruc- tiveness as follows: 1. All wild-bird and quadruped-hunters who shoot eagerly and per- sistently, lawfully and unlawfully. In the United States each year about three million armed men take the field, and most of them are licenst. In 19 1 5 Pennsylvania turned out over 300,000, and New York over 125,000, licensed hunters. 2. The lack of really adequate game laws and law-enforcement thruout fully one-half the entire South from Texas to Maryland. 3. The increase of hunting by negroes and poor whites in the South who kill all kinds of birds for food, including our most valuable insec- tivorous birds; also boys both in the South and the North who kill song birds indiscriminately for practice in shooting with .22-caliber rifles. 4. The destruction of insectivorous birds for food by Italians, Hun- garians, Poles, and other aliens. 5. The financial impossibility of putting into any state a sufficient number of state game wardens to protect adequately all the wild h*fe in its haunts. 6. In many localities all over the United States there exists tradi- tional contempt for game laws and game wardens, which leads judges and juries to side with the law breakers and bring the wild-life laws into perpetual contempt — a very great evil. 7. The destruction of cover and wild food for birds and quadrupeds, which results in easy slaughter by sportsmen in summer, and death by starvation and freezing in winter. 8. The stubborn unwillingness of sportsmen to stop hunting when their favorite game approaches extermination, and to accord it a long closed season. 9. Finally, and worst of all, the almost entire absence of a code of ethics calculated to give the wild creatures a square deal and save species from annihilation. The following must be accepted and become a part of the living prin- ciples of all American citizens: 1. The forests and wild life of today are not ours to do with as we please, and if we are honest we cannot ignore the rights of posterity to a just share of our natural resources. 2. The extermination of a species, be it plant or animal, is a crime. Man never yet has added a single new species to the wild life of the world ; but he has annihilated many. 3. Every citizen of the state has a certain proprietary right in every living wild creature within that state; now it is the duty of the citizen to conserve his property and see to it that it is not wastefuUy and wantonly Department! CONSERVATION THRU EDUCATION 725 exterminated. The sportsmen do not own the game of the country any- more than they own the schools. The state and the nation accord citizens the privilege of hunting; and that privilege can be amended, or entirely taken away, at any time. 4. The teaching of the conservation of forests and wild life to children, and to adults also, has a strong and direct tendency toward making better citizens thru the principles of justice, mercy, economy of resources, and general square dealing. The man or boy who has no regard for the forests nor for the rights of wild life easily ignores the rights of man and becomes a bad citizen. The boy who is cruel to wild creatures easily falls into still more evil ways and becomes a criminal. The teachers of America have in their keeping a tremendous educa- tional force which they can exert in behaK of forests and wild life. Will they use it ? This force can be exercised in every state, county, town, and village in one or more of the following ways : 1. Teach children the great recreational and esthetic value of trees, and how respect and love for them with their great, overarching crowns and long, straight stems make for a better and more wholesome life. 2. Teach children the great companionship value of the wild birds and quadrupeds, how interesting they are in their ways, and how much their ways and needs are like those of human beings. Give each species a personahty, as Thornton W. Burgess does in his Bedtime Stories. 3. Teach children the great economic value of the forest, the place that it holds in our national economy, and the necessity for conserving it in order that future generations may have wood and all the other products that the forest produces. 4. Teach children the great economic value of birds, and what great losses by destructive insects are entailed upon our fruit, grain, vegetables, and trees by the destruction of our insect-eating birds. 5. Teach all children to respect the forest and the rights of wild creatures. Teach all boys the ethics of true sportsmanship, and what it means to hunt like a gentleman — to give the game a fair chance for its life, and not to use unfair weapons. Also teach that it is the duty of the true sportsman to stop shooting when game becomes scarce, no matter whether the law requires it or not. 6. Teach children, and all men, the absolute duty to respect all forests and wild-life laws and obey them, and also aid in enforcing these laws, both by precept and example. Much needs to be said on this point, even to judges and juries. The National Educators Conservation Society has been organized to achieve these ends. The creed of the society is " Our American institutions are man-made; our natural resources are God-given; the perpetuation of the former depends upon the conservation of the latter." The object of the society is, "to promote the active protection and increase of wild life 726 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science and forests thru the professional educators of America." The society is now working definitely for: 1. Increase in the area of publicly owned forests until at least 50 per cent of all the forests of the country on non-agricultural land is so owned. 2. Perpetual closed seasons for all species of wild life now threatened with extermination. 3. The estabUshment of communal forests accessible to every important city and town in the United States. 4. The establishment of publicly-owned wild Ufe refuges in every state in the United States where species now threatened with extermination can find food and protection. 5. The preservation of public and private forests from fire and destruc- tive lumbering, and the encouragement of natural reproduction by natural means, and also by seeding and planting. 6. The prevention of the killing of insectivorous birds for food and of all birds for millinery purposes; the stopping of the sale of wild game; the stopping of spring and late winter shooting, and the prevention of the use of automatic guns in hunting. 7. The protection of all useful plants and animals from extermination. We ask all teachers of America to join this society and help in the definite constructive work of conservation thru education. STUDYING FUNGI AS A PASTIME {Illustrated) W. A. MURRILL, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN, NEW YORK, N.Y. It is a recognized principle that man must have two occupations — one for a living and one for enjoyment — and the enjoyment must not be entirely physical; the mind needs a change as well as the body. Walk in the woods, but have an object. And what could be more fascinating than to study the frail, mysterious, highly colored, ephemeral forms found among the fungi! The popular and widespread interest in mushrooms of all kinds is almost phenomenal, and this is due, not only to the use of certain kinds for food, but also to the beauty of their form and color and the supposed mystery surrounding their origin and growth. Ever since "Lactaria deliciosa" was painted on the wall of a house in Pompeii, men and women have enjoyed hunting mushrooms and have gradually had their eyes opened to the wonderful variety, beauty, and adaptation shown in this humble part of Nature's domain. The use of mushrooms for food in this country is as yet very limited, being confined chiefly to our foreign-born population; and even in New York City many excellent kinds go to waste every season. Department! STUDYING FUNGI AS A PASTIME 727 All knowledge regarding the edible and poisonous properties of mush- rooms is based on experiments, either intentional or unintentional. The only safe rule is to confine oneself to known edible forms until others are proved harmless. If the person is a beginner, he is like an explorer in a new country with an abundance of attractive fruit near at hand, which may be good or may be rank poison; he cannot determine unless he tries it, or unless some native, who has learned from his own and others' expe- rience, shares his knowledge with him. The writer on this subject undertakes a very responsible task, owing to the vast number of similar forms among the mushrooms which are dis- tinguisht with difficulty by those not accustomed to fine distinctions; but it should be possible with the aid of colored figures to describe a few striking kinds in such a way that no serious mistakes will be made. If one knows the kinds that are perfectly harmless and as many as possible of the harmful kinds, he should be reasonably safe in collecting fungi for food. As the use of mushrooms in this country for food becomes more general, the practical importance of this subject will be vastly increast, and it may be possible to discover perfect antidotes or methods of treatment which will largely overcome the effects of deadly species. This would be a great boon even at the present time, and there will always be children and ignor- ant persons to rescue from the results of their mistakes. Another very interesting field, both theoretical and practical in its scope, is the use of these poisons in minute quantities as medicines, as has been done with so many of the substances extracted from poisonous species of flowering plants, and even from rattlesnakes and other animals. Thus far, only one of them, the alkaloid muscarine, has been so used. Observe, study, describe, photograph or paint, dry, label, preserve the specimens, and consult your collection from year to year and show it to your friends. Hardly any other subject can equal this in fascination, both for yourself and for your neighbors. Mushroom delights are not limited to summer, but when the winter comes, the fungi are still with us, tho in wholly different, tougher forms able to withstand the roughest weather. In the autumn and winter the bracket fungi flourish and may be found in abundance on trunks of trees and on dead wood of all kinds. These are mostly polypores with the fruiting surface composed of tubes, and are very destructive to trees and timber. Some of them, however, are edible when young, one is medicinal, and several supply tinder. The Romans obtained tinder from fomes and lighted it by rubbing two sticks together. Later, flint and steel were used to make the spark. Before matches were invented, the tinder box was in every home. Punk is still used by small boys on the Fourth of July. Polypores are very easily collected and preserved and they largely retain their character when dried — which makes them excellent objects for class study during the winter months. Many of them, also, remain 728 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Science in place during the winter in perfect condition for collecting. As a group, they lend themselves remarkably well to studies in gross and minute anatomy, variation, adaptation, and injurious effects on trees and struc- tural timbers. DISCUSSION M. C. Leonard, Dickinson High School, Jersey City, N.J. — ^Like the textbook of today, the elementary-science text of tomorrow will be broad in scope and will seek to articulate school work with contemporary life, but it will possess several additional virtues. Educators may produce a better book by following a more rational plan in producing it. I submit that the logical mode of procedure in constructing a textbook of the first order would be (i) to have experts draw up plans and specifications, somewhat as for a school building; (2) to have the plans past upon by a second body of experts representing a wider constituency; (3) to produce the manuscript; (4) to have the manuscript revised again, if necessary, to make it meet the specifications; (5) acceptance and publication. A committee of educators, proceeding along these lines for a few years, should bring forth a book far superior to any science text that has ever appeared in this country — one edition adapted to the city and another to the rural high school. In the brief space allotted to this paper, we can discuss but four specifications for such a book: 1. The ideal text will not be merely a reading-book in science; it should be more than a series of declarative sentences, interspersed with cuts. It must have a rather elaborate structure, and should specifically provide for those intellectual processes, omitting which, information fails to become science. It must recognize the adolescent psychology of Hall and Harris, and contain many type exercises for begetting those mental processes which are appropriate to boys and girls in their early teens. It will contain many classi- fication exercises, logical definitions, and simple reasoning exercises based upon numerous concrete illustrations by which the teacher may lead pupils by induction to simple con- clusions. The authors of this text will seek to build brains, as well as to inform the mind. 2. Under the theory that admiration for the noble traits of martyrs is a character- builder, the ideal text will contain more abundant material on the heroes of science, as recommended in the report of our committee. 3. The future text will provide for correlation with English, and will not be written entirely in prose, but will contain many appropriate passages of poetry and references to many more, recognizing that no natural object yields up its highest value to us until we view it in its literary or symbolic aspect. Bryant's "To a Waterfowl" suggests nature's device for protecting the bird of passage from cold while it is making its sooo-mile journey thru the thin, cold atmosphere "from the ice-bound desolate northern bays to the shores of tropical islands." And as a survey of the sweep of evolutionary processes during geological time, let the book contain two or three stanzas of William H. Carruth's poem entitled "Each in His Own Tongue," the first stanza of which reads: A fire mist and a planet, — A crystal and a cell, — A jellyfish and a saurian, And caves where the cave-men dwell; Then a sense of law and beauty, And a face turned from the clod, — Some call it Evolution, And others call it God. Department) METHOD IN SCIENCE-TEACHING 729 Let us believe that the introduction of short passages of real poetry at appropriate points, and the treatment of such passages as wholes, will cultivate a taste for good literature as surely as the microscopic dissection and linguistic manicuring so common in high-school classes in English. 4. The ideal text will emphasize some of the more obvious evidences that the world we live in is not a chance world, but a thought-out world, and thus will prepare the mind of the learner for that most hopeful, most rational theory of the universe — theistic evo- lution— the theory so clearly set forth in the writings of John Fiske. It is a shame that teachers should plant seeds of atheism and agnosticism in the plastic minds of youths by remaining silent on great philosophical questions. The textbook should oblige the teacher to reveal his deeper thought about the scheme of the universe, and to lead boys and girls to see that the law of "conservation of energy" is an argument for immortality. METHOD IN SCIENCE-TEACHING JOHN DEWEY, PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. "Method" means a way to a result, a means to an end, a path to a goal. Method therefore varies with the end to be reacht. Without a clear notion of the end, we cannot proceed intelligently upon the journey toward it. When we try to state the end of science-teaching, we are, however, likely to find ourselves involved in such vague generalities that all might use the same words and yet differ radically about the actual method of procedure. It is therefore only to make clear my own point of approach and not to foreclose discussion that I say that the end of science- teaching is to make us aware what constitutes the most effective use of mind, of intelligence; to give us a working sense of the real nature of knowledge, of sound knowledge as distinct from mere guesswork, opinion, dogmatic belief, or whatever. Obviously science is not only knowledge, but it is knowledge at its best, knowledge in its tested and surest form. Educationally, then, what differentiates its value from that of other knowledge is precisely this superior quaUty. Unless it is so taught that students acquire a realizing sense of what gives it its superiority, something is lost. If we ask how this superior type of knowledge came into existence, we find that men have been working their minds more or less effectively for many thousand years, and that for a very long time it was less, rather than more, effectively. But the most efficient ways of using or working intelli- gence have gradually been selected and cultivated. And science as a personal power and resource is an equipment of those found most suc- cessful, most effective. A man may have a great deal of cultivation, a great deal of information, correct information at that, about things, but if he has never made a first-hand acquaintance at some point with scientific ways of dealing with a subject-matter, he has no sure way' of telling the difference between all-wool knowledge and shoddy goods. He has no sure way of knowing how, or when, he is using his mental powers most capably 730 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science and fruitfully. The ability to detect the genuine in our beliefs and ideas, the ability to control one's mind to its own best working is a very precious thing. Hence the rightful place of science in education is a fundamental one, and it is correspondingly important to see to it that methods of teaching are such as to fulfil its true purpose. When we pass from this generality, it seems to me that the first need is to discriminate certain stages in the educational development of science. The first stage belongs, of necessity, to the elementary school; for I do not think that any amount of pains and ability in the high school can make up for a wrong start, or even a failure to get the right start, in the grades. This is contrary in appearance to a common assertion of secondary teachers, that they prefer that their pupils come to them without any science instruc- tion at all — which is paralleled by a similar statement on the part of college teachers. I think the inconsistency is only in appearance. The remark is really proof of the necessity of a right start. I do not believe that the problem of successful science will be met until teachers in college and high school exchange experience with those in the elementary school, and all take a mutual interest in one another's work. At this stage the purpose should be to give a first-hand acquaintance with a fair area of natural facts of such a kind as to arouse interest in the discovery of causes, dynamic processes, operating forces. I would emphasize the phrase **of such a kind." I think the chief defect, upon the whole, in our present elementary nature-study is that, while it may arouse a certain interest in observation and accumulate a certain store of information, it is too static, and hence too miscellaneous. By "static" I mean that observation is not directed to some active process. No amount of information of this sort can supply even a background for science. Space, however, forbids my dwelling upon this point, and its underlying point can perhaps be brought out by reference to something which lies within the high-school program, namely, so-called ' ' general science. ' ' Like the nature- study movement, the tendency to general science courses is animated by a praiseworthy desire to get away from the specialized technicalities of a highly matured science. I will not say that these reduce themselves, for the average beginning student, to mere acquisition of a vocabulary, tho there is danger of this. But, except with the few, this science of the accomplisht specialist remains, even when fairly well understood, just an isolated thing, a thing of a world superadded to the everyday world, when it ought to be an enlightening and an intellectual control of the everyday world. As an attempt to get back nearer to the world in which the pupil lives, and away from a world which exists only for the scientist, the general- science tendency has, as I have just said, its justification. But I have an impression that in practice it may mean two quite different things. It may take its departure from sciences which are already differentiated, and Department] METHOD IN SCIENCE-TEACHING 731 simply pick out pieces from them, some from physics, some from chemistry, some from physiography, some from botany, etc., and out of this varied selection form something to serve as an introduction to sciences in a more specialized form. Now this method I believe to be of the static type after all. It gives scope for variety and adaptation, and will work with the right teacher. But, urged as a general movement, I believe it retains the essential mistake of any method which begins with scientific knowledge in its already-made form, while in addition it lends itseU very easily to scrappy and superficial work, and even to a distaste for the continued and serious thinking necessary to a real mastery of science. General science may, however, have another meaning. It may mean that a person who is himself an expert in scientific knowledge forgets for the time being the conventional divisions of the sciences and puts himself at the standpoint of pupils' experience of natural forces, together with their ordinary useful applications. He does not, however, forget the scientific possibilities of these experiences, nor does he forget that there is an order of relative importance in scientific principles — that is to say, that some are more fundamental, some necessary in order to understand others, and thus more fruitful and ramifying. While, then, he may take his subject-matter from any of the ordinary and more familiar materials of daily life, he does not allow that material, in its obvious and superficial form, to dictate to him the nature of the subsequent study. It may be varnish, or cleansers, or bleachers, or a gasoline engine. But he never for a moment allows in his educational planning that thing to become the end of study; when he does, we have simply the wrong kind of elementary nature-study over again. To him, as a teacher, the material is simply a means, a tool, a road. It is a way of getting at some process of nature's activity which is widely exemplified in other phenomena, and which, when graspt, will render them more significant and more intelligible. While the student's attention may remain, so far as his conscious interest is concerned, upon the phenomena directly in front of him, it is the teacher's duty to see that he gets below the surface to the perception of whatever is scientifically in the experience. This need not be labeled a principle or law — in fact, if it is so labeled at first, the name "principle" or "law" will be merely a label. But if further material is selected so that what the pupil got hold of before serves as a means of intellectual approach and understanding, it becomes a principle or law for him: a law of his own thinking and inquiries, a standpoint from which he surveys facts and attempts to reduce them to order. This same method of procedure means, of course, that choice is made in fixing the kind of familiar material with which one sets out. The interests and occupations of the environment will play a part. A farming environment would tend to provide one point of departure, a district in which electric apparatus were made, another, a railway center a third, 732 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science and so on. But in each case there will always be room for choice between material which tends to begin and end in itself, and that from which some- thing may be easily extracted which will give pupils a momentum to other things. My point may perhaps be stated by saying that the right course lies between two erroneous courses. One method is the scrappy one of picking up isolated materials just because they happen to be familiar objects within the pupil's experience, and of merely extending and deepening the range of the pupil's famiUarity, and then passing on to something else. No amount of this process will make an introduction to science, to say nothing of science, for an introduction leads or draws into a subject, while the scrappy method never, save by accident, gets the pupil within range of the problems and explanatory methods of science. The other erroneous course is taken when the teacher's imagination is so Hmited that he cannot conceive of science existing except in the definitely segregated areas, con- cepts, and terms which are found in books under the heads of "physics," "chemistry," etc., and who is thus restricted to moving within these boundaries. Such a person forgets that there is no material in existence which is physical or chemical or botanical, but that a certain ordinary subject-matter becomes physical or chemical or botanical when certain questions are raised, and when it is subjected to certain modes of inquiry. What is desired of the pupil is that, starting from the ordinary unclast material of experience, he shall acquire command of the points of view, the ideas and methods, which make it physical or chemical or whatever. I return to what I said at first about the dynamic point of view as the really scientific one, or the understanding of process as the heart of the scientific attitude. What are called "physics" and "chemistry" deal in effect with the lawful energies which bring about changes. To master their method means to be able to see any observed fact, no matter how seemingly fixt and stubborn, as a change, as a part of larger process or ongoing. In this sense they are central (along with mathematics which only deals with the fixt, the formal and structural side of the fact) in all scientific understanding. There is a sound instinct in the tendency to insist upon them as the heart of the secondary course in science and to look with jealousy upon whatever narrows their sphere of influence. But it does not follow that the material which is found in the texts which segregate certain considerations under the heads of physics or chemistry is the material to begin with. That is the fallacy against which I have been arguing. Plant and animal life, the operations of machines, and the familiar appHances and processes of industrial life are much more likely to furnish the actual starting material. What the principle calls for is that the pupil shall be led in his study of plant and animal Hfe, of the machine and its operations, to the basic operations which enable him to understand what is before him — to be led inevitably to physical and chemical principles. Department! METHOD IN SCIENCE-TEACHING 733 Nothing is more unfortunate for education than the usual separation between the sciences of Hfe and the physical sciences. Living phenomena are natural and interesting material from which to set out, especially in all rural environments. But they are educationally significant in the degree in which they are used to procure an insight into just those principles which are not plants and animals, but which, when they are formulated by themselves, constitute physics and chemistry. It is the failure to carry nature-study on to this insight which is responsible for its pedagogically unsatisfactory character, and the movement toward general science will repeat the failure unless it keep the goal of physical and chemical principle steadily in view. An extension of the method I have spoken of should, in my judgment, constitute the bulk of the secondary course in science, which ideally should be continuous thruout the four years — or the six. We must remember that, altho in school we are always treating pupils as embryonic scientists who somehow are interrupted and cut off before they get very far, the great mass of the pupils will never be scientific specialists. The value of science for them resides in the added meaning it gives to the usual occur- rences of their everyday surroundings and occupations. None the less, we want a high school which will tend to attract those who have a distinct calling for specialized inquiry, and one which prepares them to enter upon it. I can only express my belief that there are many more such in the pupil population than we succeed at present in selecting and carrying on; and that I beheve this is largely because we follow to so great an extent the method of feeding them all from the start as if they were full-fledged minute specialists. As a result, large numbers who might otherwise be drawn later into the paths of scientific inquiry now become shunted off into the more concrete and appealing paths, of engineering, industrial invention, and application, simply because they have been repelled by a premature diet of abstract scientific propositions, lacking in meaning to them because abstracted from familiar facts of experience. I beheve there are scores, if not hundreds, of boys, for example, who now go from courses of abstract physics into automobile factories and the like, who, if they had begun with the automobile under a teacher who realized its scientific possibihties, might have gone on into abstract physics. I can sum up by saying that it seems to me that our present methods too largely put the cart before the horse; and that when we become aware of this mistake we are all too hkely to cut the horse entirely loose from the cart and let him browse around at random in the pastures without going anywhere. What we need is to hitch the horse of concrete experience with daily occupation and surroundings, to a cart loaded with specialized scientific knowledge. It is not the duty of high-school science to pack the cart full — that will come later. It is its part to make such a good job of 734 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science the hitching that every pupil who comes under its influence will always find in himself a tendency to turn his crude experiences over into a more scientific form, and to translate the bare science he reads and hears, back into the terms of his daily life. When we do this we shall find, I am con- fident, the crop of scientific speciahsts increast, not diminisht, while we shall have a citizenship of men and women really intelligent in judging the affairs of life. TRAINING OF SCIENCE TEACHERS I. C. H. ROBISON, NORMAL SCHOOL, UPPER MONTCLAIR, NJ. "Taking a year off " is serious business for an indifferently paid public- school teacher. The year is nearly always one of suspended earning power. The student is nearly always a candidate for the Master's degree and usually gets it. Too many, however, are not given what they most wish or need. Too many have set so strongly before them the idea that the degree is the great goal, that their sense of relative values is dulled. Some, valuing the degree for home consumption, seem to see baked clay under the outside glitter. As a working basis let me maintain (i) that from one-half to two- thirds of a well-balanst year of graduate study should be along the line of primary teaching interest; (2) that so-called research work should consume not over one-fourth the time, and might better be incidental to an advanst course; (3) that at least a fourth of the time be devoted to pedagogy, pref- erably of science-teaching. A grounding in general educational theory is a real problem with the teacher whose college days antedated well-organized departments of education, much more so than with present undergraduates. A real need exists for a single synoptical course in which the one-year graduate student deficient in pedagogy, can touch the high spots in history and principles of education, in educational psychology, and methods of classroom-man- agement. No less real is the need for genuine courses in special methods of teaching the sciences, conducted by persons acquainted with the general field of education as well as of science, and with experience in high-school teaching. Trying to keep up with demands, college science instructors are too often offering' courses in methods without knowing present tendencies in educational theory, else we should hear fewer and less extravagant claims for supposed disciplinary values; without knowledge of the high- school pupil, else we should see entirely different sorts of textbooks written by college men. As little question will be raised about the science courses, which should broaden the horizon and deepen the scholarship. Many of the newly developt courses in industrial science should serve these ends better than most courses designed for the college professor of tomorrow and little Department] TRAINING OF SCIENCE TEACHERS 735 related to the affairs of actual life. But unfortunately the former kind is relatively unavailable. A resulting fault in high-school teaching is the often-deplored perpetuation of the miniatures of college courses, similar to them in approach and method, but attenuated in content and interest. To gain breadth would not a teacher, fifteen years from her undergraduate days, gain more from repeating a course in general chemistry or biology with a view to learning of their recent magnificent progress? Yet how difficult it is to convince the average college registrar of this fact. For we must keep in mind the type of teacher who has so many classes or subjects to teach that she cannot find time to read even a small part of the endless output of monographs. Such a general course, to be really helpful, should be for graduate students and not largely taken by lower classmen. The requirements for this degree tend to differ in the institutions of the East as opposed to the larger ones of the West and Middle West. The eastern trend has long been toward attainments in general and broadening courses rather than in highly specialized problems, and toward reserving research work for the doctorate. Many western and near- western insti- tutions apparently lacking candidates for the Doctor's degree, have inflicted this work on the only class of ad vans t students they had. This was brought out twenty years ago by an investigating committee of the Federation of Graduate Clubs. Signs of a survival of this presumable viewpoint still persist too frequently; and its appearance in certain prominent eastern universities has followed the importation into their science departments of western men. Too many one-year graduate students fall victims of a mania of science staffs for sending forth from their laboratories an impressive multitude of "preliminary notes" or "reports" on matters of negligible scientific importance except as by-products of some large problem. The value of research per se is not called into question. The value of such research as a one-year graduate student can, or should do, both to science and to the student, both absolutely and relatively, has been greatly overestimated. That is why so many teachers entering a school system must serve a year or two of apprenticeship before they are good for much. It often takes longer for a teacher to cast her useless mental luggage over- board. Organizations of public-school science teachers should compile a blacklist, and boycott college professors and departments of science that waste, in the manner indicated, the few precious months at the disposal of their students. II. THOMAS M. BALLIET, DEAN, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, NEW YORK UNI- VERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. The teaching of science has past thru three stages within the memory of teachers still in the service. The first stage was characterized by text- book teaching, supplemented occasionally with illustrative experiments 736 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Science made by the teacher. The second stage was characterized by individual laboratory work, following the laboratory manual as a guide. The student made his own experiments under the teacher's guidance, observed the result, formulated his own generalizations, and copied them in his note- book. No applications, except a few traditional ones, were made. The third stage improved upon this second stage by leading the pupil, after formulating his generalization, to apply it to the facts and phenomena of nature. This is where the science- teaching of most schools is today. But we must advance to a fourth stage, and some of our best schools are taking this step. We must not only apply scientific generalizations after they have been made as a means of making their significance clearer, but make the explanation of the facts and phenomena of nature — the interpretation of nature — the very goal of science-teaching. We must find our problems in nature out of doors, bring them into the schoolroom to be solved, and use the laboratory experiment only as a means of determining their meaning. The problem found in nature must determine the experi- ment, and the experiment, the apparatus. I have known the reverse pro- cess to be followed, beginning with the apparatus, and we have all known courses in physics and in chemistry prescribed for high schools by the colleges in terms of so many specific experiments. Science-teaching must begin out of doors by finding its problems there, and end out of doors by making the generalization of the laboratory explain as many phenomena as possible. The educational value of science — the training in thinking which it gives — lies in the explanation of nature, not in the mere making of experiments that are prescribed by the teacher or by the laboratory manual; and the drawing of inferences from them, also guided more or less by the teacher, requires but a minimum of mental effort. It is the discovery of problems out of doors, the invention of ingenious experiments to solve them, and the application of the resultant general- izations in the explanation of similar phenomena, that train in scientific method and in scientific thinking. There is more educational value in formulating one generalization and making a hundred applications of it than in making a hundred generalizations and simply copying them into a notebook. It is seldom that a phenomenon in nature can be explained by a single science. Nature is complex. Hence the necessity of what has come to be called "general science" as the first course in high-school science. But this fact has a very important bearing on the training of science teachers for secondary schools, and, I should say, for the first two years of college, which are a part of secondary education. I refer, not to the under- graduate-training in college, which is under any circumstances inadequate, but to the training in the graduate school of the university. The degree of Ph.D. is professedly awarded only to students who have made an important research. This requires narrow specialization to a degree that is often fatal Department! THE IMPORTANCE OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION 737 to later success in secondary schools. Such training, if really thoro, fits a man to teach in a university, where a high degree of specialization is absolutely essential; but it fails to give him that broad knowledge of the whole field of the natural sciences which enables him to draw illustrations from them all in teaching any one of them, which is so vitalizing in the teaching of immature minds. High-school instruction is, after all, extremely elementary, viewed from the standpoint of real scholarship. The perennial interest in secondary education lies in the teaching of children, not in the teaching of subjects. Any teacher at all gifted can easily master in college and in the graduate school all the natural sciences sufficiently to enable him to teach any or all of them effectively in a high school. This indicates what the character of his training should be. It is not the highly specialized work in one phase of a single science which is required for the Ph.D. degree that is wanted, but a broad general training, which shall, however, in all cases include training in scientific method. As students properly desire a degree which places upon them the imprimatur of the university, it has long been a conviction of mine that the A.M. degree, which is now almost a meaningless half-way flag station on the road to Ph.D., should be rescued and given a new dignity equal to that of Ph.D. It should stand for this broad training here suggested, should require as long a course as that for the Ph.D. degree, and should be distinctly the teacher's degree. I suspect that most professors in the universities would look askance at such a suggestion, as very few of them have any compre- hension of the problems of secondary schools. It remains, therefore, for a body like this to enlighten the universities, and press upon them a well- devised plan by which the preparation of secondary-school teachers can be more effectively provided for in our graduate schools. THE IMPORTANCE OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION EDWARD W. STITT, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y. In the Schools of Tomorrow, the recent inspiring book by the Deweys, occurs this sentence: ''The school, like other human institutions, acquires inertia and tends to go on doing things that have once got started, irre- spective of present demands." In my judgment, this tendency to tradition is still shown in the desire on the part of so many educators to make instruc- tion a pouring-in process, in which the teacher becomes a sort of personal phonograph. She talks, talks, talks, so that she really makes a conversa- tional ''record"; the child is forst to listen, and his instruction becomes entirely too ear-minded. 738 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science The Department of Science Instruction of the National Education Asso- ciation has therefore wisely created the Committee on Visual Instruction, and this gathering today is to emphasize the fact that in the future the province of the teacher shall include the realm of the eye as well as that of the ear. Later, the committee intends to prepare a report which shall emphasize those features in all phases of school work, from the kindergarten to the conclusion of the high school, in which the various ways which appeal to visualization shall accomplish more effective results than by former methods. The following are suggested as useful ways to enlarge the plan and scope of the work: (i) lantern slides for instruction purposes; (2) educational motion pictures; (3) stereographs for work in science, history, and geog- raphy; (4) display of maps, charts, and models in classroom; (5) greater use of the blackboard by both pupils and teachers; (6) illustrations in reading-books and textbooks generally; (7) souvenir post-cards and pictures from magazines and newspapers; (8) school exhibits displayed in accord- ance with approved methods; (9) educational museum in some central building, and distribution of visual aids by municipal or state bureaus; (10) clay-modeling, molding in sand trays, etc.; (11) homemade apparatus in elementary science work; (12) visits to museums, art galleries, libraries, etc. Two hundred and sixty years ago Comenius — one of the greatest of educational reformers — emphasized the value of pictures to illustrate the idea symbolized by the word, and set the first real standard for visual instruction. A century later Pestalozzi advanst beyond the picture stage by insisting that teachers must either bring things into the school for study, or else take the children out of the school to see them. Thus further emphasis was placed upon the visual side of school work. The advance of science has brought to the aid of the teacher modern methods of visualization of which the teachers of the past never dreamed. The wonders of the stereoscopic pictures, by which objects stand out in three dimensions and seem to be solids as in nature, show a wonderful advance over the ordinary pictures of textbooks. The marvels of motion pictures, bringing into the schoolroom actual reproductions of scenes from real life, mark a still further advance. The next step in progressive peda- gogic development, however, will be a release from the passive reception of the wonders of film reproductions, by enlisting the active energies of the pupils so as to awaken their self-activity. Department! THE MUSEUM AND PUBLIC-SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT 739 THE MUSEUM AS THE NEW FORCE IN PUBLIC-SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN, PRESIDENT, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY NEW YORK, N.Y. There is a new educational force which is especially exerted and mani- fested in our large cities, where great museums of natural history and art are beginning to use every means possible to extend their treasures to the children of the public schools. The new definition of the purpose of a museum is : "To bring a vision of the world to those who otherwise can never see it." Children are wonderful observers; as a rule they see things even more quickly than their parents, whose powers of observation have been largely dulled thru disuse. The invaluable childish powers of wonder, surprise, and reverence are all cultivated in a museum. This inspirational movement is, perhaps, the most precious outcome of the extension of the museum to the school, for those who can never travel and to whom a journey even from a distant point in the city to a museum, where are brought together all the wonders and marvels of nature in its various forms, is of itself a great event. The American Museum of Natural History of New York was one of the pioneers in this movement, under the leadership of the late Albert S. Bickmore, who in 1880 inaugurated a series of lectures for the teachers of New York City, which during the next decade was so extended as to embrace the teachers thruout the state. It was not until 1904, however, that the first lectures to the public-school children themselves, designed to illustrate and supplement their work in the schools, were given at the museum, and still later, in 19 14, that the Museum arranged to give series of lectures at the schools, especially in the crowded districts of the city where the transportation of children to and from the Museum was difficult. In 1902, when nature-study was first introduced into the city schools, a system of sending out to the public schools small nature-study collections was instituted which reacht annually no less than 1,200,000 pupils. In 1906 the plan was adopted for providing instructors for public-school classes visiting the Museum, in order that the teachers and pupils might utilize their time to the best advantage. In 19 15 the Museum began the system of loaning to the pubHc schools its lantern slides, derived from explorations in all parts of the world. Another advance in the Museum's educational work was the provision in 1909 for instruction to the blind. Classes for blind children from the public schools are held regularly at the Museum, at which opportunities are ajfforded for actual contact with the specimens; and this work has since been extended, thru special endowment, until now courses of evening lectures are given for the adult blind. The system of placing in the public libraries special exhibits on various subjects of travel and exploration 740 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science was inaugurated in 1907, with the result that there is a very great demand for books on these topics. This system was extended in 19 15 to the regular circulation of the Museum exhibits among the branch libraries of the city. A similar movement was begun in 1887 by the Milwaukee Public Museum. Step by step measures of extension similar to those taken by the American Museum have been adopted by other institutions, and the move- ment has gradually extended over the entire United States; for example, in the Commercial Museums of Philadelphia, the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, the Charleston Museum, Charleston, S.C., the Museum of Fine Arts of Boston, our own Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Art Museum of Worcester, Mass., and that of Toledo, Ohio. The American Museum is now visited daily by hundreds and sometimes by thousands of children; and the arrangement of all the collections in the more abstruse as well as in the simpler fields of natural history is designed to be self-explanatory and educational. The great principles of natural science, the elucidation of which represents one hundred and fifty years of exploration and research, which were first set forth by the great French naturalist Buffon thru his popular expositions of scientific truths in Paris in the year 1739, are made clear not only in the text of the labels accompanying the specimens but in the arrangement of the objects themselves. This arrangement calls for the highest and rarest gifts of the museum exhibitor; for the truth as well as the beauty and harmony of the laws of nature must be evidenst. In fact, the reason the Museum has become the great new force which it is in pubhc education is that the old conception of a museum as a storehouse of curiosities has been entirely abandoned and replaced by the newer and truer conception of illustrating the underlying principles of the laws of nature. The practical aspects of this new museum movement in art and science are no less important. In art, all the beauty which has been created by the mind of man is brought together in orderly form as an inspiration to esthetic development and individual achievement. In nature, the book work of the classroom and the experimentation of the laboratory are supplemented and filled out by the intensive study of exhibits of the best that has been found thru the centuries. As an example , the studies in botany in several of the high schools of New York are followed by direct observations in the Hall of Forestry, originally arranged under the direc- tion of Professor Charles S. Sargent, author of Silva Americana. The school studies in biology and zoology are rendered real by visits to the wonderful Darwin Hall, with its vistas of life on the land and in the sea, originally planned by two of the most talented zoologists of this country. Department] VALUE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE SCHOOL MUSEUM 741 THE VALUE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE SCHOOL MUSEUM C. G. RATHMANN, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ST. LOUIS, MO. Nearly 300 years ago Comenius wrote: "As far as possible men are to be taught to become wise, not by books, but by the heavens, the earth, oaks and beeches; that is, they must learn to know and examine things themselves, and not merely by the testimony and observations of others about the things." This doctrine, forgotten for centuries, is being recog- nized again and is rapidly finding its way into the schools of our country. We are moving away from the idea that all teaching must be done in the schoolroom. The school excursion is becoming an important factor in our school life. Teachers take their pupils to field and forest, to river bank and quarry, to shops and public institutions, to the zoological garden, the museum, and the art gallery to observe the work of nature and man. We are being freed from the idea that the textbook is the only means of teaching, the only source of information. We are beginning to supplement the textbook by the photograph, the lantern slide, the stereoscope, and the motion picture. Lately we have begun to add to the pictorial repre- sentations of things, the things themselves, mounted specimens from the animal world, plants, minerals, products of the soil and the industries from all parts of the world. We are beginning to realize that to make the child acquainted with the world in which he lives we must bring him into personal contact with the world. We must, as O'Shea says in his Education as Adjustment^ I" take him into the world or bring the world to him." I I. We can do this thru the school museum with a stock of well-selected Ind carefully arranged material. I In home geography, for example, we must give the child adequate loncepts of facts, conditions, and processes in his physical and human environment and experiences, leading to a better understanding of them u his observation and study of concrete material. We must do this ther by taking him to the material or by bringing the niaterial to him. far as possible we should do the former. Opportunities to study the physical conditions are offered in park, Id, and forest. In them we' find roadbeds, slopes, hills, brooks, and ponds, the careful study of which will enable the children to picture to i^iemselves the earth's principal land and water features. For the study l^k human environment, man and his wants, his industrial and commercial "pursuits, opportunities are found in abundance in the immediate neighbor- tyiood of every schoolhouse in the cities. Shops, houses in the course of lB>nstruction, foundries and quarries, etc., should be visited, and the actual Rrork and conditions observed and studied, not in the vague, inaccurate way in which the children may have lookt at them before, but with a conscious and definite aim. II 742 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science On the other hand, many things with which the children must become acquainted in home geography must be brought into the schoohoom, for instance, the materials for fuel, for food, for clothing. Some of them may be supplied by the children and, whenever possible, should be furnisht by them. Mathematical geography and physical geography in the higher grades are considered by nearly all teachers the most difficult parts in the whole domain of geography to present to the children intelligently and intelligibly. We cannot make the children thoroly understand the rotation of the earth, points of the compass, change of seasons, cloud-formation, the cause and direction of the wind thru text and verbal description; the children must see these processes by means of simple apparatus, and make the experi- ments with such apparatus under the guidance of the teacher. The St. Louis School Museum has twenty-five different sets of such apparatus which ard sent to the schools with the necessary information and directions. Of seacoast, erosion, volcanic action, geysers, divides, canyons, falls and cataracts, glaciers, plains and deserts, no text or verbal description can give concepts sufficiently clear and strong. This should be done by the lantern slide or the stereograph; and these pictorial illustrations should be furnisht in well-selected sets by the school museum. How can the museum help in imparting to the child more interest in and more adequate knowledge of foreign countries ? After considering on the relief map the location, the physical conditions, climate, and rainfall, etc.; after determining what parts of the country will lend themselves to agriculture, herding, mining, lumbering, manufacturing, and the various other occupations of man, the children should be transported, figuratively, into the country by means of the photograph, slide, and stereograph. In local geography — the geography of the city and state in which the children live — they should be made acquainted with the leading industries of their city and state. Nature-study should be taught as far as possible outdoors, in park, field, and forest; but when taught in the schoolroom, living specimens should be used for illustration whenever they can be secured. The surroundings of every city afford ample means of illustrating plant and insect life and the mineral world. The children know, as a rule, but few of the birds they see around them every day. Thru the judicious study of the mounted specimens supplied by the museum in the schoolroom we can awaken their interest and encour- age them to find the living birds in their proper surroundings, to observe their life, their song, how they procure their food, how they build their nests, how they protect themselves, and give the results of their observa- tions to teacher and classmates. Elementary physics should have a place on the program in the higher grades of the grammar schools. Without the proper apparatus, however, Department) VALUE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE SCHOOL MUSEUM 743 such teaching is valueless, a waste of time. The school museum should furnish the apparatus. The museum in St. Louis sends to the schools the necessary material, such as iron, copper, and platinum wire, glass tubes, alcohol lamps and Bunsen burners, microscopes, sonometers, organ pipes, magnets, dry batteries, force and lifting pumps, air pumps, small steam- engines, etc. There should be much visual instruction in history. Thru photograph, stereoscope, lantern, and motion picture, the children should be trans- ported into the situations to be studied and should be given clear and con- vincing pictures of important historical events. The school museum may be of great help in the teaching of music. In St. Louis many of the schools have graphophones, by means of which the pupils become acquainted with the best in music, and are made to love and appreciate good music. The museum furnishes the records for the instruments. 2. What should a school museum contain, and how should the material be used in the schoolroom ? There should be nothing in a school museum which cannot be used in direct connection with the work in the schools. It should contain no mere curiosities, no abnormities nor freaks of nature. It should not be a " cemetery of bric-a-brac, but a nursery of Hving thought." The school museum must have a stock of material quantitatively and qualitatively sufficient to illustrate important tj^es of the work in the ifferent subjects of the curriculum. This is necessary to give the children ivid and concrete images, to teach them to observe and to discriminate, understand the objects, phenomena, processes, and conditions of their ivironment, and to gather educative experiences. Let me present a few concrete examples. Teacher and pupils have ifore them the rice-exhibit from the museum to be used in a nature-study ssson or to make the children acquainted with one of the chief products the southern states or of other countries. The collections contain the ice in the plant, the rice unhuUed, hulled, and bleacht, rice flour, rice irch, rice paper, a number of stereoscopic views and lantern slides, and large colored chart showing the rice plant and its parts. The pictures take the children into the rice fields of South CaroHna, [icaragua, Mexico, Japan, the Philippines, Siam, and Madagascar. The lildren are led to discover and develop thru their own observation the )llowing facts and processes: The soil in which the rice is grown is low id marshy. In some of the countries the rivers overflow their banks and >ver the fields for miles. People actually sow the grains in the water, id when the floods go down the seed sinks into the soft mud at the bottom id springs up there. By means of the objects and pictures the children are also made to see )w the rice is harvested, hulled, whitened, packt and sent to all parts of le world; how rice flour, rice starch, and rice paper are made. The 744 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Science Stereographs and (in the review lesson) the lantern slides make the children acquainted with the people who are engaged in growing rice, with their manner of life, their homes, and their state of civiUzation. The material in the Educational Museum in St. Louis consists of: Food products. — Cereals in the plant and the grain and their products; coffee, tea, sugar, cacao, in the various stages of production; spices, etc. Materials for clothing. — The various animal and vegetable fibers of the world and the fabrics made of them. Tree products. — Domestic and foreign woods; rubber, gutta percha, camphor, cork, etc., in all processes of preparation; materials for dyeing and tanning, etc. Industrial products. — Showing the various stages in the manufacture of glass, paper, leather, ink, the pen, the pencil, the needle, paper made of rags and pulp, the screw, the pocketknife, the broom, the electric lamp, the shoe, terra cotta, etc., besides such products as are made from the materials mentioned in the former groups. 3. How should the material be made accessible to the schools? A school museum must be a traveling museum with a well-planned system of delivery. The teacher must get what she needs to illustrate a lesson when she needs it. She must not be compelled to postpone a lesson because the material is not at hand when the program calls for the lesson. The program must not adapt itself to the museum, but the museum to the program. Naturally, in many cases, different schools will want the same material at the same time, and therefore there must be a sufficient number of dupHcate collections. In order to supply the teachers of a large school system with just what they need at the time they want it, a well-working system of delivery must be establisht. We have found the plan which has been followed in St. Louis for a number of years efficient and satisfactory to the schools. Each teacher has a catalog on her desk from which she orders what she needs to illustrate her work. The material is sent to the schools by a large automobile truck exclusively in the service of the museum. The schools of the city are divided into five groups, each of which has a delivery day once a week, the same day every week. 4. How can a school museum be establisht? Now, if it is valuable, what is the best way of securing a school museum ? It is not as difficult as you may imagine. In cities in which there is a public museum, oppor- tunities for the systematic use of its material in the schools should be given, and are given in many cases. The piuseums of our country have in late years extended the scope of their work of disseminating knowledge to a field where it is of inestimable value. They have opened their great storehouses of information to the pubhc schools, and they ask the teachers to make use of the wonderful things from all parts of the world. Department] VISUAL AIDS TO INSTRUCTION 745 The museum whose guests we are today (the Museum of Natural History of New York) has for years cooperated with the schools of this city by sending them collections of carefully selected illustrative material. The Field Museum of Chicago thru its Harris Public School Extension, the Commercial Museum of Philadelphia, the pubUc museums of Milwaukee, Charleston, S.C., Buffalo, and other cities, are doing the same valuable work. But even in places where there is no public museum the establish- ment of a school museum is not so difficult a matter as is generally supposed. St. Louis has no pubUc museum. The United States Departments of Agriculture and Forestry suppHed us with plants, fibers, woods and tree products, and descriptive literature; and the National Museum in Wash- ington, with minerals and fossils. Owners of mines and quarries all over the country sent us minerals, rocks, and ores. Commercial firms in the United States and abroad presented to the museum natural and industrial products, such as cotton, wool, silk, flax, hemp, jute, coffee, tea, cacao, the various spices, rubber, cork, glass, aluminum, carborundum, etc., and exhibits showing the various stages in their development. We gathered pictorial illustrations from magazines and from railroad and steamship advertisements, and arranged and classified them. Teachers and pupils, patrons and friends of the schools helpt enthusiastically in adding to the material. The Board of Education of St. Louis appropriated for the public- school museum this year, the eleventh year of its existence, the sum of $13,500, that is, 14 cents a pupil. The institution has now 2000 individual collections of illustrative material and 15,000 duplicate collections, each collection consisting of from 4 to 10 objects. The pictorial illustrations consist of 7000 lantern shdes, 10,000 stereographs, 2000 photographs, 1000 large colored charts, and a large supply of descriptive literature in booklets and pamphlets. Motion-picture apparatus was placed in six schools last year. The museum is now making arrangements to furnish the films for them. Visual instruction, as made possible by a good school museum, is becoming an important factor in our school work. I hope that the time is not far away when every school system of our country will have a well- stockt and well-arranged school museum. COLLECTION, ORGANIZATION, AND CIRCULATION OF VISUAL AIDS TO INSTRUCTION BY STATE BUREAUS A. W. ABRAMS, CHIEF, VISUAL INSTRUCTION DIVISION, STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, N.Y. A State bureau of visual instruction in the preparation of a loan collec- tion may properly have in mind the two general purposes of pictures, namely, entertainment and serious instruction. The latter purpose. 746 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IScience however, should unquestionably have first consideration. Other agencies can be counted upon to provide entertainment rather abundantly. It does not fall within the scope of my subject to discuss the pedagogical principles underlying visual instruction, tho I must necessarily imply some of them in considering the selection, organization, and circulation of a state collection. The acquisition of knowledge thru the eye is not a new method. Visual instruction is essentially a very old process. What we do have new in this line today is the greatly increast means of bringing the world to the learner thru pictorial representations. We are indeed highly favored in this respect. Advantage should surely be taken of the means offered; on the other hand, the laws governing the principles of observation, which is the kernel of visual instruction, have in no way been modified; and any use of pictures that fails to recognize the necessity for voluntary attention and genuine mental reaction must be devoid of true educational results. It would be unfortunate indeed if the general introduction of visual instruc- tion should become an end in itself, and should increase the number of exercises in an already overcrowded educational program. The use of pictures should be treated rather as the substitution of a more direct and effective means of instruction for a too-exclusive dependence upon words, which are merely symbols of ideas. In preparing a loan collection of pictures, a state bureau may well be expected to maintain a high standard and to consider relative values. First of all, a picture should be authentic; it should stand for something definite and specific. Visual instruction is chiefly an inductive method of study, and the right attitude of approach should be early acquired. " What ?" " When ?" and " Where ?" are essential questions for considera- tion in an inductive study that is scientific and orderly. Attractiveness is a desirable quahty in a picture, but a picture should rarely be selected merely because of its striking effects. There are abun- dant opportunities to secure the beautiful in combination with the important. In selecting pictures, the aim should be to secure the best representation of types, characteristic views, and essential steps in processes, to the exclusion of pictures of what are merely incidental, occasional, or unimportant features, and hence tend to confuse and obscure larger values. The quality of pictures provided by a state bureau should unquestion- ably be of the highest order. The increast cost of making shdes and prints of higher excellence is little more in the long run than that of inferior ones. In the matter of quality, many of the lantern shdes that are offered to educational institutions and the general pubUc are on the order of chromos and song slides. They are crudely colored, poorly constructed, and printed with little or no regard for good composition; the entire work is slovenly executed. Half-tones and various crude prints are freely DepartmentI VISUAL AIDS TO INSTRUCTION 747 reproduced; photographs that were poor at the start have been copied and recopied until detail and gradation of light and shade are almost wholly lacking. Unfortunately, we continue to tolerate such pictures in lantern shdes and also in books, tho we object to a book if the paper is poor, the type is dirty, or the binding is loose. The surest way for a state bureau to build up a satisfactory collection of pictures and to be in a position to multiply copies and meet the increasing demands of numerous borrowers is to procure its own negatives and to make its own pictures. These negatives should be made directly from the original objects, should be of superior quahty, and should be sufficiently large for contact prints as well as for shdes. It is entirely practicable to procure such negatives. In the long run it is cheaper to do so than to depend upon the trade. This procedure goes far toward making the administration of a large collection effective and practicable. Shall pictures, specifically lantern shdes and prints of various kinds, be filed and circulated in fixt sets, or shall they be filed according to a scientific system of classification? It should not be necessary to offer arguments for the use of a scientific basis of classification of a state collec- tion of pictures intended for general use. If a state bureau aims to do anything better than to provide, for general purpose entertainments that have no special relation to each other and no serious educational ends, it must classify its material on a scientific basis. Under such a classification the popular illustrated lecture is entirely possible for those who want it, but under a grouping of material by fixt sets, a scholarly use of the collection is altogether impossible. Shall prepared lectures be f umisht with lantern shdes ? My answer is involved in what I have already said. If a bureau is to furnish lecture sets of sUdes, it is but logical that it should provide the lectures; but there is really no place in a sound system of visual instruction for "canned" lec- tures, written by one person to be read or recited by another. The method of circulation is naturally determined quite largely by the character of the collection and by the primary purposes for which the collection is maintained. In the case of the New York State collection, as time has gone on the character of the material and the purposes of its use have gradually changed. Any institution that desires to take advantage of the state collection for its own use or for the use of its patrons is furnisht with catalogs of all available material and with official application blanks. The pictures wanted must be separately listed by call number. The burden of selection rests with the borrower. In principle this practice is regarded as sound, tho in the case of small organizations just beginning to use the collection some unusual aid may be given. When an individual or an organization, not entitled to borrow directly from the bureau, asks for pictures, a handbook of information is sent and 748 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science the party is referred to his local library or school. As time goes on each city or village comes to have its local institution thru which full service can be received. The local school or library is not compelled to cooperate with the state bureau. It is, however, supported by the local community and has an obligation, usually recognized, to the public from which support comes. The local school or library is regarded, not as doing the work of the state bureau, but rather as receiving from the state an important aid in carrying out its own efforts to render the community larger service. A plan that is carried out in some states is to route pictures, usually films or lantern slides, in fixt sets. Such a plan is inconsistent with the fundamental conceptions now underlying the preparation and circulation of the New York State collection. It means that all borrowers receive the same combinations of pictures, tho evidently the purposes and immediate needs of different borrowers should, and actually do, vary; it means that the pictures are received by a particular community at a time determined by the routing order, when generally it would be better to have them at a time chosen by the borrower. Under the routing plan, having pictures for use tends to become an end in itself, while under the arrangement above described, they are selected and used as a means to an educational purpose locally determined. Routing gives a partial service, is less universal in its adaptation, and fails to respond to a scientific and orderly plan of instruction. Pictures intended for use with school classes or with larger groups of persons are most advantageously studied when projected upon a screen. For this purpose certain apparatus is required. It would seem to fall properly within the functions of a state bureau to determine the relative adaptabihty of various types of projection apparatus for the purposes it regards as most important to subserve. The bureau should possess the facihties and trained employes to make such a determination of the most suitable types of apparatus and to aid the estabHshment of proper standards. Too much projection apparatus now in the schools has been procured with the proceeds of candy sales and various entertainments, or earned in voting contests conducted by fairs or newspapers, and has been selected to satisfy the inexperienst judgment of an individual, or has been purchast on the advice of the sales agent. The apparatus feature of visual instruction will be satisfactory only when projection apparatus is purchast by the board of education the same as other equipment intended for the serious work of the institution. To proceed in any other way is to admit at the outset that visual instruction is without oflGicial recognition. Potentially, pictures are a very important educational agency. They may be made a remarkably interesting, accurate, and effective means of expressing ideas and material facts. Much needs yet to be done to develop Department) VISUAL AIDS TO INSTRUCTION 749 judgment in selecting them and to establish a pedagogical method for their use. DISCUSSION Clarence M. Abbott, assistant secretary, Nation Board of Review of Motion Pictures, New York, N.Y. — It will be well for me, I believe, to speak very briefly con- cerning the work of the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures. The National Board is composed of a very large number of men and women, many of them chosen from church, civic, and social organizations in New York City, who voluntarily pass upon the product of film-manufacturers. The Board views the motion pictures made by all American companies making regular releases. It estimates that it sees 99 per cent of all pictures exhibited in this country. Such pictures as it sees, it passes as a whole, or condemns, or passes subject to eliminations. Most pictures are of such character that they can be past without any change, but in a considerable number eliminations requested by the National Board are made by the manufacturers, and the films are then circulated for public use. In addition to this criticism of pictures, the National Board also does constructive work thru its children's department and in connection with the "Better-Films Movement." Altho computations show that 85 per cent of the individuals attending motion-picture performances are adults, it is important to provide amusement for children in motion pictures of a kind which can be subject to no criticism. In furthering this object the National Board selects pictures which are especially valuable for children, and also stimulates the organization of special performances for them. In order that there might be adequate reason for the selection of pictures for children, the National Board sent a questionnaire to over two hundred child psychologists, educators, and others working with children, asking them definite questions with reference to the reaction of motion pictures upon children, and invited their discussion of the general subject. The replies received were then condenst by the National Board into what it calls "Principles for the selection of children's pictures." These principles are elaborate, but explicit, and every picture viewed by the review committees of the Board is voted upon with reference to its availability for children. In addition, fifty members of the review committee are specially charged with the selection of these pictures. As the Board is in a very strong position to make both a wide and a wise selection of pictures, its recommendations are of value. The pictures which are chosen are listed in a monthly bulletin which is available for use upon request to the National Board. The "Better-Films Movement," which is being sponsored by the National Board, means the selection of pictures which are especially good for the family circle of father, mother, and children. These pictures are also chosen by committee members and are listed monthly. In addition, the National Board has printed a catalog called A Garden of American Motion Pictures, which contains a very wide selection of films of especially fine character. Included among them are many educational pictures. The National Board will be very glad to supply these pamphlets upon request and to correspond with any person or organization who may be interested in educational, or especially fine, films. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President— LmiJAEVS N. Hines, superintendent of schools Crawfordsville, Ind. Vice-President — Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. Secretary — C. Ward Crampton, director of physical training, city schools. . .New York, N.Y. FIRST SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 19 17 The meeting was called to order by the president at 9:30 a.m., in the Sage Founda- tion Building. Papers were presented as follows: "The Work of the New York City Bureau of Child Hygiene" — S. Josephine Baker, M.D., director, bureau of child hygiene, department of health, New York, N.Y. "Social Aspects of School Hygiene" — Donald B. Armstrong, director, department of social welfare. New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, New York, N.Y. "A Practical Course of Study in Hygiene" — Francis M. Walters, State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo. "Child Hygiene, First Aid to the Uninjured" — ^Woods Hutchinson, president, American Academy of Medicine, New York, N.Y. The session closed with the appointment by the president of a committee on nomi- nations. SECOND SESSION— Saturday Forenoon, July 8, 1916 A joint meeting with the American School Hygiene Association was opened in the Sage Foundation Building, at 9:30 a.m., by President Hines. The following themes were presented: "Schoolhouses and the Fire Hazard" — Frank Irving Cooper, architect, Boston, Mass. "The Teaching of Home Nursing and the Care of Children to Elementary and High-School Pupils" — ^Isabel M. Stewart, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "The Physical Care of Rural-School Children" — ^Taliaferro Clark, surgeon, United States Public Health Service, Washington, D.C. "Cooperation in Health Administration" — ^Willard S. Small, principal, Eastern High School, Washington, D.C. "The New York System of School Hygiene" — ^I. H. Goldberger, M.D., assistant director of educational hygiene. Department of Education, New York, N.Y. President Hines then appointed the following committee to cooperate with similar committees of other organizations to prepare a report on the "Minimum Essential of Physical Education": Walter S. Cornell, M.D., director of medical inspection in the public schools, Phila- delphia, Pa.; Lee L. Driver, county superintendent of schools, Winchester, Ind.; Francis M. Walters, professor. State Normal College, Warrensburg, Mo.; Willard S. Small, principal. Eastern High School, Washington, D.C; Thomas A. Storey, M.D., College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y. 751 752 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene Upon recommendation of the Committee on Nominations, the following persons were re-elected for the ensuing year: President — ^Linnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind. Vice-President — ^Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland Stan- ford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. Secretary — C. Ward Crampton, director, physical training, city schools. New York, N.Y. The meeting then adjourned. C. W. Crampton, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE WORK OF THE NEW YORK CITY BUREAU OF CHILD HYGIENE S. JOSEPHINE BAKER, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF CHILD HYGIENE, DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, NEW YORK, N.Y. The New York City Bureau of Child Hygiene was the first to be establisht in the United States. It was created in 1908, and stands as a recognition of the poUcy that health in childhood is a government function, ranking in importance with compulsory education during childhood. This policy is no longer an isolated one, for at the present time at least five states and a large number of cities and towns have organized bureaus of child hygiene, under control of boards of health. The fundamental pohcy of the New York City Bureau of Child Hygiene has been, since its inception, (i) that it should include supervision of all activities relating to the health of all children of the city, from birth to adolescence, in so far as a municipahty can control such conditions; (2) that these activities be so coordinated and correlated as to provide con- tinuous and adequate supervision of child life and child health; (3) that the fundamental basis of all efforts of the bureau must be educational and preventive, that its prime object must be not only to keep children well, but to assure to them such vigorous health that they may become healthy adults; consequently corrective measures must be used only as temporary expedients; (4) that the social aspect of public-health work, in relation to children, is of primary importance and must be developt to the utmost extent. In all health work for children there are two points which must be emphasized: First, the recognition that we are dealing with an age group. Until such children were dealt with in a class by themselves, practically all health activities had a specialized object; that is, certain organizations were devoted to the control of tuberculosis, others to the reduction of infant mortality, and still others to the supervision of food-supplies or the i Department! NEW YORK CITY BUREAU OF CHILD HYGIENE 753 control of sanitation in general; but the formation of the Bureau of Child Hygiene in New York City was the first recognition that the early period of life is of supreme importance from the point of view of health. The starting-point of such health work is the child, and not the environ- ment; and all work in the Bureau of Child Hygiene has been based upon [' adapting environment or surroundings to fit the child's needs rather than trying to reconstruct the child to fit an environment created particularly for adults. The second, and perhaps the more important, object of treating the child's life as a whole rather than in specialized parts, has been the growing recognition that public-health work, in order to be effective, must be pre- ventive, and not corrective, in its activities. It is a practical impossibihty to carry on real preventive health work with adults whose habits are already fixt and whose status of health has usually been determined. The only persons who respond to true preventive work are children, and even here we find that the value of true preventive work in health lines is suc- cessful in proportion to the early date of its inception. The healthy baby usually becomes a healthy child (at least, it is far better fitted to resist the diseases that pertain to childhood), and the healthy child furnishes the material for the healthy adult. In the Bureau of Child Hygiene the test of efficiency has been based, not upon the number of children who live, but upon the number of children who grow up well and strong. Thus, while New York City has had a remarkable reduction in its infant-mortality rate, ranging from 159 deaths of infants under one year of age per thousand children born in 1905, to 90 deaths under one year of age per thousand births for the first six months of 19 16, the value of its work is more truly reflected in the fact that for the last five-year period, as contrasted with the previous five-year period, the reduction in the death rate of children between one and two years of age and between two and five years of age has been greater than the reduction in the death rate under one year of age. So also, the lessened number of babies dying in the first year of life has been due in large measure to the efforts made in the line of instruction of expectant mothers, a work which assures to the baby its natural birthright of health and vigor. Thruout the entire life of the child the functions of the Bureau of Child Hygiene are continuous and coordinated. Starting with the supervision of midwives and of foundling babies boarded out in private homes and the instruction of expectant mothers, it carries on its work for the reduction of infant mortality during the first year of life by the provision of sixty infants' milk stations and of a large number of doctors and nurses for home instruction of mothers. The next step in the care of the child between infancy and school age falls under various branches, including the sanitary supervision and medical I control of day nurseries, the supervision of institutions for dependent 754 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IChUd Hygiene children, and finally, and perhaps the most direct method, the examination and supervision of the children from two to six years. This is done by using the infants' milk stations as welfare centers where such children may be brought and kept under control. This "preschool-age work" is of particular importance because, in the entire field of the control of child hygiene, it has been the one period of life which has been most neglected. It is difficult to reach these children. The birth certificate affords an easy means of access to the baby, the school provides an easy means to reach the child of school age, but the child "in between" has been in danger of being lost. We now keep many of these children under control, thus com- pleting the continuous supervision of the child. Next to the supervision of the child during infancy and the preschool period, the most comprehensive part of the bureau's activities lies in the supervision of the health of children of school age. I have used this term advisedly, for I feel that in the past too much emphasis has been laid upon the so-called "school child" rather than upon the "child of school age." Health-supervision in schools was not instituted primarily for the purpose of helping children to pass examinations, nor should it be pursued because of that reason. It may be maintained, without fear of contradiction, that a healthy child is more receptive and has a chance of showing better scholar- ship than the child who is not healthy; but the real object of so-called "school medical inspection" should be the health of the child as a child, not in its relation to its school surroundings nor to any other part of its environment, but as a unit, with a desire to place the child in such good physical condition and so to teach it the value of health measures and sanitary surroundings that it may reach adult life in normal physical condi- tion and be prepared to withstand the diseases incident to middle or later life. The term "school medical inspection" is also a misnomer. The term "health-supervision" should take its place, and the system should form, not an isolated instance of the community's desire to protect the welfare of the child, but simply a part of a well-rounded plan to conserve child life from birth to puberty. The system of "heajth-supervision" or "school medical inspection" in the New York City public schools is carried on under a special division of the New York City Bureau of Child Hygiene, under the Department of Health. The control of contagious diseases has been successful because of insistence upon early exclusion. In other words, we do not wait until the disease has developt before excluding a child from school attendance, but send him home from school if he shows any symptoms of illness of any form. Diagnosis is later made at the home by the school doctor. In this way it has been possible to avoid school epidemics. Special attention is paid to classrooms where more than one case of any disease is found to have occurred among the children of the indicated class. Under this system of supervision II Department] NEW YORK CITY BUREAU OF CHILD HYGIENE 755 it has not been found necessary to close any public school in New York City in the last six years on account of an epidemic of contagious disease. Similar, but even more definite, results have been achieved with the contagious eye and skin diseases. This is particularly true with regard to the elimination of ringworm and scabies — diseases which have become practically extinct in the New York City public schools. The school authorities are especially concerned with the general health of the child, that is, the so-called '^ supervision for the prevention and cor- rection of physical defects. " We may assume that the standards of progress in the education of the individual are based upon the assumption that the child in question is in normal mental and physical condition. The school program is formulated for the normal child. Without considering the question of the mentally defective child, the number of children with physical defects in our public schools is so great as to present an enormous problem. The conditions in New York City are not different from the conditions thruout the country as a whole. Seventy per cent of the children examined show some hitherto undetected physical defect. The defects to which I refer are those which are not predominant enough to have been detected by the parents or the teacher. The more noticeable physical defects, such as blindness, deafness, or lame- ness, are so obvious in their nature that it has been the practice to provide special classes, with particular methods of instruction, for these groups. Similar action has been taken, to a certain degree, with regard to children with markt malnutrition. Here the open-air or, better still, the open- window class, has shown excellent results; but the great mass of children in the school are not visibly handicapt by the defects which are of such a nature that their effect upon the general health of the child is insidious, but none the less serious. The prevention of these physical defects lies, not in the period after the child has entered school, but primarily in the period of infancy and preschool age. During school life, however, no new defect should develop, and here the school and the home bear an equal responsibility. The school doctor and the school nurse have performed only part of their function when they have cared for the child in school. Probably the more important part of their work is done in the child's home. The readjustment of the child's daily life, so that its health needs may be met, is primarily the work of the school nurse, and I cannot too often record my appreciation of her value as a public-health oflScial. In New York City the system of prevention of these defects, with their detection and correction if they occur, has resulted in a markt diminution in the number of children in the public schools who are suffering from defects of this nature. Among the most prominent defects I may state that defective vision has been reduced from an incidence of 13 . i per cent in 1909 to 9.9 per cent in 1915; defective nasal breathing, which means the 756 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IChUd Hygiene presence of adenoid growths, has been reduced from i8 . i per cent in 1909 to 10 per cent in 1915; enlarged tonsils, from 22 per cent in 1909 to 11 .6 per cent in 1915. The most important problem we have at present is that connected with malnutrition among the children. Serious cases are easily recognized, but the more subtle forms of the disease often pass unnotist, and many such children are considered normal, because they form so predominant a group among certain racial types. In the control of this class of cases it is necessary, not only that the home and the school unite, but that every possible aid be appHed from both sources. Open- window classrooms, school lunches, better hygiene and food for the child at home, and proper medical care are requisite, but here again the time to prevent malnutrition in school children is during the period of infancy. The final method of control of the school child comes at the time when he leaves school for the purpose of going to work. In this state, between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years, such children must obtain employ- ment certificates from the local board of health. It has been possible, thru the establishment of the Bureau of Child Hygiene, to make this work continuous with the supervision of the child during his or her school life. We consider adequate physical examination of these children to be of the utmost importance, and no child is allowed to receive an employment certificate unless perfect health can be shown. The children who are in obvious need of health-supervision are kept under control. SOCIAL ASPECTS OF SCHOOL HYGIENE DONALD B. ARMSTRONG, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE, NEW YORK ASSOCIATION FOR IMPROVING THE CONDITION OF THE POOR, NEW YORK, N.Y. The New York City Department of Health budget request for 19 15 included an item of approximately $27,000 for additional dental clinics. This was justified on the ground that the 19 13 records of medical inspec- tion of the school children showed that about 59 per cent of the school enrolment were in need of dental care and that there were about 524,000 cases of dental defects in the city schools. But, the request failed of approval, altho the Board of Education devotes about $3,000,000 annually to the re-education of children held back in their classes probably in part at least, by incapacitating, tho preventable and curable, physical and mental defects. The sum of $27,000 refused for prevention, $3,000,000 authorized for re-education, part of which is for ineffective cure! There are many things to be realized in a complete consideration of the social aspects of school hygiene of which only those of apparently greater importance can be considered here. Departmentl SOCIAL ASPECTS OF SCHOOL HYGIENE 757 It is estimated that in the year 1914 there were probably about 950,000 cases of physical defects among the school children of New York City. This indicates, not only a tremendous loss in efficiency, a great economic waste, an extremely poor conservation of human resources, and a severe handicap upon the workings of the educational system, but it is placing an unnatural and an unnecessary limitation upon the social and economic welfare of a vital part of our national structure — the children, our potential citizens. Much of this disability is preventable or curable. Ought we not to realize that this is not only possible but worth while ? The contrast between wise and unwise health expenditures is no more clearly illustrated than by the appropriations for health departments, particularly in some of our smaller cities and towns. Here is seen most clearly the necessity for popular education which shall make possible rational value judgments concerning matters of health importance. The school hygienists, struggHng for health-department funds, frequently meet in battle with the plumbers and nuisance-abaters before the august judges clothed with appropriating powers, and almost as frequently go down in defeat. In Auburn, N.Y., in 1913, out of a health appropriation of $12,320, $7000 or 57 per cent was spent on garbage-disposal, leaving approximately $5000 for such measures as the control of communicable diseases, anti-tuberculosis work, infant-welfare work, and school hygiene. In 1913 Elmira appropriated $6000 for health and spent $1200 for plumbing- inspection. At the same time Elmira is credited with having no school- inspection. This $1200 spent on pipes and drains would be immensely more effective if devoted to the removal of defects in human plumbing, such as the adenoids and tonsils of school children. It is a contest between soil pipes and windpipes, with the odds aU in favor of the non-human variety. On the distinctly social side of the question there are various points, many of which are generally applicable to all health work and a few of which are of special significance in school hygiene. Perhaps we can briefly present the more important of these as follows: I. In all health work in the prevention of physical defects among school children, it is essential that we be not blinded to the underlying, indirect, economic, and social factors in the etiology of our problem. Frequently those interested, suffering from an almost inevitable myopia association, with close contact with the details of a problem, fail to see it in its entirety; they do not see the necessity for the correction of such predisposing factors as the inadequate family income, lack of adequate instruction regarding economic expenditures for, and the proper use of, foods, our unimaginative, individualistic, competitive system of industrial organization, .the economic dependence of the mothers of the school children, the effects of bad breed- ing on the racial stock, and the necessity for healthy soil in which to sow the seeds of education. li 758 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Child Hygiene 2. Health work in the schools may perhaps be outhned from one point of view somewhat as follows: a) The detection, isolation, and suppression of communicable disease; b) The discovery and correction of non-communicable physical and mental defects; c) The encouragement of strength and resistance to infection and the development of healthy normal bodies and minds. In great part the types of health work we have been used to in the past have been of an eliminative, suppressive character. In school hygiene, for instance, there was first attempted the control of communicable diseases. This was health work of a suppressive character. Of late, however, we have been giving increasing attention to the more constructive phases of school hygiene. We are now attempting, tho indeed with grotesquely inadequate measures, the elimination of non-communicable defects and the prevention of improper and insufficient feeding and the resultant malnutrition by the establishment of lunches in the schools — an experiment in itself of great social importance, significant as a demonstration of the economic and social value of group-feeding. We are now going still farther in the use of pro- phylactic dental clinics, dental nurses, to say nothing of the comprehensive program for physical training and development. This constructive element in modern health work is exceedingly prom- ising and is to be found in all phases of health activity. In the factories, for instance, where industrial dusts and disease are associated, not only are shower baths provided where the dusts may be washt off and industrial disease supprest, but there is added to the equipment bathing pools where health and resistance to industrial disease may be constructed. Thus modern, constructive, creative health work presents a previously lacking social content. In school work it indicates the realization of the social value of healthy children. It is attempting there to lay a firmer physical foundation upon which the world may hope to see constructed a finer social state. It realizes that without a physically sound substratum social evolution is bound to be abortive. It is from this point of view that school-health work is of very high significance when socially interpreted. 3. The foundations of health education must be laid in the schools. This is of particular importance in the light of our modern conception of health work. In our more advanst communities we scarcely need speak longer of public-health work. It is possible now to drop the word "public" and to talk of health. This means that personal health, personal hygiene, is to be the keynote of modern sanitation. The schools are, beyond com- parison, the most valuable instruments for the instruction of society's members in the matters of hygiene. A great deal is said regarding the use of the school as a social center. Indeed, there is seen on all sides the increasing use of the schools as centers for community life, and in no field is this development of greater importance Department) A PRACTICAL COURSE OF STUDY IN HYGIENE 759 than in the dissemination of knowledge regarding infection and health- preservation. Special literature on various municipal health problems is being constantly prepared and presented to the children. Health days of all kinds are set aside for special observance. Recently, indeed, a plan has been proposed for the development, in connection with school community- center work, of a self-supporting medical center for meeting the sickness and health needs of the school neighborhood. Such potential channels for education as the school-lunch system, not designed originally for special educational use, is now employed for the enhancement of knowledge regarding sanitary, dietary, economic, and culinary food values. If the schools are to serve a further socio-hygienic purpose, every effort must be made to bring to perfection the physical equipment, so that it may serve during school hours as an example to the children of the essentials of a hygienic and sanitary environment. 4. While it is customary for us to classify disease, according to its origin, as environmental or constitutional, one can, with justice, say that all the former and most of the latter class are of distinct social origin, depending upon social habits and customs for their transmission or develop- ment, and to be combated by social instruments. This conception of disease is certainly applicable to the affections of school life, and, as the child is the ward of the state, society has here a most urgent obhgation to maintain healthful conditions. This society is doing to the extent to which there has been developt a sense of social responsibility. There is the addi- tional necessity for this basis of health in the schools of the educational I system is to bear its best fruits. A physical foundation is essential to the .successful and economic working of the educational mechanism. The fpouring of pure wine into crackt vessels was ever a wasteful and futile [process. An active social consciousness will make possible the avoidance [of such tremendous wastes as are involved in an educational system which, because it refuses to use well-known and tested preventive measures, turns put annually an army of incompetents, misfits, physical defectives, and sufferers from mental inadequacy, all of whom will serve society abomi- nably and exactly after the manner in which society has met its own [obligations to them. A PRACTICAL COURSE OF STUDY IN HYGIENE FRANCIS M. WALTERS, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, WARRENSBURG, MO. In matters of health knowing and doing are widely separated. Knowl- edge influences, but does not determine, action. We are largely controlled [thru an automatic nervous mechanism which reacts to the influences by [which we are surrounded, and only slightly controlled by conscious effort, 'he excited will can for short intervals govern the body, but this instrument 76o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tChUd Hygiene only too readily succumbs to our instincts, appetites, desires, and habits. These are always on the job, and they do not easily take orders from the higher authority. Why does the young woman persist in her use of unhygienic clothing and footwear when she knows better ? Why does the laborer continue to overwork when he realizes each day its harmful effects ? Why does the obese patient disobey the injunction of his physician and overeat ? Why does the victim of delirium tremens go on using alcohol ? Why do we all put into practice much less hygiene than we know ? It is the compeUing nature of the forces that automatically determine the course of life. Our main problem, as I see it, is to adjust, and to some extent recon- struct, for the pupil his controlling mechanism. We must implant in his inner nature habits, tendencies, desires, ideals, and prejudices which will cause him to do, without very much thinking, what is best for his health, and we must so strengthen his will that it shall be able to regulate and supplement his lower controlling mechanism. While methods for the accompHshment of this essential purpose may vary with the teacher, there are certain aims which should be kept in mind by all. The pupil must be brought into an understanding of the nature and value of his instincts, appetites, and natural inclinations, and also of their limitations. He must know to what extent it is advantageous to follow their leadings and in what respects they fail to be a true guide. I may illustrate this point by reference to the sensation of fatigue. While positive fatigue resulting from prolonged muscular exertion truly calls for rest, negative fatigue, which results from slight exertion when one is not used to exercise, and chronic fatigue, which results from constitutional causes, call just as loudly for rest, altho exercise instead of rest is frequently needed for their relief. Perversions of the automatic system should also be understood, and ip their study I believe that we may improve greatly upon our usual pres- entation of stimulants and narcotics. Instead of a detailed study of the effects of alcohol and nicotine upon the body, expecting thereby to estab- lish a deep and abiding prejudice against their use, I would suggest the giving of a few illuminating lessons upon the effects of these and other substances upon the automatic mechanism of control, showing how they render it unreliable as a guide for the admission of materials into the body. We would then not be required to argue the question as to whether tea, coffee, alcohol, tobacco, soft drinks, or anything else, appreciably affects the health of this one or that. Our great concern is their effect upon our mechanism of control. The point is thus easily made that drug habits are to be broken, not so much on account of their immediate effect upon the health as for their effect upon one's ability properly to manage his body. It is useless to talk about controlling health until we are able to shape the grooves along which the life-forces expend themselves. Man must be master of his habits. To demonstrate this principle, and as exercise in Department] A PRACTICAL COURSE OF STUDY IN HYGIENE 761 training the will, I insist upon my pupils breaking what some consider trivial habits, such as tea- and coffee-drinking, habits that waste their nervous energy, wrong habits of work, and habits of an antisocial nature; and upon their substitution for these, habits that lead in the right direction. 2. We must supply for the pupil an impelling motive. 3. We must provide actual drill in the application of hygienic prin- ciples. These are both problems which greatly tax the skill and inge- nuity of the teacher. In my own work I have found a valuable aid in their solution in the requirement of corrective work on the part of the pupil. Advantage is taken of the fact that perfect health is seldom attained, to place before the student the general problem of putting his health upon a higher plane. He is told that he will receive a grade upon his health, based largely upon his ability to control and improve his physi- cal condition, which will be averaged with his other grades in determining his final standing in the subject. When, at the close of the course, the physical tests and measurements are repeated, inquiries into bodily condi- tions are again made, and the health account with each student is cast up, the results are most encouraging. For example, in our two hygiene sses for the spring term of this year, in which 57 students were enroled, following results were obtained: Number who made noticeable improvements in health, 55. Number ose health was the same on entering and on leaving the class, i. Num- ber whose health was not so good on leaving as on entering the class, i. Of the 55 who improved in health, 15 increast in weight, this being a desira- ! ble change, and 8 who had had an excess of weight were able to make per- ceptible reductions, one girl losing 15 pounds and another 13. Twenty-one j made substantial improvements in posture, while 32 of the girls showed r ^p improved condition of the muscles. Nine cases of constipation were I^Bred and an equal number secured decided improvement. Ten of the "Students were able to rid themselves of mild nervous disorders, such as head- I ache, insomnia, nervousness, and the tendency to worry. Nine of the girls improved their complexions, a large number stopt drinking coffee, and one I of the boys broke the tobacco habit. Twenty with blood-pressure above 1 the average for young people succeeded in lowering it, the fall varying in different individuals from 5 to 25 millimeters. Seven having a disturbed I circulation (too much blood moving toward the head and too little toward ; the feet, indicated by chilliness of the extremities) obtained rehef, and 10 I having pulse rates of above 85 were able to secure advantageous reductions. I Thirty-seven increast their lung capacity, the greatest increase being 40 I^ubic inches. From the results obtained with the hundreds of students H^o have taken this course, I feel justified in suggesting that much subject- -matter relating to the use of exercise, posture, diet, proper methods of eating, nervous conservation, etc., as a means of correcting bodily ills and defects be included in the course. lb 762 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene 4. The subject-matter of a practical course in hygiene must be care- fully selected, arranged in logical sequence, and simply presented. Truths which require daily application must be exprest in phraseology easily translated into action. Such a course, to be sure, will include much subject- matter relating to diseases caused by germs. Every person should, in keeping with our militaristic tendencies, be a good fighter of germs. He should know how to fight them offensively and defensively. He should understand the simple methods of preventing germ invasions thru the skin and the mucous linings, and of dislodging such of his invisible enemies as have entrencht themselves upon his body domain. He should know how to intercept germs in their passage from one to another, how to destroy them outside of the body, and how to keep his environment from supplying harboring and recruiting stations for his bacterial foes. To understand the operation of the forces that influence health we must understand something of the nature and plan of the body, and this necessi- tates the teaching of some physiology and anatomy. This, however, must be subordinated to hygiene, and taught for the purpose of illuminating it. In the past we dragged in so much physiology and anatomy that little time was left for hygiene. Today, in some places, teachers are going to the opposite extreme of asking pupils to accept and apply the laws of health on faith. We need to strike the happy mean of supplying enough physiology and anatomy to make health laws understandable, while avoiding technical and unimportant details. It is up to the teachers — those who teach thru the press and from the platform, as well as those who toil in the classroom — to bring about this condition. But I would not overlook the reaction of work of this character upon the teacher himself. It is a constant reminder to him of the necessity for keeping up health and efficiency. He is made happy by expressions of appreciation from pupils, parents, and school officers. He realizes increast power from functioning in a new field. And he ceases to be merely a teacher, but becomes teacher, preacher, physician, and general adviser combined. CHILD HYGIENE, FIRST AID TO THE UNINJURED WOODS HUTCHINSON, PRESIDENT, AMERICAN ACADEMY OF MEDICINE, NEW YORK, N.Y. If the World- War rid us of militarism and of the drill-sergeant idea in the schoolroom, it may be worth all it costs. Modern war calls for science, and science is precisely what our present system of education doesn't give as yet. Military training in the schools may prove the great emancipator for whom we have been waiting to free our system of education from the clerical shackles and classical absurdities of the past, and place it upon a hygienic, rational, and scientific basis. Instead of deploring it, we should Department) CHILD HYGIENE, FIRST AID TO THE UNINJURED 763 meet it half-way and see whether we cannot easily obtain in the name of war what we have not been able to obtain for the bodily welfare of the child in the frivolous name of play. Instead of a hard-won and barely tolerated section on school hygiene, we may be able to make all schooling hygienic and all education improving to the body and health of the child as well as to his mental development. To paraphrase Scripture, if we seek first the kingdom of Mars and its efficiency, all other things may be added unto us. Modern military ideals can be made to work a real transvaluation of educational values. It would do us no harm to reverse our ideals for a few decades, for there is no danger of our being dragged too far out of the rut. First and foremost the war-school curriculum demands and aims at a igorous, healthy, well-balanst and well-trained body, "a fust-class fighting n," or, what is equally important, fighting woman — a real militant. t that under modern conditions and you also get all the brain power and all the beauty that the individual was born with. Scholars can be made in any kind of a cell or garret, but soldiers must be manufactured in I the open air. This solves the problem of ventilation, also of eyestrain, Lwid of crooked backs from too much desk work. ^B The things that the soldier must do, the things that the engineer must ^o, the things that the munition worker, the hospital nurse, and the army cook must do, are the very things that children of both sexes. are most eenly and intensely interested in — the very things on which they get no practical information in the present curriculum. We have so-called science courses in the schools, but they begin at exactly the opposite end from the child's interest. They are making him hate science almost as much as he now hates good literature. The war point of view would verse all this and solve the great pedagogic problem of interest. Modern war is not just pulling the trigger or lunging with the bayonet. is electricity, it is aeronautics, it is chemistry, it is machinery of every aginable sort and description — motors, submarines, telephones, helio- phs, mines, dams, cement work, road-building, house-building, black- inithing, every art and craft of modern civilization. Not only so, but ^ne half of modern war is fought in factories, and another fourth on rail- l^ftads and in supply departments. Every soldier on the firing line requires ^0 support him there and keep him supplied, three men and four women, h©n the railroads, in the munition works, in the equipment-factories, in l^pe hospitals, and on the farm. Education for modern war would solve ^^ery problem of vocational training. Conscription covers, not merely ^very possible soldier, but every worker, both male and female, in the l^^tire nation, and assigns to each one his or her place in the team. We "re all enlisted for this war. As the old traditional discipline, both in the schoolroom and on the drill ground, tried to crush out individual differences, I m M.. Iypa: jsmii iscn li 764 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [ChUd Hygiene to reduce us all to one monotonous similarity, the new discipline looks out eagerly for differences and proceeds to utilize each one and fit it for its own special "hole" or gap in the great picture puzzle. War, terrible and pitiable as it is, may be the hammer which is smashing the way for a new era, for the long-delayed triumph of science and common- sense over tradition. Already it gives a new feeling of interest in life, a new sense of solidarity with one's kind. Commonplace duties, prosaic tasks, menial services even, become interesting and worth while and dignified in the name of the safety of the nation and the protection of the homeland. Rich and successful business men, fashionable society women, highbrow scholars and professional men, high-school girls and college boys, are all eagerly drilling, and camp-draining, and tent-pitching, and hiking across country, and cooking, and taking first-aid courses, and learning to supply their own wants, and protect their health, and work with others for the safety and happiness of the community in a way that they never can forget as long as they live, in a way that augurs most happily for the future. The "democracy of the dog tent," of the munitions-factory, of the hospital ward may be the forerunner of a new and happier state, when only those things that make for true manhood, true womanhood, will count, and all other distinctions be wiped out. SCHOOLHOUSES AND THE FIRE HAZARD FRANK IRVING COOPER, ARCHITECT, BOSTON, MASS. Every day in the year two and one-half schoolhouses are on fire in the United States, but in the face of this fact the state legislature of Massa- chusetts has shown this last winter that it will risk the lives of its school children in fire-trap school buildings until another legislature meets, and this state of affairs will probably continue as long as you permit the legis- lative mind to consider dollars as of more value than the lives of the school children. Believing in the old adage that Hghtning never strikes twice in the same place, the Massachusetts legislature will continue to hazard the children in school buildings of a past generation that are carefully built for quick burning. The Massachusetts legislature has said to its bodies of petitioning citizens, to its state chief inspector of school buildings, even to the governor of the state, that it will do nothing to safeguard the hundreds of old school buildings which, for two hundred days in the year, its children are, by law, forst to attend. The legislature closes each day's session with the petition, "God save the commonwealth of Massachusetts," but its members turn away from the state commissioner of education when he asks them for laws which shall protect the children and safeguard the old buildings, while it listens Department] SCEOOLHOUSES AND TEE FIRE HAZARD 765 with solemnity to the head of an institution who asserts that the fire-stops which would make his building safe will injure it as a show piece of architecture. One school officer declared that he was convinst from his long experience of fifty years that there was no fire hazard, that there was nothing that required the attention of the law, and yet twenty-one little school children were burned to death in the front vestibule of a school building without fire-stops in the town of Peabody, Mass., on the twenty-eighth day of last October. The official report states that the building was a substantial, large, and roomy structure, and the egresses were thought to be ample for the number of children who occupied it. Many times at the sound of the bell it had been vacated in a minute and a half, the children were well trained and disciplined, but they had only been trained to leave the building by way of the two exits prepared for them, and unfortunately on the day in question this line of march led directly to a vestibule into which the smoke and flames were pouring. While the egresses provided were all the law required, it now appears evident that there should have been additional exits. The state of Massachusetts was deeply stirred by this repetition of the schoolhouse fire in CoUinwood, Ohio, where the loss of life occurred from a similar cause. Public meetings were held, committees were appointed, and the usual investigations were made. In the city of Boston on Novem- ber ninth, following the Peabody fire, a conference of officials of the cities and towns of the commonwealth and of citizens distinguisht in various lines of work connected with schools, met at Faneuil Hall to consider methods of safeguarding the old school buildings. This conference was opened by the governor of the state. A state- wide committee was appointed at this meeting to consider what measures should be taken to safeguard existing schoolhouses and insure the proper construction of new school LUMuses. I^B Its report, which was publish t by the Massachusetts fire-prevention commissioner, advised in part that in basements all ceiUngs be plastered on metal lath; that any wood partitions be replaced with masonry, or I covered with fire-resisting material; that in rooms used for cooking or I manual training or in other places where elements of danger were introduced, j sprinklers should be installed for fire protection. It advised that special ! care be taken to fire-stop all openings, that stairways be freed of any inclosed \ space under them, that they be shut off with partitions of metal lath, and ' plastered, and stairways entered thru fireproof, spring-closing doors. It ; advised that such inflammable material as waste paper, oils, etc., be placed i in metal receptacles and be kept in plain sight. It also advised that first- ! floor rooms have exits directly to the outside, a most important recommen- dation, as children from first-floor rooms would then not congest the main 1 exits, and, moreover, such exits would provide a way out from the center li 766 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION tChUd Hygiene of the building if the other exits became blockt. It advised that the 4-4 signal recommended by the fire chiefs be universally adopted for the fire signal. This signal is given by four distinct rings followed after a slight pause by a second four distinct rings. It was also recommended that fire drills be an accustomed exercise, the time taken to be considered as a period for a lesson in order and discipUne. The report of this state-wide committee brought favorable comment, and soon a demand arose for legislation to prevent a repetition of the tragic fire at Peabody. The state-wide committee took up this work, and that this proposed legislation for the control of existing school buildings should fully meet requirements, the committee solicited opinions of officials and educators from all parts of the commonwealth. While absolute data were not available it was shown that the base- ment of a school building was the danger point, as from the records con- sulted over 90 per cent of the schoolhouse fires originated in that part of the building; that the spread of fire was due chiefly to lack of fire-stopping and other means of preventing draughts into corridors and stairways; and that the loss of life in schoolhouse fires had been due largely to smoke and fire gaining entrance to the stairways and vestibules which are the means of exit. Professor Breed, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, testified that there had never been a loss of life in a schoolhouse fire where the fire did not start in the basement. After many meetings a bill was drawn up and presented to the legis- lature. The committee to whom it was referred gave a single pubhc hearing. I will quote from the newspaper account, ''The remonstrants talkt almost entirely on the question of dollars and cents which this legis- lation to prevent deaths of school children might cost." Altho urged to report the bill favorably by a strong body of represen- tative citizens, including fire chiefs, architects, school commissioners, a representation from the trustees of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, the Massachusetts commissioner of education, and many others, the committee reported the bill adversely. Governor McCall, dissaproving the adverse report, offered a substitute bill. The legislature refused to substitute and side-stept its responsibility by referring the bill to the next general court, thus risking its children for another nine months in schoolhouses which it obliges them by law to attend. The United States spends over a hundred million dollars every year for new school buildings and the greater part of this large amount of the people's money is spent without expert advice on the subject of protection from the fire hazard. Moreover, this great sum is spent mostly, says Mr. Baldwin — business agent of the Massachusetts Board of Education — by committees who have no knowledge as to whether the architects they employ work on economic principles, because there are no authoritative data. I Department! TEACHING OF HOME NURSING IN SCHOOLS 767 Few authorities have investigated the percentage of floor space in school buildings of a known number of rooms that should be allowed in each case to corridors, schoolrooms, clothing flues, walls, etc. A plan called a model, lately brought to my observation, had less than 40 per cent of the floor area devoted to the working space of the building. Conse- quently if the building cost $100,000, only $40,000 of the taxpayers' money was spent for the pupils' actual requirements. Would men at the head of a business allow such a waste ? Should not school authorities have the same care over the expenditure of school funds for school buildings as they exercise in the employment of teachers or the purchase of suppUes ? Except the United States Bureau of Education, the National Educa- tion Association is the only body which deals with country-wide problems, which has direct connection with all communities, and the recommen- dations of which have influence and a degree of authority. I earnestly suggest that you consider the school-building problem and that you establish standards of planning, construction, costs, fire protection, heating, ventilating, and sanitation in school buildings. ^E TEACHING OF HOME NURSING AND THE CARE OF ICHILDREN TO ELEMENTARY- AND HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS ISABEL M. STEWART, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. I am using this term, "home nursing," because there seems to be no tter one. It is not an apt expression, because it can be interpreted in so many ways, but the sense in which it is popularly used is fairly well understood. Like "home carpentering" and "home dressmaking," "home nursing" is applied to the work of the amateur as distinguisht from that of the professional, or expert. The term "home care of the sick" is pre- ferred by many, but this narrows the subject down to the consideration of sickness only, while "nursing" in its original and broadest sense means the care of the well and the prevention of illness quite as much as the care of the sick. According to Florence Nightingale, " the very elements of what constitutes good nursing are as little understood for the well as for the sick. The same laws of health, or of nursing (for they are, in reality, the same) prevail among the well as among the sick. The breaking of them produces only a less violent consequence among the former than among the latter." She called this art, "health nursing," and insisted that it should be a part of every woman's education. The problem before us is whether we desire to teach anything of this kind in public schools, whether such courses are desirable or advisable. Such courses are already pursued in divers schools, societies, and clubs in all parts of the country. In the bulletins on Educa- tion for the Home J prepared by Dr. B. R. Andrews for the Bureau of Education in 1914, it is stated that out of 163 colleges imparting instruction li 768 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Child Hygien e in home economics, 35 had distinct courses in home nursing, and 10 in the care of children; 42 elementary schools had courses in home nursing and 37 in the care of children; and practically every one of the hundreds of high schools where the household arts are represented includes under this general title similar instruction. This is only a fraction of the number of courses provided by outside clubs and societies, and tho the numbers of these are not known, there is every evidence that the demand is increasing rapidly. It is not only society ladies with a passion for the more dramatic and sensational excitements of "war" nursing, who are clamoring for Red Cross courses in home care of the sick and first aid; requests come from all kinds of groups, from school children and college students, camp-fire girls and boy scouts, factory girls and women's clubs. Then, too, in spite of the multiphcation of hospitals and dispensaries, and the extension of visiting-nurse services, there are still many famihes where expert nursing care is an economic impossibiHty, and where more or less heavy responsibility must be borne by sisters, mothers, and other members of the family. This is especially necessary in long, chronic illnesses, in convalescence, and in the minor diseases of childhood. Even where there is no economic problem, on farms, in camps, and rural settle- ments, situations may arise at any time which require prompt and inteUigent care if life is to be saved. In order to get various points of view on these matters, and to balance up my own observation and experience with that of others, I have gathered together the opinions of a number of representative teachers, physicians, nurses, and other citizens, which will be summarized in the discussion following. The general opinion seems to be that the dangers of over- zealous and injudicious use are more than offset by the dangers of ignorance. , Practically every person consulted agrees that there is a distinct need for instruction in home nursing, first aid, and the care of children, and that some place should be found for it in the regular scheme of education. One or two disapprove of home nursing unless the courses are to be handled by professionally trained instructors, a few would confine such instruction to especially selected groups, and one objects strongly to any responsibihty for child-care or assistance in illness being put on any elementary- or high-school pupil. A few, mainly teachers, suggest that such courses should also help in preparing specially qualified girls to act as children's nurses, mothers' helpers, or convalescence nurses. This vocational t3^e, of course, will be discust later, but in the meantime we will speak only of the general infor- mational course. It is assumed by those who are familiar with the school system that the teaching of hygiene will have been begun in the kindergarten and continued up to about the sixth grade in the form of incidental and informal II Department! TEACHING OF HOME NURSING IN SCHOOLS 769 teaching rather than thru set textbooks and exercises. By the time the child is twelve years of age he should have formed habits of personal cleanliness and routine physical care, and should know something of the essentials of home and community health. At the age of thirteen or fourteen many children will be helping at home in the care of younger brothers and sisters, and often will be depended on for much more respon- sible duties in cases of a mother's illness or special family emergencies. This condition of things may be abnormal and altogether undesirable, as some people maintain, and the school may seem to be encouraging a form of child labor by assuming that such duties are to be expected of twelye- to fourteen-year-old boys and girls. It seems to be the consensus of opinion, however, that since the vast proportion of elementary-school pupils never reach the high school, if they are to have any systematic instruction at all, it must come before they graduate from the grammar school. Moreover, among our great foreign population particularly, the only way to reach the parents seems to be thru the children. Instead of formal topics, such as "infant-feeding" and "common dis- eases and disorders of childhood," the school child should be considering some such concrete problem as "how to help in keeping a baby well in summer," or "how to help when there is sickness at home." . The ordinary matters of bathing and dressing and sleep, etc., both for the baby and for the slightly ill person, the making of a bed or a child's cot, keeping the room fresh and clean, the cooking of a few simple invalid foods, and the methods of making people comfortable in bed — these are not compHcated nor technical matters, and can well be graspt by seventh and eighth- grade pupils. It seems to be the general opinion that in the elementary school this teaching will necessarily be handled largely by the grade teachers, since even where school nurses are employed it would be impossible to take their time from more pressing duties. Toward the end of the high-school period, when the girl has covered some elementary work in science and has reacht a stage at which she may safely be intrusted with wider knowledge and more responsibility, the consensus of opinion is that a second course should be given which would be based on good, sound physiology, with some knowledge of bacteriology, sanitation, and dietetics. Whether this course is called "Home Care of the Sick," or "Home Economics" or "Applied Biology" does not matter so much ; but it is important that the information given be soundly scientific, and that any procedures taught should be actually carried out in as careful and thoro a manner as possible. Such a course might include.the planning, furnishing, and care of the sick room, the making and changing of a bed for a sick person, devices for comfort and relief in passing ailments, bathing and attention to ordinary physical needs, the giving of medicines and 770 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ChUd Hygiene common treatments, such as the simple enema, a mustard plaster, and cold and hot applications, the observation of important symptoms, and first-aid treatment in fractures, sprains, cuts, burns, and common injuries. The primary object, however, is to make the pupil understand and appreciate the whole problem of sickness, not only as it affects her and her home, but as it affects the community and state. This is the time to show her the results of ignorance and quackery, and to give her sound facts regarding the various causes which produce ill health, and the measures which have proved most effective in safeguarding human life. All this can be made concrete and dramatic, supplemented by actual studies of conditions in her own community. If the much-discust subject of sex hygiene is to be taught, there is no place where it can be brought in more naturally than in such a course as this; but the prejudice of some parents has to be considered. A visit to very carefully selected departments of an up-to-date hospital to point out the elaborate precautions that must be taken, and the com- pHcated services employed in caring for sick people, not only impresses them deeply with the highly technical and responsible nature of a real nurse's work, but also shows them the vocational possibiUties in that pro- fession in a concrete, and usually an attractive, way. The brain work must be done largely in the school or college building, with a simple equipment for demonstration, and a laboratory where each member of the class can carry out each procedure as far as possible. The cost of such an equipment will depend on the number of students in the class and the method employed. It might range all the way from $50 to $300. The lecture and demonstration can be carried on with a class up to about 40 members, but for practice the number should not exceed 12 to 16 or at most 20. For demonstrations it is best to secure a "live" patient or subject, but a large doll can be used fairly satisfactorily for many procedures. Students usually use each other for subjects as far as possible, tho this has its disadvantages because so much time is likely to be wasted. A two-hour period is almost necessary, and in many cases a three-hour period is not too long. It is not necessary to repeat procedures here to the point of high efficiency, since the purpose of the practical work is more to enable the pupil to grasp the idea of the thing and to apply the principles than to develop skill. A simple textbook on home nursing, such as that which is pubUsht under the auspices of the Red Cross, is helpful if the teacher is inexperienst, but a more satisfactory way is to assign readings from a variety of sources and have pupils take notes on the nursing procedures. Frequent quizzes are needed to clear up misconceptions and fasten impor- tant facts in mind. The question, ''Who should teach these courses?" cannot be settled arbitrarily, as so much depends on where the course is given and the people Department] PHYSICAL CARE OF RURAL-SCHOOL CHILDREN 771 who are available. It is generally recommended that physicians teach first aid, since this is a form of amateur medical practice. Courses in the care of children are given by domestic-science teachers, physicians, and nurses. I am inclined to say that for very elementary courses the teacher who has had special instruction in the hygiene and care of children could quite safely teach the subject, supplemented, perhaps, by one or two talks by a nurse. The high-school course on children demands a wider knowledge and greater skill, and, on the whole, would be more satisfac- torily handled by a woman physician or a nurse. Every city and town has medical organizations and nursing organizations which would gladly advise and assist in working out a practical and safe course of this kind. Hospital training schools, visiting-nurse associations, boards of health, or Red Cross organizations, can also be of distinct assistance, and their cooperation could, I am confident, be readily secured. Finally, I will suggest that a joint committee be appointed from repre- sentatives of the National Education Association, the American Medical Association, and the National League of Nursing Education, with the idea of studying this whole question, making recommendations as to its handhng, and working out a course of study which will be suggestive and helpful for those who are considering the introduction of such work in the public school, or in outside clubs and organizations. THE PHYSICAL CARE OF RURAL-SCHOOL CHILDREN TALIAPERRO CLARK, SURGEON, UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE, WASHINGTON, D.C. The value of a maximum efiiciency of the individual citizen as a national asset has become more apparent than formerly during these days of wide- spread interest in national preparedness. It is of interest, therefore, to know how this may be secured. Just as it is wiser during peace to prepare for war, so it is better, if good results are to be attained, to institute measures to promote individual efficiency at an early age of development rather than later in life when these processes have slackened or come to a standstill. In this respect health-supervision of school children is an effective instru- ment, because the school offers such ready opportunity for the institution of measures designed to promote normal development. The need for more extended supervision of the health of school children is shown by the large number of individuals revealed by physical examina- tions who have not attained the highest physical development by reason of defects and abnormalities of growth that are preventable, or at least con- trollable in their incipiency. Experience has shown that the' greater num- ber of such defects have had their origin in childhood, at a period when their early recognition gives greatest hope of correction. 772 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION (Child Hygiene For example, a table, compiled from the records of the Bureau of Medi- cine and Surgery, United States Navy Department, for the year ended December 31, 19 14, shows that, of the 72,410 applicants for original enlist- ment in the Navy and 20,674 in the Marine Corps, 76 per cent of the former and 82 .4 per cent of the latter were rejected for physical and mental dis- abilities; and that, during the year ended December 31, 19 15, there were 73,028 applicants for original enlistment in the Navy and 21,676 in the Marine Corps, of whom 75 .4 per cent were rejected by the Navy and 83 per cent by the Marine Corps for like causes. Furthermore, other observers have stated that, in the case of volunteers for military service, rejections because of physical unfitness were in direct relation to the number of years spent in school. It follows as a corollary, therefore, that unhygienic school buildings and failure to provide for medical inspection of school children might be responsible in a measure for a large proportion of the adults in the general population who have not attained the highest physical efficiency. The physical care of school children demands serious attention in every community. Intensive studies of rural-school conditions conducted by the Public Health Service have revealed a special need for health-supervision of rural-school children because: (i) they constitute 60.7 per cent of the total school enrolment of the country; (2) they are largely denied medical attention by specialists, such as may be had in hospitals and cUnics in cities; (3) they cannot be protected en masse by health laws as is the case in urban communities; (4) and they are more unduly affected by endemic diseases which diminish vital resistance and exercise an unjurious influence on physical and mental development, such as malaria, hookworm, and pellagra. The school itself should be made a place in which the healthy child may grow in a normal manner, and where the best development of the weakened child may be secured. In this connection we have recently compiled the physical averages obtained during an intensive survey by the Public Health Service of all the rural-school children of a county in a middle western state. It was found that the relative physical develop- ment of boys and girls varied at different age periods in a manner not entirely in accord with that recorded by a number of other observers in other localities. Variations in the growth of the child call for great expenditures of physical and mental energy at certain age periods. Great care must be exercised in the school at this time to maintain correct postures, to provide suitable exercises, and to adapt the curriculum to the special needs of the child in order to secure the best physical development. The important consideration in connection with the physical under- development, observed in the rural-school population of this county was to determine the cause. Malaria and hookworm are not present in this Department] PHYSICAL CARE OF RURAL-SCHOOL CHILDREN 773 community, pellagra is unknown, and there is but a limited prevalence of tuberculosis and typhoid fever. These diseases, therefore, are eliminated as causative factors. On the other hand, our observations tend to show that the habitual diet of these children was largely responsible. For example, the breakfast of 40 per cent of them was composed almost exclu- sively of carbohydrates, and but 60 per cent of them had a mixt diet of carbohydrates and proteids. Furthermore, 57 per cent used coffee, only 15 per cent drank milk, and i . 16 per cent did not habitually eat breakfast. The need is plain, therefore, for the general establishment of domestic- science classes in the schools, and the teaching of food values and food preparation. Furthermore, no suitable facilities for play were provided, and no systematic physical exercises were practist at any of the rural schools of the county. The beneficial influences of these on health and physical development are now matters of common experience. Their absence may account in part for the subnormal physical development of a number of these children. Ranking in importance with measures intended to increase vital resist- ance thru maintenance of the normal physical development of a school child are those directed to the discovery and correction of physical defects. Physical defects among rural-school children are potentially of more serious consequences than those among children in cities. This is due to the limited medical facilities in most rural districts, and in part to poorly constructed ;and equipt school buildings. Many examples illustrative of this observa- tion have come under our personal notice. Witness the case of a small child between six and seven years of age who, figuratively speaking, was standing, on the edge of a threatening volcano, so far as Hfe was concerned, by reason f a neglected inflammation of the middle ear. The otoscope revealed in this case a slit in a very congested eardrum thru which pus was oozing in eat quantity. Neglect of such a condition leads to deafness and not infre- iquently to death. The parents of this child were unaware of the danger. Many cases similar to this occur in rural schools and remain unrecognized ru the lack of medical supervision until too late to prevent destructive anges. Our investigations in the rural districts have revealed an almost com- lete disregard of visual prophylaxis. The faulty illumination so fre- uently observed in rural schools is largely responsible for much of the paired vision encountered. Recent measurement of the desk-illumination f an eight-room school on a cloudy day showed that the illumination of more than half of the desks in a number of the classrooms was less than one- third of that demanded by the minimum standard. The effect of such faulty illumination is to promote eyestrain and to increase nearsightedness. The illumination of these classrooms could have been doubled by the proper tinting of reflecting surfaces; but the school authorities were without II. 774 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene competent advice in this important detail of school-construction. The need for such advice is largely responsible for many of the undesirable features of rural-school life. Furthermore, a number of rural-school children had never been refracted and were sorely in need of glasses. The rural-school child cannot step around the corner to an eye clinic and secure the free services of a specialist. These children are frequently found wearing glasses entirely unsuited to them, as was a girl with one eye hyperopic and the other myopic, who was wearing a farsighted lens in front of the nearsighted eye. The rural-school child is greatly in need of instruction in the care of the teeth and in need of adequate dental service. This is shown by the fact that 49.3 per cent of the children had defective teeth, 21 .1 per cent had two or more missing teeth, and only 16.9 per cent had dental attention. Furthermore, 14.4 per cent of these children never used a toothbrush, 58.2 per cent used one occasionally, and only 27.4 per cent used one daily. We have collected data relative to the occurrence of communicable diseases among rural children while attending school. The compilation of this material has not yet been completed. Sufficient evidence has been adduced, however, to indicate that the school is a factor in the spread of these diseases in rural communities, owing largely to the fact that the chil- dren of individual famihes are rarely in intimate contact except in school. An undue prevalence of these affections is measurably responsible for an increase in the number of children with impairment of the organs of special sense. The field investigations of the Public Health Service show certain problems of rural schools which require special consideration. For example : What is the remedy for the conditions just enumerated? How can the physical efficiency be increast? How can hampering physical defects be avoided? How is the control of communicable diseases to be brought about ? How is improvement in rural school-construction to be secured ? The answer is: (i) by abolishing school districts and establishing a county unit of school administration; (2) by establishing an efficient system of health-supervision of school children; (3) by consolidating rural schools. Let us consider these three facts further. 1. Educators have long advocated the aboUtion of separate school districts for administrative purposes, and the substitution therefor of the county unit. By so doing uniform school facilities can be provided for the county as a whole, which would include courses of study, requirements of teachers, duration of school term, and the pro rata distribution of school funds. In the absence of such a system of administration, generalized health-supervision of school children is well-nigh impossible. 2. Measures for the health-supervision of school children are of prime importance for educational purposes and the protection of health. Department! PHYSICAL CARE OF RURAL-SCHOOL CHILDREN 775 Unfortunately, only a small part of the rural-school population of the country enjoys the benefits of such supervision. a) The interest of rural communities in the matter of medical inspection can best be secured thru intensive school-surveys. The value of this pro- cedure lies in the fact that, by calling attention to unsuspected physical defects in their children and school conditions requiring attention, the neces- sity for some form of health-supervision is brought home to parents. We have had practical experience of the educational value of such investigations thru reports of an increast number of children seeking relief following surveys of this character. b) The medical inspection of schools in rural districts is accompanied by a serious handicap, owing to the impossibility, under existing conditions, of securing the services of a person properly qualified for this position. c) The restricted financial resources of most rural communities preclude 'the offering of a salary commensurate with the attainments of a desirable 'school-inspector. This difficulty can be overcome, in great measure, by ^combining the duties of the school physician with those of the district, county, or local health officer, with a salary equivalent to the combined [salaries of the two positions. The trend of recent practice is to place the [health-supervision of school children under the direction of the health [authorities. Indeed such is the case in a number of our largest cities> Enamely, Baltimore, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Cincinnati, Detroit, New [York, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh. By so doing it becomes possible for lese communities to secure the full-time services of a trained sanitarian for health work and school-inspection. 3. The possibilities of rural-school consolidation for the protection of [the health of the children is an important consideration in the adoption of [this measure. The sanitary requirements of school-constructions can more readily be secured in the larger buildings of this type and the child thereby )laced in a more healthful school environment. Lastly, no system of health-supervision will be effective without the :ooperation of the parents. This can be secured thru the employment of Lctful school nurses to do follow-up work. The practical application of the )rinciples of sanitation by an efficient nurse in time of sickness will do much toward educating parents regarding measures for safeguarding the health )f their children. In addition, the cooperation of social workers and the formation of civic leagues and of home- and school-improvement asso- 'ciations among rural-school children lead toward a better understanding of good citizenship and of the obligations of the individual to the community which, in time, should bring about improved social conditions and an increast efficiency of the individual. 776 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ChUd Hygiene COOPERATION IN HEALTH ADMINISTRATION WILLARD S. SMALL, PRINCIPAL, EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL, WASHINGTON, D.C. Within the last year the United States Bureau of Education has collected a large body of information with regard to health-teaching agencies in the country. The number and variety of such agencies are truly amazing. They are both official and voluntary, commercial and philanthropic, single in their aim — to promote health — and merely incidental to the main pur- pose of the institution to which they are auxiliary. A few illustrative examples will suffice: department of health, state, county, and local; departments of education, state, county, and local; insurance companies; industrial corporations; department stores; labor organizations; fraternal organizations; an ti- tuberculosis associations; safety-first associations; medical societies; social-hygiene organizations; Youngs Mens' Christian Associations; charities organizations; boys' and girls' clubs; schools, colleges, and universities; bureaus of the federal government; and many others. Needless to say there is overlapping, duplication, and waste motion. Beginnings have been made in cooperation and coordination. Mostly however, these attempts at cooperation have been voluntary or quasi- official, and consequently of doubtful permanency. A typical example of cooperation of the quasi-official sort is the Minnesota Public Health Asso- ciation organized in March 19 14. It was an independent organization finanst by voluntary contributions. It served as a coordination center for investigation and propaganda and had recognized relations with the State Board of Health, the State Department of Education, the State Federation of Womens' Clubs, and other voluntary organizations. The salary of the executive secretary was paid in part by the State Board of Health for his services as publicity agent for the board. In the first year of its existence it performed valuable service in school-health work, both in the way of investigation and in the dissemination of information. In the second year of its existence, however, its efficiency was greatly reduced on account of lack of funds and the breaking of the quasi-official relations with the State Board of Health. This illustrates aptly the tenuous nature of all such coordinations. Quite generally the supporting agency for such cooperation is the pubHc school. By reason of its universality and its specific organization, it naturally serves as a means of coordination. Too frequently the part played by the school is that of a complacent distributing agency for properly authenticated propaganda and for alien health-supervision. There is, however, a rapidly increasing tendency for the public school to become the effective coordinating agency — to organize cooperation. This, of course, is markedly the case in communities in which the health-supervision of the schools has been assumed by the educational authorities; but there are Department] COOPERATION IN HEALTH ADMINISTRATION 777 cases of well-organized cooperation in cities in which health-supervision is still managed by the health department. It should be recognized that the promotion of health is at bottom an educational problem the effective solution of which demands the most complete and sympathetic cooperation of the public-health and the public- education organizations. Volunteer organizations of all kinds will play important accessory roles; but it is these governmental agencies upon which will rest the real responsibility. There has not been as complete coopera- tion of spirit and coordination of effort between health and school depart- ments as there should be. Indeed, too often there has been mutual sus- picion and misunderstanding. In the last few years there has been rather a markt tendency for the schools to take over the administration of phases of educational hygiene including "medical inspection." It is not at all certain that this tendency is permanent in character. As the supervision of the public health becomes better developt, it becomes evident that the control of health before school age is quite as important as the control of health during the school period. This phase of public-health work obviously must be administered by the health authorities. It is not at all improbable that "efficiency and economy" may require continuous administration of "child hygiene" by the health authorities, as is already the case in New York. At present the locus of administrative authority is largely a local question. In reality it is not important; the only matter of importance is that the highest possible efficiency be secured. There is one modification, however, of administrative machinery that could easily be made, and, if made, would be a long step toward effective cooperation between school and health authorities. If the executive officer of every health board — state, county, local — were a member of the corre- sponding educational board, and vice versa, if every school superintendent — state, county, and local — were a member of the corresponding health board, there would be set up an effective legalized addition to the administrative machinery that could not fail to produce results in mutual understanding and unification of effort. It hardly need be said that a full-time health officer is necessary for the complete success of this plan. There is one other opportunity for cooperation that is big with possi- bilities for the development and improvement of health work in the pubhc schools. The federal bureaus that have to do with health and education should have the equipment and the resources to meet the growing demands that are being made upon them for information, advice, and guidance by local communities all over the United States. The Pubhc Health Service should have the resources to make many such surveys as that described by Dr. Clark in his paper this morning. The Bureau of Education should have the resources to give adequate information and advice with regard to plans of administration whenever and under whatever conditions such advice and information are askt — and the requests are very numerous and 778 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ChUd Hygiene varied. The fields are distinct and the lines of cooperation equally clear. At present neither bureau can perform the necessary services. In the public-health service more adequate support of work well begun is required; in the Bureau of Education the crying necessity is the creation of a division of educational hygiene, which now is entirely lacking. THE NEW YORK SYSTEM OF SCHOOL HYGIENE I. H. GOLDBERGER, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE, DEPART- MENT OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. Viewed from the standpoint of health, the New York System of School Hygiene has for its purpose the protection and preservation of the health of school children and teachers from the deleterious influences which frequently accompany school life. To accomplish this the Department of Hygiene has served in part as follows: r. Consultation with the Department on Care of Buildings regarding the proper form of seats and desks; provision of lights, and the conservation of suflGicient light in dark rooms; resurfacing of worn blackboards; sanita- tion of swimming-pools; prevention of dust; regulation of temperature, ventilation, and various other sanitary conditions in school buildings; methods of disinfecting; methods of cleaning, care of blackboards, board- rubbers, etc. 2. Consultation with the Supply Department on the color and texture of paper, type of textbooks, type standards, crayons, sanitary floor-dressing, soap, and towels. 3. Consultation with the Department of Health on medical inspection, dental hygiene, Gary schools, sanitation of school buildings, nuisances, joint publications on hygiene, joint investigations, and methods of hygienic care of children, etc. 4. Cooperation with eleven different outside agencies supporting special health work. 5. The provision of definite sets of instruction to teachers on the hygienic control of pupils in the classroom, with a series of instructions on the con- duct of the daily morning hygienic inspection, health day, observations for evident physical disabilities, symptoms of illness in children, and the pro- vision of a pamphlet to be given to parents on How to Safeguard the Health of the Child. A system of instruction in hygiene, which gives simple counsel on all important health matters, has been provided. The method pursued in teaching the old hygiene was that of mere instruction. Children were assigned lessons from books on anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, and then told how to care for their health on the basis of this knowledge. This was all very well, but the instruction started from the structure of the bones, li Department) THE NEW YORK SYSTEM OF SCHOOL HYGIENE 779 the heart, the lungs, etc., proceeded to the function of the same, and finally arrived at the care of the health — a logical method, but wasteful and ineffective, as it expected children to think as adults, with full reasoning powers. The recently adopted course of study in hygiene emphasizes the practical affairs of daily life, such as keeping the scalp and hair clean, brushing the teeth, attention to clothing, study, play, and rest. The children are taught to apply the lessons of personal hygiene to the neighborhood, the school, and the city. Alert to note all matters affecting health, pupils work in sanitary squads, and attend with profit lectures on hygiene, demonstrations and exhibitions of pure food, temperance leagues, anti-tuberculosis and first-aid-to-the-injured societies and anti-cigarette leagues. The formation of good hygienic habits by daily practice is illustrated by the "Daily Routine," which pupils make out, under the direction of the class teacher, to take home for constant reference. The following is a typical program: 1. Rise promptly. 2. Take breathing and setting-up exercises appropriate to the grade. 3. Wash (warm water and soap) hands, face, neck, and chest. Cold splash on face, neck, and chest. Clean finger nails. 4. Clean the teeth. Brush the gums and the whole mouth and rinse the mouth. Drink a glass of water. 5. Dress with inspection of clothes as to cleanliness. 6. Eat slowly at breakfast and chew well. 7. Attend the toilet and wash afterward. 8. Prepare for school. Books and clothes, clean, and in order. 9. Observe regulations as to entering school. 10. Care for outer clothing. Attend to order of desk and prepare for daily morning hygienic inspection. 11. Keep correct sitting and standing posture in school. 12. Drink water at recess. Use individual drinking cup. 13. Return home for lunch without loitering. Wash hands before limch. Eat slowly. 14. Play in fresh air after school. 15. Study. Pay attention to lessons and finish the work. 16. Wash and prepare for the evening meal. 17. Prepare for bed early. Attend the toilet, wash, put clothes in order, and open window. The new course of study in hygiene allows ten minutes a day for a daily morning hygienic inspection, the purpose of which is: (i) to inculcate habits of personal cleanliness and pride in the pupil's personal appearance by an individual inspection, (2) to discover early signs of illness and to pre- vent contagion, (3) to establish cooperation between the home and the school, and (4) to establish a close cooperation between the school medical- inspection service and the class teacher for the benefit of the health of the children. Tooth-brush drills are practist thruout the term, and time is spent in drilling the child how to brush the teeth properly, instead of spending hours on the anatomy and physiology of the teeth. There is no queston as to 78o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (ChUd Hygiene the effectiveness of the former method. The child is told to do things. He is taught to clean the teeth before breakfast and before going to bed. He learns that it is important to use his own toothbrush, that a dentist should examine his mouth at the beginning of each school term, that a small cavity should be filled before it grows into a large one, and that the need for artificial teeth for young people should never arise. At the beginning of the term a prescription for tooth powder, written on the black- board, is copied in the pupil's home-lesson book for the information of parents as well as for the child's own instruction. Instruction in the New York System of Hygiene is not based on simple cleanliness alone. Even more important are the prophylactic measures carried out by the class teachers in an attempt to counteract and eliminate the health-depressing influences of school life. At the beginning of the term the teacher pays special attention to seating pupils with regard to height, and defects in vision and hearing. Not later than two weeks after the beginning of the term, seats are adjusted by the janitor, so that the pupil can sit with hips well back, the thighs resting on the seat, and the feet flat on the floor. The desk and seat are so adjusted that the proper writing position may be taken, i.e., hips back, body straight, inclined forward (never flext nor twisted), forearms resting on the desk near the edge. These precautions are instrumental in preventing orthopedic deformities, par- ticularly spinal curvature. With the aid of the school medical-inspection service, defects in vision and hearing are discovered early, so that affected children may be placed at a proper distance from the blackboard and teacher's desk. Vision defects are guarded against by adjusting window shades so that sunshine does not fall upon the book or work, and care is taken not to have two connective periods of close eye work. Coughs and colds from overheating are minimized by maintaining the room temperature between 65° and 68°F., when artificial heat is used. An accurately regis- tered thermometer is attacht to each teacher's desk and an hourly record of the room temperature is made. If the temperature is not satisfactory, the principal is notified at once. Good ventilation is maintained by having the room open on at least two sides. Transoms are kept in repair for this purpose. Fatigue is guarded against particularly among the younger children by an alternation of tasks, standing to recite, group and black- board work. The day's work is punctuated by "two-minute drills" as a tonic to relaxt muscles, and for the refreshment of the heart and lungs a period of vigorous exercise is given everyday. Pupils are not restrained from leaving the room to go to the toilet, unless the teacher suspects that a pupil is abusing the privilege. Every child receives instruction in safety-first measures, emergency measures, and first-aid-to-the-injured, in an endeavor to minimize the large number of street accidents. Of the 659 persons killed last year, 44 per cent were children. Department! THE NEW YORK SYSTEM OF SCHOOL HYGIENE 781 In using the text of the new syllabus in hygiene, teachers are supplied with special bulletins and circulars of instruction issued by the New York State and City Departments of Health, and other health agencies. When necessary, pupils are furnisht with circulars of instruction to parents on the care of the nose, the care of the mouth and teeth, the care of children's hair and scalp, the care of the eyes, all of which are supplied by the New York City Department of Health. The New York System of Hygiene includes a plan whereby teachers shall make certain simple tests to discover whether children have defective vision, hearing, teeth, nasal breathing, and nutrition. The adoption of this procedure has become necessary because of the large number of children in our schools who have undiscovered and uncorrected physical defects. During the school year just completed, a cooperative experiment with the Board of Health has been in progress. This work brought the officials of the two departments in closer personal contact, and has done much to establish a more friendly relationship between the two. During the course )f this experiment, 234 teachers were instructed by means of clinical con- ferences as to the methods of discovering evident physical defects of eyes, Lrs, teeth, nasal breathing, and nutrition. Five or six typically defective ises were demonstrated. The use of the Snellen chart in discovering icuteness of vision was illustrated and the method of recording acuteness )f vision and other physical defects was explained. The need for constant id careful classroom observation to discover cases of evident physical lefects was emphasized. The clinical conferences were followed by practice work by teachers on )ur or five children in other classes. A conference quiz was held with the Lchers, based on the subject-matter of former clinical conferences, on leir practical experience, and on the difficulties that they met in testing lildren. This conference was found very valuable. Difficulties or icertain points were explained and the path was made clear for a satis- Lctory health day. A health day was held in each of the four experimental :hools during the week of October 18, 191 5. The teachers, with the exception of the kindergarten teachers, were able during the day to examine their pupils for these five defects and fill out the notification blanks for le home. About 10,316 children were examined. Before the notification flanks were sent home to the parents, the findings of the teachers were ipervised by the assistants to the principal and a department of health physician, to eliminate any gross errors. The notification blanks were ;nt out for limited groups of classes at time, care being taken not to flood le neighborhood dispensaries. It is of interest to note that in the section of the school in' which the jachers were not only to examine their pupils, but also to follow up their defects to treatment and cure, 900 children received treatment as a result of health day. This indicates that nearly one-third of the children 782 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Chfld Hygiene who needed treatment have either been improved or cured as the result. In justice to our teachers it may be added that they have shown a suffi- cient degree of accuracy in their work to make the experiment worth while. The instruction in the new hygiene endeavors to be practical. It is an everyday affair. It provides a personal and objective method of instruc- tion rather than a didactic, and, above all, considers health in a positive, prophylactic, and corrective phase. Should it develop to the extent of its promise and intent, health should become a habit for every child. The children of today will be sound and vigorous, and the inheritance of health will insure a sturdy America for tomorrow. DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Mrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women San Francisco, Cal, Tice-President — Mrs. Phillip N. Moore, trustee, College for Women, University of the South, St. Louis, Mo. Secretary — ^Mrs. E. L. Baldwin, state chairman, department of school patrons, San Francisco, Cal. FIRST SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 7, 1916 The department convened in the BaUroom of Hotel Waldorf-Astoria, at 9:30 a.m., Helen Varick Boswell, New York, N.Y., in the chair. P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education delivered a brief address on "Community Interest in the Public Schools." The following papers were read: "The Teacher's Responsibility as a Civic Factor in the Community"— Frances E. 'Harden, president. League of Teachers' Associations, Chicago, 111. "Education of the Immigrant" — Elsa Alsberg, secretary, department of inmaigrant aid, Council of Jewish Women, New York, N.Y. "Report of Committee on Education, Council of Jewish Women" — Fannie Saxe Long, Wilkesbarre, Pa. "Report of the Southern Association of College Women" — Virginia S. McKenney, vice-president, Southern Association of College Women. The following officers were elected: President — Hattie Hoover Harding, Chicago, HI. Vice-President — May L. Cheney, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. Secretary — Sarah F. Clarke, Public Schools, Scranton, Pa. Louise Fargo Brown, Secretary, pro tern SECOND SESSION— Friday Afternoon, July 7, 1916 The department met in joint session with the Department of Physical Education in the Ballroom, Hotel Waldorf-Astoria, at 2:00 P.M., Vice-President Posse presiding. The following program was presented: " Sex Morality or Social Hygiene "—Mabel L. Uhrich, M.D., St. Paul, Minn. "Social Service in the Public Schools" — Elizabeth McManus, chairman, clinic department, Los Angeles Federation of Parent-Teacher Associations, Los Angeles, Cal. " Administration and Method in High-School Physical Training for Girls ' ' (illustrated by a class of 20 girls) — ^Josephine Beiderhase, assistant director of physical training, public schools. New York, N.Y. "The Boy Scouts of America" — ^James E. West, chief scout executive. Boy Scouts of America, New York, N.Y. Charlotte Stewart, Secretary pro tern 783 784 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE TEACHER'S RESPONSIBILITY AS A CIVIC FACTOR IN THE COMMUNITY FRANCES E. HARDEN, PRESIDENT, LEAGUE OF TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS, CHICAGO, ILL. The school year that has just closed has been full of significance in its educational tendencies. This is particularly true of the administrative side of the public-school system. There seems to have been a widespread and very determined movement on the part of administrative officials to control teachers along lines where heretofore they have had a considerable measure of freedom. This movement has been going on along several lines. In some places it has been an attempt to disrupt teachers' organizations already formed, or to prevent the formation of organizations among the unorganized teachers. In other places teachers' tenure of office has been threatened or taken away, leaving their positions subject to the dictation of pohtically appointed school boards with all the train of evils which follows such a situation. Again, the attack has been on teachers' pensions, where efforts are being made to take the control of pension funds from the contributors and vest it in boards of education who are neither contributors to, nor beneficiaries of, these funds, and who have no interest in their conservation, but may use this power of control over the pension to keep teachers in a proper state of servility. The most important of all, perhaps, is the tendency to deprive teachers of freedom of speech and action. This is more apparent in the colleges and universities than in the grade schools, but when such an educational leader as Dr. Scott Nearing is forst out of his position as an instructor in a university because he dared to teach the truth as he saw it, it is time for all teachers to awake and to reahze that if we are to be the teachers of the children of a free people, we must ourselves be free; for children taught by subservient teachers will never develop into citizens with well-balanst ideas of justice and honor, such as a, true democracy needs, but will them- selves become either subservient or tyrannical. How far are we ourselves at fault in bringing about this condition? Have we not blindly followed tradition handed down from an age long past where conditions were not at all those of the present day ? Have we not shut our eyes to the many forms of oppression and economic injustice all about us ? This condition, I have no doubt, grows largely out of the fact that for hundreds of years those who sought an education went to the great uni- versities and libraries and there spent years poring over books and manu- scripts, listening to lectures, and absorbing great quantities of predigested Department] TEACHER'S RESPONSIBILITY AS A CIVIC FACTOR 785 knowledge oblivious to the great throbbing world of life and labor all about them. They were not only without knowledge of this life, but were not in sympathy with it. Out of these universities came men and women of learning and of culture, but out of touch with the dominant life-forces about them. From this group came the teachers holding fast the standards and traditions set for them. These standards are slowly but surely chang- ing. Little by little we are realizing that education is not all to be found between the covers of books, but that the greatest of all books, that of life itself, is spread wide open all about us; and that to be truly educated we must have, not only a knowledge of this great book of life, but a profound understanding of the economic principles which govern the conditions and control the lives of the people whose children we teach. Government statistics show that 60 per cent of the wealth of this nation is owned and controlled by 2 per cent of the population. In other words, under our present economic conditions, if $100 were to be divided among one hundred men, two of the men would receive $60 while the remaining 98 men would have to content themselves with $40. The children of the 2-per-cent class, as a rule, are educated in private schools, hence our problems lie with those of the 98-per-cent class. Under what conditions are these children born and in what kind of homes do they live ? How are they clothed and fed ? What opportunities have they for natural play ? Are their social and moral surroundings good, and have they been given a square deal ? If we are to be the real teachers of children, all these problems become our problems, and the solving of them in the right way just as much a part of our duty as following the course of study and putting the children thru the grade. What is the best way in which to work toward a solution of these prob- lems ? How can we best cooperate with other forces in a community work- ing toward the same end ? We can do but little alone. We must unite with others. We as teachers should become a part of the social, civic, and political movements which have for their purpose the bettering of living conditions. An increast income always means a higher standard of living, better homes, and more nourishing food. It means that the children are kept in school instead of being sent into shops and factories to add their Uttle mite to the family's revenue. It means that the mothers are able to stay in the homes and give to the children the care they need. Thousands of children are forst into industry at an age when they should be in school or at play. They must take the burden of life on their shoulders all unprepared, with bodies immature and minds undevelopt, with moral and social ideals in a chaotic state. The only occupations open to these children are those which call for the hardest work and pay the lowest wages with almost no chance for advancement. 786 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons When economic conditions are such that the mothers are compelled to leave the home for long hours at a time and spend those hours at hard labor, the children are denied their birthright of sound bodies, normal minds, and the physical care and moral guidance that every child should have. The teachers are the ones who must take the children as they come out of these homes of poverty and degradation, underfed and insufficiently clothed, and try to build on such a foundation the structure of human life and happiness. We are the ones who should know that an injustice done to the humblest man or woman reacts upon the entire fabric of society, and that, therefore an injury to one should be the concern of all. We are the ones who touch most nearly the lives of the people and who should understand most clearly the power and influence our teaching has in the life of the community. We should use all this influence so to change conditions as to make it possible for all children to be given the opportunity to grow naturally and happily into the best possible men and women. If this be our purpose and we are to accomplish it, we must put away many of the traditions of the past and catch step with the present. We must give up worshiping at the shrine of the " God of things as they are," and start a campaign with "Things as they should be" for our slogan. We must demand that teachers be given the rights of citizenship, of organiza- tion, of freedom of speech and poHtical action. We must work for tenure laws that will protect the teachers in the positions for which they have fitted themselves by years of training, which will make it possible for them to do their work undisturbed by changing poUtical administrations, and which will protect the children against being subjected to a corps of teachers who, in order to retain their positions, are forst into a condition of servility. We must work for poUtical freedom in order that our influence and our votes may be used to help secure the enactment of much-needed legislation. We must work for the right to organize and to unite with other organizations and for freedom of speech. We must have vision and understanding and see to it that our teaching of today will make it possible for the teachers of tomorrow to walk without servility, with heads erect, and unafraid. EDUCATION OF THE IMMIGRANT ELSA ALSBERG, SECRETARY, DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT AID, COUNCIL OF JEWISH WOMEN, NEW YORK, N.Y. A reaHzation of the responsibiUty of governmental agencies for the education of the adult immigrant is a matter of comparatively recent con- sciousness on the part of the pubUc. With this consciousness there arose the consideration of methods — of ways and means of reaching the adult alien, to interest him, to ascertain his educational needs, and to devise ways of suppl)dng them. Departmentl EDUCATION OF THE IMMIGRANT 787 The various processes of immigrant education are mainly processes of assimilation. They include a knowledge of our customs and institutions, both social and economic. But these are processes fundamentally depend- ent on a working knowledge of the English language and upon some com- mand of the three R's. As distinct, therefore, from the broader subject of Americanization, which includes educational questions concerning voca- tional training and a study of civics and American history — of citizenship — I shall confine myself to that phase of immigrant-education which deals with a study of English and elementary subjects with special reference to girls and women. Without this knowledge of our language the foreigner cannot have that social contact with the native-born that takes him out of the isolation of his "foreign quarter" and introduces him to American customs and ways of living. Without English he cannot have access to that great Americaniz- ing influence — the daily newspaper. On the economic side also, the non-EngUsh-speaking alien is at a great disadvantage. He is unable to learn of opportunities offered. In com- petition with the English-speaking employe he must be able to understand orders given in English by his "boss," to read signs of warning in factory and streets, printed poHce and safety regulations, and quarantine placards in the tenement house in which he lives. His industrial advancement depends in a large measure on his ability to speak and understand English and on his having at least a rudimentary education. Formerly it was taken for granted, and is still by many, that the public night school was the proper and only possible medium, under the supervi- sion of local boards of education, thru which the immigrant could be taught EngHsh and simple academic subjects. In most of our large industrial centers the masses of immigrants are not reacht by the public night school. In New York as in other large cities an absurdly small percentage of the non-Enghsh-speaking residents attend night school. It has been conceded that this is not a proof of any shortcomings on the part of the ahen, but on the contrary shows that the night school as at present conducted, does not meet his needs. Classes should be adapted to the immigrant, and not the immigrant to the classes. A large proportion of our immigrants consists of girls and women — a fact thus far insufficiently emphasized in considering ways and means of educating the alien — and there is a larger percentage of ilhteracy among them than among the men. Moreover, few of our foreign women have ever dreamed that they would become United States citizens upon the same terms as men. A little spreading of this knowledge would be a great incentive to women to learn English and to educate themselves for citizen- ship. That the public night schools as at present conducted do not meet the educational needs of all immigrants is now generally conceded. It is shown 788 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons by the irregularity of attendance, which is quite general, and by the com- paratively small numbers enroled in the schools. To get the ahen into the school in large numbers and to keep him there, a system of publicity is advocated. It plans to bring to the attention of the ahen the advantages of the school thru printed placards in factories, thru the foreign-language press, and thru groups of men and women speaking English, but Hving in the "foreign quarter." It seems to me that such pubHcity might well increase school-attendance but it is very doubtful whether it will succeed in keeping up this attendance thruout the school term. Various facts account for the failure of the public night schools. Dis- couragement is one of them. An immigrant has arrived in this country, say in April. He is ambitious and eager to learn English. He immediately enrols in the night school and finds himself in a class of students of various ages, many of whom have been there for some time. These have acquired so much English that the latest newcomer cannot compete with them and is at once discouraged and drops out of the class — and girls whose famihes have never considered the need of their education and who have therefore little desire for it, are the most easily discouraged. A girl immigrant decides to enter school. She has workt at a power machine for ten hours of the day and returns home to help the family to get supper and wash dishes; some- times she does her own laundry work. In spite of her fatigue she plucks up courage, summons her energy, goes to school and enters her classroom. The desks and benches are small and uncomfortable and she feels crampt and unhappy. The class does not see her the next day. A third immigrant girl comes home from a long and tedious day of enervating work, gets her own supper, and starts out for school. She passes her friends going to the "movies," but she resists. Perhaps she meets her young man who urges her to go for a stroll, but she puts him off until Saturday evening. Nevertheless she longs for excitement and enter- tainment, which is the natural craving after a deadening and monotonous day. In the classroom she meets a teacher who, after a day of wearying teaching, is too tired to be able to infuse that interest and enthusiasm into the lessons that bring the needed response from her equally tired pupil. The next night the girl goes to the "movie." Sometimes the teacher who is accustomed to instructing children can- not adapt her methods to the teaching of adult aliens and cannot secure their interests. As a result the class attendance drops. Irregularity of attendance is also accounted for, in part at least, by the fact that the classes are usually not well graded. Grading by national- ity, by previous training and education, or by age have all been advocated. Classes of mixt nationahty often show the best results, but previous educa- tion should be taken into consideration in order to separate the Hterate from the ilHterate. It may be feasible to make several gradings on the basis of previous education. Together with this, however, should be Department] EDUCATION OF THE IMMIGRANT 789 coupled the consideration of age. Older people quite naturally prefer studying with others of about the same age and, being more fixt in their habits of mind, often find it difficult to keep up with the younger and more plastic mind. Among the younger immigrants there is a greater enthusiasm, a spirit of wholesome competition. The social stimulus to a class composed of both young men and young women would be a great asset in retaining their interest. A third consideration in the grading of classes, and one I beUeve to be particularly important, is by trades. What the immigrant wants is a practical working knowledge of English that will help him to advance both industrially and socially. He desires to learn about his trade and to be able to apply at once what he has learned each evening. Aliens employed in the same trades have like interests. The teaching, if patterned on these inter- ests, will do much to keep up class attendance. In addition to the elements of discouragement on the part of the immi- grant, and the lack of proper grading of classes, there is that of the quali- fications of the teacher herself. Teachers who have been working all day are usually too fatigued to give their best efforts to the night school. More- over, teachers who have been specially trained for, and experienst in, the teaching of children find it very difficult to adapt themselves to the totally different problem of teaching the adult foreigner. It is now generally recog- nized, but has not yet been generally acted upon, that the public night- school teacher of adults should be specially equipt for this highly specialized type of teaching and that she must also possess, to an unusual degree, personality, sympathy, and a keen understanding of her pupils in their daily lives and national characteristics. Another point in the failure of the night school is the short term of instruction. It is not enough to offer the immigrant facilities for learning English during the winter months only. Why should the immigrants, who arrive in largest numbers in the spring and summer, be compelled to wait until the following fall or winter before they have an opportunity to learn English? To supply the need of such immigrants as are employed at night (and there are many of these) why cannot we have day schools like the very successful Jones School in Chicago ? This school has three grades, a large and regular attendance, and its classes are made up of about eighteen nationalities, of both men and women, and of ages ranging up to fifty years. Why cannot we also introduce more extensively late-afternoon classes for daytime and part-time workers ? Short day sessions particularly designed for immigrant mothers with their special interests might also be profitably inaugurated. All these suggestions for the improvement of the public night school are, however, designed to meet only the needs of immigrants employed in energizing trades. Such immigrants are usually stimulated by their day- time work, frequently possess considerable technical skill, and are ready for 790 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons concentration upon studies at night. They will therefore be attracted to the public night school. To meet the need of the masses of our immigrant population mostly employed in enervating work, much more radical changes in the public night-school system would have to be brought about. The great numbers of men and especially girls who are employed in enervating work thruout a long and monotonous day quite naturally and legitimately crave excite- ment, relaxation, and the contrast of social pleasures. They are unwilling to add to their fatigue by confining classroom study during their only leisure time for relaxation. If the school is to attract this class of immigrant it must meet his desires and needs in this direction. In a measure at least it must compete with the appeal of the moving-picture entertainment, the parks, and the dance halls. This means that the entire teaching content, the very nature and constitu- tion of the class, in fact the entire atmosphere of compulsion must be changed. With careful thought this can be done, and the classroom thus adapt its teachings to the needs of the worker. Only in this way can attend- ance at, and interest in, the night school be assured as far as the majority of our immigrants is concerned. To secure the desired regular attendance at the public night school, compulsory attendance has been advocated and tried in some communities. It has generally been conceded however, that this is a very unsatisfactory method of securing the desired end. First, it is most difficult to enforce such a law, since truant officers can hardly be employed; secondly, if the adult is not interested, is physically and mentally fatigued, or considers enforst night-school attendance an infringement of his personal liberty, his presence in the class will not bring very satisfactory results. Unless, then, our public night-school system for the education of adult aUens can be so developt and re-formed as to meet the needs of all classes of immigrants, some other system of education for those doing enervating work all day, must be devised. Various experiments in this direction have been tried. Among these the continuation classes, and in some instances these in conjunction with the cooperative classes, seem to offer the best solution. Continuation classes presuppose the employer's willingness to give a part of the time of his employes as well as the classroom and its equipment. The local board of education contributes the teacher, books, and supphes. Frequently, especially when trade training is involved, the trade union is askt to cooperate. With this arrangement the employe, who could rarely afford to pay anything toward his own education, loses no part of his wages. In comparatively few trades have continuation classes been conducted. Here in New York it has been most difficult to enlist the cooperation of employers, especially for classes in English and purely academic subjects. A few contmuation classes designed to increase the workers' technical skill, DepartmentJ EDUCATION OF THE IMMIGRANT 791 and a number of classes in hotels and department stores have been estab- lisht successfully. Unless, however, the big manufacturers' associations can be interested, there is little likelihood that continuation classes can be generally introduced into the unskilled trades. The alternative that will ehminate unfair competition between manufacturers in the same trade and locality seems to be compulsory continuation classes for immigrant employes whose daily work is unskilled and of an enervating nature, and whose edu- cational needs the public night school therefore does not meet. The introduction of continuation classes presupposes a thoro and care- ful investigation to ascertain the hours during which the worker can best be spared, to ascertain what subjects and methods will best supplement the work of the employe and make for his greater general eflSciency, and to ascertain the type of teacher best fitted to conduct the particular class in question. It may, in fact, be necessary to vary class methods, not only as between different trades, but also in the different processes in the same trade and shop. Such continuation classes might advantageously be supplemented by cooperative classes conducted during the slack season when the employe works part time or not at all. These cooperative classes might be conducted in the public schools and be designed to dove-tail with the continuation classes. The continuation-class idea, furthermore, might be extended to meet the need for educating the imi^iigrant mother. Little emphasis has been placed thus far upon this phase of immigrant-education. It was generally taken for granted that it was unnecessary for the mother to know EngHsh and something of American customs and institutions so long as her children went to the public school which, in time, would make of them patriotic citizens. If, however, we are to succeed even partially in overcoming that pitiful condition now existing between the younger and older generation, where we find on the one side an unjustifiable arrogance and on the other that helpless resignation due to sheer ignorance of language, we must offer attractive facihties to the immigrant mother to learn Enghsh. The immi- grant mother's ignorance of all things American does more to disturb the normal healthy family life of our immigrants, to send the children into courts and institutions, than has generally been recognized. Some immigrant mothers may be induced to attend short day-school sessions if they are designed especially for them. In San Francisco a system of home teaphers is now in force. Competent teachers visit in. foreign homes where they teach English while imparting simple principles of sanita- tion and home economics. The Nashville Section of the Council of Jewish Women has had good success in inducing the Americanized daughters of foreign-born parents to teach the latter at home. For mothers with infants, who cannot leave home, the district nurses and settlement workers have done much in this direction. Another suggestion is that a specially qualified 792 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons teacher be assigned to teach in one apartment all the mothers living in one entire tenement house. This makes of the tenement house a school and has the advantage, from the mother's point of view, of sociabiHty and prox- imity, and thus can hold her interest. Whatever method be adopted, it is evident that we no longer can afford to ignore our responsibility for educat- ing the immigrant mother. To summarize, the public night schools as generally conducted do not meet the needs of the immigrant. Propaganda, proper grading of classes, specially qualified and trained teachers, adequate classroom equipment, daytime classes for adults, and day and night classes conducted thruout the year will develop the present system to the extent of meeting the needs of immigrants employed in the energizing trades and those unusually ambitious and physically robust. It can hardly hope to meet the educa- tional needs of the majority of our immigrants, who are employed in enervat- ing work and require excitement, relaxation, and entertainment in their leisure time. To meet this demand the public night school would need to change its entire teaching attitude and make the classes socially attractive and relate them to the daily interests of the pupils. Classes for girls, especially, would have to be occasions of pleasure. If the night school is not developt along these lines an entirely different system must be evolved. Of the systems experimentally tried thus far, the continuation class seems most nearly to fill the requirements. Since, however, it is difficult to secure the voluntary cooperation of the employer, such continuation classes in the factory and shops employing unskilled immigrant labor should be made compulsory. Daytime classes conducted in the public-school buildings during the slack seasons might supplement the continuation classes. To counteract the present tendency toward the alienation of the child from the mother, means should be provided for the latter to learn EngUsh, and if possible within the home itself. The immigrant of either sex wants and needs a working knowledge of the EngHsh language and some appreciation of our American customs and institutions. It is time that we not only recognize this fact, but take active measures to supply these needs in acceptable and reasonable form. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, COUNCIL OF JEWISH WOMEN FANNIE SAXE LONG, WILKESBARRE, PA. The recently pubUsht Program of Work of the Council of Jewish Women for the Triennial Period of 1914-17 is, in nine chapters, the story of the Jew's appetite for learning, his passion for social reconstruction, his fret for justice, his mania for spending himself in service, and his keen common- Department! REPORT OF COUNCIL OF JEWISH WOMEN 793 sense in method. Each one of the nine standing committees of the Council contributes a chapter, a record of work done, a line of attack, and a new- objective, yet one entirely within human powers of attainment. Never before has it been so difficult to Hst the exact work of each com- mittee and hold the educational department in a fixt groove. The Council program is, from cover to cover, a textbook on education. Spilled over the outlines of activities in religion, reUgious schools, immigrant aid, peace and arbitration, and the rest, is the single standard of "service with sense'' — that sense which comes only after an intensive study of a given situation, its spring, its statues, its solution. "Loving hearts and willing hands" have their places, but this program deals with the superstructure, the humano- pragmatic preparation for service and then the "go-to-it" and "this-way- out! " In fact there is nothing in heaven nor on earth not dreamt of in this philosophy. If you are askt what relation this philosophy of the Council bears to the work of the Council I should say, " Could all the work which is being done by the 70-odd sections and the nearly 20,000 workers in the Council be assembled in one place, you would see a humanitarianism entirely super- human, for somehow and somewhere, each point that a quickened finger may reach on the rising thermometer of Ufe-standards is being scored in one or another Council section, or it somewhere plans to be." The sections have mounted the latest and most approved models of socio-educational band wagons with Americanization in the lead, with vocational guidance, peace and arbitration, exceptional children's classes, big brotherhoods and sisterhoods, health and social hygiene, and all the other standard and experimental social antitoxins in their kits. Last year our report called your attention to a special work which this organization was entering upon — that of big-sistering any case of any need of any kind of any Jewish child in the whole school system. There is no need which has not a card awaiting it in the catalog of some one of our committees. Too much tonsil, too few overshoes, too much movies, a lack of violin lessons, may illuminate the meaning of the calls made upon the Council and its readiness to serve. In no community where this "Follow-up" friend serves, has anything but the most cordial and useful relation between school, child, and organization been establisht. In no way has the super- sensitive "prerogative" of school officials been agitated. It has developt tact in the school friend, perhaps a keen appreciation of the teacher's difficulties. Surely the child profits. Moreover, after the first suspicion, the school men and women have heartily approved of an effort on the part of "outsiders" to do, or at least to offer to do, something that smacks of a new and desirable kind of busybodyness. In this day of- professional ser- vice this apparent harking back to the dark ages of "volunteer" soft- headness and sof t-heartedness is not at all real. The wise " visiting teacher " does handle well the same problems here presented, but with the new 794 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tSchool Patrons ache in each community for a useful, satisf)dng outlet for the talent as well as the training of so many capable college-bred women, this activity of the Council blesses both him that gives and him that takes. Conscientious, intelligent work and a salary are no longer, of necessity, one and insepa- rable. In the same friendly spirit have the school authorities received copies of a special calendar, one which gives the dates of the important holidays of the Jewish religion, with sufficient quotations from the Bible text to make their inspirational content clear and to justify the request that no important examination nor task be set for that particular day. In most instances this dignified request has been met by a courteous response. You are surely interested to ask what the Council of Jewish Women believes right in the matter of reading the Bible in the school, singing sec- tarian hymns, studying the Merchant of Venice and Ivanhoe and like prob- lems. The Council of Jewish Women is, and aims increasingly to be, the great unit of fellowship among Jewish womanhood. It joins all the tints and shades, with exquisite inseparableness,of the whole rainbow of orthodoxy and reform Judaism. The Council therefore cannot, upon any question of outward form, consistently formulate an opinion that would be accept- able to all its members. Some believe, without possibility of argument, that the Bible has no place in the American ideal of public education. Other members hold that the Bible, rescues itself from any situation. Some hold that hymn- and carol-singing outrage American religious liberty. Other members believe that a distinction between music and noise is made at the throne itself, that lip and lung have a separate service from the heart, even according to a recent Massachusetts court decision. As for the great Shylock and Isaac of York, some hold that Scott and Shakespeare surely provide an unlimited choice for literary dissection, and beg to have spared the sort of soul-vivisection of these Jewish children. Other members, however, see here a real opportunity for the just-minded teacher to allay some hoary, stupid, unbrotherly gibes and if not that, then they choose the purging fire bath for these children's souls while it is yet possible, within the home circle, to soothe them and to interpret for them the rebuffs and discriminations that will surely come to them later. The Jew very generally has little fear that any god can be placed before the great Jehovah; his fear is of godlessness and man's inhumanity to man. And so it is that each Council section must consider these questions in the light of its own dominant opinion and according to the seriousness of the particular situation. You may expect that each section will curb its opinion until, in righteous wrath, it is moved by some real violation. A case in point is the demand of one teacher that all her pupils kneel for morning prayers. Tho hymns may be voice culture, genuflexion is a flying in the face of Jewish interpretation of "Thou shalt not bow down thyself, etc." Department] SOUTHERN ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGE WOMEN 795 It is perhaps just a little inopportune, in these days, to put the loud pedal on any issue that deals with a group. It is perfectly true that the Council of Jewish Women does, fundamentally, plan its service for Jewish children, but there are practical reasons — a matter of pure science. It is easier to lift a part than to move the mass; to raise a social unit before essaying a heterogeneous collection. First, there is never enough money to meet the whole demand; here the demand can very surely count on financial sufficiency. Secondly, there are never enough workers for the whole situation; in this field a kind of Cadmus teeth is sown and an equipt force rises to attack the need. Again, there is never enough single-minded enthusiasm to cover a whole community; here it is easily possible to move as a body. But altho the Council works thru and for the Jewish people, it holds all classifications man-made — ^finite and artificial boundaries — and therefore a very large part of the service recorded as important in its program is the modest but vigorous "co" in cooperation with general community activities for compulsory education and other educational legislation, school bond campaigns, free textbooks, public lectures, extended use of school plants, estabHshment of special classes, settlements, community centers, and recreation, etc. ; and with it all the program enjoins each group to under- take an academic study of new standards and methods, sometimes the end being their application, sometimes merely the pursuit of wisdom. It hopes to help accommodate all the members of its own faith to their new level of American advantages and obligations; to smooth the raw edges which they show, to temper the raw edges which they meet. The Committee on Education, in fact the whole Council, hopes to have a balance of sensible service to the country to offset the problem that its coreligionists bring here. It hopes that thru this group-training it may fix the focus as to need, provide the functioning information as to method, and then be quite swallowed up in the bigger groups, parents' associations, school patrons, and communities that take up the burden. By working for some of the people all the time, and all of the people some of the time, it can sense the occasion, without fooling even themselves, upon which we all can work for all the people all the time. REPORT OF THE SOUTHERN ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGE WOMEN VIRGINIA S. MCKENNY, VICE-PRESIDENT The educational work of the Southern Association of College Women has been carried on this year as usual by its Committees on Patrons, Scholarships, College Days, and Standards of Colleges. 7^6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons The Patrons Committee of the Association, thru local committees, has striven especially to promote interest in the investigation and elimination of illiteracy in all the states represented in the Association. Copies of the Illiteracy Circular ^ compiled by the women of Alabama, were sent to all Patrons-Committee chairmen. Directly or indirectly the committee has been able to stimulate interest in the betterment of illiteracy conditions in Mississippi and Kentucky. It has also cooperated further in the work already in progress in Alabama and North Carolina. The Committee on Scholarships, working thru scholarship committees in the various local branches, has circulated information among high-school teachers and pupils concerning the seventy standard college scholarships offered thru the Association. Data secured from each college as to its requirements, dates of examination, etc., have been printed in leaflet form and put into their hands. These seventy scholarships vary in value from $75 to $300, and the Association may also nominate candidates for the $600 Pulitzer scholarship at Barnard College. The College-Day Committee has continued to urge the observance of "college day" by the local branches in order to interest students in going to college. This year extension work was begun along college-day lines. Members of college-day committees were urged to arrange for ''college days" in high schools in towns where no branches of the Southern Asso- ciation of College Women existed. The extension work was successfully carried out in several towns in Alabama and Louisiana. Some branches have found that repeating their "college-day" programs before parent- teacher associations had more effect than the original presentation to high- school students. This appeal to parents is found to be a great help in having the high-school course of the prospective college student planned with reference to college entrance. Perhaps the most far-reaching educational work of the Association is that connected with the investigation of the standards of southern colleges. To her two pamphlets of former years. The Improvement in Standards of Southern Colleges, and The Approximate Value of Recent Degrees in Southern Colleges, Elizabeth Avery Colton, president of the Association, has this year added a third. The Various Types of Southern Colleges for Women. This pamphlet has been publisht as one of the regular bulletins of the Asso- ciation. It is intended primarily to give full information to high-school students concerning the standards and standing of the many institutions in the South bearing the title "College." Classification is made under the following heads: "Standard Colleges," "Approximate Colleges," "Normal and Industrial Colleges," "Junior Colleges," " Unclassifiable Colleges," "Imitation and Nominal Colleges." The main facts about each insti- tution named under the foregoing headings (gathered from catalogs and announcements) are noted in concise form — location, foundation, recogni- tion by various educational organizations, endowment, volumes in library, Department] SOCIAL SERVICE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 797 I number of college students, number of special students, etc. With this definite information at hand, the southern high-school girl should be able to make an intelligent choice of institutions according to the type of train- ing she desires. The pamphlet is one more step forward in the Associa- tion's work of research and publicity in connection with the standards of colleges. As this work progresses it is becoming harder for the nominal college, which advertises falsely, to secure students. The organized work of the Association along these lines is carried on by the Committee on Standards of Colleges. This committee works thru the local committees to secure discussion of standards of colleges and general publicity calculated to emphasize the importance of genuine standards in the institutions of the South. This committee is fast becoming a bureau of information as to the work and standing of southern institutions. Inquiries come from examiners and deans of some of our largest and best universities, from branch members, and from outsiders totally unknown to the committee. Often smaller institutions come to the committee for advice as to the improvement of their curriculum and catalog. The com- mittee is also gratified to note that the work that the Association began and has carried on thru the Standards of Colleges Committee is being reinforst more and more by the cooperation of outside agencies. This committee reports that a number of individual institutions have shown evidences of progress during the year, and that others near the bottom of the Association's list have been discontinued or merged with other schools. SOCIAL SERVICE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS ELIZABETH MCMANUS, CHAIRMAN, CLINIC DEPARTMENT, LOS ANGELES FEDERATION OF PARENT-TEACHER ASSOCIATIONS, LOS ANGELES, CAL. We live under a government we call democratic, founded indeed that all men might have an equal chance of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; for equality of rights is the very Hfe-blood of democracy. But no hopes nor dreams can produce a race of men born equal. Democracy can be achieved only thru an equality of opportunity which shall counter- balance the inequalities of birth. Today we are a heterogeneous people. Immigrants have come to us by millions, not only from widely differing races, but from classes whose standard of living is far below our own, men who have been aptly called "the beaten of beaten races." Rapidly our nation has grown away from its democratic form. Classes have arisen and distinctions of caste have come to separate our people. But still in our hearts lives an ideal, the realization of which means welding these diverse elements into one race. It is with this thought that I proceed with my subject. 7q8 national education association [School Patrons An attempt to outline a system for carrying on social service in the schools would cripple my purpose from the start by placing limitations where they should not exist; for each city, district, and school must, necessarily, work out its own problems, as no system could adequately meet the needs of all. However, I do maintain that under existing conditions in most cities the school is the center that touches the greatest number of homes, and therefore is in a better position than any other public agency for under- standing social problems and helping to solve them. Originally the state regarded the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic, with an occasional flourish thrown in, as the essentials necessary to citizenship, but gradually an awakening has come and we are asking ourselves over and over again, "What is the purpose of education?" Is the system turning out citizens of the highest caliber ? In what have we failed, and how can we remedy our system that we may turn out a higher degree of citizenship ? We are coming to know that there is not a problem which touches the human race that cannot be solved by proper education. If this is true, to what lengths should the state be willing to go to develop its children ? I believe that only the strictest economy is practist when we give to the child the best that can be obtained, and when we have left nothing undone in developing him into the highest type of citizenship. This can be done only by intelligent study of the child and by a careful adjustment of the system to meet the needs of the child, instead of forcing the child to fit the system, as has been the rule in the past, and is in many instances of the present. Education in the past has consisted in gathering together, out of books, a number of facts, and the child with the best memory on examination day was considered the brightest pupil. The teachers of tomorrow will be those chosen because of an under- standing and reverence for life, and because they are the true ministers of the race. Like the artist, the poet, and the musician, they will appeal to the inteUigence, and will endeavor to inspire by striking at the keynote of the soul, rather than at externals. They will go back to the original meaning of the word "education," and will, as the word indicates, endeavor to draw out the latent powers of the individual. This larger and broader view of education is related to the social work in our schools, and as I am a resident of Los Angeles, CaL, and know only of the work being carried on there, I shall confine myself to telHng you of that. I will commence with the ungraded room, which was one of the first developments added to the school system, and which is founded on the dual proposition that, first, there is something the matter with some of the children which renders them misfits, and secondly, there is something wrong with the grade-school system which makes it inadequate to reach Department) SOCIAL SERVICE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 799 every child. These special rooms are a step in the right direction; for in them the child is much less Ukely to be "machine made." The teachers must consider such children as individuals; for, as the word "ungraded" indicates, the children are of different ages and at different stages of development, and therefore the regular routine work done in the graded room naturally is left out. In Los Angeles we have six types of ungraded rooms, classified in the following order i 1. For children considered normal or nearly normal and who, for any cause, are working at a serious disadvantage in the regular classes. In this type of ungraded room the maximum enrolment is from 20 to 24 to a teacher. Some rooms are primary, some advanst, and such rooms serve as a center for a group of different schools. 2. Ungraded rooms known as special schools, open to truants and incorrigibles, with a maximum enrolment of 15. 3. Permanent ungraded rooms, open to pupils who are extremely dull or queer, with an enrolment that runs in some cases as high as 30. 4. Classes for defective children manifesting enough intelligence to place them above the institutional cases. 5. Parental schools where children, without adequate parental control — usually those who have made a start in juvenile vice and crime — are entered. 6. Deaf classes, both primary and advanst, using lip methods only, and enroling seven pupils to each teacher. Another step in the right direction is the work being done by our Health and Development Depart- ment. At present we have a staff of eleven physicians and seven nurses, doing the examination work in our schools, making physical, and some mental, tests and giving in our high and intermediate schools lessons 'in hygiene. At the Parent-Teacher Clinic, which was started by the Federation of Parent-Teacher Associations, but which is now largely supported by the school department, we have dentists and physicians who administer to the children that are sent to them by the schools, and these dentists and physicians also give such care as is necessary to establish the health of the child. In this "clinic" (which name is a misnomer, for it really is not a clinic in the common understanding of the word, inasmuch as no students ever practice there) we have the following departments: dental, eye, ear, nose, throat, general medicine, osteophathic, and a class for the correction of speech defects, such as stammering and so forth. We are soon to move into a new building — a gift from one of our philanthropists — and shall then endeavor to do even broader work; for we hope to have lectures to mothers on hygiene, dietetics, care of children's teeth, etc., as we realize that the most important task we can accompUsh will be along practical lines. 8oo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons We have a special type of school known as " the neighborhood school," where the particular needs of the neighborhood in which the school is located are lookt after. In some of our neighborhood schools you will find such social work as the following: the day nursery, with a competent woman in charge looking after any number of little children who are not yet old enough to enter kindergarten, but> who must be lookt after while their usual caretakers — their older brothers and sisters — are in school. Their mothers cannot take care of them because most of these women are forst to go to different parts of the city during the day to work. In the day nursery you will find a group of happy children who are bathed and fed, and provided with little beds to sleep in, and a sand pile and blocks and games to play with. Surely, a reliable, true melting-pot is this day nursery, where children of all nationahties are properly taught Americanism. Another interesting and useful phase of the day nursery is the training many high-school girls are receiving; for they take turns in assisting at the nurseries and gain by actual experience the lessons on how to care for a baby. The penny lunch is another constructive part of our school system. Here the child is provided with a bowl of warm, nourishing soup, and as much bread as he can eat, for one penny, any deficit that may occur being made up by the school department. If the child has no penny he is given the soup and bread. Often this meal is the only one provided. What sense or economy is there in trying to cram a hungry child with rules and regulations when he is in need of food ? What sense is there in trying to hold the attention of a child who has an ulcerated tooth and can think of nothing but the pain ? What sense is there in educating, in the regular way, a hopelessly tuber- cular child, or a child who is approaching blindness or deafness ? In the neighborhood schools may also be found cooking classes and sewing classes, where not only the children of the school are taught, but where the mothers of the neighborhood are gathered in and taught how to cut garments and how properly to prepare the kinds of food they like best. Most of this work is done by the teacher, whose classes are dismist at two o'clock and who must remain until three. This hour and one which the teacher contributes as her offering to society afford the time for this work and the teaching of English, etc. And in these schools too, not only are the children taught to wash and iron, but the mothers are permitted on certain days and hours to do their family washing. The school gardens, where boys and girls may get out in the open and learn so many of the lessons of nature, have already proved a boon to many a fortunate child, who has been able to avail himself of this opportunity for self-discovery. Besides, the results which are in evidence, even in the poorest of homes, where tiny little plots are planted, Department! HIGH-SCHOOL PHYSICAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS 8oi clearly indicate that the object-lesson of the school garden has been learned. In Los Angeles we have come to a full realization of the great importance of the leisure time of our boys and girls. We know that our schools employ only a very small share of the child's time, and we feel that the unoccupied time is almost, if not fully, as impor- tant as his occupied time. To meet this great problem we have organized night schools; summer schools, running thru six weeks of the summer months; the extended school day, and other departments to take up the slack time of our boys and girls. The night schools have been running only a few years, yet the enrolment for the year just closed ran into the thousands, and the courses of study offered in these schools covered all the subjects offered in the regular day schools. Our summer schools last year enroled hundreds of boys and girls who workt industriously and with enthusiasm during the entire term. It is an interesting fact to note, in connection with the summer schools, that the number of students taking advanst work was much greater than the number who were studying to make up back credits. We have an agricultural high school, a marine high school, and a technical high school, and, of course, the regular classical high schools. We have the intermediate school to bring the high and elementary schools closer together. In our elementary schools we have special departments for music, drawing, cooking, sewing, manual training, and agriculture. And all these, the specialized high school, the intermediate school, and the special elementary-school departments, have been organized in the interests of the child, endeavoring, not so much to give him a groundwork for entering life after he finishes school, but to bring him in touch with life as it is while he yet is in school, with the thought that if he is to be a mechanic we will provide him the training for a mechanic and not the training for a lawyer; and if he is to be a lawyer or a doctor or a farmer we may provide him the right training for his life-work. Such a plan is not only specializing — it is vitalizing. We maintain that everything which helps to create a sound mind in a sound body belongs to, and is a part of, the pubUc-school system. ADMINISTRATION AND METHOD IN HIGH-SCHOOL PHYSICAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS JOSEPHINE BEIDERHASE, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL TRAINING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y. In the short time allotted to me for this paper, it is not possible to cover a subject of such wide scope as my title implies; I will, however, endeavor to give a brief outline of the methods used in New York City to interest our high-school girls in such vital topics as health and strength. 802 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons On entering the high school the girl finds herself in a new environment. She now has a teacher who teaches only physical training — a teacher who is vitally interested in this important subject and who is giving her entire life for the physical and moral welfare of those girls who come under her direction. The girl enters, perhaps for the first time, a well-equipt gym- nasium with locker rooms, shower-baths and examination room. She is imprest with the business like air of the entire department; she is required to get a trim gymnasium costume consisting of black bloomers, plain white middy blouse, black tie, black stockings, and black gymnasium shoes. All this interests the girl; she returns to her home and talks about it; the mother is thoroly famihar with the name of the "gymnasium teacher" and her demands before she has even heard the names of the other teachers who now instruct her daughter. This is the psychological time for making a great impression on the enthusiasm of the adolescent, and I can safely say that the women high-school teachers of physical training in New York City are doing their utmost to make the 25,000 girls whom they instruct, healthy, happy, and efficient. Physical education is a broad term and includes first and foremost instruction in right hving, such instruction to be given in part thru talks on personal hygiene. The individual advice for establishing correct habits of personal hygiene is based on the results of the physical examination and routine inspection; these the girl receives on her entrance to high school and at stated times thereafter; the inspection is strictly followed up, and each girl is required to report to the nurse or physical-training teacher until all temporary disturbances are cleared up. On pp. 803 and 804 is a copy of the card used for physical training and hygiene record and physical examination. Physical training is compulsory, and a passing mark is required for promotion and graduation. Two forty-minute periods a week during the entire course of four years has been the requirement for both boys and girls; according to the new state law this time will be greatly increast. A graded and uniform course of study is in operation in the high schools in New York City; this work has been carefully planned by the teachers themselves in conference with the director and assistant director of physical training. The program includes: 1. Marching, running, skipping, and tactics. 2. Formal gymnastic exercises which include freehand exercises, those done with light apparatus, and those on fixt or heavy apparatus. 3. Dancing, including folk, natural, and classical. 4. Gymnastic games. 5. After-school athletics and athletic games, including walking, swim- ming, field hockey, horseback-riding, tennis, basket-ball and indoor baseball. 6. Special classes for the correction of faulty posture. Department] HIGH-SCHOOL PHYSICAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS 803 0 Q w u C/3 Ui 3 0 I 0) O 1« 5 ^ ' < to i 1 •1 a § 0 u 6 I 1 ! 1 1 ■1 CO s .a 1 1 1 ■ >> p •1 1 c 1 C/3 0 1 1 1 •s 3 1 1 c '1 1 "i 1 8o4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons o I g 8 n paAOJduinin :- pa^oauoo jo pajno i^ ^NOixvNmvxa-aH no aNnoj xiasan uop^jado :o l^^naQ :a :xNawi-vaHi, ao aNra :aaoD H a 1 4J 1 a 2 1 ij H 1 1 1 •9 1 i (^ t I ii t 1 0 1 c 2 c i 1 1 1 E -1 f 3 7^ f s i i 5 E ^ ■1 h ^ C ;3 5 • c i 5 > , Department) THE BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA 805 The various phases of physical training enumerated under i, 2, 3, and 4 are combined in a forty-minute lesson in such a way as to be at once' interesting and effective. The plan combines both neuro-muscular train- ing and vigorous exercise. In this lesson plan, which was devised by C. Ward Crampton and which is in use in the high and elementary schools of New York City, there are two fundamental ideas, namely, simplicity and purpose. The exercises are preferably simple and well known, and the purpose of each exercise is thoroly understood by the pupil as well as by the teacher. The lesson is divided into five parts: 1. Introductory exercises: for mental and physical preparation for the lesson. 2. Corrective exercises: elevation exercises to develop good posture; raising chest and head, straightening trunk. 3. Educational exercises: for alertness, inhibition, and accuracy. 4. Hygienic exercises: vigorous exercises done to rhythm, designed to stimulate the action of the heart and lungs and to train in endurance. 5. Recreative exercises: for informal educational training and hygienic results. THE BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA JAMES E. WEST, CHIEF SCOUT EXECUTIVE, BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA, NEW YORK, N.Y. I am particularly appreciative of the opportunity for addressing this group in connection with the great National Education Association Con- vention on the work of the Boy Scouts of America. Here in New York and indeed thruout the whole country the organization of the Boy Scouts of America has been greatly aided by men who are leaders in physical education. Aiming as we do to supplement the work of existing agencies, it is logical for all interested in physical education to take an active and definite )art in promoting our program. The reports from the War Department show that of the state militia Irafted for federal service in the present emergency, from 15 per cent to I5 per cent of the men from various states sent to the border have been rejected because of lack of physical fitness. Again the records of the rnited States government show that of the men who apply for enhstment the marine corps, 90 per cent are rejected because they are not physically it, the percentage in New York City alone being as high as 97 per cent plus, Me in Los Angeles, Cal., it is 66 per cent plus. These figures are based ipon records made by United States ofiicials and cover the United States [arine Corps recruiting service for the entire country. Other facts 8o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons might be cited to show the serious lack of physical development and fitness of the average American citizen. Because of the European war and recent Mexican developments, the country is alarmed and aroused, and an earnest effort is being made by many well-meaning people to impose the burden of miUtary preparedness upon our schools and upon the boys in their "teen" age. It is true that much of the agitation and resulting hysteria shows a lack of knowledge of what is properly covered by the term "military training," nevertheless it does show an earnestness and patriotism on the part of those who are advocating this or that method for correcting existing conditions which must be reckoned with. Again, if those who are leaders in physical education would come for- ward with a definite program of instruction which would greatly improve the physical condition of the product of our public schools and colleges, I feel confident that the most radical advocates of the technical military training would be satisfied with it as a preliminary program and would be content to have their strictly military program commence at a more mature age and at the point where the physical training left off. It is because so little has been done that those who are concerned about our country's lack of preparedness are advocating the introduction of what is unfairly called "military training" in our public schools. As a matter of fact, in the programs of many of our most progressive schools as well as in the program of the Boy Scouts of America, a great deal of what is practically understood as military training is given very effectively. Indeed I am told by many of our people who have been to Plattsburg that a great proportion of the program of the Plattsburg and other strictly military training camps is included in the program of the Boy Scouts of America. It is just as important that boys and girls be taught how to live and how to care for themselves and what to do in emergencies in order to prepare them to be good school teachers, stenographers, bookkeepers, accountants, clerks, to engage in any of the trades, or to work as a day laborer on the streets, as it is to prepare them to withstand the test of army service in time of war. Those things which make for discipline, obedience, loyalty, endurance, initiative, alertness, good health, knowledge of how to care for oneself, etc., should not be considered distinctive military training, but should be given to all boys and girls in order properly to prepare them primarily for their later responsibilities as home-makers, wage-earners, and citizens. It was upon this theory that Lieutenant General Sir Robert S. S. Baden-Powell formulated the program which is being followed the world over by regularly organized boy scouts. The purely technical military training, which experience shows is unwisely given to groups of young boys as cadets, simply occupies valuable I Department] TEE BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA 807 time and crowds out a program of other activities which would, in the judgment of those promoting scouting, prove more effective and beneficial in securing the desired results. General Baden-Powell in speaking on this subject recently said: My own experience as a soldier includes having served as a cadet, having commanded cadets, and having seen them in most of the overseas dominions; but this experience does not lead me to think that, under their usual organization and training, they are of supreme value for military purposes. In my own territorial division, when I suggested the forma- tion of Cadet Corps as feeders to the various battalions, not one of the commanding officers of those battalions desired to have them. The difficulty of obtaining really first-class officers and instructors to train boys is very great, and unless you have them you are likely to do more harm than good from the military point of view. More than one officer has told me that he would rather have raw recruits to train than ex-cadets, since, as a rule, these have so much to unlearn. Aside from the exceptional instances where school buildings are equipt with gymnasiums, athletic fields, and other facilities for physical training, the school authorities' opportunity for official action is limited to the brief period with the boys under the direct control of the schools. Manifestly this is not adequate. Plans must therefore be considered to reach the boy during his leisure time thru some form of recreational activity which will result in bringing about physical preparedness. This is where the Boy Scouts of America, the playground movement, and other kindred movements very definitely provide a supplement to the work of the directors of physical education and the school work proper. Already important steps have been taken because of the necessity for definite action. New York State has created a so-called military- training commission, consisting of three men who have complete and absolute power to develop a program of training of not more than three hours in each week to be given to all boys, over the age of fifteen who are not employed. Undoubtedly other states will enact legislation to meet the situation. It is for us who believe, as I hope all here do, that physical preparedness is the greatest need of America, actively to interest ourselves in seeing to it that whatever legislation of this character may be enacted will be along lines calculated to secure the best results for our country. We should all cooperate with those to whom authority is given, and aid in the develop- ment of programs which will give the boys proper physical development as well as the proper point of view as to their patriotic duty. The Boy Scouts of America must frankly confess that, notwithstanding the fact that at present we have over 42,000 men who are performing volunteer service in various parts of the country in order to make our program available to 190,000 boys who are registered as scouts, as an organization we cannot reasonably expect to provide sufficient leadership to reach all the boys of the country of the teen age for whom something should be done outside of this school. We believe, however, whenever it 8o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (School Patrons is possible to have scout troops organized, that boys who are under proper leadership following the prescribed scout program should be excused from participation in any other compulsory form of training for preparedness. The simplicity of the plan of organization of the Boy Scouts of America makes it possible for troops to be organized just as rapidly as competent leadership is available. Commissions are granted to men of good character upon the recommendation of three or more accredited representatives of the institution who are citizens of the community; and, in case the troop is to be organized in a large community, upon the additional recommen- dation of the proper officials of a chartered local council. The appeal to the boy's imagination thru the word "scout," the recog- nition of the principle of self-government, and the placing of a boy on his honor have all been very effective. Likewise the total absence of the use of the word " don't" or anything of a negative character has been effectively cared for by placing emphasis upon "do." As a scout, the boy willingly adopts as real and vital the universally accepted principles of right living as set forth in the scout oath and law. This effectively influences the boy's nature and character so as better to prepare him for that work which the church can best do. A scout promises upon his honor to do his duty to God and to his country, to obey the scout law, to help other people at all times, and to keep himself physically strong, mentally awake, and morally straight. In scouting, the boy does not stand still. The opportunity and incen- tive for progress are always at hand. He first becomes a "tenderfoot," then a "second-class scout," and then a "first-class scout." After this the whole sphere of the scout program is made available by the boy's own application to qualify himself to pass tests for the various merit badges, which cover a wide range of interesting and practical subjects. We find that a boy takes up a hobby with the same zest with which he plays tennis or football, and that this hobby, under proper leadership, may guide him to the realization of the thing he is best fitted to do as a life-work. In other words, we transfer the efforts of the boy from idle play or harmful mischief to vital achievements. Of course, all here understand that the scout program is built around the out-of-doors. All that is necessary is the out-of-doors, a group of boys, and a leader. Not only are nearly all the requirements for the first three degrees based on the out-of-doors, but the same is true of 90 per cent of the subjects for which we give merit badges, some of which are athletics, camping, conservation, cooking, cycling, forestry, life-saving, pathfinding, personal health, physical development, pioneering, public health, swim- ming, etc. To obtain a Merit Badge for Personal Health, a scout must: I. Write a statement on the care of the teeth, and show that his teeth are in good condition as a result of proper care. Department] THE BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA 809 2. State a principle to govern in eating; and state in the order of their importance five rules to govern the care of his health. 3. Present satisfactory evidence that he has not been absent from school or work for a period of at least six months as a result of his failure to observe these rules. 4. Tell the difference in effect of a cold bath and a hot bath. 5. Describe the effects of alcohol and tobacco on the growing boy. 6. Tell how to care for the feet on a march. 7. Describe a good, healthful game and state its merits. 8. Describe the effects of walking as an exercise. 9. Tell the dangers of specialization and overtraining in the various forms of athletics, and the advantages of an all-round development. Congress has just past a bill, which was approved by President Wilson, granting a federal charter to the Boy Scouts of America. In the bill for reorganizing the army a provision was included prohibiting the use of uniforms, any part of which is similar to the United States Army uniform. Exception was specifically granted, however, to the Boy Scouts of America. As a result of these two laws the use of the uniform, badges, and insignia of the organization is limited to regularly registered members of the Boy Scouts of America, and any unauthorized use of the name of the organiza- tion, of the term "boy scouts," or of our badges and insignia for purposes of commercial exploitation or other private interests, is made unlawful. The movement has, since the date of organization, received the support of the foremost citizens of the country, financially and otherwise, and at the present time it has, as its honorary president, the president of the United States, and as honorary vice-presidents, the two ex-presidents of the United States. A large number of governors of the states serve as honorary members of the National Council, and in all our large cities a selected group of representative citizens give direction and leadership to the movement. We differ from other attempts to do organized work for boys in that we maintain standards. Our insignia for tenderfoot, second-class, and first-class scouts, and our various merit badges are awarded under very carefully safeguarded conditions. This helps in maintaining the respect and active interest of boys and is an important element in our success in estabUshing the movement on a permanent basis. Every step in the scouting program is for character-development and good citizenship. The variety and interest, as well as the practical knowl- edge insured by the tenderfoot, second-class, first-class, and various merit- badge tests are, after all, but a means for holding the interest of the boy, pledged to the scout oath and law, under such leadership as will bring about character-development. The form of troop-organization, the scoutmaster, and his assistants, the local council, and indeed the National Council and all its officers are but means to this end. This character- 8io NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons development manifests itself in health, efficiency, chivalry, loyalty, patriot- ism, good citizenship, and joyous living. Time will not permit a detailed description of the plan of organization and methods of procedure, but free bulletins can be had on inquiry at the National Headquarters, 200 Fifth Avenue, New York City. The Boy Scouts of America maintain that no boy can grow into the best kind of citizen without recognizing his obligations to God. The recog- nition of God as the ruling and leading power of the universe, and the grateful acknowledgment of his favors and blessings are necessary to the best type of citizenship, and are wholesome in the education of the growing boy. No matter what the boy may be — Catholic or Protestant or Jew — this fundamental need of good citizenship should be kept before him. The organization of the Boy Scouts of America therefore recognizes the religious element in the training of the boy, but is absolutely non- sectarian in its attitude toward that religious training. Its policy is that the religious organization or institution with which the scout troop or the individual scout is associated should give definite attention to the boy*s religious life. In thus making available to boys of all classes a common meeting- ground where they may play and compete and learn to know that the other fellow is not much different from themselves, the boy-scout movement is performing a distinctive and important patriotic service, and the observance of the scout law, the tremendous cumulative value of the required daily good turn, and the creation of better feeling among millions of scouts in our own and other lands constitute a latent, but powerful and rapidly growing, factor for universal good-will and the brotherhood of man. DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Elizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of ungraded classes, Department of Education, New York, N.Y. Vice-President — Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, CfJ. Secretary— FzAHSCES E. Cheney, teacher of special classes Springfield, Mass. GENERAL MEETING A general meeting was held each day, following the several group meetings, in Public School No. 27, at which Elizabeth E. Farrell presided. Wednesday, July 5 Address of Welcome — Gustave'Straubenmiiller, acting superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y. "Delinquency and Mental Defect" — Katherine Bement Davis, chairman. Parole Commission, New York, N.Y. Thursday, July 6 Address of Welcome — ^Andrew W. Edson, associate superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y. "The Mis-Fit Child "—Thomas W. Salmon, M.D., medical director. National Com- mittee for Mental Hygiene, New York, N.Y. The following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the chair: Ada M. Fitts, Boston, Mass. Elizabeth Walsh, New York, N.Y. Frances E. Cheney, Springfield, , Mass. Friday, July 7 Address of Welcome — Ira S. Wile, M.D., Board of Education, New York, N.Y. "Child Labor and Its Relation to Illiteracy" — A. J. McKelway, southern secretary, National Child-Labor Committee, New York, N.Y. "Prevention of Delinquency" — Woods Hutchinson, M.D., New York, N.Y. The following officers, as recommended by the nominating committee, were elected: President — Daniel P. McMillan, director, department of child-study and educational research, Public Schools, Chicago, 111. Vice-President — Elsie M. Seguin, Seguin School, Orange, N.J. Secretary — ^Nellie A. Goodhue, director, child-study laboratory, Seattle, Wash. GROUP MEETINGS Blind Children Wednesday, July 5 May E. Angus, Public School No. 44, New York, N.Y., chairman. "The Status of the Blind Individual in a Community" — C. Rudolph Dieffenbach, member of the New Jersey State Commission for the Blind. 811 8i^ l^ATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special Discussion — W. I. Scandlin, field agent of the New York Association for the Blind, New York, N.Y. "Educational Work of a State Commission" — Marion A. Campbell, secretary, New York State Commission for the Blind, New York, N.Y, Discussion — Lucy Wright, general superintendent, Massachusetts Commission for the Blind, Boston, Mass. Classroom demonstration— pupils of public schools for blind children. Thursday, July 6 Agnes M. Blakeley, Public School No. 30, New York, N.Y., chairman. "History of the Education of the Blind — Methods and Ideals" — Lydia Y. Hayes, supervisor, New Jersey State Work for the Blind, Trenton, N.J. Discussion — Eben P. Morford, superintendent. Blind Men's Industrial Home, Brooklyn, N.Y.; Charles B. Hayes, director of work of the blind, Brooklyn, N.Y. "Education of Blind Children with Special Reference to the Public Schools of the City of New York" — Andrew W. Edson, associate superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y. Discussion — Katharine A. McCann, principal, Public School No. 17, New York, N.Y. "Public Libraries for the Blind" — Lucile C. Goldthwaite, librarian for the blind, public schools. New York, N.Y. Discussion — Ida M. Bahr, department for the blind, public schools. New York, N.Y. Friday, July 7 Gertrude E. Farrell, Public School No. 171, New York, N.Y., chairman. Demonstration of physical training, in charge of Adele Smith, supervisor of physical training of handicapt children, public schools. New York, N.Y. "Saving the Sight of School Children" — Gordon L. Berry, acting secretary. National Committee for the Prevention of Blindness, New York, N.Y. Discussion — M. B. Beales, M.D., Department of Health, New York, N.Y. Classroom demonstration — sewing, knitting, crocheting, tatting, Braille reading and writing. Crippled Children Julia F. O'Bieme, president. Association of Public School Teachers of Crippled Chil- dren, New York, N.Y., chairman. Demonstrations — In charge of Grace M. Anderson, Public School No. 162, Brooklyn, N.Y. Wednesday, July 5 "Charitable Organizations Help" — Babette Goldman, principal, East Side Free School for Cripples, New York, N.Y. Lecture — Charlton Wallace, M.D., professor of orthopedic surgery. Hospital for the Ruptured and Crippled, New York, N.Y. Thursday, July 6 "Industrial Work for Crippled Children" — Mary M. Perry, Boston, Mass. "The Work of the Widener Memorial Industrial Training School for Crippled Chil- dren"— Mrs. D. B. Creamer, head of academic department, Widener School, Philadel- phia, Pa. Frtoay, July 7 "Cooperation between Educators and Physicians in Classes for Cripples" — Henry Ling Taylor, M.D., professor of orthopedic surgery. Post Graduate Hospital, New York, N.Y. Deaf Children Wednesday, July 5 Carrie Wallace Keams, principal, Public School No. 47, Day School for the Deaf, New York, N.Y., chairman. "The Problem"— Carrie Wallace Keams, New York, N.Y. Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 813 "Introductory Explanation of the Analytic Synthetic Method of Teachmg Reading to Deaf Children"— D. Frances Kauffman, assistant to principal, Public School No. 47, Day School for the Deaf, New York, N.Y. " Explanation of the Correlative Language Work for the Deaf, Taught in Connection with Reading" — D. Frances Kauffman, assistant to principal, Public School No. 47, Day School for the Deaf, New York, N.Y. "Rhythm"— Pattie Thomason, Rhode Island Institute for the Deaf, Providence, R.L Discussion— Mary A. Aymar, Public School No. 47, Day School for the Deaf, New York, N.Y. Thursday, July 6 Andrew W. Edson, associate city superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y., chair- man. Opening address — Andrew W. Edson, New York, N.Y. Demonstration — Pupils of Public School No. 47, Day School for the Deaf, New York, N.Y. "Teaching of Language" — Harris Taylor, principal. Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf, New York, N.Y. Friday, July 7 D. Frances Kauffman, assistant to principal, Public School No. 47, Day School for ^e Deaf, New York, N.Y., chairman.. *"The Physical Side of the Deaf Child" — George B. McAuliffe, special physician, l^dblic School No. 47, Day School for the Deaf, New York, N.Y. "The Utilization of Residual Hearing "—John Dutton Wright, Wright Oral School, J!^ew York, N.Y. Discussion — Miss Connery, Buffalo, N.Y.; Miss B. N. Leonard, Northampton, Mass.; Harris Taylor, New York, N.Y.; Elbert A. Gruver, Rome, N.Y.; Richard O. Johnson, IndianapoUs, Ind.; Miss Hinkley, Richmond, Va. " Measurement of Efficiency in Schools for the Deaf " — Richard O. Johnson, superin- tendent, State School for the Deaf, Indianapolis, Ind. "The Pintner Tests "—Walter M. Kilpatrick, American School for the Deaf, Hart- ford, Coon. Delinquent Children Wednesday, July 5 Olive N. Jones, principal. Public School No. 120, Probationary, New York, N.Y., chain^an. ^*The Juvenile Court of New York City "—Franklin C. Hoyt, chief justice. Children's Owrt, New York, N.Y. "The Delinquent" — Edgar Dubs Shimer, district superintendent of schools, chair- man. Board of Parole, New York, N.Y. Discussion — Bernard J. Fagan, acting chief probation officer. Children's Court, New York, N.Y. "The Girl Delinquent" — Amy S. Everal, superintendent, Lancaster School for Girls, Lancaster, Mass. Discussion — Jessie B. Colburn, president. Association of Women Principals of Public Schools, New York, N.Y. "The Big-Sister Movement" — Mrs. Sidney C. Borg, Jewish Big-Sisters Movement, New York, N.Y. Demonstration — Pupils of Public School No. 120, Probationary, New York, N.Y. Thursday, July 6 Lucille Nicol, Public School No. 61, Brooklyn, N.Y., chairman. Demonstration — School exercise by teachers and pupils of Public School No. 61, Probationary, Brooklyn, N.Y. "Organized Charity and the Delinquent" — Siegfried Geisman, superintendent, Brooklyn Hebrew Orphan Asylum, Brooklyn, N.Y. "The Preservation of the Home and the Family" — Grace Strachan, district superin- tendent of schools, New York, N.Y. "Preserving the Family" — ^Joseph V. S. McClancy, superintendent, parochial schools, Diocese of Brooklyn, Brooklyn, N.Y. gl4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special "The Social Worker"— Henry W. Thurston, director of child welfare, School of Philanthropy, New York, N.Y. "The Work of the Visitmg Teacher"— Ruth True, Children's Bureau, Washington, Friday, July 7 Robert R. Todd, principal, Parental School, Flushing, N.Y., chairman. "The Work of the Bureau of Attendance, New York City Schools"— John W. Davis, director, Attendance Bureau, New York, N.Y. Fresh-Air Class Wednesday, July $ Isabelle E. Sanders, supervisor, fresh-air classes. New York, N.Y., chairman. "History of the Fresh-Air Classes in New York City, 19 10-16" — Ogden Woodruff, M.D., medical inspector, open-air classes, New York, N.Y. "The Need of Fresh-Air Classes in Public Schools "—Harriet A. Tupper, principal, PubHc School No. 58, New York, N.Y. Speech-Improvement Wednesday, July 5 Dennis J. McDonald, M.D., professor of rhinology and laryngology, New York Polyclinic School and Hospital, New York, N.Y., chairman. "Speech-Improvement" — Dennis J. McDonald, M.D., Fellow of Academy of Medi- cine, New York, N.Y. "The Mission of the Speech Specialist"— James S. Greene, M.D., director, New York Institute for Speech Defects, New York, N.Y. "What is a 'Speech Clinic '?"— Walter B. Swift, M.D., special clinic for speech dis- order, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Mass. "The Clinic, Its Place in the Correction of Speech Defects" — Mrs. E. W. Scripture, neurological department, Vanderbilt Clinic, New York, N.Y. "Tone and Hearing "—George B. McAuliffe, M.D., New York, N.Y. Discussion — Dennis J. McDonald, M.D., member, Board of Education, New York, N.Y.; Walter B. Swift, M.D., Boston, Mass.; John F. Reigart, principal. Public School No. 166, New York, N.Y. Thursday, July 6 John F. Reigart, principal. Public School No. 166, New York, N.Y., chairman. "Speech-Improvement in the Chicago Public Schools" — Miss Lyon, department of correction of defective speech, public schools, Chicago, 111. "Speech Work m the Detroit Public Schools "—Mrs. Frank A. Reed, prmcipal, Reed School, Detroit, Mich. "The Need of Speech Work in the High Schools "— Ahna M. Bullowa, Hunter College, New York, N.Y. Discussion — Samuel S. Curry, president. School of Expression, Boston, Mass. Friday, July 7 John F. Reigart, principal. Public School No. 166, New York, N.Y., chairman. "Speech-Correction as a School Problem" — ^John F. Reigart, New York, N.Y. Demonstration — Public School No. 166, New York, N.Y. "Games and Exercise to Develop the Sense of Rythm" — ^Elsa Katz, Public School No. 166, New York, N.Y. "What the Teacher Should Know of the Speech Organs"— Otto Glogan, M.D., nose and throat department, Vanderbilt Hospital, New York, N.Y. "Oral Deformities in Their Relation to Defective Speech"— Vethake E. Mitchell, D J).S., New York, N.Y. Saturday, July 8 Ira S. Wile, Board of Education, New York, N.Y., chairman. "The Economic Value of Speech-Correction"— Ira S. Wile, M.D., member, New York City Board of Education, New York, N.Y. Discussion — Mrs. E. W. Scripture, in^charge of speech work, neurological depart- raent, Vanderbilt Clinic, New York, N.Y.; Walter B. Swift, M,D,, special dini<: iQX speech disofde?, Massachusetts G^n^al Hospital, Boston, M^ss. Department] DELINQUENCY AND MENTAL DEFECT 8iS Ungraded Classes Wednesday, July 5 Barbara Spofford Morgan, New York University, New York, N.Y., chairman. "The Principal's Point of View of the Selection of Children for Special Classes" — Margaret Knox, principal, Public School No. 15, New York, N.Y. "The Binet Scale and the Diagnosis of Feeble-Mindedness " — ^Lewis M. Terman, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. Discussion — Samuel B. Heckman, College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y.; Arthur C. Jelly, M.D., department of special classes, Boston, Mass.; Frederick W. Ellis, director, social research department, Neurological Institute of New York, New York, N.Y.; Robert J. Melville, director, psychological laboratory, school of pedagogy. Board of Public Education, Philadelphia, Pa.; Maximilian P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N.J. Thursday, July 6 Ada M. Fitts* supervisor, special classes, Boston, Mass., chairman. "Training of Teachers for Special Classes" — James G. Riggs, principal, State Normal and Training School, Oswego, N.Y. "The Work of the Teacher of the Special Class" — Samuel B. Allison, district superin- tendent in charge of special schools, Chicago, 111. Discussion — Ruth G. McGray, district superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y.; Benjamin Viets, district superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y.; Elizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of ungraded classes, New York, N.Y.; Barbara Spofford Morgan, New York University, New York, N.Y.; A. Leila Martin, psychological laboratory, school department, Rochester, N.Y.; Elizabeth A. Walsh, assistant inspector of ungraded classes. New York, N.Y. Friday, July 7 Frances E. Cheney, committee for the study of the feeble-minded, Springfield, Mass., chairman. "The Necessity for After Care of Children Discharged from Special Classes" — Howard J. Banker, Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. "How to Fill the Gap between the Special Classes and Institutions" — ^Ada M. Fitts, supervisor of special classes, Boston, Mass. Discussion — Mrs. McGrew, Burlington, Iowa; Arthur C. Jelly, M.D., Boston, Mass.; Miss Buck, New York, N.Y.; Catherine Ryan, New Britain, Conn.; Elizabeth E. Farrell, New York, N.Y. "A Study of 600 Children Discharged from Ungraded Classes in New York City on Becoming Sixteen Years of Age" — Elizabeth E. Firrell, inspector of ungraded classes, New York, N.Y. Discussion — Howard J. Banker, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.; Miss Alexander, New York, N.Y.; Jane Shaw, Brooklyn , N.Y. "After-Care Work in Springfield, Mass." — ^Frances E. Cheney, special-class teacher, Springfield, Mass. Frances E. Cheney, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ABSTRACTS DELINQUENCY AND MENTAL DEFECT KATHERINE BEMENT DAVIS, CHAIRMAN, PAROLE COMMISSION, NEW YORK, N.Y. The organized work for handicapt children is exceedingly praiseworthy. If this work had been begun twenty-five years ago there would have been less for me to do. A peculiar problem confronted me upon my appoint- 8i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special ment as superintendent of the Reformatory at Bedford Hills, N.Y., in 190 1, where I was expected to organize an educational institution and training school for women, many of whom had the physical age of adults, but the minds of children, and with no more control than could be expected of children in the primary grades. Experimental work was begun by Eleanor Roland, psychologist in Mount Holyoke College, who gave up a summer vacation in order to come to Bedford Hills to study a group of thirty-six selected inmates: one-third of these were so defective mentally that there appeared to be no hope for their permanent cure; one-third were problem cases — those who could not be clast as physically defective, insane, or mentally defective; and the remainder consisted of those who appeared to be the most nearly normal. An outcome of this and other studies was the promise of funds by a private citizen to erect a group of buildings where further study could be made. Field workers were employed to go out into the homes and schools, and to ascertain facts from other social agencies in order to get as complete a history as possible of the lives of these girls, with their social setting. Psychological and pathological laboratories were establisht, and a course of education outlined. The latest development of this group will be the opening, on August i, 19 1 6, of a pyschopathic hospital or cottage for twenty-four patients, all under thirty years of age — girls "having a distinct mental twist, who are always problems in institutions and in the world at large. Edith R. Spaulding, M.D., is to be the scientific director with the assist- ance of a resident psychiatrist. Here will be provided all medical aids for the restoration of the patients to normal mental health — trained nurses, hydrotherapeutics, electrical treatment, also industrial and educational opportunities. This school work might be so organized as to prevent the development of this t)^e of girl and her subsequent commitment to an institution. The following is Dr. Spaulding's threefold classification of the inmates of the Reformatory: 1. Those who are feeble-minded, or insane, or have such markt criminal tendencies as to make permanent custodial care necessary. 2. The so-called border-line cases who may, after prolonged care and treatment, under an indeterminate sentence, be placed on probation in the community, and for many of whom a permanent cure may be hoped. 3. The mentally normal. For the last two groups educational methods are being devised (i) which shall teach the girls to think and reason, and so to learn the law of cause and effect when applied to conduct, as to make the connection between wrongdoing and its inevitable consequences; (2) which shall train their minds and fingers together; and (3) which shall make the practical appli- cation to life of the things which they learn, thus carrying out the ideals of Department] CHILD LABOR AND ITS RELATION TO ILLITERACY 817 Dr. Flexner and Dr. Dewey — that school may be life, and not simply preparation for life. THE MIS-FIT CHILD THOMAS W. SALMON, MEDICAL DIRECTOR, NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR MENTAL HYGIENE, NEW YORK, N.Y. The theory that the education planned for the average child is adequate for all children is passing; the present aim is to determine the need of each individual child and to provide a curriculum suited to that need. There are two groups of children with imperfect or impaired nervous systems, whose inability to adjust themselves to home and school Hfe, and later to adult life, is due: (i) to a lack of structural integrity in the brain itself; (2) to a lack of power in the brain to function properly. An environment to which each of these groups could adjust itself should be provided. The first group is now receiving special class training of the type pro- vided in our best institutions. The extension of this work is imperative. The second group, which has received comparatively little attention, the psychopathic children with no structural brain defect, but with func- tional defect only, should receive early and careful attention. This type of child is often obsest with fear, or it may substitute an unreality for a reaUty, or show other signs of psychosis, and is often found in our schools and children's courts. These abnormalities of thought and action should be probed until the cause is found; the remedy should be sought, often in a change of environment, which will right the mind itself. Since the school should be the greatest factor in the preservation of mental as well as physical health, it should deal with these children when they are young, for it is too late when they leave school after puberty. The closest cooperation between the school and the medical profession should exist, in order that each may help the other in diagnosis as well as treatment for the prevention of mental breakdown. A. CHILD LABOR AND ITS RELATION TO ILLITERACY J. MCKELWAY, SOUTHERN SECRETARY, NATIONAL CHILD-LABOR COM- MITTEE, NEW YORK, N.Y. 1. The purpose of child-labor legislation is to secure to the child the opportunity for proper, balanst, normal development. The child-labor problem cannot, therefore, be separated from the educational; to protect the child without providing for his education is impracticable. 2. The pubHc-school system of this country should be directed toward creating in its pupils genuine American citizenship and providing for an 8i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special all-round development, in particular on its social side, which must naturally include vocational efficiency. No pupil should be regarded as predestined to enter industrial or commercial pursuits, but his natural aptitudes should be studied with every care. No matter tho the outlook be slender for a future corresponding to his natural bent, there should never be the pre- sumption that this future will be frustrated by poverty- or other unpro- pitious circumstances. Vocational guidance should seek to achieve congruity between the vocation actually followed and natural fitness. 3. Students of industrial conditions have repeatedly shown that, with the possible exception of agriculture, there is very little opportunity for vocational training in the jobs now open to children under sixteen years of age. We believe that the age limit for employment should be gradually raised to sixteen years, so that children expecting to enter industry may obtain the full benefit of the prevocational education which the schools should provide. We believe that the period of control should be extended by the school authorities for purposes of education and training at least to the eighteenth year. We believe that the most efficient training for any industrial career can be consummated only thru a system which, combines classroom education and employment, whereby each supplements the other, rather than by a complete exclusion from industry. The child in industry should continue his education, the time set apart for his school- ing being taken from his regular work hours. Teachers and employers would thus cooperate to secure his best development, and the employer as well as the teacher should be considered a servant of the public. The child's welfare rather than his earnings should be made the objective, and while under wise management such employment may be profitable to both the child and the employer, the conditions of employment should be under public control. Specifically there should be applied such reasonable restrictions as are now embodied in the proposal for federal legislation, to wit: the sixteen-year age limit for employment at dangerous occupations, the fourteen-year age limit for ordinary occupations, and, for children under sixteen, the eight-hour workday and prohibition of night work; there should also be requirement of physical fitness, knowledge of reading and writing English, geography, American history, and the fundamentals of arithmetic; and wherever local conditions permit, as for example at present in Ohio and some other states, the fifteen-year minimum should be establisht. 4. For young persons who have already started to earn their Hving without the benefit of this systematic training, the pubUc school should afford an opportunity to promote further their education in the theory and practice of their vocations and in citizenship and social development. 5. The change in the direction of the standards set forth in the pre- ceding paragraphs of this statement should be made thru adjustments gradual enough to give the schools a chance to meet the situation. Department] HISTORY OF THE EDUCATION OF THE BLIND 819 EDUCATIONAL WORK OF A STATE COMMISSION MARION A. CAMPBELL, SECRETARY, NEW YORK STATE COMMISSION FOR THE BLIND, NEW YORK, N.Y. The first educational work of a state commission for the blind must be to carry on the effort of the blind man in the community to be rightly understood, with the emphasis upon his normal characteristics rather than upon his handicap. The staff of home teachers who are themselves without sight are the means thru which a commission accomplishes this. Another educational duty with which a commission should charge itself relates to the precautions against necessary blindness, to which the general public is only now beginning to assume an attitude which makes it possible for the conscientious physician to work with the laity in preventive medicine. So long as the public looks upon the state school for blind children as an asylum, and classifies it as charitable rather than an educational insti- tution, it will be difficult to secure justice to the blind man in his community. Until the medical profession is willing to label a physician's neglect of babies' sore eyes as criminal, and to punish him for it, it must be the province of a state commission to take the part of the bUnd child and to secure adequate attention to this large source of the blindness which state commissions are created to investigate. II HISTORY OF THE EDUCATION OF THE BLIND— METHODS AND IDEALS LYDIA Y. HAYES, SUPERVISOR, NEW JERSEY STATE WORK FOR THE BLIND, TRENTON, N.J. As we scan the pages of history for facts regarding the blind we realize how deplorable has been their condition. Thruout the centuries . they have been clast among the outcasts of the nations and have been found sitting in the market places and at the city gates appeaHng to the pitying charity of the passers-by. Even the immortal Homer, who was pre- sumably bhnd, could not rise above this beggarly degradation, for of him it is written, " Seven cities claimed the Homer dead thru which the living Homer begged his daily bread." Thru the efforts of a Frenchman, Valentine Hauy, who was destined to bring light to them that sit in darkness, the first institution for the blind was establist in 1784 at Paris. While, in teaching the bhnd, Hauy made use of the agencies previously employed by individuals in their acquisition of knowledge, yet to him alone is due the perfection, extension, and arrangement of the methods by which the subsequent work has been done. 820 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special Hauy's first pupil found he could detect by touch letters on a freshly printed sheet. Experiments followed which resulted in the method of printing by enlarged raised type, which, when set up, is electrotypt. Then impressions are made on sheets of tough, damp paper which, when dried, give a clear, distinct type. The blind and their friends were baffled until 1834 by the need of means for epistolary correspondence; in that year Louis Braille, a pupil of the Paris school, invented a system by which the blind could write and then read what they had written. Braille is a system of dots made with a stylus and a frame on a sheet of paper. It is adaptable to different languages, musical notation, and letter-writing. A modification of this system, known as New York Point, was introduced in America between i860 and 1870. Institutions similar to that of Hauy's at Paris were establish t on the Continent, and at the beginning of the nineteenth century there were in the United Kingdom four such asylums for the blind. John D. Fisher, of Boston, while completing his medical studies in Paris, became interested in the work of Valentine Hauy, and on his return interested his friends. Dr. Howe, W. H. Prescott, and others in the educa- tion of the blind of New England. Consequently, on March 29, 1829, the Massachusetts legislature granted a charter for the establishment in Boston of the New England Asylum for the Blind. Dr. Howe was persuaded to take charge of the school, and went to Europe where he made a careful study of the methods then used in training the blind. He returned to this country in 1832 and gathered six pupils about him in his father's home. Thus was founded the first school for the blind on the western continent. Almost simultaneously with the founding of this school. New York and Philadelphia started schools in their respective cities. The institutions of the Old World were charitable places of refuge for the amelioration of the condition of the blind, but those establisht in the United States are purely educational, recognizing the inalienable right of the individual to an education, whatever his station or condition. EDUCATION OF BLIND CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL REF- ERENCE TO THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK ANDREW W. EDSON, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y. The education and training of the bhnd make an unusually strong appeal upon the sympathies of all interested in physically handicap t children. These young people of normal mentaUty, but grievously handicapt, are sure to be a burden upon the family and upon society, and to grow despond- ent over their great deprivation unless they receive an early training that will lead them to be happy, self-respecting and, in a measure, self-supporting. Department! SAVING THE SIGHT OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 821 It is a sound pedagogical principle that every child is entitled to all the education that he is capable of receiving. And this applies with special force to the child who is seriously handicapt physically or mentally. The bHnd child is likely to be specially sensitive, to have the power of concentration unusually well developt, and to have an excellent memory. As a consequence he will often outstrip, in school work, his companions, who are favored with good eyes. In several instances blind children in our elementary and high schools have led their classes. A short time ago the valedictorian at the DeWitt Chnton High School was a bhnd boy. He not only led his classes in all subjects, but he completed the course in less than the prescribed time of four years. The sphere of activity of the bhnd is necessarily limited, but under wise direction these persons may become happy and useful members of society. PUBLIC LIBRARIES FOR THE BLIND IDA M. BAHR, DEPARTMENT FOR THE BLIND, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y. The value of the Hbrary to our pupils cannot be overestimated and the spirit of good-will in providing us with what we need and want along our school lines has been all that could be desired. Since our organization the influence has been felt in all grades of the work. In the lower grades interesting stories from the library have been used for supplementary work. In this way the child learns that there is an outside source upon which to draw for recreative reading. Many pupils who have heard a book read in the grade will ask to have it sent to them from the library that they may read it for themselves. Many pupils have borrowed duplicates of our school books so that they may be saved the annoyance of carrying back and forth daily in crowded cars the large volumes needed in classroom work. The library has aided nobly in extending time in these books. In furnishing books in other types the libraries of both our Brooklyn and New York branches have been generous in their selection of those best qualified to help a beginner in the reading of a new type. It is among our high-school students, however, that the cooperation of the library is most largely felt. SAVING THE SIGHT OF SCHOOL CHILDREN GORDON L. BERRY, ACTING SECRETARY, NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR THE PREVENTION OF BLINDNESS, NEW YORK, N.Y. The problem of saving the sight of school children is divided into three parts: (i) methods of bringing into being a system of medical school- inspection, (2) the education of the child in matters of hygiene, and (3) the 822 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special education of the parent to a realization of the dangers, and the necessity for early preventive treatment. When education in these matters shall have been accompHsht, most of the stumblingblocks now in the way of an efficient development of school-inspection will have been removed. With regard to the beginnings of medical school-inspection in a com- munity, without exception there will be found some individual or some group eager to take up this matter. It may be yourself, perhaps a teacher, or principal, frequently a parent-teachers association, a women's club, or some civic or social organization. Such an interest, if exprest and put into actual practice thru the smallest beginning, may have sight-saving or life- saving potentialities far beyond the thought of those responsible for its initiation. We are told that three-quarters of our 20,000,000 school children are below par physically, and that one-quarter — 5,000,000 — have defects of vision; and we know that these conditions are responsible for both ineffi- ciency and waywardness on the part of the pupils, who are, moreover, a continual drag upon the class and the teacher. These early defects in vision may also be the warning of serious impairment of vision in later years, possibly ending in total blindness. And yet we know that most of these conditions can be corrected if dealt with in time. Laying aside for the moment the possibility of blindness ensuing, let us consider what it means to be on the border line, so to speak, to have a certain percentage of vision, and yet not enough to earn the wages of the normal man in complete posses- sion of all his faculties. Take nearsightedness for instance. Unless recog- nized and dealt with in time, it may progress to the period where the young man or young woman is just on the threshold of life, ready to step out with the ranks of our professional and industrial armies; and yet, because some school superintendent has thought that a vision- test made by the teachers re- quired more of their time than could be spared from the arithmetic hour or the language class ; or because some city council could not, in their own blind- ness, see the economic significance to the individual and the community in the expenditure of funds to provide adequate medical inspection, clinics, etc. ; or, perhaps, because the parents themselves, in spite of the warnings received where medical school-inspection was in force, were callous to the need — because of these chief hindrances John and Mary are unable to complete their work, are debarred perhaps from the public schools because of some defect of vision which might so easily have been corrected, or because of the result of some eye disease which might have been prevented or cured. It would seem imperative that from early years children should have an understanding of the dangers of disease and the way to avoid contagion by the adoption of sanitary methods in their own day-to-day living. This information must be given in much the same way as is the geography lesson, and be made both instructive and interesting. In this matter of Department] SAVING THE SIGHT OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 823 the education of the child in hygiene, let me recommend a study of the course in hygiene prepared for use in the public-school system of New York City under the direction of Dr. C. Ward Cramp ton, director of physical training. With reference to conservation of vision. Dr. Crampton includes, from the early grades, instructions for the teacher relative to seating, light, and discovery of symptoms of defects of vision thru a daily morning inspection. Explanation is given of local symptoms to be noted, which can be diagnosed by the teacher as indicative of need for further examination by the school nurse or inspector — for instance, scowling, squinting, headaches, reading matter held at an improper distance from the eye, inflammation, pus- formation, inability to see the blackboard clearly, etc. The annual vision-test thru the use of the Snellen chart must be given, and the evi- dences of eyestrain, such as cross-eye, weariness after study, bloodshot eyes, or crusty lids, must be carefully noted and recorded in a report to the proper authorities. The children are to be instructed from Class iB upward in the care of the eyes: cleanUness and infection, bathing corners every morning; dangers of dirty towels; use of separate handkerchiefs, etc. As we go on to the higher grades we find more complete instruction advised than in the classes of the little folks. The necessity for consulting a physician, instead of buying advertised "cures," the explanation of causes of disease, instruc- tion in how to study, and the reasons for securing proper lighting con- ditions— all these round out the course and are of material benefit to the child. In Grade 7A, for instance, comes the explanation of the function of eyehds, lashes, and tears, the reasons for wearing eyeglasses, and the explanation of color blindness, etc. It is imprest upon the child how great, for economic reasons is the necessity for keeping the eyes in good condition. The only suggestion which I wish to make in addition to the foregoing is the desirability of beginning early to explain to the child the functions of the eye, the dangers from lack of care, and the methods of prevention. Even in the lowest grades this can be taught, thru the story method or thru pictures, and it is remarkable how much a tiny little chap of five or six will absorb and make his own permanently. Many of the lessons taught in earUest years are the ones which make the deepest impression upon the mind, to bear fruit in years following. The method of presentation is exceedingly important. It is gratifying to find a health board in the South — the State Board of Health of Louisiana — ^printing at frequent intervals during the year a special bulletin for the education of the child. Special pictures, cartoons, and little rhymes make the four pages as interest- ing reading to the child as would the perusal of Little Women or Little Lord Fauntleroy. This bulletin is sent free of charge to any child or family in the state. A children's health code is frequently f urnisht to be pasted on the inside cover of the textbook. 824 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special Lantern-slide lectures by local oculists and physicians, social workers, and visitors from other cities should be given whenever possible. Such cooperation can frequently be provided by the National Committee for the Prevention of Blindness or the state representative of the Committee on Conservation of Vision of the American Medical Association. Our collec- tion of slides, numbering some five hundred, on various phases of prevent- able blindness, and stock lectures are loaned gratuitously upon request, and have been used during the last four months in twenty-seven states. Finally, the education of the child in health matters may be materially assisted by the introduction of traveling school exhibits, sent out by the state or local boards of health. I have at the present time in course of preparation a series of school exhibits on trachoma and common eye diseases, improper illuminating conditions, industrial accidents, and the prevention of infantile blindness, five panels to the set for each, which after September i will be available for permanent use in any city at the cost of postage alone. More than two thousand communities have this spring been observing Baby Week or Health Week. If your community has not as yet had such a week, try it next year and see the amount of interest which will be shown by the general public. Popular health talks, slides, and exhibits may be secured free or at small cost from any of the national and state health organizations. In the endeavor to reach the rural population, the last two years have witnest the inclusion of health exhibits as a part of the pro- gram of many county-fair organizations. In the carrying-out of any or all of these suggestions let me offer you the heartiest cooperation of the National Committee for the Prevention of Blindness in the hope that you will take generous advantage of that which we have to offer. A card addrest to us at 130 East Twenty-second Street will be the only introduction needed. DISCUSSION M. B. Beals, M.D., Department of Health, New York, N.Y.— I heartily indorse all the measures described by Mr. Berry for saving the sight of school children. My criticism is that the work is being carried on almost exclusively by laymen and consequently not along scientific lines, as is shown by the attempt to teach children the cause of color blindness, when as a matter of fact the cause of this disease is not known. Likewise, very little attention is being given to the lighting of schoolrooms, as is shown by the poorly lighted study rooms of some of our latest schools, there is also no suggestion of research work to determine disputed questions as to the most effective treatments for syphilitic eye conditions, trachoma, etc. I object to the suggestion that inexperienst ocuHsts be allowed to refract school children, because school children are the most difficult of all persons to fit properly with glasses, and much harm can be done by incorrect glasses. As an example of the importance of refractive errors I will cite the fact that I have refracted one hundred of the habitual "Left Backs," showing refractive errors, in one large school in this city, with the result that 98 per cent were promoted on the first regular school examination about two months later, many skipping one or more grades. Department] CHARITABLE ORGANIZATIONS HELP 825 CHARITABLE ORGANIZATIONS HELP BABETTE GOLDMAN, PRINCIPAL, EAST SIDE FREE SCHOOL FOR CRIPPLES, NEW YORK, N.Y. I know of no better way to introduce this subject than to tell you of the work I have been engaged in during the last fifteen years at "The Crippled Children's East Side Free School," which is today one of the best examples of cooperation between public interest and private charity. Formerly crippled children were not provided for in our pubUc schools; they were neglected by their parents who, in the struggle for a livelihood, considered them nothing more than a burden upon the family, and expended no care nor thought upon the problem of their sufferings. They were either confined to their homes or else left to wander about the streets to get along as best they could, leading a miserable existence. Such was the condition when the Guild for Crippled Children was formed and auxiliaries were opened in various parts of the city. Auxiliary II, now "The Crippled Children's East Side Free School," which I represent and of which I want to tell you, had its quarters, consisting of two rooms, on Madison Street. There we gathered together about twenty children and gave them the care and attention that every child craves. Kinder- garten games and songs were taught the Uttle ones, and we instructed the older children, as best as we knew how, in reading and writing. Each day, as we past thru the down-town districts, we gathered the youngsters from the streets; but soon our settlement became known and was sought by both parents and children, and before many months had past we had to turn away eager applicants. So we workt and labored until we succeeded in convincing Dr. Maxwell and his associates in our contention that crippled, as well as normal, children had a right to a public-school education and deserved recognition, with the result that since 1906 the elementary work of our institution has been entirely under the supervision of the board of education. Private philanthropy serves transportation to and from school, thereby making attendance possible for every crippled child. Can you picture the happiness of those poor youngsters who, in many cases, saw the light of day for the first time ? Proper nourishment, in the form of a hot noonday meal, is served, besides an ample supply of milk, twice daily, all of which is absolutely essential to the amelioration of the condition of cripples such as are admitted into our institution. We have also establisht a summer home for the recreation and recuperation of the children, who spend from three to ten weeks in the country, according to their individual needs. Another important aim of our efforts has been the manual training of our pupils, which is solely in the hands of the society. Thru the courtesy of the Department of Public Education, it has been arranged to devote 826 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special several hours to this work in every class, beginning with the youngest children who, no matter how deformed, become most proficient in every kind of needlework and in the use of their hands generally. In order to create a place for such cripples who, upon graduating from school, could not possibly hold their own in a shop or factory because of their infirmities, we organized a workroom about ten years ago. At the present time from thirty to forty girls and a few boys are employed in the manufacture of every description of needlework and embroidery. The working-out of the numerous problems which I have indicated depends to a high degree upon cooperation between the public-school authorities, who, in time, should assume the physical care, as well as the education of the crippled child, and private organizations, to whom must fall the industrial development. THE WORK OF THE WIDENER MEMORIAL INDUSTIUAL TRAINING SCHOOL FOR CRIPPLED CHILDREN MRS. D. B. CREAMER, HEAD OF ACADEMIC DEPARTMENT, WIDENER SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The Widener Memorial Industrial Training School for Crippled Chil- dren, situated in the suburban district of Philadelphia, was founded by Mr. P. A. B. Widener in 1916. The school curriculum exactly follows the graded course of the public schools of Philadelphia. Certificates are granted to those who have satis- factorily completed the prescribed academic and trade courses. The pupils begin manual training when they enter the third grade, and devote to it six hours a week for four years. The girls learn sewing, basketry, burnt-leather work, raffia, and ornamental brass work. The boys complete an advanst course in sloyd, learn caning, and keep in repair all the chairs and couches in the school. Mechanical drawing is begun when a pupil enters a trade class. Free- hand drawing is taught to both boys and girls irrespective of the intended vocation. Before graduation all girls receive instruction in millinery, dressmaking, cookery, and laundry work. The school's interest in the welfare of those who are graduated does not cease with the giving of a trade certificate but every endeavor is made to place them as advantageously as possible. Sixty per cent of our graduates are holding positions, and in every way seem able to cope with their physically more fortunate fellow-workers. 1 Department! COOPERATION BETWEEN EDUCATORS AND PHYSICIANS 827 COOPERATION BETWEEN EDUCATORS AND PHYSICIANS IN CLASSES FOR CRIPPLES HENRY LING TAYLOR, M.D., PROFESSOR OF ORTHOPEDIC SURGERY, POST GRADUATE HOSPITAL, NEW YORK, N.Y. Systematic work for the education of crippled children was begun by special societies in New York City about twenty years go. Many of these children were hidden away and neglected, but when gathered into classes it was found that they were glad to go to school, took much interest in their work, and were as bright as normal children. When this work became a demonstrated success it was taken over by the Department of Education. Experience shows that crippled children are easily fatigued, therefore the periods and sessions should be short and the work varied; transportation to and from the classes should be furnisht; the classrooms should be light and airy, and easy of access without stairs. The nutrition of the child should be attended to, and special lunches furnisht, if necessary. An undernourisht child is a dead weight in any class. It has been found that individualization, such as is possible only in small classes, is necessary for the best results, and the most successful teachers have the definite idea of making the children happy in their work and recreations, and in the human relations between them. Manual training in the lower, and vocational training in the higher classes is not only valuable in itself, but is a help in getting a right point of view. Practically all the things which have been found beneficial in classes for cripples are just as good in classes for average children, and one of the choice and unexpected results of this work for cripples is the important advance in the hygiene of teaching that has come directly from it. Other things being equal, many cripples are better off in the regular class; but when cripples are numerous, as in large cities, the more helpless ones at least should be given the advantage of free transportation and the special facilities of the classes for cripples. Some cripples are too ill to join the classes with advantage, and many applying to the schools need hospital treatment first. Children with discharging sinues, serious internal disease, or pulmonary tuberculosis should not be admitted to the classes. It is obvious that the physician of each pupil should be consulted on these and other points. In the New York schools each pupil is given a card to be filled out by his physician. Exercise, which may be easily overdone, is a matter upon which the physician should give detailed directions. The writer is opposed to class gymnastics for cripples; any exercises given, or games played, should be neither strenuous nor pro- longed. There is much danger in allowing tuberculous children to be too active. Teachers in the regular classes should be alert to detect the beginnings of crippling and especially of spinal affections, which are shown by poor 828 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special posture, gradually becoming worse; doubtful cases should be reported to the school physician. THE PROBLEM CARRIE WALLACE KEARNS, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 47, DAY SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, NEW YORK, N. Y. The world has progrest since the days of the Greek when preparedness of the nation was more important than the individual, and the handicapt child was cast aside as a nuisance. I need not tell you of the slow but steady change in opinion as regards the deaf child. He is no longer denied consideration. Great good was accomplish t when the good Abbe de le Pee began his instruction of the deaf child. It was the first step in prepar- ing the deaf for a place in society. Still greater was the gain when the deaf child learned to read the lips and to speak, and thus to find a broader, fuller place among his hearing associates. When people outside the school come, or when I go to see people about work for my pupils, these people ask the following: 1. Can he understand me when I speak? This is usually the first question. How are we meeting it? How much do we do to test our pupils ? In a test made some time ago to see just what our pupils could do in reading the lips, we discovered: {a) in our effort to have the pupil understand, we were inclined to exaggerate our expressions; {h) in our haste to accompUsh much in a short day, we were too ready to help the child by accepting a disjointed word or two, or by repeating more often than was necessary. 2. Can he speak so that I can understand him? What a big demand this is, and yet we must meet it to the best of our ability. Here again we tested our pupils and ourselves fairly and critically. In these tests we found that we teachers constantly lookt at the children as they answered, and therefore, unconsciously read the lips and were not good judges of the child's speech. When we lookt away from the child, or when we stood behind the child, we did not understand all he said. 3. Does he understand the meaning of what I say ? How we teachers have labored over this question of language! Yet, very much has been accomplisht. 4. What can he do ? Here comes in the whole industrial field. I have not seen many statistics as to the work of deaf children after they have left school. I have tried to collect a few of my own which may be of interest. A post-card was sent to every pupil whose address was known to us. These were the questions askt: What is your name ? Where do you live ? Where do you work? How much do you earn? How long have you workt there ? What kind of work do you do ? Department] TEACHING READING TO DEAF CHILDREN 829 There were 70 returns. Three boys are in hearing high schools, where they have never failed in a single subject. Eight pupils are at home. Seven of these are girls who do not need to work; one is a boy who has serious heart trouble. Only three are not working. The average wage is $7.15 per week. Most of those who have been in a place less than six months have left school to go to work this term. This is, after all, the great test: What becomes of our pupils after they leave us? Has our preparation made them good, useful citizens of this great country where everyone has a chance ? We must convert the business world to the possibiHties in our children, and then we must prepare the pupils to meet the conditions of life. I found my children had no idea of the long hours of work. They complained of it. So we had a talk with those who were still in school. We explained the hours of work, the coming-on time, the marking of time, etc., and we organized an early-morning class. Every morning for the past eight weeks a dozen boys came at eight o'clock, signed their time, and workt quietly in the shops until school opened at nine. I thought this would die out when the newness wore away, for many came long distances and had to arise very early. But the number has increast and the interest has not flagged. "This is just a bit of preparedness." I INTRODUCTORY EXPLANATION OF THE ANALYTIC SYNTHETIC METHOD OF TEACHING READING TO DEAF CHILDREN D. FRANCES KAUFFMAN, ASSISTANT TO PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 47, DAY SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, NEW YORK, N. Y. There are recognized standards in methods and principles of teaching hearing children. I feel that the oftener we successfully introduce these into the work for deaf children the more we are counteracting their handicap and the nearer to the normal we are making them. Some years ago the analytic-synthetic method of teaching reading was introduced into the public schools. Modern educators regard it as far in advance of the old-fashioned synthetic method. The basic idea is that the instinctive love of a story shall make the child desire to learn to read. Hence the story is presented as a whole, and thru the interest in it eventually mastery of technique, or phonic power, is secured without deadening mechanical drills. From the beginning thought-getting rather than word- mastery is the motive. There are various excellent books based upon the analytic-synthetic method of teaching reading. A good book should have a content of sustained and vital interest, written in language within the comprehension of the children who are to read it. (Deaf children beginning this work 830 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special are two or three years older than the hearing children.) Nursery rhymes, animal stories, fables, stories concerning familiar occupations, or those duplicating the children's experiences furnish suitable material. There should be sufficient rhythm and repetition to aid the memory in a narrative containing several incidents. There should be a strong appeal to the imagination and to the sense of humor. The book should contain attractive pictures which suggest, rather than tell, the story. Such a combination will foster the dramatic instinct and accordingly develop imagination. Without working especially for it, we have found that this work has greatly improved the memory of all the children, particularly the slower of the congenitally deaf children. At present we are using the Story Hour Books since they combine the requisites of the analytic-synthetic method in a well-graded series, written within the comprehension and experience of our deaf children. They contain much usable language. This is especially true of the first book which is based upon the "Mother Goose" rhymes. Much of the language of these rhymes is woven into the stories, hence from the beginning the children meet familiar friends. As the manual which accompanies the book fully explains the method and contains many helpful devices and suggestions, I shall give but a brief outline. 1. The basic "Mother Goose" rhymes are taught in an earlier grade. 2. The story is told simply, vividly, dramatically, in the exact language of the text. 3. After the telling of the story, the children dramatize it. 4. Reproduction of the story follows with as little aid from the teacher as possible until the order of incidents is establisht and the exact language of the text fixt. The desire to "play" the story has aroused even the duller children, and they ask to be allowed to take the books home, in order to study the parts. At first the slower and more timid children take parts that necessitate pantomime only, but as soon as they so desire they are allowed to impersonate characters who speak. We have been encour- aged in this work by the improvement shown, in consequence of it, by slow congenitally deaf children. RHYTHM PATTIE THOMASON, RHODE ISLAND INSTITUTE FOR THE DEAF, PROVIDENCE, R. I. "In the beginning there was rhythm." The word "rhythm" comes from the Greek word "rythmos," which means "to flow"; thus, by develop- ment, we get the idea of the measured flow of movement, or beat, in verse, in music, or, by analogy, in other connections. Department! RHYTHM 83 1 The early critics of prosody distinguisht three elements of which rhythm was composed — the spoken word, the tune in music and song, and the bodily motion. Dr. Sears, of Clark University, says: While the Greeks may have made rhythm an altogether too important element in the education of their youth, we, on the other hand, have erred in not appreciating the fact that all life, mental and physical, is perfect in porportion to the perfection of its rhythm. Brain activity is not made of currents of force, but rather of rhythm among the brain cells. Lack of appreciation of the part that rhythm plays in the processes of life has prevented child life in home and in school, from rising to the heights it should. So we teachers of the Deaf should set for ourselves the very high aim of leading in an educational movement. Let us recognize rhythm as a tremendous factor in the development of the individuality of the child, and this is, in its last analysis, the end sought in all teaching. If rhythm is to be an important element in the intellectual development of the child, then it must be considered in a broader sense than that exem- plified by clapping, marching, and beating time, since rhythm has its origin, not in mathematics, but in poetry. We should train the child's powers of observation and understanding so that he will spontaneously respond to all the "rhythms of life" — such as "human rhythms," "nature rhythms," "bodily rhythms," "cosmic rhythms," and "musical rhythms." By giving a child this kind of educa- tion, which certain psychologists regard as emotional rather than as a perception in character, we awaken within him sensations of mind, heart, and body which make up a composite feeling. The child is thus made better able to interpret his material and immaterial needs and to adjust himself to the conditions of nature surrounding him. The work in rhythm consists in developing the rhythmic sense in deaf children by the correlation of voice-training, physical training, and language. There are two physical agents by means of which we appreciate sound and rhythm. They are the ear as regards the first, and the whole nervous system as regards the latter. I proceeded, therefore, to give my pupils a vibratory education by tuning the whole nervous system to perceive sound and rhythm images. This is what Dr. Currier aptly terms "waking the deaf child up." This waking is necessary to convey to him the real meaning of sound and of spoken language. It is vitalizing speech and language to the deaf child. Since deafness is the natural state of the new-born infant, and hearing an acquired faculty, we should educate him to perceive tone tactually so that the effect upon him will be, as nearly as possible, analogous to that of hearing. The first step in vibratory education is to give the child a vibratory experience. His whole body should first be made sensitive to vibration. He then should be trained to distinguish between crude noises and musical 832 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special sound. He should be made sensitive to these ** unmusical noises," so that he may come to dislike them and, in time, stop making them. On the other hand, he should be so charmed by musical tones that he will welcome them and, in time, be able to reproduce them. This training is given thru a series of exercises with the piano, guitar, drums, bells, and the teacher's voice, which fixes the child's attention upon modulations of sound. This develops the ability to appreciate relative pitch and that distinct faculty which appreciates quality of tone. DISCUSSION Mary A. Aymar, Public School No. 47, Day School for the Deaf, New York, N.Y. — I shall speak briefly this morning on rhythm as an aid to voice-training, and the value of rhythm in speech. G. Stanley Hall tells us that all energy is probably rhythmic. Rhythm is the first aspect which is so emphasized in all music, which seems to have a tune, tune origin. Its chief features are repetitions, cadences, stresses, time-markings, etc. We have long accepted the theory that the development of the race is in a way repre- sented in the child Among all primitive peoples the drum seems to have been the first musical instrument, and it is the first one that attracts young children. This is because it is a purely rhythmical instrument. Deaf children show all the impulses of a normal child. They like to make a noise, beat upon things, march, etc. Of course they do not perceive the sound, but they do enjoy the vibrations caused by the sound. Psychologists say that even a very young child is capable of rhythmic stimuli long before it is capable of any other act of attention. So I begin with these little people, as soon as they have elements developt enough to make the combination boom. I begin with the babbling part of it first as, hu, bu, bu, bu, boom. Then I show a picture of a child beating a drum. I then take them to the piano and let them feel the vibrations which I play — a little simple exercise representing the roll and beat of a drum. After this muscular memory is somewhat awakend and developt, we all say with the piano, "Boom, boom, boom, boom, boom." The purpose of this exercise is for the reso- nance and bringing the voice forward. Good voices depend on good bodily and good physical conditions. Someone has said that a fine voice does not hold us spellbound by the tonality alone, but by the thought and feeling exprest. Rhythm in speech then is the coordination of thought and feelings as well as tonality. Rhythmic activity helps for freedom of mind and body and organs of speech, and gives an opportunity for the imagination to act. After the boom exercise I show the children a picture of a dog and I say, "Now I am going to tell you something. A dog says *bow, wow, wow.'" Now what happens? Well, every child for a few moments is a dog sa)dng, "Bow, wow, wow." You see the imagination is at work. I ask the children to write it on the board. Then I write it like this, bow, wow, wow. They go to the piano and we sing it to a simple exercise. TEACHING OF LANGUAGE AL, INSTITUTION FOR TI DEAF, NEW YORK, N.Y. What is ordinarily known as the Barry Five Slate System of introducing language was originated by Abbe Sicard, and was brought to this country by Lauret Clerc more than a century ago. The system, or the scheme, Department] THE PHYSICAL SIDE OF THE DEAF CHILD 833 was avowedly introduced in order to straighten out the language of children who gained their first ideas thru the sign language. As you doubtless know, in the early days of the education of the deaf the pupil was first taught the sign language as a means of conveying ideas and developing thought, and all written language was translated from this into English or the vernacular, whatever this may have been. When methods improved, the sign language ceast to be the medium for the development of thought, and children were taught directly in English, without such a medium, because such a device as the Five Slate System would seem to have ceast to exist. So it did, for a while, but eventually it was resurrected and put to use in the Pennsylvania Institution and else- where, and since its revival has gained currency until now it is in popular use in practically every school for the deaf. Its resurrection was not with oral classes, but with manual classes; by manual classes I mean classes taught without speech, that is, by finger spelling or the sign language. Its transference to oral classes was coincident with the transference of manual teachers to oral classes in a school for the deaf in which both silent and oral methods were at that time in use. I believe that by a more rational system, one conforming more nearly to methods by which hearing children learn language, practically fifteen months of a child's school life could be saved. We must get away from the idea that grammar was invented before language, and impress upon our- selves the fact that grammatical principles in the beginning must be learned unconsciously if we expect the deaf child to use language with the readiness that is possible under the most favorable conditions. THE PHYSICAL SIDE OF THE DEAF CHILD GEORGE B. MCAULIFFE, M.D., SPECIAL PHYSICIAN, PUBLIC SCHOOL, NO. 47, DAY SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, NEW YORK, N.Y. No longer is the deaf child sent to institutions to be instructed by attendants, but the stream of pedagogy is turning its best branches into this training. This work has been fostered greatly by the Department of Education in School No. 47, which has grown beyond its original scope in a short time. The exigencies of financial stringency have hampered as yet the better housing of the pupils and their proper medical care, but an effort has been made by some of the commissioners, as Dr. McDonald, to facilitate the betterment of the physical side of the pupils and thereby to increase their efl&ciency. The field of instruction is a very large one and necessitates a better specialization of the pupils. There are brought to the school those who are congenitally deaf; those who have ac(^uired deafness thru systemic dis- 834 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special eases; those who are partially deaf; those who are slightly defective, in a mental fog, and appear to be deaf; those who are defective and deaf; and those who are defective and ignorant. It is a hard problem to weed them out without appearing unjust. Even in the proper sphere of deafness there are many specific differences that necessitate specific training. This specialization is a development of the future. How can a teacher or principal determine the physical and mental status of the applicant ? Does it not imply, therefore, the absolute necessity for proper medical inspection ? The doctor should be an integral part of the staff in every school for the deaf. In the year 1915-16, in an analysis of 293 cases of deaf children — 159 boys and 134 girls, almost one-haK — 123 — were found to be totally deaf, 8 could distinguish words at short distances, and the balance — 162 — could hear loud sounds. About 100 were congeni tally deaf, 103 acquired deaf- ness between infancy and three years, 51 between three and six years, while the balance — one-seventh — became deaf after six years. On receiving these statistics we find the sexes are fairly divided; that all but eight are practically hopeless, as regards aural improvement; that more than two- thirds have no word or sound memories; that congenital deafness forms the largest number, with that form, cerebrospinal meningitis next, followed by catarrh, scarlet fever, and injuries, in the order named. It is painful to be compelled to give a bad prognosis as to hearing in so many. Parents go from one doctor to another with the hope of a cure. They feel sure that their children hear better, and relate instances to prove their statements. They have the adenoids and tonsils removed, the nose corrected, and spare no money, if they have it, upon quackeries from vibrations to unknown radium therapy. As alluded to in another paper, the deaf develop an appreciation of vibrations that practically amounts to another sense. A great many of their judgments are based on the association of vibrations. Inasmuch as lip reading constitutes the basic instrument of instruction, it implies the best eyesight possible. THE UTILIZATION OF RESIDUAL HEARING JOHN BUTTON WRIGHT, WRIGHT ORAL SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N.Y. The fact that many of the pupils of our schools for the deaf possess some residual hearmg is well known to everyone connected with the educa- tion of the deaf. The extent to which this imperfect hearing can be made of service to the pupils is not so well known, and in the vast majority of cases no effort is made at present to develop and educate this residual hearing. This failure to utilize a valuable aid to mental development and language- and speech-teaching is due primarily to the lack of the necessary Department] THE UTILIZATION OF RESIDUAL BEARING 835 helpers to do the work. Most of the auricular training, in order to be effective, requires the services of at least one teacher for each two pupils receiving instruction at the same time. During the five hours of the school day, one teacher could, under the most favorable conditions, give a minimum of necessary instruction to twenty pupils, allowing half an hour to each two pupils. Nothing less than this would be worth doing. In a school maintaining three hundred pupils there would certainly be found fifty who could be really benefited by intelligent auricular training. That would require from two to three additional teachers, unless some other work was sacrificed in order to supply the time and teachers required for the educa- tion or re-education of residual hearing. The second reason for the general failure of the schools to do an adequate amount of this auricular training is the lack of a true appreciation of the possible benefits to the pupils. If all those in authority in our schools fully realized what could be accomplisht, they might find a way of providing the time and the teachers to do the work. Last year 61 per cent of the pupils in my school received daily auricular training and 42 per cent benefited very greatly from it. The difference in the percentages is because some of the pupils are so young — four years of age — that just what the ultimate benefit may be cannot be definitely stated at the end of the first year. What should be the standards of the amount and the character of sound-perception required in order that the benefits from auricular training may be an adequate return for the time and effort expended ? First of all I would suggest that, as the principal object of auricular training is to enable the pupils to understand spoken language thru the ear, and to clarify and improve their own speech, it is necessary that the islands of residual hearing should lie within the range of the speaking voices of men and women. The ability to perceive shrill sounds, Hke whistles, or very low sounds, like the organ bass, is of some value, undoubtedly, but unless accompanied by other islands of hearing in the range of human tones, I have not felt that the precious educational hours of the deaf child should be used in auricular training. In my own work, unless I can develop the power of discriminating with 90 per cent of accuracy between at least five vowels when shouted within half an inch of the ear, I have not considered it advisable to devote further time to auricular training. I spend, however, from two to six months in the endeavor to teach this degree of discrimination before abandoning the effort, since the brain can be taught to hear just as it can be taught to add or multiply, provided there is an avenue of approach. I test every pupil who comes to me, for ability to determine, first, how many times a sound is made near the ear. The sounds used at the start are those of a vibrating whistle, a bell, and clapping of the hands. If the 836 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special production of these sounds a foot from the ear can be perceived, I go on to test the abihty to tell how many times the vowel a (ah) is uttered very near the ear. If this can be done, then tests of increasing difficulty are given till the utilizable extent of hearing is approximately determined. It is impossible at this time or place to go into the details of the process of building up in the brain of the child a working comprehension of language thru the ear. Our task this morning can only be the directing of attention to the very great and helpful possibiUties that lie at our hands in the exist- ence of residual hearing in the cases of many of our pupils. DISCUSSION Elbert A. Gruver, Central New York Institution for the Deaf, Rome, N.Y. — Where shall we draw the line between a school for the deaf and one for the hard-of -hearing child ? What degree of deafness qualifies a child for a place in a school for the deaf ? I have given considerable thought to these questions in recent years. At one time I felt that no child with sufl&cient hearing to receive instructions thru the ear had any place in a school for the deaf. My opinion has changed in this respect, and now I think that any child whose hearing is so dull that he is unable to receive instructions easily belongs in a school for the deaf. I think it very necessary and proper that the children be given as much instruction thru the ear as possible, even if it is necessary to raise the voice. The general use of oral methods in nearly all our schools has been a leading factor in the rapid advancement, in the development of residual hearing. These methods are almost entirely natural methods of education and have brought the hard-of-hearing child more closely in touch with the school for the deaf than in former years, and has also had its lasting effect upon our attitude toward the mentally slow child; for often our hard-of- hearing pupils are of this class. This has led me to another change of opinion. It has been generally conceded that the dull deaf child can be developt best thru a free use of a combination of all methods, and particularly that the mentally deficient deaf child is in a sorry plight when it is attempted to teach him in an oral school. MEASUREMENT OF EFFICIENCY IN SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF RICHARD OTTO JOHNSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE INDIANA STATE SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. EDUCATION MEASUREMENT Never in educational history has there been so much uncertainty as to values in the educational field as at present, never such aggressive dis- satisfaction and earnest protests concerning the educational methods pre- vaiHng in schools ranging from the kindergarten to the university. This condition is the one great fact easily discernible by all who give the matter thought and reading; and another great fact is that at no time in the world have the people been more willing to give and more bountiful in giving, than now, to the cause of education. With such thoughts in mind, the writer began an educational survey of the Indiana School which was, in efficiency, fully abreast of the best Department] EFFICIENCY IN SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF 837 accredited curricula and methods of similar schools thruout the United States and Canada. This survey was later merged into that of schools for the deaf generally now being conducted by the committee referred to below which is seeking some sort of standardization of efficient methods, measure- ments, etc., to be completed and publisht at a later date. While the com- pass of this paper will not permit of going into details of the Indiana survey, it will be of interest to refer to one part thereof — the pupilage, and to an age and grade classification as workt out, and therein, of retardation, etc. Of the thirty-two pupils admitted during the year 1914-15, the informa- tion is suppHed in the accompanying table. Birthplace Fathers Mothers Pupils Indiana 20 3 22 3 27 3 I Kentucky Florida West Virginia I I I Maryland Michigan Missouri New York Hungary Russia I I I I 2 Austria I England Unknown Of the parents, one father and two mothers are dead; five cases of separation or divorce occur; in one case only are either of the parents deaf (in this case both father and mother), but deaf relatives are shown in six cases. In three cases either the parents or grandparents were related before marriage. In a number of the families the history discloses tubercu- losis (7), cancer (4), scrofula (i), epilepsy (i), feeblemindedness (i), and paralysis (5), with two of these defects occurring in the same family in one or two cases. In six instances there was difliculty at birth, instruments being used in two cases. Of the whole number, seven were weakly in in- fancy, three show a deranged nervous system, two physical malformation, or physical weakness, and thirteen were born deaf (40 .6 per cent). Of the offspring of families disclosing cancer, three of the four were congenital cases, as were three of the seven with tuberculosis; and the two from families showing scrofula, epilepsy, and feeblemindedness were both adventitious cases. Of the seven reported as sickly babes, five were congeni tally deaf; and of the five possessing deranged nervous system or malformation and physical weakness, all were adventitiously deaf. The total number of children born to the parents were 146, including the deaf (32), who constituted 21.9 per cent, and those who died (24), who constituted 16.4 per cent, thus leaving 61.7 per cent (90) living and reported as not deaf and well. Of the children who died, fourteen died at 838 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special birth (6) or under six months of age (8), or 9 . 6 per cent of the whole number. There is no doubt that other deaf pupils will yet be presented from some of these same families. Among the thirteen congenital cases, one had a deaf father and a deaf mother; one had grandparents who were first cousins, both the mother and grandmother dying of paralysis; three had deaf relatives, in one case con- genitally so; and two were of premature birth. Among the nineteen ad- ventitious cases, one (brain fever) had grandparents related, who also had deaf relatives; one (spinal meningitis) had consumption and deaf relatives; one (spinal meningitis) had epilepsy and feeblemindedness in the family history; one (measles) lost two grandparents by paralysis; and one in (pertussis) the maternal grandparents were first cousins and both died of paralysis. In several cases no definite report could be had of family ailments and diseases, or as to deaf relatives, etc. One child was born in a county poor asylum and no record of any kind can be furnisht of his parents or grand- parents or of causes, etc.; and this same ignorance is shown in several other cases where it would seem the parents should know. COMPARISON WITH OLDER PUPILS The average intelHgence of the 32 new pupils may be stated as good, scaling from several very high, down to one in whom it is very slight. While their chronological ages vary from six to twenty, their mental ages vary from three to fourteen. Their individual mental quotients, a combination of the two ages, range from 42 to 100 with 67 as the median, and indicate the ratio of the mental to the chronological age. With those at their normal level, i.e., close correspondence of the two ages, the value is assumed as 100, which is figured downward or upward as retardation or acceleration may demand. This estimate of the intelligence and mental age was made by the teachers after careful study, for no just test has yet been devised whereby these faculties may be correctly measured for the deaf, if for any. In this con- nection it must be borne in mind that "Retardation" as used in connection with the deaf child does not carry with it the same significance as if it were appHed to a hearing child. In the latter case the retardation, if sufficiently great, and according to general tests as now devised, would signify mental turpitude or deficiency; in the former case, while these elements may naturally enter to some extent, till it largely represents a backwardness due to an enforst lack of experience and social intercourse with hearing people and their daily affairs. It is a term, as used with the deaf, for com- paring the deaf child with a normal hearing child of the same chronological age, and generally indicates, not so much mental retardation, as it does a natural retardation due to the lack of opportunity and a chance to succeed as does his more fortunate hearing brother — each is normal according to his opportunity. And in this connection it may be well to add that the ten- Department] EFFICIENCY IN SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF 839 year-old backward normal child who grades at six years is greatly superior to the ten-year-old moron who grades at eight years; there are certain characteristic traits, noeds of maturation and sensorymotor reactions that must be given consideration — the one is mentally normal, altho retarded, the other is mentally abnormal or mentally diseased, with his whole being affected. Deafness and mental defects are not necessarily associated — they are seldom associated at all. There is no more connection between deafness and mental defect than there is between lameness or blindness and mental defect. When children, deaf thru heredity or congenitally so, are mentally defective, the cause is not the deafness but some condition which causes both the deafness and the other defect. In certain tabulations made the girls are slightly older chronologically and mentally, higher in their mental quotient, in their progress, and in their intelligence, while their retardation is the same as that of the boys; the oral pupils are younger chronologically and older mentally than the manual pupils, higher in their mental quotient and intelligence, in their progress, and decidedly less in retardation; the percentage of the congenitally deaf in the oral classes is more than double that in the manual classes where the adventitious outnumber slightly the congenital deaf as they do in much greater proportion in the oral classes; the "fair" and "good" among the adventitious cases are sHghtly greater than among the congenital; the totally deaf exceed the partially deaf in the manual classes, but in a much smaller proportion than is true of the reverse in the oral classes; the "fair" and "good" among the partially deaf is slightly greater than among the totally deaf. Summarizing, while the difference is not great, in all ways the girls seem to be doing better than the boys, the oral pupils than the manual, and the adventitious and partially deaf than the congenital and totally deaf. In the beginning, now seventy-two years ago, the deaf child was not received as a pupil until twelve years of age or over and he was allowed but five or more years in school. Later, the entering age was lowered from time to time and his continuance in school was increast, until now the general age of admission is seven and he may remain generally for ten to twelve years, thus approximating the privileges and rights of the hearing child. The various state schools for the deaf have been divided generally into ten to twelve grades and it was presumed that a first-year class was in the first- year grade, and so on upward seriatim; or that the highest class should be known as the first-year class and so on downward seriatim. The trouble with such division and practice is that there results such a lack of uniformity in grading and curriculum as to make a just educational comparison almost impossible. In view of this condition, the writer has undertaJien to devise a normal age and grade distribution for this school. It has been accepted by common consent of schoolmen that certain ages shall be considered as "normal ages" for hearing children in classifying 840 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special the grades — seven for the first grade, and with yearly increase to fourteen for the eighth grade. Now, in view of the fact that the deaf child, in comparison with the hearing child, displays a natural retardation of about three years (probably four years) due to enforst lack of experience and social intercourse with hearing people and their daily affairs, the "normal years" assigned the deaf must be increast over those of the hearing child. This has been done by fixing ten as the normal age for the first primary grade, fourteen for the fifth, sixteen for the second intermediate (seventh grade), and nineteen for the third advanst or, tenth and final grade. During the past twelve years (273 cases) the average age of the non- attendants (those dropping out) on leaving was 15.7 years, their average years in school was 5 . 5 years; and 75 per cent were from the introductory and primary classes — 8 per cent, introductory; 23 per cent, first and sec- ond primary; and 45 per cent, third, fourth, and fifth primary. Two years ago the Conference of Superintendents and Principals of American Schools for the Deaf, meeting in conjunction with the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf in Staunton, Va., declared the following as a basic principle in the education of the deaf: The education of the deaf child — which is claimed as a matter of right, not of charity — while a part of the general educational movement, is a distinct and highly specialized branch of the work and, as such, requires the services of expert educators of the deaf — those who know, not only the commonly applied principles of general pedagogy and psychology, but who, al^o, thru special training, active experience, and thoro research work, know the possibilities, the peculiarities, and the limitations, of the deaf child — who clearly know what is possible and practicable as opposed to the impossible and theoretical. This is a knowledge not possest even by those who proclaim themselves masters, theoreti- cally or otherwise, of the work with the hearing child who, as a matter of fact, receives his education largely at the hands, not of his school teachers, but of the thousands with whom he comes in contact outside the schoolroom, and thru the thoro acquisition of his mother tongue with its vocabulary and expression which come to him naturally and easily from the very day of his birth — and all of which is denied the deaf child. With this special knowledge of deaf-child nature as referred to above, acquired thru years of study of, and experience with, the deaf, one may readily perceive that the problems presented are not ordinary ones, that they are indeed complex, and further, that the ordinary curricula, textbooks, grade divisions, and modes of procedure adapted to the hearing child must be very decidedly modified with the deaf child. To those who are not engaged in the work of educating the deaf this knowledge does not come and they are ill-prepared to criticise methods, progress, and results which necessarily must be seen and judged from a viewpoint entirely different from their own. MEASUREMENT OF EFFICIENCY Without entering into a discussion at this time of the various phases of the work, the writer will state briefly and generally that among the tentative conclusions reacht, after careful correlation, are those which indicate that the deaf child is three to four years behind the hearing child in learning ability, as tested by the rapidity and accuracy of forming associations between numbers and forms; that the deaf boy and the deaf girl are equal I Department] THE PINTNER TESTS 841 I in learning ability, which is not the case with the hearing boy and the hearing girl, the latter being the superior; that the deaf boy, however, approximates more closely the hearing boy than does the deaf girl the hearing girl; that there is practically no difference between the learning ability of the congeni tally and the adventitiously deaf; and that the test results indicate a high correlation, or correspondence, between the four state schools taken separately and for each of the tests appUed in each of the schools. Variations, of course, occur in the curves plotted for the separate schools and between those for classification in each school, but generally they approximate each other closely. The curves for girls are more irregular and variable than those for the boys, but in no case are the variations uniform and constant excepting in two instances, i.e., in three schools the girls at eleven years of age show a pronounst drop in attainment while the same occurs in lesser degree for boys at fourteen years of age. THE PINTNER TESTS WALTER M. KILPATRICK, AMERICAN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, HARTFORD, CONN. Dr. Pintner, associate professor of psychology in the Ohio State Uni- versity, and Mr. Paterson, an assistant of his in that department and a son of deaf parents, might justly be called the Livingstone and Stanley of that hitherto Darkest America, the field of the special psychology of the deaf. Earlier attempts at exploration have been made, but only in isolated spots in this country. The present is the first determined, concerted attempt at a broad continental drive. Certain abiUties of selected groups of deaf children have been tested and deductions made from the findings, notably the valuable work of MacMillan and Bruner with pupils of the Chicago Day Schools for the Deaf some years ago. It is sufficient to say, in a general way, that three lines of undertaking have been made, namely, with Binet-Simon tests, with form boards, and with substitution tests; but Pintner pins his faith to the last named. The Binet tests are discarded with scant praise after an attempt with a small selected group of pupils in the Ohio School for the Deaf, on the ground that such tests involve an understanding of, and ability to use, the Enghsh language, hence are unsuited for testing the intelligence and mentahty of deaf pupils as compared with normal ones. The form board used by our experimenters seems to have been of a pattern devised by themselves, hence, tho similar in type to standardized form boards of others, for which pubhsht norms are obtainable, it will be difficult to compare results in testing other deaf children. This is a mis- fortune, since it is in reducing the number of variations of merely similar tests and increasing the number of identical or comparable ones that real norms are estabHsht and the tests themselves well standardized. We all 842 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special know, and Pintner found it true likewise, that form-board tests are valuable with beginning classes of deaf children, as an aid in winnowing the chaff from the wheat. The substitution test used by Pintner is really two tests of closely related abilities — the symbol-digit and the digit-symbol tests. They con- sist of the numerical digits arranged with a series of corresponding symbols, for example, a square, a triangle, a circle, and so on. The test is to require the subject to substitute the corresponding symbols for a given list of digits, or vice versa, and his speed and accuracy in thinking and writing the sub- stitutions are compared with the norms of the hearing for those abilities, age for age, sex for sex, etc. It is called by the experimenters a test of learning ability only, and, as such, is an interesting and valuable aid for our work. It does not furnish, in the estimation of many, an accurate index of the learning progress nor mental development of our pupils, hence its chief value will be for diagnostic and classification purposes in the early stages of a pupil's school life, and it begins to lose its effectiveness as he approaches the more advanst grades. You see we cannot get away from the language feature there, nor is it desirable to do so. This test has been applied to more than a thousand deaf pupils in several different states, and the work is still going on in other schools, hence it is reasonable to say that fairly accurate norms have been establisht for deaf children in this particular abiHty. To quote from a preliminary report of the "Efficiency Committee'' of the Conference of Superintendents and Principals, under whose auspices the test was made by Pintner: Among the results obtained after careful correlation are those that indicate that the deaf child is about three years behind the hearing child in learning ability, as tested by the rapidity and accuracy of forming associations between numbers and forms; that the deaf boy and the deaf girl are equal in learning ability, which is not the case with the hearing boy and the hearing girl, the latter being the superior; that the deaf boy, however, approximates more closely the hearing boy than does the deaf girl the hearing girl; and that there is practically no difference between the learning ability of the congenitally deaf and the adventitiously deaf. THE JUVENILE COURT OF NEW YORK CITY FRANKLIN C. HOYT, CHIEF JUSTICE OF THE CHILDREN'S COURT, NEW YORK, N.Y. As many of you are aware, it was sixteen years ago that the first chil- dren's court was actually estabhsht. Its creation was the logical out- growth of various experiments which had been made from time to time, in more than one city or state, to protect the delinquent child from the contamination of association with the criminal classes, both in places of detention and in the courts. While some of these efforts resulted in the passage of certain admirable laws, which are still in force, the idea of a Department) THE JUVENILE COURT OF NEW YORK CITY 843 separate tribunal to hear and determine all cases involving neglected or delinquent children, did nOt develop into permanent existence until the year 1899, when the Juvenile Court of Chicago was successfully establisht. The creation of courts in other cities followed rapidly, notably in Denver in 1901 and in New York City in 1902, until at the present time the move- ment has spread, not only throut all this country, but to many of the European nations as well. It seems almost impossible to realize that here in New York City, only fourteen years ago, children were being tried as criminals, and were handled in all the courts together with the most hardened offenders. Going farther back, it staggers our credulity when we read that in England, early in the nineteenth century — not even one hundred years ago — four little boys of about twelve or thirteen years of age, were tried for stealing a cheap shawl and other trifling articles from a shop window and were condemned to be hanged. That inhuman order was never carried out, as a public uproar compelled the authorities to commute the sentence to penal servitude, but considering what penal servitude meant in those days, perhaps it would have been better for those little children if they had been hanged instead. As I have said, the Children's Court of New York City has been in existence only fourteen years, but it bears Uttle resemblance at present to the children's court of ten, or even five, years ago. This new court, which came into existence on the first day of July, 1915, has five parts, one court being located in each of the counties comprising Greater New York, namely. New York, Kings, Queens, Richmond, and the Bronx. It has a presiding judge and four associate justices; a complete probation department, including a chief probation officer, two deputy chiefs, and forty-one salaried probation officers, besides an administrative force con- sisting of a chief clerk, five court clerks, one for each county, their deputies, and a large staff of clerical employes, stenographers, and attendants. It also has a new building in Manhattan, the best of its kind in the world, which will enable it to conduct its business in the most satisfactory manner, and which will permit it to introduce and put into effect new methods of procedure never before tried. Since the first of the year, two justices have been assigned to sit con- tinuously in the Manhattan Court, so that twice as much consideration can be devoted by the judge to each case as was possible under the old conditions. Under the new system, we are using two rooms for the hearing of cases. The main court room, the larger of the two, is the place where all new cases, with a few possible exceptions, receive their first hearing. All continued cases, however, such as those put over for investigation and decision, as well as for probation, come before the Judge in the smaller court room. The first hearing in the main court room, we believe, will impress the fact upon the child and its parents that the rights of the community must 844 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special be respected, that each dhild, as well as his parents, owes an obligation to society which cannot be overlookt, and that in each case there must be considered, not only the welfare of the child himself, but the effect of his act upon others. In the second hearing, because of its informality and intimacy, less emphasis is laid upon these aspects of the case, and the interest of the court in the individual will be brought into even stronger relief. Fifteen thousand children pass thru our children's courts in New York City each year. It is hard to realize how large a throng this 15,000 repre- sents. Of course these children are not all delinquent. About one-half are neglected and are brought before the court because their parents have sinned, either actively or passively, and because they have been denied their inherent right of a normal and decent home. Most people seem to have the idea that the Children's Court considers only offenses committed by children. If this were true, our work would be far simpler and our problems far less complex. I often say that, in reality, three classes of offenders stand morally arraigned before its bar in almost every case — the child, its parents, and the community. I have no hesitation in saying that of these, the child is generally the least respon- sible. If I were to pick out a text to illustrate the court's endeavors, I think • I would take it from the twenty-ninth chapter of Job: "I delivered the poor that cried, and the fatherless, and him that had none to help him — The cause which I knew not, I search out." That, I think embodies the true idea and purpose of the Children's Court. Today much less importance is attacht to the offense itself than to the cause of the offense and the child's character and environment. The Court never attempts simply to punish a child, altho it is always ready to employ discipline wherever it may be necessary. The main purpose is to restore the child to his natural balance by the kindliest and most efficient methods. The Court has been called by some the ''world's largest life-saving station." Others have likened it to a clinic for the treatment and care of neglected and delinquent children. It might also be regarded, very properly, as a school of instruction for those charged with the duty and responsibility of child-training, for scarcely a case arises which does not have something to teach us in this respect. Vocational training is but another phase of individual treatment, the vast importance of which we are just beginning to comprehend. It is a subject which deserves the earnest consideration of our entire nation, for only by its practice and development can we succeed in making the occupations and future careers of our children congenial to themselves as well as useful and beneficial to society at large. Heretofore we have been content to find the child a "job," not caring in the least whether he was DepartmentJ THE DELINQUENT 84s \ at all fitted for the position in question, or whether the work would be congenial to him. Furthermore, instruction should be continued while children are first engaged in occupations. At present, in many instances, we allow all education to cease for children reaching fifteen years of age, and then expect them to progress in their assigned vocations without further aid. New York City, I am glad to say, is at last beginning to awaken to the impor- tance of this need. THE DELINQUENT EDGAR DUBS SHIMER, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHAIRMAN, BOARD OF PAROLE, NEW YORK, N.Y. Goethe, in his Wilhelm Meister, declares his belief that it is impossible to find any boy, however delinquent or degenerate, in whom we cannot discover some germ of good that may be developt. The very substance of the things hoped for by us, in this forward move- ment to reclaim lost souls, lies in our unwavering faith that such reclama- tion is possible and that we can help to make it actual. There will be no true cooperation, look for it as we may, unless first and foremost all those who have to deal with children are unalterably fixt upon the fundamental faith, as exprest by Ralph Waldo Emerson, "In the muck and scum of things, there is something always sings." Are our ears attuned to this singing ? Do we hear the song ? What message does it bring to us ? The term of commitment of delinquents under our regimen is two years, but any delinquent with a satisfactory record for one-third of that time, or eight months, is entitled to consideration for parole. He understands that he has earned this right by good behavior. There are about one million children of school age in New York City who are under the compulsory-education law. Our present accommo- dations in truant schools do not allow us to care for more than four hundred and fifty committed delinquents. This is less than one in every two thousand of the school population. Nevertheless the pressure for room in the truant schools is so great that we have been compelled to venture upon a scheme of recommending parole for six months' satisfactory record. It is then, especially, that their hopes rest fondly, first upon the princi- pals, and next upon the teachers, to whom the paroled pupil is intrusted for completion of cure. Were it not for the numerous principals and teachers, whose passion for perfection prompts them unerringly toward the reconstruction and salvation of the imperfect, the Board of Parole would indeed have a vain task. 846 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special "If it had not been for a deep experience of my own last year," said a teacher, "I should not have had the patience to bear with this boy." She had herself been transformed by the renewing of the mind, and to the wonder of all she had, with persistent, loving interest found and developt the germ of good in her Wilhelm Meister, fairly and fully transforming him into a new being. THE GIRL DELINQUENT AMY S. EVERAL, SUPERINTENDENT, LANCASTER SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, LANCASTER, MASS. The problem of the delinquent girl is distinct from that of the dependent or neglected child. According to the Massachusetts statutes a delinquent child is one between the ages of seven and seventeen years who violates any city ordinance or town by-law, or commits an offense not punishable by death nor imprisonment for life. A large proportion of delinquent girls become such because they lackt proper home influences and wise guidance and control at the age when girls crave amusement and will surely find it on the street if the home offers no attraction. The actual offense for which the girl is committed, therefore, is the inevitable result of a condition of physical and! moral neglect, and lack of schooling and good home influences. The whole question of delinquency is closely allied with home and environment. Poor homes and environment . are important contrib- uting causes to delinquency. A large percentage of delinquent girls come from broken homes, either thru death of one or both parents, or on account of drunkenness, domestic unhappiness, or the mother having to work away from home. Most delinquents come from large famihes, the members living either in a small house or in a few rooms in a crowded tenement. The location of the house is usually unfavorable, being as a rule in the congested quarters of large cities where ideals and the moral atmosphere are not high. The father's occupation is in practically all cases that of unskilled labor, meaning a small income. Poverty is a contributing cause to delinquency, in that it deprives a girl of the coveted personal posessions and the good times essential to her moral growth. Feeble-mindedness is responsible for from one-third to one-haK of all cases of delinquency. Those lacking in normal intelligence are almost sure to fail to meet the problems of life without resorting to undesirable conduct. The perpetuation of feeble-mindedness thru heredity means further increase in deUnquency and crime. We cannot hope for an adequate solution of the problem of dehnquency until feeble-mindedness and its consequences are properly met. There are various things which you teachers might do to help prevent delinquency— look after the health of the children, and report cases where \ M Department] THE GIRL DELINQUENT 847 you suspect adenoids, defective sight, and nervous conditions. All these defects are hkely to lead to truancy, and truancy to delinquency. I have talkt with many mothers and realize that, while there is no lack of parental affection, there is a great lack of intelligence. If every girl had an intelligent mother there would be much less work for reformatories, since there are now so many broken homes and so many mothers who have not the inteUigence to train their children. Thru failure to tell the truth to children in answer to honest inquiry, the whole subject of sex has been relegated to the field of curiosity and the imagination, and instruction from the worst sources. Now happily the harm of all this is being seen. Many intelHgent parents are bravely experi- menting with a different attitude and method, and confidence is growing that the truth can be told to the young to their great advantage. The impure mind is almost universal. The mode of modern training tends to this result — the concealment of the facts of sexual life, the sense of shame which is so commonly attacht to them, and their usual acquirement from unworthy and misleading sources. When this state of mind has been acquired, the sensuous in life is constantly appealing to and strengthening it, and while it is still possible to implant high ideals, they do not have the same controlling influence as in another mind. But the mere imparting of information would not be a satisfactory solution of our problem. The great object of sex education is less the imparting of knowledge than the creating of the right ideals. Of course it is very important that the right kind of instruction be given, for teaching may do harm as well as good. I have heard it said that the condition existing in some of our public schools is most shocking. I wonder whether it can be possible that teachers are wholly unconscious of such a state of affairs ? Or is not their failure to report cases to the proper authorities due in part to their reluctance to be drawn into the affair ? When a girl has so offended that it is necessary to bring her into court, there are three courses open to a judge: (i) to send her back to the same environment, under the care of a probation officer; (2) to place her in a good home under the supervision of some child-placing agency; (3) To send her to a training or industrial school. It does not seem, on the face of it, as if the first course — returning her to the old environment — would as a rule be wise. If her offense has been slight, a good home found by a child-placing society would be far better. If a girl has become morally tainted, the best place for her is an institution, where she can receive moral training. It is no more fair to put such a girl directly into a family and run the chance of her contaminating others, than were she infected with a contagious disease. We all agree that the ideal environment for every child, is the home presided over by the good father and mother. This is the natural atmos- phere where a child comes face to face with life's actual daily problems 848 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special and is taught to meet them, guided and directed by loving, understanding parents. An institution should aim to realize the ideal of a good parent, that is, a complete development in body, soul and spirit. For this reason it is very important that we have a high standard of officers to work with the unfortunate children ,we get. They must be refined, patient, sym- pathetic, forgiving, and motherly. They take a mother's place to many who have not known what true mother-love is. I shall briefly outline to you the training the delinquent girl receives at the Massachusetts State Industrial School, where we aim to carry out the ideals mentioned above. After her arrival at Lancaster, each girl is given what to many a girl is her first real bath and a shampoo. She is then taken to a room which she is told is her own. She does not have to share it with anyone elsej as each girl rooms alone, and thus possesses a little sanctuary which she can adorn with picture post-cards and other things dear to a girl's heart, and where she can go, when she chooses, to fight out her battles with herself. When she goes downstairs again she finds that there is a living-room tastefully furnisht and having a piano; there is a large sunny dining-room contain- ing small tables. The girls are made to feel a pride in these cottage homes that have adopted them, and are taught simple, inexpensive, effective ways of making cottages attractive, with the hope that they will later carry into their own homes suggestions received at Lancaster. It is imprest upon the girls that economy plays a very important part in successful home-making, and that to be a thoro, economical housekeeper is an end every girl should seek to attain. Their kitchen training is one of the most important fea- tures, and girls frequently come to the administration building to display with great pride some sample of culinary efforts which they have accom- plisht. Besides being taught to cook, the girls are taught laundry-work (everything is done by hand in order better to equip them to become home- makers themselves). They are taught also how to make their own clothes. Our girls work out-of-doors on the farm three or four months of the year. We have done an increasing amount of outside work during the last three years. This has been of great physical and moral benefit to the girls. A close attention is given to the individual needs of each girl in her school work, and the academic and industrial work are closely allied. They are taught to figure the cost of preparing a meal, or making garments to wear. Physiology and hygiene are brought out in connection with the discussion of ingredients of which things are made. Nature-study and geography are correlated in the study of production. The value of money and its uses, the cost of supplies — ^food and material values — are all taught. A class in home economics, where practical talks and demonstrations are made, we find of great value especially to those about to be paroled from the school. This preparation for the new life they are about to face and DepartmentI THE GIRL DELINQUENT 849 preparation for a new and strange environment lessen the probable failures after they leave the institution. We have toucht on the industrial and academic training. Besides this they receive moral and religious training. A priest and minister come to the school weekly for services and instruction. Aside from this teaching the precepts and examples of those with whom the child comes in daily touch is of the greatest value. We have a resident physician, a dentist, and oculist who make regular visits. We believe with the Greeks, *'A healthy mind in a healthy body." A thoro physical examination is made of each girl when she enters the school, and physical defects are remedied as far as possible, as they prevent the mind from that concentration of effort so necessary for self-improvement. A Wassermann test is made of every girl coming into the institution, and a segregation is made of all girls suffering from syphilis. These girls are given a three-year treatment of mercury and iodide. Our great function, however, is the regeneration of individuals thru character-reconstruction. We aim to analyze character and to find the cure of each individual's shortcomings by the appUcation of the particular remedy needed for every weakness. Study, by a field worker, is made of the environmental surroundings, which is of great assistance in determining how much that has contributed to the condition of each respective char- acter. The causes being removed (by the change of environment or what- not), we aim to fill their minds with wholesome things and to fit our girls again to take their places in society as respectable members — law-abiding, seK-respecting, and self-supporting — "as human assets rather than lia- bilities." Our results show that 65 per cent of all the girls committed to us are living respectably at the age of twenty-one. Some girls are ready to be paroled in one year, others in two or three years, according to mentality and behavior. The matron and superintendent decide when a girl's name is to be given to the trustees to be voted upon as one able to take care of herself in the community. When this times comes, a trunk containing an outfit is given the girl and she goes forth in a happy mood. Her character has been developt, her standards of living raised. DISCUSSION Jessie B. Colburn, president, Association of Women Principals of Public Schools, New York N.Y. — For several years the women principals of public schools in New York City have felt that the question of the delinquent girl must be faced and some solution found. In the effort to do this intelligently, we women have during the past year or two been gathering figures, studying instances, and consulting as to effective means of attack- ing the problem, and after many conferences, we have askt that our public-school system shall include a country cottage school where these girls may be placed, free from the stigma which attaches to an institution commitment, and free too from the academic drudgery which so often makes school hateful to girls, of this type. Let the girl do house- 850 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION . [Special work and learn to make a home; if she takes to it, let her do sewing and embroidery; but do not force this sedentary work with the needle upon her if she has no taste for it. In a special home for girls, everyone should have a private room — her very own. It is her right and a patent aid in character-building. Next in importance comes the home-like dining-room, with its small tables, clean napery, and consequent inculcation of not only the decencies of life, but the pleasant social amenities. There are three reasons why such a school as this is a crying necessity. Two of these are those which we ordinarily consider: first, the protection of society; and secondly, the saving of the girl herself, who is generally much more sinned against than sinning; the third reason, however, I think the primary one, and it is, in my judgment, far too often overlookt, or at least relegated to the background, when it should have first place in our consideration. I mean the protection of the young and innocent-minded children with whom these unfortunate girls are in daily contact. Two other points: An absolute essential to the success of such work is that the right type of woman — and it must be a woman — ^^must be found to head the school; the second is that other women, just as carefully selected, must be ready when the girl comes back to the city to enter the struggle of life again, to do the necessary follow-up work. THE BIG-SISTER MOVEMENT MRS. SIDNEY C. BORG, JEWISH BIG-SISTER MOVEMENT, NEW YORK, N.Y. The "Big-Sister" societies with whose functions you are undoubtedly somewhat familiar, are attempting to render their assistance to the child in the incipient stage of delinquency and in so doing are hoping ultimately to lessen the need for institutions giving custodial and correctional care. Few of us are so occupied as to be unable to spare the time for such personal service, and a sympathetic interest often proves the determining factor in a girl's life. The ways in which a "Big Sister" can be helpful can neither be enumerated nor foreseen. The measure of her usefulness is most largely dependent upon the subordination of the thought of charity to a genuine feehng of interest and comradeship. The work is chiefly preventive; it is not so much a problem of reforming girls who have gone a long way on the erring path, as an effort to prevent them from ruining their lives beyond recall. Personal influence, the human touch, as I have said before, can become strong influences for good, and these are qualities which we all possess in a measure. Further, it is not on the child alone that this influence must be exercised, for, as Mr. Coulter has so aptly stated in his book entitled The Children in the Shadow, the real delinquent is the parent and not the child. It is therefore to the parents that the "Big Sister" must turn and emphasize the weight of their responsibihty. But the parents, unfortunately, are frequently unable to carry the burden alone, hence to us falls the moral obligation of preventing these children from passing irrevocably into the depths of degradation and disease. Since we initiated this work a few years ago, we have been able to assist approximately 650 girls, many of whom are under our constant supervision Department] ORGANIZED CHARITY AND THE DELINQUENT 851 and others to whom we return at frequent intervals for a friendly chat or a word of advice. It has been said that it is more blessed to give than to receive. Those who stretch out the helping hand of a sister to these young unfortunates open up to them a new world, and receive in return the priceless blessing of the deepening and quickening of their own spiritual lives. ORGANIZED CHARITY AND THE DELINQUENT SIEGFRIED GEISMAN, SUPERINTENDENT, BROOKLYN HEBREW ORPHAN ASYLUM, BROOKLYN, N.Y. During the recent Shakespeare revival, lips youthful and mature uttered the bard's immortal hnes: "All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances." Applying this metaphor, we sit in review upon this motley throng, and only after some effort do we detect its components, some standing forth in bold relief by virtue of salient characteristics, others mere mass, part and parcel of that great, apparently indivisible, indistinguishable back- ground. And yet of these how many start forth blithely, how many, because of inherent defect or the compelling force of untoward circum- stances, drop by the wayside, footsore, weary, despondent, despairing! Aye, at this very moment, two children are being born into the world, the one of goodly parentage, eagerly awaited, tenderly watcht over, properly provided for; the other, a compulsory addition to an already overstockt family, a mere drag, necessitating the loss of pay for several days on the part of a tired, careworn mother. The development of urban centers, creating new situations of especial difficulty, also comphcated hitherto simple problems. Amid rural or village environments, where one had lived in close knowledge, if not in direct contact, with the other, the demand for financial aid was easily met. But in cities private help, the assistance that neighbor renders to neighbor, is inadequate and desultory, hopelessly incapable of dealing with any but surface phenomena. The erring mother presents, in all likelihood, a more serious question. Disintegrating homes require skilled care; but, for the welfare of society, it is essential that the strongest forces be marshaled so that, by means of the cement of human love, lasting buttresses and bulwarks may be reared. Tho the delinquent father and mother should have a measure of our atten- tion, yet we must apply ourselves especially to the children. They are thoughtless, unmoral perhaps, callous to argument, reason, or love; they include too, the imbecile, the moron, all those dwelling eternally in the gloom, feebly groping their way in a world too full of obstacles, too bizarre for a simple, childlike comprehension and appreciation. List them, if 852 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special you will, under the categories of the court, as the truant, the gangster, the sneak thief, the drug fiend. Who are his parents? Are they possibly not the delinquent rather than he ? What are his home surroundings ? Is the body poHtic perhaps not more criminal than he, in permitting such conditions in our wealthy urban centers? Some years ago we were appalled at the statistics of children who came to school each morning without a suitable, or some times any, breakfast. Now and then we are set aghast when we are confronted with the findings of physicians who speak of the stupendous number of pupils suffering from physical defects of one sort or another. Add to these causes the chasm between the Americanized child and the alien parent, the latter continuing in the New World his fixt habits of life in total ignorance of American ways. We admit that among our American children, also, respect for law and order, reverence and obedience, are neither inborn nor inculcated. May I suggest that, in the case of the truant, greater blame and severer responsibility be fixt on the delinquent parent. I am deeply conscious of the splendid efforts of our so-called parental or truant schools. I equally realize that they attempt to render, in a way, the work which our pubhc schools fail to extend to many; that they emphasize manual training, supervised play, etc. The schools need a total reorganization, a great humanizing, a broadening and extension. The school year must be extended, the vacation limited to the hottest season, possibly the month of July. Of course, there will be some variance in the work accomplisht during the summer months, more of the time being devoted to manual work, to domestic science, to nature-study, to excursions to points of scenic beauty, historic association, etc. There must be additional playgrounds. It surely has occurred to you what scanty provision our cities make for recreation. In the days of Greece and Rome, more stress was placed upon the amuse- ment of the public. There were festivals without number, games, races, in fine every opportunity was embraced for a public festival. The children of the wealthy today have their amusements, their extraneous instruction in music, dancing, etc., while the children of the poor are relegated to the streets and worse. The boy must be somewhere between school hours and school hours. Let him be in the streets, if there is absolutely no other place, rather than have him disappear from view entirely. Where can the girl of the working mother seek her recreation ? The surprise to me often is that so many preserve their native purity and good- ness rather than that so many go astray. Are there then no delmquents among the wealthy, may be your proper question? There surely are, but pubhc agencies are rarely called upon to deal with them; their record does not fill our pages, and in their case, too, we would frequently be forst to ascribe their condition to wreckt homes. I discust the entire problem a short time ago with one of the best-known judges of our juvenile court. He made the rather cheering statement that Department! PRESERVING THE FAMILY 853 in the light of his experience he believed juvenile delinquency to be on the decline, but that more cases of improper guardianship came before him than in previous years. And he ascribed the decline in juvenile dehnquency to better work and wider sympathy in the pubUc schools. Is it not possible that the schools will also consider it a legitimate branch of their work to relieve charitable organizations of much of the pre- ventive work, along the line of juvenile delinquency, by entering, even more fully, into the life of the individual child ? There is a big work for all of us to do. PRESERVING THE FAMILY JOSEPH v. S. MCCLANCY, SXJPERINTENDENT OF PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS, DIOCESE OF BROOKLYN, BROOKLYN, N.Y. Among the educational factors making for the development of character and mind on the part of the dehnquent as of the normal child, the family stands out prominent. The first school that a human being enters is the home. Its lessons are well taught and well learned. Who of us that have advanst far into the years of life but can trace back to family influence many of the ideals that are guiding the hours of our today ? The social instinct native to the human breast finds its first satisfaction in the home. It is in the schoolroom of the home that a person starts on the upward path leading to that expression of the better elements of his make-up which we know as education. The devotees of religion make much of the educational value of our churches. Those committed to the principle of associating morality with intellectual training place emphasis on the school. Yet, general is the conviction that the home is the primal factor in the development of the child. Thus has God ordained things to be. The parent supplies the child with the first ideas of concrete right and wrong. From the same quarter proceeds that respect for lawful authority that is the cornerstone of all forms of human society. The teaching of the home is informal but none the less effective. The mother's sacrifices and gentleness, notist with appreciation by the child, make for the development of an unselfish char- acter. Thru the father bearing the heat and burden of the days of toil, a lesson is read in the need for the quality of sturdiness in meeting the trials of life. The kindly and well-tempered encouragment given children by their parents engenders a confidence in self that at times is woefully wanting in some educated people. Rough edges of character are worn away to an extent in the intimacy of family relations and play obtaining between the offsprings of a common parentage. In its fulness of strength the home bears about it the note of religion. It is a bad home that inculcates reli- gious narrowness or fosters bigotry. The fact of an ever-present, all- knowing, and all-interested God becomes an important agency in investing 854 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special a child, not merely with the veneer of good conduct but also with its verit- able substance. Too well rooted in history and too well abiding in the conscience of everyone is the belief in a rewarding and punishing Deity to be dismist out of deference for a philosophy making popular atheism. Self-improvement is rendered on the average well-nigh impossible in any home that tries to stand without the guiding and governmg influence of a firm acceptance of the existence of a Divine Providence. The character- and mind-development especially of the delinquent child attends in great part on the quaHty of the home. The pity of life is that not all homes work for this noble end. Some of them refuse to lend ■ their cooperation to the church and the school for the bringing of the child on to an educational and moral maturity. One explanation for this bad condition is sought in the economic wrongs of the day. Poverty paralyzes home influences. The toil-burdened father begets in the misery of his -low-waged employment diseased standards of honesty that are likely to filter down to the child. In the same home the care of many children with but slight means of subsistence will take the attention of the mother off the larger work of guiding the mental and moral development of the child. This is especially striking in the case of widows. The normal environment of play and health that a child has a right to demand of society is at times wanting. The desire for amusements, the gratification of the child's appetites for sweets, the quest for toys — these are often unmet in the houses of the poor. The case can be pusht farther. Even sanitary condi- tions, well set forth by Dr. William H. Maxwell in his admirable paper on "How to Help the Backward Child," are lamentably lacking. Proper sleeping appointment, the presence of pure air, the nourishment for a grow- ing body, the reasonable safeguards against disease, the precautions against moral disorders — such indeed are awkward problems in homes where the wages are small. There is to be noted a peculiar leakage of home influ- ences among our immigrants. Sturdy and industrious characters arriving on our Hberty-blest shores, they neglect to learn our language with any degree of confidence in speaking it. From this condition flow many evils. The child assumes the role of an interpreter and in many cases the passage is easy to independence of parental control. Especially is the plot of this mischief thickened when evil street companionship enters into the problem as is the case with most delinquents. Even when the home breaks down in its educational value the wise friend of the school child hesitates to remove him from its sphere. The way of acting is rather to seek the improvement of the home. The com- mitment to an institution is a last resort and one always to be taken with a measure of sincere regret. The thought now rushes on our view that the best method of meeting the delinquency problem is to mobilize our efforts in the direction of restoring to fallen homes their native vigor along edu- cational lines. Educated people should plunge into the labor problem. Department! THE SOCIAL WORKER 855 all the while keeping clear of the gospel *of class strife. The modem loose- ness of idea on the inviolability of marriage should give way before a strengthened public opinion denouncing divorce as an evil which more than outweighs all the horrors that are described of homes torn by internal dissension. Our parting thought is twofold. From our hearts there issue the warmest sympathy and the most cheering encouragement for an organ- ization such as the Association of Workers among DeUnquent Children, and for others who labor along their lines altho not banded under their control. Their material for work is assuredly not of the best. It is a noble thing, when engaged in a good direction, to be undiscouraged by the odds against one's success. The country, with its jails already chokt to overflowing, must look down with gratitude upon the men and women who are applying the curative and preventive measures to keep down the number of convicts. The work is not without its discouraging sneers of criticism, but it is a work whose successes have been many, altho unfortunately not appreciated by an incredulous pubHc. The final word is to stress the contention of some of the best thinkers of our day, that all delinquency does not spring from defective mentality, and that the overemphasizing of environment has led some to forget the existence of free will on the part of man. The child dehnquent is a problem to be handled in the light of a philosophy that does not degrade man to the level of the brute. Instruct the child in the sense of his own responsi- bihty, and then make good the environment in which he is placed. The home is the environment of excellence; in our efforts to give the home its full efficacy let us not lose sight of the aim of our endeavors to round the child into the man or woman of knowledge, morality, religion, and patriotism. THE SOCIAL WORKER HENRY W. THURSTON, DIRECTOR OF CHILD WELFARE, SCHOOL OF PHILANTHROPY, NEW YORK, N.Y. I assume that all of you have had personal and professional dealings with some of the following persons, and some of you with all of them: attendance, or truant, officers; probation officers in charge of children, and perhaps adults, who have never been in a custodial institution of any kind; parole officers in charge of children and perhaps adults who have been releast from custodial institutions of some kind ; men and women in public and private employ who have as a part of their work the giving of material rehef; men and women in charge of placed-out or boarded-out children. All these and many more are candidates for membership in the occupational group that is now slowly differentiating itself in our midst as a social-work group technically so called. 856 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special Now, whether or not these workers whom I have just enumerated have yet estabUsht a real profession of social work, it is demonstrably true that in their most efficient developments they are all fundamentally alike in technique, with minor differences in routine. For example, the most efficient among probation officers, parole officers, visiting teachers, hospital social-service workers, placing-out agents, and district nurses are all alike in these respects: (i) they all d-eal with handi- capt individuals; (2) they all deal with these handicapt individuals against the background of a particular family, neighborhood, economic and civic environment. The technique of the social worker in this sense is different from that of the teacher in the classroom, from that of the doctor and nurse in the dispensary and hospital, from that of the minister in his pulpit. It may easily be granted that the classroom teacher can teach better if she is famihar with all the personal characteristics of each pupil and of his home and social environment, but we should never lose sight of the fact that the technique of a teacher in the classroom and that of a social-case worker in investigation, formation, and execution of plan of treatment for each depend- ent, neglected, or deUnquent child and his family as a whole, are different. It may be an open question whether or not the same person should know and practice both techniques, but it leads only to confusion if we fail to recognize that there are two techniques. This leads us to the crux of the whole problem of cooperation between the teacher and any social worker. As things are now in many of our cities, the teacher not only faces the problem of cooperation with one social worker with respect to a particular family, but cooperation with several. Often a probation officer, a visiting nurse, or visiting teacher are all at one time visiting a family, which has one or more children in a school. In such a situation the teacher's problem of cooperation with each social worker is very difficult unless the different social workers who visit the same family also cooperate well among themselves and with the family in question. THE WORK OF THE VISITING TEACHER RUTH TRUE, CHILDREN'S BUREAU, WASHINGTON, D.C. I beHeve that every large school needs to supplement the staff whose business it is to handle groups of children for some six hours of their day, with some one person whose business it is to study the individual child for as much as possible of his twenty-four hours a day. This thought had been smoldering, for during the last nine years it caught fire spontaneously in several parts of the country. Now, for the first time, the people who have been experimenting with it have come together to compare notes. This function has been given different names. In New York such a worker is called a visiting teacher; in Boston, a home and school visitor. In general, Department] THE WORK OF THE VISITING TEACHER 857 any child who is a misfit, whose teacher feels that he is not absorbing the profit he should be getting from what the school has to offer, may come to her. The only exceptions are those for whom some other special pro- vision is made, as in the case of truants. In particular, according to the last report of the Public Education Association, 926 children were brought to their visiting teachers by the class teachers and principals for the following reasons: 1. Those who were lagging behind in scholarship. These were not mentally subnormal children, barring a few cases which were not so diag- nosed until after they were referred. 2. Those with whom there was some difficulty regarding conduct of which the roots reacht deeper than the classroom — back into the home or outside life of the child. 3. Children who were irregular, not truants, but those who were dropping out too many occasional days. 4. Children in such poor physical condition that they were in need of resources beyond those the school had to offer. Here they workt in coopera- tion with the school nurse. 5. Those for whom home conditions were so bad that the effects showed in the classroom. 6. Children persistently tardy. The visiting teacher has one great advantage over the probation or the truant officer. More and more, as she works in a school, she comes in at the beginning of trouble. I would like to emphasize the fact that then is the time when effort is best repaid by result. To generalize, she may in the first place bring about an adjustment in the home which will put the child in a better position to benefit from the school. Frequently a case presents some tangle which can quickly be pulled straight. In some instances a new home is secured for the child. In the second place, there are adjustments which may be made in the school. For these, the knowledge of the child's outside life brought back is almost always useful and often indispensable. Sometimes the change is one of program, such as a shift to an open-air class, or an opportunity for lunches in the school. In other cases it is one .of attitude which comes to us all with understanding. I believe that this is just as important. Many children, whose effort will never tally with achievement because of some outside handicap, are thirsty like the others for the glow that comes from appreciation. The visiting teacher must be one of the staff of the school; she cannot afford to be a fifth wheel revolving on her own account. She needs to have her place in the school building and to be there and to be ^iven hours when she can be reacht by teachers and children. Perhaps the kernel of the visiting teacher's immediate contribution to the school is the help she can give in fitting together the pieces for a child whose pattern does not con- 858 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special form. Her place is indicated when we remember that for such youngsters no machine program, however well it may work for the majority, will take the place of a hand-made plan. THE WORK OF THE BUREAU OF ATTENDANCE, NEW YORK CITY SCHOOLS JOHN W. DAVIS, DIRECTOR, ATTENDANCE BUREAU, NEW YORK, N.Y. The full title of this bureau is the Bureau of Compulsory Education, School Census, and Child Welfare. In doing our work, these three divisions sometimes impinge, sometimes overlap, as the nature of the problem to be solved demands. Primarily, as I understand it, the prevention side of our work is the one to be emphasized today. And right here I should like to put forth our fundamental proposition: that a school census properly kept will be a great help in our work. We feel that the problem is a sociological one, and, further, that to reduce truancy we must study the causes leading to it. The causes may be groupt as follows: the nagging teacher; lack of clothing; not in proper physical nor mental condition; dislike for school brought about in other ways; overindulgent parents; incomplete family; stern father and relent- ing mother; squalid and filthy homes; drunkenness on the part of one or both parents; the gang. If we remove the cause, the truancy disappears. The attendance officers are instructed to look primarily for the cause in order to ascertain whether the individual officer can effect a cure, always remembering that he must put himself in the place of the erring pupil, when he begins to judge the boy, and to be a big brother to him. While the bureau car was coming thru the park one day, a boy of fourteen was stopt, invited to a seat in the car, and brought over to the office. On being questioned by me, he stated that his reason for playing truant was that his teacher was constantly nagging him! He was returned to school, transferred to another class, and that cured his truancy. Now the dislike for school may be brought about in other ways than by the nagging teacher. If a pupil is maladjusted as regards the course of study, trouble will follow; also lack of clothing and shoes are frequent causes of truancy. The bureau has a stock of clothing on hand that has been given it by well-wishing friends, and it relieves the necessities of the individual cases in this respect. The law gives this bureau power to commit to a parental or truant school all children who are persistent truants, provided the parents consent; if the parents do not consent, the aid of the courts must be invokt to carry out the law. Our hearings are conducted by two division supervisors. Last year we had 9000 hearings. DepartmentI BUREAU OF ATTENDANCE, NEW YORK CITY SCHOOLS 859 When the bureau was organized we felt that it was necessary at these hearings to have a physical and mental examination made of all the pupils brought before us. After the physical and mental status has been deter- mined and the pupil found to be satisfactory, he is transferred to another class in his own school, or to another school, and placed on probation to see whether the change in environment will prove beneficial. Let me here call your attention to what we consider one of the most important phases of our prevention work — the number of children placed on probation. We have had on probation this year about 5000 children. This does not include those on parole from the truant schools — 583. The attendance officers keep in close touch with the boys on probation and on parole. Here the attendance officer is the big brother, and that is the attitude we wish to maintain. One of the cases reported to us and referred to Dr. Heckman was that of a boy who not only was a truant, but, when he did attend school, was very troublesome. Dr. Heckman's examination showed that his eyesight was very defective. The boy wore glasses, but they were of a character that he should not have been using under any circumstances. As a matter of fact, when he was sitting in the front of the classroom, near the black- board, the glasses he was wearing made the figures on the blackboard indistinguishable . In studying the case of another lad, we found peculiar conditions at home — good surroundings, but with a stepmother and the boy's own father, resulting in a case of "my" children, "your" children, and "our" children. As the father was at home very Uttle, his child was not receiving the atten- tion from the stepmother that he might have received had the father been at home more. The case was referred to us thru the court, inasmuch as one of the attendance officers had found a good home for the child. Now, as to the gang: I mean the gang of older boys — seven teen, eighteen, and nineteen years of age — that induces and seduces the younger boys to play truant, that they may be brought up in the ways of the older gangsters. These gangsters are a very grave danger and menace to the city, and generally speaking, this is where criminality begins. Under a working arrangement between Police Commissioner Woods and our bureau, the police now apprehend any boy of school age found on the streets during school hours, and take him to the nearest public school where he is turned over to one of our attendance officers. This leaves but one other topic to be spoken of: the boy who takes out working papers with no intention of working. As you doubtless know, the Board of Health notifies us of the number, date, and the name of every person to whom working papers are issued. Each case is investigated automatically after ample opportunity has been given to each child to obtain a position. If the child has not secured a position, he must return to school. 86o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special To facilitate an experiment with pupils found on the street with work- ing certificates but not employed, Edward Mandel, principal of Public School 188B, mapt out a course of study along commercial lines, consisting of the following subjects: Commercial arithmetic, commercial EngHsh, stenography, typewriting, ofl&ce practice, civil service, telephone, and transit problems of New York City railway Unes. Six periods of forty minutes each were devoted during the afternoons to teaching the boys the practical use of tools, while a thirty-minute gym- nasium period and a thirty-minute reading period were provided for each day as well. As you can see, prevention rather than punishment is the doctrine of this bureau. THE NEED OF FRESH-AIR CLASSES IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS HARRIET A. TUPPER, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 58, NEW YORK, N.Y. The second annual report on fresh-air classes for anemic children in the public schools of the city of New York contains a letter written by Dr. Gustave Straubenmiiller, now acting city superintendent. In it is this paragraph: While there always will be children who are physically weak and undemourisht, still the time is coming when it will be considered unpardonable in a school administration not to know of the cases and not to make special classroom provisions for them, even if active measures for the removal of the remediable defects be not intrusted to it. The current National Education Association session seems to prove this, as is evidenst by the time and space allotted to special education. We have become not merely administrators of the three R's but keen analysts of the material with which we work. The result is widely differ- entiated methods of educating differing t5rpes. These methods rest in part upon devices to permit of greater comfort for the physically or mentally handicapt, and thru this relief to the body, the mind is able to work nor- mally. " That is the meaning, I take it, of Dr. Straubenmuller's character- ization that it is unpardonable in a school administration not to provide special classrooms for children so handicapt. The supplying of fresh air for all children in school would seem like a first principle of education, but cold fresh air doesn't seem to be very popular with parents, teachers, nor pupils. Yet the over-heated air of most of our homes and the ventilating systems of our most expensive school plants leave much to be desired in the way of betterment. The anemic child needs these changed conditions as is proved by Dr. Woodruff's clear-cut, conclusive reasoning. Then, having provided the fresh, cold air, the proper wraps must follow, while suitable desks and chairs help also. Any form which will insure comfort while sitting, and which may be moved to one side to make room for cots during the resting Department! NEED OF FRESH-AIR CLASSES IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 86 1 periods will suffice. A southern exposure is desirable so that one may have sunshine all day, etc. But how shall we know the cases needing attention of this kind? Must we as principals and teachers also become pathological experts? Not at all. I am sure that physicians, who are always in every community the greatest givers, will give the necessary examinations and aid you in selecting your class. If errors are made, don't worry, because fresh air was never known to hurt even the most vigorous person. The greatest results will be gained from these physical examinations if tonsil and ade- noid operations are performed at once where needed, and the teeth put into a good condition. No child is likely to be permanently benefited by a fresh-air class if he needs an operation, but if the examination results in the removal of remediable defects the school is largely benefited thereby. Perhaps we do not know the result of the ordinary heated classroom on the normal child. Let me tell you of a test made by Dr. Woodruff at Public School No. 107, Manhattan, during the school year of 1911-12. A class of normal children was selected and called a control class; they were as near the average age of the fresh-air class as possible; they were weighed, measured, their blood was tested, and they were fed quite as regularly as the anemic children, whose windows were wide open to the not too gentle breezes from the North River during the entire school year. This was, in fact, the only difference, so far as we were able to control it, that one used an ordinary steam-heated room with ventilation thru windows opened as the teacher felt the need, while the other never closed them and had practically no heat. The results showed that the so-called control class did not gain so much in either weight or height, and that they actually lost 3.48 per cent of haemoglobin, while the anemic children gained 10.2 per cent, thus making a difference of more than 13.5 per cent; in other words, the control class became more anemic while the anemic children became nearly normal. But this was not the only gain made by the anemic children; their ability to study increast, the fatigue point was reacht after longer periods of work, and at the end of the year nearly every child had shown improvement over his previous year's record of promotions. In several cases extra promotions were made. However, the influence of the fresh-air system doesn't stop with the good of the children and the education of the parents. In my opinion a distinct advantage comes to that school where a fresh-air class has been organized thru the broadening influence of the teacher. The real fresh-air teacher is just another kind of missionary. She preaches the doctrine of a perfect body as a temple for a better mind, to her pupils, their parents, and her associates. Inadvertently, perhaps, she drops a word about the wonderful resistance of her class to colds and contagious diseases. Not an absence due to cold nor measles nor other like disease in the entire year, is quite frequently the record. 862 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special SPEECH-IMPROVEMENT DENNIS J. MCDONALD, M.D., FELLOW OF ACADEMY OF MEDICINE, NEW YORK, N.Y. Having for many years been closely associated with our public-school system, I find that the most serious problem that confronts us is the spoken EngHsh of our children. Realizing the paramount necessity for normal speech and having the opportunity for observation and study at close range during my service to the board of education as commissioner for many years, I determined to try to standardize work for all abnormal- speech conditions found in our schools. Speech per se, as a faculty, is not innate in man; every human being is bom speechless. The child gradually learns to speak, and unconsciously speech is developt with other bodily and mental faculties. While means of speech is possest at birth, in its development it is subject to disturbances by disease or other causes. Speech is produced by the prompt cooperation of three great mechanical factors, namely, respiration, vocalization, anci articulation, with which is associated mentation, or the action of the mind. Modern medicine and psychology have put to their credit a notable achievement by the demonstration that defective speech is at bottom a mental rather than a physical disease, where a definite defect of the speech organs does not exist. Children suffering from such a speech defect as stuttering are highly strung or sensitively organized. They are emotional, temperamental, and easily influenst. If nothing is done to correct their condition, thereby estabhshing mental stabiUty, what is the result ? Such children help to fill up our vast army of truants, delinquents, vagrants, and gangsters. From a weak, good-natured child is evolved a child on the road to criminahty. To quote the words of an authority who has had charge of a large home for vagrant boys for the last twelve years: "Ninety per cent of the boys who have past thru my house have suffered from some form of speech defect." This definitely corroborates my former statement, that if these boys had received the proper training and had been cured of their defective speech during their school life, their mental status and environment would have been normal, and it would have been impossible for them to find themselves in their present condition. Instead of undesirable citizens we would have, with the proper care and training, citizens that we all could be proud of. For years teachers of English connected with the various schools and universities have deplored the fact that pure, unalloyed EngHsh speech, viewed from a tonal and enunciatory standard, is fast becoming a lost art. This impulse, no doubt, has been the outcome of the rapidly develop- ing interest in oral composition; so much so that the English teachers are observing in themselves their own deficiencies in tone and utterance. The Department] SPEECH-IMPROVEMENT 863 great necessity is instruction in the fundamentals of speech, that is, careful constructive work in articulation, pronunciation, and production of tone. With poor tone, work upon pronunciation, articulation, phrasing, inter- pretation, etc., is relatively unprofitable because it lacks foundation and will not be assimilated; but when conversation is carried on in tones that comprise the normal male-or-female-speech range, almost all difficulty in improving enunciation or articulation disappears. We naturally must conclude that it is definitely necessary to establish standards for our every- day speech. Conversation should be carried out along male and female tonal range; by that we mean notes comprising the male and female speaking voice. Since the idea is practical, it is therefore possible, and when definite provisions are instituted for the carrying-out of this idea the result will be more than beneficial, for the shrill, harsh rasping, speech that we hear daily will be a thing of the past. A study of speech conditions in our public schools shows that 200,000 of the 800,000 children are foreigners or of foreign extraction, and that 200,000 of the boys and girls are afflicted with stuttering, mumbUng, lisping, or foreign accent. Plans are under consideration whereby the board of education will provide in the very near future for its thousands of children suffering from defective speech, thus wiping out all handicaps and setting a standard for normal American children. A special speech department will be organized, with a medical specialist at its head. Every child with a speech defect will be studied, diagnosed, and prescribed for. If the handicap is caused by some pathological con- dition of the speech organs or by some simple thing like adenoids for example, the cure will be easy. If the cause is more deeply seated the specialist will still be able to deal with it. Each child will be dealt with separately. I am certain that very few cases will be found entirely hope- less. These children will receive special work, exercises, etc., for a certain period every day during school hours, under the care of a teacher who has received proper training and is under the direction of the speciahst of the department. Another important function of the department of speech will be the standardization of English without accent for the foreign-born. The whole matter of teaching English to foreigners has been scandalously neg- lected. It is a strange fact that, with the hordes of foreigners descending upon our shores every year, of whom thousands enter school and attend night school, no one has ever written a textbook on the subject of teaching English. The teachers have workt out their methods, and some of them are good; but we have no standards. To teach Uttle children to speak English is comparatively easy, yet a large number never learn to speak correctly. They acquire a vile patois that is a handicap thru life to them. As for the adult foreign population, one 864 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special knows that there is a large number of voters who cannot speak an intelligible sentence. Graded phonic drills, embracing all the fundamental sounds of the language, will be instituted in the public-school curriculum, so that the daily exercises can be given to every child in order to attain perfect enuncia- tion and correct careless speech or foreign accent. The very Americanization of the foreign citizen is involved in this matter of clear English speech. A good speech, unhampered hy accent, is a requi- site for the highest mental and moral development of the immigrant. The object in view in the treatment of defective speech is not only to correct the defect but to establish normal correct speech; in other words, to create a new standard of speech instead of adding to an old faulty condition. Cure, in this medical age, is like that for other nervous diseases — re- education. These long standing psycho-neuroses are chronic conditions, and only a long and patient training will remove them, so that lungs, voice, Hps, and tongue will again work in harmony. The whole character often has to be reconstructed, the whole inner life reorganized. To cite definitely, defective speech is a distinct form of nervous disease; it can be properly and legally treated by teachers under the guidance of a physician, the treatment being the re-education of the cerebral-speech mechanism, and this re-education is brought about largely thru the accurate physiological use of the vocal organs. In the last forty years extensive strides have been made in the correction of disordered speech thruout Germany, Austria, France, England, and Japan. THE MISSION OF THE SPEECH SPECIALIST JAMES SONNETT GREENE, M.D., DIRECTOR, NEW YORK INSTITUTE FOR SPEECH DEFECTS, NEW YORK, N.Y. Modern medicine has put to its credit a notable achievement by its demonstration that defective speech is at bottom a pathological condition. Speech and its defects have been treated or mistreated by almost everybody, in all walks of life, because, as far back as we can go in our literature, there was someone who needed treatment. The case of Moses is an illustrious example. In following up the literary history of defective speech we find four outstanding periods: (i) from the earliest historical records to the early part of the nineteenth century; (2) from the early part of the nineteenth century to the period of surgical operations; (3) the period of surgical operations, chiefly confined to the year 1841; and (4) from the surgical period to the present day. Judging from the Greek vocabulary, containing as it does a large variety of terms relating to impediments of speech, we are justified in the Department! THE MISSION OF THE SPEECH SPECIALIST 865 conclusion that not a few persons thus afflicted were to be found among the ancient Greeks. The stimulus given to every other art and science by the development of the Greek language seems to have had little or no effect in aiding the sages of ancient Greece to arrive at the formulation of any satisfactory classification of defective speech. The Romans clast stuttering and Hsping with other infirmities and peculiarities. The stutterer and lisper had his special name, halhus hlaesus; so had the squinter, the bandy-legged, and the long-nosed person. But little practical knowledge of these ailments really existed. Operations for defects of speech were performed before, but nothing of a definite nature occurred until 1841, when Dieffenbach announst his opera- tions on the tongue for the cure of defective speech, especially stuttering. Surgical enthusiasm was on, it spread like wildfire over the entire conti- nent. A regular mania took possession of the surgeons of Europe for the cure of defective speech, each one of note claiming to be the inventor of a new modification of some previous operation. The methods were generally arran'ged by nationalities, the Germans following Dieffenbach; the French, Velpean; the EngHsh, Yearsley and Braid. Nearly two hundred cases in France alone submitted to the operation in the course of the year. At the end of the year a cry of warning was raised, and those who had tried the experiment found the courage to acknowledge their grave error. Following this surgical period pedagogic methods came into vogue and were carried out by teachers both abroad and here; for teachers connected with the various schools and universities deplored the fact that pure, un- alloyed speech was fast becoming a lost art, and this gave a great impetus to all manner of didactic methods. At about the same time a realization of psychic influences necessitating counteracting suggestions came into style especially for the relief of stuttering. Psycho-analysists for awhile were very busy; their fundamental argu- ment was that stuttering like all phobias and obsessions, was caused by a psychic complex which is endowed with extremely intense emotions and inhibitions, and, therefore, possesses so impelling a power that it forces the patient to be more or less under its influence. The physical and psychic symptoms of defective speech are merely projections of the conflicts piled up in the emotional complex. According to my classification there is the phanerogenetic stutterer and the cryptogenetic stutterer. The cr)^to- genetic stutterer is the incurable wanderer who needs medical scientific treatment. Those were the cases that Mr. Albert Gutzmann was unable to cure and also those are the cases which are not cured today by most of those engaged in defective-speech work. At the university clinic at Berhn it was definitely demonstrated by Professor Herman Gutzmann that defective-speech children are sick children. Lispers usually had some pathological condition of the peripheral- 866 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special end organs of speech. Stutterers usually had a central involvement which required extensive medical examination to diagnose and classify. A speech speciaUst of America bears out the pathological contention by citing that 97 per cent of looo cases of stuttering that came under his observation had some pathological condition that required medical treatment; and in about 38 per cent of the cases, surgical treatment of some form or other had to be resorted to. Hysteria is not an organic disease, there being no involvement of the peripheral organs, of the spinal cord, nor of the medulla. It is a disease of the mind, using the term "mind" scientifically as being the product of certain "unknown alterations of the cerebral cells," and representing the highest functions of the brain. It has been called a "psychologic dis- aggregation," a "psychologic lesion," a "disease of the personality." In any case it is very real, very distressing, and worthy of our best attention. All vocal sounds are produced by coordinate action of the phonatory respiratory mechanism. The independent action of each of these two mechanisms may be apparently excellent, but if for any reason their co- ordinate action is not possible there can be no vocal sounds or phonation. We may then have loss of voice with no paralysis whatsoever of the vocal cords nor any of the intrinsic muscles of the larnyx. The case seen was that of a child about nine years old who for two years never spoke above a whisper. On examination by means of the laryngoscope the true state of the vocal cords was revealed. An application of the internal faradic brush was sufficient to remove the anaesthesia of the larynx. A great barrier in the way of mental development is the lack of power of expression, and it is universally conceded that until the faculty of speech is establisht no man can ever become a useful citizen. Efficiency and ease seem to go together as a characteristic of mental strength and economy. "Living at the tips of one's nerves" thru an impediment of speech tends to develop vicious circles of nervous instability resulting in an increase of criminals, prostitutes, and general failures. Pathologic conditions which render the nasal passages impervious and at the same time interfere with the proper adjustment of the palatal muscles are most detrimental to the singing and speaking voice. A voice, to be pleasing, must have its tone vibrations, which are produced by the action of the vocal cords on the expiratory blast, reinforst by sound waves from the cavities of the chest and head. The nose and accessory sinuses play a very important part as vocal resonators. The resonant element acting on the fundamental tone produced by the larynx develops overtones which gives color or timber to vocal sound. The following are the most frequent pathologic intranasal conditions which interfere with the functions of the nose and accessory sinuses, and either directly or indirectly with voice and speech: deviations of the nasal septum, hypertrophy or hyper- Department] WHAT IS A "SPEECH CLINIC?" 867 plasia of turbinates, polypoid growths, and adenoids. When present, these conditions can be eUminated on proper diagnosis and treatment, and speech that was muffled, loose, and unmusical, changes to speech that is pleasing and melodious. May we not hope that thru the cooperation of education and medicine in the task of curing disorders of speech the new generation will go forth better equipt in this battle of life ? WHAT IS A ''SPEECH CLINIC?'' MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL, BOSTON, MASS. During the last school year I traveled some two thousand miles and visited over twenty-five cities for the purpose of ascertaining what methods were used for the improvement of speech in the public schools. I found the methods as numerous as were the cities visited. On the basis of my observations, I attempted to formulate an ideal method of attacking the problem. This survey, reflection, and formulation have resulted in what I call ^'speech cHnic." A speech cUnic consists of three departments: a superintendent, a physician, and a teacher. From my experience in making this extensive survey, I have come to the conclusion that the problem cannot be ade- quately solved unless all three of these individuals take part. Let us briefly consider the function of each. 1. The superintendent's proper sphere is to view the whole ground in a general and supervising manner. He should not be expected to be thoroly conversant with the medical diagnosis of the physician, nor should he be expected to be conversant with all the detailed methods of training employed by the teacher, but he should be acquainted in a general way with both these sides of the subject, so as to be able to direct the others in the general trend of their work. The superintendent likewise should have a general supervision over the whole problem in the schools — a wider field of activity than doctor or teacher should be allowed to assume. The doctor can examine and diagnose cases brought to him, the teacher can take these over and treat them edu- cationally. The superintendent, on the other hand, should be the one to organize the flow of patients to the doctor thru his general management of principals and other teachers. The superintendent's special function is general supervision of the whole field of work. 2. The special function of the physician in the speech clinic is to make diagnoses on cases referred to him. Of course he should treat those cases himself which he sees demand medical care, culUng out, from those the teacher presents, the cases that have some element in their make-up that 868 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special decidedly marks them as subjects for medical treatment. Such cases, for example, are feeble-mindedness in its markt forms, decided jaw-deformities, and latent nervous or psychiatric conditions. The chief service that the physician can render the teacher is in finding organic causes of speech defect, or in stating clearly that there are none. A good illustration of this was a case that was brought to me. A teacher had given a boy constant and intensive vocal drill. The results were nil. The teacher, in despair askt me what should be done in the way of further treatment. After an examination taking about an hour, a diagnosis of congenital syphiHs was made. The teacher was told that if the case had been brought first to the doctor he would have been able to tell her that nothing could be done for the case, and she would have been saved the tedious three months of drill. This is a good illustration of how the doctor can save, thru his diagnosis, the energy and valuable time of the teacher. The teacher's activities in the speech chnic should be confined to edu- cational remedial and corrective work. In a word, she should apply treat- ment. To summarize, the speech clinic consists of three individuals with three functions: superintendent, doctor, and teacher; supervision, diagnosis, and treatment. TONE AND HEARING GEORGE B. MCAULEFFE, M.D., NEW YORK, N.Y. Sound is a mental result originating from certain changes in the ear and brain due to vibrations. Vibration is the basis of tone. The human ear appreciates vibrations from i6 to 48,000 per second. The musical ear may hear as high as 54,000. Insects hear still higher. The human ear limit is ordinarily 11 octaves, but for practical purposes 7 octaves suffice. Vibration less than those producing sound, help in instructing the deaf. The totally deaf may feel vibrations more keenly than do those with normal hearing. In fact, its appreciation becomes developt almost into a separate sense. This likewise explains a form of deafness called paracousis willisu in which the afflicted persons can hear conversation in a noisy room or on a train, while they are very deaf to the same conversation carried on in a quiet room. Here the vibrations seem to carry on to the sensorium the fighter tones of speech and make the latter more audible. Unfortunately this form of deafness is of bad omen, as to the recovery of hearing. Again, the deaf are more deaf to foreign languages than to their own, and to strange voices than to those of their family. Hearing is subjective and objective. This explains why voices are so different m intensity and pitch in the deaf. A person with catarrhal or conduction deafness hears his own voice loudly because it cannot escape easily from his clogged ears. He therefore speaks very low imagining that Department] SPEECH -IMPROVEMENT IN THE CHICAGO SCHOOLS 869 he is speaking loud enough. His subjective hearing is louder than his objective. A person with nerve deafness does not hear his voice well on account of his damaged internal ear or brain. He thus talks loudly so that others may hear. Aprosexia is that condition of mental cloudiness or phlegmatic stupidity which is often thought to be inattention. It is, in fact, due to the with- drawal of the deaf individual from participation in mental activity because he finds he does not hear and therefore will not try. It is found particu- larly in those who have adenoids. The mental rebound is surprising on removal of the growths and the restoration of the hearing. There are two kinds of deafness — conduction, generally catarrhal, arid nerve deafness. The former is caused by a swelling of the eustachian tube. As only one person in four has normal hearing we can see that many musi- cians may be partially deaf. The musical ear is one of fine auditory memory. The one great fault of hygiene productive of more aural trouble than any other is violently blowing the nose. This act carries into the ear infection as in grippe and salt-water bathing. It causes inflammation and swelling of the eustachian tube. I think that apart from the visitations of systematic diseases which unfortunately select the ear as a field for their activity, like cerebrospinal meningitis, preventive medicine has rendered probable a better race of hearers, and consequently a better race of speakers. SPEECH-IMPROVEMENT IN THE CHICAGO PUBLIC SCHOOLS MISS LYON, DEPARTMENT OF CORRECTION OF DEFECTIVE SPEECH, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. The work is classified into two divisions: (i) the major, stuttering; and (2) the minor, all other defects. The method used depends entirely upon the individual, the subject must be studied. For a typical case of stuttering, one method, outlined along four points, is used, tho the work is necessarily still somewhat tentative. This outline consists of (i) correct breathing, (2) relaxation, (3) rhythm, and (4) the development of self-confidence. About five minutes are devoted to silent deep breathing, in varying positions, and three or four minutes for silent relaxation, to gain poise. The system centers around the vowels, as it is believed that the great difficulty lies with these. After the deep breathing a vowel is given and sustained as long as possible. Then the tip-of-the-tongue sounds — /, d, I, n — are combined with the vowels. There is great value in the correct use of rhythm, tho the children should not be taught to talk to a beat. Nursery rhymes are used, at first strongly accented, then nearer the normal. 870 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special The old woman and the sixpence is a rhyme frequently used, as the words, "story," and "rhythm" all appeal, tho perhaps the actual story part is a Httle forst as regards some of the children. With older children, poems, stories, and discussions are used. SPEECH WORK IN THE DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS MRS. FRANK A. REED, PRINCIPAL, REED SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. In the Detroit public schools the child is sent to a speciahst for speech- improvement work half a day, twice a week, and then returned to the teacher with instructions as to how he is to read and recite. Stress is laid on the importance of relaxation, on correct, that is, natural, breathing. After this the next step is relaxation on outgoing breath. As speech is given during exhalation, speech therefore is given during relaxation. Stammerers and stutterers strain when talking — they are at a tension; it is important to try to teach them relaxation. The children can be taught to help themselves toward correct breathing and speaking, by being shown the "geography" of the speech organs — both normal conditions and deviations. Then comes the blending; the continuous production of a vowel, an easy start, and a continuous production. The psychological side is also studied, and the children are helpt to develop self-control and self-reliance; to eliminate fear and the fear of talking. Knowledge dissipates fear; when the child knows how he will not be afraid. At the beginning of this work in Detroit, at the first survey, there were found three hundred and fifty children; but it has since been found that many children hitherto considered as stubborn, or backward, shy or poor spellers, were children with defective, speech. All the teachers are now taking interest in this work. THE NEED OF SPEECH WORK IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS ALMA M. BULLOWA, HUNTER COLLEGE, NEW YORK, N.Y. Unfortunately, here in New York we cannot even lay claim to correct- speech standards! New York, unlike Boston, is a place and not a condition, and indeed it is because it is so many places — Httle Italy, Httle Russia, Httle Ireland, Httle Poland — that there is no standard of correctly spoken EngHsh, that we speak, not one dialect, but many; and that it is the most difficult thing in the world for an educated adult to keep his standard— to maintain a purity of language against the corruptions of the majority in the streets. Eternal vigilance is the price of pure EngHsh! Department] NEED OF SPEECH WORK IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS 871 In Hunter College High School the percentage of American-born students is rather greater than in most of the city's high schools, and there- fore the following statistics must be considered as significant. Of our students 10 per cent are of foreign birth, while 50 per cent speak a language other than EngHsh in their homes! There are, of course, numbers of students who do not speak acceptable English, but unless they speak a foreign tongue, I have not classified them as belonging to the 50 per cent who do not speak English at home. Those who speak Yiddish or German predominate, and this will be seen to have a great influence upon both vocal and speech habits, since the low- lying tongue of the Yiddish or German conditions the type of both voice and speech in the English of these students. I have met, in the course of the past two and one-half years in our high schools, students who speak in their homes and home neighborhoods, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Russian, Hungarian, Roumanian, French, Itahan, Spanish, and pure Hebrew, and who have, in consequence, but little time to accustom either their speech apparatus or their ears to the speech which is merely adopted. They speak English with every variety and degree of foreign influence apparent, and they do so " with an air," quite placidly, as if to say, '^ The mannerism of my particular English makes it mine individually and especially, therefore, it is well." Moreover, unless the student is directed by a specialist who can say that the fault lies just here, or there, that the difficulty lies in con- fusion of tonics, or in false speech melody, for example, it is almost impos- sible for the bewildered one to find a path in the maze of her linguistic difficulties. But not alone to the foreign-born or to those who speak a foreign language at home can we ascribe the deteriorated condition of our language. It is the fault equally of those who are native-born, and who are insensible of their responsibility to be well-spoken, as well as to be well-drest, well- mannered, and well-read. There is no good reason why the high, shrill tones of the boy Americana ■ should be a by- word among the nations; and that such a condition should H exist when our growing love of music causes us to provide public concerts H in our city parks and to increase the number of hours devoted to music B in our high schools and college curricula is a veritable paradox. It is almost H time for us to realize that the human vocal instrument is worth using H correctly, and that if it is worth while gpending hours in an attempt to ■ get beautiful sounds from such man-made instruments as the piano and the H violin, it is a sad abuse of the God-made instrument to neglect its develop- H ment altogether. H The average of students afflicted with the several types of nasality is H 20 per cent; of those whose voices are abnormally high, 18 per cent; of B those whose voices are throaty, 10 per cent. Every variety of ineffectively 8y2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special class, and by training the students along the simplest lines to use and con- trol the breath, many seeming miracles have been accomplisht. The strong and useful voice has replaced the inaudible, weak one that was due to lack of muscular control; the purified free tone has been substituted for the tight, constricted one; the high shrill voice — too often entirely lacking in resonance — has given place to the lower, fuller one. The average high-school girl can be heard abusing the language at any time in the street cars or elsewhere. She is slovenly and incorrect in so many varieties of form that one might say, without exaggeration, that loo per cent of the high-school students require speech work. In the past two years and six months I have met with students who stutter and stammer (or who have a tendency to stammer) ; with those who lisp in varied forms, with the hist ^, the faulty "ng" (which exists in 15 per cent of our students), the r, false blends, inability to make certain combinations of speech sounds, mistaken tonics, confusion of the sub-tonics and a-tonics, and these are merely some of the general problems which confront one in high-school speech classes. First there is the lack of standard! Our students have never been taught to listen to themselves nor to others. No correct standard has been set either at home or in school, and the beauty and usefulness of acceptable English has never been pointed out. They are in the condition of the deaf with the excuse of the deaf. Their own ugly, raucous tones disturb them as little as do the grating sounds of the car wheels or trucks, or the other melodies of the noisy city streets. I have askt a class at the beginning of its work in "oral English" to characterize a good voice, and invariably the sole characteristic specified js that it should be low. It is the ideal by contrast to those voices which they generally hear — high and shrill and penetrating — since so few realize that it is easier to speak thru noise than above it. In order to acquire the low ''ladyhke" voice which high-school students believe suits their condition, as opposed to the shrill shout of ele- mentary-school days, many students close their mouths, and inaudibihty and nasality result. On the other hand, one student who was askt to com- ment upon Miss Mathison's voice in 'Xaliban," said that she didn't like it, because it was so low and different from other voices that it made her feel she wasn't on earth at all. A vocal standard inust be estabUsht, if not earher, at least in the high school. But the elementary-school course is already overcrowded; there is an overwhelming amount of work to be done, and under the present con- ditions special speech work for those very defective is the best solution of the problem that the average school has to offer. I was talking with a young teacher the other day, and she assured me that there was no time to stop a reading lesson for the dropt t or d — it was not sufficiently important. I askt her what she did if a child's voice was very unpleasant, and she said that she didn't notice that, as a rule, and, if she did, she wouldn't say anything, since the poor child might cry. I askt her what she did if the Department] SPEECH-CORRECTION AS A SCHOOL PROBLEM 873 child of Italian birth or parentage confused the / and tf, and said"ditn't"; and she said she always tried to make the children hear the difference; while in the case of the faulty "ng," she told the children to drop the g. Setting the standard, however, is only one-half of the work of the high schools, and that which is more important remains to be discust. We must see to it that our students accept the standard, that they form habits which are practical working habits of voice and speech. There is a false conception abroad, which is due to the old prejudice against "elocution" as it was taught a half-century ago, as it is taught today, tho (and be it spoken gratefully), not generally. Many of our students, however, have conceived such a prejudice to being taught how to speak, to what they think must be artificiality, that the notion must be combated before real progress can be secured. " My voice is natural," they say, tho at the same time admitting that it is disagreeable, "and were I to speak this new way, people would laugh and say that I was trying to put on airs." There are a hundred ways of demonstrating that the voice or speech which is undesirable is habitual, but not natural, that it is no more natural than any pathological condition for the cure or correction of which the medical man is consulted. The best and surest way of establishing the supreme importance of good voice and correct speech will be for the high-school teachers of EngHsh to reahze their error in continuing to place the emphasis upon the written, and not the spoken, word. In this age of specialization a man could very well get along without being able to write or to spell. There are stenographers, and secretaries and printed postal cards with ready-to-use sentiments, and these accomplish all such mechanical matters for him, much as did the scribes and scriveners of old, but a man must talk for himself! SPEECH-CORRECTION AS A SCHOOL PROBLEM JOHN r. REIGART, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL, NO. 1 66, NEW YORK, N.Y. There should be no assumption that speech-correction is merely a school problem; it should be also a social, a medical, a psychological problem. There is also the assumption that the child, when entering school, is ready to learn written language. As a fact, children at this stage have a very imperfect use of spoken language, occasionally none at all. It has been found, in the study of the teaching of reading, that the child needs appreciative ideas. The new analysis will lead to phonetics, rhythm, breathing, tone-production, and phrasing. Not only the correction of gross defects, but the refinement of speech should be in the hands of the grade teacher, not of the specialist. The teacher should know something about the various organs used — not for purposes of diagnosis, but to understand more of the relationship between the function and the organ performing the function. She should 8y4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Special be trained in phonetics — how speech is formed, not "notebook" phonetics, but motor, for speech is action. She should know the psychology of speech. The teacher must have a knowledge of physiology, of psychology, and of phonetics; and for special cases she must have special training. The child should receive special inspection, medical supervision and aid if needed, and should be assisted by the hygienist, neurologist, and psychiatrist. ORAL DEJpORMITIES IN THEIR RELATION TO DEFECTIVE SPEECH VETHAKE E. MITCHELL, D.D.S., NEW YORK, N.Y. In presenting this subject for your consideration, let me call your atten- tion to the necessity, in the correction of speech defects by training first to diagnose the cause. Much effort is often wasted in an attempt to im- prove the speech where the speech mechanism is defective. You could hardly expect to get full power from the engine in your motor car, if one or more of the cylinders were out of commission. So also in the case of a cleft palate, a part of the speech mechanism is missing, creating an impossible condition for much improvement, without first resorting either to surgical or to mechanical interference. The mechanism by which articulate sounds are produced is a very com- plex one. First, we have the vocal cords;, and of course the lungs which, acting as a bellows, furnish the current of air to make the cords vibrate. Above the cords are the laryngeal, pharyngeal, the oral, and the nasal cavities, all of which are resonance chambers which, by their muscular arrangement, are capable of being changed in size and shape, and can thus be attuned to the pitch of the sound produced by the vibration of the vocal cords. Without these resonance chambers the vibration of the cords alone would give but a feeble and disagreeable sound. In the oral cavity we sometimes have deformed dental arches, teeth not in their normal arrangement and alignment — that are very apparent; in other cases, while the teeth are so abnormal in position that their func- tions are greatly interfered with, still the deformity is hardly noticeable. It can readily be seen that with such conditions, speech must be more or less affected. The narrowed arches and high vault to the roof of the mouth interfere with the movements of the tongue, which affect the speech. Again, the palate is one of the most important organs of speech. Its functions are concerned in the forming of the tone of the voice by regulating the shape and size of the resonance chambers, and by closing off the nasal passages in the emission of certain sounds. This being impossible to a greater or less extent in cleft-palate cases, speech is very defective and has that peculiar quality which all can recognize. Department! TEE ECONOMIC VALUE OF SPEECH-CORRECTION 875 THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF SPEECH-CORRECTION IRA S. WILE, MEMBER, NEW YORK CITY BOARD OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. The political economist might object to the title, "The Economic Value of Speech-Correction," on the grounds that speech is not wealth, but merely one of the means of acquiring wealth. Technically speaking, value is a power which an article confers upon its possessor of commanding in exchange for itself the labor or the product of labor of others. The degree of efficiency of labor depends upon many causes, including the physical organization and the mental equipment of the laborer. Obviously, the most vital phase of speech-improvement lies in the organization of elementary-school instruction and methodology, so that bad speech habits may be checkt during the school life of children. The prevention of speech defects, in so far as slipshod teaching is responsible for them, is a large field which has scarcely received adequate cultivation. Recognizing the social economic value of speech, it is patent that the attainment of fluent unimpaired habits of speaking represents a distinct gain to the community. The value, therefore, of speech-correction would be represented by the saving of the community of expenditures now involved as a result of existent or future speech defects. It is exceedingly difficult to estabUsh with even approximate mathematical precision the economic cost of speech defects. In this country data are not available to determine the total number of persons suffering from speech defects. All speech defects represent abnormaUties. In a wide sense abnormal children are "those afflicted with anything whatever that unfavorably affects their lives in relation to the social medium in which they live." Consequently speech defects represent abnormalities which, per se, Umit the possibilities of children and adults to realize to the utmost their potential power for uniting in the activities of the world. Speech defectives and particularly stutterers are hkely to be backward and even retarded in their school work, altho there are many who main- tain excellent positions as measured by ordinary standards of school pro- gress. The large proportion of stutterers, probably 50 per cent, could be prevented by adequate provision for improvement in methods of school instruction. A large proportion of the stutterers are curable. Speech-improvement in schools is productive of the saving which may be secured thru preventing, what Fletcher, of Clark University, referred to as "the leakage of energy" on the part of both teacher and class which ensues during the attempted recitation of a stutterer. Systematic speech- improvement classes save the time of the teacher and th^ class. They promote more rapid progress and secure more concentrated attention upon the subject-matter being taught, by preventing the diversion of attention to the peculiarities of the individual child who is reciting. 876 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special The majority of speech defects are combined with defects of vision, hearing, muscular coordination or cerebral maldevelopments. Of the twenty million children in this country it has been estimated that 5 per cent have impaired hearing and 25 per cent have impaired sight. It has been adjudged that some impediment in speech exists in 3 per cent of the school children. There is no differentiation, however, so far as I have been able to ascertain, as to the nature of these various impediments. Studies in speech-correction may indicate in numerous instances that stuttering has been increast by an attempt to make sinistrals dextrals; and the speech defect thus resulting may actually serve to impair the indus- trial progress of the child for the sake of securing uniformity in classroom methods. Experience in our own schools has demonstrated that stuttering and lisping children may be restored to normal speech and participate with naturalness and greater effectiveness in the work of their classes. It has been estimated that one in every 2400 of the population in the United States is a deaf-mute. This indicates that there are about 37,500 deaf-mutes in the United States. This indicates that the mere cost of education in the state institutions for all of these deaf-mutes costs approxi- mately twelve million dollars per annum. Recognizing the industrial limitations of those suffering from speech defects and appreciating the obstacles to professional life, their undesir- abiUty as teachers, their handicaps as physicians, their hmitations as plead- ing lawyers, and their impossibility as preachers, it is but natural that we should seek to preserve or secure their potential utility by restoring to them the normal-speech function. Another economic gain is to be secured thru speech-correction in the prevention of industrial accidents. The relation of speech defects to the cost of industrial accidents has been hinted at in those reports which attribute a part of the accidents to the inabiUty of employes to speak the prevailing language of the factory, mine, or shop. There are numerous positions where quick utterance is required and in which stuttering might and does jeopardize the Hves of fellow-workmen in times of emergency. The importance of discouragement, anxiety, family distress, embarrass- ment, difl&dence, and shyness upon the development of high moral character cannot be estimated. Wherefore, among delinquents, speech deficiencies are noted with greater frequency than among the normal population. In the ordinary public-school system the educational cost for correcting speech defects had not been estimated. A special teacher is necessary, an ungraded class is important. The development of normal speech must be facihtated thru personal analysis of the underlying causes of the speech deficiency. Well may we paraphrase the statement of Dr. Caroline Yale to the instructors of the deaf, "The plea now should be, not for more speech, but for better speech." The plea should now be for more speech, for better speech, and the prevention of speech defects. Department] SELECTION OF CHILDREN FOR SPECIAL CLASSES 877 THE PRINCIPAL'S POINT OF VIEW OF THE SELECTION OF CHILDREN FOR SPECIAL CLASSES MARGARET KNOX, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 1 5, NEW YORK, N.Y. Someone has said that "a teacher is a discoverer of girls and boys, dis- covering their powers and latent possibilities." I should like to add for the theme of the discussion this morning: " Discovering also their lack of powers and latent possibilities of the better kind, and devising ways and means for making up for this lack." You, a body of teachers, do not need that I tell you what the usual pro- cedure is in a classroom when the principal comes in. You know only too well how the teacher immediately takes an inventory of the possibilities of her class and the means of best showing o£E her work. If it is reading the principal asks for, the teacher calls a child in a certain part of the room, and row after row proceeds. You will find child after child standing forth under the scrutiny of the principal's supervising eye and reading without a mistake, fluently, understandingly. So it is with number work, rapid-drill question and answer come tumbling forth like a long, steady volley of artillery fire — quick and correct. Then the principal says, "Begin your next series of questions here," pointing to quite a different part of the room, or singling out some child not yet called upon. The teacher's face falls and she says, "Oh, you need not look for much there; that is my third group; I don't expect anything of them"; "Those children are not going to be promoted"; or, "These are the hold-overs of last term." Or, perhaps she will ask that this child be excused as she is very nervous, or that this one be not askt anything, as he seldom answers, and when he does he speaks so thickly and then grows hysterical. As I look at them I see the vacant stare, or the childish, beseeching glance of questioning which says to the principal, "Why am I in the third group ? Why can I not answer like the smart boys ? Why does the teacher always call those children when visitors come in ? I should like to do things, too. Why can't I do them? Why doesn't the teacher like me? Why does she always talk about me to other teachers and to the principal when promotion time comes ? Why do they say you won't like this boy, he is not fit for promotion ; he is going on, but he shouldn't." All these questions well up in the eyes of this little child (and the eyes bespeak the heart of the child always), so young and already so disappointed. The monthly report cards of all children having an "A" record are given out by the principal from the platform before the assembled school. Here we get the necessary impetus for the spirit of emulation -that sets the normal child toward the goal of winning the best record in the class. At the other end of the class are found these derelicts of whom I have already spoken. These, too, have record cards, of a special kind. We call 878 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special them the "Deficient Record." Each teacher is askt to send to the office a card for every child who is so deficient in the work of the month that, in her estimation, he is not fit for the class. On this card there is a space large enough to give in detail an account of the deficiencies and their causes — arithmetic, lacking in accuracy; foundation in tables weak; no reasoning powers, therefore problem-work poor. With these deficient cards before her, the principal, always in her office, consults the teacher and singles out those for whose deficiency there is a cogent excuse, such as prolonged absence, serious* illness and consequent physical weakness for the time being, mischievousness and consequent inattention in school, lack of preparation of home lessons, etc. These the teacher can explain readily, and, by means of a reprimand administered in the classroom by the principal and the card sent as a message to the parents, the deficiency may be soon changed into a proficiency report. The first-year teacher remembers one child as a hopeless case, one of the third-group "dunces" who was a drag on her class for one, or perhaps two, whole terms and knew nothing after all, altho she had workt harder with this one boy than with a dozen bright boys. Then comes the conference with the parent. At first the parent will not admit that there is any cause for this backwardness, particularly if the deficient child is the oldest of her family. She has not yet had experience of comparing the ability of this child with others having the same opportunities. But in this consultation with the parent how often the cause of the defect comes to light: the child who has had a bad fall; who was terribly shockt by finding her mother dead, a suicide; the child who was born while the mother was suffering from a temporary fit of insanity, etc. About two years ago I examined very carefully, at the end of February, the first month of the term, the "deficient cards" sent by the teachers of all the first- and second-year classes. After the eliminating process described above, by conference with all the teachers of the children since entering school, and with the parents, we selected twenty boys and girls, the slow, or retarded, or naughty, or most defective little ones — call them by what name you will. At all events they were "derelicts" even at this early age. These children we put in charge of a fine kindergarten teacher and gave them the use of the kindergarten room for one session of each day. The , plan of organization was that this kindergartner should apply all her fine kindergarten methods and Montessori methods in teaching these children in the primary-grade subjects, especially drilling by these objective and manual methods the three "R's" — reading, writing, and arithmetic. This work was done every morning, and in the afternoon the class separated into age groups or grade groups and was dispersed among all the regular primary classes where the teachers gave them opportunity to take part in all the work of their classes and reported to the teacher of the special class just where the greatest weakness presented itself or where improve- Department] DIAGNOSIS OF FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS 879 ment was notist when working with the normal child. This was all done in a pleasurable way, as, for example, a trolley ride. to the oculist or to the Neurological Institute and a little outing in the park by the way so that the children became perfectly docile and were ready to study. The lack of ability in the academic subjects should lead the teachers to try to interest their slow, stupid children in the outside activities of the school. Get them into the athletic clubs; swimming and dancing may be easy for them; there they may excel. The glee club may make a special appeal to the child with a voice, but not much brains. The girl who cannot get more than 50 per cent of her class work done may be 100 per cent in ability to manage the class and be the housekeeper if her teacher is off duty for an hour or a day. The chief thing in all this selection of children for special classes is to keep the individual child from feeling the hurt of his own weakness until he is safely past the parting of the ways, one of which leads to delinquency and suffering, and the other to plodding contentment in doing something well, no matter how lowly the work may be, and eventually to earning his own living. Until recent years we have felt that our work as teachers was well done if, after a term of painstaking work, we past to the next grade 75 per cent, 80 per cent, 90 per cent of our pupils. We patted ourselves on the back and closed our door at the end of the year feeling that there was nothing more required of us. I am so thankful that there has come in these later days the new thought- fulness, not for the successful 80 per cent past, but for the unsuccessful remnant. The new thought for these is not to make them part of the suc- cessful 80 per cent, but to make 100 per cent of them successful along quite different Hnes. THE BINET SCALE AND THE DIAGNOSIS OF FEEBLE- MINDEDNESS LEWIS M. TERMAN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL. It has seemed to the writer that some of the publisht criticisms of the Binet method have lackt something in spirit of fairness in that they have shown a tendency to make capital out of certain defects and inadequacies of the method which are as fully recognized by its qualified champions as by anyone else. In certain instances these criticisms have taken on a tone which is unnecessarily destructive and which occasionally suggests impu- tations and implications not overtly asserted. Contentious articles of this sort are misleading to the lay reader, and by magnifying the differences of opinion supposed to exist among the leaders they inevitably tend to create an unwarranted attitude of suspicion toward cHnical pyschology generally. 88o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special From some of these articles the lay reader might very well make the follow- ing inferences: (i) that most of the psychologists who use the Binet scale beHeve it to be a perfect instrument of measurement; (2) that they believe its use in the diagnosis of feeble-mindedness renders unnecessary any con- sideration of medical, neurological, or sociological data concerning the subject; (3) that they regard the degree of intelligence, as determined by the scale, as the sole measure of the subject's fitness to be at large; (4) that they deliberately encourage persons without psychological training to under- take research with mental tests; (5) that the infallible criterion of feeble- mindedness, in the adult subject, is failure to pass the twelve-year tests. Let us consider the points given above in order: 1. Does the system of tests left ug by Binet measure the inteUigence with perfect accuracy ? It is safe to say that no psychologist in the United States nor Europe believes that it does. Binet himseK did not, nor do those who have had most to say in advocacy of the Binet method, including Meumann, Stern, Bobertag, Huey, Kuhlmann, Goddard, and the writer. All of the persons mentioned above, the late Dr. Huey excepted, have made investigations for the purpose of correcting some of the grossest imper- fections of the scale, and we have no reason to believe that a single one of these considers his own revision as perfectly satisfactory. It is no reflection upon other workers to say that until very recently the Binet system of tests was the only ready means of making even an approximate estimate of the mental level of a subject. Scores of other good tests were floating around, but because they had not been standard- ized they were of very limited value. 2. Do psychologists who use the Binet tests countenance the failure to utilize medical, neurological, sociological, and other supplementary data ? It is not to be denied, of course, that there are some differences of opinion as regards the relative amount of stress which should be placed upon the evidence from these different sources in the diagnosis of indi- vidual cases. The divergent practices here are a natural result of the different purposes for which a diagnosis may be made. It so happens that the thing most desired in the large majority of diagnoses is correct guid- ance as to educational and social treatment. The mental capacities are to be evaluated with the end in view of determining the subject's educational, social, and vocational possibihties. Altho even here all the obtainable medical and neurological data should be utihzed as a matter of course, it can hardly be denied that this aspect of the problem is in most cases essen- tially a psychological one. 3. Do psychologists who defend the Binet method disregard the extra- intellectual mental traits as codetermmants of a subject's social fitness or educational possibilities ? They do not. Critics of the Bmet tests have no special nor prior claim to credit for insisting on the importance of emo- tional, volitional, or moral traits as factors in determining social fitness. Department] DIAGNOSIS OF FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS 88 1 Over and over again, by Binet himself and by Meumann, Stern, Huey, Kuhlmann, and the writer, the necessity of taking account of the extra- intellectual factors has been urged. 4. Do adherents of the Binet method hold that Binet testers who have not had extensive psychological training should be encouraged to attempt psychological diagnosis of the feeble-minded? So many psychologists — chiefly those out of the clinical field — have taken their fling at amateur testers, that one would suppose the followers of Binet had sinned most grievously in this respect. Their record, however, is absolutely clear on this point. Even those who have gone farthest in encouraging the wider use of the Binet tests have asserted explicitly that only the trained psy- chologist should be permitted to make a real diagnosis. To go farther, however, and to demand that no one shall make use of inteUigence-tests who has not had several years of undergraduate and postgraduate training in the usual lines of academic psychology, would be a serious and absurd mistake. As a matter of fact, there is no argument in favor of limiting the use of intelligence-tests to trained psychologists which does not apply equally well in the case of pedagogical tests like those of Courtis, Ayres, Thorndike, etc. These tests, fortunately for education, teachers are specifically urged to make use of. 5, Do the responsible psychologists who use the Binet scale mechanic- ally apply an automatic criterion in the diagnosis of f eeble-mindedness ? This question has already been answered in what we have said regarding the general agreement as to the desirability of taking into account medical and other data. The writer does not for a moment suppose that those who proposed this standard ever meant that it should be rigidly and mechanically applied. The misunderstanding comes largely from the fact that the term "f eeble-mindedness" is currently used in two very different senses. In one sense it refers to the possession of no more than a certain degree of mental — chiefly intellectual — capacity as measured by some objective scale. This is the psychological definition. As more commonly employed,, the term "feeble-minded" has reference primarily to those who, because of inherent or early acquired mental weakness, cannot get on in the world, those who "cannot compete on equal terms with their fellows," or "cannot manage themselves nor their affairs with ordinary prudence." This is the social criterion, which received definite formulation by the Royal College of Physicians, London. These two criteria, the psychological and the social, cannot be used interchangeably, for the reason that ability to get on in the world depends upon many things besides absolute mental capacity, such g,s health, looks, bearing, muscular strength, inherited wealth, sympathetic friends, eco- nomic and industrial conditions, the prevailing level of inteUigence in those with whom the subject must compete, etc. The social criterion is attractive 882 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special and plausible only so long as it remains unanalyzed. It is far too shifting and indefinite to serve as a working concept in science. The expression "manage themselves or their affairs with ordinary prudence" is doubly vague, neither "ordinary" nor "affairs" having any definite nor constant meaning. The "affairs" of a youth who inherits large properties and social position are hardly comparable in difficulty of management with the "affairs" of a youth in many other kinds of social environment. "Ordinary prudence" varies according to the social group and may have a dozen different meanings within a radius of as many miles. The difficulty in "managing one's affairs" not only varies in the different strata of society at a given time; it also varies enormously from period to period in the economic and social evolution of a country. It is the writer's conviction that the standard cannot be placed higher without including among the intellectually feeble too many who could hardly be clast, by any reasonable standard, as socially feeble. Practically it would be a still more serious mistake to go too far in the opposite direction, for one of the desirable ends of psychological work with abnormal? is to raise the popular standards as to what constitutes feeble-mindedness. This standard at present is lamentably low. To adopt Witmer's criterion and to classify as feeble-minded only those who are "industrially incapable of earning even a modest livelihood" would tend to keep it too low. Perhaps enough has been said to show that the difficulties encountered in the diagnosis of feeble-mindedness, and particularly those which are involved in the classification of border line cases, are due largely to the nature of the phenomena with which we deal. They are not artificial products of the Binet age-grade method of measuring intelligence. They reappear in the same form whatever scale is employed. They have not been disposed of by the Yerkes-Bridges point scale, nor will they be by any other scale which can be devised. New scales are indeed greatly to be desired, but an even more pressing practical need is for reliable comparative norms based upon the application of the revised Binet tests with thousands of individuals of various social groups. DISCUSSION Samuel B. Heckman, College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y. — In con- sidering the selection of children for any special class or for any special kind of teaching the guiding principle must be the end or purpose of the children's being in that class, that is, we should be guided by what we purpose doing with the children when we have them there rather than by the best means of getting them there. Evidently th§ main purpose of having children in the special classes should be the improvement of the children rather than furnishing them merely a proper and happy abiding place. This improve- ment moreover, must be thought of as being primarily educational in its nature. Other improvement in the child may be desirable and may be contributory to his improvement educationally. The removal of physical handicaps which the child may have, the amelio- ration of the hygienic conditions of home and school, the remedying of the improper Department] DIAGNOSIS OF FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS 883 nutritional conditions, and the care of pathological and constitutional conditions are admittedly essential to the functioning and improvement of mental capacities; but all these essentials must, after all be considered as secondary and contributory to the funda- mental purpose of the child's presence in the special class, namely, his improvement mentally, and in consequence his better behavior responses, socially and industrially. I should like to emphasize, therefore, that the final judgment in the selection of these children for the special or ungraded classes should come from him who is fitted to under- stand them, not only from what their present condition is, but also from what it is possible to make them. That is to say, not only from the standpoint of diagnosis should the child be selected, but from the additional standpoint of prognosis and teachabiUty. I wish to maintain that it is that person who has knowledge and experience in changing children, that is, in educating children combined with expert knowledge in cUnical testing and examining who is best fitted to pass finally upon the selection of children for special classes. The physical and medical examination is fundamentally essential, as everyone knows, particularly when one is seeking causes for the mental condition of the child, but this examination should not be the final determiner for the pupil's placement in a class. Arthur C. Jelly, M.D., Department of Special Classes, Boston, Mass. — The first special class was started in Boston in 1899. In 1902 I was askt to select the children for new classes and have since been employed in that work. The teacher very naturally picks out at first the cases about which there can be no question regarding their deficiency. To select only this sort of case results in a class which falls short of the best results, in my opinion. Nearly, if not all, these markedly deficient children need to be protected from the opportunities for getting into trouble that a city affords, and therefore it is best for them and best for the public that such children enter one of the state schools in the country. Just above this group in the scale of intelligence is another group that examination indicates to be not improvable; but I feel that many such should be given a trial in a special class, because it is possible that they may develop greater capacity than my examination makes possible. A group higher in the scale consists of those whose examinations show that they are only slightly deficient, or perhaps only retarded; the special class can reasonably be expected to bring to light in them an increast capacity to do schoolwork. I am askt to examine many whom teachers consider suitable for special classes, who, I decide; do not need such classes, because their examinations show them capable of average work. To summarize the foregoing statements, a special class, to be really efficient, should have in it two movements — one group needing the institutional school and being received there as promptly as practicable, and the second group, whose increase in mental capacity makes their return to grade desirable. Before I examine a child I secure a report from the teacher as to the child's schoolwork and conduct and her reasons for considering the child in need of an examination by me. If the teacher who has been assigned to the new special class can be present at the examina- tion, she and I can usually reach conclusions and plans for the future training that neither of us could probably reach alone. In case the special-class teacher is not present and the grade teacher wishes to see the examination, I am quite willing to have her do so, because that arrangement appears to secure a more correct understanding of the work than the average teacher has previously obtained; and cooperation between the grade teacher and the special- class teacher is important. Where parents do not agree with the teacher's judgment about the child, I find fre- quently that misunderstandings can be corrected and the parents brought to see the child's needs by seeing how poor he appears in the examination. In other words cooperation of teachers, parents, doctors, and nurses is necessary to accomplish the best results for the 884 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special child. My examination begins with questions about the name, residence, and age of the child (which can be shown or not by the teacher's report); then color- and form-tests; then pictures which test capacity for observing correctly and for drawing inferences from what is seen; then suggestibility by lines, arrangement of five boxes of slightly different weight in order, beginning with the heaviest; then reading and number work, I measure the size of the head and note peculiarities of structure and shape of cranium, of the hard palate, of the shape of the ears and their position on the head. Finally I ask the child to stand facing me and imitate me in certain movements, intended to test his capacity for observation, imitation, control, and coordination of muscle groups. In the case of older and more intelligent children I have found very instructive the results of certain tests which I learned from Dr. Norseworthy, of Teachers College, several years ago. Having used this plan of examination for several years before the Binet-Simon scale appeared in English, and having found it very satisfactory, I have not yet abandoned it and substituted for it the Binet scale; tho I always carry about with me a set of Binet tests and often use them to compare results from them with results from my method. I cannot agree with those psychologists who say that no child should be put into a special class whose mental age is less than three years behind his chronological age; and I certainly do not agree with the opinion that all children whose mental age is four years behind their chronological age should be assigned to the special class. The time at my disposal prevents full discussion of the reasons against accepting such conclusions. I believe no one appreciates more than I do how much light has been thrown upon mental affections at all ages by the work of psychologists; but as one of my bright friends has said, "In the present state of our knowledge any attempt to classify any group of subjects based solely on the findings from psychological .tests would commit grave errors." And one of our best authorities on feeble-mindedness has said, "Normality of intelligence is not a fixt strength of intellect, and feeble-mindedness is not merely a question of intelli - gence." As fast as psychologists discover better methods of testing any mental processes, I feel we must all make every effort to use them as intelligently as we can. By combined effort I believe we can make great advances in the solution of problems in this most difficult field. TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SPECIAL CLASSES JAMES G. RIGGS, PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOL, OSWEGO, N.Y. In obedience to Mother Nature's beautiful laws, the race is perpetuated on the earth with an ever-increasing capacity for joy and achievement. Most come physically right; some few come with deformed and crippled bodies, but equip t with possibilities of mental growth. To them one goes instinctively with every aid to open the way of performance, and there have been many notable men and women whose physical handicap was almost a spur to achievement. And there are other few who have come with beautiful bodies but darkened minds, shrouded forever in a gloom which refuses to be dispelled. Mother Nature fixes the penalty where wittingly or unwittingly her royal law is violated. Of all the children of men, that one which most elicits our pity is not he whose limbs are misshapen, but he whose mind is deformed or unformed, Department! TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SPECIAL CLASSES 885 whose normal development is retarded or checkt by some sinister influence. From him we withdraw out of sheer dread, or, from curiosity, watch his unguided motions and meaningless acts. His parents, if not abnormal themselves, try to shield the scion of the family, blasted at its beginning, and keep him from the eyes of men, as tho a judgment upon the iniquities of the fathers had fallen upon the children. Adults of abnormal type func- tion normally in reproduction, continuing in ever-widening circles of baleful influence the individuals who cannot provide for themselves and hence become positive burdens to society. Are there many such? Some statisticians say 4 per cent are feeble- minded, the more conservative assert 2 per cent, while the number depends entirely upon the classes or degrees of abnormality one estabHshes among the children whose minds have not developt normally. They are vari- ously named, as: abnormal, backward, idiot, mentally deficient, unstable, ill-balanst, feeble-minded, and moron. All are markt by three character- istics, namely, a retarded development, a lack of equilibrium, that is, some faculties more retarded than others, and unusual mental peculiarities. Some localities have a larger number of such children than others, but the average seems to be about 2 per cent, so we would expect to find among 5000 children 100 who would come safely within the category of defectives. How did they happen? Why are they here? God knows. It is certainly not of their choice that they came freighted with a cargo too great for their feeble powers. It may be some accident of birth, some accom- paniment of poverty, as deficient nutrition, or care; and in most cases it may be some inherited taint of insanity or the poison of alcoholism, or some social evil. That heredity accounts for the condition in large measure can be easily shown. While it is interesting to study causes, not much can be done to check the increasing number of feeble-minded until the state acts and makes impossible the propagation of human kind from stock of known mental taint. The fact is they are here, and if it is askt where, we will appeal to the judge of the police court, to the keeper of the almshouse, to the department of charities, to the home for foundlings, to the rescue home, to the Salva- tion Army, which takes what is left over and what is refused in other places. They are the ne'er-do-wells and the army of those who can never get on. Where is the menace if they are so provided for? Lacking in self- control, any excitement, anger, or brooding may lead them on to the most atrocious crimes from arson to murder. The feeble-minded girl is possibly a greater menace because she becomes an easy prey to lust, and the defective progeny are rapidly increast. Crimes against the person and against prop- erty bring the program of arrest, trial, prison sentence, parole, discharge, the state paying, not for prevention, but for care after the deed is done; 886 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special and when the term of prison service has expired, the program begins over again, and the state again foots the bill without complaint and, we some- times think, without heeding the lesson of it all. This being the menace, and not a decreasing one, can we do anything about it ? It is not timely for a layman to go into the question of steriliza- tion, altho that should have early and serious consideration of the author- ities, quite as much as the introduction of infected trees or cattle within the boundaries of the state! It is the day of prevention, of prophylaxis. We now put the feeble-minded into institutions where they are trained to do a few things, but we beheve that a good share of the 2 per cent who are not of the class which must be shut away can be trained in special classes under the direction of local boards of education and can be made to contribute in some degree to their own support, among those who are their kin, or better still, in a farm colony where the best provision can be made for their effort. New Jersey is the pioneer state in passing a law requiring a special class and teacher where there are ten defective children. The training school at Vineland has trained 180 teachers for the public schools, but the demand is growing. Elizabeth Farrell, who is in charge of special classes in New York City, has said that she could place seventy teachers if they were ready. No school in this state has regularly offered a course to prepare teachers for the work. In view of this the commissioner of education of the state of New York authorized the State Normal and Training School at Oswego, N.Y., to establish such a course. Accordingly advice was sought from various sources, but no one cared to go on record with assurance as to what is best. The plan must be con- sidered an experiment in which we seek your advice and constructive criticism as you watch its progress. The purpose of the course is not to prepare caretakers for the feeble- minded, but teachers who are able to organize classes of children, plan their work, train their teachers, and then supervise a series of such classes. This will require more or less expert knowledge of the feeble-minded, more, probably, than the school physician possesses. To this end it is expected that those admitted to the new department will already possess a diploma entitling the holder to teach the normal child. The course will cover one year, arranged in units of ten weeks, thus enabling teachers to come on leave of absence for any portion of the course. The teacher should herself know what the hand can be taught to do in order to offer whatever is within the range of the child's efforts, and she should add the physical exercises suited to his need, which impHes, of course, the abiUty to learn his need. No course would be complete which omitted a study of society which discloses the place of such work in its larger aspects and discusses the plan and purpose of organized effort in the state. Department] WORK OF THE TEACHER OF THE SPECIAL CLASS 887 THE WORK OF THE TEACHER OF THE SPECIAL CLASS SAMUEL B. ALLISON, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT IN CHARGE OF SPECLAL SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. The work of the teacher of the special class is related to the kind of children she is called upon to teach. Survey has shown that there are in the special room usually at least six well-defined groups of children listed from a pedagogical point of view: (i) those retarded because of ill health of some form or other, nose or throat diseases, malnutrition, etc.; (2) those having emphatic leanings toward some particular area of the school subject-matter, as academic subjects or handwork, or toward or away from reading or mathematics; (3) those naturally abnormally slow in development, but of good mentality; (4) those who have markt below-average mentality, but yet will be independent economically; (5) those about whose mentality there is doubt — lower border-line cases — many of whom, after trial and opportunity, gain classi- fication in upper groups; and (6) those undoubtedly feeble-minded or non-educable either academically or in practical occupations. Now what are the pedagogical needs of these various groups? The group retarded because of physical ailment should be returned to regular gradation as soon as possible. They have need of thoro coaching in academic subjects. This coaching calls for a mastery on the part of the teacher of all academic devices and an understanding of all avenues of approach to the retarded mind. In teaching reading, for instance, the teacher must have command of methods appealing to audition and motor response as well as to visualization; word methods must be supplemented by phonic and phonetic approaches. This whole group of pathological retardates is an emphatic challenge to the very best teaching in all formal academic studies. These remarks apply to the slowly developing child as well. He needs the regular academic procedure in higher potencies than does the average child. The variant type should have his deficiencies overcome, if possible, by the same speeding-up of academic methods. With these groups the pedagogic attack may be in a large measure direct and in regular procedure. The teaching of the backward and defective group calls for an especially intelligent and professional attitude on the part of the teacher. The indirect appeals to mental forwardness are many, but may be classified broadly under the following categories: (i) music; (2) rhythmic exercises, dancing, etc.; (3) plays and games; (4) handwork, such as carpentry, textiles, basketry, and clay. In music and rhythmic exercises the special teacher will find her most potent stimulant to mental alertness. All grades of mentality respond to music and rhythm. Their appeal is fundamental. They go down deep into the organic structure and reach the mysterious and hidden places 888 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special where that which we call physical and that which we call mental interact. The effect of music upon mentahty was well known to the Greeks and was their most effective educative means. Plato says: Musical training is more potent than any other, because rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul on which they mightily fasten, imparting grace and making the soul of him who is rightfully educated graceful. Of a similar nature are plays and games. They are universal in their appeal and knit together the intelligence and physical efficiency. They, too, are nature's special educational agency. They are primitive and go deep. Backward children can be reacht by play appeal when all others fail. A fourth indispensable qualification for the teacher of the special class is a many-sided interest and abiUty in handwork suitable for young children. On the practical side then the qualifications of the teacher of special classes may be set forth as follows: (i) she must be an exceptionally skilled teacher in the use of special means for getting academic results; (2) she must know how to play games and be able to direct them; (3) she must have a repertoire of handwork occupations large enough to answer the educative needs of a year's work. THE NECESSITY FOR AFTER CARE OF CHILDREN DIS- CHARGED FROM SPECIAL CLASSES HOWARD J. BANKER, EUGENICS RECORD OFFICE, COLD SPRING HARBOR, N.Y. Whether there is any necessity for the after care of children discharged from special classes depends entirely on the kind of children that make up these classes. This may sound at first as a mere truism, but there appears to be some reason to preface my remarks with such a statement, for it seems that the term "special class" is not fixt as to its meaning. The editor of the Training School Bulletin in a recent number called attention to the fact that in some cities the expression "special class" means "a class for feeble-minded; in others, a class for normals who are retarded; and in still others, a class for all who lag behind." If the class is intended to include only the distinctly feeble-minded, the necessity of the after care of the children discharged therefrom seems to be a necessity by definition; if the class is only for normals who are retarded by temporary conditions, it is to be presumed that no after care is needed; if the class includes all who lag behind, then it would appear that some would be in need of after care and some would not, and in that case it becomes necessary to consider the need of each individually. It is an easy matter to detect that a child is lagging behind his fellows and on that fact assign him to the special class. It is often difficult and sometunes impossible to diagnose the real cause of the lagging; moreover, Department] SPECIAL CLASSES AND INSTITUTIONS ,889 it is largely the work of the special-class teachers, as trained specialists, to study these aberrant children, and to them may be left the task of determining, if possible, the hidden cause of the child's failure. If the special class is a hospital only for incurables during school age, then the necessity of their after care is a foregone conclusion. It is to be supposed, however, that such was not the idea when the special-class move- ment began. We are told that "confident principals announst to the teachers that these children were to be brought up to grade and returned to the regular classes." Among the disabilities that clearly impede the child's efficiency and render him a subject for the special class may be mentioned blindness, deafness and deaf-mutism, deformities, malformations, interfering with bodily functions, malnutrition, and disturbances of the secretory and the nervous systems, involving mental deficiencies and emotional eccentricities. In the case of many other disabilities we have not only come to recognize the part they play in breaking down the child's efficiency, but we have learned how to remove the disturbing factor or at least to alleviate in greater or less degree its effect. In such cases the trouble is usually soon recognized and resort is quickly made to the surgeon, the dentist, the ocuUst, or the dietitian; and the child, reheved in whole or in part of his disabiUty, is able to adapt himself to the regular school curriculum sufficiently to keep within the range of variation allowed the so-caUed normal child. HOW TO FILL TEE GAP BETWEEN THE SPECIAL CLASSES AND INSTITUTIONS ADA M. FITTS, SUPERVISOR OF SPECIAL CLASSES, BOSTON, MASS. The problem of feeble-mindedness is very much before the pubHc, and everywhere in this country, community-surveys, the use of mental tests, and studies of family histories are furnishing evidence that the feeble- minded are an increasingly important factor in all forms of social and educational work. Along with the other agencies that are interested in finding a solution to this far-reaching problem, the public-school authorities have become aroused and are providing classes which it is hoped will furnish training for pupils who are not able to make good in the regular grades. The pupils should be selected by a trained expert who uses a combination of tests and who will win the confidence of parents as well as give a diagnosis of the child's mental and physical condition. Special classes take feeble-minded children as early as possible, say from seven to eight years of age. Some eventually return to grade and are able to complete a part of the fourth-grade work; a few more are transferred directly to the institution; but the majority should remain in special classes till they reach the school-age limit. 890 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special Three methods have been adopted: (i) to have the special class occupy a room in an elementary-school building and care for the mentally defective children of that immediate district; (2) to group these pupils in a central school; (3) a combination of both individual classes and centers. In Massachusetts, until recently, children were allowed to leave school at fourteen, but with the raising of the compulsory school-age limit to sixteen, we found ourselves (two years ago) face to face with the problem of what to do with the special-class children who must remain in school until they are sixteen years of age. In Boston, in order to provide the next necessary step beyond the individual class, the regular grade pupils occupying two six-room buildings were accommodated elsewhere and these buildings were used as centers — one for special-class girls and another for special-class boys. At the centers advanst manual work is begun and grading and classifi- cation are possible. The program is so arranged that each child has one and one-half hours physical, one and one-half hours academic, and two hours manual, work each day. The girls are given a trained teacher to instruct them in domestic science, millinery, sewing, embroidery, crocheting, knit- ting, mending, and preserving. The boys are taught brush-making, boot- blacking, woodworking, serving of luncheons, dish- washing, simple tailoring, gardening, assistant janitor work, and other forms of comparatively unskilled labor. In this way we attempt to carry on the training of special- class children from seven to sixteen years of age. The special class, in my opinion, should be still further supplemented by workrooms where, under favorable conditions, pupils over sixteen may be provided with work for which they would be paid. Cobbling, chair- caning, tool-sharpening, brush- and mat-making, are industries which might be carried on profitably. They could thus be guarded and controlled in part without being taken from their homes. This brings up the question of how long the public schools should assume the responsibility of these children beyond the school-age limit. It seems to me that it should do so for another year or two, at least, unless there is some other agency ready to do the work. The most important factor is the teacher who presides over the special class. She must be one who is quick to perceive, able to adapt, whose sympathies are keen, and whose outlook is broad, but who combines with these gitts steadiness of purpose and the power to raise and hold her pupil to his best. A sense of humor will help out in many a situation. In Boston the teachers are given time in which to visit the children's homes, learn the conditions, and confer with the parents. The teacher knows how much freedom can safely be given the child; she knows his limitations, and when work is undertaken for which he is not adapted, she is able to suggest other lines. She could keep in touch with him and advise him as need arose, if she had the time. Department] SPECIAL CLASSES AND INSTITUTIONS 891 The child may have been prepared for appropriate employment, but he cannot be given the necessary power of self-direction. The subnormal person (young or old) does not have that guiding power within; he must have outside control that should never be relaxt. The need is for a person or persons who will provide this oversight and follow the career of each individual, continuing the guidance begun by the teacher. At the half-yearly examination I confer with the head teacher and we choose the most suitable children who may be considered as eligible for this trial; we select the most suitable firms and communicate with the manager. The parent is then seen and the offer is made to her: Under the Act we have the power to keep your child at school until sixteen years of age, but, as he, being over fourteen years of age, seems to be suitable and fit to care for himself and do reasonably good work, we are willing to allow him to leave school on condition that he go to work at a place we choose for him and that he remain in that place until he is sixteen. If he fails to do this or to give satisfaction to his employers, he must immediately return to school and stay until he is sixteen. The advantages of this method are many. Chiefly we have tested the child to see whether, working under good conditions, he will be able to keep a situation and give satisfaction. The employers are as a rule pleased because they know that they will get the child's best work and that they can return him to school if he prove unsatisfactory. Let us consider what becomes of these children who leave school and who are not provided with such after care. In a recent canvass of the situation in Boston, 65 of the special-class graduates were located and their working history reviewed. From September, 1913, to September, 1915 (2 years), 31 out of 65 had a working history of over i^ years and less than 2 years; 11 out of 65 had a working history of over i year and less than i| years; 10 out of 65 had a working history of over 6 months and less than i year; 13 out of 65 had a working history of less than 6 months. To be sure, one of these with a working history of nearly two years, had had eighteen positions. One she had held for one day only and the longest time was three months. In her case these two years covered the time from seventeen to nineteen years of age. The positions secured by this group of 65 required but Httle skill; the list includes bundle girls and boys in dry goods stores, dehvery boys, office boys, nurse girls, peddlers, workers in brush-making, shoe-blacking, and basket-making estabUshments, carpet- factories, rubber-factories, and laundries; while working in candy-factories is a favorite employment. This gives a clue to the kind of positions that are open for the mentally defective, and with these in mind, the after-care officer should know of vacancies as they occur and attempt to fill them. The results of the follow-up work that has already been done and the fact that so large a proportion of the children are employed for wages, leads one to feel that the work done by the special class does carry over into their after life. 892 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special In order to "fill the gap" or better, in the words of Dr. MacMurchy, to "build a bridge" between the special class and the institution, I have suggested: (i) that the public school insure diagnosis and treatment at an early age, act as a clearing-house for cases needing permanent segregation, and attempt to train the others for appropriate employment; (2) that the pupils upon leaving school be still further provided for in workrooms or in farm groups; (3) that the guidance begun by the teacher be continued by after care and supervision; (4) that there be a definite plan for awakening community interest in the problem; (5) that state- wide supervision is necessary; and (6) that the National Associations for the Feeble-Minded formulate a program both educative and constructve, so that the nation as a whole may realize the "menace of the feeble-minded." AFTER-CARE WORK IN SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS FEANCES E. CHENEY, SPECIAL-CLASS TEACHER, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. The most hopeful aspect of our conferences during the last three days in this ungraded-class section would seem to be the forward look which psychologists, eugenists, and educators have shown. While we may dis- agree as to methods, we are all looking for better tests of mentality, for race-improvement, for education which projects itself into the future life of the pupils under our care, and for a quickened community interest in the future of feeble-minded school children. The necessity and value of keeping continuous histories of each indi- vidual pupil was recognized in our work from the beginning. An indext book was first used, but the records were finally transferred to a card cata- log. This card catalog contains information, not only regarding the child's mental and moral condition and progress, but a study of his ancestry and environment. In order to gather these data, innumerable visits were made to the homes, and parents were encouraged to visit both the class and the home of the teacher, until Httle by little, and often indirectly, the important facts accumulated. The record was continued after the child left school by encouraging the child to report at the school from time to time, con- tinuing the home-visiting, and interesting employers and social agencies in the child's career. From these records statistics were compiled. The placing of the comparatively large number of children — 25 per cent — in the care of the state was largely brought about by a personal acquaintance with the superintendent, teachers, doctors, and matrons of the institutions. This has meant frequent visits to the institution, often with parents or children, or both, taking home reports to the parents from the institution as to the child's welfare and progress, writing frequent letters of inquiry to the superintendent, making appointments for inter- views between parents and superintendents, or asking for advice with Department] AFTER-CARE WORK IN SPRINGFIELD 893 reference to specific problems, and visiting children who were at home for a vacation, noting how they reacted to this experiment, reporting when desirable to the superintendent. Those who understand the tragedy of the presence of a feeble-minded child in the family will appreciate that the special-class teacher, who is able to help that child and to Ughten the burden in the home, is the one pre- eminently qualified above all others to continue indefinitely this friendly oversight. The relatively few cases of deUnquency in the community are accounted for by the interest and cooperation which has been secured from poUce and probation officers, as well as from lawyers and judges. This interest has been a growing and inspiring feature of an intelligent and sympathetic atti- tude toward mental defect, and is increasingly shown by the general pubHc. As a result of the continuous activity of personal work, a body of facts, not of theories, was prepared in 191 2 for presentation to a small group of interested people, and the time was then ripe for the formation of the Springfield Committee for the Study of the Feeble-Minded. This committee has endeavored to carry out this purpose as follows: By adding new cases to the card catalog, by keeping all records approxi- mately up to date, and by recording such facts as might be useful in the future in classifying scientific data. By increasing, thru persuasion, the placing of larger numbers of children withm reach of educational opportunities. By interesting employers in giving positions to the high-grade mental defective. By assisting in the removal of certain inadequately protected persons to the care of state institutions. By holding meetings, usually each month, at the call of the chairman to discuss various phases of the work and to make plans for further activity. By cooperation with the city library for the placing of Hterature relating to mental defect and eugenics, on a special shelf, for its greater accessibihty to the general public. By addressing and communicating with various groups of people — legislative, educational, civic, and religious — using the card-catalog data as a basis to mold public opinion. By actively and successfully working for the estabhshment of a third state institution for the feeble-minded, and by preparing a map of the city for the use of the local school board, showing the distribution of the feeble- minded in the various districts, and the obvious need of further public- school provision. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE DETROIT MEETING, FEBRUARY 22-25, 1916 SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST DAY EVENING SESSION— Tuesday, February 22, 1916 The Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in the Arcadia Auditorium, Detroit, Mich., at 8:00 p.m., with President M. P. Shawkey, state superintendent of schools, Charieston, W.Va., in the chair. After music by the Central High School Orchestra, Roy Ellis, director, the session opened with an invocation by Rev. Charles Henry Williams, D.D., pastor, Second Congregational Church, Oberlin, Ohio. Addresses of welcome were given by Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich., and Fred L. Keeler, state superintendent of public instruction, Lansing, Mich., to which response was made by Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, III. After music by the Eastern High School Quartet, consisting of Howard Parks, Virgil Rochte, George MacLaughlin, and William Joy, Nicholas Murray Butler, president, Columbia University, New York, N.Y., presented an address entitled "What Is Going on in the World." President Shawkey announced the following committees: Committee on Nominations R. B. Teitrick, deputy state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Henry Snyder, superintendent of schools, Jersey City, N.J. Joseph Rosier, superintendent of schools, Fairmont, W.Va. Ellis U. Graff, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr. Henry A. Davee, state superintendent of public instruction, Helena, Mont. Committee on Resolutions Calvin N. Kendall, state commissioner of education, Trenton, N.J. Edward F. Buchner, professor of education and philosophy, Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, Baltimore, Md. J. A. C. Chandler, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Va. Franklin B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass. William S. Sutton, dean. Department of Education, University of Texas, Austin, Tex. SECOND DAY MORNING SESSION— Wednesday, February 23, 1916 The meeting was called to order by President Shawkey at 9:30 A.M., in Arcadia Auditorium. The following program was presented: •'The Ford Idea in Education" — Samuel S. Marquis, Sociological Department, Ford Motor Company, Detroit. Mich. 89s 8p6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit Debate: "The Best Organization for American Schools Is a Plan Which Shall Divide These Schools into Six Years of Elementary Training and Six Years of Secondary Train- ing"—Charles H. Judd, director, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., affirmative; Carroll G. Pearse. president. State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis., negative. "Greetings" — David B. Johnson, president, National Education Association, Rock Hill, S.C. AFTERNOON SESSION— Wednesday, February 23, 1916 The meeting was called to order in Arcadia Auditorium by President Shawkey, at 2:00 P.M., and the following program was presented: Cantata: "Walrus and the Carpenter" — Chorus of three hundred grade-school children; Thomas Chilvers, director; Esther White, accompanist. "The Public School and the New American Spirit" — J. George Becht, executive secretary. State Board of Education, Harrisburg, Pa. "Functions of Boards of School Control" — EUwood P. Cubberley, professor of edu- cation, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. This paper as read constitutes chap, ix of the author's book on Public School Administration (Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Mass., 1916). For this reason it will not appear in this volume. "The Superintendent as the Layman Sees Him" — Thomas W. Churchill, president, Board of Education, New York, N.Y. "Relation of a Member of a Board of Education to the School System" — O. M. Plummer, director, Board of Education, Portland, Ore. "To Whom Is the Board of Education Responsible?" — Albert E. Winship, editor, Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. EVENING SESSION— Wednesday, February 23, 19 16 Central High School At this time, the students of the Central High School presented a Shakespearean review entitled "The Passing Show of 16 16," in which were introduced various selections from the plays of Shakespeare, as follows: Hamlet's Address to the Players; Petruchio Is Breaking the Spirit of Katherine; A Scene from The Tempest; The Dance of the Fairies in Midsummer-Night's Dream; Caesar's Ghost Appears to Brutus, from Julius Caesar; Ophelia's Mad Scene, from Hamlet; The Choice of the Caskets, Merchant of Venice; Touchstone, Celia, and Rosalind in the Forest of Arden, As You Like It. THIRD DAY MORNING SESSION— Thursday, February 24, 1916 The meeting was called to order in Arcadia Auditorium, at 9:30 a.m., with President Shawkey in the chair. The following program was presented: "Some Suggestions for Improving the Rural-School Curricula" — G. C. Creelman, president, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Joint discussion: "The Minimum Essentials versus the Dijfferentiated Course of Study in the Seventh and Eighth Grades" — Lotus D. Coffman, professor of education. University of Minnesota, MinneapoUs, Minn.; John D. Shoop, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.; WilUam C. Bagley, director. School of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.; David Snedden, commissioner of education, Boston, Mass. The annual business meeting followed the program. The first order of business was the report of the Committee on Revision and Exten- sion of the Work of the Department of Superintendence. This committee was appointed in accordance with a resolution adopted at the Cincinnati meeting. Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich., chairman of the committee, made the report, which was adopted, as follows: The committee understands that it was the purpose of the resolution imder which it was appointed that it should consider the clarifying of the work of the department and Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 897 make such suggestion for an extensionof that work thru the year as would gather together and organize professional information of significant value in the work of administrative and supervising officers and would codify the tenets of this department touching the rights and duties of such administrative and supervisory officers in their several relations with their commimity, institution, and board of trustees, to the end that this selected information and professionally approved doctrine might aid more effectively these officers in meeting and solving their local problems. The committee recommends for your con- sideration the following: The Department of Superintendence is one of the several departments of the National Education Association. As a department it is concerned with defining the nature of its activities in a way that will avoid the confusing of its work with that of the other depart- ments of the general Association. The main constructive lines of the activities of this department are the considera- tion of: 1. Courses of study that will meet the needs of communities. 2. Enumeration, classification, and promotion of pupils. 3. The certification of the qualifications of teachers and the methods of securing their appointments. 4. Proper school supplies and the mode of securing such supplies, including textbooks and apparatus. 5. Plans for school building. 6. The formation of school districts with regard to population, opportunities, and interrelations. 7. The methods of raising and apportioning school moneys. 8. The relations of superintendents to boards of education. The committee recommends that there be appointed at each meeting of the depart- ment a committee on one, or committees on more than one, of the above, or co-ordinate formative lines, the members of these committees to represent typical parts of the country and to have as their chief object the bringing before the department reports on comparative conditions, industrial, cultural, etc., and information on what is being accomplished in some of the most progressive schools, and that at least one session of a department meet- ing be devoted to hearing and discussing such reports. The committee further recommends that the Executive Committee of the National Education Association of the United States be requested to ask the Board of Directors to make an appropriation of $500 . 00 to meet the expenses during the current year of such committees as may be appointed under these resolutions. Charles E. Chadsey, of Michigan James M. Green, of New Jersey Nathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania Ben Blewett, of Missouri William H. Maxwell, of New York Committee The nominating committee reported as follows: For President — John D. Shoop, superintendent of schools, Chicago, HI. For First Vice-President — Fred L. Keeler, state superintendent of public instruction, Lansing, Mich. For Second Vice-President — John Dietrich, superintendent of schools, Helena, Mont. For Secretary — Margaret T. Maguire, supervising principal of Washington School, Philadelphia, Pa. The persons named were unanimously elected as officers for the coming year. The Committee on Resolutions presented the following report, which was adopted: I. We affirm that every child in the United States of America has definite educational needs for which adequate provision should be made by proper legislative enactment and by ample resources for support. In so far as the public, the superintendents, and the teachers are now meeting these needs, the American school system will be able to fulfil the larger educational obligations of an expanding modern democracy. We believe that American pubUc education now offers substantial hope for the realiza- tion of the fundamental principles of liberty and humanity which will alone support a righteous nationalism and internationalism, by which peace, justice, and progress will be guaranteed. We believe that a new international note should be sounded in our educational pro- gram, calling upon us to cultivate mutual understandings and interdependence among the peoples of the world, and to this end we recommend that our national government adopt the policy of appointing educational attaches to our embassies and legations in foreign countries. ggS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit 2. The complete unification and Americanization of all our people is a necessity. In view of the temporary cessation of immigration, the present is a particularly oppor- time time for the extension of educational agencies that will effectively prepare immigrant children and adults for the rights and duties of American citizenship. We recommend that the president of the department be authorized to appoint a special committee to co-operate with the United States Bureau of Education and all other agencies in. realizing this goal. 3. We rejoice over the progress in state, and especially in national, legislation which promises to guarantee the protection of children from the iU effect incident to undesirable kinds of labor at the time when future public welfare demands that they should be in school. 4. We reafl&rm our approval of federal aid to vocational education as proposed in the Smith-Hughes bill now before Congress. We believe that the end to be served is so impor- tant and so diversified as to require a federal board, the members of which shall be educa- tional representatives of the interests concerned and shall give their undivided attention to the administration of the act. 5. We commend most heartily the activities of the United States Bureau of Educa- tion and its helpful co-operation in the development of education in all parts of the country. We recommend to the Congress of the United States a generous increase in appropriations for the Bureau in order that it may be able to respond to the multipUed demands thruout the nation for its services. 6. We reaffirm our beUef that a small board of education is the most efficient instru- ment for the administration of the affairs of pubHc schools. 7. We reaffirm our behef in the value of a bureau of research in connection with the superintendent's office. We also commend the properly conducted, sympathetic, and constructive school survey as an aid in the solution of school problems. We look forward, however, to the time when every school system will be so equipped in its own regular official and teaching staff as to conduct a continuous survey from within. 8. We affirm that the overcrowding of the elementary schools is a most serious defect, requiring, as it does, the individual teacher to be responsible for the instruction and the discipUne of too many pupils. We beUeve that it is the part of educational economy to provide as speedily as possible for the aboUtion of this practice. 9. In view of the progress that has been made in raising the standards of preparation for teaching, it is recommended that school boards and superintendents thruout the country adopt, as soon as possible, for their guidance in the selection of elementary and secondary teachers and supervisors, the highest standards now in force in our more progressive states. 10. In order to secure more efficient teaching we reaffirm our behef in the necessity of helpful, sympathetic, and constructive supervision of schools, both city and country. 11. We reaffirm our belief in the importance of encouraging all agencies designed to promote the physical well-being of children. We note with satisfaction the increase in the co-operation between health and school authorities. We strongly favor physical training that will develop mind and character as well as body, but we are emphatically opposed to the introduction of compulsory mihtary train- ing into the high schools of the country before mature consideration of the educational questions involved therein. We suggest the appointment by the incoming president of the department of a committee of nine to study and to report upon the proper place for and purpose of mihtary education of American youth, and in case it is appointed we recommend that the Execu- tive Committee request the Board of Directors of the National Education Association to provide for the necessary expenses of this committee. 12. The country child is entitled to as good a school as the city child. He should have a professionally trained teacher, who is paid an adequate salary. The rural schools should have good supervision. We believe the county superintendent of schools, as well as the city superintendent, should be chosen solely on account of academic and professional qualifications, executive abiUty, and good character. We are convinced that his selection should be determined by some method other than that of popular election, which is usually influenced by considerations other than educational. We further recommend the con- soUdation of rural schools wherever practicable. 13. We express our appreciation of the action of the various railroad associations which gave to the members of the department the benefit of the open rate. 14. We express our appreciation of the hospitaUty extended to the department by Superintendent Chadsey, his colleagues, the citizens, and the various organizations of Detroit. 15. We extend the thanks of the department to President Shawkey for the excellent program prepared for this meeting. Superinteadencc] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 899 16. We express our appreciation for the many courtesies extended by the hotel managements. 17. We thank the representatives of the press for the excellent reports of the meetings of the department. Invitations for the 191 7 meeting were presented by Boston, Mass.; Kansas City, Mo.; Milwaukee, Wis.; MinneapoUs, Minn,; and Omaha, Nebr. Five minutes was allowed for the presentation from each city, and it was voted that on successive ballots the city receiving the fewest votes should be withdrawn. On the first ballot, Boston received 305; Kansas City, 336; Milwaukee, 63; MinneapoUs, 47; and Omaha, 163. This dropped Minneapohs automatically and Milwaukee asked to withdraw. A second ballot was ordered, but after the vote for Boston had been taken and before the vote for Kansas City could be counted, Boston withdrew and moved that Kansas City be made the meeting-place for 191 7 by acclamation, which motion was carried. AFTERNOON SESSION— Thursday, February 24, 1916 The afternoon was given to round tables, as follows: (a) round table of state and county superintendents Chairman — Carl G. Schulz, state superintendent of education, St. Paul, Minn. "How Much and What Kind of Supervision?" — C. P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis. "How Not to Train Rural Teachers" — Edward Hyatt, state superintendent of public instruction, Sacramento, Cal. "Rural Supervision in the Mountains of the South" — Jennie Burkes, county superin- tendent, Claiborne County, Cmnberland Gap, Tenn. "The Status and Need of Rural Supervision" — A. C. Monahan, specialist. United States Biureau of Education, Washington, D.C. (b) round table of superintendents of cities with a population of over 250,000 Chairman — J. M. Gwinn, superintendent of schools. New Orleans La. "A First Step in Establishing the Six-Three-Three Organization" — Herbert S. Weet, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N.Y. "The Determination of Educational Policies" — Henry Snyder, superintendent of schools, Jersey City, N.J. "Textbooks — Principles Governing Their Selection" — Randall J. Condon, superin- tendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. "The Education of Foreigners for American Citizenship" — Raymond F. Crist, deputy commissioner of naturalization. United States Department of Labor, Washing- ton, D.C. "Adaptation of Schools to Varying Needs" — Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruc- tion, public schools, St. Louis, Mo. (c) round table of superintendents of cities with a population between 25,000 AND 250,000 Chairman — Ira B. Bush, superintendent of schools, Erie, Pa. "Community Activities as a Means of Motivation" — Fred M. Hunter, superin- tendent of schools, Lincoln, Nebr. "Teaching Tenure" — John F. Keating, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo. "A Study of Deviate Children — The Problem of Delinquency and Subnormality" — C. Edward Jones, superintendent of schools, Albany, N.Y. "Vacation Club Work" — J. H. Beveridge, superintendent of schools, Coimcil Bluffs, Iowa. "Short-Unit Industrial Courses" — M. B. King, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Cd) round table of superintendents of cities with a POPULATION UNDER 25,000 Chairman — John Milne, superintendent of schools, Albuquerque, N.M. "Effective Constructive Economy in Supervision" — W. E. Hoover, superintendent of schools, Fargo, N.D. goo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit "Effective and Economical Supervision in Small Cities" — ^Walter S. Deffenbaugh, Division of School Administration, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. "Reliable Measurements of a School System" — Otis G. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Fairmont, W.Va. "The Ethical as the Essential Factor in Training for Efficient Citizenship in a Democ- racy"— Charles W. Cookson, superintendent of schools, Troy, Ohio. "The School's Responsibility in the New Nationalism" — ^W. E. Albig, superintendent of schools, Bellevue, Pa. (e) round table of directors of educational research Chairman — Frank W. Ballou, director, Department of Educational Investigation and Measurement, public schools, Boston, Mass. "The Two Phases of Educational Research and Efficiency in the Public Schools" — George Melcher, director, Bureau of Research and Efficiency, Kansas City, Mo. ''Standardization of Teachers' Examinations" — Stuart A. Courtis, supervisor of educational research, Detroit, Mich. "Comments on Ten Intelligence Tests Applied to Ten Thousand Children in Grades V-VIII Inclusive" — Albert SUels, director, Division of Reference Research, Depart- ment of Education, New York, N.Y. "Improving Instruction thru Educational Measurement" — Frank W. Ballou, director. Department of Educational Investigation and Measurement, public schools, Boston, Mass. (f) round table of compulsory education, school census, and child welfare Chairman — ^John W. Davis, director, Bureau of Attendance, New York, N.Y. "The Control and Supervision of Field Workers" — Henry J. Gideon, chief, Bureau of Compulsory Education, Philadelphia, Pa. In the absence of Mr. Gideon, this paper was read by Howard W. Nudd, director, New York Public Education Association, New York, N.Y. Discussion: R. L. Cooley, director of continuation schools, Milwaukee, Wis.; Howard W. Nudd, director, New York Public Education Association, New York, N.Y. "Does a Strict Enforcement of the Compulsory-Education Law Assist Teachers and Supervising Officials in Their Work ? {a) Increased Assistance; {b) Reduction of Retarda- tion; {c) Conservation of the Nervous Energy of the Teacher and Supervising Officials" — Edward B. Shallow, associate city superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y. Discussion: A. B. Rhett, superintendent of schools, Charleston, S.C.; M.C. Potter, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis.; Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich. "The Policy of Free Education in a Democracy Requires a Federal Child-Labor Law, Stringent and Strictly Enforced State Statutes as Regards Compulsory Education, and a Continuing School Census" — James D. Sullivan, chief, Compulsory Attendance Division, New York State Department of Education, Albany, N.Y. In the absence of Mr. Sullivan, this paper was read by Charles F. Wheelock, assistant commissioner of secondafy education. New York State Department of Education, Albany, N.Y. Discussion: Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.; _ Herbert S. Weet, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N.Y.; Henry Snyder, superintendent of schools, Jersey City, N.J.; Henry D. Hervey, superintendent of schools, Auburn, N.Y. EVENING SESSION— Thursday, February 24, 19 16 Schoolmaster-Governors' Evening The meeting was called to order in Arcadia Auditorium by President Shawkey at 8:00 P.M., and the following program was given: Chorus: The Pirates of Penzance — Boys' Chorus, Northwestern High School; Clara E. Starr, director. Introduction of President-elect John D. Shoop, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. Address — Woodbridge N. Ferris, Governor of Michigan. Address — Martin G. Brumbaugh, Governor of Pennsylvania. Address— Frank B. Willis, Governor of Ohio. Superintendence] ADDRESS OF WELCOME 901 I FOURTH DAY MORNING SESSION— Friday, February 25, 1916 The meeting was called to order at 9 : 30 a.m. by President Shawkey in Arcadia Audi- torium. The following program was given: "Booker T. Washington — An Appreciation" — 0. T. Corson, editor, Ohio Educational Monthly, Columbus, Ohio. "High Points in the Los Angeles Plan" — J. H. Francis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal. "Significant Developments in Educational Surveying" — Leonard P. Ayres, director. Division of Education, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y. "Report of Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education" — Clarence D. Kingsley, high-school inspector, Boston, Mass. AFTERNOON SESSION— Friday, February 25, 1916 The meeting was called to order by President Shawkey in the Arcadia Auditorium at 2:00 P.M. The following program was presented: "The Thirtieth Man" — John H. Finley, president, University of the State of New York, Albany, N.Y. "Definiteness and Compulsion . in Education" — A. Duncan Yocum, professor of educational research and practice. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. "Manners and Morals — Our Problem" — Alice M. Carmalt, assistant professor of education, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. "Scouting as an Educational Asset" — ^James E. West, chief scout executive. Boy Scouts of America, New York, N.Y. "The National Morahty Codes Competition" — Milton Fairchild, chairman. Execu- tive Committee, National Institution for Moral Instruction, Washington, D.C. E. C. Warriner, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ADDRESS OF WELCOME FRED L. KEELER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, LANSING, MICH. The state of Michigan deeply appreciates the distinction this gathering brings to her. Michigan's hospitahty is extended with special joy to a meeting of the nation's educators, and it is with keenest pleasure I bid you welcome. Many of you are not strangers to Michigan. To many of you this meeting is a home-coming rather than a visit to a strange land. It is hardly possible to name a city in the United States, certainly not in the West, that does not have teachers and educational leaders who were trained in Michi- gan. Our state was the first state in the Union to organize a complete public-school system from kindergarten to university. For two generations Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti stood out as the educational centers of the West. We are proud that the newer states have found much in the Michigan system worthy of adoption, and we rejoice over the marvelous progress our sister-states are making in promoting public education. 902 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit The people of Michigan have always maintained a broad view of the purpose of education, and with characteristic liberality their educational institutions are open, not only to the citizens of our own state, but to any person from any quarter of the globe who wishes to come. We believe that we do most for ourselves when we do much for others. And there is abundant reason why we should hold this view. Michigan is great because she has done much for others and because she has done much for herself. But she stands ready always to acknowledge that she has also received much. Michigan was carved from that great empire, the Northwest Territory, which was created by the Ordinance of 1787 — a document which ranks with the Declaration of Independence and the federal Constitution. The Ordinance states tliat "there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in said territory." That provision was drafted by that greatest statesman of the South, who belongs, not only to America, but to the whole world — Thomas Jefferson. The Ordinance also provides that ''religion, morahty, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happi- ness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." This statement expresses the sentiment of our whole coun- try today. That sentiment founded New England, and New England gave it to us. Indeed, the very author of the Ordinance of 1 78 7 was Nathan Dane, of Massachusetts. It appears, then, that the founding of the North- west Territory was conceived in the best thought of the North and the South. Not only have we received ideas from other sections of the country, but we have received men with ideas. Each state of the Union is permitted to place in the Capitol at Washington the statues of two of its favorite sons. Michigan has placed there the statues of Lewis Cass and Zach Chandler. Both of these men came to us from New England. John D. Pierce, our first state superintendent of public instruction — the first state superinten- dent in this country — whom we regard as the founder of the educational system of Michigan, came to us from New England. James B. Angell, for forty years president of the University of Michigan, came to us from New England. Dr. Angell is now the president emeritus of the great insti- tution to which he has given his life. A great educator, a great scholar, a great diplomat, above all a great teacher, we are proud today to honor him as the first citizen of our state. Five New England states have given us superintendents of public instruction. Each New England state has given us a governor, and some of them two. President Jackson made a young fellow from Kentucky governor of Michigan Territory before he was out of his teens. This was done much against our protest. But of course we decided that the only thing to do was to agree with Jackson and we gave the boy a chance. After awhile we liked the boy so well that we adopted him, and when Michigan became a state we elected Steven T. Mason our first governor. It is perhaps noteworthy that up to the present time Michigan has chosen only one Superintendence] ADDRESS OF WELCOME 903 governor who was a native son. This poHcy, I must say, has not the unani- mous approval of the native sons. I repeat, we believe both in giving and in receiving. There are more judges on the federal bench today who received their training at Ann Arbor than from any other university in the country. There are today twenty- six members of the national Congress who received their training at Ann Arbor — more than from any other university in the whole country. And while we are training these leaders in national affairs, we are richly rewarded in the men we take in from the outside. Several of the superintendencies of our larger cities are held by men from other states. Three years ago, when the city of Detroit was searching for a man to take charge of her great system of schools, she went west and brought home from Denver, Colo., our present superintendent, Charles E. Chadsey. The most American thing in America is our public-school system. Nowhere is the work of pubHc education better illustrated than in Michi- gan. Our state university, with over seven thousand students from every country in the world; our normal-school system, with more than four thou- sand students; our agricultural college, with an enrolment of two thousand students; a group of splendid denominational colleges, with two thousand students; our public schools with over five hundred thousand children in attendance — all these testify to our conviction that the safety of our coun- try demands that "schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." We tax ourselves to support our educational establishment, not, primarily, to give the young people certain advantages. We regard our tax as an investment which richly repays us in the quality of the citizens we get to take part in our democracy. We believe that the most expensive liability a state can have is an ignorant citizen. When I hear the reckless attack made at times by hostile critics of our schools, I wonder what counsel gives them inspiration. That our schools are not perfect, no one will deny. But when I think how young the institution is, and what pro- digious burdens have been heaped upon it all at once, and when I see with my own eyes with what marvelous skill the schools of the country discharge their responsibihty, I declare to you that the American public school chal- lenges the admiration of the whole world. A little while ago I visited the schools of Calumet, that wonderful mining camp in northern Michigan. I found there in one schoolroom boys and girls representing thirty different nationalities. The wall before them was draped with the stars and stripes. I saw the boys and girls rise and salute their flag. And then in a reverent spirit they sang: My Country, 'tis of thee, Sweet land of liberty, Of thee I sing. I have heard our national anthem sung many a time before, but since that day it has had for me a new meaning. Go into the schools of Detroit 904 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit some evening and you will find there ten thousand men and women who, at public expense, are being given the fundamentals of an education. Many of these are foreigners who are being taught our language and who are being taught the meaning of American citizenship. My friends, I will close as I began: Michigan appreciates the honor of entertaining this great meeting of the nation's educational leaders. We welcome you the more because you are engaged in a work dose to the hearts of the people of Michigan — a work we regard as the most important business in our country. We welcome you because your presence will be an inspiration to us this week, this year, and the years to come. In behalf of the sterling citizenship of our state; in behalf of twenty thousand teachers — the most enthusiastic, loyal, and devoted teachers that ever blessed a great state; in behalf of one miUion of the most splendid boys and girls; in behalf of the superintendents and teachers of Michigan here present, I extend to you a hand of welcome. RESPONSE TO ADDRESS OF WELCOME FRANCIS G. BLAIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. Speaking for the members of this great Association, I cannot assume that your welcome extends any farther than to us as a body of men and women engaged in a great work. I cannot assume that your welcome extends to the ideas which we bring, to the educational programs and resolutions which we shall here formulate. This fact is not mentioned as a matter of complaint, but rather to raise a question which strikes at the very spirit of American Ufe. It is charged that the people of the United States have scant regard for the opinions of their leaders in any field of thought, that they treat with indifference or contempt the opinions of experts, that they resent authority, and show little respect for law. I cannot, of my own knowledge or experience, assert that this attitude is peculiar to America, but some who are widely traveled and deeply learned in the afifairs of nations declare that nowhere else in the world are the leaders of thought — the experts — held in such light regard as in this great democracy. In the face of this great world-crisis, it is becoming in us as the leaders of education in this great democracy to review seriously our educational creeds and philosophies to see whether this gross national defect is in any way chargeable as an outcome of our educational system. Of course, some of it results directly from the very form of our govern- ment. Its cornerstone is the Declaration of Independence, whose glowing lines declare " that all men are created equal and are endowed with certain inalienable rights." No one who believes in the true spirit of a democracy will in any way try to tarnish the luster of those shining, glorious words, Superintendence] RESPONSE TO ADDRESS OF WELCOME 905 but he will stupidly err if in accepting the doctrine that all men are created equal he concludes therefrom that the judgments of all men are equally trustworthy upon all questions. No one will lightly cast a doubt upon the soundness of this doctrine of equahty in so far as it relates to equality of opportunity. The cynic may deny it and the unfortunate may doubt it, but the man of faith, the patriot, will ever hold it as a sound and precious truth, altho he knows that equahty of opportunity does not mean equaUty of condition or attainment. This gospel of equaUty of opportunity is the modern Jacob's ladder on which are seen ascending and descending, not angels, but boys and girls, men and women. Who are these that are descend- ing? They are the children and grandchildren and great-grandchildren of those men and women who heard the call of opportunity and who, thru heroic effort and merit, climbed to the very top, honored by the people as worthy leaders, and blessed as noble benefactors, but whose offspring lost the gleam of the star and the callof opportunity, and fooHshly assumed that achievement and merit can be transmitted from father to son, and stupidly erred in thinking that in America positions of social and civic preferment are hereditary. So down they come, some of them reluc- tantly, some of them resentfully, but nevertheless they descend to get a new point of view and a new start. And who are these who are ascending ? They are those who have caught the glint of the star and have heard the call. Here is a lad whose father but yesterday was a workman on the sec- tion. This is the son of a fruit peddler. And this one caught his vision and his zeal between the handles of a plow. These, all, are the children of high endeavor, the sons and daughters of American opportunity. Who, with all of its inconsistencies, with all of its disappointments, with all of its failures, would draw a curtain of doubt and discouragement over this glowing ideal ? But while something of this national infirmity which we are considering may spring from this foundation doctrine of freedom and equality, we may discover if we look farther that much of it finds its origin in our educational creeds and philosophies. At about the same time that we were writing the governmental theories of Rousseau into our Declaration of Independence we were writing his educational ideas into our systems of education. But it took over a hun- dred years for his theories of extreme individualism, of revolt against authority in education, to exert any marked influence upon the prevaihng methods in education. But reinforced by the sweet and gentle teachings of Pestalozzi and Froebel and systematized by Herbart the spirit of this great revolt against the ancient doctrines of authority and discipline and obedience has swept into and pervaded the entire body of our system of public education. No one who knows will undertake to deny that this great change has brought into public education a spirit of sympathy which it sadly needed. 9o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit It changed the center of gravity of the educational solar system. It placed the child and his interests at the center, and made all other matters — educational theories, courses of study, and methods of instruction — revolve about him and take their meaning from him. It breathed into the nostrils of an austere and rigid form the breath of life and it became a Uving soul. All of this the most conservative will admit. They will go even farther and agree that this great rebirth in educational doctrines and procedure has added greatly to the strength of our democracy. But there are many, who are in no sense educational heretics, asking seriously whether we have not carried this spirit of individualism too far. There are those who are not wedded to the old regime in education who feel that modern society has suffered a great loss by this extreme reaction against authority and discipHne and obedience. No one will deny that every child has certain inborn possibilities and potentialities which must be allowed to unfold according to the law of his own nature, but one may very properly question whether any individual, so developed, can live and work with his fellows, can play the part of a man in the affairs of a great nation, unless he has learned somewhere along the line that beyond his individual needs and desires there he powerful social and civic forces and laws which will add to or subtract from his per- sonal power and influence as he works with them or against them. No one desires a return of the old strait-jacket system of discipline. Every- one rejoices in the new freedom which has come to the child in the new methods of organization and control, but many thoughtful people are asking whether the movement has not gone too far, whether our children are not suffering a distinct loss in character thru the decay of obedience to rule and order, whether it is not breeding a weakness in the very quahty of citizenship. Everyone wants the child to think out for himself everything that lies within his power. Everyone wants him to doubt, to question, to experi- ment until he finds a satisfactory answer. No one wants him to accept the opinions and commands of others with unthinking dociUty. No one asks that he stultify his own intelligence and smother his own will in servile, stupid obedience to another. But many believe profoundly that the greatest respect for authority is compatible with the highest degree of intel- ligence, that the strongest will is capable of the most instant and complete obedience to the will of others, that the very greatest degree of freedom comes only to him who recognizes and obeys established law and authority. It is very right that we should hold up before the youth of this country the opportunity that everyone has to become a leader in some field of endeavor. It furnishes a worthy ideal. It points out a definite star to which all may hitch their wagon. But we shall err greatly if we do not make it clear that there can be no leaders unless there are followers; that an army made up wholly of generals would be an impossible army. We must show that no one can lead unless he has learned how to follow. We Superintendence] WHAT IS GOING ON IN THE WORLD 907 must never lose sight of the fact that this great economic, social, and civic democracy demands group-thinking and group-acting ; that its very safety depends upon the power of its citizens to fix their thought harmoniously upon a common aim, to concentrate their effort solidly toward a common end. I do not Want to be misunderstood. I am not alarmed by every shadow cast by the clouds of war. I refuse to become panic-stricken at the sight of the very clouds themselves. I do not share that feeUng of worshipful awe which some good people are exhibiting toward this new international god called Efiiciency. How in the midst of this great test of the nations that word has been flung round the world! How it has been blazoned upon the very sky! A gentleman addressing a large audience in one of our cos- mopoUtan cities declared that unless the United States could effect thru its educational system the same degree of economic and governmental efficiency possessed by some of the European nations, Ichabod would be written across our door and the light of our great democracy would go out forever. Not a few of us will sympathize with the statement of the speaker who replied that rather would he contemplate the destruction of American democracy thru its liberty-loving, wasteful, blundering incompetence than assist in compelling it to that fatal form of efficiency which is driving some European nations on to their certain ruin. Not one of us desires that the American government shall become so compactly articulate that like an ivory ball it shall take its directions and angles of reflections from a cue held in one man's hand. But we shall be untrue to the sacred trust committed to us as leaders in public education if we do not weigh carefully the meaning of that great word efficiency in its relation both to our educational system and to our government. We may discover that a very great deal of the thing which that word signifies can be appropriated by us with profit to our schools and to our nation. We may discover that thru the shifting of the emphasis in some of our theories of education and thought, the redirection of some of our methods of instruction and control, we shall attain that kind of efficiency which is the essence of a real democracy — individual freedom with respect for authority, personal independence with loyal acknowledgement of leader- ship, the greatest degree of intellectual and civic liberty, joined with the most profound respect for law and order. WHAT IS GOING ON IN THE WORLD NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, PRESIDENT, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, * NEW YORK, N. Y. [Abstract from Newspaper Reports] Have you really considered how profoundly every one of us must be affected by what is going on in the world ? The day that marked the open- ing of the present great war in Europe marked also the opening of the great goS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit struggle to determine whether our present civilization is to survive or whether we are to enter on a period of social retrogression which *will pull us back into even lower depths than those from which we have climbed. At the present time, strange and unfamiliar conditions confront us. So many things that we thought settled forever are uncertain; so many things that we thought we had put behind us are staring us in the face; what we have longed for and prayed for now seems impossible. The times are so grave, the disturbance of settled order is so severe, the break with advancing civilization is so complete, that no man dare speak with con- fidence or dogmatism. And it was all so unexpected! In June, 19 14, I was in Paris, with one hundred representative men of all the great nations of the earth. They spoke of the multiplying evidences of a new era when all the nations of the earth would be friends, leaving the world to give all its thought to social betterment and civic improvement. And even as we were speaking the thunder clouds were gathering for the greatest storm in history! We often read of great crises as if they were specimens in a museum. We speak of the fall of Rome, of the Renaissance, of the French Revolution, of American constitution-making, almost as if they were things apart from us. Unless I am mistaken, we are living even now in one of the great world-epochs. As I read history, there have been only two eras of signifi- cance equal to this. Five hundred years before Christ, the battles of Thermopylae and Salamis determined that Greek democratic individualism rather than Oriental collectivism of race, religion, caste, and fixed authority, should be the dominant note of government in the Western world. The second great crisis came when Charles Martel drove back the Arab hordes at Tours, thus deciding that Western civilization should be not Moham- medan but Christian. From that day to this, Western civilization has not had so much at stake as in the present war. Happy are we to be neutral, but we cannot be indifferent or withhold our moral judgment when every- thing that we hold dear is in the melting-pot. With the opening of the European war there began a new epoch in the history of civilization. On the issue of that war depends the existence of this civilization of which we are so proud. What has the world been doing these past one thousand years? It has been building nations that sought to be ends in themselves. This nation-building began with the downfall of the Roman Empire, and in this struggle of men to express themselves in terms of the nation we have the clew to the history of the past ten centuries. We have erected the nation into something superior to moral rules and obligations. It is this false patriotism — a patriotism that makes the nation superior to moral law— that is now singing hymns of hate. It is that narrow and unethical con- ception of nationalism that has brought Europe to the edge of ruin. If our IL Superintendence] WHAT IS GOING ON IN THE WORLD QOQ civilization is to continue, this war must be the Nemesis of that nationalism which regards the nation as an end in itself. I am convinced that the present war is the result of this perverted notion of nationalism. It is one of those volcanic outbursts in terms of nations which shows the disturbance within. It is a blind, unthinking fanaticism that is hurling the nations at each other's throats, and, when the horrors of war have been relegated to the past, it will be determined whether the great principle of nationality is to be a blessing or a curse. What does it ^lean ? Will it prove to be what the Greeks call a " kathar- sis," a purification or a cleansing of the spirit ? Or does it mean that our children are to see the institutions of a thousand years dissolved like mist into elemental forms ? The world may or may not learn the lesson of this great conflict. It depends on us, in great measure, to say whether it shall be ruinous, or whether it shall pave the way to more splendid things by reason of the terrible lessons that are waiting to be learned. Spencer said that when evolution reached its high mark, an involution or inevitable downward tendency would set in, and then would come another upward tendency. If we are unable to grasp the lesson of this war, we must be content to drift back. Shall we do that ? I am an incurable optimist. For my part, I have faith to believe that the world is going to profit by its present dire experiences, and that we are going forward to a time when men will live and work together regard- less of the too restricted and too narrow views of nationality that prevailed in the past. I believe we are about to gain a new and a splendid conception of life and patriotism — a new internationalism such as the world has never seen. The great struggle of the nations is going to be a great purifier of thought — a stimulus to co-operation. Ultimately it will bring the world to a time when men will truly co-operate, when brotherly love will be a real, tangible thing and not a myth — a time when war will be a thing for- ever in the past. Another great lesson of the war will be learned in terms of religion. This will come to pass when we shall cease to worship a tribal God, cease to be twentieth-century pagans, and shall learn to serve the one, the only God of all nations. I like the saying of Bossuet: "Beware when God wipes out! It means He is getting ready to write!" It seems that the American nation, with all its acknowledged i^mperfections, has at this time a contribution to make to the world that will be epochal in its effect. We have learned, as the world may learn, that one nation may be made out of forty-eight nations. We have learned that people of diverse language, customs, and religions may dwell together in peace under one flag, provided each is' given his due rights. We have developed great leaders whose thought and opinion all the world may well receive. We ask the nations of the world to take Washington and make him theirs; we ask them to take all our leaders gio NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit that have done so well in developing the principles of federated unity and follow them in the cause of the civilization of the world and the eternal betterment of mankind. THE FORD IDEA IN EDUCATION SAMUEL S. MARQUIS, SOCIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT, FORD MOTOR COMPANY, DETROIT, MICH. The impression has somehow got abroad that Henry Ford is in the automobile business. It isn't true. Mr. Ford shoots abdut fifteen hun- dred cars out of the back door of his factory every day just to get rid of them. They are but the by-products of his real business, which is the making of men. WiUiam Carey, cobbler and missionary, asked as to the nature of his business, said: *'My business is extending the Kingdom of God, but I mend shoes in order to provide money to carry on my work." Mr. Ford's business is the making of men, and he manufactures automobiles on the side to defray the expenses of the main business. Some people call the fifty-acre group of buildings out in Highland Park the Ford Factory. Well, it is that, but it is a great deal more. It is a school. Mr. Ford is more interested in men than in machines. He is before everything else interested in the education of his employees. The Ford school at the present time has about twenty-five thousand pupils. It has fully twice that many more on the waiting list. Before very long people will be registering an appUcation at the Ford school for their boys as soon as they are born, just as they are now doing at some of the more exclusive academies and colleges down east. Any man can enter 'the Ford school, provided there is a vacancy, who is eighteen years of age and is out of employment. Married men are preferred to single, and boys with mothers to support are given a chance before those who have no one dependent upon them. The boy under twenty-two years of age with no one looking to him for support is not eligible for profit-sharing. It would be cheaper to admit him than the boy with someone dependent upon him for support; but Mr. Ford prefers the latter at five dollars per day to the former, because the money will do more good in meeting the needs of more people. A prominent eastern manufacturer said to me recently: There is no use trying to meet facts with theories. Mr. Ford has done for his men that which I said could not be done and ought not to be done, but he has done it, and it works to the benefit of all concerned, and that puts an end to the argument. I have come on to find out how he does it, for I want to do as nearly as I can the same things for my employees, Mr. Ford has done in finance that which financial experts claimed was impossible, fie has a^ccompHshed in mechanical liiies that which trained Superintendence] THE FORD IDEA IN EDUCATION QII and experienced men said could not be accomplished. His one answer to the statement, ''It can't be done," is to do it. A young engineer, a graduate of one of our universities, said to me: "If Henry Ford had had a technical training, he would have known better than to have attempted to do some of the things he has done successfully." And the young man did not see the humor in his statement. It is a good thing that once in a while some man with originality and courage, and unhampered by the traditions of the schools, confronts the mechanical, economic, and social problems of the world. Because there is a man of this kind out at the Ford is the reason why the impossible and the unexpected happen there so frequently. When the Ford profit-sharing plan was announced, the Jeremiahs got busy. All sorts of dire things were about to happen. The labor market would be upset. Chaos would reign in the industrial world. Ford em- ployees, made suddenly rich, would squander their wealth to the detriment of the community and the lasting injury of themselves. But nothing of the sort has happened. Things quite the contrary have come to pass. When Mr. Ford made known his intention to give the man who had made a mistake a chance to come back, another howl went up. The city would be overrun with undesirables. Crime would increase. Men, it was asserted, would break into jail in order to get into the Ford. It didn't happen; and the reason why this did not happen, and the reason why Ford employees did not spend their money in a manner detrimental to themselves and to the community, and the reason why the labor market was not demoralized, and the reason why workmen in other factories did not throw down their tools and go on a strike, and the reason why all the other dreadful things predicted did not come to pass, was that along with the profit-sharing plan went a plan for the education of the working-men in thrift, honesty, sobriety, better housing, and better living generally — a plan that protected them and everybody else. The Ford idea in education was declared impossible. The men would not stand for it. It invaded their personal rights. It took away their liberty. It was paternalism of the worst sort. But it has worked. It is not resented except occasionally by a man who claims that the liberty guaranteed him under the Constitution of the United States to get drunk and beat up his wife has been invaded. The Ford school provides five compulsory courses. There is a course in industry and efficiency, a course in thrift and economy, a course in domestic relations, one in community relations, and one in industrial relations. The Ford English school, which is an important branch of the main school, provides courses in speaking, reading, and writing Enghsh, and in arithmetic. This course is not exactly optional. A man who declines to take it is laid off for a couple of weeks in order that he may have time to 912 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit think it over. If after further persuasion he refuses to attend the classes he is given an opportunity to find employment elsewhere. I must not forget to mention that in this school we have our professor of table manners who teaches the art of eating a meal in a manner that will not interfere with the appetite of the other fellow. We also have a profes- sor of etiquette, such as is required in the ordinary station of life. Then we have a special course in the art of making a new start in hfe, with the degree of A.M. LL.D., which being interpreted means: A Mistake Doubly Lived Down. The big lesson we try to teach in this course is that while no man can outrun his past he can outgrow it. A study of the foregoing courses will make it clear that the Ford idea of education is: 1. To improve a man's tastes and at the same time increase his earning power. 2. To teach a man to use his income in a constructive manner. 3. To put a man into a right relation with his family. 4. To put a man into right relations with his community. 5. To put a man right with his work and his employer. 6. To fit the foreigner to become a citizen and to encourage him to do so. 7. To give the man who is down and out a chance to come back. It is a poor, blind, blundering, educational system which cultivates in a man a taste for things which it in no way prepares him to obtain. To increase a man's capacity for happiness and at the same time to fail to develop his power for procuring the means for obtaining the happiness for which you have given him the craving is a cruel thing to do, not a kindly one. That educational system is a failure which does not provide for compulsory vocational training for every boy or girl, high and low, rich and poor. The system of education which only increases, thru the so-called cultural studies, the capacity for happiness, and fails to develop the power for gaining that happiness, is a system bound to increase human misery and failure. The Ford idea is to increase a man's capacity for happiness and at the same time to increase his efficiency, his earning capacity, his worth to society, so that he may have access to the things he has been taught to enjoy. The thing we need to see is the cultural possibilities in vocational train- ing. It is possible to develop a man's mind and soul in the training of his hand. We fail to see this because we underestimate the dignity of manual toil and its worth to society. " I want you to go to school and get an educa- tion so that you will not have to work as hard as I have worked," was a remark often made to me by my father. He did not mean to do so, per- haps, but he was instilling into my mind the idea that an education meant a higher standing in the social scale and exemption from the degradation of physical toil. One still meets too frequently with this enervating and demoralizing idea in the atmosphere of our pubHc schools and colleges. A college man at the Ford school discovers that he has a great many things Superintendence] THE FORD IDEA IN EDUCATION 913 to learn under the tutorship of men who have never seen the inside of a college. The fact is, we are giving at the Ford a great many high-school and college men their first real cultural training so far as will, thoroness, accuracy, honesty, and a sense of the dignity of labor are concerned. Edu- cation does not consist in developing the human intellect alone, but the will and emotions as well. It is not enough that a man thinks right, he must be able to will what is right, and to feel what is right as well. We believe at the Ford that the true aim of education is to increase the sum-total of human happiness, but you cannot make an addition to a man's happiness that will stay unless at the same time you increase his usefulness to society. In order to get more, he must be able to give more. Cultural training without vocational training is about as wise a procedure as planting wheat in the desert before developing a system of irrigation. True culture cannot be imparted before one has experienced the toil out of which culture springs. Much of our school culture starves to death. It is bUndly given at the expense of the training on which it must depend for sustenance in after- years. In public school and college we stimulate study by assuring the pupil that an education will pay. It will mean more dollars in one's pocket later on. We stimulate a man's desire for an education at the Ford school in the same way. But we go farther. We not only teach a man how to earn more money, -but we begin at once to teach him how to spend it. Lessons on how to use money are just as important as lessons on how to earn it. We receive every man on six months' probation. This is our prepara- tory school in which a man qualifies for profit-sharing. It is during this time that we make a careful study of his habits. If, at the end of six months, we are satisfied as to his ability to make use of his profits, we place him on the profit-sharing list, but he must have demonstrated the fact that he spends money in a constructive way. There are but two ways of spending money. One builds up and the other destroys the man, his family, and the community in which he lives. The Ford man must be a builder. If he is not, he is called into the oflSce and his destructive habits are pointed out. He is informed that until these habits are overcome his profits will be withheld. If he makes good within thirty days, all withheld profits are restored; if it requires sixty days for him to get right, he receives 75 per cent of his withheld profits and 25 per cent are put into a charity fund. The company does not benefit by the withheld profits of its men. If a man taken off his profits does not qualify within six months, his discharge at the end of that time is automatic. Needless to say, few men discharge themselves. The certainty of the loss of a minimum income of five dollars a day, by spending it unwisely, is a strong incentive to the constructive use of money. Environment plays an important part in the Ford idea of education. The environment of a man must be right if you expect him to come clean and 914 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit strong out of it. Thru our investigators, we frequently take a look into the homes of our employees. If conditions are not right in the home, we set ourselves the very first thing to the task of making them right. If famiHes are separated, we endeavor to bring them together. If husband and wife are living apart, we leave nothing undone in our effort to reunite them. When the efficiency of a good workman begins to decline, we have come, as the result of past experiences, to look into the home for some kind of domestic trouble. In the majority of instances we find our suspicions confirmed. Family quarrels have an almost immediate effect on the output of lathes and drill presses. Much has been said about the home as the foundation of state and church. We have made the discovery at the Ford that the family is also the basis of right economic and industrial conditions. The welfare of the factory, no less than the welfare of the state and church, depends upon the home. We therefore keep a close watch on the home. We encourage better housing. We take families up bodily, if need be, and move them into better neighborhoods. We insist that a man shall provide generously in proportion to his means for his wife and children. Should he fail to do this, we may turn his profits over to his wife, until he learns to do the square thing. We impress upon a man's mind the fact that the one condition on which we will share profits with him is that he in turn will share them with his family. Mr. Ford's idea is that a home in which there are roomers or boarders can never be a real home. We therefore insist that the wife of a profit- sharer be free to give her entire time to the home. Roomers and boarders must go or profits are withheld. Wives seldom object to this ruHng. So firmly convinced are we that the home is the first essential to right living that more than once we have gone out and rented a house, sent to distant cities for the workman's family, and put them together in the new home. The results are worth many times the investment. I regard the discovery by the Ford school of the economic value of the family as one of the most important contributions made in modern times toward the problem of bringing the home back to its proper place in modern society. It is a fact, once it is appreciated, which will throw the energy of our great industrial organizations into the reconstruction of the home. In addition to the course in domestic relations, we have a course on civic relations. We have a great many foreigners. A great many letters come to us criticizing us for employing so many. To these we reply, reminding the writer that his great-grandfather — ^possibly his grandfather or father — was a foreigner, and that had the people already on American soil treated his illustrious ancestor as he wants us to treat the foreigner today, he would be wallowing in the slums of some European city instead Superintendence] THE FORD IDEA IN EDUCATION 915 of enjoying his present privileges. We are taking no little pains to make these foreigners citizens in the best sense of the word. We are trying to teach them a higher kind of patriotism than some of our ''hope to die" American critics display in their condemnation of our employment of the "hated foreigner." In short, we are trying to lead these men to love their adopted country without acquiring a hatred of the one from which they came. It is curious how many people mistake the hatred of other lands for the love of their own. These are those patriotic people who tell you how the sight of the stars and stripes in a foreign port brought tears to their eyes, and in the next breath tell you how cleverly they beat their beloved country out of its revenue when they passed thru the customs on their return from abroad. The Ford English school, of which mention has already been made, was established especially for foreigners in our employ. In that school we have at the present 136 instructors and 2,200 students. We teach them to speak, read, and write English and give them instructions in other funda- mental branches of knowledge. We use the dramatic system of instruc- tion. The men come to classes before and after work for a short time two days in each week. The lessons last an hour and a half. The course is given in 68 lessons covering a period of 34 weeks. The men who come up to the required standard are graduated. On next Sunday we graduate a class of 512 and have our exercises in the Light Guard Armory. Each graduate receives a diploma. Our teaching force is a voluntary one, and in order to increase the efficiency of these men, some of whom have never been beyond the sixth grade in school, we have organized a Teachers' Club which has much of the spirit of a college organization. Matters of general educational interest are discussed, college songs are sung, and a fraternal spirit is created. The object of this English school is not only to make the men more efficient in our work in the shop, but also to prepare them for citizenship. The first thing we teach them to say is, " I am a good American," and then we try to get them to five up to the statement. We found in the beginning a prejudice on the part of one nationality in the factory against another. A candidate for the vice-presidency of one of our graduating classes was repeatedly turned down, and when the men were asked why they did not vote for him they stated that it was on account of his nationahty. It was explained to them that neither he nor they were foreigners, but that they were all Americans and should vote for the man purely on the basis of merit. After this explanation was made the man was unanimously elected. We encourage these men to buy homes, knowing that the ownership of property will lead to interest in civic matters. We encourage them to take out naturalization papers, rendering them every possible assistance we can in this matter. And in promoting men we do not overlook the efforts of those who have co-operated with us along these Unes. We feel, 91 6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit and we try to make them feel, that there is something wrong with the man who accepts the privileges of this country and refuses to assume in return his full share of the duties of citizenship. The right relationship between employer and employee follows naturally in the wake of the things we try to do for our men. The spirit of the Ford school is not that of patemahsm but of fraternahsm. "Help the Other Fellow" is the motto of the institution. We try to be fair with our men, and their appreciation is shown in the hearty good-will with which they do their work. One hears a great deal of Ford efficiency. The secret of Ford efficiency is the good-will of his employees. The men are happy, made happy by the wage and profit-sharing that put anxiety out of life. In return for what they receive the men work not only with a will, but with a "good- will," and no efficiency methods ever devised can take the place of the "good-will" of employees toward employer. Will plus scientific efficiency methods will do great things, but "good- will" plus ordinary inteUigence will do a lot more. And when you get the two together — good-will and efficiency — competition ceases. This is why Henry Ford is getting out of raw, unskilled, and what some ignorant people call "ignorant foreign labor" greater 'results than any other employer in modern times. The consciousness of having made his workmen happy was the pay he expected for doing it. The increased efficiency of his men as a result of their good-will came as a by-product and exceeded all expectations. Our special course for the man who is struggling to regain his place in the world would require an article of great length were I to go into detail. Suffice it to say that of those given the chance, the great majority do make good. Mr. Ford's idea is that the cure for crime is work, not in stripes and behind stone walls, but in the open where men are made strong by the con- fidence and encouragement of their fellow-men. Experience is demonstrat- ing the truth of his theory. There is a very definite end in view in the Ford idea of education. We have in mind a man who is right in his relations toward his employer, his family, and toward the community in which he fives. This is the kind of man we have in view. This is the human product we seek to turn out, and as we adapt the machinery in the shop to turning out of the kind of automobile we have in mind, so we have constructed our educational system with a view to producing the human product we have in mind. Knowing the kind of man we want, we proceed first of all in accordance with Mr. Ford's idea to make it possible for a man to have his share of human happiness; for no man can be right in his relations to his employer and to society so long as they deny him the happiness, or the means thereto which it is his right to have. Henry Ford's greatest desire in life is to make others happy. Inci- dentally he has proved to the world that the business of making others Superintendence] DEBATE ON SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 917 happy pays commercially. But the fact that it pays is not his first con- sideration. A great deal of his money comes as a sort of by-product of the business of helping the other fellow. It seems that every time he dis- covers a way of making more people happy, more money pours in. But so long as the money is used, as it always is, to give more people employ- ment at a wage that provides for some of the luxuries of life, as well as for its necessities, nobody cares. Henry Ford is one of the few men controlling great wealth whom the masses of men want to see control still more. DEB A TE: THE BEST ORGANIZA TION FOR AMERICAN SCHOOLS IS A PLAN WHICH SHALL DIVIDE THESE SCHOOLS INTO STX YEARS OF ELEMENTARY TRAINING AND SIX YEARS OF SECONDARY TRAINING I. CHARLES H. JUDD, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL., AFFIRMATIVE How long are the elementary schools and the high schools to stand apart ? How long are pupils in the seventh and eighth grades to be deprived of their right to a richer course of study because of the artificial line which has heretofore cut them off from geometry and biology, from the languages and literature of other nations, and the skilled arts which train the eye and hand ? How long are we to accept with complacence the wasteful and discouraging reviews which characterize the eighth grade and compel chil- dren to mark time on the threshold of the great change into the first year of high school ? How long are we to tolerate a curriculum in the first year of the high school which seems so strange to the ordinary child that he is alienated from the pursuit of higher knowledge ? These are the questions which we are to discuss today. The answer is brief and clear. So long as you listen to the dark counsels of those who say to you that children in the upper years of the elementary school cannot do more than they are now doing, you will hold them back. So long as you let those who scoff at their fellow-teachers make you think that high schools are for the few and elementary schools have the secret formulas of democ- racy, you will be content to shut your eyes to the fact that the American high school is one of the most typical expressions of our western-world democracy. So long as you are willing to jog along with the clumsy school organization that originated in the middle of the last century, you will waste the time of children by your ox-cart methods. If, on the contrary, you will open your eyes and realize that our high schools today register 30 per cent of all the children of high-school age, you will begin to see that the time has come to adopt a modern form of organization which wiU facilitate the contmuation of every child's education. 9i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit If you realize that the three R's have expanded in the modern world into science and civics, into art and knowledge of human life, you will be inspired with enthusiasm for the introduction of some of these better things into the earlier years of a child's Ufe. Elementary schools should not be the homes of drudgery and the abode of the downtrodden. Elementary schools have a right to a part of the new light of a new age. If we Uberalize the elementary school, we shall also, in like spirit, liberaUze the first year of the high school. When one thinks of the wall of Latin, algebra, and ancient history, over which most of us climbed half a generation ago, he is certainly glad of an opportunity in mature Hfe to knock a few stories from the foundation of that moss-grown barrier. The answer, I say, is brief and clear. We cannot longer allow anyone to befool us into satisfaction with the present breach between the elementary schools and the high schools. Lest there should be a few conservatives among us, let us begin by asking them what is sacred about the eight years of the present elementary school. Were these eight years determined upon after careful consideration ? Not at all. The elementary school was, at the outset, an undefined and, in many respects, unlimited institution. One can remember, if his experience goes back to a district school, how the older boys and girls of the community came in during the winter term and took a little work when they were otherwise unoccupied on the farm or in the home. Pupils in such schools were frequently much older than our present eighth-grade pupils. The reason why they came to the common school was that no high school was near at hand to offer them extended opportunity. These older pupils were the forerunners of those who today are demanding a larger and a richer education than that which has heretofore characterized the grades. Indeed, in New England, where economic conditions were favorable, the experiment of a nine-year elementary school was tried. Even today over the whole state of Maine, except in the large cities, the nine-year school is the standard school and expresses the ambition of the people for more education than can be included in the limits of a course based on the three R's. On the other hand, there are seven-year elementary schools in the United States which go to show that there is nothing sacred about the eight- year school. In many of our southern states the seven-year school flour- ishes and is retained by men and women of this organization who are thoroly acquainted with the eight-year school. The famous experiment in Kansas City shows that a seven-year school is a perfectly rational and altogether economical school. So much mis- information has been circulated about the Kansas City schools that I took pains to secure from Superintendent Cammack information on the matter. The average time required by the pupils who last year completed the seventh grade in Kansas City was 7.65 years. We know that the Superintendence] DEBATE ON SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 919 average time required by children in eight-year schools to complete the eighth grade is 8 . 5 years, so that it is seen that the Kansas City schools get their children thru the elementary course a year earlier than other schools. Superintendent Cammack's figures show, also, that more of the children get thru the Kansas City schools than in eight-year systems. All these details show that the eight-year school is not a fixed law of nature. Where, then, did it come from? Some time in the middle of the last century when the high schools were very little developed, when the common school gave the common child all the training he was to get, the example of Europe was accepted and our eight-year school crystallized into form. The European eight-year school is the product of an entirely different national attitude toward education. In Europe, the boy or girl who goes to an eight-year school goes no farther. The eight-year school is a complete unit. The eight-year school of Europe is the device of aristocracy to give only a limited education to the common people. The school of Europe which is intended for children who are going on is not an eight-year school. No child of the governing class goes to the eight-year school in Europe. This is the thing we borrowed from Europe — an eight-year school for the poorer classes, an eight-year school which aims at a meager education, an eight-year school sharply marked off from the higher schools. It is interesting to note in this connection that the age of fourteen which was selected as the upper limit of compulsory education was not determined by a careful investigation of the intellectual Ufe of children or the subject- matter of instruction; it was originally established in Europe and in the traditions of our civilization because it is the period of confirmation in the church. In Europe religious education has always been a part of the work of the school, and when the child is ready for confirmation his education automatically stops. The student of education sees in the later developments of American schools a brilliant illustration of the biblical parable. This old European bottle, full of the New World ferment, is covered with the patches put on by conscientious but misguided hands, and yet hope grows less and less that our new ambitions can be held together in this antique vessel. The elementary school breaks up when nature asserts itself. In the best schools of this country the upper grades are departmentalized. This means that the methods of teaching children cannot be the same in the lower grades and the upper grades. The division of the eight-year school into upper classes conducted by one method and lower classes conducted by other methods is a natural and wholesome readjustment. Further evidence that the eight-year school is no unit appears in the fact that the present-day course of study is different from that offered in the old-fashioned unit school. One cannot keep an eighth grade alive on 920 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Detroit ditch-digging problems and definitions of parts of speech. There are new courses in civics, new courses in local industries, and new courses in science. There is even a tendency to read some of the classics in EngUsh literature which used to be labeled as the exclusive property of the high school. The dupHcating of high-school work has gone so far in the upper grades of the elementary school that harsh words are sometimes passed down by high- school teachers who find that Julius Caesar and other strictly high-school characters have been kidnaped. What does all this duplicating mean ? It means that you can surround the common people of the United States by an eight-year school, but they will break out as soon as they can. In America there is today in reality no eight-year school. The shell is broken, save only in those unfortunate localities where some arch-conservative is holding it together by devices which repudiate nature. If we turn from worn-out European tradition to scientific studies of himaan nature or even to observation such as a sensible teacher can make, we find that it is the twelve-year-old child who is putting away childish things in the first flush of adolescence. The twelve-year-old child begins to look into the larger world. He begins to think of his duties to society and himself. When he is fourteen or fifteen, he will be half thru the critical period of adolescence. If you want to influence an adolescent in a large way, you must begin at twelve, not fourteen. Another product of the science of human nature is the principle of individual differences. The fallacy of believing that all pupils are exactly aUke was the fallacy of a generation ago. The study of human nature and the needs of society have forced upon us a new conviction. We now realize that an individual to be a productive member of a democratic society must play some part other than that which is played by his feUows. In our schools we must provide preparation for the diversified duties of democratic society by giving full recognition to individual capacities and individual training. Children in the lower grades exhibit personal char- acteristics which deserve attention, but in those early days when the most fundamental types of learning are being worked out, the common traits of human nature are in preponderance. By the time the child has reached the fifth and sixth grades, his personality begins to express itself emphati- cally in new ways. Having cultivated acquaintance with the fundamentals of knowledge, he now begins to make applications of knowledge to his own individual life, and the period of adolescence finds him ready to assume personal responsibiUties and make personal decisions with regard to intel- lectual and moral matters. Whether we like it or not, the child in the seventh grade is growing into an individual. Whether we like it or not, his tastes and outlook will begin to mark themselves off sharply from the tastes and outlooks of other members of the class. That school alone is I Superintendence] DEBATE ON SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 921 intelligent in its management of seventh-grade children which recognizes the fundamental principle of individual differences. There are those among us who contend that children of this age must be driven into the same mold, that they must be made to fit some abstract notion, developed in the mind of the pedagog. Some of these conservatives may have their way for a time, but the years will prove that their conser- vatism is falsely conceived. That education is most appropriate to a democracy which is most broadly planned and executed. Up to this point we have shown that reorganization is going on in our school system thru the changes which are naturally developing in the elementary school. If we turn abruptly to the high school, we shall find here a tendency toward reorganization which is even more pronounced. The high school has been in some degree from the earliest period an institu- tion organized to give to all its students a broad outlook upon life. Some high schools have degenerated into appendages of colleges and have been satisfied to offer merely a narrow preparatory course. But the typical, the vigorous example of the American high school has been characterized by the broad purpose of introducing the student to life. The great fields of human knowledge are to be canvassed by the student in series of courses which carry him thru history, literature, science, and mathematics. In our modern high school there is added to this list of academic subjects an intensive study of the vernacular and a whole series of practical and indus- trial arts which are to widen the student's horizon. The result of this ambitious program is that the curriculum of the high school has come to be so crowded that it is quite impossible to meet the demands in the short four years allotted to this school. The Committee of Ten, when it made its report in 1894, saw very clearly that the secondary school cannot do the work which it must undertake and confine its program to four years. The pronouncement^ of that committee in this matter is perfectly definite and is as follows : In preparing these programs, the committee were perfectly aware that it is impossible to make a satisfactory secondary-school program, limited to a period of four years, and founded on the present elementary-school subjects and methods. In the opinion of the committee, several subjects now reserved for high schools — such as algebra, geometry, natural science, and foreign languages — should be begun earlier than now, and therefore within the schools classified as elementary; or, as an alternative, the secondary-school period should be made to begin two years earlier than at present, leaving six years instead of eight for the elementary-school period. Under the present organization, elementary subjects and elementary methods are, in the judgment of the committee, kept in use too long. The secondary school is thus on record as having discovered the prob- lem of reorganization before the lower school became clearjy aware of it. » Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Stttdies, p. 45. Published for the National Educa- tion Association by the American Book Company. 1894. 922 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit Even today we have a situation which can be described in somewhat the same terms. The secondary-school people are taking up the innovations of the intermediate school or the junior high school with enthusiasm. Elementary-school officers, on the other hand, are somewhat more conserva- tive. The elementary-school principal hesitates to lose his upper classes; the elementary-school principal is afraid that he is to be deprived of his most experienced and efficient teachers. While the high-school people are driven by sheer necessity to accept a change, the elementary-school people are not convinced because they feel that it may be possible by makeshift devices to evade for a time the real issue. That the high school is compelled to expand may perhaps be made more impressive by calUng attention to the fact that it has already expanded at the upper end into the Freshman and Sophomore years of college. There is not an American college which does not complete the secondary course of its students. In many institutions this is done by an evasion which can hardly be described as subtle. In these cases the college prints a long list of requirements, accepts students who do not fulfil these requirements, and then compels these students to make up conditions after entering. A "condition" is a confession that the college cannot demand from students its own prescribed secondary course. Other colleges deal with the problem more directly and say to the stu- dent, take elementary German or French, elementary history and science, in the early years of your college course and thus complete the broad survey of human knowledge which the high school could not complete. Until you finish this introductory work we cannot let you specialize or enter the professional schools. The evil of this situation lies, not in the fact that the colleges are in reality secondary schools in their Freshman and Sophomore years — the evil lies in the fact that many colleges are making a frantic effort to force the high school to do more work. Students take not four but five and even six units in a year in the effort to cover human experience in four years. The high school needs relief, and the broadest educational statesmanship will be exhibited in providing this relief. It would be easy to pile up arguments for the reorganization of the high school. What does it mean that some of our better schools are organiz- ing two-year courses? What does it mean that the elective system has come to the rescue of the first year ? What is supervised study ? Every reform in the high schools is an eloquent pronouncement in favor of an extension and a modification of the present school organization. Why one should have to present all these facts in the form of arguments is hard to understand. Let one look out over our schools and he will see the change coming. This is not a prophecy; it is a fact. More than lo per cent of the approved high-school systems in the north-central territory are at work today on the problem of organizing intermediate schools. We Superintendence] DEBATE ON SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 923 ought to have every ounce of our energy fo devote to the discussion of the best way of carrying out the program. It is truly irritating that one must pause to say, " Come with us; it is so, it is so," when he should be in council discussing the next step forward. Perhaps there are some who do not understand why this movement is so swift in our day. Perhaps those who hold back are merely dazed by the rapidity of the change. There is an explanation for all this, and perhaps we shall do well to give that explanation in all detail. When the Committee of Ten made its report, it had a theoretical insight into the situation, but its contentions operated only very feebly in bringing about real changes. This teaches that change in organization does not grow out of theory, and we have new confidence in the vitality of the real changes of today. In the same way, the forces that have been operating to change the elementary school have been at work slowly until, finally, within the last few years, there seems to be a consummation of this move- ment with a rapidity that is literally astonishing. When the historian of education writes an account of the last five years, he will point out the fact that during these years the great fundamental need of social economy bore down upon our people with unmistakable emphasis. It made very little difference in the early days of our American civilization that a student lost one or two years thru our clumsy school organization, but today we are not at liberty to waste the time of students in any sense of the word. We must give to students and we must give to communities the best forms of organization possible. There have been inco-ordinations in the earlier years, as every serious writer on education has realized and pointed out. Today the public is calling upon us, in an age of efficiency and scientific insight, to cure these inco-ordinations. We are forced to act and act promptly. What was theoretical discontent has become a real demand for improvement. Curiously enough, this demand for economy is misunderstood by some of our conscientious colleagues. They think of intellectual parsimony when we speak of economy. They think we are going to hold back something from children. They cry out for the old-fashioned waste as the sure mark of generosity. Let us exercise what charity we can with them. Let us tell them that economy means better organization, less friction, more rapid progress, less loss. Everywhere the forces of society are set in the direction of improving the opportunities of every child. These opportunities must be so complete and so well organized that there shall be no question at all about the investment of equipment and teaching which society is making in the schools and the investment which the child is making in time and energy. We must see to it that there is no wasteful duplication. We must fit the courses to the needs of the individual child. We must fit these courses to the needs of his growing mental life. We must change the methods of our administration at a time when it is appropriate to the child's 924 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit change in mental attitude. Anyone who stands in the way of this move- ment is an enemy of society and an enemy of the individual child. Economy does not mean something that is narrow and limiting; it means, rather, a better organization. Sometimes it has been said by those who oppose the intermediate school that the break between the sixth grade and the seventh grade will be widened by this new form of organization. They are saying, also, that the break between the ninth grade and the tenth grade is a menace to the fuller development of the child's education. The answer to these criticisms lies in the fact that the whole motive of this organization is to create a continuity where heretofore there has been a disjointed and wastefuUy dupHcating system. The seventh grade is to recognize the individual child's needs and is to give him such a course as is suited to his adolescent experience. In doing this, it will effect a change in methods of operation just at the point where the child himself is undergoing a change. The child will reach out and meet the change in school organization which is provided for him. To delay this change until two years after the child is prepared for it, as we do in an eight-year school, jeopardizes the whole relation of the school and the pupil. To make the change at the time in the child's life when he is ready for it and when the change will be congenial to his needs and intellectual demands is to economize his life and energy in the largest sense of the word. We avoid a break by moving parallel to the child's own motion, not by crossing him obliquely in the path of development. In exactly the same way, if we change the first year of the high school so as to make it fit the child's needs, we shall effect economy by removing those obstacles to the natural progress of the pupil which now exist in the first year of the high school. The effect on teachers and school officers will be equally wholesome with the effect on students. It is quite impossible to work out these changes which are contemplated in the organization of an intermediate school without showing the irrationality of all the harsh feehngs and criticisms that heretofore have existed between the elementary school and the high school. We shall make for unity by cultivating in the school organization itself a new spirit of adaptation of the courses to the students. If the whole corps of teachers could be trained by this new form of organization to see that the one dominating principle of school organization which is acceptable in modern society is the principle of continuity and adaptation to the child's needs, we shall have eradicated those criticisms and personal animosities which have in the past so often expressed themselves in the petty criticisms passed back and forth between shallow-minded partisans of distinct and antagonistic schools. In these few paragraphs, I have tried to outline the changes which are transforming the eight-year school into a richer school, better adapted to Superintendence] DEBATE ON SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 925 the children, and better related to the other members of the school system. I have tried to show that the high school, too, is changing. The consummation of these changes is seen in a new amalgamation of those grades which have until now been universally held apart. The seventh, eighth, and ninth grades belong together. No artificial line can permanently divide them. As we become more intelligent in our scientific insights, as our social Ufe expresses itself more freely, we become vividly aware that the sixth grade is the natural point of differentiation and that the problems of secondary education unfold themselves from the child's twelfth to eighteenth year. The new order of school is not an imitation of an outworn model; there is here all the vigor and appropriateness of a new social life finding its large and natural expression. There is a cure in this new organization for the littleness and provincialism of those earlier days of separation. Surely the burden of proof lies heavily on the shoulders of anyone who would oppose this movement. He must show that the old order is efl&cient, economical, and full of harmony. He must make us believe that the upper years of the elementary school are like the lower years. He must persuade us that the high school can give an adequate view of life in four years. He must not only persuade us, but he must also persuade the children in the schools and the parents in the homes. The strength of this new organization is in the fact that it meets a felt need. Where it is put into operation it holds children in the schools, equipping them for life in accord- ance with the laws of their natures. This movement is a great substantial social fact and he who opposes it must answer to society. II. CARROLL G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS., NEGATIVE In beginning this discussion, the negative makes no denial of the fact that the elementary schools of the country, as well as the secondary schools and the colleges, need readjustment and a much better adaptation to the needs of both the pupils and the community; none of these three grand divisions of the American educational system has kept pace with the changes in the industrial and social life of the nation, nor is any of them, in general, meeting satisfactorily the demands of the time. But to the plan proposed by the affirmative as a remedy for existing difficulties, the negative offers a most positive dissent. Our present educational system is a growth; it was not prescribed for us by others. It has grown up as the joint result of our national conditions and our compelHng desire that all the people be educated. It is, therefore, reason- able that it, and the causes that have produced it, receive consideration before it is gaily thrown aside for the plan here proposed, or for any other plan. 926 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit Our ancestors in the colonies that have given us our ideals in education clearly held two beUefs: first, that all children should be taught to read and write and cipher so that they could read the Bible and the laws, communi- cate with others or make a record, and compute, as required by their daily business; secondly, that leaders were needed, ministers, lawyers and judges, doctors, to tell the people what to think and what to do. To educate leaders, colleges were needed. These two notions gave us the elementary school and the college. Boys who wished to enter the colleges must be trained in that knowledge which was required by those institutions. Not all boys could be fitted for college by the father, or the minister, or some learned friend of the family. Academies and "grammar schools" were set up for this purpose. Two generations after the Revolution, Horace Mann preached his crusade, with its principle that every child should have the chance for an education, which, to him, meant a college training. To make broad the highway from primary school to university, the academy and the ''grammar school" were turned into the public high school. General intelligence increased; other subjects joined the "three R's" in the common-school curriculum. We wanted our children to learn certain things. But more especially we wanted them to remain in school until about the age of fourteen, at least, before taking up the burdens of life, or before deciding on the particular direction their future studies should take. The curriculum was arranged, from time to time, so as to occupy generally the time indicated. In Maine and in other New England states, where youth matures later, some nine-year elementary schools were estab- lished; thruout the South, owing to climatic conditions, maturity comes earlier, and many seven-year schools were instituted. But in general the eight-year elementary school became the accepted pattern for the country. There were always failures in the old-style schools. But the boys and girls who were poor at their books often did best at their work; they dropped out and went to work, and little was said. But when people flocked to the towns, schools became large, and were of necessity more closely graded. Here the large number of failures in the grammar grades attracted atten- tion; school funds are wasted when it takes two years to teach a boy what he should learn in one ; also, many children who fail leave school unprepared for successful work in life. But the high schools and colleges are having trouble as well as the elementary schools. Too few children get into the high school; too many fail after getting there; too many who fail, and too many others, drop out. Young men graduate from college too late by two or three years. When they enter the professions, they too often, because of the preparation now required, come into the practice two, three, even four years later than I Superintendence] DEBATE ON SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 927 they ought. A committee of the National Education Association on Economy of Time in Education stated a few years ago: Since the early New England college, we have added four years to preparation and three years to specializing for the professions. Instead of converting the college into the university, we have piled the German university on top of our imitation of the English type [of college] without adjustment of the system, and the situation is full of difficulties and absurdities. For this generally unsatisfactory condition we have been seeking remedies. Some public schools have put their grammar-grade failures into "industrial classes," giving them mostly hand work, in the effort to interest them and hold them in school; other schools have had similar classes called ''prevocational classes," which have sometimes tried also to train these children, made failures by the faulty conditions in regular classes, into usefulness as shop or factory hands. Now comes this proposal to cut off the seventh and eighth grades — separate the twelve- and thirteen- year-old children— from the elementary school and put them into the high school, thus organizing a six-year elementary school and a six-year high school. When we remember the difficulties which fourteen-year-old chil- dren now have in too many high schools, it seems a queer remedy. Two types of the six-year high school are proposed; sometimes one type is urged, sometimes the other. The one type is to provide separate courses, and probably, where possible, separate schools, for different groups of children. These are to be required to choose, at the end of the sixth grade, whether they will follow industrial careers, or go into commerce, or have a liberal education and probably go into a profession. If the chil- dren do not know what to select, someone is to choose for them and put them into the compartment selected. The other type is to be a sort of glorified grammar school, somewhat different from our present schools in equipment and curriculum, but differing chiefly in having the seventh and eighth grades separated from the lower grades. The first type of six-year high school, where children are separated into classes according to their "probable future employment," is no doubt sug- gested by those familiar with the secondary schools of England and Germany. In both these countries, only those who are to go into the pro- fessions or those who are to have a liberal education enter the secondary schools, which are largely separate institutions, and do not have any close or direct connection with the elementary schools. These secondary schools are for " the classes" — the children of families of wealth and social position, and for a limited number of other children who show promise of special mental ability; these are taken out of the elementary schools at twelve years of age or earlier, while most of the children — the common children — are left in the elementary schools to be trained as workers. The headmasters in the English' secondary schools, which are in reality college-fitting schools, clamor to have their students sent to them at the 928 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit age of twelve or earlier; in the German schools, children who are to have the "higher education" go into the secondary school before the age of twelve, often at the end of the fourth or even of the third school year. America does not wish a public-school system the organization of which is drawn from such educational practices, or from countries with such social and educational ideals. It is fair to ask who among us is now advocating this plan. I regret to say that our highest educational official has taken this, as I believe, erroneous view of the remedy for existing conditions. The honored and influential ex-president of a great eastern university is quoted as having said at an important educational gathering a few years ago that each child should choose, or someone should choose for him, at the age of twelve, his future career, and his future education should be shaped to that end. A Committee of the National Education Association on Economy of Time in Education in its report a few years ago favored the plan. In connection with this report it may be noted, however, that on this committee of five there were three college men and one high-school man; only one public- school man was among the number, and he was not the most aggressive member of the group. Many college men, including my distinguished opponent, would be pleased with this plan, and there are reasons why college men should favor it. The young men now too frequently come from the professional schools three or four years too late; too often they graduate from the colleges two or three years too late. Some kind of an adjustment will, within a few years, be forced. If the plan we are discussing could be adopted, the organi- zation of the professional school could be saved; the college could retain its present organization and prestige as a four-year institution. The college could then also get from the high school that more thoro and extended training in the college-preparatory studies which the college is now asking for but which the high school does not find itself able to give. That the two years thus gained for the benefit of the colleges would be taken from the elementary schools is no doubt of little importance to the college men. Only a small minority of children get thru the high school, and fewer yet get to college, and the college is interested only in this selected minority. By this plan too the proper aspiration of the high school to expand and become a more important institution could be gratified. It may be that if, by taking the two years from the elementary schools, this importance could be given to the high schools, they might relinquish the desire to expand by the plan of taking into the high school the "junior college," the first two college years. Only the common schools of the common people would suffer. Shorn of these two years, they would be greatly reduced in importance, in prestige, and in their power to influence American hfe and institutions. Many employers would be glad to see this six-and-six arrangement. The differentiated courses for the industrially destined pupils would give Superintendence] DEBATE ON SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 929 a means of training hand workers in the years from twelve to fourteen that nothing we now have can equal. One such employer is quoted as saying that he would Hke to have the public schools send him a boy who could "read a blueprint, run a drill press, and be satisfied with his job." A boy caught at the age of twelve and trained for his ''probable future employ- ment" as a hand worker might perhaps fill even this last specification and "be satisfied with his job" as attendant to a drill press for life. It is to be regretted also that some public-school men, who can hardly have realized what such a six-and-six plan would quite certainly do to the common schools sooner or later, are echoing the cry for the plan, the chief benefit of which is to be reaped by the colleges. Perhaps this is only natural; many public-school men are loyal graduates of the colleges which are push- ing this plan; they have been accustomed to look to the colleges for leader- ship; the colleges have recognized and regular means of giving publicity to their views. PubHc-school men seldom have mediums of publicity; they perhaps too often take the word of some one who offers to give it. The advocates of the plan tell us — that is, some of them in arguing the question do — that the great change in our young people comes at twelve, not at fourteen; that the age of twelve marks the time in a child's life when he puts away childish things and becomes a man. This, from "scientific men," sounds queer. Common people know without asking "educators" that these great physical and spiritual changes come at about the age of fourteen in our latitude and climate. In the tropical south, the time of change arrives earHer; far to the north, it may be delayed; but, for the great majority of our young people, it comes at about fourteen. I quote only one authority, G. Stanley Hall, who will no doubt be accepted as such. He says in his great work on adolescence: These years are the best decade of life, and that it [the book] may directly and indirectly help the young to exploit aright all the possibilities of the years from fourteen to twenty-four, and safeguard them against insidious dangers, is the writer's desire. It is childish to say that our elementary school has been made to end with the pupil's fourteenth year because the church confirms its children at fourteen. We have fixed the end of our elementary school to coincide with the fourteenth year for the same reason that the church confirms young people into its membership at that age; because, at about the age of four- teen, profound spiritual as well as physical changes fit the youth for this experience and participation. The church of Europe has learned thru a thousand years the wisdom of this course; and this is based upon an even older experience and practice running back into the mists of pagan anti- quity. If we should accept the age of twelve as a "change" period requir- ing a new and separated school organization, we must remember that there is another " change " period at about the ninth year; we must make another sub-organization and establish still another school in a separate water- tight compartment for children of that age. 930 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit Children at twelve years of age are seldom fit to make choice of a Hfe career; parents and teachers are seldom fit to make this choice for them at that time. You know that this is true of your own twelve-year-old children. Why should you presume to require the children of others — of the "common people" — to choose at that time? The changes of even preadolescence often put a very different face on matters in two years, and choices made at the age of twelve will often be and often ought to be remade at fourteen or later. The two years in question are, however, invaluable for vocational guidance — as a time for reflection and for obtain- ing information before children are forced to the iron gates of decision. Traditional standards and considerations, parental influence and the influence of surroundings, up to the age of thirteen are strong; after that young people begin to exercise greater independence in choosing occupations. But there is still a weightier reason than any of the foregoing why this type of the six-year high school ought not to be permitted to get a foothold among us. The deeper reasons for a public-school system are social and political. Every man pays school taxes to help to train every child of the state as an intelligent citizen. More important even than the knowledge which is so important to intelligent citizenship is the sentiment of real democratic equality, and a knowledge and understanding of each other and an interest in each other on the part of all our people — not merely the liberally educated, not merely the workers in industry or in commerce, but all the people. There is enough scramble and selfishness and conflict of interest after the youth leaves school for the work of life; there is enough tendency to social separation and exclusiveness if we do the best we can. But to push downward by two years the time when our children in the people's schools are separated into groups, largely if not wholly according to their "future probable employment," would be httle short of a crime on the part of those responsible for it, and nothing short of a calamity to us in our national life. The separated high schools, where commercial and industrial and "liberal" high-school courses of study are followed by separate groups of pupils under separate roofs, are bad enough; but to introduce this division at the end of the sixth grade would be as inexcusable as it is unnecessary. That form of the six-and-six plan which proposes a common course of study for all children but proposes to cut the seventh and eighth grades away from the grades below, while less dangerous and fraught with less grave dangers to our institutions in the near future, brings with it certain serious dangers nevertheless, and is wholly unnecessary; all the improve- ments and reconstructions which are required can not only be made without resorting to it, but they can be more advantageously made with an eight- year elementary school than under the six-and-six plan. The end of the elementary school is a natural stopping-place. If the common school ends with the sixth grade, a far greater number of pupils, Superintendence] DEBATE ON SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 931 especially those who are over age, will wish, or will be urged by short- sighted or greedy parents, to leave school, than will be the .case if the ele- mentary school stops only at the end of the eighth grade. This does not need argument; every practical school man knows it. If the six-year elementary and six-year high school is to be accepted as our type, a general reorganization of our schools everywhere must take place. This will require in many, probably in most places, the erection of special buildings for the new type of school, with new and expensive equip- ment and furnishings. It will require the appointment of teachers of the high-school type and with the high-school standard of salaries. A good many pubhc-school administrators, as well as a good many experienced parents, will wonder how much better off boys and girls in their thirteenth and fourteenth years will be if placed in charge of the type of teachers often found in charge of high-school classes in the earlier years; they will be sure to raise the question at once as to how much better and more wisely the entering high-school students will now be handled by the high-school teachers under high-school conditions than the same pupils have been handled by grammar-school teachers and principals in the later years of the grammar schools. But, waiving this point for the present (tho the superiority of high-school teachers and high-school methods should be clearly shown before the proposed plan can be seriously considered), can anyone doubt that the plan proposed would greatly increase the cost of carrying on the schools ? The cost of high-school buildings is very much greater than that of entirely satisfactory grammar schools; the cost of instruction for high-school students thruout the country approaches, if it does not reach, a figure twice as great as that for pupils in elementary schools. The difficulties of the plan would be largely increased by the fact that only the larger towns could or would organize in accordance with it. The expense of separate establishments, or for greatly increased high-school facilities* and equipment, would be out of the question for the small com- munities with limited financial resources. This would result in a dual school organization, with most of the larger towns administering their schools on one basis and the smaller communities on another. This would cause endless trouble and loss to pupils transferred from large to small or from small to large school systems. Pubhc-school men know how constantly this circulation from one town and school system to another is going on, and they, at least, can realize how serious a problem this constant readjustment of pupils entering from other school systems would be. But to one who studies the six-and-six problem from the standpoint of the needs of the community and the needs of the pupils, the plan is seen to be wholly unnecessary. The present common organization of school units has within it the possibility of all the reforms which are necessary. By the plan which the negative side favors, the necessary modifications 932 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit to give vitality and motive and interest to the work of young people up to the age of fourteen, and to enable the schools to meet more effectively the needs of their communities, are entirely possible within the present form of organization. The work of the grammar grades in the average school neither appeals to the interest of most of the pupils nor serves their needs or the need of the community. The studies are for the most part suitable, so far as they go. Each subject in the curriculum has been included in response to a felt want; it is not Ukely that any of them will be dropped out. The things taught have a purpose, either practical, for business or citizenship, or cul- tural in a desirable way. But something is lacking in the way the subjects are treated, and something much more important is lacking, namely, the things that are not taught in the schools. The schools are still teaching the things that suflSced when much educa- tion was given, incidentally, it may be, but nevertheless given, at home and elsewhere out of school. The morning and evening and vacation-time duties which once filled the out-of-school time of children have become almost obsolete, so far as town children are concerned. For them the morning and evening chores and the vacation-time work about the farm are things of the past. Even the old-time sports and the recreations in which we and our fathers took dehght and found education are no more. The schools must bring back the opportunities which have slipped away. The school grounds must give the play space and the space for digging and planting which once could be had elsewhere. The short school day is now packed full, but it can be made longer, if the required variety is given to the school exercises. It was made short when children had work at home; make it long enough now so that they can do some hand work at school. A school day one hour longer, with another hour available if the child desires; a school year four or five or six weeks longer than at present^ong enough to turn to useful training a considerable part of the long and useless vaca- tion which is a bane to children and a plague to parents — will give oppor- tunity for all the vitalizing and motivation that will be required, and that within the present form of school organization. The course of study, suit- able enough when the home, the shop, the farm, and the playground were educational auxiliaries, can, with this added time, be reshaped so as to give this physical and motor training, so as to develop judgment and poise, and so as to have vital interest for all normal children. Increased opportunity for hand work, not for dull children only, but for all; outdoor work and play, work in the dirt and with growing plants and animals; unorganized play, and sports and games which require organization and direction; a more detailed and practical study of our history and government, especially the practical application of the will of the people to the affairs of local government, including a study of and instruction in the obligations of the citizen to his government and to his neighbor, his fellow-citizen; a study of Superintendence] DEBATE ON SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 933 vocations and of the proper choice of a career; the study of household economies — the apportionment of income, the relative and particular responsibiUties of the earning and the buying partner, the necessity for thrift, both in saving and in avoidance of waste; the responsibihty of the head of the household to understand the care and upkeep of the "plant'' in which he lives and to see that it is a comfortable home; household arts for all girls — cookery and sewing, homemaking, the art of simple home nursing, the care and feeding of little children; for both partners in the home, the duty of maintaining its essential standards, and an understanding of the importance and the rightful place of the home in the community; these topics suggest something of the mines that lie waiting to be worked, and the possibihties of enriching and motivating and rendering vital and fruitful the work of the grammar grades in the elementary school. Utilizing these and other things which He waiting to be used, it is not necessary to cut off the seventh and eighth grades and separate them from the lower grades in order that the pupils may be interested or happy or profitably employed. There does not seem to be any reason why, with an hour in the day allowed for optional studies as suggested, classes in algebra or in Latin or in German or in French cannot be formed wherever there is a call for them, for those pupils who wish, or whose parents wish them, to begin these subjects. Such a plan would be of the greatest value also in that the improved facilities for the seventh and eighth grades would be available, in a consider- able degree, for sixth-, and fifth-, and fourth-grade pupils, and even for the younger ones, where they were fitted to profit by the opportunities. Such a plan would make the six-and-six arrangement, as a means of securing desirable provision for the seventh and eighth grades, as unneces- sary as an automobile in Venice. But strong as the educational and administrative reasons to be urged against this perhaps less dangerous type of the six-and-six plan are, the strongest argument is again political and social. We have long viewed with apprehension the gradual disappearance of men from the elementary schools. In many cases now the more energetic and ambitious women are beginning to follow the men into the high schools, where the pay is better, and into the professions, and into business. Every superintendent of schools knows how difficult it is to keep those women who are strongest and most able, and especially to keep men of the type we wish our boys and girls to be associated with, in the service of the average ele- mentary school. With the seventh and eighth grades cut away, nothing is more certain than that the most desirable men and the stronger women would be drawn, in increasing proportion, into the secondary schools and into business employments. The elementary schools would be left more and more in charge of the more mediocre and less aspiring women and of a few unambitious men. 934 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit The American common school has not always been high in economic efficiency; it has not always given back dollar for dollar the value that was put into it. But as a nursery of democracy, no instrument has ever equalled it. For four generations, it has been transforming the children of Old World immigrants into American citizens. It is more important to the perpetuity of American institutions than any other agency. Imperfect as it has been, it is indispensable. With the plan proposed by my opponent, the American common school, in which all the children of all the people are to be educated, would sink from its high estate. It would become a school composed of little children taught by women. Beautiful and splendid as the service of American women has been to American schools, no one, they least of all, would wish to see such a result. The welfare of the nation demands that the common schools be not reduced below their present dignity and importance; that the needed reforms in the grammar grades be made without destroying the elementary schools as an influence in our national life. We cannot afford to listen to a proposal which will delegate to the secondary schools and colleges the chief duty of shaping the social and political ideals and attitudes of the nation. We cannot stand idly by while the birthright of the American public school passes from it; we cannot con- sent to this plan which will make of the common school an ineffective and feeble thing as regards its function as a nursery of democratic sentiment and patriotic citizenship; we cannot consent to have the common schools, which have been the bulwark of American ideals, transformed into a system of infant schools. GREETINGS DAVID B. JOHNSON, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, ROCK HILL, S.C. I congratulate the officers of this Department of Superintendence and I congratulate you upon this great meeting in this great and progressive city. As we are having a record-breaking meeting here, so also we hope to have a record-breaking meeting of the general Association at New York City next July. In order that we may have that, however, we must have your loyal support and your presence there. May we not confidently count on both ? I hope that none will allow his allegiance to the parent Association to be weakened in any respect because of his commendable allegiance to this great department. The parent Association needs your presence and your help. I believe the great body of teachers of the rank and file will be benefited by your attendance upon the meetings of the general Association and I beUeve you yourselves will be benefited thereby. Let us have then a great get-together meeting next summer of the teachers of all classes in this Superintendence] THE PUBLIC SCHOOL AND AMERICAN SPIRIT 935 great country. Let us determine to put the National Education Associa- tion where it belongs — first among the educational associations of the world in numbers, in influence, and in helpful work undertaken and accom- pHshed. It does seem that out of 600,000 teachers in this country, we ought to have more than 7,200 active members of the National Education Association. Would it not be a great service to the schools, to the teachers themselves, and to our country for us to work to increase the active mem- bership of the National Education Association, an organization which stands for development of leadership in that army which is doing the most effective work of all forces of any kind in preparing for the defence of our country against its most deadly foes — ignorance, ineflSciency, disloyalty, and low moral standards ? The meeting in New York next summer will be the first meeting of the Association ever held there, and we hope to make it memorable in many respects. I am glad to tell you that all of the educational, commercial, and civic forces of New York City and the educational forces of the state of New York are working together heartily and enthusiastically to help us make the meeting a great one. Columbia University and New York University have both postponed the opening of their great summer schools until after the meeting of the Association to avoid conflict with it. A number of entertainments and interesting trips will be arranged for the visiting teacher, of which one will be a trip up the Hudson, probably to West Point. I cannot speak officially as to Coney Island or Chinatown, but, without these sights, the many other sights and experiences of New York City will prove a liberal education to anyone who has never been there and renewed inspiration to everyone who has. THE PUBLIC SCHOOL AND THE NEW AMERICAN SPIRIT J. GEORGE BECHT, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION, HARRTSBURG, PA. Little more than a month ago, there occurred in the city of Philadelphia an event which was widely noted in the public press as one of the most significant and important conferences assembled in this country in recent years. That conference sounded a national call to public and private agencies to enlist in the work of Americanizing America. Gathered to- gether on that notable occasion were representative men and women from the various phases of social, professional, industrial, and civic life. Capital and labor, official and civilian, settlement worker, teacher, preacher, and social economist sat side by side in earnest conference on one of the most complicated problems that confronts the America of today. The conference had its origin in a propaganda, inaugurated less than a year ago, to promote a nation-wide movement to bring American citizens, 936 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iDetroit foreign born and native born alike, to a realization of the common privi- leges, the common opportunities, and the common loyalties of all the inhabitants of America wherever born. Directly stated, its object is to devise ways and means to amalgamate the many diverse peoples inhabiting the United States into a national unity; to encourage the use of the Enghsh language thruout the nation; to promote the best standards of American living in every community; to teach the proper interpretations of American citizenship; and to encourage a recognition of foreign-born men and women in the human, social, and civic aspects as well as in the industrial aspects of our American life. Thoughtful people everywhere recognize the fact that the problem of self-government is not solved. Far from being solved, it is just beginning to disclose itself in all its vast complexity. In small units of government where the interests of the people are limited and range along well-defined lines, where there is a common ideal, and where competition is slight, there the problem of self-government presents relatively few difficulties. But where the unit of government is large, where the interests and purposes of a people are diverse, and where the spirit of competition is marked, there we shall find self-government an increasingly complex problem — one that challenges the best thought of a free people. In this country we have passed from a simple homogeneous people into a highly complex heterogeneous cosmopolitanism. The several groups of early settlers were widely differentiated in point of customs, creeds, habits, manners, and traditions, and succeeding generations retained and passed on many of the racial or group characteristics, yet within each group hfe's activities were ranged along simple lines. Because people live far apart, racial characteristics did not obtrude themselves and national Ufe developed with comparative smoothness. But the multiplication of interests thru invention, scientific discovery, industrial and commercial expansion has expanded simple life. Into this natural expansion of the internal Ufe of the American people, Europe has poured annually for many years thousands of her subjects. The vastness of our territory and the economic oppor- tunities on this side and a restless discontent with the intolerant social, political, and ofttimes reUgious conditions of the Old World have caused a flood of immigrants to invade our shores, greater in number of individuals than any recorded migration in history. The first decade of the present century added nearly 9,000,000 aliens to our population. An examination of the figures relating to the alien element in this coun- try shows that every third person in the United States is either foreign born or born of foreign parents, and that three millions cannot speak the EngHsh language and twice as many more cannot read Enghsh. One- sixth of the population (15,000,000) of the United States is therefore directly or indirectly influenced by foreign conditions. Four-fifths of the more recent immigrants belong to the class of unskilled laborers. Seventy-five Superintendence] THE PUBLIC SCHOOL AND AMERICAN SPIRIT 937 per cent of the inhabitants of cities having a population of over a million are foreign born or in the generation of the immigrant. Furthermore, the tendency to mass in certain states and centers is a marked characteristic. It is a current saying that New York is the largest German city in the world except Berlin; the largest Italian city except Rome; the largest Polish city except Warsaw, and by far the largest Jewish city in the world. Fifty different languages are spoken by this ahen folk. One thousand two hundred newspapers in the United States are printed in thirty-one languages other than EngUsh. These papers are generally American in spirit, but their chief items of interest are news of the fatherland. Thus they keep the alien in constant touch and sympathy with his native land. The assimilation of this polyglot immigration into the American nation is one of the tremendously significant problems confronting America today. The matter of absorption is becoming increasingly diflScult owing to their vast numbers, their varied habits and traditions, and their inabiUty to grasp the full meaning of the spirit of liberty as exemplified in the thought and activities of our people The elemental background of American liberty was the fusing of the spirit of Puritan and Cavalier thru the shock of the Revolutionary War. That influence may be traced across the continent. From the crossing of their blood, the union of their virtues, and the mingling of their best tradi- tions came the t)^e of American citizen who influenced history during the greater part of the nineteenth century. During the early period of immi- gration, beginning distinctively in 1840, most of the immigrants came from Northern Europe. Since they had many of the same traditions and ideals and the same political standards, the process of assimilation was compara- tively easy, but in the last twenty years most of the immigrants have come from Southern Europe and are farther removed from the thought and spirit of American life. With limited understanding and lack of training and of vision, they do not readily adjust themselves to the new environment. Misunderstood and ostracized, as they often are, their disappointment gives way to discontent, which is likely to express itself in turbulence. But a new social ideal is taking possession of America today. It is the spirit speaking out from the great heart of humanity. It recognizes the vast and intricate human relationships the world over. It reaHzes that the treatment of the immigrant and his relationship to the social and indus- trial order present an unprecedented problem. The new American spirit stands not for the eUmination of whatever has not been produced on Ameri- can soil; but it rather welcomes the best of the culture, the arts, and the crafts of the Old World, that thru the process of education and training these may be incorporated into our life and thus we may be enriched with this spiritual inheritance. In aid of this new movement to Americanize America, the distinctive formal educational forces of the country will play no unimportant part. 938 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit Already the United States Bureau of Education is co-operating with the •Bureau of Immigration, and the pubHc school has become the rallying- ground for the organization of the new forces. The school is rapidly divest- ing itself of the archaic methods of teaching citizenship. The time is not far past when memorizing preambles to constitutions, powers and duties of congresses and legislatures, outlining departments of government, and learning definitions constituted the teaching of civics. The painful results were apparent when pupils described England's government as a "limited mockery," and confidently asserted "that the first conscientious congress met in Philadelphia and that the constitution of the United States was estabUshed to promote domestic hostility." The adult foreigner must be prepared for citizenship no less than his children — nay, even greater is the necessity that he shall have special train- ing. Fortuitous conditions will educate the plastic and impressionable child, while the parent responds only to specific training. And all too frequently the alien receives no aid, encouragement, or opportunity to prepare for the sacred right except at the instance of political partisanship. The school for the adult is becoming to be as much a part of public educa- tion as a school for the child. Our attitude to the foreigner has not always been characterized by sympathy or even respect. Too often we have tried to awe him with the superiority of our institutions, by exploiting our tradi- tions, extolling our heroes, and boasting of our freedom, hoping thereby to impress him with our vaunted greatness and thus cause him to forget his fatherland and to discard the customs and culture of his race. Such an attitude clearly violates the fundamental principles in training for loyalty. Critical observers of social heredity point out what must be very apparent to anyone who analyzes the problem presented by the fact that a man deeply and truly disloyal to his own folk and culture is not Hkely to become a deeply and truly loyal American. Then, too, there is always the obvious danger which has its basis in a profound and fundamental psychology that in any attempt to change or completely transfer from one loyalty to another, the very capacity for loyalty is destroyed. Nothing is more deeply rooted than social and group instincts and traditions. To strip these from the individual and to cover him with an alluvium of social habits ever so thick may after all prove to be only a cheap substitute. What makes the Japanese patriotism so vital is the fact that the religion of the Japanese includes a reverence for the past. That reverence is the thing that is perpetuated. The school must make more of our national holidays. Unfortunately, one of our essentially patriotic holidays comes during the vacation period. But happily there has been a decided reaction from the degeneracy of a bombastic, half-riotous occasion, with its toll of injury to life and limb, to a more dignified mode of celebration in which sanity and safety are predominating characteristics. The schools here can render a service by making our national holidays an opportunity for teach- Superintendence] THE PUBLIC SCHOOL AND AMERICAN SPIRIT 939 ing the lessons of sacrifice. Too often the alien looks upon this land of the free and this home of the brave as a land of unrestricted liberty. He must understand that personal Uberty must always comport with moral law and poHtical liberty with civil law. In our land, democracy has a problem of race as well as a problem of social and industrial classifications. The revival of pageantry in various communities, working out thru ceremonial and dramatic form the episodes that marked the rise and progress of a city or community, is one of the most significant methods of impressing upon the young the spirit of sacrifice and social service. American chil- dren show their love and appreciation for heroic deeds in their selections of declamations which set forth the exploits of such heroes as Horatius, Oustavus Adolphus, and William of Orange. These make their appeal to children, not because the expression of their lives symboHzes a race or a group, but because they represent fundamental expressions of human life. The school and the community should help preserve the best traditions of the aHen and help him to work them out into the newer relationships. To neglect their heroes is to subtract one of the most fruitful factors in teaching patriotism. Garibaldi, Pasteur, Disraeli, Volta, Mendelssohn, Marconi have a meaning to the world that is not consequent upon the fact that they were born across the sea. The courage, strength, ardor, and spirit of the great men of any nation are admired by other nations. Hitherto the school has regarded the teaching of citizenship as a special topic, or the work of a separate department, but we are learning that every recitation constitutes a lesson in citizenship, and that there is an arithmetic of character, a geography of character, as well as the ethics of character. There is no branch of study that may not lend itself to training for civic righteousness and civic efficiency. The problem of training youth in citizen- ship does not involve new institutions, new text, and new subject-matter, but rather a new attitude of the teachers and a new atmosphere in the classroom. Children must be helped to think thru the problems of the community and the relationships of the individual to the social group to which he belongs as well as to the civic order. The alien, as well as the native American, needs to be instructed in the limitations of liberty. He must learn that his liberty must be Uberty under the law. If American children understood this as thoroly as they ought to understand it, we should not have to blush in the presence of the foreign child when children of native Americans, with half-baked ideas about liberty and independence, interpret that liberty and independence in terms of unbridled license. What indeed must be the effect upon children of the alien when in high schools or in the grades they note the pupils strike because someone has been punished, or because a teacher has been promoted or demoted or a holiday refused? Above all else, the school must teach a reverence for the law and respect for the rights of others. No word is so misunderstood as "liberty." 940 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit The problem of democracy is this: "How to utilize without waste the tremendously potent forces of human life that are everywhere about us." The problem is largely individual. The wealth in character of the state is, in the long run, the wealth in character of the individuals composing it. Every social structure is the outgrowth of personal ideals. The public school has been an eflScient agency. It will be more effective in the future as, with deeper consecration, superintendents and teachers advance to the unprecedented problems that lie before them. With new ideals, new aspira- tions, new hopes for the enlarged brotherhood of America, may we not hope that these dissimilar nationalities will be incorporated into the newer ty^t of citizenship ? THE SUPERINTENDENT AS THE LAYMAN SEES HIM THOMAS W. CHURCHILL, PRESIDENT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. There are 5,833 public-school superintendents in America. I have a speaking acquaintance with only in. From the superiorities of these to fashion an ideal head, including such pulchritudes as a layman especially admires in a school executive, is my undertaking. In mixing my paints I should like plenty of red. Rousseau's dictum comes to my mind: "Let him first be a man." You want warm body color in making the portrait of one whose main business is the rearing and culture of men. Red blood, hard muscle, virile speech, manly manners seem to me indispensable in the head of a school system. The traditional pattern with spectacles, with the scholar's stoop, the parchment skin, the painfully proper speech chastely devoid of slang and expletive — the type strictly devoid of variation from the conventional — has had its day. The perpetuation of a deep and accurate scholarship has long been preached as the purpose of public schools by mild-mannered men who expressed rather their own instinctive desire than any great public need. Those who founded the American public-school system had no such notion. Enhghtenment, Uberty, self-management, self-government — that is, abihty for, and desire of, democratic citizenship, each working for all and all for each — was the result expected by the early patriots who proposed in America that education should be free and universal. There cannot be any doubt of this. The words of Jefferson, of Adams, of FrankUn, of Washington, and of the framers of the Ordinance of 1787, under which the schools of this western territory grew, are as clear as the sunshine in this particular. The perpetuation of scholarship, the preservation of poHte learning, the bestowal of a literary culture — all as an asset of personal distinction — was undoubtedly the aim of educators in the period before the Revolution. Learning meant gentility. Gentleman and scholar were words repeatedly linked together. School meant leisure; leisure meant means; means meant birth or high estate; all meant aristocracy. Superintendence] THE SUPERINTENDENT AS THE LAYMAN SEES HIM 941 No one would think of disputing that. It is too plainly written in the his- tory of the world before the overturn of 1 7 76. But what especially interests us now is the slowness with which the principles of the Revolution per- meated the soul and substance of education. The Fathers of the Republic and the statesmen of succeeding years have been in substantial agreement that tax-supported schools are for the creation of an intelHgent, liberty- loving, self-directive people. On the other hand, there has persisted in the public schools a surprising amount of Old World assumption that the lower schools ought chiefly to concentrate their attention upon grammar and classic arithmetic, leading to upper public schools where Latin, ancient mythology and history, rhetoric and polite scholarship are the staples of instruction. Is that not true ? Our forefathers conceived a school system to generate political virtue for the future; our fathers let the school master continue to retail the pedantic learning of the past. Our theory of schools proposes the cultivation of manhood; our practice clings to the mediaeval purpose of producing learned men of letters. Tradition insists that the school superintendent be a scholar. All the underlying reason for the existence of schools, all the needs of the time demand, "Let him first be a man." A century and a half of American familiarity with the school manager assuming the scholar-type has lamentably failed to give the school superintendent that confidence and respect which are required to enable the schools to realize the purpose for which they were established. Per- petuation of a scholastic ideal dear only to a very small proportion of the country is much easier for a superintendent than any other course. His life, spent among books, his thoughts, guided from infancy along well- trodden paths thru normal school and university, his purpose incrusted with academic ideas, repeated year after year in conventions of his own kind, make of him a Living Yesterday. He is concerned with the perfection of systems by which what-used-to-be may more perfectly be preserved. This notion of a superintendent's function has lamentably failed. There never was, since the nation was born, so widespread and definite a protest against the failure of schools. Cities misgoverned, public lands stolen, whole precincts selling their votes, juvenile crime increasing, colleges bend- ing their necks for the yoke of rich men's foundations, periodicals reeking with salacity, the drama smothered in sex-madness, and prominent employers informing the newspapers that the school children can neither read, nor write, nor spell, heads of state departments of education confes- sing that "the lives of school children are wasted,"' all these things are weakening the American faith in public education. Far be it from me to insist that all or any of these distressing things can fairly be charged to the failure of the schools. But the pertinent fact is that the founders of the free-school system expected it to produce a higher type of self-governing citizen than the Old World knew. The distressing outcome is that so many ' Andrew S. Draper, state commissioner of education, New York. 942 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit prominent publicists' declare that the hopes of the Fathers have been bitterly disappointed. Among the many answers that suggest themselves to these somber reflections, these two take prominence. Either the expectations of what public education ought to do have been too high or the pubhc schools have not been efficiently directed toward realizing these expectations. First, was the hope and belief of the founders of the free pubhc school that it would preserve liberty, prevent tyranny, decrease vice and crime, and increase human happiness, too high a hope and too confident a behef ? Most of you have said no. When the superintendent campaigns for increase of funds, he urges that the money be spent for schools so as not to be needed for jails — to set men right rather than to lock men up for going wrong. You call the school the bulwark of the nation's liberties, the agent of progress, the urging force for " that one far-off, divine event toward which the whole creation moves." We cannot look to the school superintendent for a denial that the results expected from free and universal education have been estimated too high. We come to the other query: Have the public schools been really directed toward delivering an intelligent, liberty- loving, self-governing, co-operating, happy people? I think not. They have been too generally used as the means of perpetuating an ancient con- ception of scholarship. Their programs show it, their managers' words declare it. Nothing short of a complete revision of the conception of pubHc- school service will abate the dissatisfaction which has arisen as the result of a comparison of the product of the schools with the conception of what pubhc education is for. The main agent of this revision is obviously and inevitably the superintendent. He must purge himself of the fallacy that scholarship is the main desideratum in himself or in the school system. The pubhc does not tax itseK for scholarship. It expects intelligence. Intel- ligence is as distinct from scholarship as moraUty is from theology. Intel- ligence is common-sense; it is *'know how" penetration, brightness, understanding. Scholarship is the sum of the conventional attainments which custom and fashion have imposed upon schools. Intelligence is mind-power for use in any circumstance, old or new. Scholarship is an accumulation which requires a special situation for its enjoyment, either the leisure of the study or a company of specially trained persons. Your communities are not demanding of you the graduation of scholars, but an output of human creatures who can think, reason, judge, and decide about the large concerns of personal and national Hfe. Most of you and most of your helpers have been trained to think about academic subjects — about nouns and pronouns, x and y, which do not matter much. To say a thing is academic (that is, pertaining to school) is to say that it will not work. This was well enough when education was the preparation of gentlemen » Richard Grant Wliite, Rebecca Harding Davis, Charles W. Eliot, Rabbi Emil Hirsch, Edward Bok, Michael Friedsam, Captain Charles King. Superintendence] THE SUPERINTENDENT AS THE LAYMAN SEES HIM 943 superior to toil. To maintain such an academic education at the expense of a nation of workers is as fatuous as it is dishonest. These observations do not hurt you any more to hear than they hurt me to say. I, too, have been nurtured on flowers from the gardens of antiquity. I, too, love the echoes from a learned and refined past. To be called scholar, to parse, to scan, to quote, are as dear to me as to the most refined of this learned body, but scant 5 per cent of my post-academic life is spent upon the things my schooling emphasized. Scant 5 per cent of all our citizens travel paths to which their school training naturally leads.. To bring a school system to an adequate public service does not demand a scholar. Were it not for a fashionable tradition about it, such as requires the EngHsh judges to incase their heads in cages of false hair, or Michiganders to vote the Republi- can ticket, a superintendent might properly be unable to know whether it was Nessus or Narcissus who had trouble with his shirt, or whether Savona- rola was an indoor skater or a toilet preparation. But truly it is of supreme importance that the person to undertake the commission of bringing the schools to produce what they were founded to produce — intelligent, self- governing, co-operating citizens — shall be a supremely manly man. I have known superintendents who set great store by organization. They made and tended systems. The mechanism bedeviled them. They could act only as the machines within their own heads would allow. " Keep the rule even if you lose the boy" was their motto. Their hero was that sweet little idiot of our boyhood days, Casablanca of the burning deck, immortal martyr of stupid regularity. Of what use is an organizer who fails to produce anything that is worth organizing ? Our school system is wonderfully provided with good roads laid out by superintendents, but the highways do not lead where the chil- dren have to go. The expert roadmaker, the skilled organizer, is in great danger from his own abiUty. Often the people of his system will travel more joyously and arrive more quickly at a more desirable place on paths of their own making. The organizer runs a great risk of becoming a driver. He mechanizes education too much, therefore he dehumanizes it. Maybe some parts of the country need more organizing power in their superinten- dents. Those I have seen ought to soft-pedal their organization for a while and use the human stops a little more. Let us have a superintendent who can organize, but let him first be a man. One hears much about the superintendent as leader. It sounds exalt- ing, more often to the superintendent than to the teachers. A need of leadership there has always been since superintending was invented. Where the leadership idea is over-prominent in the superintendent's mind, there is inevitably a narrowing of his ideas down to those put forward by himself in exclusion of those offered by others. An educational department is a garden of talent wherein hundreds of valuable seeds of education lie in the soil along with weeds a-plenty. Some leaders are so keen to banish 944 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit weeds that the possibilities of the varied talent all thru the system are never realized^ but remain dry seeds in dry dust. It stands to reason that the sum of the brains of a teaching staff, including the brains of a superin- tendent, ought to amount to more than the brains of the superintendent alone. Leadership, personal authority, concentrated spotHght on the head man, have kept back many a city from its money's worth of education in the schools. What we want in the superintendency is a man, not a monopo- list, a discoverer who searches out and pushes along every genuine fellow- laborer who will contribute ideas for the common good. Let us have manly give-and-take in educational councils with the superintendent conscious of the fact that there ought to be many persons in the department as intelligent and as able as he. There is an innate spirit of advance in every normal personality. A superintendent suffused with a real devotion for public service will nurse that spirit, inspire it, give it scope and employment to develop a school system rich in able personalities. A narrow-minded superintendent will fear the competition of other minds, will give none of his supreme problems to other workers in the schools, and will carry on what should be a democracy of public service as tho it were the realm of an absolute monarch and he its czar. In schools and colleges there have appeared the students' council and other co-operative associations. The vital element of such an idea is the very American essence. We believe in the management of their own affairs by the people themselves. We believe that to prepare the people for such management public schools were established and are maintained. We count it, therefore, a regrettable condition if any school system or any superintendent neglects to use to a large degree the form and principle of democratic government in the conduct of departmental afifairs. I know the objections that are running thru your minds; that the teachers are not big enough to discuss educational policy; that the teachers are too selfish to recommend an extensive improvement of the service if it brings any hard- ship upon them; that in many cities of the country the teachers are pulling one way and the superintendent another. But, granting all the infirmities of teachers, which make the sharing of participation with them seem unduly arduous, the way to make teachers big enough to grasp big policies is to bring teachers up against big policies. The way to cure the selfishness of teachers is to bring it up against a great service demanding sacrifice. The way to stop teachers and superintendents from pulling in different directions is for superintendents when teachers are pulling toward the pubHc benefit to pull with them. The educational work in each locality is greater than one superintendent can do. There must be a larger number of hearty people uniting for the common good. No mere scholar, no organizer, no one full of the ambition of personal leadership, can get hearty and efficient service out of these people. Back of scholarship, formation of plans, and desire of leadership, is the great inspiring hope which constitutes the essence Superintendence] THE SUPERINTENDENT AS THE LAYMAN SEES HIM 945 of teaching, namely that the nation shall grow in wisdom, in loyalty, in generosity, in the great qualities of manhood. For this, scholarship has proved inadequate, organization has failed, leadership has not sufficed. Greater than all these and waited for by city after city thruout the whole nation is the incarnate spirit of manhood, a living, virile sense of the great possibilities of life, a determination to organize the agencies at hand to realize it, I yield to none in respect for the clergy, those ministers of God in a careless world preaching the Gospel of a clean and happy life. But yours is a ministry which gives you mankind in the making. Twelve times as long as to the clergyman, you have the minister's flock each year in the schools. In your hands is the rearing and culture of men. The makers of our free school conceived this to be its work, and not the delivery of that cut-and-dried curriculum of yours which goes by the name of an education. I do not conceive your main business to be the question: "What is the Bos- ton course of study ? " or " What does Cleveland teach ? " But I do know that in your own town there is waiting for an answer the query: "What are these children around me? What are the possibilities before them? What are the forces of manhood and womanhood by which they shall realize their destiny? How can I help these forces grow? How guide them aright?" We may no longer close our ears to these, demands and salve our souls with the unction that we are doing what Boston does and with as much success. The business of a superintendent is not now to keep in motion the old machine that came over in the "Mayflower," a pattern of the thing that poUshed the sons of gentlemen in the days when knighthood was in flower. A superintendent is not a tale that is told, but an agent of a better tomorrow. His mission is not to prove that Horace Mann was right, but to propound anew to the best minds in his own town: "What is the most we can do for these children ? " It means the breaking of old ties, the surrender of fond memories, the abandonment of assumed omniscience, the adoption of humiUty and willingness to learn, bravery to advance, audacity to hazard new adventures, courage to take one's commission in one's hand and to risk it among carpers and cavilers such as have obstructed progress since creation's dawn. Oh, it is inspiring to be a school superin- tendent in 1 9 16! There never was a time when a real one was greater in demand. If he will cease to be content with forms and will give himself, both heart and soul, to the pursuit of that end which the best vision of the best thinkers of '76 conceived, a sustaining spirit will come within him driving out all pettiness and weakness whatever that has at any time brought any superintendency into contempt. He will, by this devotion and this service, feel himself to grow and to remain in the full stature of a man. 946 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit TO WHOM IS TEE BOARD OF EDUCATION RESPONSIBLE? A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, "JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON, MASS. It is true that a school consists of a teacher, textbooks, and pupils, but in America there would be no teachers, no textbooks, no schoolhouse, no equipment, nothing out of which to make a school, but for the board of education that administers the funds that are tax raised. So far as the public schools are concerned, the boards of education, directly or indirectly, have the first word and the last as to the use of tax- raised school moneys. Doctrinarians may quarrel as to the desirability of having experts, pure and simple, handle the funds, and direct how they shall be used, but they will achieve so little in our day that we may assume that boards of education will stand sponsor for the use of these moneys. Members of boards of education are as intelligent, as devoted, as honest as any class of people intrusted with any official responsibility. The tradi- tional assumption is that boards of education are chosen primarily to prevent the spending of the people's money, that their business is to put on brakes, to make it difficult for superintendents and other school officials to get money for school uses. Boards of education often try to find ways and means to prevent teachers from getting influence that might increase their salaries. This is due entirely to the inherited tradition that it is the first duty of these boards of education to prevent increase of taxes for school purposes. Unless this attitude can be changed, it makes no appreciable difference whom we elect to boards of education, men or women, experts or philanthropists. The board of education is elected by the people to look after the interests of the children and to do that alone. It is the business of the board of education to get as large appropriations as can be wisely used for the good of the children, for schoolhouses, for equipment, for textbooks, for teachers. Boards of education are expected, are required by common-sense and con- science, to get as adequate and as modern buildings and equipment and as efficient teaching as they can get the money to buy. Every law providing for the election of such boards specifies that they are elected to provide school privileges for " all the children of all the people." No law was ever passed that stated that these boards are elected to prevent the use of money, to put on the brakes, financially. Whoever is elected on a ticket that virtually pledges a candidate to serve in the interest of the taxpayer instead of in the interest of children is virtually doing an unlawful act, is trying to thwart the purpose of the law. It ought to be possible to indict such a man for contempt of legislation, at least for conspiracy to defeat the ends of the law. Any party or organization or group of citizens who should run a candidate on the issue of serving the interests of the tax- payer should be indictable for conspiracy to defeat the purposes of the law. The mayor and the city council are expected, officially and traditionally, Superintendence! SUGGESTIONS FOR RURAL-SCHOOL CURRICULA 947 \o guard the treasury, but the board of education is expected by specific kw to get all the money that can be used advantageously for the advantage oi the children. It is not at all uncommon for board members to be elected to erect a schoolhouse in a given section out of spite against some other section of the district, or to oust a superintendent who has said or done something with no relation to education that arouses the prejudices of a given set of people, or to depose a principal who has offended some influence, or sect, or organi- zation. Any such campaign, any such pledging of a candidate, any action based on such a pre-election pledge, is definitely, deliberately, emphatically unlawful and should be indictable. Members of boards of education are responsible first, last, always, and everjrwhere to the children and to them alone. Boards of education have the greatest of all responsibiUties in American ofl[icial life. They have America's future in their hands as have no other class of Americans. On the lower side, they must protect the men and women of tomorrow from the civic pests of the cheapness and narrow- ness, the prejudice and spite of today which have been inherited from yesterday. On the other side, they must protect the men and women of tomorrow from the conceited dreamers of today. To the members of boards of education alone is given the opportunity to get the right perspective of the child in the schools as he is jeopardized by the conservative of yesterday and the zealot of today while trying to plume his wings for the opportunities of tomorrow. SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING THE RURAL-SCHOOL CURRICULA G. C. CREELMAN, PRESIDENT, ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, GUELPH, ONTARIO, CANADA The whole rural-school problem may be considered as a large one in itself. And there are many phases to the problem. Where population has decreased, there is an attendance so small as to hinder proper class organization or the incentives to work that come from the enthusiasm of numbers; there is the frequent changing of teachers, due to goodness knows how many reasons, but economic chiefly; there is the inexperienced girl- teacher trying her apprentice hand in the rural school; there is the poor equipment and the non-attractive school and surroundings; there is the non-progressive board of trustees, interpreting trusteeship to mean doing only what the law makes compulsory and with no vision ol the great divi- dends to be earned in investing generously in education; there is irregularity of attendance, owing to bad roads, sickness, work at home, and indifference to education; there is the lack of play — that best part of school life; there 948 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit is need for medical inspection; there is need for truancy officers and reai compulsory education; there is the dropping out of school of the boys about the time they reach fourteen years of age, going out into life thus insufficiently equipped; there is the school work reflecting courses of study prepared with the graded urban school in view; there is the high school only at a distance, requiring boarding in town and again giving instruction specially adapted to the urban dweller or the few pupils who may proceed to the college or to professional life. Agricultural teaching is the remedy. — What is the best way to meet the defects in our schools and what different kind of school should be aimed at ? Our answer to the first question is: The rural-school problem will be best solved by the introduction of agriculture and domestic science. We must make our schools appeal strongly to our patrons as institutions worth while, deserving strong financial support as institutions giving children something which they cannot afford to da without. Not agriculture in the school so much as the school in agriculture is the goal. There will be a rationahzing of the work of the rural school; it will reflect its environment and meet the real needs of those depending on it for an education. It will seek to serve and not to stand off apart from its best opportunities. It will not interpret agriculture and homemaking as narrow things. It will mean play and music and books and social mingling as much as soils and crops and cattle and cooking, ''for life is more than meat as the body is more than raiment." The school will be for everybody; not limited to the uses of children but bringing everybody to school, if not for instruction, then for no less necessary recreation. It will be the heart of the community, vitalizing every home. From it will arise new visions of education. The new kind of school. — What different kind of school might be aimed at ? There is a kind that embodies the new spirit of co-operation. Per- haps it will necessitate the breaking down of our sectional scheme of school administration, making the township or a group of schools the unit of administration. It will need a new kind of trustee, and perhaps a larger outlay of money. In many places the old kind of school has served its day. There should be a consolidation of schools which will permit of the introduction of agri- culture, domestic science, and manual training. Possibly this may be associated with a township or county people's high school, located in a central place (not a town) in the township, managed by a township board of trustees composed of farmers. Such a school will have as its headmaster a teacher trained at the agricultural college; his classes will be conducted chiefly in the winter months, and pupils of all ages will be taught; his summer work will be to follow his pupils on to their farms, help in the other schools of the township, and work his own little farm which is provided with his home. In time a teacher of domestic science will carry on similar work with the girls and women. The school will be provided with adequate Superintendence] SUGGESTIONS FOR RURAL-SCHOOL CURRICULA 949 grounds and facilities for play. The school will be a social as well as an educational center for the township. There will be a good assembly hall in which public meetings, lectures, and social gatherings may be held. With the school as the head, all the other schools of the township will be cbsely associated, receiving from it help and inspiration. Such a school might be, if the people desire it! In spite of the general progress undoubtedly being made, all these defects must be recognized and met. We have made considerable advance- ment in the last ten years; we have still a long way to go. We must ever set up higher ideals if continued progress is to be secured. In introducing this topic, I am presuming that all of us have long ago in our minds settled two questions: (i) That every boy in every country school should have an opportunity to learn the scientific principles of his father's business. (2) That every girl should receive instruction in house- hold science whether she or her parents believe in it or not. No matter how strongly you and I have thought on this matter, how- ever, these subjects have not been generally introduced into our schools, perhaps for the following reasons: (i) It is easy to outline a course of study that seems simple and easily introduced. It seems altogether different to transfer a course of study from paper into reahty. You have no doubt found this out for yourselves. (2) Agriculture seems to be especially hard, not to introduce, but to get practical results therefrom. It is easy to inter- est children in plant and animal stories, but it is not easy to instruct children so that an improvement is readily seen in the field crops and the flocks and herds and the home life of the neighborhood. (3) The pressure of the general course of study limits the time for such new subjects. (4) There is a lack of knowledge of these subjects on the part of the superintendents and inspectors. They may assume, or even feel an interest in the work, but without definite knowledge the lack of ability to be helpful soon mani- fests itself and the teacher and pupils soon lose interest. (5) There is frequent changing of teachers. (6) The limited knowledge and experience of the teachers is beyond question the greatest difficulty. Teaching agriculture in rural schools. — We have long since come to the conclusion that special training must be given to the teachers if definite or really instructive work is to be accomphshed and that the state should pay for this training. This may be done in one of two ways: (i) The board and lodging and travehng expenses may be paid by the state, for a definite time, to some central place where agriculture is well taught; (2) the state may offer a bonus of $25 or $50 a year, to be added to salaries of such teachers as take such courses and afterward successfully teach such subjects to their pupils. It is for each state to settle for itself where in the state such teacher's courses may be taken up. At first glance, it would appear perfectly natural to use the grounds and buildings and equipment and staff of the agricultural 950 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit college. We believe at the Ontario Agricultural College that we are doing some of our best work in training teachers for rural-school work. This does not mean that we are turning out teachers from our regular agricul- tural courses, but that we have thrown open our doors to the rural teachers of the province, and that in co-operation with the Department of Education we are using our large plant to help the cause of the rural school. This is bringing results. The other way of trying to teach agriculture, in a pedagogical way in normal schools at odd hours and sandwiched in between other studies, has not met with success. On the other hand, given a purely agricultural environment with practical science teachers and fields and woods and flocks and herds and plants, and nature everywhere, it seems easy to interest and instruct along all lines of rural activities. We have had intelligent teachers in training who at first showed resentment when asked to make their own gardens, to collect insects or plants, and to make observations of tempera- tures and erosion and wood-lots. We have never had one who continued for six consecutive days who did not show first interest and then enthusiasm in the work. School gardens. — Perhaps the easiest and best way to start the agri- cultural work in rural schools is to start the pupils to plant and care for gardens. We have had pupils return to the school-garden work on Satur- days when nothing that we can think of would induce them to return for regular school work. The garden idea permits of starting in winter with germination tests and weed-seed determinations, also selection of seed and removing of impurities from samples from father's granary and com crib. While gardens imply flowers, I have seen in schoolyards splendid experi- ments with field crops, such as liming soil for alfalfa, spading under clover for green manure, the eradication of weeds by cultivation and by spraying, the growing of potatoes at different dates of seeding and with different kinds of fertilizers. In some gardens enough vegetables are grown to supply the domestic science class the following winter, from which the girls in turn make vegetable soup each day, for one cent a bowl, and serve it to all those who bring their lunches to school. Then again the garden furnishes endless illustrations for teaching arithmetic, language lessons, and so forth. The school fall fair. — This has been one of our most progressive move- ments. The teachers and pupils seem to find in it a long-felt want. With a small beginning in 191 2 of 25 school fairs, the work has progressed so fast that this past season of 19 15 as many as 234 school fairs were held in 41 different counties, including 2,291 schools representing 48,386 children. Seed was supplied and instructions were given to the children, who planted and cared for 51,243 plots. They also became responsible for 6,868 settings of hens' eggs of bred-to-lay strains. The total number of entries at the school fairs amounted to 116,236, and the total attendance, including children and adults, was 157,000. Superintendence] SUGGESTIONS FOR RURAL-SCHOOL CURRICULA 951 A regular inspection of the plots in the summer is important. It keeps the teacher in the neighborhood; it helps the children to a better care of the plots, lends a pleasant diversion, and enlists a larger sympathy from the parents. Competent judges who can give their reasons for the awards are also a great help, not only in insuring fair play and no favoritism, but in emphasizing the importance of careful selection and preparation of exhibits. At these fairs, oratorical contests have been inaugurated with splendid results. Hardly a school fair but had its attraction of ambitious boys and girls speaking from an improvised platform. Exhibits of cooking by the small girls have also come to be a very important feature of the school fall fairs. Live stock judging is coming also to be a part of our school fair work. The parents supply the stock to be judged, and the district representatives or county agents conduct the contest, or some other agricultural college graduate is secured to superintend. Teaching domestic science. — I shall not dwell upon this phase, as you have a special section on this program devoted to the work. I will say, however, that as 95 per cent of the people in the United States and Canada do all their own housework, it seems stupid that the people have not long since risen and demanded that the art and science of the household be made compulsory by every board of trustees in the country. For one hundred dollars, equipment may be procured and used even in a one-room school, so that every girl may receive useful instruction in cooking and sewing and laundry work. She wants only a start, the rest she will get at home by constant and careful practice. The older hoys. — Many farmers' boys leave school permanently just when they should be starting their secondary education. There are many reasons why, and it is not necessary to mention them here. What we have not done is to make it easy for such boys to return to the same school some years later and find instruction according to the need. We have, it is true, added continuation classes to our common schools, but these have not attracted many pupils who have been out of school for any appreciable length of time. There must be hundreds of thousands of young men, between sixteen and twenty-five years of age, who would be greatly bene- fited, and perhaps given an entirely n©W viewpoint in life if they could get some systematic instruction just at this stage. We find that six weeks' and ten weeks' courses for farmers' sons in the winter time are coming to play an important place in our agricultural educational scheme. As many as fifteen hundred, in classes of from ten to twenty-five, have been in attendance at such short courses in one season. Given a class of young men who have had practical experience in farming, and offer them a chance to learn the why of farm operations, and it is won- derful how quickly they will become interested. Keep them at it for six 952 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit or ten weeks, and it is remarkable how their whole outlook on life is changed. Co-operation becomes possible in the neighborhood ; the agricultural college and experimental stations become real and personal; reports and bulletins are read and understood; cow-testing is made easy; a water system is now within reach; tile draining is practicable and possible, and the whole future looks altogether different. We secure agricultural college graduates to do the teaching. Good men who perhaps were school teachers before going to college, and who are now farming, are easily attainable at a mod- erate cost. We are trying in this way to give help to those who want it when they want it. To sum up, it seems to me that what our rural-school curriculum needs is the teaching of real agriculture to young farmers and a chance for every girl to get a start in systematic homemaking while her time is not worth very much. I should like to see in every rural schoolhouse a creed for every boy and every girl, something like this. Ontario Country Boy's Creed 1. I believe that life in the country can be made just as pleasant and profitable as life in the city. 2. I believe that father and I can form a partnership that will suit both of us. 3. I believe that if I kill every weed on my father's farm we shall be well paid by the increased crop alone, to say nothing of the benefit to our neighbors. 4. I believe that by careful selection of our chickens I can double the output of the flock. 5. I believe that by introducing alfalfa on our farm we can keep twice as many domestic animals as at present. 6. I believe that by keeping twice as many animals we shall be able to grow much larger crops of alfalfa and other things. 7. I believe that by planting shade trees, growing flowers, shrubs, and keeping a tidy homestead, we shall be better contented and happier in every way and our farm will increase in value. 8. I believe not in luck, but in pluck. 9. I beheve that farming is a most honorable calling, and, having decided to stay on the farm, it is my duty to make the best use of my time in school that I may be the better farmer in the days that are to come. 10. I believe in working when I work and playing when I play, and in giving and receiving a square deal in every act of life. Ontario Country Girl's Creed 1. I believe that I have a right to be.imppy every day. 2. I beheve that God's blue sky and God's green earth are a part of my inheritance. 3. I beheve that I have a right to love little chickens and ducks and lambs and puppies as well as dolls and ribbons. 4. I beheve I could take care of these things as well as my brother who does not love them as much as I. 5. I beheve I would love to keep house better than anything else, and I only wish they taught housework at school. 6. I believe that keeping a garden all my own would be great fun, and I believe that I could be very happy in giving away the flowers and in cooking the vegetables that I raised myself. Superintendence! STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 953 7. I believe that I could study real hard at my grammar and geography and arith- metic and spelling if I could do cooking or sewing with the other girls in the afternoon. 8. I do not want to go to town and leave my father and mother and my brothers and sisters, for I know I shall miss them all and the trees and the creek and the green grass and the old woods and everything; but oh! I do not want to stay at home and do nothing but wash dishes and carry water and do the chores and grow old like auntie. I want to laugh and love and live. 9. I believe I can learn to sew and cook and do laundr}' work and do them well, and I want to learn them and I want to learn to do them well. 10. I believe in the square deal for girls as well as boys and I want everybody to be happy all the time — the old as well as the young. JOINT DISCUSSION THE MINIMUM ESSENTIALS VERSUS THE DIFFERENTIATED COURSE OF STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES I. LOTUS D. COFFMAN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. There has been a growing educational theory that individual rights and liberties are paramount to social duties and to the social will. It is true that the most distinctive and valuable contribution of current educational psychology is a knowledge of individual differences. The discovery of these differences has resulted in an exaltation of the importance of the individual, and that exaltation has become the dominant note in educational theory and practice. So deeply enmeshed is the doctrine of individual differences in educational thought that we are in some danger of forgetting that interest, one of its by-products, is not always a measure of value, that mere spontaneous activity in itself never produced reflective thinking, that natural learning, apart from human intervention, is a fiction, a dream, an anomaly. The only national rights anyone has are those he uses for collective welfare. Certain standards and certain values must be set up for the training so that all may more satisfactorily satisfy the conditions of good citizenship, of neighborhood, and of family life. At this particular time it is becoming increasingly imperative that we ask what is best for society, what is best for the state, rather than what is best for the individual. The gigantic problems this country is facing and will soon have to solve will demand new conceptions of responsibility, a more wholesome respect for the ideals of American hfe, a stiffening of our moral fiber, and a more rigorous mastery of the tools of learning. If the efficiency of a state or of a nation depends upon the trained intelligence of the people, the school must play its part in solving those problems which are basic to social welfare and to national integrity; and in doing so it must provide first and above all a curriculum consisting of 954 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit minimum essentials, a curriculum consisting of those great facts and prin- ciples which all should be expected to acquire within the limits of their respective capacities. The violent reaction we are experiencing against providing a curri- culum consisting of minimum essentials is due to the wholesale attempt to apply a uniform curriculum uniformly to all classes of children. This practice has placed no premium upon variations in methods. But initiative upon the part of teachers will be stimulated and encouraged if we vary the methods of instruction to harmonize with the capacities of the children for the purpose of securing more uniform outcomes in matters of skill, knowledge, standards, ideals, appreciations, obligations, and duties. We regard it as a healthy sign and as a mark of progress that teachers enjoy great freedom in the adaptation of materials to the abilities of children. Any educational program that offers little opportunity for the exercise of resourcefulness and initiative on the part of teachers is the product of mediaevalism. A certain amount of freedom is desirable because it sthnulates ambitious teachers to improve their methods; a certain amount is necessary because some individuals and some classes will do more work than other individuals or other classes. But the great fact remains that there is a certain irreducible amount of material, constantly increasing in character and in amount, which all children should be required to master if they are to be in possession of those things which constitute the essentials of our common life and common welfare. It is quite as necessary, and certainly as valuable, that we empha- size the stabler aspects of society in the curriculum as that we be conversant with every variation proposed. Initiative is an eminently desirable quality, but initiative without guidance becomes anarchy; initiative with- out being founded upon a substratum of common ideals determined by sane leaders will result in national destruction. But ideals cannot be formulated in a vacuum. They always follow in the wake of or cluster about ideas, and it is those ideas and practices which constitute the basis of social Ufe for which we are pleading. It is not uncommon to hear the special pleaders of individual differences proclaiming that reading should be taught without readers, arithmetic without arithmetics, and that we should abandon all textbooks and courses of study. The discovery of an obsolete bit of material in the curriculum or some defect in method has encouraged them to declare the entire school system to be antiquated and worthless, the "most gigantic and momentous failure of modern times." They also urge differentiation in the seventh and eighth grades because of the elimination and retardation found in these grades, and they cite as the cause of this retardation the lack of adjustment between the different grades of ability found in the school and the course of study. While this mal-adjustment has no doubt contributed to the mortal- ity of the schools, still the total population in school between 1900 and 1910, Superintendence] STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 955 as shown by the census returns, increased proportionately more rapidly than the general population for each age group, and more rapidly for boys than for girls in every state in the Union except Nevada. Altho mortality is descriptive of a condition to be ameliorated, we have much evidence to show that both enrolment and attendance are improving. The greatest achievement of the last century, one unparalleled anywhere else in all the world, is the retention in school of four children in ten to the age of fifteen and of one child in ten to the age of nineteen. We are not familiar with a single trustworthy investigation that establishes beyond question the fact that retardation and elimination are due primarily to the uniformities of the curriculum. That much of the retardation and elimination is due to causes over which the school has little or no control has been clearly demonstrated. Moreover, a recent investigation in one state has shown that enrolment and attendance have increased as rapidly in 126 schools having no vocational work as in 117 schools having vocational work. Evi- dently there is a nation-wide faith in public education, whether it be general or special, cultural or vocational. Another of the stock arguments for the differentiation of the curriculum in these upper grades is that it should be organized to serve the needs of the community in which the school is located. We have no desire to mini- mize the importance of this conception. We are convinced that there should be many more contacts than now exist between the school and the community, that we have not yet become sufficiently sensitive and self- conscious concerning the possibilities of social service thru such contacts. The localization of the activities of the school in terms of the dominant industries and activities of the community will vitalize the curriculum and motivate instruction. It will make a direct appeal to the pupils and it will encourage local support for the schools. These results are highly desirable. But attempts to localize the school curriculum may result in a situation inimical to the interests of democracy. The natural consequence of localization may mean an accentuation of the differences already exist- ing between the communities. If such be the case, and if the practice be extended indefinitely, then one of the great obligations of the public school wiU be neglected. If, as is generally admitted, the common school, and in that we would include the Seventh and eighth grades, is the agent of universal education, if the station of a nation among the nations of the world can be determined by the attention it is giving to the general educa- tion of the masses, if social solidarity depends upon likemindedness rather than upon unlikemindedness, then we must safeguard those things which made for the homogeneity of our people, and not accentuate unduly community differences. We cannot educate all who Hve in farming communities to be farmers, or all who live in mining communities to be miners. We know that a majority of the sons of any generation wiU not follow the occupations of 956 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit their fathers. Since there is a tremendous shift in occupations from genera- tion to generation, is it not all the more important that all people be edu- cated alike in those things which are essential to mutual understanding and to mutual intercourse ? This does not imply that all shall think alike all the time, but that all shall have the basis and the instruments for similar thinking when it is required. Otherwise, the charlatan, the mounte- bank, and the demagog will need to appeal only to the emotions, the super- stition, and the ignorance of the people to lead. But few will deny that an educated citizenry is as necessary to fight the battle of peace as a trained citizenry is necessary to fight the battles of war, and neither can be secured without common elements in our educational program. Frequently the advocates of localization forget the fact that approxi- mately one-half of the people living in cities were born, reared, and educated in rural districts. Had they been trained in the district schools in a narrow curriculum, colored by one or two local occupations, they probably would have found it far more difficult to adapt themselves to city Ufe. Moreover, the mobility of our population between states, a tendency we should hardly think of restricting, must be reckoned with when we are considering education in terms of national good and national integrity. Unless we safeguard all those things which make for social welfare and mutual under- standing and social intercourse in our educational program, the localiza- tion of the curriculum, valuable as this conception is, must lead to occupational stratification. When any educational theory seeks to estabHsh new ethical standards, to undermine our codes of personal moraHty, when it strikes powerfully and sharply at the value of racial experience, when it declares that many of our stabler institutions are antiquated and worthless, the vaUdity of its arguments should be tested. Not education merely, but every phase of American life has been permeated and infected by the invidious implica- tions of the doctrines of individualism. The extent to which the doctrine of individual liberty has forced itself into business is a matter of common knowledge. Men will refuse to buy of a grocer or a butcher whose scales are not properly adjusted when they themselves resort to trickery in disposing of stocks and securities. Men will vote to imprison the dealer of adulterated milk when they them- selves do not scruple in selling watered stock. In other words, business has become a game. At least, it is called a game in which each player is dominated by self-interest. . The same tendencies are at work in the poUtical field. PoUtics, as such, is looked upon as a game in which trickery, deception, and fraud are the proper cards to play. It would seem that we need a new conception of public responsibility. Taking morals and public duties as we find them, we are impressed with the necessity of devising new standards if we are to prevent degeneracy. We Superintendence] STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 957 must prevent the spirit of our trusteeship from sinking into abeyance and from being replaced by the spirit of selfish or local ends. To divert atten- tion from the immediate and alluring and to center it upon the stabler aspects and interests of society is a problem of paramount importance. The trial of democracy as a form of government before the civilized world has been going on too long to be overlooked in the burst of enthusiasm for human freedom. All human freedom is limited by its capacity for stable and efficient government. Democratic nations have died only by self-slaughter. The last shreds of autocracy can be extirpated in a democ- racy only by learning submission to law, not to a master; to efliciency of organization under a higher servant, not under a ruler; to energy and eJ05ciency of devotion to the common welfare, not to individual Hberty. Our nation faces the task of reinterpreting its ideals and readjusting its life. Purpose must take the place of destiny, and there must be a change from drift to mastery. Our domestic and public affairs and our educational program must all be more efficiently organized. In the future there will be less talk of rights and more insistence on duties. It will be realized that there can be no solidarity without sacrifices. If we do not loyally volunteer for the new life of our country, we shall be drafted. In this work of national readjustment our educational system will be tested as never before. President Eliot has recently declared that democracy is on trial now and that unless it can effect a highly efficient organization with national unity as its goal it must perish when it comes into competition with more efficient nations. National integrity and economic efficiency depend upon intelligent citizens and they depend upon the educational ideals fostered by the country. If education is not used to promote the resources of the nation as a whole, but to divert these resources into individual channels, it becomes a source of weakness instead of strength. As Fouillee points out, "The danger that above all others the democratic nation must avoid is the disintegration of society into units with no immediate concern but self-interest, into individuals to whom social duties and bonds are gradually ceasing to appeal." A growing consciousness of social welfare and of social organization is calculated to shift the emphasis from the demand for individual liberty to a demand for social unity. Modern educational psychology has not only made us aware of varia- tions in ability, it has also discovered that there is a common central tend- ency around which individuals cluster or tend to cluster. Slight variations from this central tendency are numerous; large variations from it are rare. Similarities in mentality as well as similarities in social ideals and stand- ards are after all important criteria for determining the selection of the materials of education and the attainments of children. Variation in ability is essential to social progress, but resemblances in ideals, customs, skills, and standards are essential to social stability. Differences among people are no more basic to democracy than likeness among people. That 958 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Detroit community of ideals and ideas, which serves as the basis for mutual under- standing and which must be lifted from level to level with each succeeding generation, cannot be assured without a common pabulum in the school. If this and succeeding generations are to consider common problems, if democracy is dependent upon agreement in thought and action with refer- ence to the great fundamental conceptions and issues of life, then education in measuring up to its responsibility must seek to transmit the facts, principles, and standards and to inculcate the ideals which will safeguard those conceptions and issues. A curriculum which serves this purpose cannot be narrow and restricted. It will be an enriched and socialized curriculum. All those things which relate to health, to civic responsibility, to our relations with one another, must be emphasized. There must be an examination and reinterpretation of the subjects now in the curriculum for the purpose of making them more serviceable and valuable to us all. New materials will be introduced under the sanction of new pressures for the purpose of satisfying new demands of general social utility. Before specialized skill and knowledge are set up as ends of education, all that knowledge of a non-technical nature with which every well-informed and reasonably well-adjusted citizen in an American state is equipped; all those social and personal habits; all those ideals, attitudes, appreciations, prejudices, and contempts which distinguish the desirable citizen; all those duties and obligations which fix our responsibility and constitute the basis of our social life; all those tools which represent the instruments of learn- ing and the expression of experiences as our common usefulness — all these common elements the seventh and eighth grades, whatever else they do or do not do, must see that their pupils possess on leaving them. II. W. C. BAGLEY, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL. The question of differentiated curricula versus common elements in the seventh and eighth grades is not a question to be solved on the basis of expediency; it is not a question to be solved on the basis of individual, local, or partisan interests; least of all should the issues that it involves be clouded or obscured by emotion or prejudice. The answer that this department gives to this question is fairly certain to commit both the department and the public schools definitely and perhaps irretrievably to one or another of two fundamental educational doctrines, and this at the present time especially is not a responsibility to be considered lightly. Today, more than ever before, we are in a position to appreciate the funda- mental influence which a permeating philosophy exerts over the conduct of a people. In a country where institutionalized education is universal, the doc- trines that dominate the people's schools will have a large share in deter- Superintendence] STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 959 mining the doctrines that dominate the succeeding generation. Under our decentralized system of school administration, the body that has the largest power in determining the dominant educational doctrines is this representa- tive body of school administrators. Your decisions will have a preponderant influence in shaping public opinion upon educational problems. Your judg- ment will be a large factor in giving to the people the counsel and advice that may determine basic educational policies. It is important, then, that our discussions should emphasize basic principles. The issues that are involved are too fundamental and too serious to justify a quibbling debate over unessential matters. We shall quarrel neither as to the need of differentiations nor as to the wisdom of meeting individual needs and individual capacities by a rich and varied program of studies. Personally I beUeve that there is a place for certain differentiations, not only in the seventh and eighth grades, but even from the very outset of school life. The important question is not, Shall differ- entiated programs be provided? but rather. Upon what principles shall differentiations be based ? Touching this important question, there are three theories or doctrines widely current in American education that appeal to me as fraught with the gravest dangers. The first of these theories is this: that common elements in the school program are unnecessary beyond the point where children have fairly mastered the "tools of knowledge"; substantial uniformity up to this point, we are told, is both economical and expedient, but uni- formity beyond this point, while both cheap and easy to administer, cannot be justified by any principle of educational values. According to this view, common elements beyond the fifth or sixth school year are not essential, and while there will continue to be some uniformity, this will be determined merely by convenience, not by basic and fundamental principles. This, I believe, is substantially the view held by a group of prominent students of education who have recently published a joint statement of principles that, in their judgment, should govern the construction of curricula. It is also a view that is either implicit or explicit in the current arguments for reor- ganizing the seventh and eighth grades on the junior high-school plan. This point of view, while representing a wholesome reaction against the extreme and deadening uniformity that once prevailed, overlooks entirely, and to my mind inexcusably, one of the most important problems that education in a democracy should strive to solve — the problem, namely, of insuring an adequate number of common elements in the people's culture; the problem of insuring an adequate measure of likemindedness, a fund of ideas, ideals, and standards common to all the members of the democratic group. If a democracy needs anything that education can furnish, it certainly needs this essential basis of mutual understanding, for if democ- racy means anything, it means that the people in the last analysis must govern their own affairs; it means that the will of the people must be 960 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit supreme. If this collective will is to guide aright the destinies of a great nation, it must be based upon a collective intelligence of a high order; and collective intelligence of a high order is impossible without a high level of common ideas, ideals, and aspirations. The curriculum problem in the seventh and eighth grades and in the high schools, then, is not to be solved by discarding or belittling the principle of uniformity. The obvious avenue of solution is first to determine with great care what elements of knowledge, skill, and aspiration may best be made common to all; to insure that, whenever we ask everyone to master certain elements of knowledge and skill, these elements shall be really worthy of the honor that is being conferred upon them — the honor of being among the common denominators of the collective thinking of a great people. In the past, the common elements of the school program have not always or often been determined carefully, and while it is probably true that many if not most of the materials now standardized in the elementary program deserve the high recognition that has been accorded them in making them the basis of the common culture of the people, it is also true that some of them have outUved their usefulness, while the presence of others could not be justified even as having historical value. The first problem in curric- ulum construction, then, is to make this determination of the minimal essentials which are to constitute the common elements of basic education. These must be thoughtfully and carefully selected, not upon the basis of individual whim, or doctrinaire caprice, but upon the basis of their human worth. They must represent the most precious and enduring parts of the culture-heritage of the race. Nothing cheap, nothing tawdry, nothing that is of merely evanescent or superficial value should be included here. Carefully selected, rigorously tested common elements, then, should form the core of every seventh- and eighth-grade program. Around these should be built the differentiations, the diversified offerings, but no one should be permitted to escape the common elements — that is, no one who is to have a voice or a vote in the government of the people. And this leads to a second current doctrine that, to my mind, is sur- charged with social dynamite. It is the insidious notion that what we call general or liberal education is needed only by those who are going into the professions; that workers in the industrial, agricultural, and commercial fields do not need the kind of culture that the general and liberal work of the seventh and eighth grades and the high school is supposed to represent — that instruction in history, in geography, in literature, is really vocational education preparing for the ''white-collar" occupations. And so we have the proposals for differentiated courses in history-^industrial history for those going into the industries, political history for those going into the professions; and we have proposals and even experiments in the teaching of English which would relegate the great masterpieces to the white-collar pupils, and feed those destined for other caUings on the inspiring contents Superintendencej STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 961 of poultry bulletins and mail-order catalogs. I do not mean that the sober sense of the educational public has yet permitted the lower schools to be exploited by these fantastic schemes; I do mean that proposals no less absurd have been made by serious and sincere individuals who have been caught by this notion that the cultural materials of our upper grades and high schools are of value only to those who are headed toward the professions. That the work of the seventh and eighth grades is now very far from perfect from the point of view of providing the essential common elements of general education, we shall readily admit; but the defects are those of detailed application, not of fundamental principles. Certainly these sweep- ing reorganizations which propose differentiated curricula beginning with the seventh grade are an extreme and unwarranted means of solving the problem. To adopt a policy which in time is certain to force vocational choices at or before the age of twelve is to work a personal injustice to mil- lions of immature children, most of whom will not thank you at a later day for thus prostituting their interests and selling their birthright. Most of those who advocate early vocational differentiation are not thinking of their own children. Of course a broad and liberal training is presupposed for them. These opportunities for early vocational choices are for other people's children. And what do the "other people" think about them? Two years ago, the Illinois Federation of Labor adopted a report from its educational committee — a report, by the way, which expressed a keener appreciation of the difficult service rendered by the public-school teacher than any similar document that I have seen coming from a group of laymen. In adopting this report the Federation went on record against vocational differentiation prior to the age of fourteen. Even Mr. Cooley, with whose advocacy of the dual system of vocational schools I have had no sympathy, has at every point in his constructive proposals safeguarded inviolably the general and liberal education of all children to the age of fourteen. And he has done this, I am told, against the pressure of some of the powerful commercial and industrial interests that he has represented. When this department last year adopted a resolution that apparently indorsed voca- tional differentiation at the age of twelve, a Chicago newspaper that was advocating the dual system immediately seized upon the resolution as an illustration of the inconsistency of the schoolmen. This paper said in effect: Here are the schoolmen protesting in one breath against the dual system of schools which threatens their control of the educational situation, and protesting on the high grounds of democracy; and in the next breath they adopt a policy of premature vocational differentiation tenfold more undemocratic than the dual system could ever be. With the junior high-school movement as an agency for instituting wholesome reforms I have no quarrel. There are many things to be said in favor of segregation of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. But many prominent advocates of the movement are insisting that its essence is g62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit differentiated curricula, and differentiated curricula will inevitably mean vocational differentiation; they will mean a separation of the sheep from the goats, and class restrictions in respect to liberal education; they will mean curtailing by two full years the common pabulum of culture so essen- tial to a democracy; they will mean the inevitable narrowing of interests at a time when, above all times, interests should be broad and liberal. Furthermore, if the downward movement starts, it will certainly continue. Those who predicate their confidence in the junior high school on the theory that an important corner in mental development is being turned at the age of twelve can easily find another corner at the age of nine. In fact, if the junior high-school movement is based upon the assumed virtues of voca- tional differentiation at the age of twelve, it is simply the first step toward the Europeanizing of a democratic school system which, with all its faults, has still constituted an "educational ladder with its base in the gutter and its tip in the university." The work of the seventh and eighth grades is open to vast improve- ment— in which respect, by the way, it bears a close resemblance to the work of the high school, the work of the college, the university, and the graduate school. Mortality is still too high in these seventh and eighth grades. Our boys and girls who reach the end of the compulsory educa- tion period before they graduate from the elementary school need oppor- tunities and stimulus for further cultural and vocational training; these opportunities and this stimulus should certainly be provided. I am heartily in sympathy with every plan that promises to alleviate these conditions without at the same time surrendering, as do these present-day proposals, the fundamental principles that form the educational basis of true democ- racy. I am also in favor of certain differentiations all along the line that will supplement and complement the essential basis of common elements. We must provide adequately for the lo or 20 per cent of pupils who find the present standards too rigorous to meet, and we must also provide for the 10 or 20 per cent who find the present standards too easy and who acquire enduring habits of laziness and carelessness because they are not stimulated to their best efforts. But the differentiations which these problems involve will be primarily differentiations in teaching rather than differentiations in materials. The problem is one of adaptation. We can never hope by any legerdemain of subjects, courses, and curricula to meet every individual difference in rate of mental growth or in capacity for mental mastery. To take the materials that have proved their worth and to adapt them to the needs, capacities, and aptitudes of individuals is the task of the teacher. As a teacher I cannot escape my responsibility merely by throwing the blame back upon the curriculum that I may be attempting to teach. The fault may be in the curriculum, but it avails me nothing to advance the faults of the curriculum as a cloak for my own inefficiency. It avails me nothing to say that I could teach all right if only I could find materials that Superintendence] STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 963 everybody wanted to learn. If such materials were available, my office would soon be vacant; it would necessarily disappear for it would represent a luxury without a purpose. A great deal of our trouble today lies in the fact that we are looking upon all of the ills of education as curriculum ills, when, in reality, many if not most of them are teaching ills. And in the improvement of conditions in the seventh and eighth grades, this matter will need some attention but hardly, I take it, from the high schools and colleges. During the past few years, I have visited several hundred classes on the elementary, secon- dary, and higher levels of public-school work. Easily the best teaching that I have seen has been in the primary grades and in the seventh and eighth grades.^ I shall not generalize from my limited experience, but personally I am very skeptical of any proposal which would bring down into the seventh and eighth grades the methods commonly found in many high-school classes — ^methods which have in turn been derived from college classrooms. Nor am I wildly enthusiastic about the prospect of reproduc- ing among seventh- and eighth-grade teachers the attitude toward the work of teaching which characterizes many high-school teachers and many more college professors. This may be a minor point, but if my earlier proposition is correct, if the problem of differentiation to meet individual needs and capacities is primarily a teaching problem and only secondarily a curric- ulum problem, then it seems to me that the teachers in these grades should be men and women to whom the art of teaching is something more than a topic for sneering contempt. Closely akin to this phase of our discussion is the third and final current doctrine that has intimate relations to this matter of differentiated curricula in the seventh and eighth grades. I refer to the beHef that educational values are to be determined exclusively or chiefly by the relation of educational materials to the "immediately felt needs" of the pupils — the doctrine that interest is the chief measure of value. The weight of this doctrine obviously falls on the side of curriculum differentiation, for the greater the number of offerings and the fewer the common demands, the greater the likelihood that something appetizing to the individual will be found. Again it is necessary to keep the balance. Interest is an educational agency the potency of which it would be folly to ignore. We have indeed traveled far from the rigorous doctrines of the Puritans, and no one can greatly regret that the severity, the harshness, and the repression of the olden time have given place to a recognition of pleasure and happiness and the joys of life. But, after all, the problem is to balance the two forces. Then^ nothing was good unless it had a bad taste; today nothing is good 'Classroom efficiency varies with supervision. Effective supervision is much more prevalent in the elementary school than in the high school. It is practically non-existent in colleges and universities. There is a prejudice against classroom supervision among secondary and higher teachers; hence the danger of the movement to reorganize the upper grades on the high-school model. 964 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit unless it tickles the palate. Both are extreme views, and either, unbalanced by its complement, will lead to individual and social disaster. Toward a solution of these problems of seventh- and eighth-grade work — of all educational work, for that matter — ^we need a co-operation of these two forces. The teacher's attempt to make work fascinating and attractive must be met half-way by the aggressive effort of our boys and girls. In the last analysis, the efficiency of our educational system depends upon the capacity of our boys and girls to do "hard, uncoaxed, uncompli- mented work willingly and heartily." With this attitude as a basis, the doctrine of interest may be applied to the last notch; with this attitude lacking, our present emphasis upon the doctrine of interest commits us to a pernicious individualism that is full of social perils. Is it not an opportune moment to suggest that our schools can never be more than superficially successful until public opinion places its powerful sanction upon what may be called the duty of intelligence ? The kind of preparedness that a democracy needs most is not primarily the kind that we hear so much about today. The kind of preparedness that a democracy always needs, whether to face the crises of war or the crises of peace, is that which is represented by the highest possible level of general intelligence. Under the influence of the present crisis, it should not be an impossible task to direct the thinking of the people toward this momentous problem. There are those who believe, and believe sincerely, that duty and sacri- fice are outworn virtues that have no place in a democracy. It may not be enough to argue that, if democracy can find no place for these virtues, the world will shortly find no place for democracy. Can we insure on a large scale an effective sense of duty that will impel all the children of all the people to pay the necessary price for the trained intelligence — the price of effort and sacrifice that must always remain the basic factors in mental mastery ? There are boys and girls in our high schools and in our state- supported colleges and universities who look upon the opportunities and privileges that the bounty of the people provides always with the attitude that these are rights, never stopping to think that a right implies a corre- sponding duty. It is wrong to permit this condition to continue — wrong to these boys and girls themselves, wrong to society primarily for whose benefit public education has been established, wrong to the schools whose efficiency is impaired and whose service is restricted by the essentially individualistic attitude that our current educational doctrines deliberately encourage. The fundamental issue in this matter of "differentiation" versus "common elements," then, is the issue between individuahsm and collec- tivism, and the struggle here is only a tiny example of the eternal struggle between these two forces. It is the struggle to find the proper balance, the adequate proportion of emphasis to give to each factor. It is the lack of a proper balance on a vastly larger scale that is drenching Europe with Superintendence] STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 965 blood today. Many are asking whether, in our own country, we have not gone too far in the direction of individualism. In our educational theory we have certainly gone too far, and educational practice has gone about as far as it is safe to venture without a counteracting movement. In my opinion, the time is ripe for a little tincture of iron in our educational philos- ophy; for the touch of a more virile idealism; for a renaissance of thoro- ness and a reasonable measure of rigor; for something approaching a revival of the ideals of duty and effort. III. DAVID SNEDDEN, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS. The efforts now being made in various states to reorganize curricula of training and instruction for children from twelve to fourteen or fifteen years of age constitute undoubtedly the most significant and important of contemporary movements in education. We are justified in assuming without argument that the scope and character of that instruction and training will be materially modified in the near future. Readjustments in administrative plans, restatement of purposes, and new developments in means and methods employed may all be expected. For some years educators have discussed plans for a " six-and-six " division of the years given to elementary and secondary education; and we now hear much about the intermediate school and the junior high school as means of providing better education for children from twelve to fourteen years of age. Already a large jiumber of interesting experiments along these lines are being tried. The writer holds that the theses given below can now be successfully defended, and in this paper it is proposed to contribute toward their discussion: a) The educational needs of pupils of twelve to fourteen years of age are variable to such an extent that, if conditions of educational administration permitted, a number of courses of training and instruction, dissimilar as to many important elements and also even as to quality of results expected in common studies, should be provided. b) The number and variety of subjects of training and instruction suited to and desirable for at least some important groups of pupils of these ages are now far too large to be properly included in the educational program of any one learner; and the number and variety of these desirable studies tend steadily to increase. c) It is highly probable that as regards flexibility of courses of instruc- tion and training the school suited to the needs of pupils from twelve to fourteen years of age will in essential respects repeat the history of the liberal arts (general) college and the general secondary school which, in the early stages of their history, offered uniform curricula composed in 966 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit the main of prescribed studies, but which subsequently and in ever- increasing measure found it desirable to increase the range of their studies and to give pupils wider latitude in making individual programs of study. d) While it may safely be assumed that for some years to come at least the individual programs of instruction and training for all pupils of twelve to fourteen years of age will be required to contain studies or elements com- mon to all, nevertheless it is even now expedient and desirable in well- organized schools, and, of course, subject to administrative limitations as to expense and also subject to certain general conditions hereafter to be described, to allow pupils to elect individual programs in large measure from among all the subject courses offered. UNLIKE ENDS OR OBJECTIVES IN EDUCATION Every specific subject or even phase of subject of school work should, of course, be taught with certain conscious ends or objectives in view. These objectives or goals determining the teachers' aims are but illy defined at present, especially where the education of children from twelve to eighteen is concerned, but we may expect them to be more fully analyzed and stated in the near future, as educational processes become more scientifically correlated between social and individual needs on the one hand, and indi- vidual powers and possibilities on the other. But, in the light of present experience, it seems highly desirable to classify the objectives of the educa- tion that is adapted to children of twelve to fourteen years of age into at least two groups according to the presence or absence in each study or phase of study of certain fundamental characteristics. A few concrete cases will make this clear. The objects to be attained in teaching a pupil to spell, for example, differ essentially from the objects to be attained thru having the same pupil listen to a good musical recital or witness a dramatic performance. It is unfortunate that educational psychologists have not given more atten- tion to the fundamentally unlike character of the learning processes here contrasted. In teaching spelling the outcome expected on the part of the pupil is a certain quite definite and easily recognized ability to do, to exe- cute, to express in action, and the learning process cannot be terminated economically until this end is achieved. On the other hand, the learning achieved in hearing a recital or witnessing a dramatic performance (and we are agreed that some form of learning is thus achieved) can be subjected to no profitable test of expression, of doing. We expect absorption, assimi- lation, growth, as results, but the final outcome is so remote from the original stimulus that we do not, ordinarily, seek to trace connections. For the sake of convenient classification, let us call the first type of learning the alpha type, and the second the beta type. Let us repeat that , the conspicuous result expected in the case of the alpha type is ability to do, Superintendence] STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 967 to express in action, while the most tangible result expected in the case of the beta type is appreciation or, in one sense of the word, interest. In the seventh and eighth grades, it is probably in accordance with sound pedagogy so to teach arithmetic, penmanship, composition, spelling, and, presumably, grammar that these subjects should properly fall in the alpha class. On the other hand, literature, science, and civics are, or doubtless ought to be, so taught as properly to belong to the beta class. History, geography, music, art, and practical arts seem to be composite. It is manifestly important, for example, that certain phases of history and geography should be so definitely taught that the resulting fixed knowledge becomes as available and inerrant as should be knowledge of the multiplica- tion table. But it is intolerable that all geography and history as organized for children from twelve to fourteen years of age should be so taught. Most of the supplemental material used, and indeed much of the contents of the textbooks in current use, also, should be read, talked over, and the resulting impressions assimilated, but no fixed and instantly usable knowledge need be expected. Hence the proper organization of these subjects should involve a conscious and definite differentiation between alpha and beta portions, teaching units or phases. It is difficult to determine the effect of the differentiations here proposed on music and drawing (or art), because the purposes of these subjects in elementary education are, as yet, so imperfectly defined. It is probable that both subjects are now composite, and that in the interest of effective teaching they should be differentiated into alpha and beta phases or teach- ing units. There is much discussion at present of the teaching of music for the purpose of developing musical appreciation. Picture-study has a place in some schools for a similar purpose. Clearly these are beta phases of these subjects. But it is also probably desirable that some children should be taught to execute music — that is, to read musical notation accurately, to sing, or to play. These are clearly alpha phases. Perhaps, also, upper-grade pupils should be given definite drill in drawing as an art of expression — also an alpha phase. Now the distinction here made is of fundamental importance in any discussion of flexible courses, or elective systems, because of the probability that the right and expediency on the part of the school of prescribing studies or phases of studies applies with far greater force to the alpha group than to the beta group. For one thing, the processes of learning in the alpha group are much more arduous, as a rule, than in the beta group; but in the alpha group, at least for the elementary school, will be found many of the common intellectual tools of civilized society — the arts of oral and writ- ten expression, receptive (or silent) reading, definite knowledge of geographi- cal and historical facts, simple principles of hygiene, generally accepted rules of behavior, etc. On the other hand, learning in the beta group is easier, or should be, if needed adaptation is made for individual interests; g68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit and in respect to appreciation studies generally, society can well afford to have and perhaps even to procure a large degree of variability rather than of uniformity among its members. We should all spell alike and have in common a definite knowledge of some of the facts of American history; but it is of advantage rather than disadvantage that our people should vary greatly as to the fields or individual examples of literature, and of history, in which they find interest and satisfaction. It should, then, theoretically prove possible for us to enumerate all the desirable ends or objectives in the systematic education of young people from twelve to fifteen years of age, and to classify them into the two divisions suggested above, according as the learning sought is specific, definite, and instantly usable in active life, or as it results in appreciation, taste, modified sentiment, ideal, and undifferentiated background of knowledge (experience, intellectual nurture). THE POSSIBLE CURRICULUM OF THE JUNIOR HIGH OR INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL In order to set clearly before ourselves, without unnecessary restric- tions, the possibilities of flexibility in schools for children from twelve to fourteen years of age, let us assume a very large city school receiving only pupils who have completed sixth-grade work, and designed to retain these pupils for but two or three years. Let us assume further that the school possesses financial means sufficient to enable it to organize and offer any kind of instruction for which there is a substantial demand, and which in the judgment of the authorities it is wise to offer to pupils of the stated years and qualifications. Let us furthermore assume, for the sake of con- crete description, that the work is offered as units, a unit consisting of the equivalent of five weekly periods of 60 minutes each, extending thru twelve weeks, to cover both instruction and recitation, and any other form of exclusive claim on the attention and energy of the pupil of average power for the 60 minutes. Theoretically, then, in view of recent progress in enriching elementary-school curricula and in urging desirable new forms of instruction and training, the following subject courses might profitably be offered in Grades VII and VIII in such a school, the alpha and beta units being separately indicated: Name of Subject Alpha Units Beta Units (Figures at left refer to explanatory notes at end of section) (i) English expression: (2) Oral expression 6 (3) Written expression 6 (4) Grammar 3 (5) Word analysis i (6) Spelling i or 2 (7) Penmanship i or 2 (8) Alphabet i (9) Silent reading i or 2 Superintendence] STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 969 Name of Subject Alpha Units (Figures at left refer to explanatory notes at end of section) (10) General history (11) American history 3 (12) Community civics i (13) Literature i (14) General moving pictures (15) Music, individual vocal 3 (16) Music, chorus i (17) Music, piano 3 (18) Music, appreciation (19) Music, band i (20) Drawing, representative 2 (21) Art, appreciation (22) Geography i or 2 (23) Science, general i (24) French 3 or 6 (25) German 3 or 6 (26) Spanish 3 or 6 C27) Latin i or 2 (28) Industrial arts (29) Agricultural arts (30) Commercial arts (31) Household arts (32) Arithmetic, commercial 3 or 6 (33) Arithmetic, industrial 3 or 6 (34) Arithmetic,- home 3 (35) Arithmetic, geometry, and algebra. ... 3 or 6 (36) Hygiene •. i or 2 (37) Physical training i or 2 (38) Vocational guidance Beta Units 6 3 or 6 2 5 3 3 or 6 2 or 4 2 or 5 2 or 4 3 or 6 3 or 6 3 or 6 3 or 6 2 or 4 5 or 4 3 or 6 (i) To include all general studies designed to give greater power in the use of the vernacular, oral and written. (2) Including reading aloud, "speaking," correct use of voice, "oral composition" Cor sustained delivery to audience), debate, correct usage, etc., all from standpoint of effort to secure definite attainments. (3) Composition, letter-writing, correct usage in writing, etc. (4) Systematic analysis, with correction of personal solecisms. (5) Origin and structure of common words. (6) Chiefly to meet individual needs. Good spellers excused. (7) Chiefly to meet individual needs. Good writers excused. (8) Drill in alphabet, to produce readiness in use of indexes, dictionaries, etc. (9) Drill in technique. The subject not clearly defined as yet, but evidence exists that it is very important. (10) A general reading and lecture course — no drill. (11) Selection of special details and fundamental generalization for drill for alpha units; general and interesting phases of subjects as beta units. (12) To include a small amount of definitely organized knowledge as alpha imits. Beta units to cover thrift, reading about sanitation, practice voting, school self- government, readings, visits, etc. (13) Close analytical study of one or two selections, and certain central facts of litera- ture, under alpha units. Beta units to include home reading, library reading, etc., but 970 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit no requirement as to uniformity of material for all pupils. Individual choices, subject to approval of instructor. (14) That is, not definitely correlated with other subjects, and is designed chiefly to enhance discriminative appreciation of moving pictures as a means of education and diversion. (15) Drill for pupils having marked capacity to profit from such study. (16) Selected group desiring drill. (17) For selected pupils desiring definite training. (18) All available forms of music offered to all desiring such training. (19) Selected group desiring definite training. (20) A general course; additional specialized work in correlation with practical arts. (21) Plastic and decorative, and in part correlated with practical arts, but should include pictures, room decoration, architecture, advertising illustration, and moving pictures. (22) Separation of formal or drill phases from appreciative phase, preserving correla- tion, by means of specific ''teaching units" for both alpha and beta phases. (23) Largely interpretive of scientific aspects of surroundings. (24)-(26) To produce mastery of spoken or of written language, according to pre- determined aims. (27) For drill in part. Subject could be reorganized to give insight and appreciation (beta units) in part. (28) Miscellaneous shop experience on projects from wide range of industries, including reading about the industries, and other means of enriching experience. Proj- ects from textile, printing, metal-working, woodworking, food-packing, transportation, and other industries. (29) Including gardening, poultry-raising, correlated reading, etc. (30) Typewriting, elementary bookkeeping, commercial penmanship, commercial readings, visits to commercial establishments, etc. Much of it on practical project basis. (31) Primarily to build on home experience and to enhance appreciation. (32)-(34) To be definitely practical subjects, correlated with practical arts courses. (35) Recommended for pupils expecting to enter high school and college. (36) To include certain alpha phases for definite knowledge and practice — teeth, posture, etc. — and others (beta) for insight and wide appreciation. (37) Some definite physical training to cure defects or to prevent apprehended defects (alpha units). Games, "boy scout" activities, miscellaneous developmental play, athletics, etc., for beta units. (38) Readings, individual conferences, lectures. THE VARYING EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF CHILDREN OF TWELVE TO FOURTEEN YEARS OF AGE The foregoing idealized curriculum shows clearly that there is even now available for possible use in courses of study for the junior high or inter- mediate school many times as much material as any one pupil can compass. Common experience teaches that hardly any subject is included above which cannot be "used" in some educational way, and to the interest and advantage certainly of individuals and even of groups of pupils, But there are no great numbers of these units that can reasonably be regarded as essential to all pupils alike, and which therefore should be universally prescribed as positive requirements. Equally, there are few Superintendence] STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 971 that any pupil should be prohibited from taking if he wishes — here called negative prescription. But what shall be the bases of these positive and negative prescriptions ? They certainly include at least the following: (a) the limitations imposed by the varying native capacities of pupils; (b) the requirement that each pupil, even against his own desire and that of his parents, shall, as a part of his right to a protected childhood and as a logical accompaniment of compulsory school attendance, be required to receive the instruction and training that will probably be necessary or greatly advantageous to him in later life; and (c) the right of society to have each person fitted as far as may be to take his part as citizen, parent, soldier, and worker in a world where all human activities are increasingly socialized and corporate in character. No argument is required to prove that children of twelve to fourteen years of age vary greatly as to natural capacity. Some are so talented that they can carry a large program of studies with ease and profit. Others are fortunate if they can, only at best, meet minimum requirements. Some are bom with natural gifts for music, foreign language, and drawing. These pupils can master their favorite subjects with an 'ease not possible to children less gifted in these directions. It is the observation of every teacher that some children have inferior natural capacity for arithmetic and other forms of mathematics, while others find only slight difficulty in these subjects, even in portions where rigorous abstract thinking is required. These natural limitations will therefore be influential in deter- mining what large numbers of pupils will, or will not, be allowed to take. On the other hand, the rights of the child, irrespective of his own desires in early youth or those of his guardians, to obtain or be given the education essential to a fair start in life are of paramount importance. This right applies not only as regards those minimum attainments in reading, writing, spelling, and number which are to be expected of all normal children; it should include also the requirement that children, manifestly talented in certain directions, shall be obliged at a suitable age to begin studies, such as foreign language, that may later, as far as can reasonably be foreseen, prove essential in the careers and positions of personal influence toward which their native powers seem to direct them. Finally, no one will dispute the obligation on the part of society to require all persons to acquire in childhood at least the minimum of knowl- edge and training which is essential to their successful participation in corporate life. Not only are the arts of expression to be included here, along with moral training, knowledge of civic facts and .responsibilities, ' and everyday arithmetic; eventually each person may be required to sub- mit to the training required for a vocation, and for the work of the soldier. Society must give this degree of education as a means of self-preservation. Q72 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit But, when an extensive curriculum of subject courses is offered in a school, the burden of proof rests on the school to establish a strong presump- tion as to the necessity of the units which are prescribed, whether for all or for those electing stated courses. Subject to the requirement that the pupil and his parents provide for the full use of the pupil's time, the learner should be free to elect his own program of studies, unless the school authorities can definitely establish the desirability of prescription. THE PROS AND CONS OF THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM Clearly, then, educators charged with organizing and administering education for persons from twelve to fifteen years of age are, or soon will be, confronted by conditions which constitute, if the distorted figure may be permitted, a three-horned dilemma: {a) Possible educational offerings (or opportunities for giving particular kinds of instruction and training) are becoming many fold more numerous than can be taken by any one indi- vidual or group of individuals presenting like characteristics; {h) the native capacities of pupils or of distinctive possible groups of pupils vary greatly; and (c) some subjects or phases of subjects, as yet not fully determined or defined, should in some cases be prescribed for all, and in other cases for all having stated forms of ability or probable future fields of usefulness. How shall the administrator proceed under these conditions? Shall he disregard, as he has heretofore done, the first and second considerations, and insist on a limited curriculum of prescribed studies for all, thus ignoring opportunities for varied training and instruction? Shall he include in his curricula all possible studies, but segregate them in rigid courses, so that each shall constitute a fixed system in itself, like a railroad route, of such a character that the pupil, once en route, cannot cross to another line, and can change his route of travel only by going back to the starting-point again ? Or shall he simply organize the school offerings into one long series and allow the pupil to range and choose ad libitum ? Manifestly, each of these courses is open to objection. They are all psychologically unsound. In reality, each method is desirable and feasible as to certain elements or types of studies in the curriculum. Some studies or subject courses should be prescribed for all pupils; some should be prescribed only as com- ponent elements of definite courses, and therefore to be required only of learners electing such courses, while, possibly, elective to others; and some should be freely elective to all. But it is here contended again that as regards all prescribed work, whether generally prescribed or prescribed for those electing specified courses, a heavy burden rests upon the authorities making the prescriptions to establish the presumption that it is better that these prescriptions should thus be made than that the pupil, subject to reasonable supervision from home and school, and to the general require- ment that he must employ all of his school time profitably, shall freely elect his own course (subject, also, of course, to the limitations imposed by Superintendence] STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 973 the necessities of efficient and economical school administration). Here we are, of course, at once involved in the old debate as to the merits and demerits of the elective system and the capacities of learners wisely to use such a system. All of us have read (and perhaps participated in) lengthy discussions as to the elective system in college and school. We were long ago told that learners — whether college Juniors or high-school Freshmen — were not old enough or wise enough or earnest enough to choose their own studies to advantage. They would usually choose " snap " courses. Their programs, under freedom of election, would consist of unco-ordinated subject-courses, the resulting learning would be fragmentary, discursive, and unsubstantial. ''Easy instructors" would be in favor, real efficiency would disappear, and chaos would prevail. It is a fact that in nearly all debate as to the elective system, its oppo- nents have had the stronger arguments. The proponents, while usually able eventually to win the day in action because of favoring circumstances, have never, it would seem, formulated the most fundamental and strongest arguments in favor of their position. It must surely be admitted that the pupil, whether in seventh, or tenth, or fifteenth (college Junior) grade, is but poorly equipped to make so momentous a choice as that involved in electing the studies he will hence- forth pursue. Almost equally, after college graduation, he will be but poorly prepared to elect his profession, his place of future work, his physi- cian, his political party, a woman to be his wife. Here we express, of course, only an admission that our system of education includes as yet hardly any provision for adequately guiding the individual in the matter of many, if not all, of the important decisions he must make in life. For, if we ask what is the alternative to free election of studies, even, let us say, in the college period of education, v/e are confronted by the fact that except in rare instances there exists as yet no organized procedure whereby the individual, with his limitations of capacity and opportunity, his interests, and his obligations to society, can be guided into making choices that best meet or serve his needs. The opponents of election have probably never asserted that they were ready to provide the personal attention and scientific insight that would be required adequately to have prescribed for the individual student on the basis of sound diagnosis the best program of studies for him. It is certain that in college and secondary school this could not be done, for the sufficient reason that never yet have educators in those institutions accompHshed anything substantial in the way of capacity for making scientific diagnoses of the capacities, limitations, and probable opportunities of individual learners. Furthermore, even assuming that such diagnoses were possible at any period, the prepossessions of the advocates of rigid courses — or, usually, of one rigid course — would probably have prevented them from studying 974 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit the variant qualities of the minds of their students, again for the sufficient reason that the all-important consideration, as teachers have beUeved, was the subject to be taught — Latin, algebra, Greek, rhetoric, logic, physics, etc. — and not at all the characteristics of the individual learner. In other words, the historical alternative to free election, at least of courses, if not subjects, has been rigid prescription as determined by- inflexible tradition or custom or educational theory. The variability of learners as to capacities, interests, and needs has been ignored. Traditions and dogmas as to the superior or even unique educational values of certain ancient subjects of study have governed. The newer subjects were intrin- sically inferior, if not worthless, educationally; hence any choice of them has been regarded as necessarily bad. The thought that election of studies is bad has always been fathered by the wish that it should prove bad from the standpoint of the opponent whose favorite studies might not be elected. The various attempts heretofore made to modify, on the one hand, the rigidity of the inflexible one-course curriculum, and, on the other, to prevent the wasteful possibilities of completely free election, have con- stituted admissions that adjustments of courses and studies, based partly upon the capacities of learners, and partly upon their varying needs, are highly desirable and probably feasible. But it is a fact that no satisfactory statement of the principles which should guide in the matter has, as yet, been formulated. There is still too often the naive assumption that the "system" — ^that is, the collection of educational dogmas and traditions as expressed by unprogressive educators, usually thru conference or committee edict — knows best what the "student" needs and should have. This is not an individual student, James Ferguson, for example, but an abstract human being, an educational John Doe, who has met entrance requirements and who is probably assumed to be taking his class attendance in the same spirit in which he would accept a necessary, tho distasteful, sentence to a hospital. It is still too early, perhaps, to formulate the underlying principles which should govern flexibility of curricula and courses; but it is possible even now to apply to the possible junior high-school curriculum the best results of contemporary theory and practice as to this educational problem in secondary school and college. CONTROLLING PRINCIPLES OF FLEXIBILITY IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS If we take, for example, the entire range of subject-courses that it is possible to offer in the junior high school, it is clear that all cannot be regarded as being on the same footing from the standpoint either of election or of prescription. Some are essential to all, many essential to none. Some are essential in certain courses, others essential to no particular course. On the other hand, there are many that may well be regarded as educational luxuries — highly pleasurable to those who can afford them and surely not Superintendence] STUDY IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 975 injurious to any who can take them without detriment to their more neces- sary work. But what are the subject-courses that belong in those respec- tive categories ? It is difficult for us to reach sound conclusions here because our prepossessions are at present so much stronger and more clearly defined than are any available findings based on scientific study. In the idealized curriculum for a junior high school given above there are found from 58 to 88 alpha units (or subject-courses to be taught with the aim of producing power to do), and from 52 to 82 beta units (or subject-courses in which appreciation is a controlling purpose). No one average pupil, probably, could take in two years more than 30 of the total 140 units supposed to be offered. A slow pupil could take perhaps not to exceed 20, while an excep- tionally strong pupil could take 40. What requirements shall we make, what advice offer, and what liberty allow, to our junior high-school pupil confronted by the foregoing curriculum ? First, let us repeat that our attitude toward the alpha units should not be the same as that toward the beta units. If the beta units are taught (or, better word, offered) with due regard to appropriate pedagogical prin- ciples, we may experience difficulty in keeping pupils from them, or, at least, from some of them. They should prove inherently interesting to children as do play, the '' movies," sports, and certain kinds of fiction, or as the opera, fiction, travel, and association prove attractive to adults. On the other hand, the alpha units present, in the main, the characteristics of the harder work of the world. The interest with which they are pursued must often be a derived interest — derived, in some cases even, from fear of punishment, or fear of forfeiture of desired approval, or from love of gain or approval. Hence it can at the outset be asserted that prescription will be much more necessary in the case of the alpha than of the beta units. Let us assume that a careful study of the capacities of average children of twelve to fourteen years of age, coupled with an equally careful study of the objectives, individual and social, which should be realized thru their education, shows that it is expedient and desirable that their two-year programs could and should include substantially 15 alpha units and 15 beta units. We might then establish the following rules to govern the making of individual courses: a) Any pupil deficient as to spelling, writing, and silent reading accord- ing to some definite standard shall be required to take these alpha subjects. b) Every pupil shall elect four alpha units in English expression, in addition to those required under (a). c) Every pupil shall elect at least six units designed to provide a definite course in one of the following fields: (i) foreign language and mathematics; (ii) commercial arts; (iii) industrial arts (boys); (iv) household arts (girls); (v) agricultural arts. d) No pupil shall have fewer than 15 or more than 20 alpha units. e) Every pupil shall elect at least 10 beta units. 976 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit CONCLUSIONS The following are the conclusions of this paper: 1. The reorganization of education designed for youiig people from twelve to fourteen is one of the most important of contemporary move- ments in the field of general education. 2. It is right and proper that this period should continue to be reserved for general education (cultural, physical, and social education), and that no specific vocational education should be offered in it; but (a) vocational guidance, based on communicated information (books, lectures, individual conferences), observation of men at work in vocations, and participation in simple processes derived from industry, all designed as phases of general education, is acceptable and desirable; and {h) differentiated courses in practical arts, partly as a means of enabling each pupil to find himself, and partly as a means of acquiring valuable experience in reception and expres- sion or execution (not necessarily, contributing to vocational power however), are desirable. 3. Central schools should, as far as practicable, be organized for all pupils from twelve to fourteen, to include not only the normal in grade, but the retarded as well. As far as practical, retarded pupils should take the same studies as pupils of normal grade; and where, in the more technical studies, they cannot do this, special courses containing work especially adapted to their needs should be provided. 4. Whenever it seems that a new study can profitably be offered to a substantial group of pupils of these ages, it should be introduced. 5. It is to be expected that many more studies or subject-courses will be offered than can be taken by any one pupil; and hence will arise the necessity of election of courses or subjects. 6. In providing for the selection of individual programs, prescribed studies should be reduced to the minimum, and large freedom allowed to the pupil and his parents to elect, subject to full advice, the subject-courses to be taken by the pupil. Choices made by pupils may frequently be unwise, but rarely more unwise than the courses prescribed arbitrarily by the authorities. ADDRESS WOODBRIDGE N. FERRIS, GOVERNOR OF MICHIGAN I want to have it distinctly understood that I appear before you as an educational exhorter. I haven't a new thing to say to you; I haven't anything to tear down. I just want to present two or three very old notions and exhort you to their observance. If I were to organize an educational system, I would make for its center health— h-e-a-1-t-h, health. I ask teachers to care as much about health as the great industrial institutions of this country care about Superintendence! ADDRESS 977 health. If you will do that much, there will be important changes in the United States in a comparatively short time. Our great factories are today houses of glass. What for? Light, light, and more light. They are so built that they can have air and more air. The industrial world has found out that it pays in dollars and cents to have light and air, and of course any industrial institution that has light and air has all other sanitary provisions. Many of our school buildings, viewed in the light of what I have already said, are unfit for the use of our boys and girls. You say, "What can we do about it?" You can do everything. It is about time school- masters and schoolma'ams came to realize the power they possess. You can do almost any wise thing if you have a mind to, or rather, if you want to. Tonight I make the appeal for air and sunlight. In Michigan we have a state sanatorium for tuberculosis patients. This sanatorium is full of patients, every single case a well-defined case of tuberculosis. They are sleeping out of doors, living out of doors, playing out of doors, working a little out of doors — everything out of doors except dressing and undressing; on account of the peculiar usages here in America, par- ticularly in sanatoriums, they are obliged to dress indoors. The same restrictions are not placed on people who are well as on people who are ill. We know that the only means by which we can help these people is to have them live out of doors. Well, what under heaven has Michigan and the other states in the Union against people who haven't tuberculosis? I want you to answer that question. My state is going to stamp out tuber- culosis, that is, kill tuberculosis, get rid of it somehow. I ask our officials to take hold of the educational machinery of my state and see if they cannot do something to get well men and women to live as they ought to live with reference to air and sunshine. Now, you yourselves don't do it. You don't believe in fresh air, you don't want fresh air, you won't have fresh air; you won't live out of doors, you don't want to get out of doors, and consequently what hope is there ? Microbes do not thrive out of doors; they don't sit up in the trees nor on brick or stone walls. They are indoors. Every cold, every case of pneumonia, is an indoor disease. Let us come a little closer to our subject. What can you people do with the present schoolhouses ? You cannot have them condemned and torn down; you cannot build new buildings in order to have air and sunshine. You can take out the lower or upper sash, and put in a cotton-cloth screen for the entire year. You will use more fuel possibly, but you will have fresh air and better air, less sickness, and teach a few boys and girls how to live and have health instead. of tuberculosis or any other disease. Will you do it ? No, the majority of you won't. And what else can you teachers do ? On every sunshiny day, on every fair day, in the rural and village schools, you can take your boys and gjg NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit girls out of doors and conduct out of doors every class that can be con- ducted successfully out of doors. I dare you to do it. There has never been a schoolroom built to equal God's schoolroom. I would much rather have the boys and girls out of doors, now and then glancing at a bird in a tree or a squirrel scampering around, than observing a curtain when it falls down inside. I go further, I plead in behalf of medical inspection. I hold that every American child, when he enters the schoolroom, has the right, if the state is going to demand what it does, to have just as good teeth as modern science can give him; he has a right to have a pair of eyes just as good and eflScient as modern science can give him; he has right to have just as sound ears and eflScient ears as modern science can give him; just as good a throat and nasal cavities as modern science can give him; just as good a body as modern science can give him. You agree with me, don't you? Is there any possibility of disagreement ? You see then what I mean by health in the schoobroom. In five years, you can perceptibly improve con- ditions thru your own efforts along the lines I have suggested, without state aid. It is up to you. By the way, the people wiU respond. They will listen to you. We have in this country a tremendous school equipment, costing mil- lions and millions of dollars, and for whom ? Your traditional answer is, for the boys and girls of a certain age. Talk about superstition — I haven't any language whereby I can describe my contempt for this answer. And what has it done ? It has paralyzed the majority of people, so that, when a man whose hair is like mine speaks about getting an education, he is told that he is too old. When a man or woman is too old to learn, there is only one thing I can suggest. He should take a shovel and pick, go to the family cemetery, where I hope he has bought a lot, dig a grave, get into it and stay there. In our democracy, public schools should be for all of the people all of the time. We now use them less than 50 per cent of the time. The re- mainder of the time they are idle. City schools should be open six nights in a week and six days in the week. There are many schoolmasters who think that the people would not take advantage of these privileges. I love the flag. I like to hear folks talk about it; but I have always had a profound admiration for the people who carry the flag. I want to say that one of the highest forms of patriotism in this country consists in carry- ing out the idea I have suggested, of giving all of the people in this country an opportunity to acquire the fundamentals of an education, and especially an opportunity to learn to speak and write English. Oh, what a gigantic influence it would have on the solution of industrial problems, on the solution of national preparedness! One other thing: Don't forget the few fundamentals we have taught in the public schools ever since they were organized. Above all, teach a Superintendence] ADDRESS 979 few things so that they will stick. Isn't it humiliating to hear the graduate of a college or university say: "Oh yes, I have been out of college five years; I cannot read my Virgil, I cannot read my Cicero, it is all gone." Or, "I once knew a little something of geometry, but it has vanished; I knew something of chemistry, but it is gone." Don't mention it again as long as you live. What is the use of advertising your foolishness ? Don't take particular pains to mention it. I am not afraid of any of those fellows. I am afraid of the fellow who has learned something that has stayed with him. There is E. A. Strong, professor of physical sciences, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Michigan, who is now nearing his eightieth year. He has taught science all his life. If an Ypsilanti girl tomorrow should say: "Doctor, I am puzzled a little with that passage in Virgil," he would read it as tho he had only learned it yesterday. He mastered the classics at Union College. I am not arguing as to whether you should teach the classics or not, but whatever you do teach, teach it so that it will stick. The greatest teacher I ever had was Herman Kriisi. He covered plane geometry in just forty weeks, but in some of the high schools in Michigan the period is sixteen weeks. Every theorem was presented in the form of a problem. No textbook was used. Every student presented his own solu- tion. I would like to find a Kriisi student in the United States who today does not know his geometry. I know plane geometry and I have not taught the subject in twenty years. Somebody says: "Do you teach geometry that way now in your own school?" No, because I am com- pelled to cover a certain amount of ground in a certain number of units of time. Why so ? Many of my students enter colleges and universities, and I must meet the requirements of these institutions. Please don't think lightly of my appeal for health, my appeal for all the people, my appeal for thoroness. ADDRESS MARTIN G. BRUMBAUGH, GOVERNOR OF PENNSYLVANIA In the United States we have gone far to put to the test a new theory of government — that the will of a majority expressed in law, constitutional and statutory, is the sole and adequate guidance for all the people. We have put democracy on trial. We have proclaimed its adequacy. We have unhesitatingly subscribed to its beneficent operation. We stake on it our lives, our property, and our sacred honor. We have at all times, with bated breath, in the solemn hours of reflection, asked ourselves whether after all we have found in our democracy, as it works its issues, the golden good we are proud to claim that it holds. What gives this heart-tremor, this tender solicitude, this half-awakened fear that perhaps we have not, after all, found the pot of gold at the end of our rainbow of hope and faith ? 980 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit Why are we half fearful to put our democracy fully to the test? Is it because we question its fundamental rightness? Absolutely no. What visioning souls wrought in Independence Hall we hold sacred and secure. The doubt is born, if at all, because we have not given to democracy its adequate channels of expression. We have not been fair to our own dominant ideals. What we need to do — and do it now — is to make possible a complete reliance upon our theory of government and put it to its fullest use. To do this we must unhesitatingly lay larger reliance upon education. An enlightened democracy is the hope of the nation. The school is the hope of the Republic. This agency, devised by wise insight and carried steadily into the genera- tions of our advance, needs re-establishment and rejuvenation in these stress years of our advance. The whole theory of preparedness is funda- mentally a theory of education. Our armies and our navies, the front line of preparedness, and our industries, the secondary line of defense, are alike dependent upon a trained, skilled, intelligent, efficient citizenry. The resources of a people, material and spiritual, are its safeguards. Education is the guaranty of resourcefulness. Our educational system under control of our fundamental theory of government is not only the most potential agency to stabilize our national ideals, but it is the agency pre-eminent for their completest realization. No equipment of material good can replace a training of our people into a homogeneous nation. This fact is emphasized as one considers the far reaches of racial ideals that here fuse and fashion this mighty people. From every land and from every clime they have come, they are coming, they will come, and, unless these all pass the portals of our educational system, and in its halls get essential baptism of American ideals and achievements, and a keen understanding of national purposes, we cannot hope for a nation whose democracy is its boast and its certain permanence. We turn then to the school and demand for it a much larger place in the American mind. It is increasingly manifest that it, best of all our institutions, trains for service, for efficiency, for living, and for promoting the government whose agency it is. We must in the school train for co-operation in all civic duties, for competition in all industrial activities, for moral steadfastness in all social endeavor, and for the intertwining of these into one serviceable and substantial system of national equipment. We have committed ourselves to a vast enterprise — the making of men and women fit for the Republic. There must be no looking backward. We must go steadily on until the proud boast, "I am an American citizen," shall be a synonym for civic pride, industrial efficiency, and moral and religious worth. Then we shall be prepared— not for war— but for the peace that passe th all understanding and is permanent. ^ Superintendence] ADDRESS 981 ADDRESS FRANK B. WILLIS, GOVERNOR OF OHIO In these times we hear much about conservation, a word to which the last ten years have given a new significance. We hear of the conservation of the public domain, of forests, of game, of insectivorous and song birds, of water power, of mineral resources, and the public health. All these are important. I wish to say, however, that to the teachers of the country is committed the momentous problem of the conservation of the intellectual and moral energy of the Republic. We see around us in the material world evidences of the prodigalities of nature. We see life in myriad forms struggling for existence. We see in the elements the manifestation of mighty powers that are yet to be uti- lized in the service of man. In the motion of the air as it sweeps over the country and in the power of the restless sea thundering on rocky shore, there is sufficient energy to heat and light and move the world. To the educators of the United States is committed the intellectual and moral energy, in large measure undeveloped, of those who will soon not only shape the destinies of the Republic, but constitute the Republic itself: for what is our nation but the aggregate of its citizenship? On you more largely than on any other body of men in the United States devolves the problem of the conservation and development of the energies of the children of the nation. Garfield once said, before he was president: ''I always feel like taking oft* my hat to the American boy. I do not know what possibilities are wrapped up under his plain jacket." To the schoolmasters of the land are reserved the privilege, the opportunity, and the responsibility of develop- ing these large possibilities. The intellectual and moral powers must not be dissipated or frittered away and wasted. They must be directed to useful and beneficient ends. It is a great thing to attain dexterity in kick- ing the football or plying the oar in physical contests, but it must be made just as worthy in the public eye to wield the hammer and the trowel, to guide the lathe and the drill, to follow the plow and drive the harvester thru fields of golden grain; and hand in hand with manual training must go the intellectual and moral development suited to the varied needs of our American citizenship. On Washington's birthday there was published in this country a detailed statement setting forth the pre-eminence of the United States among the nations of the earth. In making comparisons, population was considered, but much was properly made of the fact that the efficiency of the individual citizen must be taken into consideration. The enormous population of China and the relatively large population of Russia do not give them a dominant position among the nations of the earth. By careful calculation, the expert arrives at the conclusion that ''the United States exceeds all 982 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit Other nations in size of effective population." In wealth and resources our dominance is even more pronounced. If this superiority is to be main- tained, the energies of the rising generation must be conserved and the average individual citizen of the United States, morally, mentally, physi- cally— in all that goes to make up efficiency — must be the peer, yea, even the superior, of the average citizen of the most favored nation beyond our borders. To make him such is in large measure the work of those who are assembled here. The subjects for discussion on your program show that you are awake to this fact. You are met to discuss practical educational problems of momentous import. I bid you Godspeed in your work. With the realization of your ideals we shall have not only ''a new conception of nationalism," but a new nationalism and a new patriotism that shall include all in the old that brought us to our present high estate, and add to it all that is to lead us to the greater Republic yet to be. We hear much of preparedness both for national defense and for national elections. Probably both are necessary. Certainly the President must be backed up with power if his efforts for peace are to be successful. Our foreign policy must be something more than an international school of correspondence. Peace is our passion: " our interest is in concord not in conflict"; yet we must have an army and a navy big enough to protect every American citizen wherever he has a right to be. On the wings of a new American-built merchant marine. Old Glory must be carried to all the ports of commerce of the world. With this preparation for defense, not conquest, must come also industrial preparedness to maintain our standard of living and thinking. Let us inculcate the homely virtues of honesty, hard work, and hopefulness. One of the qualifications absolutely essential for permanent success in public or private life is old-fashioned, square-toed honesty. Our young people must be made to understand the dignity of labor and the honor of toil. Human nature is so constituted that it is best developed by toil and battle and struggle. The coral insect perishes where the currents are gentle, but grows and thrives under the thunderous attacks of waves that would grind granite to powder. With honesty and hard work and good cheer let there be coupled a patriotism that knows only one country and one flag. The elements of our cosmo- politan civilization are diverse, yet they become one in the democracy of the American schoolroom. This thought has been well expressed by an Ohio school-teacher in the following lines: Briton or Teuton, it matters not, Once we've been thru the Melting Pot; Changed forever each heart and mind, Old World fealty left behind; Henceforth, Yankee, in blood and bone, We have one country and one alone : America. Superintendence] BOOKER T. WASHINGTON— AN APPRECIATION 983 Land of the larger, nobler view, Land of the immigrant's dreams come true; Country where tyranny, caste, and clan Yield to the sacred rights of man; Nation whose glorious history Brightens the hope of humanity; Storehouse of treasure, rich and vast, Gift of a providential past, Spared by fortune of time and place To nurture a new and favored race; Land of our opportunity, Land of our children's destiny: America. If you do well your work of teaching honor, industry, optimism, patriot- ism, and faith in a Power not ourselves that makes for righteousness, the future of the Republic is safe. BOOKER T. WASHINGTON— AN APPRECIATION O. T. CORSON, EDITOR, "OHIO EDUCATIONAL MONTHLY," COLUMBUS, OHIO Born a slave, without a record of either the place or date of his birth; permitted to grow up in the midst of the direst poverty, without any of the refining influences or tender associations so essential to the happiness and welfare of a little child; compelled at a very early age to work in the salt and coal mines of West Virginia, under conditions which the most heartless exploiter of child labor, in these days, even if the law permitted, would hesitate to impose upon any human being; with no opportunity to go to school and satisfy his insatiable thirst for knowledge; without even a chance to play for which the soul of every child hungers; without a word of encouragement or a whisper of hope from anyone, with the possible excep- tion of his kind but poor and ignorant mother; without even a family name; with everything in both heredity and environment against him and with nothing in his favor: these are a few of the countless and apparently insurmountable difficulties which surround the birth, childhood, and youth of the man in whose honor the members of this Association, representative educators of a nation, now reverently pause for a few moments, in their consideration of educational problems, in order that an opportunity may be given to pay a brief but very imperfect tribute to his memory. Can it be that out of the depths of such hopeless conditions, there could come, not only a great leader of his race, but also one of the greatest edu- cators and philanthropists which any age or race has ever produced — a man of sterling character and brilliant achievements, who would be honored by degrees from some of America's greatest universities, whose fame would extend across the seas, and whose untimely death would be sincerely mourned by all who knew his worth and work ? Certainly, a half -century ago, no p84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit one would have prophesied such a future for such a child, and even today, with an intimate knowledge of the achievements of the all too brief life of Booker T. Washington, it is exceedingly difficult for us to believe what we so certainly know. It is pleasing and profitable to turn from a consideration of the discourag- ing conditions which surround the beginnings of the life of this poor boy, with no promise of success, to an enumeration of a few of the marked stages in the steady growth and development of that life in the years that were to follow. His first taste of knowledge, as represented by symbols, in learning to recognize and make " i8," the number allotted to his stepfather in mark- ing the barrels at the salt mine; his advancement in mastering the alphabet and thus teaching himself to read; his success from the start, in the midst of the most disheartening circumstances, in carrying out the "one resolve," which he tells us remained with him constantly in a *' determination to secure an education at any cost"; his training in the home of Mrs. Ruffner, where he laid the foundation of all his future success by learning to do every- thing exactly as it ought to be done and precisely when it should be done; the passing of his entrance examination to Hampton, which consisted in sweeping and dusting a room so perfectly that Miss Mackie, the head teacher, who was not at all prepossessed in his favor, at once recognized in him the qualities certain to win; his hard work as a student, which won for him a place upon the honor roll of commencement speakers; his unself- ish devotion to his work as a teacher in the school at his former home, where he stood ready at any time, day or night, to teach anything he knew to anyone who wanted to learn; his later study in Washington, where his observations and experiences served to deepen his conviction of the neces- sity of industrial training for his race; his call to Hampton as a teacher, which furnished him additional opportunity to prepare for his future career; his life-work at Tuskegee, extending over a little more than a third of a century, beginning in 1881 with practically no equipment of any kind, with himself as the only teacher, and with only a score and a half of students, and ending with his untimely death a short time since, in the Southland to which he was always so devotedly loyal, at the home he so dearly loved, located in the midst of one of the most noted educational communities in all the world, with its property, valued in millions, its teachers numbered by hun- dreds, and its students enrolled by thousands: these are only a few of the many achievements recorded in the life of the man whose memory we cher- ish, who had the power to turn emergencies into opportunities, and win victories in the midst of conditions which ordinarily insure defeat. How he made himself the master of his fate and won for himseK such a prominent and permanent place in the educational world is an interesting study. Fortunately, the secret of his phenomenal success is not enshrouded in any mystery to be solved by some biographer with a theory of his own Superintendence] BOOKER T. WASHINGTON— AN APPRECIATION 985 invention. Booker T. Washington is his own biographer. In Up from Slavery, with its wealth of interesting and instructive contents and its charm of simple and direct style, he tells the wonderful story of his struggles and achievements. In it all there is not a single note of complaint or bitterness because of his hardships and not a word of boastfulness regarding his attainments. Every difficulty which beset his pathway, he seems to have expected and to have utilized as a means of growth and development, while every special recognition which resulted from his efforts came to him as a surprise for which he was always profoundly grateful. The fundamental principle upon which he constructed his philosophy of life and built his hope of success is found in his own statement, frequently repeated in modified form, that "every persecuted individual and race should get much consolation out of the great human law, which is universal and eternal, that merit, no matter under what skin found, is, in the long run, recognized and rewarded." He believed with all of the intensity of his being that merit, and merit only, would win success and that any man would be recognized and rewarded just in proportion as he learns to do something well; learns to do it better than someone else; learns to do a common thing in an uncommon manner; learns to make his services of indispensable value. As a natural outgrowth of his abiding faith in the success which merit is certain to win, he was able to say in the face of some of the most trying circumstances which ever confronted a human soul: I will not say that I became discouraged, for, as I now look back over my life, I do not recall that I ever became discouraged over anything that I set out to accomplish. I have begun everything with the idea that I could succeed. The success which he believed he could win by meriting it was not, however, in any sense, a selfish success. He earnestly strived to succeed in order that he might thereby be able the better to serve. In his auto- biography we read: From my early childhood, I have had a desire to do something to make the world better, and then to be able to speak to the world about that thing. It was this desire, aroused in his early childhood and deepened by the experiences of each passing year, that impelled him to perform deeds of heroic self-sacrifice — literally to give his own life in unselfish service for others — and that enabled him to tell the inspiring story of what he had done with rare eloquence and power. How well he succeeded in realizing the first part of his desire " to do something to make the world better," thousands of his own race who came under his influence at Tuskegee, and thousands of the white race who realize what he accompUshed for humanity, unite in bearing willing and convincing testimony. That he also succeeded in realizing the second part of his desire, ''to be able to speak to the world" about what he had done, his numerous educational addresses, and pub- lished articles and books abundantly prove. And now that his voice is pg6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit silent and he can no longer speak directly to the world, the noble institution at Tuskegee, to which he gave his life, still remains to speak, out of its splendid history and with its future promise, most eloquently and forcefully of his great work. On this occasion it is interesting to recall that Mr. Washington dated the beginning of his public-speaking career with his first address before the National Education Association at Madison in 1884. This was also his first address that dealt in any large measure with the general problem of the races. It is not surprising that many white people, some of them from his home community, went to the meeting expecting to hear the South abused. They were all pleasantly surprised by not hearing a word of abuse, but, on the other hand, a full and generous recognition of all the praiseworthy things which the white people of Tuskegee and the South had done to help in starting the school. In this address, as in all others which he made, he was guided by a few fixed principles, which were im- bedded in deep-seated convictions, and from which he never deviated. These principles, stated briefly, were a determination to say nothing at any time that he did not feel from the bottom of his heart to be true and right, never to say anything in an address in the North that he would not be willing to say in the South, and an earnest desire to say something that would cement the friendship of the races and bring about hearty co-operation between them. In many respects, his greatest address before the National Education Association was delivered in 1900 at the Charleston meeting. On that occasion an unusual audience assembled under unusual conditions. The great hall in which the meeting was held had been built a short time before to accommodate the reunion of Confederate veterans. Of the eight thousand persons in attendance, at least one-third were colored people. Seated on the same platform were the speaker of the evening and other representatives of the colored race, who, a few decades before, had been slaves, and some of the most prominent white citizens of the South, who had formerly owned slaves. To the credit of the founder of the great educational institution at Tuskegee, he felt that night, in an unusual manner and to an unusual degree, the weight of the heavy responsibility resting upon him. Only those who were near him in that trying hour can comprehend the anxiety which burdened his soul and which manifested itself all too plainly in his trembhng body and embarrassed manner. How well he met that responsibility and measured up to the opportunity which came with it, all who heard him will always remember. In an address of remarkable power, replete with humor and pathos and abounding in statements of fundamental significance to both races, driven home by unanswerable logic, and withal tactfully and eloquently phrased, this apostle of good sense made his plea for the education of his race and their right to receive such recognition as their honest efforts to attain respectability and win success might merit. Superintendence] BOOKER T. WASHINGTON— AN APPRECIATION 987 To the credit and honor of the citizens of Charleston and of the South will always be remembered the cordial reception and hearing accorded to the speaker, and the uniform courtesy shown to him and the members of his race at that memorable meeting. Any just appreciation of the life and work of Booker T. Washington must emphasize the high regard in which he -is held by the white people of all sections of our united country. When asked what he regarded as the most important result of his work, he replied: I do not know which to put first, the effect of Tuskegee's work on the Negro, or the effect on the attitude of the white man to the Negro. In his large and constructive task of winning the approval of all thought- ful southern white men and the cordial support of southern public opinion, he succeeded, not by hard work alone, but by hard work directed by the rarest common-sense and the highest practical wisdom. In his many pub- lic addresses and published articles, there cannot be found a single unwise statement or untimely remark. In no one of his addresses, however, did he rise to a higher plane of thought and expression than in his first great address before the people of the South at the Atlanta Exposition in 1895 — an address which Clark Howell, the successor to the lamented and loved Henry Grady, declared to be "the beginning of a moral revolution in America." It was in this address that he used the historic sentence which revealed to his refined and cultured audience of southern citizens his rare sense and sound judgment, and which at once won for him the hearty sympathy and cordial support of the white people who heard him then for the first time. It is impossible to imagine or describe the scene which followed, when this, up to that hour, comparatively unknown leader, held his dusky hand high above his head, with the fingers stretched wide apart, and said: In all things that are purely social we can be as separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress. This address was a revelation to all who heard it or read it, and marks the beginning of a newly awakened and more sympathetic interest in the education and uplift of the colored race, and also of a better understanding of that relation between the races which is so essential to their mutual progress. Of the many estimates of the character and work of Booker T. Washing- ton which have been given, two have been selected for record in this appre- ciation. The first is by a leading representative of the white race, Walter H. Page, our ambassador to England. In his fine introduction to the latest edition of Up from Slavery published in 1914, he says: It is well for our common country that the day is come when he and his work are regarded as highly in the South as in any section of the Union. I think that no man of this generation has a more noteworthy achievement to his credit than this, and it is the achievement of the moral earnestness of the strong character of a man who has done a great national service. 988 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit The second is from a member of his own race, Emmet J. Scott, who so loyally served his principal for so many years as his private secretary: The glory of his life was its dedication to the service of both races, North and South. He will be remembered as an educational enthusiast whose sympathies and activities were broad enough to include all races and movements looking to the betterment of mankind. In years, as measured by the calendar, Booker T. Washington's life was brief indeed. He did not live out man's allotted time on earth. In that brief life, however, he traveled the long journey which marks the dis- tance between the birth of a slave boy and the death of an acknowledged leader of his race, of an educator of international fame, and of a benefactor of mankind. Measured by deeds of heroic self-sacrificing service for others, his life is limitless in its length and breadth and depth. Mark Hopkins, the great college president, the teacher and inspirer of Samuel C. Armstrong; Samuel C. Armstrong, the great principal of the school at Hampton, the teacher and inspirer of Booker T. Washington; Booker T. Washington, the great founder and principal of Tuskegee, the teacher and inspirer of thousands of men and women who today mourn his death and revere his memory: these are three of the immortals in the world of education, the influence of whose living and teaching will forever remain to bless humanity and to encourage and to inspire all who teach. HIGH POINTS IN THE LOS ANGELES FLAN J. H. FRANCIS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CAL. The first high point of the Los Angeles public schools I shall mention is the high cost of living, the high cost of educational living. Those of us who have read the reports of the survey of the Cleveland schools have discovered that we occupy the unique position of being among the cities which rank firsts if we are not the first of them all, in respect of average cost per pupil; and as regards this element of cost the report also declares that we rank first in the cost of teachers' salaries. We pay, as I recall it now, on a basis of average daily attendance something like $54 per pupil per year for the elementary schools, $87 for the intermediate, and $130 for the high schools. We are trying to build well in the material phases of education, not because the public can see the brick and mortar that goes into a building and we can take our visitors around and show them what we have done in the way of building, but because it adds somewhat to the efiiciency of the school. But I think that we are approaching the time when we will be able to get along with less of the luxuries in buildings and equipment and expend a larger proportion of our funds upon the intellect and the spirit of education. Superintendence] HIGH POINTS IN THE LOS ANGELES PLAN 989 This cost has increased for two reasons: (i) We have reduced the number of pupils per teacher; (2) we furnish more special teachers. It is quite simple for a superintendent to lessen the cost of his system by adding to the enrolment per teacher, but it is a tremendously expensive thing in the development of the individual child. We do not believe that it is possible for a teacher to face forty different little personalities and individualities, and assume the responsibility for their mental, spiritual, and physical development, and do it successfully. It is beyond human power. Education does not consist in passing a child thru a course of study of the minimum essentials, and stamping him as having completed that course to the satisfaction of his teacher or teachers. It consists rather in creating an atmosphere that is free, that is intelligent, and that can understand and talk to each child. As has been said, we furnish more teachers for special teaching, supply- ing special teachers for the larger buildings and for groups of smaller ones, for music, drawing, cookery, gardening, and sometimes for sewing, sloyd, social work, home work, Batavia work, and so forth. I have been asked what our regular teachers do while these special teachers have charge of the pupils. I do not know. Really I do not care much more about it than that, for I know the real teacher will use this time profitably, and the time-serving teacher is worthless anyhow with her time. There are a hundred ways in which the teacher may fit into a large elementary or high school, where she can use her time to the greatest profit in handling individual problems while these special teachers are handling the problems of their departments. The rock toward which the educational ship is drifting is the financial one. You and I must educate the people to believe that it is better to save a child to himself before he runs into the reefs of his life than it is to expend money on police courts, jails, and juvenile courts trying to patch him up and protect society from him after he has been wrecked. The public must recognize that the greatest asset of a nation is her boys and her girls, and that instead of spending too much money today on offering these boys and girls a chance at their better and bigger selves we are spending all too little. The second point in our work is an attempt upon the part of our schools to lengthen the school day by offering shopwork, home economics work, and work in music, drawing, art, and playground activities before and after school. To be sure, that attempt has been very seriously crippled this year on account of lack of funds and for other reasons, but we have made a fairly good start along a very significant line. Someone has said: "Give me control of the leisure time of our boys and girls, and you may have them all the rest of the time," and it is coming to be tremendously true. The greatest danger this nation faces today comes from the unoccupied time of her boys and her girls, and the reason Qgo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit that countless thousands of them '*go bad," as we call it, is not because they wish to but because there is no place to "go good." The solution of the problem lies in having the public schools offer them something to do that is worth their doing and that will occupy them more than three or four hours a day out of twenty-four, and more than i8o days out of the 365. In the large cities of the nation the moving picture, one of the greatest instrumentalities for education in modern times, has been allowed by us to be commercialized; and yet for the last ten years it has been the most powerful single instrumentality in the education of the American youth. The result for the coming generation cannot be measured. The fault lies not with the moving picture, but it lies with you and with me who are professed educators, because we did not gather it up fifteen or twenty years ago, and take it into our schoolhouses and into our churches, controlling the character of the pictures put on the film, and turning it toward an educational development and the solution of educational prob- lems. I have yet to see the boy who wouldn't rather do something worth doing than something that is dissipating and degenerating, and when he does not do such things it is because there is no chance for him. Take a great city like Detroit, and other cities of the nation: what can your boy and mine do before school and after school, on Saturdays and during the long summer months ? Opportunities must be offered him in school shops, on school farms, in drawing centers, music centers, dramatic centers, in school printing presses, and in other things that might be offered by the schools to take up the slack of his leisure time. We are measuring the boy's experience with our experience as a boy, forgetting, however, that great social and economic changes have made his life wholly different from the one we lived. When we were boys, there was something to do and we had to do it. In the great cities today there is nothing to do, and the public schools must put into the lives of boys and girls something that modern civilization has taken out of their lives. We cannot expect the kind of men and women that will keep our nation con- tinuously growing in greatness unless we prepare our boys and girls for their responsibilities in life. The third point is diversity. You have been hearing a great deal these days about uniformity. This is about diversity. I have a theory that children do differ. As I look at the little fellows, and know that they have different heredities, different environments, and different sets of experi- ences, I am quite convinced that they themselves have certain points of difference, and that the most striking feature of humanity is its differences rather than its likenesses, and that the attempt to make all alike is working against nature and will not succeed. So we have diversified both in courses of study and in organization of schools, and this has cost money. In school activities, we have diversified in the way of nature-studies, taking children Superintendence] HIGH POINTS IN THE LOS ANGELES PLAN 991 out into the country and down to the beaches, having picnics, intellectual picnics, and taking them into places of amusement, and getting them to look at things as they are. You say you cannot do that without scientific background; but really some of the science of these boys who learn to handle snakes and to become familiar with plants is almost equal to that of the laboratory expert who has given his life to studying the thing theo- retically. At all events it is refreshing, and it has in it the elements of life. And we take our pupils three or four times a year out on the hills. Of course, you couldn't do that here. And we take them to the mountains, and down to the beaches, where they wander with their teachers, talking with their teachers, and learning with their teachers. We achieve diversity in the way of home gardening; diversity in the way of additional shop work; diversity in the way of additional music, with an elementary-school orchestra organized four years ago, with twelve hundred little folks playing in it. The parents declare that these little people are anxious to learn their private music lessons in order to get into the orchestra. It is a center of life, a stimulation of activity and hopeful- ness for the future. If this nation is ever to be a musical nation, it will not be because we have the great stars of the world play for us and sing for us. It will be because we get the largest number of our boys and our girls interested in music. They say that we are crowding the courses of study. Surely we are. Yet we are giving 85 per cent of our money, and 85 per cent of our time, to the so-called academic studies, the "essentials" of education. We might extend the school day, for that is too much time and too much money to give to what we term the essentials of education. After all, what are the essentials of education ? A certain group of studies, a certain amount of each of the studies of this group, given at a certain time. We take a little fellow at six years of age in the first grade. We expect him to read with a certain degree of efiiciency and cover a certain amount of territory. If he does not, we say he is a failure. We send word home to his parents that he is a failure. It is a crime against childhood. A little child cannot fail. What if he doesn't read as well as this boy by the side of him ? Give him time. His mother doesn't worry if she has three boys and they do not all talk at the same age or walk at the same age; and yet we great psycholo- gists and philosophers get the little fellow, set him down in front of us, and ask him to sit down and fold his hands and look up to us as if he really loved us, and read with the same degree of efiiciency as the child at the side of him who may have a different development and a different set of experiences. The time is coming when we will desist from this barbarity of school reports, and just follow that child in his tendencies and his developments. We have now no definite information by which to tell the parent of the child what his tendencies are. Under the new system, we will follow that pg2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit child carefully, watch his tendencies, and then, by the time he gets into the seventh grade, we will be able to say: "His school history indicates that possibly this line of activity would be best for him, but not surely." After he gets into that grade we will give him a chance to confirm it himself, and, when he gets to the high school, we may be able to give definite in- formation that will help the parent and the boy, and say: "We think your ability lies along the line of literature, or art, or science, or mechanics or agriculture, or something else." We have diversified the school also. I am going to give you a brief illustration of what we calU the "Neighborhood School," where the school is organized to meet the needs of the neighborhood. It has a penny lunch- room where we feed the children; and lunch for the child if he does not have his penny. If he does not, the teacher is in touch with the home and knows whether or not he ought to have the penny. In the last six or seven years, the penny lunch alone has revolutionized the school. The next high point is the intermediate school. I have learned a lot of things about the intermediate schools that I did not know before, and that I do not now believe. I have heard that the high school has no right to take the children from the elementary school, as if the children belonged to the grade, instead of the grade belonging to the children. I have heard that the intermediate school is directing the child toward a definite voca- tion in life. My conception of it is that the intermediate school is only widening just a little the opportunities of the child to find himself some- where. I have heard that the same thing can be done in the elementary schools. It is a question of numbers. There are no elementary schools in the country that I know of that have a large enough number of seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade children to offer them any very wide course of study or wide area of activities. I have heard that our democracy is in imminent danger because we are taking the child and throwing him into castes. What about this universal democracy of which we boast ? Do we have it now ? Those of us who would concede it would have to confess that there are few civilized nations in the world today fundamentally less democratic than we are. This is due to the fact of a lack of mingling among boys and girls who have different aptitudes and following different lines of work. It is because the rich man doesn't understand the poor man and the poor man doesn't understand the rich man; because the scholar doesn't understand the workman and the workman doesn't understand the scholar. If we are going to have democracy, it will be by 'the efforts of those who understand each other and because all of us have a chance to develop ourselves into efficiency along lines in which we are working. We have six intermediate high schools with seven thousand pupils, and so far we have accomplished this: one option in the seventh grade, two options in the eighth grade, and more in the ninth grade. There is no } Superintendence] HIGH POINTS IN THE LOS ANGELES PLAN 993 attempt at shaping of the boys and girls into any definite thing at all. We have succeeded so far in bridging the gap between the eighth and ninth grades, and, where we have had thousands of boys and girls dropping out of the ninth grade, we now have from 85 per cent to 87 per cent of them going thru the ninth grade of the intermediate school into the tenth grade. Where we had a large number of boys and girls falling out of the eighth grade at the end of the eighth grade in the regular elementary schools, we now carry 85 per cent to 86 per cent from the eighth grade in the inter- mediate schools into the ninth grade, carrying a larger number of boys and girls one year longer at least. We have not only done that, but we have saved a half-year. We have brought together a thousand boys and girls of the same age, of the same aptitudes, of the same hopes, and put them together where they can work out the same problems. There should be diversity in the elementary schools, but the kind of diversity that comes in the eighth and ninth grades, and the seventh grade too, must be conceded to be a little different from the diversity of those elementary schools. You cannot get together, in the seventh and eighth grades of the average school system, enough pupils of the same age and grade to give a chance for this diversity that is needed. There has been a lot of talk about the change of the child. It is really a problem of mathe- matics. It is a problem of offering at the right time the thing that could not possibly be offered under the old administration. These intermediate schools have practically eliminated failures from the ninth grade. They have carried the children into the second year of the tenth grade. They have saved the city a half-year of expenditure, and they are working out the same problems, in the same way, that the high schools are working out. Our city established the intermediate school for the sake of the seventh- and eighth-grade boys and girls, and not for the sake of the high schools. We have told the high schools time and again that it is not the business of the elementary schools to prepare children for the high schools, any more than it is the business of the high schools to prepare boys and girls for the colleges. Neither is it the business of the first grade to prepare boys and girls for the second grade. It is the business of the first grade to have the fullest, freest, and deepest development of the first grade possible. If that does not meet the needs of the second grade, let the second grade change to meet the situation ; and, if the elementary schools are developing the boys and girls as they ought to, and if the high schools are not satisfied, let the high schools change their demands. What we need is the right kind of life for boys and girls. gp4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit SIGNIFICANT DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYING LEONARD P. AYRES, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF EDUCATION, RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. Two important conditions are shaping the school-survey movement. The first is that school surveys are rapidly increasing in number. At the present time, there are under way or definitely projected more school surveys than all those combined that have so far been completed. That the move- ment is rapidly spreading is certain. It is here because the public want to know the facts about their schools, and the school survey is the most efficient means yet discovered for finding them out and making them known. The second significant fact about school surveys is that they are steadily improving in quality. It is almost literally true that every survey report that has been published has in one or more conspicuous respects been superior to all its predecessors. This is because we began to make surveys without knowing how and have been learning as we went along. The school survey differs from other reports on school systems in its fundamental philosophy and basic methods. The purpose of the survey is to educate the public. Its object is to tell the people in simple terms all the salient facts about their public schools and then to rely on the common sense, the common insight, and the common purpose of the people as the first great resource in working out their problem. If we regard the survey in this broader way as an implement for social progress rather than a mere method of educational investigation, we shall realize that complete survey work involves three steps. The first step is a competently conducted study of the situation. The second is the education of the public in the findings of the study. The third is doing something about it. This means utilizing the newly found fact basis for the purpose of constructive action designed to improve the situation. It is in the second of these three steps that the most important developments are now being made in survey methods. The survey has begun to find out how to educate the public. It has begun to bridge the gap between knowing and doing. Almost a year ago the city of Cleveland undertook a thoro study of its educational problems. The work began last April as an educational survey which includes the problems of industrial education as well as those of the regular school work, and which looks into the future as well as studies the present. This survey is being carried on under the auspices of the Cleve- land Foundation and with the co-operation of the Board of Education. Some twenty-five specialists have been engaged in the work for varying lengths of time and the entire expense will be about $35,000. The reports of the Cleveland work are being published in twenty-five volumes. This does not mean, however, that the report is to be so formid- Superintendence] DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYING 995 able as might appear from the mere statement of the number of volumes. It means that the Cleveland Survey has developed a form of publication quite comparable to the sectional-unit idea in office furniture or modern bookcases. In Cleveland the entire survey work has been divided into relatively small sections and a complete and independent treatise is being prepared on each section. There are many advantages resulting from this form of publication and most of them relate to securing superior results in educating the public; in bridging the gap between knowing and doing. The typical procedure is as follows: The specialist employed to study one feature of the work submits his report. It may have to do with health work, or provisions for exceptional children, or school buildings, or the teaching force, or any other phase of the educational work of the city. After the report is submitted, the director of the survey and other members of the staff work over it with the author to make sure that its findings are accurate and that its recommendations are in harmony with those of the other sections. The report is then put into what the office force has come to term "tentative final form" and some twenty copies of it are made by the mimeograph process. These copies are then submitted to the members of the survey committee, the members of the board of education, the superintendent of schools, and such interested school officials as the board or the superintendent may designate. For example, a manuscript dealing with health work is submitted to the chief medical inspector, while one having to do with buildings is sub- mitted to the architect and the business director, and a meeting is held of all those persons to whom the manuscript has been submitted. At this meeting, criticisms, corrections, and suggestions are discussed at great length and in great detail. In addition to the verbal discussions, all of the members are invited to submit written memoranda. These conferences result in clearing up before publication questions of fact and questions of form. They do not clear away all the differences of opinion with respect to interpretation and recommendation. In these matters the final decision is left in the hands of the survey director. This process of conference has resulted in mature deliberation concerning each fact presented and each recommendation offered. Some of the reports have been rewritten as many as five times before being finally sent to the printer. The representations of the members of the board of education and the school officials have resulted in some changes in every volume and in scores of changes in some of them. In the aggregate, some hundreds of alterations have been made as a result of the representations and arguments of the school people. After the report has gone thru this searching process of revision, it is printed in the form of a small bound monograph of anywhere from 60 to 300 pages in length and usually having many diagrams, tables, and illustrations. gp6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit Each monograph, as it comes from the printer, is given to the public and to the newspapers at a public luncheon given in one of the leading hotels. The director of the survey or the author of the monograph gives a talk of a little more than a half-hour's duration presenting the gist of the report published that week. Moreover, the reports are placed on sale at the time of the meeting. A uniform charge of twenty-five cents is made for the volumes altho it costs more than that to publish them. During the first few months of the work, the methods and problems of the survey were discussed at these luncheons, and during the last few weeks the findings have been discussed in the manner just described. Altho this work has now been going on for more than ten months, the weekly audiences have always comfortably filled the hall, and recently they have been growing so large that the hotel accommodations have been entirely inadequate to care for them. As the weekly luncheons have increased in popularity, the newspapers of the city have given increasing amounts of space to the consideration of educational problems and the discussion of the weekly reports. On more than one occasion, the report of the weekly educational luncheon has backed everything else off the front page except the date and the weather. This laborious process constitutes a new development in educational practice and in the technique of the school survey. We may call it bridging the gap between knowing and doing, or we may term it a process of carrying the community. It is a method of educating the public concerning its educational problems. Its object is to make the entire school system pass in complete review before the public eye. It makes the schools and the public pay attention to each other. It presents the past, the present, and the possible. Its aim is to place before the citizens a picture of the schools — a picture so accurate that it cannot mislead, so simple that it cannot be misunderstood, and so significant that it cannot be disregarded. The Cleveland experience demonstrates that it is entirely possible to arouse the public to this sort of interest in their school problems and then to sustain that interest. There are some developments in the character of the findings of the Cleveland Survey that have come as a result of these new methods of bring- ing the school people and the public into the survey work. Since each section of the report is a separate volume, it must be sufficiently complete to stand on its own legs. In order to meet this requirement, the different specialists have been compelled to delve deeply into the fundamental factors conditioning their problems. Moreover, the Cleveland work has been conducted under specially favorable circumstances. The workers have had ample time and there has been ample financial support. The work has enjoyed the co-operation of the school authorities and the reports have profited by the searching criticism to which they have been subjected. As a result of these conditions, the findings of the Cleveland Survey deal in Superintendence] DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYING 997 the main with fundamental problems rather than with details; with the essential rather than with the contingent; and with what to do rather than how to do it. This newest sort of school survey work is illustrated by the section of the Cleveland Survey devoted to measuring the quality of classroom instruc- tion carried on under the direction of Charles H. Judd, of Chicago. At the outset, we decided that in measuring classroom processes and products it was not so important to find out how the work in Cleveland compared with that in Detroit, Boston, New York, and a dozen other cities, as it was to find out how the work in Cleveland compared with the Cleveland stand- ard. We decided that the important thing was to find out what kind of progress was being made thruout the system, grade after grade, and how the achievements of different grades and schools compared with those of other grades and schools. The work proceeded, moreover, on the theory that it was vastly more important to leave in the city a corps of teachers, principals, and supervisory officers understanding the use of testing methods and trained in the giving of the tests than it was merely to find out how the work compared in excellence with that done somewhere else. As a result of these decisions, some very interesting methods have been developed for discovering the factors affecting progress and achievement in the basic school subjects. For example, the Survey has discovered and mapped out the neutral ground between speed and quality in handwriting. In general, children who write rapidly write poorly and those who write well write slowly. Nevertheless there is a point to which quality may be developed without reducing speed and a point to which speed may be increased without hurting quality. The Cleveland Survey has discovered these points for that city for each grade. Moreover, a method has been developed by which to measure and record for each school the progress made from grade to grade on both speed and quality combined. Again, several hundred teachers have been trained in the use of the handwriting scale. In short, the methods of measuring achievement in handwriting are no longer mere scientific curiosities; they have become valuable instruments of teaching and of supervision. The tests in spelling comprised more than 2,100,000 individual spellings. The tests were made up from tests that had previously been given to chil- dren in eighty-four other cities. In Cleveland two series of tests were given ■ — one with the words arranged in lists and the other with the words arranged in sentences. There has long been an active controversy as to the effects of the two methods on the accuracy of the results. In Cleveland the out- come will not give comfort to either party in this controversy, for the results showed that the children spelled the words just as well in- the sentences as in the lists and just as well in the lists as in the sentences. Valuable data were produced showing improvement from grade to grade and the compari- sons between different schools. gp8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IDetroit It is more important, however, from the point of view of school adminis- tration, that these tests resulted in finding definite standards of progress from grade to grade, from the third thru the eighth, in every fundamental operation in arithmetic. Children in all the grades were tested in oral and silent reading. The studies not only resulted in showing how much the children could read out loud or silently in a given period of time, but they developed a method for measuring how much the children comprehended and retained of what they had read. Two striking results stand out as products of these reading- tests. The first is that children read very much more rapidly to themselves than they do aloud. The second and much more important showing is that in general the fastest readers are the best readers and the slowest readers are the poor- est readers. That is to say, the child who reads rapidly is apt to be the one who retains and produces best what he has read, while the one who reads in a slow and stumbling manner is apt to retain but little of the meaning. Turning now from educational to administrative problems, the findings again have for their object the analysis of the situation, rather than the weighing of it in the balance. Cleveland, like most other rapidly growing cities, has many overcrowded school buildings. The pressure for school accommodations is powerful while the shortage of funds is painful. In every city in the land where these conditions obtain, attention has been directed toward the administrative methods in use at Gary, Ind., by means of which increased numbers of children are accommodated in the school buildings. During the past few years. Superintendent Shattuck O. Hartwell, formerly of Kalamazoo and now of Muskegon, Mich., has been carrying thru an important series of experiments to determine how far the Gary idea may be applied to the existing school buildings of a school system established and running along conventional lines. He has developed some very important answers to these questions and put them into practical and successful application in the city of Kalamazoo. One of the most inter- esting reports of the Cleveland Survey is the book by Superintendent Hartwell on the platoon plan, which is the name applied to the Gary idea as he has modified it for use in existing school systems. The aludy of the school and the immigrant has brought to light the fact that Cleveland, like other modern industrial cities, really has three great systems of education all simultaneously active. The first of these is the public school system. The second is the parochial school system. The third is a system about which we know little but which is of great social import. It is the system of schools and classes conducted in the afternoon, in the evening, and on Sundays by the different nationality groups for the purpose of instructing their children in their native languages. Thousands of children in the city of Cleveland are enrolled in these classes Superintendence! DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYING 999 and are doing this most arduous school work in addition to that of the regular schools. Some of the findings of the Survey are social rather than educational or administrative in nature, but they have important educational implica- tions. For example, in the study of commercial work, an analysis of some thousands of office positions held by men and women, and boys and girls, demonstrates with great clearness that the modern commercial work of men is an entirely different thing from the commercial work of women. With perfect definiteness the records show that the requirements of the work, the lines of promotion, and the necessary preparation are of one sort for the boys and men and of another and entirely different sort for the girls and women. These are facts which no city can afford to overlook in plan- ning its high-school courses in commercial work. The studies of the educational provisions for exceptional children have brought to light the fundamental condition that these children consist of two great groups who may be designated as the socially competent and the socially incompetent. The socially competent consist of all those who are of normal mentality and who will spend their lives in association with normal people. They are the backward, the blind, the deaf, the crippled, the foreign, and the children of the open-air schools. Since they are socially competent and are to spend their lives in competition with the rest of us, they should be educated in special classes in regular schools and have at least part of their work in the regular classes with the normal children. The socially incompetent children consist of the feeble-minded and the epileptics who may be cared for during their younger years by the public schools but who are so deficient that they must eventually be placed in institutions. The duty of the school system is to prepare these children for self-support in institutional life, and the most reasonable way of doing this in large cities is to segregate them in special schools. In the field of industrial education, eight special studies covering the most important industrial activities of the city are being conducted. Each study has three objects. It attempts to describe the industry in simple terms, not only portraying the nature of the work, but giving information concerning wages, unemployment, and health conditions. Secondly, it tells how people may get into the industry and what the prospects of promo- tion are after they get in. In the third place, each study discusses education for the industry, both before entering it and afterward. These industrial studies have brought to light some interesting and important discoveries. In the past few years, we have heard a great deal of criticism directed toward the public schools because they were educating large numbers of pupils for commercial and professional work and very few for industrial work. These criticisms have been accompanied by impressive figures showing that there are a great many people engaged in industrial work and very few in professional work. One thing that has looo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit been entirely overlooked in making these comparisons is that most of our industrial work is done by people of foreign birth, while our professional positions are held by people of native birth. Our school children are almost entirely of native birth altho many of them are of foreign parentage. When we talk about their vocational destinations, we should remember that we are in the main discussing American-born people and that we must base our considerations on figures showing what American-born people are doing. For Cleveland such a comparison indicates that for American- bom boys the chance of becoming a lawyer is greater than the chance of becoming a mason, and the chance of becoming a doctor is greater than that of becoming a tinsmith. Similar facts afi:ect each consideration of voca- tional education for men and for women and for every sort of vocational career. There is another most important consideration conditioning every plan for the organization of industrial education. This is the consideration of the community's capacity to absorb workmen trained for any given occupation. In Cleveland about four thousand boys leave the public schools each year. Most of them range in age from fourteen to eighteen and in school advancement from the sixth grade to the last high-school class. They represent a cross-section of the city's adult manhood of a few years hence. Now the census figures tell us that if present conditions maintain in the future only about 25 in each 1,000 of these boys will be carpenters. Since about 4,000 boys leave school each year, it is probably true that there are about 100 future carpenters among them. Now Cleveland has more than 100 elementary schools and 11 high schools and these 100 future carpenters are widely scattered among them. Most of them are in the elementary schools, for few high-school boys become carpenters. Even if we knew which boys were destined to become carpenters and even if we knew when they would leave school and even if we should decide to give them all trade preparatory education for the last two years of their school life, we should still have an average trade class in carpentry of only two boys in each elementary school. This is administratively and educationally impossible. It indicates something of the difiiculties involved in the organi- zation of preparatory industrial education and illustrates the importance of analyzing the social factors controlling the situation. To summarize: Among the recent developments in the methods of school surveying there may be distinguished two trends which are specially significant. One of these is the attempt of contemporaneous surveys to analyze the fundamental factors which constitute the real educational problems. The second is the development of a new survey technic which spends time, uses energy, consumes money, and directs attention toward educating the community in the problems and tasks of their educational system, as well as in discovering and formulating the conditions themselves. Superintendence] THE THIRTIETH MAN lOOI This is the process of making the schools and the public pay attention to each other. It is the process of bridging the gap between knowing and doing. It is the method of carrying the community. These newer developments in educational surveying are strange and novel now, but next year or the year after that they will be familiar and even commonplace. They will soon be a part of the modern scientific method in education which was only emerging from theory and experiment a scant ten years ago but which is profoundly reshaping our educational systems today. Thus progress plods along from paradox to platitude. THE THIRTIETH MAN JOHN H. FINLEY, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK, ALBANY, N.Y. [After contrasting the unorganized public life of the frontier democracy of forty years ago on the prairies of Illinois, as he remembered it, with the present public life of our great commonwealths. President Finley gave a description of a little one-room schoolhouse where he had gone to school. He said in part:] The schoolmaster was the only paid representative of the community, of society, of the state, within my horizon, for there was no postmaster, no policeman, no constable, no rural free delivery, and, so far as I know, no assessor, supervisor, or overseer of the poor. The pupils were of little public concern, quite in contrast to the immi- grant child coming to this democracy. They are guarded by many anxious ordinances and laws, in which pubUc provision is made that his eyes shall be properly opened; that he shall have a certain cubic Rootage of air space; that contagious diseases shall be kept out of his path. They sterihze his milk; filter his water; forbid his taking old-fashioned cough medicines or soothing syrups prepared by secret formulae; remove his adenoids and tonsils; vaccinate him; tell him how to avoid tuberculosis and to correct his astigmatism or strabismus. They follow him with antitoxin and dis- infectants; label poisons and put them out of his easy reach; label educa- tion and compel him to literacy ; police his ways; take him in an ambulance to a public hospital, if he is injured, and try to preserve the spark of life in him as long as possible before his name is added to the mortality column. Forty years after this early experience with the crudities of pioneer administration, I made an estimate of the number of persons giving service to the state, either directly or thru some municipality. As nearly as I could determine then, one person in every thirty adults, at any rate in the most thickly settled communities, was a public servant. . I then said that since the activity of the state was increasing (in that very year 104 new boards and commissions had been voted in the various I002 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit states), it would not be long before society found i in 30 too few. I have just had a new estimate made, and I find that for the state of New York the ratio even now is perhaps i in 28; it may be even i in 27 or 25. Think who this thirtieth man is. He sweeps the streets of the city and starts the fires in the schoolhouse. He is pontifex of the country roads. He lights the lamps when the great lamp of heaven goes out, and extinguishes the fires of the earth. With one hand he gathers our letters, and with the other he distributes them in the remotest cabins on the mountains. He weighs the wind, reads the portents of the clouds, gives augury of the heat and cold. He makes wells in the valleys among the hills, he fills the pook with water, and carries it from those distant hills to the city. He tastes the milk before a city child may drink it; he tests and labels the food in the stores and shops; he corrects false balances and short measures. He keeps watch over forest and stream; gives warning of rocks and shoals to men at sea, and of plague and poison to those on land. He is warden of fish and bird and wild beast; he is host to the homeless and slielterless; he is guardian and nurse to the child who comes friendless into the world and chaplain at the burial of the man who goes friendless out of it. He is assessor and collector of taxes — treasurer and comptroller; he is the teacher of seventeen million children, youths, men, and women; he is public librarian and maker of books, for the blind even; overseer of the poor, and supervisor; superintendent, doctor, nurse, and guard in hospital, prison, and almshouse; coroner, and keeper of the potter's field. He is mayor, judge, public prosecutor, and sheriff. He is a soldier in the army and a sailor in the navy, general and admiral, legislator, justice, member of the cabinet, governor, and president. In addition to this he is a member of numberless public commissions and boards, paid and unpaid, industrial and educational, scientific, philan- thropic, administrative, with functions ranging all the way from the inspection of terrapin in one state and scythe stones in another state, to the regency of a state university. I have thought that if one who saw the real significance of the list of these thirtieth men could express it, he would find in this list more vital stuff than that out of which the classics of literature have been written — a poem of men fighting fires in the forests and in the tenements; of men and women fighting pathogenic bacteria in the air, earth, and water; of men fighting flood and drought; of men and women fighting ignorance and sloth and passion in thousands of schoolrooms; of millions of public servants fighting uncleanHness, and corruption, and disease, and waste, with broom and statistics, with lens and meter and test tube and scalpel, and honest and expert eyes and clean and skilful hands. Who should not be proud to be a public servant! The New York Sun a few months ago credited me with a contribution to folk-lore in the creation of a mythical character, "the happy taxpayer." Superintendence] THE THIRTIETH MAN ' IOO3 The intimation of the editor was that three conditions were necessary to give this imagined person an almost real existence: that the taxes should be equal; that they should be economically spent for the public good; and, above all, that they should be low. I agree as to the first two incarnating quahties, but I think that the third is not essential to the transmutation; for the three words potent to transform the demi-sprite into a happy human citizen are equality^ economy , and exaltation or glorification. If we could but see our taxes touching with a healing hand the sick, or the eyes of the blind, or the ears of the deaf, or touching with illuminating hope those who sit in despair, if we could but see taxes transforming, protecting, teaching, carrying the community to a service greater than all who pay them could give if they labored individually, we should pay taxes as gladly as we give and labor and sufiEer for those who are dearest to us. There are soldiers who are happy in exposing their lives for a country; there are men who are happy in offering their hard-earned fortune for a cause; there are fathers who are happy in their self-denial for the sake of a son's education; there are mothers who are happy in the very suffering that makes other life possible. And there are citizens even now living in New York (not alone in my imagination) who are happy in paying taxes for a common good higher than their own. The first book which I had a part in writing was a treatise on taxation. I should like to prepare another book on the same subject now. I should have, of course, to devote chapters to the incidence, to the equalization, to the economic expenditure of taxes. But I should make the culminating chapter one on the "hallowing" of taxes, on ''How to Make People Happy in Paying Taxes." I would show, for example, how the public tax had been converted into the training of a New York East Side boy, named Goethals, who would some day dig the Panama Canal. I would show how taxes had been trans- muted into the skill of a certain doctor who had saved thousands of lives, and of a brother who had organized the weather bureau. I would show how taxes had taken an Italian boy, trained him, and then sent him to Cuba to expose his life in discovering how the yellow-fever germ is carried. So I propose, wherever I go, the organization of local societies of "The Happy Taxpayers," with the motto "Equality, Economy, and Exaltation," and for working capital this purpose: millions for making the people of the state happier, better, but not one dollar for avoidable incompetence or sloth or dishonesty in public service. And what we are spending for education is a pittance by the side of what we are spending for war. The people of Europe are spending each week for war more than we spend in a year for education. And shall we say that any sacrifice less than that which they are yonder making for their 1004 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit country is too much for us to make for our children — since the children of today are tomorrow's state? What we do for their right training we do for their defense. DEFINITENESS AND COMPULSION IN EDUCATLON A. DUNCAN YOCUM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND PRACTICE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Somewhere or other in his career, every radical, from some point of view or other, becomes a conservative. Sometimes it is because his propa- ganda has been well established and in turn is being attacked; more rarely it is because he comes to realize that even his most cherished aims are in danger of being carried too far. Anyone who happens to be famiHar with my own viewpoint knows that I believe in an education for efficiency in which practical preparation for everyday life plays a conspicuous part. But as I have listened to recent discussions, I am beginning to believe that we still need, tho in a new sense, the old watchword of W. T. Harris: " Does it train the mind ?" The recent tributes to his memory in the Journal of Education have recalled for many of us his persistent attempt to exclude manual training and physical culture from the public school, because he was so long unconvinced that they developed the intellect, and his eager welcome of the kindergarten when he became convinced that it did. My only reason for taking part in this program is an equally firm belief that even tho there are no mental faculties in the old sense of a memory or an intellect that can be trained into general usefulness, general mental training still survives informs not only as truly practical as vocational guidance and as natural as Montessorianism, but essential to the efficiency of ecu:h. In the complete educational readjustment now under way, practical education and adaptation to child nature are temporarily the chief factors, because they are substituting definite and immediate forms of usefulness, which the common citizen can see for himself, for the hocuspocus of an academic training which pretended to transform a knowledge of participial adjectives, pons asinorum, and the pancreatic fluid, into good citizenship, business efficiency, and healthful living. Every stage of public education is being socialized. It is not so surprising to see teachers of history, who have been trained in sociology and economics, neglectful of material that is unrelated to modern affairs, but teachers of Latin are busying themselves in listing the uses to which Latin can be put in everyday life, while even the International Commission on the Teaching of Mathematics justifies the teaching of geometry to the ordinary student on the ground that it is essen- tial to the making of tesselated pavements and stained-glass windows. No wonder that one of the most distinguished among my own critics, fearful for his literary ideals, protested that professors of pedagogy seemed to think that *'The Ancient Mariner" was written for no other purpose than the Superintendence] DEFINITENESS AND COMPULSION IN EDUCATION 1005 teaching of kindness to animals. The recent advance of the kindergarten upon the first grade, and its consequent rescue from arrested development, tho partly due to the Montessorian popularizing of adaptation to child nature, is being made easier by the fact that the training of the primary school is becoming practical and social. Even the genetic movement as a whole, seizing upon immediate prac- tical usefulness as the only natural incentive to study, is for the time being little more than a phase of the panic toward the specific. Children are learning to spell, not because they have been taught to love spelling, have pride in their skill, or have formed the habit of noting the spelling of new words, but in order to write a letter to the mayor or to make a list of manual- training materials. Enough practical or specifically useful material must be included in the course of study to teach adequately every essential phase of morality, health, industrial eflSciency, citizenship, social service, social intercourse, and individual leisure. But this is a very different thing from including every fact that is practical without regard to whether it is necessary to these essential ends, or excluding all other incentives and kinds of material, regardless of other forms of usefulness, and of relative educational values. It is unnecessary that the just emphasis of the practical should blind the eyes of teachers, parents, and pupils alike to the usefulness of the general. If the new gospel of definiteness is rightly taught, the common citizen and the ordinary teacher will perceive the usefulness of the general as readily as that of the specific. Its fundamental principle is not that every fact or idea must have a specific or practical usefulness, but that it must have a definite usefulness. Every fact that is taught need not imme- diately result in knowing a good cut of beef, or ability to qualify for a primary election, but it must as definitely suggest some equally apparent form of usefulness. As compared with the general, the specifically useful has the advantage of being self-apparent. It has to be definite and obvious. It is useful or harmful in itself. If it is not definite, it is not specific. The recent picture-play. The Birth of a Nation, for example, is certain to teach the Ku Klux Clan so that it definitely suggests mob law and race prejudice, while under right instruction it can be made to teach even more certainly the necessity for an impartial judiciary and just laws. It is some such definite association with life that makes it specific. If it is just listed in the school textbook as a secret conspiracy against northern rule, it becomes an aca- demic fact with no specific value whatever. Mere possibility of practical usefulness without the definite association which suggests it is not practical or specific. The discovery of coal in Pennsylvania is merely a bit of isolated information until it is definitely associated in the understanding and memory of the learner with the possibility of manufactures wherever coal can be cheaply enough transported. Without equal definiteness of suggestion for generally useful facts, their possible usefulness is highly improbable. But if they ^re definitely ioo6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit associated with the two or three ideas that make them useful, the usefulness of generally useful facts can be made as probable and obvious as that of the specific and immediately practical. My favorite illustration is the introduction of the steamboat on the Ohio and Mississippi. It is put into the textbook on account of its high degree of possible usefulness. But if it is merely listed in Madison's administration or under 1811, its useful- ness is wholly a matter of chance. Associated with the opening of the Mississippi to trade and settlement, it is useful only to the extent of arous- ing the mental satisfaction which always comes from associating an effect with its cause. But if it is used definitely and certainly to associate lessened time in transportation with increased trade and population, it not only explains the opening of the West and the building of transcontinental railroad lines, but the effect of every shortened commercial route from the discovery of new ways to the Indies to the opening of the Panama Canal. This definiteness of suggested usefulness for what is generally useful is not self-apparent, as in the case of teaching the effect of poor ventilation or other specifically useful facts, but it can be made as apparent. And if general usefulness is not made apparent enough for the common citizen and ordinary teacher to see it, it is unlikely that possibly useful facts will ever be generally useful to the pupils to whom they are taught. It is just as easy to teach the definite association which multiplies usefulness by making it general, as the specifically useful associations that must be added one by one. Every teacher drills upon the meaning of circumference because it is practical. It is just as easy to drill upon the fact that circum means around in a great group of words — a suggestive association that does not result in good citizenship but that multiplies vocabulary. Surely no ordinary teacher would persist in having pupils waste time memorizing lists of products for each country they study when she has pointed out to her the fact that in infinitely less time they can permanently associate with product in general such ideas as necessary natural conditions, localities, processes, uses, and markets, which with each new product will sugg^est a multitude of new ijjformation. In the one case the pupils vainly try to remember a multitude of specifically useful details. In the other they surely remember a few generally useful ideas that will suggest and help in retaining a thousand more. Even more apparent is the high relative value of generally useful habits. The common citizen and the ordinary teacher see their superiority of usefulness without its being pointed out by illustrations. But if mathe- matics and the languages, long the sole means to general discipline, are to be thrown on the scrap-heap; if industry, concentration, perseverance, observation, inference, and cumulative reasoning are to be realized thru practical portions of all subjects, and if teachers of every branch are to be held responsible for all generally useful discipline, what is everybody's business is in grave danger of becoming nobody's business. Superintendence] DEFINITENESS AND COMPULSION IN EDUCATION 1007 The material within each branch best adapted to the teaching of each habit must be specified and the formation of the general habit and the associated conditions favorable to its transfer must become a conscious aim for the teacher and a definite demand of supervisory authority. The definite associations favorable to the general application of every highly useful idea and habit are as essential to efficiency as the fundamental operations to number. If definiteness is thus essential to efficiency, it inexorably follows that the compulsion possible only thru repetition in the sense of drill is equally essential. The Herbartian injunction continually to teach old facts in new relationships defeats its own end if old facts are not also repeated in the definite association that makes them most useful. Even the general many- sidedness sought by the fifth of the *' formal steps" is retarded, if associa- tions that just happen to come to teachers or pupils are added one by one, in place of multiplying associations a thousandfold by certainly memorizing the few which will make the most general ideas definitely suggestive in the greatest possible variety of ways. The type study is ineffective if the few general associations that make it a type are not certainly memorized, together with the associations thru which their application and transfer are made probable. More than this, no matter how general the multiplication of associations may make the application of some practical fact, it will not remain prac- tical if it is not memorized and remembered in the associations that make it practical. Lincoln's birthday exercises may emotionalize the name of Lincoln and multiply its associations and yet contribute only incidentally to religion or good citizenship, unless it has associated with it such practical ideas as faith in divine providence and equality of human rights. I have come to believe that if we are about to enter upon a period of national preparedness for defensive war, every heroic achievement of our patriotic past and every war in which our forefathers nobly fought must be so taught as definitely and surely to suggest not only the need for self- sacrifice and mighty deeds, but every resulting form of horror and misery, thru an emotional appeal that, in spite of military pageants and schoolboy drills, will be strong enough to keep us, thruout all our future history as we are today, haters of conquest and lovers of peace. It is not mere names and facts, but names and facts in the definite associations on which their usefulness depends that should be emotionalized and made many-sided. And when they are found with high emotional usefulness for the learner in a particular period of development, thru their recurrence in his experience or what they will transform for him into experi- ence, they must be memorized and taught, no matter how unnatural they seem to be or how much more naturally they may be developed at some later time. The analogy of education and growth has been carried too far. It is only the brain that grows in the sense of developing what is already iOo8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit there. The mind grows thru the definitely suggestive associations that are planted in it. The mind of childhood is a kindergarten constituting in itself a favorable or unfavorable environment for the growth of ideas. Education is as dependent upon the definite associations in which ideas are planted in the human mind as upon the racial inheritance, heredity, and individuality which they will find there to condition their growth. And after all is said and done, no racial tendency or individual idiosyncrasy is more natural than the human memory. The most formidable obstacle to a movement having definiteness and compulsion for its end is the fact that they are not as dramatic as they are obvious. If they could be given the popular appeal of industrial train- ing or Montessorianism, they would contribute more than any other single factor to hastening the day when education will be not only practical and natural but efl&cient and controlling. After all, there is something dramatic in the definiteness that means multiplying usefulness and raising it to the nth. power in place of adding useful facts one by one; that compels each frequently recurring idea to suggest its most useful associations; and that summons up for the generally useful habit the geni of favorable conditions that can make it a wish come true for any field of experience and any realm of thought. If instruction can put Aladdin's lamp within the learner's grasp, why should we scorn the slavish drill that teaches him how to rub ! MANNERS AND MORALS-OUR PROBLEM ALICE M. CARMALT, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH, PITTSBURGH, PA. In a regent address given by G. Stanley Hall at the University of Pitts- burgh on "The Great Philosophies of the World," he made use of the pro- foundly significant thought that neither philosophy nor civilization nor even religion itself has been able to avert this terrible calamity that is devastating Europe today. Then he made an appeal to all educators that we in America see to it that war does not appear in the eyes of our boys as a glorious and thrilling adventure, but that they should see it as it really is, in all its cost and horror. In what way have our boys been trained to meet serious and ethical questions that may and do arise every day, individually and nationally ? This is a timely and significant thought for us all at this time, when a crisis seems approaching. George Eliot has said: *'To every man comes a crisis when in a moment, without chance for reflection, he must decide and act instantly. What determines his decision? His whole past, the daily choices between good and evil that he has made thruout his previous years — these determine his decision." What training have we given our Superintendence] MANNERS AND MORALS— OUR PROBLEM 1009 boys and girls that they may be prepared for these momentous decisions ? About fifteen years ago, I was deeply impressed by a statement of a prominent lecturer that we are not training our boys and girls in manners and morals; that, as a consequence, our young men and women, as a general rule, are neither well behaved nor moral in their reactions. I then determined that I would begin a careful study of the subject. I would select boys and girls of middle teens, as at that period altruism blossoms. I would observe them in public places, when they were not under super- vision and not on the playground, where some license is allowed. For fifteen years I have kept records and am being forced to certain conclusions. I am able to say that some of our youth are being trained to be considerate for others and to base their decisions on the fundamental ethics of com- munity life. By far the greater number, however, have shown a lack of both manners and morals, ranging all the way from thoughtlessness to positive rudeness and heartlessness. Some actions were so significant as to be startling. Three lads of about eighteen, apparently from good homes, entered the street cars and sat near me. They began to discuss in audible tones their recent experiences in wage-earning, chuckling gleefully over the oppor- tunities they had found and improved to pad their expense list, publicly proclaiming themselves swindlers, and they did not know it. The alarming thing about it to me was that boys of their apparent opportunities should not have been trained in the fundamental ethics of business relations. There is, also, a lack of chivalry toward the weak, the old, and the help- less. The three great influences in our children's lives — the home, the church, and the school — have failed to make that lasting impression to which they have a right. In almost every instance that I have tabulated, the offenders did not realize that they were violating any rules of conduct. They had not been trained in the fundamental principles of right living nor the daily application of the Golden Rule. I also observed and made records concerning the behavior and apparent standards of our young men and women, for the boys and girls of yester- day are the young men and women of tomorrow. The conclusion is forced in upon me that among reputable young people today there are two classes : those who act upon principles carefully thought out beforehand, and those who act upon impulse, deciding questions that may arise largely upon the basis of preference for one course rather than another. An experience, some years ago, illustrates the former class. A fellow- teacher and I were taking a short trip together and, busily engaged in con- versation, we did not notice that the conductor had not taken up our tickets. I asked my friend what she should do about it, and she said; glancing around: *1 suppose they have receptacles for rubbish." She tore up her ticket and later dropped the pieces into a wastebasket. Curious to learn her reac- tions, I asked her what a ticket meant to her. She thought a moment loio NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit and then said slowly and thoughtfully: "I suppose it is a sort of receipt; I enter into an agreement with a railroad company that for a sum of money it shall carry me a certain distance, and it gives me the ticket so I can show it to the conductor in case he challenges my right to ride. I have ridden unchallenged so the ticket has no further value." I have asked many persons since then what they would have done under such circumstances and they have replied: ''.Do ? I would have ridden it out the next chance I had. What do you suppose I care for the railroad company!" She didn't care anything for the railroad company, but she did care for herself and her own standards and she could not violate them for even an extra ticket. This incident and many others have impressed me with the truth that there are two ends to any moral act — the one, affecting the external world, is the objective end; the other, affecting the person himself, is fastened to his own moral nature and is subjective. It is vitally necessary that each one of us shall every day live up to our own standards, recognizing what they are, and thereby growing to higher and nobler possibilities. The problem of training our boys and girls aright is a complex one altogether too big for any single or simple treatment. The necessity for charatrter as the supreme product of our schools has been recognized by every speaker that I have heard from this platform this week. The world of business and the professional world alike need standards and the encour- aging side of the present situation is that the standards are already in the process of formation. The profession of medicine has so sharply defined what a physician may and may not do that it is easy to separate the repu- table physicians from the quacks. The legal-aid societies are for the safe- guarding of the legal profession. Even the standards of university men are deservedly high, worked out by the upperclassmen themselves. But how about the teaching profession? Is it easy to separate our real teachers from our false ? Do we make our standards so clear that those in training for the most responsible of the professions know definitely just what they may and may not do ? The first and immediate step to be taken is clear. We must become conscious of our standards. How can we make that deep impression on our boys and girls for which we hope and pray, if we have not definitely in mind the end for which we are working? The country is full of noble actions, unselfish deeds, and characters that would be a model for our youth if only they understood them and could consciously make use of them. In the light of this thought, it is significant to note the nation-wide movement to be explained to us later — a movement already undertaken to find out what are the standards of our best people. But need we wait a year to find out their conclusions ? We can begin at once. The super- visors here in this hall should begin immediately to arouse the teachers Superintendence] MANNERS AND MORALS— OUR PROBLEM lOII under their supervision to debate and discussion and to try to work definitely toward a solution. The world, old and young, thrills to noble deeds and at the statement of fundamentals of virtue and unselfish service for others. On the sixth of last September, in the Court of the Universe, at the San Francisco Exposition, a vast crowd had gathered to do honor to Goethals, the builder of the Panama Canal. The chairman of the day, in introducing the guest of honor, made a statement that aroused great enthusiasm in the audience. He said that while all admitted the greatness of the achievement in building the Canal, there is an even greater service that Goethals has done for the country in his action in refusing an honorarium from the United States as a reward for his services on the Canal. Goethals gave as his reason for refusing that he had been called upon by his country to serve her; he had responded and had done his best; he had but done his duty as thousands of others are doing every day; he had been generously rewarded as to salary, and the incident was closed. A prolonged and enthusiastic response from all that immense crowd showed how ready we are to recognize the funda- mental right thought when once it is voiced before us. Today, the words duty and honor are more rarely heard than when the gentleman and gentlewoman of the old school were among us. They should be household words. We should not ask that life be made easy for our children but that the children be made strong to meet it. Dr. Storrs, late of Brooklyn, who was settled for sixty years over one parish, preached wonderful sermons, and one that I had the great good fortune to hear made a deep impression on me. He was speaking of the church militant and he closed with these thoughts: Every nation has had its own mission to fulfil: the Hebrew nation, thru all the dark ages, kept alive the idea of the one God — the Hebrews had a genius for religion; the Roman nation worked out a system of laws and government, and under its protection the wonderful Spirit was born of the old Jewish race that was to give to Mosaic law a spiritual interpretation; the Grecian nation devel- oped a language of such beauty that it could be used to record the history of that wonderful life; the teachings of that great Spirit finally inspired a small band of religionists to leave home and friends to seek a far-off land, where the greatest extent of fertile soil and temperate climate on the whole earth were awaiting them, where they were to help build the mightiest nation of all, because here was to be a nation that was to have for its fundamental purpose to make men. It is in this nation that our work is to be done. Our work then is to make men and women, and character-building is the fundamental, the all-important part of this work. IOI2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit SCOUTING AS AN EDUCATIONAL ASSET JAMES E. WEST, CHIEF SCOUT EXECUTIVE, BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA, NEW YORK, N.Y. I am here today on behalf of the Boy Scouts of America — 182,622 men and boys — 143,782 boys under instruction as tenderfoot, second-class, and first-class scouts, and 38,840 carefully selected clean men of strong character giving leadership without compensation, as members of local councils, troop committees, and scout commissioners, scoutmasters, or assistant scoutmasters — to ask you as representative educators of our country to accept the program of scouting as an educational asset. Not only do we desire your attention to what can be said in support of the claims that scouting is an educational asset, so that it may fully justify a place in your program, but we earnestly hope that the possibilities of this movement as an asset in the work to which you have committed your lives will be made so clear that each of you here will become personally interested in the proper development of the movement, so that, thru the resources which you command, it may become more largely available to the boys of our country. I hope that I shall not give offense by claiming that the inadequacy of our public-school system to meet the full needs of the growing boy makes necessary the boy-scout scheme or something similar to cope with present- day conditions. The school is handicapped by its traditions and by its limited opportunity for control and influence in the life of the average boy. Even under favorable conditions, the school provides leadership for only about one thousand of the five thousand hours a year a boy has for activity. It is seldom that the school exerts such a hold on the boy as to furnish him with a motive or anything like a program for his activities after he is released from the schoolroom for the day, or for his vacation period. The complex conditions of present-day civilization add to the problem. Unfortunately the home and the church also fail to provide adequate leadership or a definite program for the time of the boy outside of the school- room. Modern invention and improved living facilities decrease the demand upon the time of the boy for chores about the home. Generally speaking, the boy has no opportunity to choose how he will spend his leisure time. This is largely a matter of chance, governed by environment. With the coming and going of the various seasons, his interest passes without definite program or any direction in the games and activities of the boys in his neighborhood. Too often the value of the schoolroom instruction and discipline is seriously affected by reason of the undirected activity of the boy outside of the school. The results of these conditions are shown in the continuance of the necessity for the state and municipality to provide increasing sums Superintendence] SCOUTING AS AN EDUCATIONAL ASSET 1013 each year for police supervision and for institutions to deal with inefficient citizenship. Because of a lack of education in character, too many of our boys and young men show an absence of self-discipline by indifference to a higher conscience. Another element which contributes to the unsatisfactory results of our public-school system is the fact that the program and method within the school itself fails to give the boy early enough in life a chance to discover the things he is by temperament and native ability best fitted to do — in other words, a chance to discover himself. In the city of New York, of the forty thousand boys and girls who have not passed beyond the grammar school, and yet receive their working papers each year, but a very small percentage even attempt to seek their first employment because of any particular desire to foUow a given line of work, or because of any special training or ability to do any one thing efficiently. The great proportion are willing to accept any opportunity for earning a fair wage. A small proportion of these are ambitious enough to accept the opportunity of the night high schools to fit themselves along special lines, but the great proportion engage in blind-alley occupations and too many become mere drifters and thus add to the burden of the community. Indeed, it was the definite evidence of the inadequacy of public-school instruction in England that led Robert S. S. Baden-Powell to develop plans for the training of the young men who were sent to him from the large cities of England, and finally led to the development of the boy-scout scheme. As he has expressed it, the great proportion of these young men who were sent to him for service in South Africa as recruits were so depend- ent upon the conveniences of modern civilization that they virtually expected to be tucked in at night. They lacked discipline, resourcefulness, initiative, as well as practical knowledge of how to care for themselves. Unfortunately, as all who are familiar with the facts know, a somewhat similar condition was found among the young men who were enlisted for service in the Spanish-American War. The lack of practical knowledge on the part of the enlisted men, as well as the lack of leadership, has cost this country very dearly. In order to meet the condition as he found it, Baden-Powell, instead of giving the ordinary military training to the group of recruits, worked out plans for giving them what he called "stunts in scouting." Men were sent off in small groups and compelled to shift for themselves in the woods and forests. Every effort was made to give these young men experiences similar to those which were common to the young man living in the rural com- munities. Upon returning to England, Baden-Powell was surprised to find that the principles involved in his plans for dealing with men had been appHed in boys' schools. Eventually he responded to the many invitations pressed IOI4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [DetroJt upon him and set himself to the task of working out a program for boys. As a result we have the wonderful movement known thruout the civiUzed world as the scouting program. Baden-Powell insists that he should not be given credit for what it involves, because, as he says, he helped himself freely to all that was avail- able, in this and other countries, in the way of programs of work with boys. Notwithstanding what he has to say, however, it is a fact that the plan of organization and psychology involved in the scouting program was dis- tinctly new. Particularly is this so with reference to the idea of service which is a cardinal principle in the scouting program. The appeal to the boy's imagination thru the word "scout," the recog- nition of the principle of self-government, and the placing of a boy on his honor, have all been very effective. Likewise the total absence of the use of the word "don't" or anything of a negative character has been effectively cared for by placing emphasis upon "do." As a scout, the boy willingly adopts as real and vital the universally accepted principles of life as set forth in the scout oath and law. This effectively influences the boy's nature and character so as better to prepare him for that work which the church can best do. A scout promises upon his honor to do his duty to God and to his coun- try, to obey the scout law, to help other people at all times, and to keep himself physically strong, mentally awake, and morally straight. The scout law, covering twelve fundamental principles of life, requires a scout first of all to be trustworthy. That means he must not tell a lie, cheat, or deceive, but must keep every trust sacred. A scout is loyal to all to whom loyalty is due, including his scout leader, his home, his parents, and his country. A scout is helpful, that is, he is prepared, thru the special program of scouting activities, to save life, help injured persons, and to do at least one worthwhile good turn daily. A scout is friendly to all, a brother to every other scout. A scout is courteous, especially to women, children, and old people, and he must not take any pay for his acts of courtesy or kindness. A scout is kind to animals and will not kill nor hurt any living creature needlessly. A scout is obedient; a scout is cheerful even when facing hardship and drudgery. A scout is thrifty; he not only recognizes his obligation to pay his own way, but realizes his duty to help carry the burden of worthy causes, and the needs of his country. A scout is brave and does what he knows is right in spite of jeers and threats. A scout is clean in body and thought, stands for clean speech, clean sport, clean habits, and travels with a clean crowd. Finally, a scout is reverent toward God; not only is he faithful in his own religious duties, but he respects the convictions of others in matters of custom and religion. Every step in the scouting program is for character development and good citizenship. The variety and interest, as well as the practical knowl- edge insured by the tenderfoot, second-class, first-class, and various merit Superintendence] SCOUTING AS AN EDUCATIONAL ASSET 1015 badge tests, are, after all, but a means for holding the interest of the boy, pledged to the scout oath and law, under such leadership as will bring about character development. The form of troop organization, the scoutmaster and his assistants, the local council, and, indeed, the National Council and all its officers, are but a means to this end. This character development manifests itself in health, efficiency, chivalry, loyalty, patriotism, good citizenship, and joyous living. Time will not permit a detailed description of the plan of organization and methods of procedure, but in order that all interested may be accurately informed we are placing in your hands with our compliments a copy of the official Handbook giving all of this information. We want you to look upon the boy-scout idea as a movement rather than an organization, and to realize that we are merely seeking to supple- ment existing agencies for the education of the boy. The scout movement mak^s available a carefully selected leadership for the boy's leisure time and endeavors to supply the required environment and ambitions thru games and out-door activities which lead a boy to become a better man and worthwhile citizen. We want to help boys on leaving school to escape the evils of blind- alley occupations — that is, such work as gives the boy a mere wage for the moment, but leaves him stranded without any trade or handicraft to pursue when he is a man and so sends him as a recruit to the great army of unem- ployed, and what is often worse, the unemployable. Doing is learning, and when a scout in the formative stage of his life has this lesson thoroly impressed upon his mind, he has learned to be resourceful. The simple self-help experience which a scout receives in his impressionable years prepares him to meet emergencies covering the entire range of experience which may develop later in his life. Please keep it clear in mind that the scout movement is not seeking to displace established educational agencies, nor does it undervalue the abso- lute necessity of schoolroom instruction for all boys just as long as practicable. Scoutcraf t includes instruction in first aid, life-saving, tracking, signal- ing, cycling, nature-study, seamanship, campcraft, woodcraft, chivalry, and all of the handicrafts. In scouting the boy does not stand still. The opportunity and incen- tive for progress are always at hand. He first becomes a tenderfoot, then a second-class scout, and then a first-class scout. After this the whole sphere of the scout program is made available by the boy's own application to qualify himself to pass tests for the various merit badges which cover a wide range of practical and interesting subjects. We find that a boy takes up a hobby with the same zest with which he plays tennis or football, and that this hobby under proper leadership may lead him to the realization of the thing he is best fitted to do as a life-work. ioi6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit In other words, we transfer the efforts of the boy from idle plays or harmful mischief to vital achievements. As an organization, the boy-scout movement is not military in thought, form, or spirit, altho it does instil in boys the military virtues, such as honor, loyalty, obedience, and patriotism. It also gives boys a practical knowledge of the principles of hygiene, sanitation, and actual camping experience and physical training. The uniform, the patrol, the troop, and the limited drills are not for military purposes, they are for unity, harmony, and rhythm of spirit that help in dealing and doing things together as scouts, that boys may absorb the force and truth of the scout law which states that a scout is a friend of all and a brother of every other scout. Scouting presents greater opportunities for the development of the boy religiously than do other movements instituted solely for boys. Its aim to develop the boy physically, mentally, and morally is being realized very widely. The movement has been developed on such broad lines as to embrace all classes, all creeds, and at the same time to allow the greatest independence to individual organizations, officers, and boys. The Boy Scouts of America maintain that no boy can grow into the best kind of a citizen without recognizing his obligation to God. The recognition of God as the ruling and leading power of the universe and the grateful acknowledgment of his favors and blessings are necessary to the best type of citizenship, and are a wholesome thing in the education of a growing boy. No matter what the boy may be — Catholic or Protestant or Jew — this fundamental need of good citizenship should be kept before him. The Boy Scouts of America, as an organized body, therefore, recognizes the religious element in the training of the boy, but is absolutely non- sectarian in its attitude toward that religious training. Its policy is that the religious organization or institution with which the scout troop or the individual scout is associated should give definite attention to the boy's religious life. In thus making available to boys of all classes a common meeting- ground where they may play and compete and learn to know that the other fellow is not much different from themselves, the boy-scout movement is performing a distinctive and important patriotic service, and again the observance of the scout law, and the tremendous cumulative value of the required daily good turn, and the creation of better feeling among millions of scouts in our own and other lands, constitute a latent but powerful and rapidly growing factor for universal good will and the brotherhood of man. The Boy Scouts of America has just celebrated its sixth anniversary. It has troops organized in all parts of the country and in all of our possessions. During the past year there was an increase of 46 per cent in the enrolment. In every community the best type of citizenship is represented in the leader- ship provided. Especially is this true where there is a chartered local coun- Superintendence! SCOUTING AS AN EDUCATIONAL ASSET IOI7 cil. In such cases the responsibility for the selection of the leaders of groups of boys is delegated to the local authorities. Two-thirds of our troops, however, are working in communities where local councils have not yet been organized. In these cases the responsibility for certifying to the leadership of a group of boys is a difficult problem. It gives me great pleasure on this occasion to testify to the practical service which has been given by school superintendents in our efforts to handle this problem. It is our invariable rule, wherever an application for a commission is presented without the recommendation of men who, because of the positions they hold in the community, command recognition, for us to call imutnediately upon the school superintendent for co-operation. We usually ask if the superin- tendent would be willing to intrust his own boy to the leadership of the man who seeks the commission. ^ Ordinarily this brings about the proper investigation and a report which gives us a basis for action. A recent study of the qualifications of 7,067 men who hold commissions as scout-masters shows that about 65 per cent of them are college men and that over 80 per cent have either a high-school or a college education; 1,655 give their occupation as clergymen, and 790 as public-school teachers; others are professional men, journalists, students, and men engaged in mechanical or mercantile pursuits. In practically every one of the 350 chartered councils, the public schools are definitely represented thru the service of the school superintendent on the executive board and in many cases the school superintendent serves as president of the council. The value of the scout movement as an educational asset has been recognized by a number of our large universities by the definite encourage- ment given in developing leadership. Scout courses have been organized in the summer schools in the University of Wisconsin, University of Cali- fornia, University of Virginia, University of Texas, Teachers College of Columbia University, and at numerous other places. It is with great pleasure that I can, by special permission, quote from James E. Russell, Dean of Teachers College of Columbia University, as to scouting as an educational asset. He says: I regard the scout movement as one of the most valuable educational agencies of this generation. One lesson of the present European war is that American boys must be trained in patriotism and in those homely virtues which would make for civic order and social stability. For this purpose I know of no means so effective as those employed by the boy scouts. I hope to see the time when every American schoolboy will look forward to becoming a good scout and will be trained to incorporate the ideas of the boy scout into his life as an American citizen. It is practically impossible to do much in the way of military training with boys under eighteen years of age. It must be taken seriously and its inclusion in the courses of our public schools should not be considered. Even Germany does not pretend to give military training to boys, but sets aside several years after school life to this man's work Then it is taken seriously, and results in making trained soldiers. The most that can be hoped for in this country is a preparatory training for boys which should include characteristics of the later life-work and give some idea of a live interest in the process ioi8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit of their later vocation. There must be a substitute and in my opinion it is before us now. This substitute is the boy-scout movement. The movement is distinctly non-military, but it should appeal as much to the most ardent mihtarist as to the non-militarist. It is non-military in the same sense that manual training is non-vocational or non-professional, but it is preparatory to good citizenship and everyday service. It furnishes physical training to the boy and accustoms him to outdoor life and camping. It gives him a purpose that is suited to his age and appeals to his boyish traits. It utilizes to good advantage the gang spirit. It is remark- ably appealing in teaching him keen work and instils in him high ideals. This, in a sense, is more than military training ever can do, in that it develops character, initiative, and intelligence. Give me one million boy scouts grown into manhood and I will fear neither foreign domination nor internal social disorder. But we ought to have more than one million to fall back upon. We ought to have five miUions of boy scouts in this country. This entire movement should receive the support of the schools thruout the country. Professor Roberts, of the Kansas State Agricultural College, in an article on school science, gives another point of view. He says : There is just one solitary place where your boy and mine can get this real kind of fimdamental training which teaches him how to be a man, how to take care of himself and others in emergencies, and that, as you know, is absolutely not in the public schools at all. It is in the organization of the boy scouts: Contrast the methods of the scouts, for example, to the methods of the school. One is dynamic and the other is static. One develops to the maximum, encourages, indeed forces initiative; the other glorifies mihtary subservience to routine. The one not merely asks but demands originality and resourcefulness. The other requires imiformity at all costs and exalts above individual expression the ideal of discipline and order. The one forces the boy to hammer himself into something individual; the other hammers the individuality out of the boy. T. C. Hassell, principal of the Fair Park School, says: The school cannot utilize all the energies of the boy. This splendid movement comes to our aid. The troublesome element is smaller since the scouts were organized. It tends to raise a higher standard among boys. Their personal appearance is better. Cigarette smoking is on the wane, because of the example of the boy scouts. In a letter just received from Robert S. S. Baden-Powell, permit me to quote the following: It may be some encouragement to these gentlemen to know that our educationalists over here are now recognizing that our principle of encouraging active doing on the part of the individual instead of passive reception of ideas by the mass is practical education, as opposed to theoretical instruction, and they are therefore taking a close and sympathetic interest in it. Moreover, the value of our system is now proved by results and not merely by theory . The war has put the movement and its methods to the highest possible test; it has proved the inherent vitality of the organization; it has shown that boys so prepared can respond to a sense of responsibility and duty at a time of national crisis to an extent never before realized— which is patriotism far above ecstatic flag-waving; and in the by-product of soldier-making the foundation of character given by the scout training is foimd to be as valuable as it is in the making of citizens in other lines of life, whether civic, commercial, intellectual, or industrial. Indeed, in this aspect it offers visions of being able to meet in some degree the difficult question which just now is agitating America, namely, that of preparing for defense without the imposition of militarism. Superintendence] NATIONAL MORALITY CODES COMPETITION 1019 All of us realize that the opinions of men are changing and that this is a critical time in the history of our country. It is the responsibility distinc- tively of this group of people as well as all of us engaged in work with boys to keep calm and to help in securing deliberate consideration as to the advisability of any of the many changes which are daily proposed affecting our national life and the education of the youth of our country. Those of us who are supporting the boy-scout movement firmly believe, as stated by Dr. Russell, that in the boy-scout movement can be found a program adequate to meet the needs of the growing boy in preparing him for the responsibilities of citizenship. Certainly we are making a distinctive con- tribution to preparedness by instilling in boys a proper conception of their responsibility to their country and by the development of the ideas of service. In so far as the scheme of scouting can be utilized in part or in whole by schools or other agencies working with boys, it is available simply for the asking, independent of the definite affiliations of the group of boys with the Boy Scouts of America. We ask, however, that no attempt be made to call them boy scouts, or have them use the official uniform and badges, unless they comply absolutely with the official regulations and meet the prescribed standards. We hope that the schools of our country will definitely accept scouting as an educational asset and will co-operate in the organization of troops locally and in guiding the movement nationally, so that, to a larger extent than ever before, the future of our nation may be benefited by the development of boys, not merely in scholastic training but in character and social eflSciency. This is true education! THE NATIONAL MORALITY CODES COMPETITION MILTON FAIRCHILD, CHAIRMAN, EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, NATIONAL INSTITUTION FOR MORAL INSTRUCTION, WASHINGTON, D.C. A business man of large experience in general affairs has come to the conclusion, on his own initiative and as the result of thoro study, that the fundamental need of the nation is the moral or character education of children and youth. He has offered a prize of $5,000, the largest prize ever offered in an educational competition, for the best of seventy morality codes, written by selected competitors, each of whom shall endeavor to interpret intelligent public opinion as to what moral or character ideas ought to be inculcated in American children and youth by the nation's schools and homes. The conduct of the national morality codes competition is in the hands of the Executive Committee of the National Institution for Moral Instruction, Washington, D.C. One year,. Washington's birth- day 19 16 to Washington's birthday 1917, will be allowed for this nation-wide study of public opinion, and for the formulation of the morality codes. AH seventy codes will be published by some one of the schoolbook publishers I020 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit in the form of school reference books, to be called "Morality Books," which it is hoped will be placed on the teacher's desk in every schoolroom, country and city, thruout the nation, and in many homes. The price of the ''Moral- ity Books" will be as low as possible. A small royalty will be taken for the treasury of the National Institution for Moral Instruction, which will be used in research work to determine effective methods for character education in schools and homes. The success of such an undertaking as this depends on the co-operation of many, and co-operation depends on good will. Therefore let me explain several points which superintendents of schools will wish to have informa- tion on before they give the national morality codes competition their good will and co-operation. The National Institution for Moral Instruction is incorporated for research in character education of children and youth for no personal profit. It contemplates the organization of a small faculty of specialists in this field of education, and the development of collaboration on the part of a selected group of educators and others from the entire nation, to the end that the wisdom of experience may be organized into a body of ideas and principles which can be used as the material of instruction in the moral or character education of children and youth. It is an institution primarily for study of the problems of character education. It is not a propagandist institution to force schools to do what superintendents do not care to have them do; but a research institution to find out how superin- tendents can arrange to have the schools do effectively what they wish the schools to do, namely produce character as a resultant from education. The National Institution for Moral Instruction is an inside, not an outside, organization. Its executive committee is composed, in addition to the chairman, of P. P. Claxton, Willard S. Small, William C. Ruediger, and Margaret Bell Merrill, all actively engaged in education. The presi- dent of its board of directors is David Snedden, who will soon be professor of "social education," in Teachers College, Columbia University. Its directorate is chosen from the different centers of educational research thruout the nation, with a sufiScient representation from the general public to insure breadth of experience. It is regarded as essential to progress in character education that there be arrangements made for nation-wide collaboration among educators, because generalizations in matters of moral- ity ought to i^est on experience, and the experience of the individual is too narrow for certitude in this field of knowledge. The donor of this prize for the best code of morals for instruction of children and youth is anxious that the educators should believe that he is not seeking any personal glory or indirect gain. He wishes to assist edu- cators and others in developing this phase of education, because he believes it is neglected and needs developing for the good of the nation. He desires his name to remain unknown, but, under the title "advising treasurer/^ Superintendencej NATIONAL MORALITY CODES COMPETITION I02I he wishes to work out plans for adequate financial support for the National Institution for Moral Instruction, and to have part in formulating broad plans for universal moral education of all the nation's boys and girls. I am permitted to say that he is not a resident of Washington, D.C., but of one of the cities in the nation at large. The national morality codes competition is a study and interpretation of intelligent public opinion rather than an interesting struggle among literary people for a prize. In all but five states, the state superintendent of public instruction has accepted appointment as the co-operating educator. The full list you will find printed in the announcement circular. Each co-operating educator has chosen and appointed the state representatives who are to write the state morality codes in the competition. In states having a large population, more than one morality code writer has been chosen. The total number of code writers will be seventy. Each of the morality code writers is to endeavor to make a thoro study of public opinion in his state regarding the moral ideas which ought to be inculcated in the minds and hearts of children and youth, and in doing this is to consult a large circle of advisers among teachers and parents. Letters of advice will be asked from all interested. The intelligent public opinion of the state is to be back of each morality code, not merely the individual opinions of the code writers. There will be two "Morality Books," one for elementary schools and one for high schools, for each code is to be written in two parts, the ele- mentary part for boys and girls between nine and fourteen, and the high- school part for youths between fourteen and eighteen years of age. The "Morality Books" will be revised from time to time, and the schools will be supplied continuously with a reference book from which any teacher and any pupil can find out what intelligent public opinion believes should be taught American boys and girls as to right and wrong in the world of boys and girls. But what is a "code of morals" ? Washington had a code; Franklin had a code; Baron Rothschild had a code; hosts of people have written out for themselves short statements of their intentions as moral beings, and lived by them thru the storm and stress of this world life. The National Institution for Moral Instruction has formulated a code covering the ethics I of work, called "The Code of Successful Workers," which will make clear what a morality code is like. THE ETHICS OF WORK This "Code of Successful Workers" has been formulated from personal experience by many men and women who have achieved great success as workers. It presents their personal attitude toward their work, and reveals the sort of people they have striven to make of themselves. It is true and reliable. It is offered as a means by which young people can learn the requirements which success in work imposes on them. Those who work by this code will find satisfaction, honor, and a good living in the world of work. I022 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit The Code of Successful Workers resolutions they make for themselves 1. / mil respect all useful work and be courteous to the workers. Work of all kinds is essential to the success of the world, and benefits come to many from the service rendered by each honest worker. I will respect myself, therefore, when doing any useful work, and show respect for good work done by others, I will be courteous to all workers, regard their rights, and make life more agreeable for them when I can. 2. / will know my work and have ambition to do it well. I will keep determined to succeed in work, to master some one line, to develop aptitude and gain skill. I will keep my mind concentrated on my work, and make work my chief interest. I will accumu- late knowledge and experience. 3. / will take the initiative and develop executive ability. I will use business sense, have courage to make decisions and go ahead, be quick-witted, well balanced, and of good insight. I will be^ adaptable, and make all I can of my powers of invention. 4. / will be industrious and willing. I will bring enthusiasm to my work, be energetic and quick about it, and have endurance. I will be punctual, and always an attentive worker. I will be patient and persevering, and have system. I will keep myself in good health. 5. / will be honest and truthful. I will regard property rights, be economical of materials, and put in full time. I will be frank and honorable in my treatment of others, and preserve my personal integrity. 6. I will educate myself into strong personality. I will develop force of character and have some worthy purpose in life. I will use my leisure wisely. I will be well informed, self-possessed, self-controlled, self-respecting, stable, open-minded and teachable, alert, observing. I will be quick to understand, and of good memory. I will use my imagina- tion, and be ready to take responsibilities. I will gain knowledge of human nature, show sympathy, and take an interest in people. I will be friendly, cheerful, harmonious, and always tactful. 7. / will be faithful to my work. I will hold to high ideals. I will be reliable, accurate, and careful. I will do my work right, for the people who need done the things I help to do. I will be thoro. I will keep my word. 8. / will be loyal. I will take pride in my firm or company, factory, store, or farm. I will protect its interests, and help to make work successful. I will be unselfish and obedient in my service to my superiors, and do good team work. In professional work, I will hold to the ethics of my profession. In an institution, I will be true to its purposes. I will be devoted to my home. I will be loyal to the people with whom I work. 9. / will be a gentleman — a lady. I will keep clean and neat, be pure and of good repute, courteous and poUte to all. I will form wise personal habits. The world does not owe me a living, but I am proud to make a good living for myself. Copyrighted IQI4 by the National Institution for Moral Instruction, Washington, D.C. This " Code of Successful Workers " differs from an individual's morality code in that the experience of some two hundred people is the broader foundation on which it rests for its generalizations. It has the authority of public opinion in the field of work. The " Morality Books " are to inter- pret the wisdom of many thousands of intelligent people. If a boy should wish to study carefully "conduct becoming a gentleman," it would be impossible for him to find a printed explanation of public opinion on this topic. There is no school in the nation which provides a chance for any Superintendence] NATIONAL MORALITY CODES COMPETITION 1023 thoro study of public opinion on any of the many important phases of morality. The schools have their geographies and histories, their books of nature, their arithmetics, etc., from which pupils can learn a host of facts useful to them, but the wisdom of grown-up people as to how to live has never been formulated for children as a body of knowledge. This morality codes competition is to produce one important expression of public opinion in a field of knowledge most intimately related to the vital needs of the children. Children force on parents the problems of moral education, and many find themselves at a loss to decide what moral ideas to inculcate. This book of morality codes will be a guide to both parents and teachers, and a basis for harmony between school and home. Normal-school students can inform themselves by studying this book of moral codes as to what moral ideas they are expected to inculcate in the minds of their pupils when they begin teaching. Their individual ideas and experiences can be supplemented by a study of the wisdom which has come to many others thru personal experiences in the large world of human affairs. These "Morality Books," it is believed, will be of great use to the teachers in their regular classroom and personal work with pupils, in cases of discipline, and when stimulating the moral growth of pupils. They will be of use in normal schools as a means of preparing teachers for their work as educators of character, and they will influence parents to support at home the morality which is taught at schools. We have been making out a character chart by collaboration among several hundred people which seems to me to make clear the need of the child for a thoro character education. The items in this character chart can be regarded as the index to the "Morality Books." The character of the perfect human being would be about as follows: Intellectual character , needed for wise thinking: 1. Earnest, not trifling 2. Sincere and open-minded, not diverted by personal interests 3. Discerning, not superficial 4. Alert, not indolent ' 5. Accurate, not indefinite 6. Useful, not merely interesting 7. Inventive and constructive, not lacking initiative 8. Rational and judicious, not over-emotional, hysterical, or melancholy 9. Thoro, not illogical 10. Keen in sense perceptions, not unobserving Working character, needed for doing useful work: 1. Purposeful, not led merely by likes and dislikes 2. Teachable, not stubborn 3. Obedient, not balky 4. Cautious, not heedless 5. Ambitious, not self-satisfied I024 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit 6. Persisting, not vacillating J 7. Industrious and energetic, not lazy and dilatory 1 8. Attentive, not careless 9. Decisive, not procrastinating 10. Progressive, not opposed to change 11. Thrifty, not wasteful 12. Artistic, not slovenly 13. Adaptable, not slow to fit into new surroundings 14. Executive, not haphazard Personal character, needed for doing right by oneself: 1. Thoughtful, not merely impulsive 2. Influenced by high ideals, not content with low standards 3. Conscientious, not lawless 4. Independent, not suggestible 5. Self -controlled, not weak 6. Refined, not coarse 7. Self-respecting, not dissipated Social character, needed for doing right by others: 1. Genuine, not affected 2. Honest, not thieving nor disposed to cheat 3. Truthful, not given to lying and deceiving 4. Honorable, not sneaking 5. Just, not unfair 6. Harmonious, not wrangling 7. Forgiving, not vindictive 8. Disposed to trust others, not suspicious 9. Sociable, not exclusive nor snobbish 10. Loyal, not treacherous 11. Pure, not lewd 12. Courteous, not rude 13. Tactful, not brusque nor priggish 14. Generous and sportsmanlike, not stingy nor jealous 15. Public-spirited and patriotic, not selfish 16. Respectful, not impudent nor flippant Emotional character, needed for the joy of living: 1. Courageous, not timid 2. Capable of true love, not cold-hearted 3. Kindly, not cruel nor hateful 4. Sympathetic, not self-centered 5. Congenial, not repulsive 6. Responsive to the beautiful, not indifferent 7. Alive to truth, not uninterested 8. Devoted to righteousness, not inclined to evil 9. Humble, not conceited 10. Patient, not irritable 11. Tolerant and with a sense of humor, not angry over differences of opinion 12. Hopeful, not pessimistic 13. Reverent, not irreligious Physical character, needed as a basis for human life: 1. Well-developed body, not poorly nourished 2. High resistance to disease, not susceptible 3. Vital, not sluggish Superintendence] HOW NOT TO TRAIN RURAL TEACHERS 1025 4. Ready muscular control, not bungling 5. Endurance, not quickly tired 6. Strength, without disabilities 7. Grace of figure and carriage, not frumpy 8. Expressive face, not stolid 9. Strong, musical voice, not choked nor rasping The "Morality Books" with some such index as this are to contain the convictions of the intelligent general public as to what is right in daily conduct for the child. These moral ideas which are the fruits of general experience should be inculcated by some effective method in schools and homes. No reference to methods or principles of moral instruction and training is to be made in the morality codes. Moral truth, the wisdom of human experience, should shine thru the code expressions. The words used should appeal to the minds of children and youth, and be useful as a basis for talks by teachers and parents, and for quotation in school and home discipline. The code writers should strive for completeness, definiteness, and prac- ticability of moral ideas in their application to childhood and youth, and for clearness, simplicity, and appeal in literary expression. The code receiv- ing the award must be easy to understand, sound and fundamental in its interpretation of intelligent opinion regarding morality, and well written. Let me plead for interest in this nation-wide study and formulation of intelligent public opinion in matters of morality. I take it that there is general agreement that the major purpose of education is to guide and stimulate each child to achieve the most perfect development of its personal- ity. Intellectual education, vocational education, physical education, represent only important divisions of a complete education. The personal, social, and emotional life of a child also needs guidance in its development. There is a character education which each child needs. In addition to the information which schools give, they should also educate the child into the character power to live. ROUND TABLES ROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS HOW NOT TO TRAIN RURAL TEACHERS EDWARD HYATT, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SACRAMENTO, CAL. I feel some diffidence at expressing my notions on preparing rural teachers before people representing so widespread and vast a continent as this. I only know our own conditions, and we are only one phase of the problem, a faraway phase, hanging on the extreme western fringe of the nation. You will understand that I am only undertaking to speak according to my own lights, and that these may not serve very far from home; may be entirely unusitable for other regions in this great commonwealth. I026 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit In our part of the country, the great agency for producing rural teachers is the state normal school. We have at present eight splendid normal schools scattered all the way up and down the state. Every one is located in a city— one at San Francisco, one at Los Angeles, one at San Diego, one at San Jose, and so on. A normal school is an asset for a city— and only a city has enough momentum to grab it from a legislature. Now these excellent normal schools are fully open to all the young people of the state who qualify. Theoretically, the rural people have the same rights there as others, and theoretically they prepare teachers for the rural schools in the same way as for the city schools. But practically and in fact, what happens ? What is so natural, so easy, and so cheap as for the swarms of city girls who graduate from the city high schools to enter at once a normal school right at home ? They are not ready to marry, they want a little more schooling, they would like a job that pays real money — so why not ? It is actually easier and cheaper for them to take the normal course than to do anything else — easier and cheaper than to stay at home. Consequently, they do take it, in larger and larger numbers, not consciously choosing the teacher's profession, but drifting into it. How different the situation of the young people in the remote and inaccessible rural regions. When they graduate from their local schools, it is well-nigh impossible for them to go to normal school. They cannot go in any such way, with any such ease, such lack of additional expenditure, as the city girls do. They must tear up their old associations, they must buy new clothes, must have money for transportation, must leave the home nest, must have cash in hand for every little act of life. They cannot do it. They have not the money. They cannot leave their homes. Only the occasional one, the one with the fixed ambition to be a teacher, can overcome the inertia necessary to break away and go to the city in order to enter the normal school. Consequently, the great body of normal graduates are girls who are raised in the cities where the normal schools are located. The great body of normal graduates go out to teach first in the rural schools. In two years' time, if they are good, they may secure employment in the city. The final result, the result in the large way, the naturally to-be-expected result is that the rural schools are taught by a body of young women who have never been in the country before, who scream at a cow, who take a fit at a horse, who cannot get up for breakfast, who cannot sleep for lonesomeness because everything is so still. These are good, honest, well-meaning girls, doing the best they can, remember. But what can they do for rural children? What influences do they exert toward making them happy in their rural environment, toward teaching them to appreciate and enjoy rural pleasures, toward inducing them to stay on the farm ? These teachers cannot do it. They are not built that way. It is as impossible as for the Ethiop to change his skin. Their lives have been spent in the city. Their friends and pleasures are all there. There is the heaven to which they will return as soon as they can finish their two years of purgatory. "Out of the fulness of the heart the mouth speaketh." In what direction, think you, will be the whole trend of such a teacher's unconscious influence upon the children with whom she associates for a year or two ? Where, to them, will lie the great things, the attractive things, the desirable things of life ? Where will they really desire to go as soon as they can ? What will they dream about ? Where will they expect to seek their fortunes ? Even the ambitious country-bred teacher, who does break thru difficulty, overcome inertia, and go away to a normal school or college for a period of years, has his heart and head full of the city. Naturally so. His own adventures and successes have been there, and he looks forward there to his future successes and adventures. Ergo — I should say, that one of the ways certainly not to train rural teachers is by the agency of a normal school located in and dominated by a city. Superintendence] HOW NOT TO TRAIN RURAL TEACHERS 1027 I often hear the consolidated school, the centralized school, urged as the great panacea for the ills of the rural children. Indeed, I have often urged it myself. It is a fascinating and inspiring idea — a strong populous school, with an enterprising, ambitious man for principal. What possibilities it would have! How it could organize, how inspire the young people! How it could have debating teams, literary societies, sports, athletics, student government, contests, clubs! How it could become the center of the civic life, and fill the community with wholesome enthusiasm! The picture is so attractive and so feasible that I have sometimes almost, but not quite, resigned my job, in order to work it out myself in some fortunate neighborhood! But let us hold our horses long enough to inquire as to the real influence of the cen- tralized school upon the rural children, its power to create rural ideals, to build rural in- clinations, rural tendencies. However it may be otherwhere, in our country it somehow nearly always happens that the centralized school is located in the largest town in the neighborhood. The children are transported, yes, from the country to the town! and their minds are trans- ported no less than their bodies! Their most impressionable years are spent away from the country, in absorbing the things that will fit them for life in the city, and that will probably unfit them for happiness, content, and success in the country. The very best teachers now alive — those that get credit and renown, and money, and advancement — are those who can most skilfully and efl&ciently inspire their pupils and point them toward and train them for the great things of life — in the city! Really, they cannot do anything else. That is what they are trained for, that is their tradition, that is what they know, that is what is expected of them, that is what they are paid to do. Very many wise and earnest men and women — the greatest and most famous of our time — are now thinking and talking and writing about improving the conditions of rural life. They see it as a vital necessity for the future power and prosperity of the nation. They see that the people who possess the land and till it are really those upon whom our country must depend, and that it is placing the nation in jeopardy to let the land pass into the hands of indigestible aliens or ignorant, brutalized peasants. They see it as a necessity for our future to have our land owned and worked by solid, happy, intelligent American citizens, and not at all by absentee landlords and their serfs. They perceive danger to our institutions when the newly arrived Japanese or Italian is so efficient, so adapted to conditions, that he can drive the American off the farm and take possession of the soil. These wise ones are pretty unanimous in loading a redirecting of rural thought and rural life upon that patient and suffering camel, the public school. They frankly confess their inability to teach new tricks to old dogs, and ask the schools to raise an altogether new breed of pups. But to do so we must evolve a new breed of schools and a new breed of teachers to put into those schools. It is not merely a matter of education; it is a mat- ter of thinking, of feeling, of hoping, of believing. We cannot check the exodus from the country by something superficially applied from the outside. There must be something born in the children, some change in the atmosphere they breathe, some alteration of their ambitions and aspirations. As it is, nearly everybody wants to go to the city — really hopes and desires to go, sometime. The lonesome housewife doomed to drudgery; the mother, who sees the druggist's chil- dren and the doctor's offspring better off than hers; the farmer, working long hours, without the good clothes and smug appearance of the banker and lawyer; the girl dream- ing of the fairy prince; the boy tired of the everlasting chores — they all want and hope and desire to go to the city — and sooner or later they go. For that matter, you went, didn't you ? So did I. But we do not want the others to go. Giving the rural people greater profits, greater prosperity, will not do. Isn't it the prosperous farmers who are the greatest sinners ? Do they not lease their fine farms to I028 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit immigrants, and buy a place in town, so that their children may have "advantages," so they will not have to work so hard ? The results of the exodus are not only bad in a large way for the farming country, but also in a large way for the people who move. On the farm, children are an asset; in the city, a liability. The poor man who leaves the farm dooms his family, present and prospective, to extinction. The expense of keeping it, the difficulty of securing plenty of wholesome food, abundance of wholesome air, exercise, and good growing conditions for it will sooner or later wipe it out. The rich man who leaves the farm for greater "disadvantages" in town is not much better. His children have no spur toward effort. They fritter themselves away on society, dissipation, sport, and what not. They, too, scatter and disappear from the earth in a generation or two. The city is always an extinguisher of the family in every way. Now if the sovereign people of this nation, with patriotic vision of the future, really propose to change these conditions, to turn the cityward tide, and if they really propose to lay the responsibility of effecting the change upon us school people, we undertake a very vital and serious task — the task of making over a nation, of changing the heart of a people, of making them appreciate and love and desire the things they do not, of giving them hopes and pleasures and aspirations that now they have not. The teachers who can do this are not yet bred; and to return to my text, the way not to prepare them is any of the ways in which we have been preparing teachers. We have been preparing them in exactly the opposite direction — to encourage, and stimulate, and spur on the procession to the city, not to stem or check or turn it! The rural-mindedness so necessary to rural life cannot be produced in our old way, by a course. We must devise some new agency to do it with — automobiles, or aeroplanes, or high powers, or submarines, or something! Isn't that the way of the rest of the world ? RURAL SUPERVISION IN THE MOUNTAINS OF THE SOUTH JENNIE BURKES, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF CLAIBORNE COUNTY, CUMBERLAND GAP, TENN. When the subject of rural supervision in the mountain sections of the South was chosen, it was my plan to tell true stories of actual experiences as told or written to me by various county superintendents and supervisors whose everyday work is confined to the rural schools in the mountains. But I soon found that this story-telling would take too much time and that I could not enter fully into the spirit of another's story. "For the truth which another has won from nature or from life is not our truth until we have lived it. Only that becomes real or helpful to any man which has cost the sweat of his brow, the effort of his brain, or the anguish of his soul." This, then, is my apology for confining my subject to the narrow horizon of my own experience as superintendent of schools in the mountains of Tennessee. Perhaps the highest type of supervision for the rural schools in the mountains is expected to come directly from the county superintendent. But his duties are so numer- ous that efficient supervision along any specific line becomes a physical impossibility. If a supervisor is a person who changes a teacher from what he is to what he ought to be, we are willing to admit that much time and money have been wasted in the South on account of the lack of such ideal supervision. However, investigation shows that wherever supervisors have been employed their supervision has generally tended toward the upbuilding of our schools. It has also been found that a successful supervisor or superintendent in the mountains should be a rural-school specialist and a professional educator. He must have an exceptional degree of enthusiasm, a passion for service, the courage of the uninitiated, and the nerve of an ex-president. Claiborne County lies in the Cumberland Mountains of eastern Tennessee. It is a typical mountain country so far as ruggedness, bad roads, and low property assessment Superintendence] RURAL SUPERVISION IN THE SOUTH IO29 are concerned. Three years ago, when I became superintendent of the Claiborne County schools, I found myself confronted with every problem known to education. Our school fund was small on account of our very low assessment; our school term was only three and one-half months; our teachers were poorly paid, and likewise poorly qualified; our buildings unspeakable, our equipment nothing. Undoubtedly our most valuable asset was a county board of education, consisting of five people who had little schooling but an abundance of common-sense, rugged honesty, wholesome spirit, and a willingness to do something for the betterment of our schools. We learned that every board of education should have a clearly defined, definitely planned school policy, so our slogan for the first year became "Better schools and a longer school term." After a series of educational campaigns conducted in every district of the county, the court met and raised our public-school levy from thirty-five to sixty cents, which in turn lengthened our school term from three and one-half months to five months, and permitted better salaries for our teachers. Before our schools opened, the teachers were assembled in a county institute for three weeks, where they were given special training in the public-school subjects and a little psychology. With the courage which only the inexperienced know, we took our schools out of politics, abandoned recklessly old customs of doing things, and established a new order of administration. The last straw was when the board employed a rural supervisor of schools. The people considered this action a piece of unheard-of extravagance and ques- tioned its legality. The court at its next session took up the matter and voted against the employment of a supervisor, by a majority of seventeen to five. When this honorable body were told that they had absolutely nothing to do with the hiring of a superxdsor, they settled back with this question: "What will she do next?" The answer came a few weeks later when the county, state, and federal governments, under the Smith-Lever bill, employed a county agricultural agent to help the farmers in their work. We hope that these agricultural object-lessons will speedily bring about an economic revolution, because it is an economic problem, fundamentally, that our mountain people have to face. The indifference of the country people toward the schools, and the unsightly school buildings and grounds, compelled us to adopt for our slogan the second year: "A school improvement association for every school." Appropriations from the county and state made it possible to have a very much better institute for our teachers the second year. For four weeks some of the best edu- cators of the state gave courses, including practical psychology, public-school music, primary methods, story-telling, games and plays, agriculture, home economics, and special lectures on history, English, and sanitation. At the close of this institute, the teachers unanimously adopted the following list of specifications for standardization (in the order of adoption) : 1. School graded. 2. Library and bookcase. 3. House painted; roof, doors, windows, and locks repaired. 4. School flag. 5. Drinking-fountain or water-cooler with individual drinking-cups. 6. Timepiece (clock preferred). 7. Globe, maps, good blackboard, erasers, and waste-basket. 8. Brooms, duster, and sprinkler, or oiled floors. 9. Cloakrooms or racks for hats and caps. 10. Flowers in yard, on table, or in window. 11. Neat school grounds. 12. Sanitary outhouses. 13. First-aid remedies. 14. Inventory showing everything received and added during the year. 15. Two pictures, well-framed, and an additional picture each year. 16 Call bell for class use. I030 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit 17. Proper seating. 18. Proper ventilation. ig. Proper heating (stove jacketed). 20. School improvement club. 21. Activity of teacher in church and Sunday school. 22. Attendance at teachers' meetings. 23. Daily schedule posted (including daily study and recitation penods). 24. Taking and reading at least one educational journal. 25. Minimum of at 1-east three public gatherings in school. 26. Visiting every home, or stating reason for failure. 27. No use of tobacco nor alcohoUcs by teacher or pupils. 28. Personal supervision of pupils at play. 29. Neat personal appearance of teacher. 30. Orderly assembUng and dismissing of pupils. 31. Reading of Bible at opening exercises. 32. Neatly kept register, with daily roll-call. 33. Domestic arts in home or school; two exhibits by at least one-half of the girls. 34. Manual training in home or school; exhibit at close of school, by at least one- half of the boys. 35. School exhibit at county fair. 36. Subscription to at least one daily newspaper. Every school that complies with 75 per cent of the items of standardization will be classed a standard school; those that comply with 85 per cent of the items will be classed as superior schools. This was a very progressive and courageous step on the part of the teachers, when we consider that the best-equipped school in the county at that time could not measure up to half-standard. Every school made an effort toward standardization, and, thru the earnest work of teachers, patrons, and pupils, at the close of the school year, there were 29 superior schools and 52 standard schools, out of 102 schools in the county. We know that our schools have not fulfilled their whole mission until they reflect the everyday life and activities of the country people, so our slogan for the past year became "Better education for all." Thru the volunteer service of some of our teachers, a number of moonlight schools were organized, and nearly one hundred adult illiterates were taught to read and write, while scores of men and women extended their education in subjects of their choice. In the mountain sections, the one-teacher school is at present a necessity. As our roads become improved and our people acquire a more comprehensive idea of the true meaning of education, we may hope for consolidation in a small way, but the one-teacher school, like the poor, I fear, will always be with us. Yet, in spite of existing conditions, the board has abandoned by elimination or consolidation twelve small schools. We beheved that in our valleys consolidation was possible, roads or no roads, if the people really wanted it. We argued that if good roads will bring consolidation of schools, why won't consolidated schools bring good roads ? The state and county each appropriated $1,000 to foster the idea of consolidation, and this $2,000 was offered to the community that would raise the largest amount toward the construction of a model consolidated school building. Today there stands in Powell's Valley, on seven acres of land, a beautiful brick building where the children from three one-teacher schools and one two-teacher school are enjoying advantages they never knew before. At its very next session, the county court issued pike-road bonds to the amount of $377,000, so that good roads might go hand in hand with good schools in Claiborne Coimty! This year our increased assessment will give us at least a six months' school term. Our teachers' salaries have been raised, so that we shall not hold a county institute but require our teachers to attend a state normal school or the summer school of the South. Another county agent has been employed under the Smith-Lever bill to organize girls' canning clubs, and to do extension work in home economics. With all the forces I have Superintendence] STATUS AND NEED OF RURAL SUPERVISION IO31 mentioned hammering away on the same problems, we believe we have achieved a foot- hold in the wall of true education by which we may climb to better and higher standards. There are many counties in Tennessee and the South that have accomplished more than we have, but I know of none whose teaching force is so loyal in service, so willing to work, and so sweet about it. By this time I hope I have proved that the rural teacher is the school. Of course, visits from supervising teachers and the superintendent may inspire the efficient teacher and may help the inefficient teacher in her work, but if these visits are not frequent, the supervision does very little good. Any supervision, however, is better than no supervi- sion, for even that will help to keep the superintendent in closer touch with the schools than if there were none. Much will be done for education when our teachers can be brought to realize that the greatest problem we have is how to make our schools affect the community life. And how to do it is a question that can be settled only by the indi- vidual teacher working for the greatest good of her own community. Thus the problem of rural supervision in the mountains lies largely with the teachers who must, in isolated communities, become the leaders of public opinion. THE STATUS AND NEED OF RURAL SUPERVISION A. C. MONAHAN, SPECIALIST, THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C. A discussion of this subject is practically a discussion of the status of the rural-school superintendents, county or district, as we seem to understand by the term "supervision" everything included in the work of the superintendent. Our conception of what consti- tutes supervision is constantly changing. At first it was the management of the business side of the school system, later it became management of the business side plus the direc- tion of the educational work of the school and the methods of teaching, and now in many cases it is the direction of the educational work only. This is indicated by two expressions in very common use thruout the coimtry, "units of organization for administration," and "units of organization for supervision." In our city systems the two units are iden- tical. The unit is the territory under the management of a single board and also under the supervision of a single superintendent; but in rural districts the two units are identical only in the "county unit" states. In the superintendency unions of New England, each a unit of supervision, the management rests with as many separate boards as there are towns in the union; in the New York supervisory district, with as many separate boards as there are school districts in the supervisory district. In the 40 states employing coimty superintendents, in which the unit of supervision is therefore the county, the unit of organization for management and support in 4 is the township and in 22 the old local school district. Let me outline briefly the various systems of rural supervision in the United States: In New England, the city or town includes everything within the township lines, all under the management of one board and under the charge of one superintendent. A large number of the city superintendents of New England therefore have charge of rural territory as well as urban territory, and rural schools as well as urban schools. In the more sparsely settled sections, two or more townships are joined together to form a "union superintendency." In management each township is independent. The super- intendent divides his time among his townships in proportion to the number of schools or teachers in each. In Vermont the superintendents are all appointed by the state board of education and paid by the state. The state board determines the boundaries of the districts, following township lines but disregarding county lines. The average district contains from 100 to 120 square miles. The Massachusetts supervisory districts contain from 2 to 4 townships, with from 20 to 40 teachers. The townships retain control of the 10^2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit management, engage a superintendent certified and approved by the state department of education, and receive from the state a fund equal to one-half of the superintendent's salary. This plan has been in operation for 28 years. Supervision of schools in the small towns of Connecticut dates from 1Q03, in which year the legislature passed an act pro- viding that towns with less than 10 teachers might petition the state board of education for the appointment of a superintendent. The state board appointed the supervisor; the town fixed his salary, paying one-fourth of it, the state paying three-fourths. In 1907 the law was amended so that towns with as many as 20 teachers might ask for a supervisor, provision being made for the payment of the entire salary by the state. As a result there are now 93 towns in the state, in 32 supervisory districts, under 32 supervisors appointed and paid by the state, and an average of 30 teachers to each supervisor. The average New England superintendent of a union district has 17 schools, 34 teachers, and 52 square miles of territory. Very few assistant superintendents are em- ployed, as they are unnecessary in such small supervisory districts. Little allowance is made for traveling expenses, as but little is needed; however, very well-trained men, a great majority (83 per cent) being college graduates with successful teaching experience, are employed. The results of this close supervision of rural schools in New England are identical with those obtained in Connecticut, as summarized by C. D. Hine, secretary of the State Board of Education, as follows: 1. Better attendance. 2. Decreased number of one-room schools thru consolidation. 3. Increased number of trained teachers employed. 4. Increase in the proportion of pupils graduating from the elementary schools and entering the high schools. 5. Increased regularity and punctuality of children. 6. Marked improvement in buildings. 7. Unmistakable evidence of greater interest in schools on the part of school ofl&cers and parents. A study of the records of the small towns now having school supervision shows the following interesting changes since 1903-4: 1. Proportion of registered pupils attending school every day has risen from 77 per cent to 82. 7 per cent. 2. The number of one-room schools in these towns has decreased from 537 to 481, or 10 per cent. 3. The number of normal graduates employed as teachers in these towns has increased from 211 to 382 — an increase of 55 per cent. 4. The number of pupils attending high schools from these towns has increased from 1,131 to 2,004, or 77 per cent. Perhaps one of the most significant results of supervision has been the elimination of waste effort and lost time in the schoolroom. The gain in efficiency by these economies is making possible the more rapid advancement of pupils. Already a reduction of the elementary-school course from the traditional nine years to eight has been effected in schools under state supervision. The gain thru economy of time and better organization of work will eventually mean the completion in the early years of the course of the neces- sary training in fundamental operations with numbers and in the mechanics of reading and penmanship. One or two years in the latter part of the course may be then devoted to practical studies directly helpful to pupils soon to leave school for work. The New York system is similar to the New England system in many ways, the supervisory district corresponding closely to the New England supervisory district in size and formation. It is a development, however, from the county rather than from the township. The old county superintendents of New York were replaced January i, 191 2, by district superintendents, each county — with four exceptions — being divided into from 2 to 8 supervisory districts. There are approximately 207 supervisory districts in the state, and there are 57 counties, making an average of 4 to a county. The district bound- aries coincide with the township boundaries: so the New York districts, like the New England districts, may be said to be made up of a union of townships. The superin- I Superintendence] STATUS AND NEED OF RURAL SUPERVISION 1033 tendents are selected by boards representing the townships in each supervisory district. The average number of schools to each county superintendent is 52, the number of teach- ers 82, the number of square miles of territory 254. The superintendents, like those in New England in the union supervisory districts, are approved by the state department of education and are practically all college-trained men, approximately 68 per cent having two or more years' college work. The powers and duties conferred upon them are practically the same as those conferred upon the city superintendents in the states in which they are working. In all the other states of the Union, with two exceptions, the supervision of rural schools is in the hands of county superintendents with or without assistants. These two exceptions are Virginia and Nevada. In Virginia the superintendent is a "division superintendent," the division in most cases, as far as rural schools are concerned, being a county; in several cases it is two counties. In Nevada the supervision is under five deputy state superintendents of public instruction. Arkansas might be cited as another exception, for Arkansas as yet employs county superintendents in but one-fourth of the counties of the state. In the other counties there is no supervision. In three States — Maryland, Florida, and Louisiana — the county superintendents have under their supervision all cities in the counties, as well as the rural territory; in the other states, cities are set apart under their own supervisory ofi&cers. In at least 30 of the 40 states having county superintendents, assistant county superintendents under one title or another are employed, the number varying from that of a certain state with nearly 100 counties, one of which only employs an assistant, to that of Ohio, with 88 county superintendents and approximately 540 district superintendents. This plan is new in Ohio, being the result of the school laws passed by the legislature in January, 19 14, and it is too early to know definitely what its results will be; however, it is very similar to the West Virginia plan, which has been 'in operation long enough to prove that it is very satisfactory. The boards of education of the West Virginia magisterial districts, civil districts corresponding to the eastern townships, employ district superintendents, or two adjacent districts may unite in employing a single superintendent. He is legally an assistant to the county superintendent. All districts have not employed such super- visors, but there are 82 altogether, enough so that one- third of the rural teachers in the state are in supervised districts. Kentucky is trying a plan somewhat similar; it has approximately 200 rural supervisors or "supervising principals," each confining his work to one of the "educational divisions" of a county. Oregon's plan is also similar. By legislative enactment of 191 1, counties with more than 60 teachers were divided into supervisory districts, each district containing approximately 60 teachers, and a supervisor appointed for the district is made responsible directly to the county superintendent for all of his work. The 1915 legislature made the plan optional instead of mandatory, to be continued, however, until voted out by the school directors of the county. These are all instances of plans where each supervisor has a definite portion of the county to which his work is confined. Other states have passed mandatory or permissive laws for assistant county superintendents working thruout the entire county from the county superintendent's ofiice. Pennsylvania, for instance, requires every county with 200 rural teachers to employ at least one assistant, with 400 teachers at least two, etc. Wisconsin has a supervising teacher in each county. Illinois allows the county commis- sioners to employ assistants when they desire to do so; in Cook County they employ five. In states with the county unit, the county boards of education, as a rule, may employ as many assistants as they wish; the county boards of Maryland, for instance, have the same privilege in employing assistants to the county superintendent that the city board of Baltimore has in employing assistants to the city superintendent. In one county with 600 teachers the board employs nine assistants. In the county-unit states, probably 500 rural-school supervisors or assistant superintendents are employed. I034 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit This all sounds as if in the 40 states with county supervision there are but few county- superintendents without assisting supervisors; as a matter of fact, the number with such supervisors is very small in comparison to the total. In the approximately 2,830 counties in the 40 states, approximately 18 per cent employ assistants. In 10 states none are employed; in 5, assistants are employed in 10 per cent or less than 10 per cent of the counties. Clerical assistance, in many cases only part-time, is furnished to 29 per cent of the superintendents. It is noteworthy that the majority of assistants are employed in 'county-unit states and relatively few or none in the district-unit states. The ID states in which none are employed are all in the group organized for management on the "district" plan. The efficiency of the supervision of the county superintendents who are working without assistants (82 per cent of the total) depends upon many things: the size of the territory under their supervision, the conditions of travel, the number of schools, teachers, pupils, etc., the organization for the administration of the school affairs, the legal powers and duties conferred upon them, their education, training, and experience, the length of the term of office for which they are elected or selected, and the method of election or selection. We are making in the bureau, at the present time, a study of county supervision, and have definite data to indicate the difficulties of the county superintendent's job, if the county superintendent makes a real attempt to supervise by visiting his schools. The average territory of the county superintendent in the United States is 1,500 square miles. In 13 states, practically all eastern states, the average for each state is less than 600 square miles; in 13 others, it is between 600 and 1,000; in 3, it is over 5,000. (The area of the state of Rhode Island is approximately 1,248 square miles.) The rural- school term in the majority of these states is so short (five to eight months) and the roads so bad that the county superintendent cannot make many visits in a year; the average coimty superintendent spends 36 per cent of his time visiting. In about one-half of the states, the prevailing number of visits is one per year, in almost all of the others two per year, the visits being from one-half to two hours in length. He has 84 school buildings, 77 per cent of which are one-teacher buildings, and 132 teachers. In one state, the average is 217 buildings, 354 teachers; in four other states, the average number of teachers per county is over 200. For travehng, the county superintendents are allowed traveling expenses in prac- tically aU states, the amount, however, varying from almost nothing to about $800. In practically all states certain allowance is made for office expenses, including salaries of assistants and traveling expenses. The salaries paid the county superintendents vary in different states, from $3,000 paid in New Jersey to each county superintendent to an average of $720 paid in Wyoming. There are four states in which the average salary is less than $1,000 per year and there are three states in which the average is more than $2,000 per year. The average of the 40 state averages is $1 ,388. This sounds much better than it ought, for minimum salaries paid in individual cases are very low. Ten county superintendents in the United States receive less than $300 per year; 24, more than $300 but less than $500; and 64 receive more than $500 but less than $700. The legal powers and duties conferred upon the county superintendents vary very greatly. In some states they are very limited, being little more than what the county superintendent can coax the school directors to allow him to do; in other states they are very great. For instance, the county superintendent in Washington has the supervision of the work of common schools of his county, enforces the use of the course of study, enforces the rules and regulations required in the examination of teachers, and conducts the examinations, holds teachers' institutes and county meetings of school directors, suspends teachers for neglect of duty, enforces the compulsory education law, may require reports of school directors and teachers, and the plans for new school buildings must be approved by him before the building may be erected. In practice, he controls the estimate Superintendence] STATUS AND NEED OF RURAL SUPERVISION 1035 of expenses in each district and has much influence in the selection of teachers. He also selects the county board of education, a professional board consisting of himself and four others, which is authorized to grade the eighth-grade examinations, to adopt textbooks for the entire county, to prepare teachers' manuals, courses of study, rules and regulations for governing circulating libraries, and to adopt such rules and regulations concerning the schools of the county as are not inconsistent with the state laws or the regulations of the state board of education. Very much, of course, depends upon this superintendent's general education, training, and experience in school affairs. From our special inquiry relative to the schooling of the county superintendents, we find that 6 per cent have attended elementary schools only, 3 per cent have had one year of secondary school, 3 per cent two years of secondary school, 4 per cent three years of secondary school, 20 per cent four years of secondary- school work; 17 per cent have had one year or less than one year of higher education, 17 per cent have had two years, 6 per cent have had three years, and 22 per cent have had four years. In making this average, if we omit the coimty superintendents of Ohio, who are practically all college graduates, and Pennsylvania and Indiana, which have a large number of college graduates, the percentages of those with secondary education or less are much greater than just given and represent more nearly the average condition. It is interesting to make a comparison of the general education of the county super- intendents for the states where these officers are appointed as against the states in which they are elected. We divided the 40 states with county superintendents into three groups; the first, of which there are 13, being the states in which the superintendents are appointed; the second, of which there are 10, being the states in which the superin- tendents are elected by popular vote for four-year terms; the third, of which there are 17, the states in which the superintendents are elected by popular vote for two-year terms. In the first group, 2.5 per cent have attended elementary schools only In the second group, 8.4 per cent have attended elementary schools only In the third group, 6.6 per cent have attended elementary schools only In the first group, 5.5 per cent have had more than an elementary and less than a complete high-school course In the second group, 18 per cent have had more than an elementary and less than a complete high-school course In the third group, 10 per cent have had more than an elementary and less than a complete high-school course In the first group, 1 2 per cent have had the equivalent of a full high-school course In the second group, 19 per cent have had the equivalent of a full high-school course In the third group, 25 per cent have had the equivalent of a full high-school course In the first group, 37 per cent have had college work of from less than on€ year up to three full years, and 43 per cent are graduates; in the second group, 39 per cent have had college work of from less than one year up to three full years, and 12 per cent are graduates; in the third group 41 per cent have had college work of from less than one year up to three years, and 17 per cent are graduates. If we compare the two groups, one including the 13 states in which the superintendents are appointed, the other the 27 states in which the superintendents are elected, we find the following: Amount of Schooling First Group Second Group 2.5 per cent 5-5 per cent 12.0 per cent 37.0 per cent 20 per cent •80 per cent 7.2 per cent From one to three years secondary Full four years secondary 14.0 per cent 44.2 -j- per cent 23.0 per cent From one to three years higher . . 40.0 per centl ^ 15.0 per cent/^^ ^ ^" ^'^"'' This seems to prove that for coimty superintendents a greater number of men and women who have received more general education and training are appointed by county 1036 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit boards than by popular election. It appears also that those appointed have had more teaching experience previous to selection than elected officers: the average for those appointed being 9.3 years, for those elected 8.9 years. This is an argument in favor of the appointed county superintendent. Another argument might be found in the figures showing the total number of the superintendents of the two groups who have been re- appointed or re-elected. Among the appointed superintendents, 36 per cent are serving their first terms; 29 per cent their second terms; 35 per cent their third or more than third terms. Among the elected superintendents, 63 per cent are serving their first terms; 26 per cent their second terms; and 11 per cent their third terms. The records of some of the states are interesting. One state has as high as 70 per cent of county superinten- dents who are serving their first terms; this, of course, is a state where the county super- intendents are elected by popular vote. A study of the number of superintendents who have been in ofiice more than eight years brings out the fact that most of these are in the group of appointed superintendents and very few in states where they are elected by popular vote. This may or may not be an argument for appointed superintendents. It is a little off my subject to discuss the relative merits of the appointed versus the elected county superintendent. The status of this question is that in 21 states the rural superintendents are appointed, and in 27 they are elected. Of the former 21 states, 17 are east of the Mississippi River. Alabama has passed the necessary legislation, and by the addition of this state the number of states appointing their superintendents will become 22 at the expiration of the terms of her present officers. We have found other interesting facts in our study of county supervision. There are 547 women county superintendents, or 19.4 per cent of the total number. Our figures seem to show that the women superintendents as a class have had better general education and more professional training than the men; that they devote a larger percentage of their time to visiting schools; that the prevailing number of visits to each school is greater and the length of time spent with each teacher is longer. The women county superinten- dents, it would seem, have fewer things outside of the regular work to engage their time . ROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH A POPULATION OF OVER 250,000 A FIRST STEP IN ESTABLISHING THE SIX-THREE-THREE ORGANIZATION HERBERT S. WEET, SUPERINTENDENT OE SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER, N, Y. Last September the city of Rochester opened its first school under the six-three-three plan. This plan was chosen primarily because school authorities believed that it presented possibilities of meeting the needs of the seventh- and eighth-grade boys and girls to a far greater extent than we have been able to meet them heretofore. No one today denies the value of manual training for boys and household arts work for girls, at least in the seventh and eighth grades. There are many, however, who argue, and we believe argue soundly, that there is doubtful value in much of this work as it is usually given in the regular grammar school. In the first place, the time is insufficient. This objection is raised even more by parents than by school men. But by far the more serious objection is to the nature of the work itself. For boys it is usually general and disciplinary, is limited to simple forms of woodwork only, and lacks the purpose and motivation necessary to awaken either cultural or vocational interest. If the time element were the only one involved, it would be possible to lengthen the grammar-school days, but the expense incurred in any attempt to offer, in connection with each grammar school, the range and kind of manual-training facilities needed for these boys is absolutely prohibitive. This expense is not only for original equipment, but it is for the necessarily high per capita Superintendence] THE SIX-THREE-THREE ORGANIZATION 1037 cost of instruction, considering the comparatively small number of boys found in even our largest grammar schools. Furthermore, few people doubt today that the boys and girls who are to study a foreign language ought to begin this study before the usual high-school period. Is it a fair proposition to say that at the eighth year the boy who has an interest in and an ability for language should have the opportunity of spending more of his time on this subject, while the boy who has an interest in and an ability for the industrial arts should have the opportunity of spending in this department the additional time that the former pupil spends on a foreign language ? We believed that such an arrangement should be possible. But the limited numbers involved in even the largest grammar school in Rochester made this limited difference impracticable. Any attempt at it would at the best be but a makeshift. The fact is that in the last analysis the junior-high-school problem is essen- tially one of numbers. Of course the value of what has been said thus far rests upon the assumption that there are needs among these seventh- and eighth-grade boys and girls that we have not been meeting under the usual grammar-grade organization. To deny this it is necessary to show that those pupils who withdrew from school, at least upon the completion of the eighth-grade work, withdrew largely because of economic pressure in the home. Our evidence is quite to the contrary. Of those who completed the eighth-year work last January under the junior-high-school organization, 94I per cent have remained for the ninth-year work. A year ago, in exactly the same community, but under the grammar- school organization, only 51 per cent remained for ninth-year work. This unmistakably suggests that there were needs among these upper-grade pupils that were not being met, and that the present junior-high-school type of work is meeting these needs. In this attempt, however, to meet more adequately the needs of these upper-grade pupils, there is danger of forcing or encouraging vocational selection at such an early age that it may result in the lifelong injury of the pupil. The average age of the eighth-grade graduates in the city of Rochester is fourteen and one-half years. Certainly any influence that encourages choice of a specific vocation earlier than this cannot be defended by the public school. This is an educational principle upon which there has been much discussion from time to time. This objection to what was regarded as early speciaUzation was the one most urgently used against the extension of regular high-school courses beyond the lines of literary, pure science, and mathematics work. On the other hand, any form of school organization that affords no opportunity for awakening vocational interests and encouraging vocational abilities before the time when vocational selection actually is made would seem to err in the other direction. We be- lieved this to be a pronounced weakness in our former organization. Both parent and pupil were forced to make some sort of selection of decided vocational importance to the pupil at the completion of this eighth-grade work. In this particular community, nearly half of the pupils who remained for the completion of these eight years of work were withdrawing from school. With these the selection was of vital vocational importance and yet chance rather than intelligence was to determine the outcome. The major part" of these eighth- grade graduates who did continue in school, furthermore, were selecting the general or college preparatory courses of the upper high school; a smaller percentage, the trade courses for boys and girls of secondary grade. The distribution of our high-school pupils is suggestive on this point. Of the total number, 66 per cent are in the general or college preparatory courses, 27 per cent in the commercial courses, and 7 per cent in the trade courses. To the extent that the distribution of high-school pupils might be expected to reflect the vocational activities of the community, one would infer that two-thirds of all the working people of Rochester are engaged in professional vocations, while only one- third are carrying on the business and industrial enterprises of the city. Of course no one would expect or desire to find only those taking the college-preparatory courses of the upper high school who anticipate going to college and later eRt^ring uppp professional 1038 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit careers. There are many in this course who are there for purposes of general education and no one will deny that this is a highly defensible purpose for every pupil who has an interest in and the ability to profit by these literary, pure science, and mathematics courses. But how many of those who are actually familiar with our upper high schools would care to defend the proposition that for two-thirds of all our grammar-school graduates the general or college preparatory courses are the most helpful courses which they could possibly take during these four years of the high-school period ? There is ample evidence to any person familiar with the facts that this general education only too often means aimless and ineffective education. And yet this is the traditional high-school course and consequently, in the judgment of so many parents, quite the course to take. By no means infrequently does the parent of a boy who is making a signal failure of his work in this course in high school plead that the boy be allowed to go on, because the general cultural benefits of the high-school atmosphere will be of so much help to him in later life — and this at the time in a boy's life when neither true culture nor real training can come thru any medium that does not bring forth sustained effort on the part of the individual. To the extent then that these two-thirds who are taking general or college preparatory courses represent those who will not gain results commensurate with the time and energy spent, a continuance of the system is resulting in lifelong injury to pupils quite as effectively as is the learning of any particular trade at too early an age, provided the learning of such a trade has been accomplished by hard and conscientious application. But how are these interests and abilities to be determined? It is true that every eighth-grade teacher has watched certain of her graduates go on into the literary, pure science, and mathematics courses of the high school, knowing that they were doomed to failure in these lines. Her coimsels availed little, however, when opposed by the tradi- tional emphasis upon those high-school courses which may lead ultimately into professional life. But even in these cases the teacher has based her judgment more upon what the pupil has failed to do in courses given than upon what he has accomplished in other direc- tions. This is obviously true because the grammar school has no facilities with which to make any adequate test along lines other than those which do lead to the general courses of the upper high school. School authorities in Rochester believed that so long as these broader facilities for evoking the pupils' interest and abilities in the great field of manual arts were not made a reasonably adequate part of their lives before the compulsory education law had been satisfied, the steady withdrawal of such a large percentage of the eighth-grade graduates from this commimity and the traditional selection of the literary high-school courses on the part of so many others who would gain but meager profit from such courses would inevitably continue. The only way to guarantee these facilities was to make them a part of the pupils' school work before the compulsory attendance requirement had released its hold upon the child. The problem then lay in preserving a sensible balance between the one extreme represented by the single- teacher plan of grammar-school organization, and the other extreme of premature specialization. This could be done only by insistence that the courses for seventh- and eighth-grade pupils under the junior-high-school organ- ization should provide so far as possible a range of activities sufficiently broad to bring ' out individual interests and capacities, and that they should be emphatically preparatory and prevocational. The following statement of the work given to these seventh- and eighth-grade pupils under this organization will best show how this attempt has been made. Manual training and household arts. — A minimum of three hours per week is required of every pupil during the first two years. A maximum of twelve hours per week is allowed during the latter half of the first year and during the second year. For the boys there are the following shops, each in charge of a master mechanic: printing, sheet-metal, plumbing, gas-engine, joinery, cabinet-assembly, pattern-making, mill-work, painting, and decorating. For the girls the work includes plain sewing, millinery, dressmaking, Superintendence] THE SI X-TH REE-THREE ORGANIZATION 1039 laundry work, and cookery. Those boys who take the mmimum time for this work during these two years are given the choice of shops, so far as conditions will permit. The same principle holds with those who take the maximum amount, except that no pupil is allowed to spend more than ten weeks in any one of these shops during this period. The aim here is to test special interest and ability, to give some insight into the trade field, and to give such hand training as is consistent with the maturity of the pupil. In so far as this aim is realized, such a pupil, if obliged to leave school at the end of his eighth year, will have received some training for his work that will be comparable in value to the preparation given the boy who is to have the advantages of a full high-school course. If on the other hand he is to continue in school along trade lines, he will be much more able to select intelligently his special trade. English^ incl'uding spelling, writing, grammar, composition, and literature. — ^This work is required of all pupils during the first two years. Those pupils, however, who give the maximum time to the manual training and the household arts after the first half-year, spend less school time on technical grammar and literature than do the other pupils. Such pupils are required, however, to read outside of school hours a certain amount of good literature. The texts for this are assigned by the teacher, who guides and directs the reading, and who at certain intervals discusses with these pupils the significant points in the literature read. It is interesting to note how already these pupils are associating the reading of a good book with the leisure time in the home. Arithmetic. — ^This subject is required of all pupils during the first two years. After the first half-year, those who are taking the maximum time in the manual training and household arts find their application of the principles in connection with this manual work. In like manner those who are interested rather in business or commercial lines find their special application in the different phases of business arithmetic. Drawing. — This is required of all pupils during the first two years. The emphasis is put upon the mechanical or freehand drawing, according to the nature of the other work of the pupil. Geography. — This is required of all pupils during the first year. Commercial geog- raphy is also taken during the entire second year by those who are putting special emphasis upon the business or commercial work. United States history, civics, and current topics. — These are required of all pupils during the first two years. Elementary science and physical education. — ^These are required of all pupils during the first two years. Music. — This is required of all pupils during th6 first half-year; of all except those who are taking the maximum time in the manual training and household arts during the second half-year; and of those pupils only who plan to go on to the upper high school during the second year. Foreign language, Latin, or German. — ^This is allowed at the beginning of the second year for those pupils who plan to enter the language courses of the upper high school. General mathematics. — This course includes arithmetic, concrete geometry, and ele- mentary principles in algebra. It is taken during the second year and is designed to pre- pare more helpfully for the specialized courses of mathematics of the upper high school. The school day begins at 8:30 and closes at 4:15, with one and one-quarter hours for noon intermission. This gives a school day of six and one-half hours, which is an increase of more than 20 per cent over the usual length of the school day in the elementary school. This day is divided into four periods of one hour and thirty minutes each. This length of period has two advantages. In the first place it allows time for definite training in the preparation of lessons. In the second place, it makes possible a less abrupt transition from the single-teacher plan of the elementary grades to the fully departmentalized work of the upper high school, by having subject groups rather than single subjects taught by certain teachers. For example, Latin, English grammar, and composition are taught I040 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit by the same teacher, while English literature, United States history, civics, and current topics are taught by another teacher. A review of the above requirements for the first two years of this junior high school, corresponding to the seventh and eighth grades of the regular grammar school, makes clear the following: 1. That during the first half-year all pupils are required to take the same course. This gives a half-year in which to consult the home and study the entire elementary- school record of each pupil before making any attempt to meet individual needs thru differentiated courses. 2. That during the remainder of the first year a very conservative differentiation is made. This affords a half-year in which to verify the assignment before the sharper differentiation of the second year takes place. 3. That the final choice as to course does not come until the completion of the second year. This is the time when precisely this kind of a choice must be made by the pupil who completes the grammar-grade work. At this time the pupils who have emphasized the manual-training or the household-arts work under the differentiations previously allowed are free to enter the college-preparatory courses of the upper high school if they so desire. They will not have had the foreign-language nor the general mathematics courses of the eighth year, but even so they will be quite as well prepared for this work as are the graduates of the regular grammar schools. This is not an opinion, but a state- ment of fact based upon five years of experience in the Rochester Shop School for Boys. 4. That aside from the foreign language of the second year all subjects are substan- tially those now commonly offered to seventh- and eighth-grade pupils. 5. That no specialized commercial subjects, such as shorthand and bookkeeping, are offered during the first two years. Those pupils who show special interest in the com- mercial work offered are simply given a preparation for later specialized commercial subjects thru a partial application of arithmetic and English, for example, to business practice. This is regarded as most helpful for the pupil whether he goes into the commer- cial courses of the upper high school or into the business ofl&ce upon the completion of the junior high-school work. 6. That no pupil is allowed to center his interest upon any specialized trade during the first two years. The maximum time spent in this line necessitates work in at least six different shops. Such a provision is designed to bring out vocational interest, to give some insight into the trade field, and to give such elementary hand training as is consist- ent with the maturity of the pupil. 7. That all boys during the first two years are receiving their manual training thru the working out of practical problems in various shops. This gives a purpose or a motive to the work which is of value in awakening both vocational and cultural interests. The boys who later are to go on to the language courses of the upper high school are working in the same shops as are the boys who are to go later into the trades. They are simply spending less time in these shops, because they have less need for this work. The same principle holds with the girls in the household-arts work. 8. That in short the whole work of these two years is preparatory and prevocational. The simple attempt is made to provide a range of facilities and a sufficient amount of time to bring out special aptitudes and then to give such development of these aptitudes as is consistent. Thus when the time comes for the pupil to decide upon his high-school course or upon his course in the world he will have received some insight into the vocational sphere, whether professional, business, or industrial, in which he will later find himself. The attempt to avoid premature specialization and yet bring out and develop indi- vidual aptitudes has not been confined to courses of study. It has been applied to the task of selecting and training teachers as well as to the methods of organizing the school. The selection of teachers for such a school is at the same time the most important and the most difficult probleir which presents itself. Assuming that teaching experience Superintendence] THE SIX-THREE-THREE ORGANIZATION 1 04 1 is indispensable, the choice lies between the experienced high-school teachers with college training and the experienced grade teachers, usually without such training. The former will be strong in subject knowledge but not so strong in their knowledge of seventh- and eighth-grade boys and girls. They will furthermore be inclined to regard work in the junior high school as offering less advanced positions, even tho salary conditions are the same. The latter will be less strong in subject knowledge but stronger in their practical knowledge of upper-grade children. They will furthermore regard work in the junior high school as an advancement, and will be conscious of the need of supplementary training. This attitude of mind speaks volumes in favor of the experienced grade teachers. Once it was decided to select experienced grade teachers, the problem of intelligent selection presented itself. Accordingly, one year before the junior high school was to open, a series of Saturday morning institutes was begun. Classes were organized in Latin, German, English, elementary science, and mathematics. These were for applicants for teaching positions in the academic course. Specially trained teachers were available for the commercial and household- and industrial-arts courses, tho Saturday morning institutes were organized and carried on thru the year in these courses also. The major emphasis in these latter was on courses of study. To these courses every experienced grade teacher in the system who met the minimum requirements and who cared to apply was admitted. Every applicant for a position as teacher of mathematics in the junior high school was required to have had, for example, the full mathematics courses of the upper high school. To continue with this subject of mathematics as illustrative of the principle which prevailed in these institutes, three definite things were accomplished. In the first place, an opportunity was given for drawing up in outline a course of study in general mathematics for the eighth grade or second-year junior-high-school pupils of the academic course. It was exceedingly impor- tant that this should be done and that it should be done with great care, since this course was to prepare the pupil for the specialized mathematics courses of the upper high school. Furthermore, no textbook had been written to meet this particular condition. Had we confined ourselves to the arithmetic, or taken the straight high-school course in algebra, the task would have been simple. The institute was in charge of the head of the depart- ment of mathematics in the high school to which the pupils of this particular junior high school would later go. He knew the high-school needs and was naturally in a position to indicate the best line of preparation. In the institute class, on the other hand, were the experienced grade teachers with their knowledge of the capacity and limitations of upper-grade pupils. These seemed to be favorable conditions for working out courses of study. The working-out of such courses, therefore, was one important thing to be done in these institutes. In the second place, these institutes gave to the grade teachers an opportunity for subject-matter review in algebra and geometry. And, lastV, the work of the teachers in these institutes constituted one important factor in the ultimate selec- tion of teachers. What has been said of this course in general mathematics was equally true in principle of each of the other courses. The general organization of the school can be presented with comparative brevity. There are no departmental heads as we know them in the usual high-school organization. At the head of the school stands the principal, a strong, experienced grammar-school man. Associated with him and giving his whole time to the instructional side is a director of junior-high-school academic work. He also is an experienced grammar-school principal of exceptional ability in this particular field. His task is to relate and co-ordinate the academic work of the entire school, regardless of the department in which it is given. This makes for unity and it greatly facilitates the transfer of pupils from one course to another when there is a demonstrated need. One man is in general charge of the shops, one woman has the corresponding place in the household-arts work, and the director of commercial education for the entire system is taking immediate charge of the commercial department. The high-school departmental heads who carried thru the institute work I042 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit of last year are consulting engineers. Their interest has been pronounced and their con- tributions important. In fact, in the main they are coming to the school for a regular period each day, there to teach a class of eighth-grade pupils, while the regular teacher and often the director of academic work are present also to offer their contributions and assistance: such is the desire of these high-school men to know at first hand the powers and limitations of the grade pupil. This ought to contribute much to the solu- tion of another commonly recognized problem, that of securing a closer working relation between the upper grades and the high schools. This is an exceedingly simple type of organization and it will doubtless impress some as being too simple. On the other hand, those who are familiar with the usual depart- mental work of the upper high school, which only too often becomes compartmental, will find at least a partial defense for the plan outlined above. As later junior high schools are organized in Rochester, this director of academic work will extend his field as the unifying force for all, and such additional sub-directors will be assigned as experience proves desirable. In conclusion, Rochester submits the following defense for this junior high school: 1. It has thus far increased by 15 per cent the number of pupils who have remained for eight years of work. This argues well for the reduction of eliminations from the seventh and eighth grades. 2. It has increased from 51 per cent to 94^ per cent the number of pupils who have completed the eight years of work and who are still remaining in school. 3. It has, thus far, produced a much saner distribution of high-school pupils. Whereas the distribution of all our high-school pupils is 66 per cent in the general or college- preparatory courses, 27 per cent in commercial courses, and only 7 per cent in the industrial and household-arts courses, the distribution of ninth-year pupils in the junior high school is 33 per cent in the general or college-preparatory courses, 33 per cent in the commercial courses, and 34 per cent in the industrial- and household-arts courses. We believe this to be a significant change, whether viewed from the standpoint of the distribution of voca- tional activities in the community or from the standpoint of a distribution that will give maximum training benefits to the pupils themselves. No one can say that this one- third in the general or college-preparatory course includes all pupils who might gain the maxi- mum benefit from this course. On the other hiand, no one familiar with the great mortality among first-year pupils in this course under the traditional distribution, and also familiar with the number of those who do remain and who seemingly fail to derive benefits com- mensurate with the time and energy spent in these courses, can be very apprehensive lest general culture will suffer under this changed distribution. It would obviously be unreasonable to draw any conclusions concerning the merits of this school with less than a year of actual experience upon which to base such conclu- sions. Furthermore, one could not defend tracing the greatly increased number of pupils who are remaining for ninth-year work to any single cause, such, for example, as the differentiated courses. Changed economic conditions in the community may be an important factor here. The least that can be said, however, is that the experience thus far indicates that this junior high school will prove th be an educational investment that will pay abundant returns. THE DETERMINATION OF EDUCATIONAL POLICIES HENRY SNYDER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, JERSEY CITY, N. J. The prevalence of public discussion of the aims and work of the public schools, dis- cussion, by the way, which is often needlessly virulent, is due not only to the demands of changing social and industrial conditions, as has often been observed, but to what has not always been kept in mind by school men, that is, to the wider diffusion of education Superintendence] DETERMINATION OF EDUCATIONAL POLICIES 1043 among the people and to the consequently larger body of individuals who are capable of presenting and advocating progressive educational policies. These discussions necessarily take the form of criticism of the school policies which have been followed and of those who have approved of or presented them. It is true that in the past those who have been connected with the professional staffs, the superintendents and teachers, have been largely responsible for the policies which have governed educa- tional departments, simply and solely because their professional knowledge and experience have led their communities to expect and require this leadership of them. A consideration of the provisions of state school codes and of the laws governing the management of school districts discloses the fact, remarkable in view of the practice which has been followed and which has been mentioned, that state school laws do not, except in a very few cases, give superintendents power to fix policies. When such power is given, it is generally bestowed by means of local rules, which can be revoked at any time. I need cite only such familiar but important illustrations as the determination and modification of courses of study, the fixing of the standard of the qualifications of teachers, and of the methods of selecting teachers. The responsibility of the superintendent may therefore be said to be one that is not imposed by law, but one that is personal and informal. In spite of this limitation of their statutory powers, and in spite of their well-known and justifiable conservatism, it is undoubtedly true that superintendents and teachers have generally responded quickly and effectively to progressive public demands, and that, where such demands have not met with favorable response, they have met irremovable financial or other obstructions, or have been opposed by the traditional views of those who remembered the details of their own training and who were influential in educational counsels. Then, too, it must be remembered that communities are not tolerant of educa- tional mistakes, particularly if they involve financial expense. The great industrial concerns of the country and the great business houses do not hesitate to spend thousands of dollars in experimentation, involving oftentimes the relentless consignment to the scrap-heap of machinery, of devices, and plans, and schemes, all of which have been costly? which have been demonstrated by experiment to be failures, but which have also been the steps which have led to progress. No such freedom is permitted to the superintendent* nor should there be complaint that this is so, for he is dealing, not with lifeless material* but with the future lives of human beings; yet the contrast is cited here to indicate the limitation upon his opportunities for educational usefulness. His progress must neces- sarily be safe and slow. In view of all the circumstances, is it not a tribute to the capa- bilities of the superintendents and teachers of the country, and, at the same time, evidence of the confidence of the people in them, that they have been permitted to lead in fixing and maintaining educational policies ? Circumstances of their employment have forced school men to study changing condi- tions which surround the young, and to watch for signs which indicated the necessity of changes in policy. Consequently most of the important changes whose aim has been the linking up of school work with the practical affairs of life have, been the result of their initiative. On the other hand, many of the so-called fads have found their way into the schools because of external pressure. In the study of the formulation or determination of educational policies, there is one truth which we cannot escape. School men are not only employed and paid to instruct the young or to direct such instruction, but are required by the very terms of their employment to keep themselves accurately informed regarding the external conditions which necessitate changes in the character, extent, duration of instruction, and operation of the schools. It is as inevitable, therefore, as it is appropriate, that they should always participate in fixing school poUcies. On the other hand, the layman, who, tho he may be interested in the work of the schools, is deeply and vitally interested in his own personal and professional interests, has not generally the time to study educational problems, and is not and cannot be required to co-operate. I044 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit And yet, it is very desirable that the co-operation of the intelligent, observant citizen be secured. This adaptation of school work to the subsequent living and industrial conditions of the pupil, of which so much is said and which is so important, calls for a careful study of occupations, of the qualifications which parents and employers and the future careers of children demand. So diverse are occupations, and so intricate are the interrelations of industrial and professional pursuits, that it is not safe for the school man to rely wholly upon his own reasoning or observation for his conclusions. He is fortimate if he has the aid of an educational investigation or survey which has been made in a thoro and systematic way. Even in this event he cannot always feel secure, because the surveyors, whether they are experienced in teaching or supervision or not, must base their conclusions on their own standards, which are not the same in all cases, and which frequently provoke as many protests from different sources as the subjects of the investi- gations themselves. In such cases one is tempted to ask: "Who will survey the survey- ors ?" If he has not such aid, and this is usually the case, he must invoke the suggestions of interested citizens, but must be sure that those who co-operate have as broad a view of the educational field, are as enthusiastic in purpose, and as eager to secure full and accurate information, as he. In this part of the discussion, I have had in mind largely the policies which concern matters of instruction; but there are others which concern the general operation or management of schools, in the determination of which the layman must assist. They may be national in scope, such as policies regarding compulsory school attendance, and the closely allied question of child labor — policies which are so involved in the industries and in the interests of employers, and which so affect not only the lives of children but the prices of commodities, that it is desirable that the laws regarding them should be uniform. There are others which are of state- wide application, such as the financial support of the state school system. Others still are only of local application. It is obvious that the school man cannot alone satisfactorily decide the many questions involved. It is obvious, also, that the citizens consulted in the discussion of these questions must possess widely different, but thoro qualifications. It is not necessary for me to say that we must seek the aid of the educational theorist, whom it is as popular for the layman to decry as it is common for us to applaud him. He has always been, and still is, of incalculable value to schools and school systems. I need not cite historical illustrations. They are familiar to all. All must remember that there must be a theory before there can be a policy. State school codes are only bundles of school policies. Most of them are accumula- tions, made gradually in the development and expansion of school systems, and dictated by experience. A few are the products of prolonged and deliberate study conducted by persons specially selected for the purpose, who consulted many kinds of interested indi- viduals. In these cases the methods followed were quite similar. When I read these and at the same time remember that the method of their formulation was practically the same, I wonder why they differ in so many important respects. It may be said that the conditions in the several states concerned demanded different policies, or that there were customs or traditions which could not be obliterated. While these explanations may apply in some cases, they cannot apply in all. I fear that in many cases the policies adopted represent the preponderating views of the framers of the codes, and it may be said that this is, to some extent at least, inevitable. This consideration would lead one to the conclusion that it is hopeless to expect a imiformity in statement or application in respect even to policies in which there should be no variation. It may be said that it does not matter if there is wide difference, but there is actually much error and conse- quent injury to the schools. When we consider the present rapid progress in the work of the schools, the intense attention which the people are devoting to them, the spirit of inquiry which permeates them, the many thoro and profitable educational investigations which are in progress, is it too much to hope that it will be possible for a body of well- Superintendence] EDUCATION OF FOREIGNERS FOR CITIZENSHIP 1045 qualified persons representing the schools and all other important interests, school men and laymen, to create a school code for the states which in general may be considered best for all, and which may make provision for exceptions demanded by local conditions and unalterable customs or traditions ? We are all famihar with the ideal schools and school systems which the imaginations of educational theorists have created,^ and know how impossible it has been to achieve them practically; but they have served a valuable purpose in furnishing ideals. So also a school code constructed as suggested and embodying the views and reflecting the experi- ence, not of a single individual, but of many, would have the merit of expressing soimd educational and public policy, would combine in one performance the labor and expense which otherwise would be duplicated many times, and would furnish an ideal which many might not reach, but which all would strive to approach. At present there is an unnecessary clashing of interests and opinions. There must be some effective way of reaching correct conclusions in educational matters, of adopting sound policies, of checking up the school man's opinions and conclusions with those of the layman, the man who is directly interested, as parent or employer, in the product of the schools. Just now, where there is collision and controversy, the question is usually, "Who shall determine educational policy?" An unnecessary question! The question ought to be, "How can the efforts of all thoughtful people be so combined as to lead to reliable conclusions?" THE EDUCATION OF FOREIGNERS FOR AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP RAYMOND F. CRIST, DEPUTY COMMISSIONER OF NATURALIZATION, BUREAU OF NATURALIZA- TION, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, WASHINGTON, D.C. You superintendents represent 19 cities, each of over 250,000 population. Your cities contained, at the time of the last census, 4,832,150 foreigners, while in the states including the cities there was a population of 15,561,680. Since that time, 3,000,000 foreigners have taken up permanent residence in this country. The bulk of these for- eigners will be found in your cities. From this you can see that the burden of the work, judged by numbers, is upon you. The burden of the work in its complexity, in addition to its numbers, is also upon you. For example, when I learned that in one of the large cities of this country one school district covers 90 square miles; that the people live in vans; that in one school with an annual registration of 4,000 there were more than 4,000 transferees to and out of the school; that it takes hours to go from one part of the school district to another; that even in the largest cities the school authorities are hampered for lack of funds — when I learned these and many other startling facts regarding the conditions under which you are all laboring, and against which you are struggling, I commenced to realize that upon you, in the largest cities, rests the greatest burden. The largest cities, with their inherent power, are really more unprepared to deal with the school problems than many of the smaller cities and towns. For example, the super- intendent of schools of a small town was visited by one of our chief examiners, and they discussed this plan of national preparedness. Without any hesitation the superintendent of schools got out into the community and in forty-eight hours had secured an enrohnent of over sixty adult foreigners — almost the entire adult foreign population — had obtained the volunteer service of the teachers in sufficient numbers to carry on this work, and funds from private sources to finance the work; and now Gulfport, Miss., is in line with the other 600 cities and towns thruout the country that are teaching citizenship preparedness, while the Bureau of Naturalization is each month sending to them the names of all for- eigners who apply for citizenship. In Clarksburg, W.Va., without any funds, without any teachers, without any specific authority for the opening of night schools, the superintendent, after a conference with one of our chief examiners, started a local campaign, and in an incredibly short time secured jo^5 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IDetroit the volunteer teachers, secured the fund?, and opened the night schools; and now the night schools for adult foreigners in that city are working full blast teaching citizenship preparedness. They also, under the plan of the Bureau of Naturalization, have secured the attendance of the immigrants who are not candidates for citizenship. These things may be done in the smaller cities, but for you— you in the larger cities— your position is thoroly understood by us in the federal government. The national government can do all things incumbent upon it; but, when the time comes to do an individual thing, it is never accomplished except by the hardest struggles and fights, and most complete mastery of every detail of it. Congress opposes us until we show absolute gilt-edge cause for an appropriation to be made, and so it is with you. You are part of a tremendous municipal organization. You may have to show two hundred cents of returns for every dollar that you get. You are not contractors for, or builders of, public build- ings; you are not those who can display, as the result of their efforts, public monuments. You belong to that underpaid, overworked, most intelligent, loyal, and faithful body of men and women who are striving to build ideals, intangible, indefinite, but nevertheless personal, ideals. Your results, tho not as visible as the city skyscrapers, are, neverthe- less, far more forceful in maintaining the integrity of our social, political, moral, and industrial fabric. A call has been made from various parts of the country for contributions from the government to maintain this work. While I have not given much thought to this, it occurs to me that if there should be any financial relief afforded it should be to the large cities. First, in your cities the foreign element is a menace. Vice grows up in its midst. There the influences of foreign sovereignties, institutions, ideas, and ideals are strongest. Hence, I say, any governmental aid should first be directed to the large centers which are teeming with foreign population. You have 4,832,150 of the total foreign population. Generally speaking, 80 per cent of the students in the foreign classes owe no allegiance to- this country. We have been advised that, of the 4,000 enrolled in this city of Detroit, 95 per cent are non-citizens. The greatest work that you can do in citizenship preparedness is to enlarge the intel- lectual capacity of these foreigners, and give them a better understanding of our insti- tutions; in this way you will arouse in them a desire for American citizenship to such an extent that they will come forward and make their applications. The course in citizenship which the Bureau of Naturalization has placed in the hands of each school teacher in the United States, where it has been possible to do so, has been prepared largely by you indirectly, but directly in the Bureau of Naturalization on the basis of your written reports of the work and of the courses of instruction which you have been giving to the foreigners for years past. It is intended to give to each individual for- eigner a most intimate understanding of our government. Your teachers will tell you that each foreigner is intensely eager to learn everything and anything about America. You should have your teachers discuss citizenship. Bring it into the limelight of the public-school curriculum. Keep it ever before the student body. Let them understand that the teacher is ready at any moment to assist the foreigner who desires aid in filling out his preliminary naturalization papers. The bureau has furnished a syllabus of the naturalization law to each school teacher wherever it knows that a foreign class exists. It has also furnished them with the pre- liminary naturalization forms. Now we want you to see to it that all teachers who have failed to receive these forms are supplied with them. We want you to get into this work and arouse their interest to the utmost. From one of the cities represented here today, word came to the Bureau of Natural- ization that co-operation would be deferred until next year. After a conference with one of the representatives of the Bureau of Naturalization, however, the superintendent of schools agreed to co-operate immediately, and the newspaper reports received from that city show that over 5,000 foreigners are enrolled in its citizenship classes. What has been Superintendence] EDUCATION OF FOREIGNERS FOR CITIZENSHIP 1047 done in one city can be done in all cities, if the same interest, the same detennination, the same farsighted vision actuates you. Superintendent Roberts, of Chicago, who is here today, recently stated that the greatest difficulty in dealing with the education of adult foreigners was to get them into the schools. Let me strongly emphasize the advantage to be gained from the free use of the student body in bringing into the night classes their compatriots and friends. Here the common bond of one tongue will be found most effective and efficient. Thru them the candidates for citizenship who do not respond because of timidity, diffidence, ignorance, and other reasons leading them to ignore the call of the United States government upon them for their betterment, may be reached. Not only may they be reached by the method outlined, but also the immigrant who never has heretofore been reached by any concerted action upon the part of the public-school authorities. The Bureau of Naturalization sends the names of candidates for citizenship, upon individual cards, to the superintendents of schools in every city and town co-operating with it. At the same time, it sends a personally addressed letter to each candidate and another to his wife, whose name has also been sent to the school authorities on a separate card. The face of the card affords an opportunity for an educational rating for the use of the Bureau of Naturalization as well as for the public schools, and spaces are provided for information with regard to the candidate and his wife. The card [shown below] will be seen upon examination to afford a complete means for a full record regarding each candidate. (City) NATURALIZATION EDUCATIONAL RECORD Form Nat. Ed. i United States Department of Labor Bureau of Naturalization v, ;'A'^"i\ (Name of School) Name Age Residence Arrived in U.S Occupation Nationalty Decln. of Int. School Record rist year. Date of school entrance/ , \2d year. Length of attendance! , . . ^ \ 2d year nights Name of wife . Educational Rating of Declarant At Entrance- Speaks English (See note) At Entrance End of ist Year End of 2d Year Illiterate Yes No Reads in native lan- guage Yes No Reads English (See note) Writes in native lan- guage Yes No Writes English (See note) Prpvioin; f^Hiiratinn Note.— Show WelI=W., Fdr=F., Poor=P., None=N. When the cards are received from the Bureau of Naturalization, they should be distributed according to the addresses which they show to the local buildings in the most appropriate way, according to the local conditions. When received in the school build- ings, they should be circulated thru the classrooms until each teacher has taken all of the cards which relate to the students in his class. The names on the remaining cards will 1048 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit be those of the candidates for citizenship who have failed to respond to the call made to them by the United States government to go to school. They should be read to the student body, the names of acquaintances assigned to the various members, and assign- ments made by nationalities of the remaining names. The teachers should inspire the students in their classes with enthusiasm in securing the attendance of their friends and compatriots whose names are upon the cards. They should also be inspired to bring in their friends of the immigrant body who do not come forward either for citizenship or for education. By following out this system persistently to the last analysis, the contact and the influence for good of the public schools will be broadened in a way never hereto- fore felt, and extended into a field never before entered. The public schools in the large cities generally run not more than nine months in the year. The Bureau of Naturalization believes that the highest co-operation with the public schools only can be obtained when the schools remain open the year round. Super- intendent Condon, of Cincinnati, told me recently that the public schools under his super- vision would maintain citizenship classes thruout the year. The citizenship classes are the ones in which the Bureau of Naturalization is, of course, primarily interested. The Bureau contains experts on all citizenship matters. It is the duly constituted authority upon these matters, by act of Congress. It has been called upon by the superintendents of schools, including those of the largest cities, to prepare a course, and take the lead in this citizenship educational work. I have personally had this appeal made to me in various parts of the country by superintendents of schools in the largest cities. We do not intend to become educators ourselves, for that is a task which is well placed with the public schools of the entire country. But we are offering the support of the national government, and its expert knowledge and acquaintance with the foreign elements of the country, as it relates to citizenship. The Department of Labor and the Bureau of Immigration, with its thoro familiarity with and authority in all matters relating to the immigrant, offers this aid likewise. This is a gigantic task, but it can be accomplished, and accomplished in accordance with the highest expectations, if we secure your co-operation. It can be extended and should be extended into the day work in the upper-grade schools and the high schools, so that the native-born Americans may be given an opportunity, for the first time in the history of the country, to receive training in that highest of all professions, the profession of self-government. As you well know, all other professions open to men and women have been given the best consideration in training that it is possible for the best minds to produce; but it remains for you of the public schools of the entire country to co-operate with the United States government in perfecting a training for this great profession and calling of self-government. The course which the Bureau of Naturalization has submitted to you is admitted to have imperfections. It is open to criticism. We desire and want your criticism. We want the best results to be obtained. We want you to apply it thoroly in the public schools under your supervision, and then we wish to have the benefit of your experience in constructive criticism of it. It is new in its application to the adult. It comes from the United States government to you. You have been asking for governmental help. It is offered to you, and the subject of which it treats is indeed well worth while. We are planning to hold a convention of you superintendents, officers, and teachers of the public schools, not only from the largest cities but from all of the cities and towns where the public schools are co-operating with the national government. We expect to have this convention in Washington during the week immediately following the National Education Association convention in New York. The great purpose of this convention is to afford you an opportunity to perfect a textbook for the use of the student body and, if the plans of the Bureau of Naturalization carry, it will present a copy of this book to each alien student who is a candidate for citizenship and attends the public schools. Superintendence] COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES IO49 ROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH A POPULATION BETWEEN 25,000 AND 250,000 COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES AS A MEANS OF MOTIVATION FRED M. HUNTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LINCOLN, NEBR. Dr. Ayres says that the mortality from the ninth grade to the twelfth grade in 386 cities of the country averages over 70 per cent, that for every 1,000 pupils entering, 56 complete the prescribed course of the school system. The survey of the Massachusetts Industrial Commission concluded that over 70 per cent of those who leave school at an early age in the industrial cities of Massachusetts do so because of indifference toward school and not because of poverty or economic necessity. Alice P. Burrows finds, in a sur- vey made in the Borough of Manhattan, below Fourteenth Street, of the families of children leaving school at an early age, that 67 per cent leave because of dislike of school, not because of poverty. It is evident that some unit of the school organization must adapt itself to bring the new generation of each needy group to the fullest and best ideals oi American life and citizenship. This is the meaning of the revolution taking place before our very eyes. Why the establishment of an elaborate and expensive system of industrial education ? Why the growth of those testing laboratories of taste and inclination — the prevocational groups and schools ? Why a system of vocational guidance ? Why special treatment for the subnormals and retarded? Why systems of double promotion and varying rates of progress from class to class, breaking up the old lockstep system ? Why differentiated courses and special schools? All because the doctrine of social service is becoming the underlying principle of our educational philosophy. The question is clearly before the classroom teacher. There is a creed of service — let me give it in the words of the great Dewey: I believe that all education proceeds by participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race. I believe that the only true education comes thru the stimulation of the child's powers by the demands of the social situations in which he finds himself. I believe that the school must represent present life — life as real and vital to the child as that which he carries on in his home, in the neighborhood, or on the playground. I believe that, education being a social process, the school is simply that form of community life in which all those agencies are concentrated that will be most effective in bringing the child to share in the inherited resources of the race and to use his own powers for social ends. The apostle of this creed measures success by asking: "How much do I know about this group of children? What are their physical characteristics, home environment, and social inheritance ? What are their previous records and natural tendencies ? How can I make the school of most service to them ? What can I do that I have not done that will bring out the best there is in them and lead them to be efficient men and women?" The adoption by the classroom teacher of this socialized creed means the socialization of the classroom processes. The over-activity and over-talkativeness of the teacher is no longer the chief stimulus to individual growth. The skill of the teacher shows itself rather in the resourceful guidance of a group of minds actively engaged in solving a real life-problem; in directing these minds in research and the collection of data; in leading their criticism of one another to correct estimation of values, and to formation of sound judgments and conclusions. The major activity of the classroom becomes an inter- play of the minds of the pupils, instead of a stereotyped test of memory of subject-matter, with the predominant initiative and activity on the part of the teacher. A belief in the creed of service and its adoption by the teacher is synonymous with the socialization of the classroom process. I050 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit The life of any community is teeming with activities about which children think, talk, and form conclusions in their life outside of the schoolroom. They use their own initiative in handling such problems as apply to their own welfare or happiness; their estimate of values and their judgments are tnily their own. Thus practice which later life demands as a preparation for its weightier questions is furnished. Dr. Dewey tells of a swimming-school in which the pupils learned the process by going thru the motions of swimming in a perfect manner. A graduate of this school was asked what he did when he got into the water. His laconic reply was "Sunk." If we are to do more than the swimming instructor, our classrooms must come to represent something more than they ever have in the past. They must use as the chief material of instruction the problems of real community life which surround the school on every side. The real basis of instruction must be participation in these activities. Thinking as it is done in later life must be begun in the schoolroom in the consideration of these problems and activities; in collection and organization of data upon phases of them; in the choice of the real values to be used in their solution; and in the formation of right conclusions concerning them. The formal subject-matter must have only an incidental relationship to this main end; it must be used as a factor and an active aid in the process, but it can never take a real place as a fundamental factor if it is regarded as merely a store of informa- tion laid up for future use. Two types of motivation problems should enter prominently into our classroom activities: first, those which have to do directly with the life and career of the individual child; second, those which have to do with the co-operation of a large number of children thinking, acting, and working out their ideals in a group. The proper use of the first type of problem derived from outside life constitutes vocational or educational guidance; the second, training for citizenship. No schoolroom, no school system, can realize the modern ideal of service, can apply the Christian doctrine of the Good Samaritan, without the universal use of both. Let me suggest a few examples of the way in which motivation has affected the individual child. The following paragraph is a sample written in connection with the daily practice paragraph writing in English composition by a sixth-grade boy, the son of a Russo-German barkeeper. The study of the businesses of the town surrounding his school community inspired the ideal expressed by this boy. My Aim My aim for the future is to have a business some day and to be useful to my city. Therefore, I am trying to prepare for that now. That is what everybody should aim for. One should know how to handle his business. This comes only in one's school days- youth's precious days— and everybody can get a good education, become well trained, and become a reliable man some day. As an example of English expression, this does not rate exactly as a classic, but it does represent a type of vital stimulation of thought which in this particular case resulted in this boy's remaining in school for a high-school career. He is now working his way thru the high school, and bids fair, as he says in his paragraph, to become useful to his city some day. Listen to this paragraph from a thirteen-year-old girl in the seventh grade, who has been thinking along right lines without the slightest suggestion of squeamish sentimen- talism: What I Want to Be when I Am a Woman When I become a woman, I want to be a housewife. I have two main reasons, i^irst, 1 love a home and enjoy caring for one; second, I enjoy children and also like to care for them. This sort of motivation from one of the great and vital activities of life is surely worthy of a place in our schoolrooms. Superintendence] COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES IO5I Here is one from an eighth-grade boy, to whom a profession has become an object of serious thought. : My Vocation I think I would like to be a doctor so I could help other people. I would work so people thought my work was worth what I asked for it. In this way I think a person could be a good citizen and serve his country. There is much suffering because people have not the money to spend. In this case, I would follow my grandfather's idea and treat them for nothing. He never became rich, but everybody loved him. Love is better than riches. What a world of possibilities presents itself to the social-minded teacher in the transcription of this little oral composition given by a twelve-year-old boy in an English class of a prevocational school in a city with a weU-developed system of motivation. The First Money I Ever Earned About seven years ago my father was an engineer on the railroad. One night in a fierce snowstorm, he ran his train into another train and killed a man. They said that he was not guilty because it was not his fault. He felt so bad and it worried him so that he gave up his job. He bought a ten-acre tract of land and we raised vegetables. In about two years, my father died. Mother says he died of a broken heart. After this my mother, my little sister, and I worked very hard to raise the vegetables and my biggest brother peddled them. One evening mother called us all to her and told us we would have to give up the place and do something else as we could not go to school and keep up the place. She said we had best sell and go downtown. We bought a home and mother takes in washing and we children help her all we can. Last fall at fair time, as I was passing the fair grounds, I thought maybe if I asked the manager for a job he would give me one. So I did. He told me to come the next morning. I worked all week and made ten dollars. That was the first money I ever earned. I bought these clothes and my books and gave the little I had left to mother. I want to grow up to be an honest man. I want to earn enough to make me comfort- able but not enough to make me unhappy. I would like to be an engineer, but every time I mention it mother cries so I do not know for sure what I will do. Would it be safe to guess that a boy with an ideal of this kind would become a worthy citizen ? Do you think it would be safe to risk this boy, grown to manhood, as a neighbor and fellow-townsman ? In our town group-motivation has taken place largely thru two general methods of attack: first, thru some project undertaken in the classrooms of the junior-high-school organization; second, thru external organizations having to do with all of the schools of the city. The classroom-project tj^e of motivation is well represented by this paragraph upon arithmetic work and its relation to other subjects by an eighth-grade girl of one of our schools. This school is located near a large addition to the city of Lincoln recently platted and sold by real-estate promoters. The project was inspired by a visit of the class to this rapidly growing portion of the town. A new and practical plan has been developed in the arithmetic class of the Eighth A under the direction of Miss Cooley and continued with Miss Snyder. The work is that of planning and building our own homes. The first step of the work was that of choosing the lot and finding out the cost of it. The size suggested by the teacher was 100 feet by 150 feet. In the English class, composi- tions were written on the subjects: "Why I Chose This Lot," and "Facts to Consider When Choosing a Lot." The second step was making or copying plans for the house and "lot arrangement." At the same time a composition was written about "The Value of Landscape Gardening," which showed the advantage of planning the arrangement of the lot compared with that of arranging the lot with little thought. In the art class, the floor and side elevations will be made in the blueprint and the interior elevations will be in water colors. ' When the Eighth A's were figuring on excavation in the arithmetic class, the principal and the pupils visited a new building near the school where the excavation had just been completed. It was there the less important facts were acquired about the construction of homes. The next step was the finding of pictures to illustrate the yard and interior views. 1052 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit When the plans are finished, all compositions completed, and the cost of all esti- mated, these articles will be put in book form, thus giving a complete semester's work in the arithmetic class. . , , ,.,-,.,. j •„,, , This class is the first to start such a practical plan which is believed will help the men and women of tomorrow in their home-building problems. The other type of motivation is represented by our school- and home-garden activities. Spring and summer gardening offer an endless resource, not only for the classroom but for a multitude of educational activities outside of the classroom. The system which has developed with us has included community gardens in eight of our schools and some I, GOO to 1,200 home gardens constructed by the pupils. The stimulus of this sort of moti- vation is shown by the group earnings at various occupations during the past summer in eight of these schools: Schools Grades Earnings I 4-8 I'-l 6-8 $2,284.49 2 105.63 3,454.42 4 2,799.83 1,927.45 6:::::::":::::.:.... 3,582.82 7 5,184.32 8 2,046.58 Total The more pronounced contribution, however, to our motivation has been our Junior Civic and Industrial League, which was organized February 5, 19 14, in accordance with a report submitted by a special committee appointed by the Board of Directors of the Lincoln Commercial Club. Each school having grades above the fifth has a club. All of these clubs constitute the league. The purposes of the organization are : (i) to study the civic and industrial life of the city by first-hand observation; (2) to learn what opportunities the industrial life of the city offers to young men; (3) to teach its members to think seriously and wisely con- cerning the various vocations studied; (4) to assist in preparing its members to take an active and efficient place in these vocations; (5) to connect more closely the work of the public schools with the life of the community; (6) to teach its members to aid effectively in meeting the civic needs of the community and to assist every civic institution in pro- moting the general welfare of our city. Any boy in the fifth grade or above may become a member of the club in his school upon committing to memory and reciting to his teacher the "ephebic oath," which is as follows: We will never bring disgrace to this our city by any act of dishonesty or cowardice. We will fight for the ideals and sacred things of the city both alone and with many. We will revere and obey the city's laws and do our best to incite a like respect and reverence in those above us who are prone to annul or set them at naught. We will strive unceas- ingly to quicken the pubUc's sense of civic duty. Thus in all these ways we will transmit this city not only not less but greater, better,- and more beautiful than it was transmitted to us. Each Thursday morning at 9:30, some one of the clubs holds a half-hour meeting at the Commercial Club rooms. Such topics as "The Clean-up Campaign," "Play- grounds," and other movements of public interest were taken up and supported by the various clubs during the past year. Fifteen of the prominent business and professional men have addressed the boys at these meetings. The character of the talks is indicated by the following list of topics: 1. What constitutes a good citizen? 2. How boys may become good citizens. 3. How boys may help to make the city better, more beautiful, and more prosperous. Superintendence] COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES IO53 4. Necessity for some useful work. 5. Respect for hard and useful work. 6. Opportunity for boys in his (this particular business man's) line of business. 7. What this line of business requires in the way of preparation. 8. How to go about preparing specifically for this line of work. During the school year, the various clubs of the league made 122 visits to 36 of Lincoln's business houses and civic institutions. These visits were distributed as follows: State Capitol (sessions of state legislature) 12 visits Post-ofl&ce 5 Court House 4 City Hall 3 Fire Department 2 University Farm 5 University Museiun 2 United States Weather Bureau i Nebraska Daily State Journal Ofiice 8 Lincoln Daily Star Office i Lincoln Telephone Company 9 First National Bank 7 Lincoln Safe Deposit Company (Lincoln Clearing House) i Bankers Life Insurance Company 2 Cushman Motor Works 9 Havelock Railroad Shops 7 Lee Broom and Duster Company 3 Harpham Brothers Company 3 International Harvester Company > . . . . 6 Enterprise Planing Mill Company i Lincoln Flour Mills 2 Gooch Milling Company 4 Lincoln Packing Company 3 H. P. Lau, wholesale grocery 3 Curtis, Towle & Paine factory i Beatrice Creamery Company 4 Roberts Dairy Company 4 Woodruff Bank Note Company 2 Western Glass and Paint Company i Jacob North & Company i Nebraska Buick Auto Company i Van Sickle Glass and Paint Company i Lincoln Paint and Color Company i Lincoln Box Factory i Capitol Grocery i Lincoln Hotel i Total 122 Membership in the various clubs of the league was as follows for 19 14-15: Bancroft 84 Belmont 20 Bryant 97 Capitol 120 Clinton 118 Elliott 159 Everett 78 Hawthorne 20 Hayward 76 High School 324 McKinley 67 Park '. 106 Prescott 126 Saratoga ^ 72 Whittier 116 Total 1,583 io^4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit An organization among the girls similar to that of the boys held its meetings at the city Y.W.C.A. The membership of the girls' league was 1,474. Their visits to civic and industrial institutions numbered 105, distributed like the visits of the boys. The projects undertaken by the clubs of these two leagues afforded genuine practice of the philosophy of good citizenship. During clean-up week the work of the Woman's Club, Commercial Club, and City Health Department committees was based upon a survey of the city made by the members of these leagues. Many of the unsightly and ill-kept places of the city were cleaned up as a result of the work and the recommendations of these boys and girls. The Efficiency List The Lincoln Commercial Club, under the leadership of Secretary W. S. Whitten, and President C. C. Quiggle, (1913-14), H. K. Burket (1914-15), and Frank Richards (1915-16), has not only fathered and promoted the Junior Civic and Industrial League, but has instituted within that organization a system of recognizing and rewarding merit in boyish education and accomplishment. Early in the year the following letter was sent to the business men of the city: Lincoln, Nebraska December 26, 19 14 Mr. John Smith, Lincoln, Nebraska Dear Mr. Smith: As an employer of young men, you are interested in securing those who can make themselves of most value to you and your business or profession. It is likewise of vital interest not only to such young men themselves but to the city as a whole that they be able to give the best possible service to their employers and prepare themselves for continued efficiency and promotion. There are in our schools many young men who must begin work at an early age. It is the purpose of the public schools in connection with* the Lincoln Commercial Club to keep a permanent "Efficiency List" of such of these young men as may be able to reach a definite standard of reliability and efficiency. The list will be always available and will be sent from time to time to any business or professional man who desires it. Only such boys as have on their merits shown the following qualifications are placed on the list: 1. An age of fourteen years 2. Good Character As shown by: a) Truthfulness h) Obedience c) Industry d) Good Habits Note: — No boy shall be eligible who smokes or drinks. If a boy has been a smoker, he shall show by a year's abstinence from this habit that he has permanently given it up. 3. Knowledge of Lincoln and Nebraska. As shown by his ability to pass with a standing of 90 per cent a test given upon Lincoln and Nebraska. 4. Ability to write a good business letter of one ordinary page in legible hand without ^ error in spelling. 5. Ability to express himself .in courteous yet concise and businesslike terms to his ^ employer and business associates. 6. Ability to perform the four fundamental operations and simple fractions in arith- metic with speed and accuracy. We trust such a recommendation as this efficiency list contemplates will be of service to you, for it is the desire of both the Commercial Club and the schools to be of the broadest possible usefulness to the community which supports them. Superintendence! TEACHING TENURE I05S If you have suggestions as to the qualifications to be desired in young men whom you employ, they will be very highly apprecitaed if sent to either the secretary of the Commercial Club or to the superintendent of schools. Most respectfully yours, [Signed by the Secretary of the Commercial Club and the Superintendent of Schools.] Members of the League who qualified by the end of the school year and were rec- ommended as indicated in the above letter were placed on the "EflBciency List" of the Lincoln Commercial Club and this list was sent to all large employers at the opening of the summer vacation. These boys were likewise given an "Efficiency Certificate" by Secretary Whitten of the Commercial Club as evidence of their qualifications. TEACHING TENURE JOHN F. KEATING, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PUEBLO, COLO. The problem of the tenure of teachers, principals, and superintendents is not new in the educational world, but it is an increasingly vital problem awaiting solution. The ways and means, or methods, of securing permanency of tenure are matters of detail to be worked out thru committees or groups of educational and business experts. What is first needed is a nation-wide appreciation of the wastefulness of the present method of "hiring and firing" teachers, principals, and superintendents, and a realiza- tion that there must be found a way of eliminating this waste. It may be urged that these wasteful methods are necessary in a democracy. They may have been unavoidable in the beginnings of our democracy, but the perpetuity of all that is best in the institutions of our democracy will depend upon the substituting of refined and efficient methods for the crude and wasteful ones. This should be and I believe now is in a large measure the tendency in our whole national life. Already in a few of the large cities permanency of tenure for teachers and principals is an established fact, and for superintendents has become almost established. Also in a few states of the Union the state department of public instruction has been taken out of politics. The former crude and thriftless method is no longer followed, but men of experience, training, and known fitness are appointed to the headship of the state's educa- tional interests, and greater permanency, conditioned only on good behavior and efficient service, is assured these men. The success of this plan must ultimately commend it to all states. It is not in the province of this paper to discuss tenure of state superintendents, but is not the question pertinent by way of illustration? Of what possible advantage can it be to the schools of any state to elect every two or even four years a new and untried man in the place of the one who has mastered the situation and has reached the place of high efficiency in his work ? Why retire this efficient public servant in so vital a field as education, just when he has really become useful? Undoubtedly in our democracy there must be some place left for the battledore and shuttlecock of politics, but God forbid that it continue in our schools, where it can be most harmful and least helpful. In the election of city superintendents, there seems to be a relation between the manner of selecting them and permanency of tenure. There is the hit-or-miss manner of choosing a superintendent. Neither educational nor professional standards are employed by the board in making its selection. Board members are not in the nature of things experts in things educational, but they are intensely practical, and they choose by the standards they know — personal impressions made by the candidate, the weight of some influential citizen who may or may not have a personal ax to grind. All this because we, as educators, have not yet worked out a series of standards or norms that would serve jo^6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit to assist boards in determining the fitness of the candidate for the place. In these days of measurements and surveys these are being worked out, and the future is bright with hope. Probably the most used method is known as the " trial and failure method." This is in the absence of guiding standards. The board decides to elect for a year on trial. As a rule this probation is too short and failure to satisfy the board or the community is invited. The selecting for short periods is a prominent cause of uncertainty of tenure for superin- tendents. Hence in the smaller cities we see a veritable procession of superintendents. They scarcely dare unpack their trunks. Indeed, the wise ones keep their trunks packed and checked, ready to move on at a moment's notice. As an illustration of the prevalence of short tenure among superintendents, the state of Michigan is as nearly typical as any. As reported to the Bureau of Education, Michi- gan had, in 1913, 51 cities with between 4,000 and 25,000 inhabitants. In these 51 superintendencies, 25 superintendents served less than 5 years; 39, or 76 per cent, out of 51 were elected for one-year terms. With the exercise of greater care in selecting these officials, there would be little reason for removal. The fact that teachers, principals, and superintendents can be so easily re- moved creates a feeling of unrest in a community and a wish at the first criticism to remedy the situation by a change. Permanent tenure for an average teacher, principal, or superintendent is better for the schools than the hazards of frequent changes. Dif- ficulty of removal would throw on the board and community the necessity of co-operating with the school management. In any discussion of teacher tenure, the story of the progress of civil service in the administering of many of the most vital departments of our national government is most interesting and enhghtening. So successfully has the civil-service plan worked that no poUtical party hoping to gain control of the government dares advocate in its platform a return to the spoils system. Yet there was a time when a national election meant an almost complete change of federal officials. The practical sense of the American people rescued the government from much of this folly and consequent inefficiency. Why in the name of the interests of the school children of America should their teacher, principal, or superintendent be more affected by a spring school election than is a letter-carrier by a national election ? It should Aot be possible for a board of education to dismiss for other than well- defined reasons, and not then until the superintendent has had due notice, and has had an opportunity to appeal his case to an impartial board or committee on the matter. This, I am aware, deprives the employing board of the power to discharge a superintendent, but as we are now organized it should be deprived of this power. When there have been worked out standards of efficiency for superintendents, whereby boards may be guided, and possibly a legalized system of demerits, as in the civil service of the government, the power to discharge may be restored to the board with these legal safeguards. But you say this is not Germany, this is not France, this is democratic America, and such methods are impracticable. Are they ? Did not a great state university recently decide that it would not again discharge a member of its faculty thru its board of regents acting alone ? That board in its own defense has seen fit to have the university faculty assist in determining whether a professor shall be discharged or not. Even our great corporations are taking advanced ground. In some of our great industrial plants the "straw boss" or foreman cannot summarily discharge a workman. The workman has the right to appeal. Of course many of the changes annually occurring in superintenden- cies in smaller cities are due to small salaries and the desire of the superintendents to better their condition. These small salaries in turn are often due to the feeling on the part of the board members that by letting the present incumbent go out, no matter how efficient he is, they Superintendence] TEACHING TENURE IO57 can secure a new man at a lower salary for the first year and so establish for themselves, among the taxpayers, a reputation for money-saving. Again, many superintendents leave because of the feeUng of unrest, due to the lack of appreciation for their services and the possibihty of being dismissed thru a mere whim of the board or thru the political connivance of a disgruntled minority. The superin- tendent's first term should be for three years, probation years. During this time he should be rigidly tested, his work surveyed by experts, and, if he makes good, he should then be given an indeterminate contract, with reasonable hope of increased remuneration for efficient service, to the full ability of the district to pay. Then will superintendents cease to be birds of passage, restless not so much because of larger pay and wider fields ahead, but because of the uncertainty of their present positions. As a concrete illustration of how school politics works, I know and you know a city of between 25,000 and 250,000 inhabitants — and the city I know may or may not be the city you know — where within the last year or two, owing to school politics, the city and the school system have been turned topsy-turvy by a spring school election. The newly elected board members felt that they had a commission straight from the people to reform at one fell swoop the imperfections and shortcomings of the city's schools. The board proceeded almost immediately to dismiss teachers, principals, and even the superintendent, without warning, without any plan of co-operation for the making of efl&cient public servants out of these teachers. The teachers were not warned, and were not given an opportunity to offer a defense or a chance to make good. We are better organized in behalf of our criminals than we are in behalf of our teachers. We will give the average criminal another chance. I submit that what occurred in this city was unethical, unbusi- nesslike, even brutal. Please understand that I do not condemn the board members as individuals. They are gentlemen by nature and training, courteous, honest, and kind, and among their neighbors have a reputation for sincerity and fairness. That is, they did have before they were elected to the board of education. The fault lies largely in the system. Boards, like the teachers, are at the mercy of the system. Politics and personal favoritism had undoubtedly been at work in the schools before their election, and no machinery had been provided for the standardizing of the schools and the measuring of teaching and inspectional ej05ciency. Teachers had been appointed by pull. Why not discharge them in due and ancient form ? Such things will not happen when we have thoroly systematized our school adminis- tration and have made' legal the custom of selecting one head for the school system and holding him responsible for the work of the schools; when he is directed by order of the board of education to appoint all principals, teachers, janitors, and engineers, with authority to see that each employee lives up to the established standards of service. And they will five up to them when they know that politics has been eliminated, that pull counts for nothing, and that a trained and competent superintendent is the real executive head of the schools. Keeping up the efficiency of teachers in service is a real problem. Many efforts have been made to solve it, with many consequent partial failures. But a long step will be taken towards its solution when boards of education generally take the position of the San Antonio board in stating clearly the board's relation to the superintendent: Teachers, once you have been elected by us, our direct relation with you as teachers ceases to exist. Whatever we have to say in regard to your work will be said thru the superintendent; and whatever you have to say to us in this same regard should go thru the same channel. Thus far in this discussion reference has been chiefly to tenure of superintendents and principals, while little has been said except by implication in regard to the tenure of teachers. Little will need to be said when superintendents and principals against whom the political winds beat hardest are assured permanency of tenure. Permanency of tenure at the top will make for permanency of tenure thruout the system. lO^g NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit When boards of education can by law insure permanency of tenure to the superin- tendent and cleariy define his powers and duties, the efficient, growing teacher, nominated and practically appointed by the superintendent (in an organized city system of schools the board should never nominate teachers) will be secure in her position. She will have increased pride in her work as she realizes that she holds her position thru efficient service and not thru personal, social, reUgious, racial, fraternal, or political pull. I am aware that in that most excellent report, the Portland Survey, criticism is made of the law making it difficult to dismiss teachers even for inefficiency and failure to grow. It is indicated in that report that some of the poor teaching in that city is due to the feeling of security of tenure on the part of some teachers. No doubt the law, arising in the manner that it did, established while the schools were in the condition shown in the report, should be repealed, or, better, amended. Apparently either no standards or very low standards had been established in these schools for the measuring of the teachers' work. That permanency of tenure and feeling of security are the sole or impelling causes of inefficiency among teachers is difficult to believe. Permanency of tenure in our great and truly beneficial postal system has made for efficiency. Has the fact that the federal Supreme Court appointments are for life in any wise impaired the efficiency of that tribimal ? The contrary is true. Fearlessly does this court render its decisions and the nation uncomplainingly abides by its verdicts. Will all this not be true of the teacher when she is as carefully selected and as favorably environed as these ? A STUDY OF DEVIATE CHILDREN— THE PROBLEM OF DELINQUENCY AND SUBNORMALITY C. EDWARD JONES, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ALBANY, N.Y. To what extent has the feeble-minded pupil been recognized as a part of the school system? No one doubts his existence, not as a rare specimen, but as a part of the com- munity; whether he be 2, 4, or 6 per cent of that community matters little. Investi- gators read of him, psychiatrists classify him, and legislatures pass laws in regard to his segregation into classes for instruction. So beneficial has it been to the school and to the community to be free of him that comparatively little attention has been given to him as an individual member of society, or to his possible specific function in society. The superintendent of schools must recognize him, however, not as an evil of which he is freed by placement in special classes, but as an individual for whom he must provide in school, whom he must recognize and prepare for life with the same sincerity. as that with which he meets his grade, his high-school, or vocational classes. This must be done from two standpoints — conduct and scholarship. For several years in the city of Albany we have maintained a truant school. The regulation was that a deUnquent or incorrigible should be committed to such an institution for fifty days. If his conduct there was good he was returned to his grade, and if he again transgressed he was committed for another fifty days. At the end of this period, he was again sent back to the grades. If for the third time he was in trouble, he was committed to an institution. That is, the truant school was regarded as a place of punishment for incipient criminals — practically the same plan as that followed in police courts in the case of minor offenses. What saved the school was the humane and intelligent instruction given therein, for, without theory, the instructor realized the needs of this class. Some two years ago we submitted to the Binet tests all of the pupils of this school, with the following result: gper cent were found to be imbecile cases; 46 moron; 30 border- line; I epileptic delinquent; i backward boy with no delinquent tendencies evident; and 13 backward delinquents. Superintendence] STUDY OF DEVIATE CHILDREN IO59 So much for the mental condition. In addition to that we found in regard to the family relationships that while 40 per cent had not had relatives in this school, 44 had had at least one relative and sixteen more than one. Therefore, 60 per cent had had one or more relatives in this school. Had the school been running longer this ratio would prob- ably have been materially increased. Then, to extend the investigation beyond our own administration, the test was applied to some fifty girls in a house of detention, with the result that nearly all of them were found to be either borderline cases or actually feeble-minded. This is in accord with the results of tests in the Hudson Training School, an institution for delinquent girls, also with those of the investigation of Bluemel in regard to the girls of the State Industrial School of Colorado, whom he finds to average four and a half years retarded. This gave us the basis for our conclusion that delinquency, truancy, and feeble- mindedness were closely related. In the meantime, we had organized special classes for our sub-normals in several schools, but entirely separate from the truant school. After this investigation, we began to organize our work with this as a basis — that all of these are but different phases of the same problem of deviate cases. Delinquents and sub- normals were sent to the class where they could be helped the most, and in no case were they sent for a definite period. In a large proportion, possibly 90 per cent, of the cases of serious discipline in school, mental retardation is present. It may be the girl of sixteen with the mentality of ten years, struggling with the desires of the adolescent; it may be the boy of twelve who stopped growing at eight years of age; or the more serious case of the boy of sixteen or over who knows no mental experience beyond that of eleven years. Dr. Goddard, in his recent book. The Criminal Imbecile, has shown this to be one of the most serious types; from it may develop the insane lover, the docile dupe of the intelligent leader, the brutal criminal, or, in the case of girls, almost inevitably the immoral woman. None of this is new to the institution worker, and, while it has been theoretically recog- nized, it has as yet in few cases been seriously acted upon by school authorities. This brings us to the conviction that the purposes and character of discipline must be radically changed. Its primary purpose in school is no longer to punish the individual, nor even to set an example for society; but the problem is one of finding the activity fitted to train this individual who is mentally dwarfed and retarded. This brings us then to the actual consideration of school work. It is not enough that these feeble-minded and delinquents be segregated and placed in the special class, where special class means the ungraded dump for the schools of a particular section: but these unfortunates, these children of the one talent, require expert grading. This does not mean that the class teacher is, or in any probability every will be, fitted to do this work. It requires the skill and experience of a highly trained specialist. One serious reason for the failure or indififer- ent success of these classes has been the fact that the so-called grading has been done by those who know practically nothing of the underlying principles that govern it. Then we must realize that not only are these pupils below age, but also that their bodies and minds are not of the same maturity, that in almost every case the mental age is permanent, and that at that age they must be prepared for life. In this connection the recent article by C. S. Bluemel on the Binet tests applied to juvenile court delinquents in Denver is particularly interesting. He finds that the older the child, the greater is the retardation. In regard to the book work, the teachers must be taught to recognize definitely that it is useless to force a child mentally five years old to read, and that if he is only ten years old technical grammar and advanced arithmetic are impossibilities. But the book work is not the most difl&cult problem, provided we actually recognize the age limit. It is on the side of manual training that the resources of an educational system will be most severely taxed. This work must be selected and graded with all the skill that experience can command. There is a place for book work, but it must be determined by the age of the pupil. What can we teach the boy who will always be five or even ten years of age? It must be simply rough shopwork under direction, or for the girl the most io6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit elementary work about the house. And even the eleven-year-old, while he may do some skilful work, it^must always be under supervision. When as superintendents we recognize and do our duty as such, we realize that the larger part of the work is still left undone. In most of our cities, even with compulsory education, these boys and girls leave us as soon as the law permits. It is sad that the law permits this class of people to commit crime and then punishes them for it. In morality as in material things, the ounce of prevention is of value. Here our duty to society beyond that of our profession begins. The state has provided for its insane and for its criminal classes, yet it waits till these classes are produced. It is a higher duty, and one that demands the intelligence and help of every man knowing the problem, as far as possible to provide for the restraint and to prevent the reproduction of these classes. At the present time, it is an established fact that 85 per cent of the feeble-minded are at large in society. Only the lowest-grade cases are confined, and these because of their very nature are the least harmful. The greater number are still free in the community, debased and debasing society. Of far more danger is the adult of only eleven years who may be led into crime, the deluded youth seeking revenge upon some innocent woman, or the girl coming inevitably into a life of vice. These are the ones who for society's sake need care and supervision, a home where they may be made happy and at the same time so restricted that they cannot reproduce their kind. In our own work as superin- tendents we are making the start. It is our duty to find these pupils, to classify them, to carry their training out to the very borderline of their possibilities and powers, to bend every effort which as trained men and women we can command to make it possible for them to earn a living and live within their cramped restrictions a life as happy and healthful as possible. But as men we need to be at the fore in urging our state, city, or district to provide wisely for these after they have gone beyond our final control. They are in society and they are a part of it. If prison problems are to be solved with intelli- gence, if punishment is to be remodeled and vice and immorality are actually to be checked, we must face this problem from its foundation, look to its causes, just as we have done in regard to the great white plague — tuberculosis. It is a long, long road, but when we start at the beginning there is a possibility of real progress. VACATION-CLUB WORK J. H. BEVERIDGE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, COUNCIL BLUFFS, IOWA For the most part vacation-club work for boys and girls has been a county rather than a city activity. The purpose of this address will be to deal with the movement as a city activity. It should be understood in the beginning that a middle-western city- school district, usually called an independent school district, often embraces a large amount of territory that may be used for agricultural purposes and other activities of a similar nature. Our specialist in the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D.C., in charge of such club work, has defined it as "the performance of a definite farm, garden, or farm- house interest enterprise." It aims to teach better methods of agriculture and home economics. The work may be extended so as to include almost every home activity which is of interest to boys and girls. It finds its best support thru the extension departments of the agricultural colleges working in conjunction with the public schools. In the state of Iowa, during the past year, eighteen different activities were more or less encouraged by the extension departments of the Iowa agricultural colleges. These activities are as follows: Superintendence] VACATION-CLUB WORK IO61 Acre of Corn Club Grain and Seed Club Garden and Canning (Tomato) Club Baby Beef Club Poultry Club Baby Pork Club Potato Club Bee Club Gardening Club (i sq. rd.) Home Work and Play Club Cooking Club Farmer-Boy Club Sewing Club Home-Girl Club Manual-Training Club Father and Son Corn Club Canning and Marketing Club Home Work— School Credit Club The purposes of such work are: 1. To provide wholesome activities for boys and girls during the long vacation period that will supplement the regular school work so as to reinforce principles already learned in the school and to teach other things seldom thought of or considered in schoolroom activities. 2. To socialize education. At the present time most progressive educators believe in the socialized curriculum. They believe that the school work should be closely asso- ciated "with the actual life and interest of the pupil and also with his future life as a work- ing member of society." Vacation-club work furnishes ample opportunity for socializing education. In summer gardening, for example, the child comes to understand the value of soil, the principles of plant growth, and the beauty of flowers. He learns to appreciate something of the relationship existing between himself and his environment. The girl sees something real in sewing, in cooking, and in canning. When the boy cultivates his own garden, feeds and cares for his own animals, makes and spends his own money, he reacts to a real situation in life. 3. To teach the boys and girls industry, thrift, economy, persistence, and application to things that are worth while. 4. To motivate effort. The boy is given an opportunity to enrol himself for that particular activity in which he has, for some reason, become interested. He has the privilege of engaging in the activity that is in line with his particular bent. He is encour- aged to compete with others on an equal footing and is encouraged to produce the best result possible. He sees, in the concrete, some material reward which he may attain thru his efforts. Some have objected to the giving of prizes, especially money prizes, for such work. But so long as these prizes are comparatively small, it seems to the writer that such a criticism is not valid, at least until society is constructed on a more spiritual basis than it is at present. 5. To encourage children to look forward to that which ought to be in education. The thing that ought to be is that which draws us on beyond the thing that is, to the higher ideal. It is this which causes one to put forth his best effort. It encourages the children to look forward toward better training in higher institutions of learning. It undoubtedly stimulates a better citizenship by encouraging the child to render service not only to himself but to his family and to the community of which he is a part. Especially in the garden work, children are encouraged to make waste places not only useful but at the same time beautiful. It furnishes children with profitable recreation and acquaints them with some of nature's secrets. Having given some of the objects to be attained thru vacation-club work, we will give our attention to the way in which this work was carried forward in a middle-western city in the summer of 1915. At the invitation of the city superintendent, co-operating with active leaders in the mothers' clubs of the city, E. C. Bishop, of the Extension Department of the Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, was asked to visit the Council Bluffs schools and give short talks in the various school districts of the city relative to boys' and girls' club work as' carried on in the state and as to how this work might be carried on in the city. The principals of the several schools and members of the parent-teacher organiza- tion followed up this work by presenting the matter to the pupils from various standpoints, io62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit encouraging the children to enrol in such clubs as they might be interested in, always with this precaution, that pupils should enrol when they were sure they had the continuity of purpose to stick to the undertaking to the end. It was thought best for our city to undertake the work in only eight of the eighteen different clubs suggested by the agricultural colleges, as follows: 1. Vegetable and Flower Gardening 5- Poultry 2. Canning 6. Baby Pork 3. Cookmg 7- Acre of Corn 4. Sewing 8. Manual Training This is a sample of the enrolment card: Council Bluffs Iowa State Extension Club for Boys and Girls I desire to become a member of the Boys' and Girls' Club Work in the following department: (Indicate by X and underscore.) 1. Acre of Com Club 2. Gardening and Canning (Tomato) Club 3. Gardening Club (i sq. rd.) 4. Cooking Club 5. Sewing Club 6. Baby Pork Club 7. Manual Training 8. Poultry My purpose is to do my work well. School Grade Name Date Address A specific date was set for the completion of the enrolment and cards of enrolment were filed in the office of the superintendent of city schools. The extension department of the state college met the members of the mothers' clubs of the several school districts of the city and gave instruction in the cold-pack method of canning fruits and vegetables. Further instruction was given to those girls who enrolled in this department of the work. Thru an expert, our high-school teacher of agriculture employed for that purpose, and thru the assistance of the teachers and parents interested in the work, it was possible to have instruction given in every activity undertaken. The instructor in domestic art in the grade school was employed by the mothers' clubs of the city to give instruction in jewing to such girls enrolled in sewing as had had no particular instruction in school in this work. We were fortunate in securing the services of a capable and experienced man to supervise the club work — one who had had previous experience in county club work. But in securing him it was necessary for the city to extend the work of the Acre of Com Club contest over the county. One advantage of this eQdeavor was slight financial aid secured from the government. The Board of Education gave $250 for the support of the work. The remainder of the funds were secured thru the energy and activity of the mothers' clubs and the administrative department of the public schools, principally thru two endeavors: the May Festival, and a high-class musical. The receipts of these two entertainments were about $1,600. An executive board for carrying forward the club work was formed. This board consisted of the superintendent of city schools, one member from the Board of Education, and three representatives from the Parent-Teacher Association. Parents and teachers, working together, had charge of the work in each of the twelve school districts in the city (three not being represented), but the burden of the work was with the club expert who visited all gardens, instructed the children in preparation of the Superintendence] SHORT-UNIT INDUSTRIAL COURSES 1063 soil, the care and cultivation of plants and flowers, the care of animals, and other things too numerous to mention. Every child was required to keep account of time spent in the activity in which he was engaged, the money spent for all purposes, the amount of his sales, and the gain or loss entailed. Two exhibits of the work of the children were held. At the first exhibit, of garden products alone, 103 children exhibited products and $32 was given in prizes for this work. Only about one-fifth of the children engaged in gardening made exhibits. In the second exhibit, representing all departments, 784 different children took part. There were over three thousand exhibits. The value of products produced during the summer was slightly over $5,000, so far as data has been collected. Cash prizes were given amounting to $140, but this did not include the expense of thirteen short courses in the Iowa agricultural colleges, three Y.M.C.A. and three Y.W.C.A. memberships, and a trip to the exhibition at San Francisco, won by a boy in the Acre of Corn Club contest. The September exhibit was held in the city auditorium, a building 95X112 feet. Booths were built by each school after a design made by the mothers' club of each school district. Each booth was 12X20 feet. These booths were decorated by the mothers, each differently, but all attractively. The outer space was reserved for the exhibits of live stock and complete garden displays. Altho there was a downpour of rain for the entire day, six thousand people attended the exhibit. It cost the Parent-Teacher Association $326 to hold this exhibit, but it was worth much more than this to the city. In fact, the worth cannot be measured, for the co- operation secured, the interest awakened, the enthusiasm for better things made manifest, the intellectual and spiritual uplift stimulated, are not measurable quantities. What were the results attained ? Some of the results have already been indicated. Every purpose of boys' and girls' club work stated in the beginning of the discussion was attained. One girl, Christine Larson, won the state prize in canning. She had loi varieties of products. A boy in the independent school district won the county prize in the Acre of Corn Club contest, indicating that city boys may become more efficient in farming than farm boys. Three children, one a girl, won state prizes in the Baby Pork Club con- test. In every activity, the record kept was made an important feature of the work, thus giving the child a motive for effort in expression and in accounting. Parents who had up to this time manifested little interest in school became enthusiastic workers. Those who had never had social contact with one another learned to confer with and make conces- sions to one another, and thus the most democratic institution of our country, the public school, became really democratic for parents as well as for pupils. SHORT-UNIT INDUSTRIAL COURSES MILLARD B. KING, EXPERT ASSISTANT IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA. The purpose of this paper is to describe the short-unit course, to explain some of the results which have been secured in industrial schools by the use of the short-unit course, and how the conclusion was reached that the short-unit course was the one best adapted to meet the needs of the worker. The conditions which confront the giving of instruction in a part-time or an evening trade-extension school are many. The majority of the pupils enrolled in the part-time or evening industrial school are wage-earners who have families to support. They must io64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit increase their earning capacity, and they turn to the evening industrial schools for the instruction upon which they may realize in a comparatively short time. In most instances they know what they need. Their time is limited. In many industries the hours are long. "Overtime" work, sickness, holidays, and lodge and union meetings frequently interfere with the regular attendance at the evening school. Instructors who are masters of their subjects are hard to secure. All these conditions make it impossible to lay out a fixed course of study that will give the help the worker needs. These varying conditions can be met only by having a very flexible course, or a number of courses. The short-unit course is based upon the proposition that if all the subject-matter of the courses commonly offered in evening industrial schools be broken up and reorganized into a number of units so that definite instruction in a particular subject can be given in a short length of time, the flexibility so desirable and necessary in a course of study for an industrial school is secured, and the school can better meet the varying and changing conditions in an industrial community. As a concrete example of what can be accomplished by the use of short-unit courses, I propose to discuss the evening mining school and the manner in which the short-unit courses were applied to this particular type of school. In 1905, mining courses were first given under the auspices of the Y.M.C.A., and a year or so later mining institutes were organized for the purpose of encouraging its mem- bers to study and also to afford a sort of a clearing-house whereby the members could tell their associates of the things they had learned while working in the mines. While a large number of mine workers enrolled for the Y.M.C.A. courses, by the end of the year the enrolment had dropped to a very small percentage of what it had been at the opening. The institutes then attempted to run schools for the workers, and, after a precarious existence, the public-school authorities were finally asked to be respon- sible for these schools. The first attempt upon the part of any of the public schools in Pennsylvania to teach branches allied to the anthracite-mining industry was in the year 191 1, when the Newport Township school board opened evening schools. This example was followed the next year by Nanticoke and the following year by Shamokin and other school districts. The public schools were now confronted with the problem of caring for mature workers — men who had worked from six to twenty years in the mines, and realized that they could go no farther until they were better prepared. Unfortunately, the first year the public-school system conducted the evening mining schools, the same -courses and methods of teaching were used as were formerly used, and the results were not encouraging. The question of how best to meet the needs of mine workers had not been answered. Two statements frequently made by responsible persons were that the public schools could not conduct the evening schools for workers as successfully as the Y.M.C.A. or the institutes, and that there was no use in wasting public money for something which the public schools could not do. To silence this criticism of the public schools, it was neces- sary to show by actual results that the schools could cope with the situation. With this in mind, the organization and methods then in use, which had been in use in the schools when conducted by the mining institutes and by the Y.M.C.A., were studied and a number of causes for their lack of success were found, among which may be mentioned: (i) the lack of knowledge of the needs of the workers on the part of the teachers and of the school authorities; (2) the lack of the right kind of material for presentation to the class; (3) the fact that the courses were extended over too great a length of time before anything definite was accomplished. It was necessary for a man to enrol in October, and to wait until probably the first day of April, before he could receive instruction in some one thing which he needed. To remedy these three conditions was the next step. It was much easier to discover why the schools had not been a success than to replace the existing teachers, courses of Superintendence] SHORT-UNIT INDUSTRIAL COURSES 1065 study, and organization, with something altogether new and untried in Pennsylvania. It was impossible to change everything at one time, so new courses were organized and men who had a background of practical experience were employed as teachers; in fact, men were employed as teachers who worked during the day as mine foreman, assistant mine foreman, fire bosses, or inside bosses. New courses of study were organized in which the following subjects were taught: shot firing; timbering; haulage; drainage; safety lamps; mining arithmetic; mining law; mine accidents; methods of mining; ventilation and gases. In spite of the fact that practical men had been employed as teachers and new courses had been planned, the attendance of the schools did not materially increase. Of course, the practical men knew nothing of teaching, and this was, of course, a draw- back to the schools. However, the experienced teachers who had no first-hand knowledge of mines could not hold the men. Finally it was decided to place an experienced science teacher in the classroom together with the practical man. Even with this combination, the average attendance was not gratifying. As a last resort, the entire subject-matter of the course was reorganized. In order to do this, it was necessary that the mining industry be analyzed to determine what was required of each man employed in or about the mines. In this analysis it was discovered that there were 51 classified inside and 27 classified outside jobs. At a first glance the situation confronting the school was appalling, because no school could hope to give training for 78 different jobs. The teaching force alone would have been as large as the student body and the courses would have been years in length. The situation was made more complex by the fact that from the industrial history of 75 men, selected in a haphazard manner from 4,000 mine workers, it was discovered that no two of these 75 men who had started in as slate-pickers or door-boys had traveled the same route as they advanced step by step to the positions of petty officials and bosses. , From a closer analysis of the conditions in the mining industry, and of the require- ments of each man for his particular job, it was learned that all of the men who worked inside of the mines needed a knowledge of gases, ventilation, electricity, map reading, and arithmetic. Courses were outlined and lessons prepared by a mine inspector who had had a number of years of practical experience in the mines. Yet even after the introduction of these new courses, dealing directly with the mining industry, with the employment of practical teachers, and the use of the lessons prepared by a practical miner, the schools did not advance as was expected. The best material available for teachers had been secured, there was no question as to the value of the subject-matter presented, and yet the workers were not being reached. Inquiry of these men who were attending school and of those who had enrolled but did not stay brought forth a volley of replies such as "Want help for tomorrow, not five years from now," "Have to go too long to get anything I need," "Can't see any use in taking so much stuff." The men knew what they wanted and needed better than the school people, and finally after many blunders the schools gave them what they needed: definite instruction adapted to one or more of the many needs of the miners, and given in a short length of time. The subject-matter was broken up into short-unit courses, such as five lessons in safety lamps; sixteen lessons in ventilation; five lessons in mine gases; ten lessons in timbering; and twenty lessons in mining arithmetic, divided into five lessons in decimals, five lessons in proportion, five in percentage, and five in powers and routes, as applied to the mining industry. These courses were then put in operation, and inside of two months a change was noticeable in the attendance of the schools. By the end of the year, we were able to maintain as high as a 65 per cent average attendance in the schools, which was a thing unheard of up until that time. In the course of conversation with the men, you no longer heard the criticism of the schools that they could not get what they needed. Some of the schools are now organized lo66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit on such a basis that a man may attend school and receive instruction in gases; if he feels that he does not need any of the other courses given, he need not continue his work. It is now possible for a man to secure instruction in a subject on one night and put it directly to use the next day. This was not possible before, as he had to attend for as many as 50 or 60 nights before he received the information he most needed. These courses have been arranged in two ways: sequential and non-sequential. In the majority of cases, the sequential organization of the courses is used; that is, the various units are given in order of their sequence. Yet this does not destroy the positive effect of the short-unit course. On the other hand, in schools where there is a large corps of teachers, it is possible to give the short-unit courses in a non-sequential way; that is, the courses are given without any regard whatever to what precedes or what follows. A school has been organized in a town of 1,500 population in the bituminous region of Pennsylvania in which instruction is given in the following short-unit courses: timber- ing, 5 lessons; haulage, 4 lessons; drainage, 4 lessons; mine gases, 10 lessons; explosives, 4 lessons; mine accidents, 4 lessons; methods of mining, 10 lessons; and ventilation, II lessons. These courses have been arranged in a sequential order, because there are not a sufficient number of men attending the school to justify the holding of more than one course at a time. Some of the men have taken all of the short-unit courses. However, there will be some who will not take the course in timbering, but will take the course in mine gases and explosives; others who take the course in mine gases will not take that in mine accidents or methods of mining, and so on. In this particular case, the short-unit course has a great advantage, inasmuch as it makes it possible to employ men who are the best informed men in the region in haulage, timbering, mine accidents, explosives, mine gases, drainage, and methods of mining; whereas, if the courses were not broken up into these smaller units, it would be necessary to employ a man who has had some experience in all of these different branches but who is not a specialist in any particular one. This same course for a larger community could be arranged in a non-sequential man- ner; that is, the courses in timbering, haulage, and mine gases would probably be given on the same evening, a teacher being employed for each one of these particular subjects, while the men would take only the courses which they needed. Under the old system, John Smith, who desired a course in drainage, would have enrolled on the 24th day of September, and, after studying timbering and haulage, he would eventually have received some instruction in drainage. With the course of study organized in short-unit courses, he would not need to attend until the 2d day of November, at which time the work in drainage would be given in this school. From the results which have been obtained in the evening school since the short- imit courses were put in operation, we are convinced that they offer a practical solution for meeting directly the needs of the worker, for the following reasons: (i) it is now possible to give definite instruction to the worker when he needs the help; (2) it eliminates all the material which does not bear definitely upon the worker's occupation; (3) it is possible to procure specialists in the industry to give the courses. This is especially valuable, as it eliminates the "jack-of-all-trades" teacher in the small community, and in the large community reduces the total number of hours to be paid for by the school authorities; (4) it is possible for the worker to use at once the instruction which he receives; (5) it is now possible for men to take any of the courses which they need at the time they are given; (6) it is possible to reach a larger number of workers than formerly. The per- sonnel of the school has, in many instances, been quite different at the close of the term from what it was at the beginning. During the last two years more men have attended the evening mining schools and successfully passed the state examination for mine papers than ever before in the history of the schools. The enrolment this year has increased and more schools have been Superintendence] MEASUREMENTS OF A SCHOOL SYSTEM 1067 organized on the strength of the results of the schools which were in operation last year. The mine workers, the teachers, and the employers are in hearty accord as to the efficiency of this method of organization. While the mining schools alone have been dealt with in this paper, unit courses are being introduced as rapidly as possible in the other evening and continuation industrial schools and household-arts schools of the state. Possibly the statements which I have made concerning the operation of the short- unit courses in the mining schools would have more weight if some idea concerning the size of the mining industry were given. In the year 1912, there were 245,257,361 tons of coal produced in 220 working days. To mine and prepare this coal, valued at $350,000,000, required the services of 368,340 men. While a great deal of material which does not deal with the short-unit course is given in this paper, it is given with the purpose of showing that the short-unit courses were not adopted before other methods had been tried, and that their adoption was due to a gradual evolution of the methods of teaching the mature workers. ROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH A POPULATION UNDER 25,000 RELIABLE MEASUREMENTS OF A SCHOOL SYSTEM OTIS G. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, FAIRMONT, W.VA. Of the numerous factors that should be considered in measuring a school system, I propose to discuss, all too briefly, three: the school census, medical supervision, and business accounting. A reasonably tangible factor in measuring a school system is the annual school census. The school census as an enumeration of children of legal school age within the district is not a measurement. The census should be more than a list of the names, a record of the ages and nationalities of school youth within the district for the purpose primarily of establishing a basis for securing state revenue. Boards of education are legally bound to see that every child of compulsory school age goes to school somewhere. How may boards intelligently discharge this obUgation unless they know with reasonable certainty how many children there are of legal school age, who they are, and where they are, if not in school ? It should be a matter of vital concern to school officials to know the whereabouts of children not only of compulsory school age, but of those beyond the compulsory age. It should be known what becomes of children under twenty-one years of age when they stop school. Do they become workers or loafers? Is the school attractive enough to hold children regardless of their legal freedom, or is it so unattractive that reaching the compulsory-age limit is a signal for leaving school, whether employment is in sight or not ? And, if employed, are they legally employed ? If in school are they in the pubUc school, private school, parochial school ? The census figures should answer these questions with readiness and precision. Only in this way may a community know where the children are whom it aims to educate, and whether its aims are being realized. School officials should concern themselves with the question of the ratio of school enrol- ment to the school census, with the ratio of school attendance to the school census, and with the ratio of what is being done to w^hat it is aimed to do. The answers to these questions will determine at least one factor in measuring the efficiency of a school system. The census affords the key to the answers. The returns of the annual census should be tabulated and should be compared with school attendance. Herein lies the value of the census. It should be used after it is I068 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit made as a necessary instrument of any school administration that seeks to know in full measure the scope of its responsibility to the community. The important uses of the census warrant boards of education in establishing a depart- ment of school census, placing in charge a competent census clerk. A competent clerk, with the co-operation of the truant officers, school nurses, city police, and other interested persons, may make the annual census continuous and at all times reliably accurate. As suggested by the Cleveland survey committee: "The school census should also record the results of each new enumeration on maps of the city in such ways as to show for all of the districts the amount of increase or decrease of child population. This information could then be utilized as an aid m shaping the building policy of the school system." A second important factor in measuring the efficiency of a school system is the nature and scope of health or medical supervision. For the most part, we have passed thru the stage of medical supervision known as medical inspection, the primary purpose of which was to discover existing physical defects of the child and report the same to the parents, with the request that the defect be brought to the attention of the family physician. With this important tho incomplete service of inspection performed, the child was free as before to continue his attendance at school, regardless of the attention paid to the school physician's notice and recommendation. With all its imperfections, this type of medical inspection served its day very well. But with the awakening of the physical conscience thruout the United States in recent years, the demand for follow-up procedure in the inspection of children has broadened the scope of medical inspection and given us medical supervision. Medical inspection locates and reports physical defects of children; but medical supervision lotates, reports, and follows up defects. It does more than that; it seeks to prevent defects by treating symptoms. The one is corrective, the other is preventive as well as corrective. Investigations have disclosed that, without a definite plan for the following up of notifications to parents by school physicians, only about 5 to 30 per cent of the recom- mendations will be acted upon. An efficient follow-up plan brings the figures to 85 or 90 per cent. The most effective plan for securing the desired result is the employment of the school nurse, who goes into the home and sympathetically and tactfully presents the child's case to the parents. If one visit of the nurse is not sufficient, then another and and another is made. As a general proposition, a good nurse in medical supervision of schools is as valuable as a good physician. The practice in schools having the best regu- lated medical supervision is to have a limited service of competent school physicians and plenty of nurse help. The physicians should be experts in child hygiene and should be tactful enough in directing the health work thru the nurses to secure the co-operation not only of teachers and parents but of local physicians, hospitals, charity organizations, and other helpful agencies whose co-operation is needed. Medical supervision should extend in some measure to the different varieties of school- health agencies that have been organized as a result of the recent development of public- health opinion. Play and playgrounds, physical training, open-air schools, schools for delinquent children, and probably the teaching of hygiene in the school curriculum are agencies that to some extent should come under the control of an efficient health supervisor. For each pupil enrolled in school, there should be kept an individual health card which shows clearly his health history. The card should contain specific data of the physi- cal examinations, and note should be made of all recommendations that have been acted upon. Such a record would reveal the need of health supervision and would test the efficiency of the medical supervision as it apphes to the follow-up procedure. A third reasonably tangible factor in reliably measuring a school system is the method of busmess accounting employed by school officials. The evident tendency in recent years toward better business efficiency in all lines of activity involving investment and returns has created a demand, more or less insistent, for business efficiency in matters affecting the expenditure of public money. The amount Superintendence] TRAINING FOR EFFICIENT CITIZENSHIP 1069 of money spent for education during the past few years has increased out of all proportion to the number of children to be educated. School taxes have risen enormously, and still the cry is for more money. And the increase in taxes creates a demand upon boards for facts and figures concerning expenditures. Communities want to know how money derived from public taxation is spent, why it is spent, and what the returns are. To this end many boards of education have been making an earnest effort to give the public full knowledge of the manner in which the work of the board and schools is carried on. The tendency is toward standardization in business transactions, in school costs and accounts. Merely keeping an account of the revenue received and expended is no longer adequate. Statements of the amounts spent for fuel, light, janitor service, teachers' salaries, textbooks, insurance, and other items are valuable as aids in making the annual estimate or budget, but from the standpoint of estimating units of service they are too general and too vague to be valuable. School boards and superintendents should know how much the performance of any service costs and how it compares with like costs elsewhere. It is very important, therefore, if modern business methods of efficiency are to be practiced by boards of education, that school costs and accounts be standardized to the end that units of service be intelligently and definitely established. For all schools and for each kind of school the costs should be determined. Further- more, the cost per pupil in all subjects of instruction should be computed and compared with similar previous costs and like costs elsewhere. So, also, should units of service be estabUshed for expenditures for fuel, light, apparatus, supplies, insurance, textbooks, medical supervision, and the like. With these specific tests in matters of cost, together with other tests to determine pupils' abilities along various lines and hence to determine the ratio between cost and returns, a wise administrator has sufficient data to enable him to measure the efficiency of his schools along certain definite lines. Further discussion of measurements that should be employed in determining the efficiency of a school system would include, among others, these additional topics: the progress of pupils thru the school system; standards of qualifications of teachers; improve- ment of teachers in service; quality of instruction; the course of study; nature and scope of supervision; provision for delinquent and exceptional children; co-operative agencies; vocational guidance; the school plant and school equipment. THE ETHICAL AS THE ESSENTIAL FACTOR IN TRAINING FOR EFFICIENT CITIZENSHIP IN A DEMOCRACY CHARLES W. COOKSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TROY, OHIO "The times that try men's souls are over," said Tom Paine when he heard of the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Subsequent history has proved the folly of this conclusion. The struggle of the individual and of the nation for greater efficiency, whether we call it education or evolution, is the problem of the ages. With the growth of a complex society, adequate educational processes become more abstract. To prepare for efficient citizenship in the democracy is the task of the schools, for the school is the only agent under the control of the state and the nation by which the young may be trained for the responsibilities of adult life. Often it has been said that the home and the church must do many things in the train- ing for citizenship, and certain specific duties are assigned to each of these institutions. However beautiful the theory may be, the principle does not hold good. In the first place, that part of the home which has survived the innovations of the club and the factory often creates conditions which the school must regulate. The adoption of compulsory-education laws and strenuous efforts in many places to enforce them warrant the above statements. The churches, with their multiplicity of organizations, are not reaching the masses. The state and tbe §cb9Ql cannot solace themselves in the presence of loyo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit this condition and assure themselves that their share of the educational process is being adequately carried out. Education is a public policy, and the American government stands for the entire separation of church and state. It will be fatal, therefore, for the state and the nation, to depend upon an institution outside of their jurisdiction to give to the new generation the spiritual training without which eflScient citizenship is impossible. That the homes which still exist, the churches — for such persons as they do reach — and society are aids, no one will gainsay; but the point of contention is the inadequacy of the results as determined by the number reached. There are many great problems ahead of us as a nation, but the really greatest prob- lem is how to make better men and better women of us all. John Stewart Mill says: "The worth of the nation is the worth of the individual." It may be said, then, that no institution or organization for the advancement of public uprightness has any assurance of success that is not based on personal integrity and personal courage. No scheme of socialism, no punishment for fraud or graft, no legislative enactments or governmental edicts can be of service in making efficient citizenship unless they are based upon con- siderations of the influence these courses will have upon the individual. In the discussion of any question, there is often a necessity for the establishment of limits and boundaries by definitions, in order that no misunderstanding may arise in the use of the terms employed. Ethics in this discussion is to have the broad general definition of moral duty. It is to mean "the outward sign of harmonious spiritual devel- opment." It will refer to the discipline or training in those elemental virtues of truthful- ness, honesty, sobriety, and self-sacrifice; it will mean moral reactions manifested in joy, peace, longsuffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, temperance, which are the fruits of the spirit and which are necessary traits of character for citizenship in a democracy. My thesis, then, is that the things of the spirit must not only be taught, but that they must be tested by moral reactions in order to insure to posterity those characteristics of mind and heart which are necessary for the maintenance of the republic, that universal righteousness necessary in order that the individual may make the proper application of his opportunities to his duties and so adjust his life that he will meet the needs of citizenship and national perpetuity. It has been said, and said repeatedly, by the most thoughtful that the education which neglects the spiritual is a farce. Notwithstanding this fact, the intellectual predomi- nates in the school measurements. Teachers are rated very largely by marks in scholar- ship; pupils are promoted on the basis of their ability to pass certain mental tests; students are graduated from college and university when they have gained definite intellectual accomplishments; yet all recognize that intellectual education alone never has and never will save a nation, uplift a people, sanctify a home, purify a ballot, aid in law- respecting or law-enforcing, or cause an individual to be transfigured into the likeness of Him who spake as never man spake. A single illustration will suffice. Dr. Gunsaulus, president of Armour Institute, was walking with a friend in State Street, Chicago, one Sunday afternoon when they noticed a crowd thronging about a public assembly room. Curiosity led them to go in. Just as they entered, the speaker on the platform was thrilling his audience by saying, "I am learning to make deadly explosives at PhiU^ Armour's expense." Dr. Gunsaulus recognized the most talented, most intellectual student in the mstitution. It only confirms what Ralph Waldo Trine says: "The edu- cation of the head without the softening and refining influence of the heart only increases one's power for evil." It is a crime to teach a child to read unless at the same time he is taught to read that which will be uplifting, purifying, ennobling. It is criminal to teach the intellect unless, at the same time, those principles are taught which will inculcate a practical knowledge of the universal brotherhood of man and the fatherhood of God. It is a farce to give a man high ideals without furnishing the means whereby those ideals may function in action worthy of the best in an American citizen. Superintendence] TRAINING FOR EFFICIENT CITIZENSHIP 1071 The application is easily understood. In this present time, the unlettered may be a part of an unorganized band in guerrilla warfare, shooting from ambush at a venturesome frontiersman and driving his cattle from the ranch. The educated are a part of vast armies with forty-two-centimeter guns, bomb-dropping aerial navies, submarines, with deadly projectiles, dreadnaughts and superdreadnaughts; and all the world is put under tribute for savages to carry on a war of annihilation. Poisoned bullets, suffocation gases, and blockades to starve the non-combatants are some of the results of intellectual and scholastic culture. Note the contrast. When the government opened Oklahoma to settlers, in the mad rush for advantageous positions, a little girl was lost. The cry of a child lost went out thru the rabble struggling for homes. The selection of locations was abandoned and search was made for the little one who was supposedly without protection. During the afternoon, on thru the night, into the next day went the searching party, when some of the members came upon a wolf which had been killed in a sanguine struggle. A little farther on a second wolf was found with it vitals torn from its body; and nearby in a little clump of bushes was the child imharmed, sweetly sleeping, with the family dog lying dead across her body. Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for his friend. In our day, when civilization across the water seems to have collapsed, it is refreshing to turn to the brute creation for examples of the destruction of self for the preservation of others. In the study of those elements which should be emphasized in the making of citizen- ship, there are no differences with those who are working along the line of vocational train- ing as a solution for national eflSiciency. In fact, all will agree that vocational education is a necessity growing out of the character of our social order. Manual skill will not save a republic, moreover. Men in America af^ not starving for bread, but they are starving for the good, the true; the beautiful. To make two blades of grass grow where one grew before is a valuable contribution to the wealth of the country, but to make boys and girls exercise self-restraint, practice the virtues, recognize every man as a brother, is a Godlike performance. The need of bread may cause a man to commit a crime, but the absence of the attributes of the soul makes him a criminal whether he ever breaks the statutes or not. The schools have glorified knowledge. "Knowledge is power" has been carved in stone and placed over the doors of school buildings. It has been used as copy for practice in penmanship. It has been a gem for memory work. It has been the text for addresses before student bodies on aU kinds of occasions. True knowledge is power, but power is selfish, and selfishness is antagonistic to eflicient citizenship in a republic. Education will take on a new aspect when knowledge is regarded as the by-product of the schools, and character-building becomes the goal of the vision which prompts the levying of vast sums of money for educational purposes. When the acquisition of knowledge is secondary and the training for citizenship is fundamental, then scrutinizing surveys and statistical reports will give record? of self-sacrifice, of service, of devotion to duty. Many methods have been presented for the teaching of ethics. There are just two which are applicable to this discussion; two methods of instruction which, if made a part of the school policy, will result in better manhood mentally and physically as well as spiritually. Considering that less than 10 per cent of the young men who offered them- selves to the marine corps last year were accepted, it is perfectly clear that some methods must be devised by which the unfit 90 per cent may be prepared to fill a place of use- fulness in our common country. The first and most important method for the creation of ethical concepts is thru the personality of the teacher. It must be understood, however, that the individual who stands behind the desk is not always the teacher. It may be an older pupil in the room or one in the alley who is shaping the life of the school much more forcibly than the so-called teacher. I072 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION fDetroit The school, like a great mirror, reflects the soul of the teacher. '' As is the teacher, so is the school," is truer than usually supposed. Children imitate; they copy; they take on the master spirit of the environment in which they live, be it good or bad. The orientals have a proverb that the grapes turned purple by looking at their fellows, and an English naturalist asserts that he has heard a sparrow singing the nightingale's song. On one occasion a gentleman was tellmg me about his canary and described him as an organ canary. The qualifying word attracted attention and led to inquiry as to the meaning of the term. The explanation was logical. A trainer had devised a mechanical contrivance which would produce certain musical tones. The birds to be trained were placed in little boxes in the room with the musical toy, and there, hour after hour, day after day, week after week, they heard no soimd except the song to be learned. My informant remarked that they often sing no notes other than those they learned in their training school, their college of music. With proper humility we might say: If the throat of the little yellow songster can be so changed that he will sing a different song than nature intended him to sing, how much more ought we to be able to teach the boys and girls of America so that there would be no minor strains of despair because of misspent and unprofitable lives, and no discords, in the great chorus of human endeavor! James J. Hill, the wizard in railroad organization, in addressing some Y.M.C.A. boys said: "We have tried athletics, social recreation, music, education, and all have failed. The only thing that will better our railroad men is religion. If you have lots of that, bring it along and put your associations on the Great Northern." If a cool, cal- culating, impassionate business man in a moment of careful investigation could declare that the railroad system needed more religion, as it was the only thing which had not been tried to increase the efficiency of the men, with equal propriety we may coijifidently say that we have tried many devices with marked success, but the one element that we all need is more of the religion of life that is worthy of imitation. The adoption of a religious creed does not necessarily function in the practice of ethical virtues. Men have dropped munificent sums into the collection box on Sunday for sweet charity, or to spread the gospel of their faith among the benighted; but on any other day of the week they may drive a dishonest bargain and rob the innocent. Men have bowed on Sunday at the altar of the church in which they worshiped, and on Mon- day have gone blood-mad, unwilling to trust the law's delay, and taken one of their fellow-citizens from the bastile and hung his bullet-riddled body to a near-by tree. Thus it has been shown that little reliance can be placed in unrestrained and untrained human nature, subject to specific temptations no matter what may be their profession; but with the practice of self-sacrifice, self-restraint, self-abnegation, with systematic drill in integrity, honesty, sobriety, truthfulness, temperance, purity, we may hope to blot out from the body politic those who will trade their franchise for a mess of pottage or sell themselves and their constituencies for thirty pieces of silver. The teacher must be spiritual as well as intellectual. He must give up self for others, if a boy or a girl is to receive a new birth. Arithmetic, algebra, Latin may be taught without any diminution or destruction of self, but boys and girls never. The second method to be presented in this discussion is the emphasis of the spiritual in literature. The Scriptures present the basic principles for instruction in the things of the spirit. There are communities where the adoption of the Testaments for this work would be objectionable; yet there are few school units that would offer criticism against the teaching of Abraham's faith, Solomon's wisdom, Ruth's filial devotion. If there be objections to the Bible, then the material in the textbooks will serve the double purpose of literary standards and spiritual stimuli. A few examples will help to make my meaning clear. We fand fault with Long- fellow's the "Psalm of Life" as literature, but there can be no criticism of his clear, unequivocal faith in the immortality of the soul as expressed in the poem. Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND EFFICIENCY 1073 William CuUen Bryant had failed in some of his ambitions. The future looked dark to him, and, as he crossed the country seeking a new situation, a solitary wild duck, with its form "darkly painted on the crimson sky," crossed before him. He mused upon "the Power" which guided its course, and his apostrophe to the bird, when it had entirely disappeared from sight, contains his unswerving faith in divine justice: Thou'rt gone, the abyss of heaven Hath swallowed up thy form; yet, on my heart Deeply has sunk the lesson thou hast given, And shall not soon depart. He who, from zone to zone. Guides thru the boundless sky thy certain flight, In the long way that I must tread alone, Will lead my steps aright. The self-crucifixion of Enoch Arden for those he loved, in that beautiful story without sin, has made many a high-school boy and high-school girl live a more xmselfish life. The universal brotherhood of man, irrespective "of race, color, or previous conditions of servitude" is portrayed in "The Vision of Sir Launfal." Phoebe Gary's awakening in "Nearer Home," the nearness of the spirit world in "The Ancient Marnier," and Long- fellow's return to faith in "The Bridge," are a few of the many illustrations which may be put into the hands of the pupils; and then, with the magic touch of the spiritual in the teacher, the young life reflects the moral reactions from the ethical concepts acquired. When the teachers of America with uncovered heads stand within the threshold of the office, the recitation room, the laboratory, the gymnasium, before the pupils appear in the morning, and, no matter what creed they profess, petition the Great Jehovah for wisdom and power to do the work by example and by precept which is necessary to be done in order to make for universal brotherhood and fatherhood; and when, after the day's work is over and the children are gone, with the devotion of kinship they say: "Father, I thank Thee that I am permitted to be an American teacher and have a part in buildmg and fortifying a great nation"; and when the children catch the master spirit, we will cease to be troubled about unpreparedness and inefi&ciency in national crises in this democractic government. ROUND TABLE OF DIRECTORS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH THE TWO PHASES OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND EFFICIENCY IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS GEORGE MELCHER, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF RESEARCH AND EFFICIENCY, KANSAS CITY, MO. For generations schools have been conducted on opinion. All other forms of business of great magnitude that involve the expenditure of vast sums of money and affect the welfare of thousands of people are being reduced to a basis of fact. The present tendency in the educational world is to substitute fact for opinion. Effective supervision must be based on fact, riot on theory and opinion. In order to secure the necessary facts on which to base wise and eflScient supervision, careful and scientific inquiries must be made and definite tests and standards must be established and used in measuring educational efl&ciency. By the application of such tests, we may reach facts— conclusions free from personal opinion or bias. Shovild not schools render accounts, both financial and educa- tional, as trustworthy and systematic as the accounts of any other business ? Professor Hanus, of Harvard College, one of the best authorities on school administration in America, says that efficient management of a school system depends upon "habitual and well- jo^4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit organized self-examination within the school system, including adequate appraisal by the stafif of the results achieved, and well-conducted experiments to confirm or refute educa- tional opinion within and without the school system." The two important phases of research and efiiciency in the public schools are the financial and the educational. Let us first consider the financial aspect of the question. From one-sixth to one-third of the current maintenance fund in the public-school system is devoted to other purposes than paying for the personal service of instruction and super- vision. The expenditure of all this money should be supervised by the superintendent. These expenditures may be under the immediate direction of such officers as the chief engineer or superintendent of buildings, the architect, the purchasing agent, the chief attendance officer, and the secretary of the board of directors. In order that the expenditure in these various departments may be wisely made, it is necessary that standards of cost be established. There are so many factors that enter into the determining of the cost of any item that it is not an easy matter to establish stand- ards in school finances. For example, in studying the cost of heating school buildings in different school systems, or school buildings in the same system, cost may be compared on the basis of the cost per pupil, or the cost per thousand cubic feet of space to be heated, or the percentage of the entire cost invested in fuel. So many factors enter into the determining of this cost that any single basis of comparison may be unfair. Some of the factors that must be considered are : (i) the kind of fuel and the relative cost of the various kinds of fuel; (2) the amount of air space per pupil to be heated; this item will be greatly influenced by the presence in the school building, or the absence, of gymnasiums, audi- toriums, and playrooms, and it must also be known whether these auditoriums are used full time or part time; (3) the character of the building; (4) the kind of heating plant; (5) in comparison with other cities, temperature and climate must be considered. At a glance, one can see that comparisons based on the cost per pupil may be unfair, since one building may have playrooms, auditoriums, and gymnasiums to be heated, while others have only the schoolrooms. Again, one building may place 30 pupils in a room 24X30 feet and another may place 50 in a room of the same size. Comparisons based on the cost per thousand cubic feet of air space to be heated may be unfair because the kind of heating plants in the buildings may be entirely different or the amount of ventilation may vary from building to building. Furthermore, the percentage of the entire cost, a method of comparison often used in comparing one city with another, is a very unfair basis, since this percentage is apparently low in cities that pay high salaries for teachers. It costs just as much to heat a given room for a teacher receiving $500 per year as it does to heat the room when the teacher is receiving $1,000 per year. The cost per thousand cubic feet of air space to be heated is possibly the fairest of all means of comparison when a single basis must be used. Not only should the cost of heating be carefully standardized, but also the cost of light and water, cost of janitor service, cost of janitor's supplies, and the cost of supplies for instruction. A school system should know the cost per pupil of writing-paper, pencils, drawing-material, pens, regular textbooks, and supplementary books. It is true that certain factors will cause variations in these items, but if it is known by the persons respon- sible for the expenditure that there will be careful checking on each item of expense, and that comparisons of the various buildings will be made, greater economy will be exercised in the use of materials. The economy brought about by the mere knowledge that the checking will be made pays several times for the expense of checking. Furthermore, as regards the matter of cost accounting, a school system should know the cost of each subject of instruction. It should know the cost per pupil hour in the high school for each subject, the cost per pupil hour of elementary-school work, the cost per pupil hour of special subjects, such as manual training and domestic science, and the cost per pupU hour of kindergarten work. In the erection of new buildings, the cost per SuFerintendence] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND EFFICIENCY 1075 room or the cost according to cubical contents should be known. The cost of repairs on buildings should be carefully checked and studied. The second phase of research and efficiency relates directly to the department of instruction. The research work in the department of instruction may be considered under five heads: (i) measuring general school results in terms of school progress; (2) measuring and standardizing achievements in school subjects; (3) conducting experiments and making measurements to test the value of methods of teaching or plans of organization; (4) testing the suitability of the material suggested in courses of study for the various grades, and standardizing the subject-matter for each grade; (5) contributing to the educational world, as a final result of this other work, a body of scientifically tested educa- tional principles. Bureaus of efficiency are now engaged very largely in checking up general results and measuring school achievements objectively. It is probable that, in a few years, the most important work of these bureaus will be centered on the last three phases mentioned above. Up to the present time, however, so little work has been done along these lines that only this mention will be made of them here. Under the first division are studied such topics as retardation, over-ageness, promotions, non-promotions, causes of retardation and over-ageness, causes of non- promotion, and opportunity in the school for individual progress. Accurate data on these points can be obtained only when the school has a system of cumulative record cards so that the progress of pupils thru the various grades can be known accurately. For example, in Kansas City we have a seven-year elementary-school course. At the present time, cumulative record cards are used in the system., but they have been in use only two years. In June, 19 15, it was desired to know the length of time reqviired by the graduates of the elementary school to complete the course. In Part I of the Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pages 126 to 130, there is an account of the method used to determine this important point. The results of this investi- gation showed that 6 per cent of the class completed the elementary -school course in six years or less, and 40 per cent in seven years, making a total of 46 per cent who completed the course in seven years or less. Forty per cent required eight years to complete the course, and only 14 per cent required more than eight years. In the same Yearbook, page 143, Dr. Starch, of the University of Wisconsin, has suggested that one-third of the elementary- school pupils should complete the elementary-school coiirse in seven years, one-third in eight years, and one-third should require more than eight years. Assuming that our figures in Kansas City are practically correct at the present time, nearly one-half of our pupils complete the elementary-school course in less than seven years, and only one-seventh require more than eight years. This splendid showing is made with an elementary-school course of study that embraces an excessive amount of technical grammar, abstract arith- metic, and rigid work in other subjects, and would seem to indicate that, by the elimination of much useless, non-functioning material now in the elementary-school course, it would be possible so to organize the course of study that at least one-fifth of the elementary- school pupils would complete the elementary-school course in six years, three-fifths in seven years, and one-fifth in eight years, or in an average period of seven years. Since the average time required to complete the elementary-school course in eight-grade systems is almost eight and one-half years, this organization would save one and one- half years. It is the consensus of opinion that there is generally too much retardation in the elementary schools. Hence, the subject of school progress is worthy of continued and careful consideration by school administrators. On pages 130 to 132, of the Fifteenth Yearbook, is found a discussion of opportunity for individuals in the Kansas City ele- mentary schools. This study indicates that in the Kansas City as in other school sys- tems too little opportunity is given the bright pupil for individual progress. 1076 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Daroit A study was made, during the past year, of the causes of non-promotion. This subject was studied from two angles: (i) for each case of non-promotion the opinion of the teacher was ascertained; (2) the regularity of attendance of the promoted and non- promoted pupils was compared. According to the teachers' estimates, 52 per cent of the non-promotions were due to non-attendance. Assuming that a pupil cannot complete a given course satisfactorily unless he attends at least 80 per cent of the time, it was found that 60 per cent of the non-promotions were caused by non-attendance. Of the pupils who were not promoted, only 40 per cent had attended more than four-fifths of the time school was in session; but 60 per cent had attended less than four-fifths of the time, or had been absent more than 20 per cent of the time. Of the pupils who were promoted, II per cent had been absent more than 20 per cent of the time. This study makes it evident that the most serious problem in non-promotion is non- attendance. This is a proper problem for solution, but it must be met by the co-operative efforts of the school, the home, and society. In fact, the chief burden falls upon society, for most of the causes of non-attendance are social or economic and cannot be overcome by the school alone. As regards the second division of the subject, it may be said that only a beginning has been made in measuring school achievements objectively. Many types of school work lend themselves readily to objective measurement, and for some such types of school work scales have been devised. For other such types of school work, scales and standards are now in process of formulation and definition. However, many forms of school achieve- ment do not lend themselves readily to objective measurement, since they are so highly spiritual and so elusive that it has not yet been possible to devise scales for estimating their value. Such achievements are often almost by-products of the educational processes, but, like the by-products of many manufacturing operations, these results are sometimes the most valuable part of the product. While many forms of school achievement cannot yet be measured objectively, it is confidently believed that in the future more scales will be devised, so that ultimately it will be possible to measure objectively, either directly or indirectly, most of the principal types of school achievement. While only a few subjects have been measured, these measurements have revealed many valuable facts for the use of teachers and supervisors. The results of the measure- ments have shown that not only do the pupils in the same grade vary more than teachers and principals have realized, but also that rooms in the different schools in the city vary more than was believed possible before the application of such accurate scales. While it was known that rooms vary from building to building, the magnitude of this variation has been made clear by such measurements. Even in the same school, the variations between rooms is often greater than has been realized by the principal or teachers. For example, in Kansas City entire third-grade rooms were found that wrote better than seventh-grade rooms in other schools, and better than sixth-, fifth-, and fourth-grade rooms. In hand- writing, some buildings made an average gain during the year of nearly two Thorndike points. However, other buildings made practically no gain. In accurate copying, some buildings were seven times as good as other buUdings. Similar differences were found in spelling and arithmetic. In fact, it was found that almost one-fourth of the pupils of the city in the fourth grade did better in the fundamental operations of arithmetic, on exactly the same test, than did the poorest fourth of the seventh-grade pupils. Similar striking differences were noted in the results of the tests in the various subjects. Some will properly ask: "Were not these differences due to variations in nationality, in community life, and in social conditions, etc. ? " Some of them were, but the majority were not. For example, two schools of similar foreign population are about at opposite ends of the scale in certain of these tests. Of two schools consisting of similar American population, one stands in the highest group of schools and the other in the lowest group in certain tests. A school sometimes ranks high in one test and low in another. These Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND EFFICIENCY 1077 results are in harmony with the results that have been secured in every large city system that has been tested. The more one studies the results at first hand, the more convinced he is that this great variation is largely a question of teachers and wise direction of teachers. When trained teachers are guided by clear and definite purposes, the teaching is most effective. School principals and school superintendents may render valuable service to the schools by giving definite purpose to each teacher's work. Many teachers already have a clear conception of the end to be attained and are securing valuable and tangible results. Many others are working just as earnestly, seriously, and industriously, and failing to secure satisfactory results. Why? I shall give Mr. Bobbitt's answer: The taproot of effective teaching is to know in specific terms what one is after. The central cause of ineffective teaching is lack of knowledge of specific ends and a substitute conception that what one is to do is teach certain textbooks that somebody else has selected; to teach certain topics laid down in the course of study, also arranged by some- body else; to follow in unthinking fashion the dictates of others in all these matters; not to be guilty of li\ang, responsible thought; and, in general, to grind away at the course of study and textbook machinery without any other thought as to the outcome than that pupils may be able to pass the examinations that belong with this type of school machinery. The greatest service that principals and supervisors can render their teachers is to give them clear-cut specific ends to be reached in each grade in each kind of work. We have had too much generalization. The generaUzations should be only the summaries of particulars and should not be given to teachers; but each teacher should make his own generalizations from the details that come under his observation and into his experience. Accurate objective measuring of school results will aid materially in giving more definite and specific aims to our teachers in cpnducting their work. Some of the distinct advantages of the use of scales and objective measures are: (i) they eliminate personal opinion and bias and give impartial results; (2) they make possible an accurate comparison of the progress of each pupil from grade to grade; (3) they enable school principals and teachers to determine the progress made by groups of pupils as they pass from grade to grade thru the school; (4) they enable impartial comparisons to be made of the work of rooms in the same buildings, and also of rooms or grades in one building with correspond- ing rooms or grades in other buildings; (5) they enable comparisons of the work in the different buildings to be made; (6) they enable accurate comparisons of work in different cities to be made; (7) they give an accurate scheme for comparing the results of different methods of teaching given subjects and also of different plans of school organization; (8) they give the teacher a very accurate means of measuring his own pupils, which is possibly the most important result. Teachers are now learning that these new viewpoints enable them to improve very materially their classroom work. Objective measurements bring out individual differences and class differences that are surprising. For example, in accurate copying, the best seventh-grade class in the Kansas City schools made only one-seventh as many errors per pupil as the poorest seventh-grade class. In the Courtis research tests in arithmetic, the best fourth-grade class had five times the medium speed of the poorest one, and seven times the median in accuracy. Such differences raise important questions in the minds of principals and teachers. Our supervisor of writing has been collecting specimens of writing at the beginning of each year and at the end of each year. Until our bureau undertook the study of pen- manship, he had not fully realized that some buildings actually made almost no progress in the quality of writing during the year, and that other buildings made a progress of two Thorndike points, and that as a result of this great variation in progress in the quaUty of handwriting there were several third-grade rooms in the city that last May wrote better than several seventh-grade rooms. joyS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit A comparison of the October papers with the May papers in writing revealed the fact that the different schools had no common aim in teaching handwriting and that they had no standard for speed and quality for the different grades. Some schools reduced their speed during the year and improved the quality of their handwriting; others aimed to secure speed, and did so at the sacrifice of the quality of the handwriting. Often in the same building the aims of the teachers seemed at variance. Without question, definite standards of quality and speed in handwriting should be established for each grade and the teachers given specific goals to be reached. In general in Kansas City, when both quality and speed are considered, the greatest progress in writing was made in the fourth grade; the sixth grade ranked second, the fifth grade ranked third, the seventh grade came fourth, and the third grade ranked fifth. However, if speed alone is considered, the third grade made the greatest progress, but, in making progress m speed, it made almost no progress in quality; and many rooms lost in quality. This study in writing only indicates a condition that is general in our school systems, and shows the need of more accurate measurements and more definite aims on the part of our teachers. STANDARDIZATION OF TEACHERS' EXAMINATIONS STUART A. COURTIS, SUPERVISOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, DETROIT, MICH. It is hardly necessary to remind this audience of the rapid growth of the movement for the use of measurement in education. Five years ago, had anyone suggested the possibility of a meeting of this kind, he would have been looked upon as a person of unsound mind; but today, from one end of this country to the other, measurement has an estab- lished place. It is true that, so far, measurement has been used mainly by those interested in survey work, by students of education, or by superintendents and teachers doing a little experimental work out of mere curiosity. Yet, during the meetings this week, the point has been emphasized over and over again that measurement should be of direct value to the teacher, and again and again the warning has been sounded that, if steps are not taken by those interested in the movement to make standard tests and scales practicable for daily use in the classroom, a reaction against measurement is bound to set in. I wish this afternoon to emphasize this warning and to indicate the steps taken here in Detroit to meet this need. As Director of Educational Research in a large city system, I am more directly interested in the improvement of the efficiency of teaching effort than I am in the more general problems of purely scientific research. In all forms of educational measurement the standard test is an essential feature. Now, standard tests are little more than standard examinations. It is true that they measure single and very simple abilities, and that the conditions under which they are given and scored are very carefully controlled. Nevertheless, in all their essential features they are primarily examinations. They become "standard" tests only in two ways. One type of test is called "standard," because the text itself has been standardized by giving it to a large number of children, so that norms of performance have been established. The other type may be called "standard" for a different reason. Where the abilities measured are very simple and the factors involved few in number, the analysis of the testing material may be so complete and so perfect as to make it possible to construct duplicate tests exactly equal in value to the first. It is, of course, just as necessary to standardize such tests as it is to standardize those of the first type, but when such a test has been used in one extensive investigation, the scores that will be obtained in the use of all subsequent editions of it can be predicted with certainty. At the present time almost all standard tests are of the first type, for the simple reason that very little knowledge exists in regard to the factors which determine the diffi- Superintendence! STANDARDIZATION OF TEACHERS' EXAMINATIONS 1079 culty of such tests. For instance, the Ayres spelling scale is constructed on the basis of the actual performances of many children; Thorndike's handwriting scale is based upon the judgment of many teachers. So Kelly's reading tests and many other tests of the same kind are useful measures only after standard values have been assigned to every question in accordance with the performances of many children. The other type of test, however, is much more to be desired, and it is possible but difl5cult to make. For instance, the paragraphs of Gray's reading scale gradually increase in diflSculty. This fact is proved by the failure of first-grade children to read successfully more than the first paragraph or two of this scale. The second grade is able to penetrate farther into the paragraphs of the scale. No one knows, however, just what it is that makes paragraph three more difficult than paragraph two and less diflScult than paragraph four. In addition, which is a much simpler ability, the various factors to be controlled are definitely known. Test i , Series B, of the Standard Research Tests, for instance, can be duplicated endlessly without changing in the slightest the difl&culty of the test itself. At the present time, three such editions of the tests have been issued, and a fourth is to be constructed soon. The value of Gray's reading scale would be very greatly increased were it possible to duplicate at will the various paragraphs of the scale; and as an illustration of the kind of research work which must be completed before this type of standard test in reading can be constructed, I wish to present a consideration of the factors whose effect must be determined. As I see it, the factors to be considered are of three kinds. The first of these is purely mechanical, dealing with such qualities as size of type, form of letters, spacing of letters and words, etc.; the second series of factors are those which depend upon the content, or thought elements, of the paragraph or sentence; the third series of factors are those which must be controlled in the giving and scoring of the tests. I shall discuss each of these in turn. To make my discussion concrete, consider as a basic sentence (Fig. i), The girl is running down the street. (29 letters) Fig. I Printed in eight-point type with conventional spacing, this sentence, which contains 29 letters, makes a line 2^ inches long. The problem, then, is to construct a second sentence which shall be equal, in diflSculty of reading, to the first. Let us consider the mechanical features involved, the first of which is structure. The sentence, "The boy is climbing up the tree," parallels in number of words and in general structure the basic sentence. It is three letters shorter, to be sure, but as far as structure is concerned is nearly the equal of the first. If, however, the sentence were changed to " Which girl ran upstairs ?" it would be impossible to say without trial whether the new sentence is more or less difl&cult than the original sentence. We need, therefore, careful evaluation of the differences in difl&culty, if any, which are due to the structure of the sentence alone. I have already referred to a second factor which must be considered, "length." For, if instead of the basic sentence, "The girl is running down the street," we were to use "The pretty little girl is running down the street, chasing her black dog," we know without trial that the sentence would take more time to read and would involve a greater number of eye movements. We need to determine very accurately, however, what the effect of such an increase in length from 29 to 59 letters would be. Is the longer sentence twice as difl&cult as the first, or only once and a half ? For in the duplication of any para- graph of a set form, there is bound to be some variation in the length of constituent sentences. jo8o NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Detroit So in the printing of our tests, we must be careful as to the size of the type and as to the spacing. For instance, in Fig. 2, notice that in one case our basic sentence is printed in large primer and in the other in six-point type. a. The girl is running down the street. b. The girl is running down the street. Fig. 2 Even to the adult, the difference in difficulty of reading is evident. The exact value of this factor also must be determined before we can measure the degree of development in reading in passing from the readers of the elementary grades to those of the later years. Similarly, in Fig. 3, there is given an illustration of the basic sentence printed in condensed type closely spaced, and in type widely spaced. a. The girl is running down tlie street. b. The girl is running down the street. Fig. 3 Not only are there differences in the distance the eye must travel, which would affect the time of reading and, therefore, the relative difficulty of thp two sentences, but the psychological effect of the two styles of printing upon even the adult mind is marked. In similar fashion, any change in length or character of the actual line of type, entirely aside from the length of the sentence, also produces a change in difficulty. Those who have worked with children in the first and second grades know that a distinct step in advance has been made when a child can read a sentence in the forms given in Fig. 4 a. The girl b. The girl is running is run- down the street. ning down the street. Fig. instead of in the form in which the basic sentence is first given (Fig. i). These changes in mechanical features seem trivial to those who have given them no attention, but to those whose work lies in this field they are known to be of the very greatest importance. The average teacher is astonished to find that trivial changes in conditions cause children to appear to have forgotten all they have ever learned. But if the reader will look at Fig. 5 , in which the basic sentence is printed upside down, •;9ai;s aq^ UMop Suiuuni si pi3 aqx Fig. 5 he will realize that so slight a thing as a change of position may throw his reading habits almost entirely out of gear. In addition to all the factors mentioned, there is the diffiulty due to differences in the ease of word recognition. In changing from the sentence, "The girl is running down the street," to the sentence, "The boy is clmibing up the tree," if "boy" is easier to recog- nize than "girl," if "running" is easier to recognize than "climb," if "street" is easier to recognize than "tree," the resultant value of the second sentence may be less than that of the first, altho every other factor has been kept carefully the same. This, how- Superintendence] STANDARDIZATION OF TEACHERS' EXAMINATIONS 1081 ever, is a point about which we have no information whatever, and even on the mechanical side it is impossible at present to construct, with any certainty of the result, two sentences of equal value. If we now leave the mechanical factors and turn to the content factors, we shall find an even more serious situation. Consider, for instance, the three sentences: "The girl is running down the street," "The boy is climbing up the tree," "The misanthrope is sulking in his den." These sentences in structure, size of type, number of letters, etc., are of nearly the same value, but even for the adult reader there will be differences in difficulty, due to the fact that in the third sentence the thought element, aroused by the stimulus of the printed words, is very different. The major element in the content situation is probably the familiarity of the reader with the particular word forms used; a second important element is the incentive which leads to the act of reading. All content difficulties are to be evaluated in terms of expe- rience. The difficulty of a word for a reader is probably determined by the frequency and recency of its use and by the interest and emotional atmosphere surrounding the conditions of its use. It is, of course, hopeless to attempt to evaluate completely the relative difficulties of different words for individual children; but it would be perfectly possible to analyze the vocabularies of children in terms of average frequency and con- ditions of use. Such an analysis of the English language for different ages and types of life is urgently needed. If such data were available, tests of nearly equal value could be constructed, and the process of determining the exact value of the various units by the reactions of unselected groups of children would be very greatly shortened. The third set of factors governing the equality of tests are those which have to do with the testing conditions themselves. The incentive of the children to put forth their best efforts will be determined largely by the instructions, personality, and general manner of the examiner. Teachers, as a rule, try to secure from each child the utmost possible performance, and are very quick to resent the efforts of scientific men to control conditions under which tests are given, in order to keep them uniform. The results from child to child, however, are not comparable, unless the instructions and general procedure are the same for all. The factor of personality is a difficult one to control, but there is some evidence tending to show that the differences produced by this factor are not large, pro- viding conscientious care is taken to fulfil standard conditions. A far more important factor is the question of the timing of the test. Scrupulous care must be taken to keep exact time. In a test of one minute's duration, a variation of one second at the beginning and at the end will make a total variation of 3 per cent in the result. So with the length of the test. If a test is so short that all are able to finish in a given time, the subjects measured will appear to be of equal ability. On the other hand, if the test had been long enough to keep all occupied for a longer interval, large individual differences in scores would have been revealed. So, too, a test of short duration in addition is a different thing from a test, with exactly the same type of examples, of long duration, because of the variation in results caused by differences in the effects of practice and fatigue. In similar fashion, we need much more information in regard to the effects of physical conditions. We all understand that in a test in reading a proper degree in illumination is essential for the best work, that the most gifted person would make the same score as the imbecile if both were required to read in absolute darkness; but we have not paid enough attention to the effects of small differences in light, temperature, humidity, etc., and we have not evaluated at all the effects of the position and physiological condition of the subject under examination. Even after all the elements in the tests themselves, or in the conditions under which the tests are given, have been accurately measured and controlled, the results secured will be influenced by the methods of scoring and tabulating. The primary need, of course, is for standard marking. It is essential that a given unit have the same value for all, but it is equally essential that the tabulations of the results be made in the same manner I082 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit for all. If one city defines efficiency of a test in addition on the basis of the percentage of the children who can work at average speed with perfect accuracy, while another city defines efficiency on the basis of the percentage of the children able to work at average speed with 80 per cent accuracy or better, it is evident that, altho the actual data secured in the two cities may be precisely the same, the statement in regard to efficiency in the respective cities would differ widely. In this connection, let me make a plea for approxi- mate methods and greater simplicity of procedure. We know at the present time that the results of any single test, no matter how carefully controlled, contain a large gross error of approximately 10 per cent caused by the variability which is a constant charac- teristic of all human performances. It would seem foolish, therefore, to carry correlation Test A. (Lesson 13) Form A 152 56 120 97 118 68 152 78 165 97 125 57 U3 38 Multiply 51 47 13 " A it^sn Diviae 32T575 43TS55 srJTnr 34)T787 DETROIT PUBUC SCHOOLS ^"'*^ T»w_ STANDARD PRACTICE TESTS «*• — Ri(U_ LESSON No. 13 TESTA (Lmmm 112) F«. A Form B. 134 76 112 16 163 85 126 79 Mulriply 311741 1311S99 7115555 24)1155 SCORES DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS T"-* — STANDARD PRACTICE TESTS «ifM-_ LESSON No. 13 TESTA (Uttow 112) Fig. 6 coefficients to the fourth decimal place with data which are reliable only for the first digit. It seems foolish to try to determine whether a given specimen of handwriting is to be graded ii . 2 or ii .8 on the Thomdike scale, when the average variation in the judgment from which the scale values were determined amounts to many units of the scale. In this connection, it is interesting to note the very great change in value of all such judg- ments when the same sets of samples are submitted to judges with very different training. In Detroit we use muscular-movement writing, and it is very difficult for teachers trained to consider the merits of handwriting from the point of view of muscular movement to use accurately such scales as the Ay res and Thorndike handwriting scales, no samples of which conform to their standards of judgment. From all that has been said, it will be evident that the actual construction of tests and the planning of testing conditions is a scientific activity, calling for a large amount of technical skill and experience. When a test has been constructed and the conditions under which it is to be given have been determined, administering, scoring, and tabulating are purely mechanical steps, which may be carried out by any person of average Intel- Superintendence] STANDARDIZATION OF TEACHERS' EXAMINATIONS 1083 ligence and a small amount of special training. The real problem confronting directors of educational research, therefore, is that of devising tests or examinations which will be valid according to the most rigorous scientific standards, but which can be administered by classroom teachers and which will yield definite knowledge, of value to the ordinary classroom teacher. In my judgment, measurement is certain to prove ineffective in school work, except for purposes of supervisory control, unless it is possible to put into the hands of all our teachers instnmients designed primarily to aid them in measuring the effects of their own efforts. By way of a concrete illustration of the type of test referred to, I present in Fig. 6 a test in arithmetic. In Detroit we use the Standard Prac- tice Tests. The assignment for the term consists of lessons ranging from very simple examples in the four fundamental opera- tions to the longest examples that a child in the grades is likely to be called upon to solve. There are 48 lessons of equal dij65- culty, and they are so arranged that it is possible for each child to progress at his own rate and work in his own way without interfering in any way with the group formation. Our experimental work in the past has proved conclusively that the chil- dren most likely to be injured by such drill work are those who at the beginning of the year already possess those habits of speed and accuracy which the practice lessons are designed to generate. An attempt has been made, therefore, to imbed in the practice work a form of standard test which will enable a teacher both to eliminate those who are up to standard and to measure the effects of her teaching. The test shown in the illustration covers the abilities repre- sented in the first 12 lessons. The factors which determine the difl&culty of this test are so completely known that it is possible to construct as mahy editions of the test as may be desired, so that a teacher may measure a child over and over again and yet be sure that a change in the scores is not due to a change in the measuring instrument itself. In the illustration two forms of this test are shown. During the first week of the term all the children are measured twice with this test. Those who are up to standard are excused from drill and have the time for study in more important work. The others take the practice lessons, and at the end of six or seven weeks of drill the tests are repeated. Upon completing a test, the teacher fills out a record sheet which is sent to the depart- ment and from which tabulations of city-wide results are made. In Fig. 7 an actual record for an eighth-grade class is shown. The tests were giveii on February 8 and 9. There were 25 children in the class, and on the first day three had perfect papers, on the second day two. The average number having perfect papers was, therefore, 10 per cent of the class, and the figure for eflaciency^ at the bottom of the report should have »The reader should note that "efficiency" as here defined means merely the percentage of the children who have completed their training. Class Record ^ DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS Department or Educational Rcskarch ^NACncC TCSTS IN AMITMMCTie Report or TEST.-^.p^^i.-*-^-**^'^*' l,^ch» .1^?/a^ ^ .0Z^^W Total number of children in class — — Number having perfect papers — ■ Per cent, having perfect papers Number missing but one example Per cent, missing but one example ■-. Number excused from Lesson Hoi^Az./ Per cent, excused from Leison Nos. /rr.LiL — ; _. Efficiency /J. . Efficiency Previous Trial Gain — -^T^^"^ Oily Results:— Efficiency Gain Percent ticused— Or« copy of this rvporl fs to be teni to th< 0«piriiMn< ot Eda;j(ioa«l HeSHrcb (nd ilie oilier is to b* kept on file ia Ale lehooL Fig. 7 io84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit Teachers' Record TEACHER'S RECORD SHEET Name ^ ^ JirrvM Schoo fcZ^-vtxu*-^ Grade 7 NM«i oJ C»..Ur,n Scor, Nud^ ^ Tn J. 1. r.^H< n^c...l.U, U.MI Stor, A 1 2 3 4 5 6 ^ 8 9 10 II 12 A I JV^ JWz5w~^ 10 IS 6 7 S a 6 * 2 s ? 5 ^ 24- -.1^^/3.60^ 1 '2 ♦j c£ £ 3_ ^ £ * s_ J <: 3 fZ been 10 per cent instead of 12 per cent as written by the teacher. On the first day there were in this group of 25 children two children who came within one example of having perfect papers. Altogether there were five children who were excused from drill upon lessons i to 12. This means that the three children who were perfect the first day were not the same as the two children who were perfect the second day. Under the con- ditions under which these tests are used, children perfect either day are excused from drill, so that in this class one-fifth of the children had the drill time free to spend upon other lessons. These practice tests are in use in 50 schools with 13,000 children and some 434 classes. The median eflaciency for the entire city is 2.3 per cent; the median per cent of the classes excused for the entire city is 2 . 8 per cent. These results, when reported to the teacher, will be written in on the last line of the class-record sheet, and in this particular case the teacher will see at once that the material in her class is superior to that of the city at large. At the end of seven weeks, the teachers of the city, on a given date, wiU repeat these measurements. From the reports sent in at that time, a second city-wide tabulation will be made, and, from a comparison of the two results, it will be possible to determine the average gain for the different grades. These will be reported back to the teachers and each one will be able to tell at once whether her teaching efforts have produced a greater or less effect than those of other teachers. Each teacher, also, keeps a daily record like that shown in Fig. 8. This record is to be interpreted as follows: John Smith in the first test worked correctly only 24 of the 29 examples in Test A. He was, therefore, required to take the drills. He was able to complete Lesson i in three trials. Lesson 2 in two trials, and so on. In the second test his score was 29 examples, proving that he had benefited by his drills. May Brown, on the other hand, had in the initial test a score of only 10 examples correctly worked, and required a very large number of trials to complete each lesson. Her score in the second test (24) shows that, while her training has helped her greatly, it is not yet complete. Tom Black had an initial score of 12, and after ten weeks of work, in which apparently he was completing each lesson in 4 or 5 trials, his score in the final test was 12, indicating that there was no transfer from the practice work to the examination. Such a child is at once reported to the department for investigation and special assistance. The illustration which has been given represents the attempt to control the con- struction of tests and the conditions under which they are given and scored so completely that the results obtained by different teachers are comparable. Our experiment in Detroit —which is, of course, very limited, as the tests were used for the first time this year- seems to indicate that our efforts have been successful. But it is also certain that for very many years the ordinary teacher's examination will be the chief instrument by which the teacher may measure both the development of the child and the success of her own effort. Accordingly," there is a third type of standardization possible, which Detroit is also attempting. At the beginning of the year, principals were asked to hand in copies of all examina- tions that were given in their schools. An analysis of these was begun, to determine the essential elements of a standard examination for a given grade. A sixth-grade examination m arithmetic was standardized by C. W. Stone. Why should not Detroit standardize examinations for every grade and every subject? This does not mean at all that every teacher must give the same examinations, but that a book of standard examinations may Fig. 8 Superintendence] STANDARDIZATION OF TEACHERS' EXAMINATIONS 1085 be issued later, in which typical examinations for every grade may be shown, with detailed directions for giving and rating the various questions. A teacher would be free to select model questions from any grade or type, or to make up new questions at will. But for each type of question, or for an examination as a whole, the standard models would furnish a guide as to method of rating and as to relative difficulty. The construction of the standard models will, of course, require many years of work, but the most essential step is making a beginning, and that step has been taken in Detroit. Already significant results have been secured and suggestions developed for future experi- mental work and for the construction of tests. For instance, questions on the writing of numbers occur in every grade. In the B-2 grade, 39 per cent of the questions deal with this point, in the A-2 grade but 5 per cent. In the A-4 grade, the number has dropped to 2 per cent of the total questions asked, and the percentage for this topic remains at about this figure, being also 2 per cent of the total number of questions asked in the eighth grade. Evidently a standard test covering this one point is needed, and the con- truction of such a test will be undertaken in the immediate future. In precisely similar fashion, it has been found that questions dealing with the mere mechanics of addition of fractions are about 2 per cent of the total number of questions in the A-3 examinations, about 10 per cent of the B-4 questions, 9 per cent of the B-5 questions, 6 per cent of the A-5, and i per cent of the B-6. From this point on they occur less frequently than once in one hundred questions. It is very evident from these figures that the addition of fractions is learned in grades B-4 to A-5. An examination of the questions themselves shows a certain increase in difficulty in these grades. The department, therefore, will formulate in a very definite way typical questions in the addition of fractions for these grades. It will determine, by the direct giving and scoring of these standard questions, their relative difficulty. Finally, both the questions them- selves, and the standards derived from them, together with the information secured as to the factors to be controlled in the construction of questions of equal difficulty, will be issued in such form that the information will be available for all the teachers of the city. Similar analysis of the questions in the history, geography, and English-composition papers is now under way. The most important conclusion so far drawn from this work is that a very large number of elements are ordinarily covered in a conventional examination. Questions involving thought and the use of knowledge occur with questions involving purely mechan- ical skills. Moreover, it is the general custom to divide the credits equally amOng the questions in the examinations without regard to their real character or difficulty. Under these conditions, a mark of 75 per cent has no meaning, for it is not 75 per cent of a given desired ability, but of a complex of abilities, and may indicate merely that the child has neither the information nor the skill to do any of the work adequately. In the opinion of the writer, questions involving the development of skills, such, for instance, as the addition of whole numbers, or the addition of fractions, or the reading of Arabic numbers, should not occur in final examinations. Each specific skill can be adequately measured only by a test composed wholly of examples of a single type. The best exam- ination, also, is not that represented by the score of a single performance on a certain day. Human effort is too variable and human skill too easily upset to make it fair to have promotions depend upon such chance scores. For these mechanical skills promotions should depend upon the median performance of a large number of trials thru the term; i.e., they should depend upon the daily increase in amount and quality of scores toward the standard, thru a long period of time. If a child has shown consistent development in repeated tests during the term, a single poor performance on a certain day has little sig- nificance. On the other hand, questions involving thought and power to do are of quite a different character. We are today in desperate need of a measuring scale for ability in thinking and reasoning. The department is undertaking the measurement of reasoning jo36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit problems in arithmetic, following the general plans of Buckingham and Ayres in spelling. How rapidly this work can proceed no one can tell, but in this, as in the other types of standardization suggested above, progress will depend greatly upon the co-operative efforts of many workers; and if this paper stimulates the efforts of other members of this organization along these same lines, it will have served its purpose. IMPROVING INSTRUCTION THRU EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT FRANK W. BALLOU, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INVESTIGATION AND MEASUREMENT, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASS. The Department of Educational Investigation and Measurement in Boston is under- taking its measurement work on the theory that "the ultimate purpose of all educational measurement is to increase the effectiveness of the instruction which the child receives." THREE STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF IMPROVEMENT In the process of improving educational results thru educational measurement, three quite distinct steps are involved: 1. The quahty of the educational results now being obtained must be measured by the best available standard tests as a basis for determining just what the present educa- tional achievement is. This involves also analyzing that achievement and judging it in the light of what, for a better term, may be called a standard achievement. 2. After the present educational achievement has been thus analyzed, suggestions must be made for improvement where results are unsatisfactory. These suggestions may be given in informal conferences with individual teachers or with groups, or they may be presented to teachers in the form of printed reports. The sagacious superintendent or school ofl&cial will not put them into the form of ofl&cial orders. 3. When a reasonable time.has elapsed after the suggestions have been made, similar standard tests must be repeated to determine what effect, if any, the suggestions have had on the instruction. These second tests should not be given until the teachers have had ample time in which to put the suggestions into operation. The suggestions cannot be made today and the tests given tomorrow, or even next week. PRESENT STATUS OF EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT IN BOSTON In Boston, as elsewhere, the measurement of educational results is in its initial stages. In Boston the first step in the above program has been taken in several sub- jects; the second step has been taken in a few cases; but the third step has not as yet been taken in any subject except for the four fundamental operations in arithmetic. It is the purpose of this paper to outline, briefly, the educational-measurement work which has been started in Boston, and to review more fully the results which have been achieved for the four fundamental operations in arithmetic, because that is the subject which has received special attention for a sufficient length of time to warrant the expectation of measurable results. The work which has already been undertaken in Boston to determine the present educational achievements will now be briefly described. I. Accurate copying. — One of the eight requirements in English for graduation from an elementary school, defined by the committee on standards in English and approved and put into effect by the Board of Superintendents, reads: A graduate of an elementary school should be able to copy at least twelve lines of simple prose or poetry and a bill of at least seven items. Copying is not an end in itself, but a means to an end. The pupils should be made to see that accuracy in arithmetic, language, and other subjects may depend largely on accuracy in copying. Superintendence] IMPROVING INSTRUCTION THRU MEASUREMENT 1087 A standard test was prepared by the department and given to 4,944 first-year high- school pupils in November after they had been in the high school only about two months. For our purpose they were considered only elementary-school graduates. In this test the department was concerned with finding out to what extent elementary-school gradu- ates measure up to this theoretical standard. The standard for accurate copying, based on the median achievement of those 4,944 pupils, is stated as follows: A boy graduating from the elementary school should be able to copy fifteen and a half lines (four and a half inches long, or thirty ems of ten-point type) of ordinary prose in fifteen minutes, making not more than five errors of any kind (spelling, punctuation, capitalization, words added, words omitted, wrong words used, misplaced words, uncrossed ^'s, and undotted i's). A girl graduating from the elementary school should be able to copy sixteen lines of ordinary prose in fifteen minutes, making not more than three errors of any kind. (Length of line and kinds of errors same as above.) A mixed class of boys and girls should be able to copy sixteen lines of ordinary prose in fifteen minutes, making not more than four errors of any kind. (Length of Ime and kinds of errors same as above.) In due time, after teachers have had opportunity to study the successes and failures of pupils in this test, and also have had opportunity to improve their instruction, another test of the same kind will be given to measure the improvement. 2. Spelling. — The department is proceeding on the assumption that one of the reasons for the lack of ability to spell on the part of some pupils lies in the fact that teachers are spreading their instruction over too many words, many of which are prac- tically useless to the pupil. As a means of economizing the time of teacher and pupil, and improving the pupil's ability to spell, the department is preparing a course of study for each grade, which shall consist primarily of words used voluntarily by normal pupils in their written work. In making up the lists of words for each grade, teachers were asked to furnish lists of alleged diflScult words. The teachers' lists have revealed two things: first, that mere opinion or a priori reasoning is not an adequate basis for determining the degree of dij6&- culty of spelling for given words, because many of the alleged difiicult words were spelled correctly by 990 out of 1,000 pupils in a rigid test given last May; secondly, that many of the words which teachers have reported as being diflficult to spell are words which elementary-school pupils should not be expected to spell. Teachers have been trying to teach such words as convalescence, coup6, crochet, diaphragm, dilatory, equilibrium, fictitious, hypotenuse, impenetrability, knuckles, licorice, malleable, mayonnaise, naphtha, phlegm, quadrilateral, reminiscence, sovereignty, and zephyr when the children are misspelling such common words as business, divide, either, enough, fourth, library, ninety, similar, straight, their, there, and which. Limiting instruction to a reasonable list of words, and thereby economizing the time and energy of both teacher and pupil, is the first step which Boston has taken toward improvement in spelling. Boston has also taken another step to promote better spelling. As a result of the tests given last May, the degree of difiiculty of each word in the spelling-lists for the various grades has been determined according to the ability of 1,000 pupils to spell it. Each word has thus been standardized, so that each teacher knows what words are most difficult for the children of her grade. She likewise knows with what degree of accuracy the children of her class ought to spell the assigned words. One further step has been taken in Boston. A committee of Boston teachers has been organized to study the various methods of teaching spelling. This committee has reviewed all the periodical and other literature touching on this subject which has been published during the last several years. The recommendations of each educational writer on methods in spelling were discussed by the committee, and each teacher during the next ten weeks is to carry on in her school an experiment involving some phase of the jo88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit methods of teaching spelling. At the close of this year's work a printed report for teachers will set forth the results of these experiments. 3. Geography. — The first and second steps in the above program have also been taken in the subject of geography. A test was recently given covering certain phases of the geography of the United States and Europe. Exactly the same test was given to 594 eighth-grade pupils, to 166 third-year high-school pupils, and to 83 first-year pupils in the Boston Normal School. The most surprising result shown by this test is that so little of what has been taught in the sixth grade remams in the minds of eighth-grade, high-school, or normal-school pupils. This test has indicated the urgent need of defining the minimum essentials in the course of study, if pupils graduating from the elementary school are to carry with them a knowledge of those common facts of geography which should be the intellectual possession of every person. 4. Penmanship.— T)i& quality of the handwriting of elementary-school graduates has also been studied. A random selection of 600 papers was made from the 4,944 papers written in the test in accurate copying. These papers were studied by a committee of six Boston teachers who are especially proficient in the teaching of penmanship. The papers were rated according to the Ayres scale for adult handwriting, disregarding the even-numbered specimens in that scale. The committee has also analyzed the merits and defects of these specimens of hand- writing, and a report is being prepared for distribution among the teachers of the city. The department believes that merely calling the attention of teachers to the merits and defects of the handwriting of the children is to promote systematic improvement. 5. Addition of fractions. — In December a test in the addition of fractions, prepared by the department, was given in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of the elementary schools. The usual procedure of analyzing the results and printing a report for the use of teachers will be followed. 6. Four fundamentals in arithmetic. — Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are the only phases of any subject in which educational measurement has been carried on for a sufficient length of time to make it reasonable to expect any tangible results therefrom. The remaining portion of this paper will describe the methods employed to utilize the results of the Courtis tests in Boston, and the improved results which have been obtained for the four fundamental operations. The Courtis standard tests were introduced into Boston in October, 191 2, when Mr. Courtis was employed by the School Committee to make a study of the results of arith- metic instruction. Since that time the Courtis standard tests have been given five times in Boston. The introduction of the tests into the city has been gradual. They were first given in twenty-one of the seventy elementary schools of the city. Gradually from ten to fifteen more schools have been added in the five successive testing periods, until in May, 1915, all of the seventy elementary schools were tested, involving 214 buildings and 55.277 pupils. METHODS EMPLOYED TO IMPROVE INSTRUCTION Before taking up a detailed account of the results of testing work in arithmetic, it will be well to consider the use which has been made from time to time of the results of that testing work. This will illustrate not only how the improvement in the four funda- mental operations in arithmetic has been brought about, but it will also show the methods by which the department undertakes the improvement of instruction in any subject. I. Standards have been established. — Objective standards of achievement in the four fundamental operations in arithmetic have been established for Grades IV to VIII in the elementary schools. These standards have been established on the basis of the median achievement of all the pupils in all the schools tested. These standards not only represent the present educational achievement of the elementary schools in the four fundamental operations, but they indicate a reasonable achievement for any class of normal pupils. Superintendence] IMPROVING INSTRUCTION THRU MEASUREMENT 1089 As in other cities, Boston finds great variation in the achievement of pupils and classes — a condition which appears to a considerable extent as unnecessary as it is educa- tionally disadvantageous. The lower 29 per cent of the eighth-grade pupils have no more ability than the upper 29 per cent of the fourth-grade pupils. Ultimately this variation should be reduced thru a better educational classification of pupils. If these objective standards become the end to be attained by pupil and teacher, and if they become an incentive for both to put forth their best efforts or to economize time, as the case may be, the results cannot be other than a more homogeneous group of pupils in each class and grade. 2. Formal reports have been made. — The report made to each teacher places her in a position to know how her class stands in comparison with the established standard for that grade. What is still more important, these reports tell her which pupils made low scores and probably need special attention and which pupils made high scores, and hence should not be subjected to any unnecessary further drill. A report has been made to each principal after each test, showing the relative stand- ing of his school in the city and of each class in his school. Every principal may find from these reports which classes stand relatively low and should have special attention in his supervision. These reports have been made as professional and more or less confidential reports from the director of the department to the principal of the school. Detailed comparison of the work of one teacher with that of another, which is likely to arouse controversy or hard feeling, has been studiously avoided. The form of the report has been such as to protect the individual teacher, and no publicity has attended it. What official use is made of the report is left entirely to the discretion of each principal. The superintendent has been furnished with copies of all statistical tabulations and reports for his information and for such individual use as he cares to make of them. Inasmuch as educational measurement is at present fairly well begun in Boston, the Board of Superintendents and the department are now engaged in working out a plan for placing the results of educational measurement in the hands of each assistant superin- tendent, to be used in his supervision of schools and teachers. When such a plan has been perfected, the necessary official machinery will have been set up for securing the most effective and far-reaching benefits from the work of the department. From the above description it is clear that the results thus far achieved in educational measurement have been brought about without administrative pressure of any kind. The department has no authority whatever over principals, and has not undertaken to direct them. Whatever has been accomplished has been brought about thru the pro- fessional attitude of principals and teachers toward this problem of economizing time and effort in the obtaining of a satisfactory result. The credit for the achievement belongs, therefore, to the principals and teachers rather than to the department of which the writer is director. 3 . Printed bulletins have been distributed. — In addition to the reports just described, the department has prepared bulletins analyzing the statistical results, explaining their signifi- cance, and suggesting methods of improving unsatisfactory results. These bulletins have been published as School Committee documents and a copy has been given to each teacher. 4. Systematic practice material has been introduced. — Undoubtedly the most important means of improving instruction in the four fundamental operations in arithmetic has been the introduction of systematic practice material or exercises which take the place of the former general class drill in which every child practiced on the same exercise. The Courtis tests have demonstrated conclusively that the mass or class-drill exercises in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are ineffective and uneconomical. Mass drills provide unnecessary practice for the more capable third of the class, and hence are uneconomical; they do not provide enough practice for the less capable third of the class, and hence are ineffective. An economic distribution of drill requires that it provide a m^ans of reaching the individual needs of the forty pupils of the class. logo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit The department has not insisted on the use of any particular kind of practice material. Reports from the principals show that over 80 per cent are using one or more of five different kinds. The department has felt that each principal should be left to use that educational material which he and his teachers believe to be most effective, but the department then expects these principals and teachers to produce satisfactory results. This brief sketch will give a general notion of the methods by which the department believes the educational results in various subjects can be improved. Undoubtedly the objective standards of achievement, the various reports made to teachers, to principals, and to the superintendent, the printing of bulletins for general distribution, the intro- duction of scientific practice material, have all contributed something toward the improve- ment of results in arithmetic. Of more pronounced effect probably than any of these factors, however, has been the stunulation among teachers of an inquiring attitude toward the whole problem of arithmetic instruction. The results of the tests have shown the need of improvement; they have shown that the problem of arithmetic teaching is not yet solved, and they have prompted many teachers to study their own work as the first step toward improving methods of instruction. MEASURING IMPROVEMENT IN ARITHMETICAL RESULTS Courtis standard tests, Series A, were given during the first year the Courtis tests were used in Boston, three years ago; and Series B has been used since then. Unfortu- nately, for our purpose, this makes it impossible to compare the achievement of pupils in 191 2, when the tests were first given, with the achievement in 1915, after three years' use. A most significant comparison can be made, however, between the results achieved in May, 19 15, in the schools where the tests had been given for a period of three years and the results obtained in schools where the tests were given in May, 1915, for the first time. This comparison will show the cumulative effect of giving the tests in a group of schools over a three-year period. To make this comparison, the seventy elementary schools of Boston were divided into three groups and the results tabulated accordingly. Group A schools in the following discussion are those in which the tests have been given since 1912. In Group A there are twenty-nine schools and 18,391 pupils represented. Group B schools are those which were added during the second year or the first half of the third year of testing. They are schools which have been tested for periods of from one to two years, schools in which the effects of the testing may legitimately vary. In Group B there are seventeen schools and 15,241 pupils represented. Group C schools are those in which the tests were given for the first time in May, 1915. They are schools which have not been affected by the Courtis testing work in the city, except in so far as general discussion of the work has affected individual teachers or principals. It should be said, however, that principals of these schools have had oppor- tunity to introduce the practice material, and that several of them have done so. If these schools had not been at all affected by the system of educational measurement in the city, the superiority of the schools tested would have been even greater than it is. In Group C there are seventeen districts and 11,836 pupils represented. In the following comparisons particular attention will be directed to the achievements of Group A schools and Group C schools, because these two groups represent the two extremes, the former having received the full effect of the testing work and the latter supposedly not any. It should be understood that the schools tested by Mr. Courtis in 191 2-13 were so selected as to represent the varying conditions found in the city. This same care has been taken in adding schools from year to year, so that one group of schools possesses no inherent superiority over another group. By way of summary let it be noted: (i) that all the public elementary schools of the city are involved in this comparison; (2) that each group (A-B-C) is representative Superintendence] IMPROVING INSTRUCTION THRU MEASUREMENT 1091 of the varying conditions in the city; and (3) that the number of pupils involved is sufficiently large to constitute a reliable basis of comparison, COMPARISON OF MEDIAN SCORES OF GROUP A, GROUP B, AND GROUP C SCHOOLS BY SUBJECTS. MAY, I915 TABLE I Addition Grade Group A Group B GROxn> C Speed Accuracy Speed Accuracy Speed Accuracy VIII 14.4 12.9 II. S 9.3 8.2 79.07 per cent 77.50 per cent 78.17 per cent 72.93 per cent 70.00 per cent 13. 1 II. 6 10.4 7.6 77 . 84 per cent 74- IS per cent 72.72 per cent 71.61 per cent 65.15 per cent 12.6 II. 6 II. I 0 4 7-7 76 . 41 per cent 74.24 per cent 74 . 14 per cent 68.64 per cent 63.11 per cent VII VI V IV The arrangement of the above table makes a comparison easy. For example, in the addition tests in Grade VIII, Group A schools achieved a median score of 14.4 examples attempted, with an accuracy of 79.07 per cent; Group C schools achieved a median score of 1 2 . 6 examples attempted, with an accuracy of 76 . 41 per cent. From a compari- son of these scores we find that in addition Group A schools show a superiority over Group C schools of i . 8 examples attempted. This is a superiority of 14 . 3 per cent in amount of work done, and the table also shows a superiority of 2 . 66 per cent in accuracy for Group A schools. TABLE II Subtraction Grade Group A Group B Group C Speed Accuracy Speed Accuracy Speed Accuracy VIII 14.6 12.9 ii-S 9 3 7.9 89 . 73 per cent 87.57 per cent 88 . 01 per cent 85 . 14 per cent 83 . 63 per cent 131 II. 7 10.7 9.4 7.5 88.77 per cent 86 . 26 per cent 8s . 69 per cent 84.44 per cent 81 . 56 per cent 12.4 "•5 II. 0 9.0 7-1 86.02 per cent 84.02 per cent VII VI V 80.64 per cent IV 78.28 per cent This comparison shows that, in subtraction, Group A schools possess a superiority over Group C schools of 2 . 2 examples attempted, or of 17.7 per cent. In achieving this increase of 17.7 per cent in the amount of work done. Group A schools have also at the same time surpassed Group C schools in accuracy by 2.81 per cent. TABLE III Multiplication Grade Group A Group B Group C Speed Accuracy Speed Accuracy Speed Accuracy VIII 12. 1 10.8 9-5 ■ 7-6 6.1 82 . 58 per cent 81.58 percent 78.45 percent 75.69 per cent 70.95 per cent II. 2 10.3 8.8 7-7 5 9 81 . 19 per cent 79.28 per cent 76.67 per cent 76.01 per cent 67.45 per ecnt 10.8 10. 1 9-4 80.42 per cent VII VI 79.93 per cent V. . 70.97 per cent IV This comparison shows that, in multiplication. Group A schools possess a superiority over Group C schools of 1.3 examples attempted, or of 12 per cent. Group A schools surpass Group C schools in accuracy by 2.16 per cent. 1092 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Detroit TABLE IV Division Group A Group B Group C GSADE Speed Accuracy Speed Accuracy Speed Accuracy vni 12.7 10.9 8.0 6.2 4-7 93 . 46 per cent 89.34 per cent 88 . 09 per cent 78 . 98 per cent 65 . 85 per cent 12.0 0.6 4.6 92.08 per cent 87.63 per cent 85 . 03 per cent 80.05 per cent 59.11 per cent XI.O 11 6.2 4.8 89.72 per cent 86.37 per cent vn VI V 73 • 68 per cent 63 . II per cent IV This comparison shows that, in division, Group A schools possess a superiority over Group C schools of i . 7 examples attempted, or of 15 . 5 per cent in amount of work done. In doing this increased amount of work, Group A schools have at the same time increased the accuracy with which the work has been done, so that they now surpass Group C schools in accuracy by 3 . 74 per cent. In the preceding discussion comparisons have been limited to Group A and Group C schools and to the results in Grade VIII. The following table, based on the preceding tables, institutes a comparison concerning all three groups of schools and the five grades from the fourth to the eighth, inclusive. The table shows the difference between the speed median and accuracy median achieved in Group A and in Group B and Group C schools respectively. The following table is to be interpreted as follows: In Grade VIII the pupils in Group A schools exceed in ability the pupils in Group B schools by a median score of i . 3 VIII VII. VI.. V... IV.. vi: vi: VI V. IV vm vn. VI.. V... IV.. TABLE V Addition Group B Schools Group C Schools In Speed In Accuracy In Speed In Accuracy VIII 1-3 1.3 I.I -I 1 . 23 per cent 3.35 per cent 5. 45 per cent 1.32 per cent 4.85 per cent 1.8 1-3 ■4 •5 2 . 66 per cent 3 . 26 per cent 4.03 per cent 4.29 per cent 6 . 89 per cent VII VI V... IV Subtraction i-S 1.2 . 96 per cent 1.31 per cent 2.32 per cent . 70 per cent 3.07 per cent 2. 2 1-4 • S • 3 2.81 per cent 2 . 65 per cent — .72 per cent 4 . 50 per cent 5.35 per cent Multiplication VIII .9 • S .7 — .1 .2 1 . 39 per cent 2 . 30 per cent 1 . 78 per cent -.32 per cent 3 . so per cent 1.3 •7 .1 ■ 3 • 3 2.16 per cent I . so per cent — 1.48 per cent 4.72 per cent VII ;■■ VI V IV ;■■ 7 • 34 per cent Division 3 . 74 per cent 2.97 per cent 1.37 per cent 5.30 per cent 3 . 74 per cent I Superintendence] IMPROVING INSTRUCTION THRU MEASUREMENT 1093 examples attempted and by i . 23 per cent in the accuracy with which they do their work; the same pupils surpass the pupils in Group C schools by a median score of i . 8 examples attempted and by 2 . 66 per cent in the accuracy with which they do their work. In the ten cases where the number is preceded by a minus sign the median for Group A schools is lower than the median for the group given. In the seventy cases where no sign precedes the figure the advantage is in favor of Group A schools. A few brief statements, without discussion, will summarize the conclusions to be drawn from this comparative table: 1. In the amount of work done in the four fundamental operations, Group A schools show superiority over Group B schools in sixteen out of twenty comparisons and over Group C schools in eighteen out of twenty comparisons. 2. In the accuracy with which the work is done, Group A schools show superiority over both Group B and Group C schools in seventeen out of twenty comparisons. 3. The ten cases in which Group A schools are surpassed in speed or accuracy by Group B or Group C schools are distributed as follows: TABLE VI Group B Group C Total Grade VIII Grade VII Grade VI 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 2 I I 0 0 Grade V 7 Grade IV Total 6 4 10 It is to be expected that in the earlier grades the differences between those schools tested and those not tested will be found to be small, because the cumulative effect of testing work can be hoped for only after several years of effort, and hence must always be found largely in the upper grades. SIGNIFICANT OBSERVATIONS 1. The difference in amount of work done as shown in a comparison of Group A, Group B, and Group C schools is slight in the earlier grades and gradually grows more pronounced, until in the eighth grade the superiority of Group A schools over Group C schools is from 12 to 17.7 per cent. 2. This gain of from 12 to 17.7 per cent in the amount of work done has also been accompanied by an actual increase in the accuracy with which that work is done. Altho the idea has not been developed in this paper, it is proper to point out that in all testing work undertaken by the department those pupils who do most work do it most accurately. This is a refutation of the contention of would-be critics that pupils are inaccurate in the Courtis tests because they are hurried in their work. 3. The fact that the 18,391 pupils represented in Group A schools are graduating from the elementary school or are going into the next grade with varying degrees of superiority up to 17.7 per cent over the 11,839 pupils who have not been tested is alto- gether due directly or indirectly to the system of educational measurement in Boston. 4. It is also a significant fact that this achievement has been brought about without the exercise of any administrative pressure of any kind whatsoever. The results are wholly due to the desire of principals and teachers to make the best possible use of the time of teachers and pupils in securing a reasonably satisfactory educational result. 5. These results seem to prove two important propositions: (i) that the scientific measurement of educational results is possible and practicable in a large city school system; and (2) that educational measurement may be a means of improving those educational results. jo^4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit ROUND TABLE OF COMPULSORY EDUCATION, SCHOOL CENSUS, AND CHILD WELFARE DOES A STRICT ENFORCEMENT OP THE COMPULSORY-EDUCATION LAW ASSIST TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THEIR WORK? EDWARD B. SHALLOW, ASSOCIATE CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y. On May i, 19 14, a Bureau of Attendance, School Census, and Child Welfare was organized in the city of New York. In the work of this bureau, an attempt is made to have an up-to-date record of every child of school age within the city, to see that all such children are kept regularly in school, if they are fit to attend, and to bring to the aid of children who need help the assistance of social welfare agencies. Thru the work of this bureau, we have gathered much useful information while enforcing the law. In the brief time at my disposal, I shall try to tell you how a strict enforcement of the compulsory-education law helps the work of teachers by increasing attendance, reducing retardation, and conserving a teacher's nervous energy. I. Increasing attendance.— The. 327 square miles of territory in the city of New York are divided into attendance districts, for the purposes of taking the school census and of enforcing the compulsory-education law. In this territory, there are approximately 1,326,500 persons between five and eighteen years of age; 850,000 of these are enrolled in public schools. During the past year, the percentage of attendance on the register was 90 per cent. The following regulations governing the admission, transfer, and discharge of pupils in the city of New York may be of interest. Before these regulations were in force, thousands of children disappeared while transferring from one school to another. The regulations provide that: No pupil enrolled in a public school shall be discharged except by order of the prin- cipal for one of the following causes, which must be well established in each case: (i) proper and known admission to another school or to an institution; (2) the issuance of a duly authorized transfer; (3) commitment to a truant school or other reformatory institution; (4) transfer or expulsion in accordance with subdivisions 3, 4, and 5 of section 48 of the by-laws; (5) commitment to a charitable institution by a parent or guardian, a court, or a public officer; (6) notice from the director of attendance that an employment certificate has been issued and that the name of the child has been placed on the general suspense register; (7) death; (8) marriage; (9) graduation; in such case, the principal shall report the name of the child to the bureau of attendance, if it has not received a transfer to another school, or at the time of graduation has not obtained an emplo)Tiient certificate; (10) withdrawal by parent for any one of the following reasons: (a) instruction at home by a competent teacher, provided the district superintendent of the district in which the child lives has been notified and has approved the amount and the character of instruction- (&) physical disability certified as to cause and duration by a physician or other person duly recognized by the regents of the state of New York, provided the duration of such ph3rsical disability shall amoimt to one month; (c) mental disability when duly certified as sufficient for discharge by the city superintendent of schools; (11) permanent removal from the dty; (12) inability to locate the residence of the pupil, when such fact shall have been duly reported to the principal of the school by the director of attendance. The director of attendance shall maintain a general suspense register on which shall be placed the names of children residing in the city of New York, imder sixteen years of age, who have been discharged and who are not regularly enrolled in a recognized school. He may require reports concerning the admission, transfer, and discharge of children from the public schools, and may arrange with schools not under the control of the board of education for similar reports. Superintendenccl THE COMPULSORY EDUCATION LAW 109s Immigrant children admitted under bond by the immigration authorities to attend school for a given time shall not be discharged before the expiration of that time, except by permission of the director of attendance, nor shall a school record of attendance be issued to any such immigrant child to enable it to obtain an employment certificate, except by permission of the director of attendance. When a pupil leaves school thru promotion or authorized transfer, a duplicate of his or her record card at the time of promotion or transfer shall be forwarded to the principal of the school to which such pupil is transferred. The date and cause of discharge shall be entered immediately on the original and the duplicate of the record card of such pupil discharged as hereinbefore provided. Every child is required to attend a school situated in the school district in which he resides. Within said district he shall attend the school nearest his residence. These requirements may be suspended by the city superintendent of schools. The better method of enforcing the compulsory-education law, made affective in May, 1 9 14, in the city of New York, and a stricter accountability of each attendance officer for the amount of work done each day, have done much, not only in increasing attendance at school but in preventing juvenile delinquency. Yet the law is not strictly enforced; this is not due to the method provided for doing the work, but rather to the inadequate financial support which the departments gets from the city government. An evidence that a better enforcement of the compulsory-education law has increased attendance in the city of New York, may be seen in the fact that twelve years ago the attendance was only 86 per cent of the average register in public schools, whereas last year it was 90 per cent. A difference of 4 per cent less attendance in the enrolment of the New York schools for the past year would mean that 34,000 enrolled children had not attended school regularly. The most notable example of a city which is fairly successful in accounting for all the children of school age within its limits is the city of London. There the compulsory-school age is from five to fourteen years, and there the teachers are relieved from the anxiety of looking after absentees. The Bureau of School Attendance inspects the registers of every school to find out who is absent. The teaching staff has only to note the fact of absence. The attendance department in the public schools of London accounts for all children of compulsory-school age within the city. Within the six years from 1905 to 19 10, there were on the rolls of London schools from 97 . 3 per cent to 97 . 5 per cent of all the children of compulsory-school age. Under a strict enforcement of the compulsory-education law in London, the per- centage of attendance in public schools steadily increased for ten years, and showed a gain of nearly 10 per cent. Under the same public supervision, the gain in attendance was at the same rate in private and parochial schools. An effort is made to accoimt for every child of compulsory-school age, and, if such a child is not in school, to give a satisfactory reason for his absence. But how can any city, large or small, have a proper supervision of the school attend- ance of its children without an effective organization and a suitable force of agents for taking a school census and compelling attendance ? In most American cities hitherto, the work of attendance officers has been largely a laughing-stock. The statistics of six years ago showed the following facts: New York had 9,300 school children for each attendance officer' Boston had 5,800 school children for each attendance officer Philadelphia had 4,700 school children for each attendance officer Dublin had 2,600 school children for each attendance officer Glasgow had 2,104 school children for each attendance officer London had 2,086 school children for each attendance officer 1096 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Detroit In keeping with the careless way in which American school boards generally look upon the matter of keeping children of compulsory-school age in school is the attitude of magis- trates in enforcing parental responsibility. In towns where there are no children's courts, the same magistrate or justice of the peace before whom adults charged with felonies are arraigned is also called upon to hear charges against "hookey-players" and their negligent parents, and against those who employ children illegally. The magistrate's view of these, to him, minor afifairs is generally one of justice tempered with too much mercy, and parents are not held to a proper accoimt- ability. Why, the dignified man on the bench may have "played hookey" himself forty or fifty years ago! The question comes to his mind: "Is non-attendance at school such a serious offense?" But the London magistrates think it is, because in one year they punished 10,600 adults for keeping children out of school. In the same year. New York — with about the same school enrolment — pimished 1,500 adults for the same offense. Philadelphia in the same year enforced a greater responsibility than New York. In Germany, the punishment for keeping children from school during the compulsory- school age is accepted as almost certain, unless a valid reason can be given for absence. But illegal absence from school, and especially truancy, meant much less fifty years ago in this coimtry. Then, when the population was more largely rural, if a boy was a truant he usually went a-fishing, or played games in open fields, or went for a day to a circus in his own or a neighboring town. Now, if he plays truant in a large city, he is likely to fall into the worst of companionship, to consort with loafers and juvenile criminals, and to learn vice and crime. Statistics show that most of the juvenile criminals have been at some time truants. The following excerpt from Bulletin No. 573 of the United States Bureau of Education, entitled Compulsory School Attendance, is also significant as showing the effect of a strict enforcement of the compulsory-education law in increasing attendance: An experiment was conducted by the truancy department of the Indianapolis schools several years ago by having the truant officer visit the school daily and obtain the names of all absentees. AH cases of absence were visited, even tho a good excuse, such as sick- ness, was known to exist. Altho many children were excluded at that time, as medical inspection had been recently introduced, the absentees during the four-months' period were 20 per cent less than for the corresponding period of the preceding year. The method W£is discontinued, as it imposed too much work upon the officer, whose duties were already heavy. Money so expended would, however, bear dividends far beyond those accruing to the more or less haphazard method under present conditions. As stated in this report, money expended in a strict enforcement of the compulsory- education law would bear good dividends. But if we are to accoimt for every child of school age and see that he is in school, cities should do more in providing suitable special classes and schools for the physically and mentally defective, for the blind, the deaf, the crippled, and the mentally abnormal. Some cities have made good beginnings along these lines. Such efforts would do much in saving ultimate expense for charitable and correctional institutions for adults. In one attendance district in the city of New York, comprising 35 schools, the per- centage of attendance has increased in every school during the past two years, since the work of the attendance Bureau has been brought xmder an efficient system. Where formerly there was uncertamty and speculation as to how much work each attendance officer was actually doing each day, now it is a matter of definiteness and responsibility. If a pupil is detained from school temporarily thru sickness, poverty, or neglect, his case is not neglected. He is returned to school at the earliest possible time. 2. Reduction of retardation in studies. — When we consider the waste in money and time, both to the individual and to the community, occasioned by the retardation of children in school, and realize that much of such retardation is due to unnecessary and preventable absence, it will be seen that money expended in a strict enforcement of compulsory-education laws is largely offset by money saved in teachers' salaries and SuperintendenceJ THE COMPULSORY EDUCATION LAW IO97 school equipment. The truth of this statement is, it would seem, axiomatic. An appeal to common experience is sufficient to justify it. A proper record of promotions and non- promotions in almost any community will show this. The following extracts from the records of the bureau of attendance in the dty of New York are pertinent: The significance of the practice of extending the attendance service beyond the mere control of truancy by police methods is further emphasized by the summary of facts regarding the relation of absence to non-promotion. In a study made of non-promotions in New York a few years ago, nearly one-half of the pupils who failed of promotion were absent over two-fifths of the school term, and 70 per cent were absent from school at least 30 days during the half-year. These data, furthermore, take account only of the pupils who failed of promotion on June 30. Important as it imquestionably is to discover and control truancy in its incipiency, it is obvious that the occasional truant is not the only problem-maker. A conservative program of attendance control must find effective means for dealing with the very large number of children who by sporadic absence for trivial causes not only lessen their own chances for making satisfactory progress in school, but, by requiring an undue amount of the attention of teachers, handicap those pupils who are reg\dar in attendance. 3. Saving in nervous energy of teachers and supervisors. — ^That well-planned and enthusiastic teaching is facilitated by the regularity of the attendance of pupils needs no demonstration. A school organization which works smoothly naturally makes no extra draughts on the nervous energy of the teacher. But where irregularity in the attendance of the pupils is common, it is difficult to plan and difficult to execute. Where a teacher's time is divided between teaching and acting as attendance officer, energy which should be given to teaching is lost. It was seriously proposed in one of our large cities last year that the attendance- officer force should be reduced or dispensed with, and that the teachers should, before and after school hours, investigate all absences of pupils by visits to their homes. That a teacher should visit homes of pupils in a rural community, or even in a smaller city, is advisable. Such visits often help the teacher in knowing how to deal with certain pupils and in getting in touch with parents. But in a large cosmopolitan city, I would not ask teachers to visit homes. The disadvantages of the practice in such places are too great for the results obtained. Attendance officers should be engaged, if possible, who have both the spirit and the earnestness of the teacher and of the missionary. Such officers' visits to homes may result in as much, or possibly more, good than the visit of a teacher. In conclusion, let me urge upon the officials of every large city-school system the importance of having an efficient bureau, both for the taking of an up-to-date school census, and for a prompt, strict, and efficient enforcement of the compulsory-education law. And let me add that, in iny judgment, the time is not far distant when the large American cities will have to know, at all times, not only who the school children are, and where they are, but also who the adult residents of the city are, what their occupations are, and where they may be found. Then such cities may be able to know what percentage of their children of school age are in school. ■ DISCUSSION Henry D. Hervey, superintendent of schools. Auburn, N. Y. — ^As applied to the field of education, democracy demands absolute equality of educational opportunity for all. It demands that every human being capable of being educated shall be given his fair and equal chance to attain the largest measure of self-development. We have made progress toward the realization of this ideal in the past. Schools have been made free and accessible to all. The principle that schools supported by all should meet the needs of all has been fairly well established, tho progress in the discovery of varying types to be lopS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION , [Detroit educated, and in the adaptation of courses and methods to meet the needs of these vary- ing types when discovered, has been slow and is as yet far from complete. Whether the faith which the people now fondly place in the public schools will continue unshaken depends largely upon the sincerity, the vigor, and the skill with which this supreme task of discovery and adaptation is prosecuted. No greater calamity could befall the schools and the nation than to have that faith destroyed. But the policy of free education in a democracy demands not only that there shall be a school for every child with instruction skilfully adapted to meet his individual need; it demands also and equally that every child shall be in school and in fit condition to receive and to profit by the instruction offered. A free school is a mockery to the child who is not free to enter. It is a mockery to the child who, by reason of physical or mental limitations, cannot assimilate what is taught. The democratic ideal demands a school offering to each what is best for each, with freedom for each to take what is offered. With increasing energy, intelligence, and efficiency, the majority of the states have pro- tected each child in his right to attend the school— the majority of the states, but not all; hence the Keating-Owen bill. What justification or necessity is there for this bill ? The Keating-Owen bill is based on the belief that self-preservation is the first law of a nation; that good citizens are necessary to the welfare, to the very life, of the state; that good citizens are as necessary in one section of the nation as in another; that good citizens can be produced only thru education; that child labor interferes with education, spoils the future citizen in the making, rendering him alike unfit for full productive efficiency in his maturer years and for future, education; that the children of the nation have as much right to protection in one section of the nation as in another; that the nation has no right to permit the wanton waste of the physical and mental capital of the coming generation in any part of its domain; that the prerequisite and fundamental condition of all preparedness is intelligent citizenship; that Macaulay was right when over sixty years ago, speaking in the House of Parliament on the evils of child labor, he said: "If ever we are forced to yield the foremost place among commercial nations, we shall yield it to some people pre- eminently vigorous in mind and body"; that the moral law should be nationalized; that the feeling of human brotherhood is not a matter of geography; that the personal responsi- bility of a citizen for the rights, the welfare, and the happiness of the nation's children does not end with the boundary lines of his own state; that the enlightened and patriotic consumer who abhors child labor because he knows the cost to the child and to the state has a right to be freed from the possibility of buying unwittingly goods that bear the taint of such labor; that the manufacturer doing business in a state that protects its children should not be forced to compete with a manufacturer in a state that delivers its children over to destruction; in a word, that what affects the peace, the prosperity, the happiness, and the greatness of the nation as a whole is the supreme concern of the whole nation; that if the protection of the childhood of the nation is the supreme duty of the nation, then the nation must perform that duty in the only way open to it, namely, by national legislation along the lines indicated in the Keating-Owen bill. Who that knows conditions as they exist in certain portions of our country today can longer doubt the wisdom, the justice, and the necessity of immediate federal legislation ? If there be such a doubter, let him consider what it means in terms of physical and mental deterioration, loss of youth, loss of educational opportunity, and loss of future economic efficiency that 27,000 children between ten and fourteen years of age are at this moment working in factories; that 17,000 more between ten and sixteen years of age are working in mines; that 122,000 between ten and sixteen years of age are working in factories in states where they may work nine, ten, or eleven hours a day; that 29,000 between ten and sixteen years of age work in factories in states where they may work at night; and that hundreds of thousands more, tho working in states that have placed Superintendence] THE COMPULSORY EDUCATIOIf LAW 1099 enlightened child-labor laws on their statute-books, are not being sufficiently protected because of lax enforcement or non-enforcement of these laws. , A single word, in closing, with reference to the Lockwood continuing census bill now before the New York legislature. In my judgment, this bill should become law, and should serve as a model in other states, for the following reasons: 1. A continuing census is the only kind that is either serviceable or sensible. A school census that is up to date only once a year or once in four years is on a par with an attendance officer who is on the job once a week or once a month. 2. A school census as ordinarily taken by a few hungry ward heelers who are thereby rewarded for loyalty to the "grand old party" is inaccurate at best, is wasteful of public money, and is out of date before the figures can be compiled. 3. The Lockwood bill groups together the agencies that belong together — the census- taking agencies, the compulsory-attendance agencies, and the child- welfare agencies. Child-welfare work must go hand in hand with the enforcement of the compulsory-educa- tion law. Few children stay away from school from choice. Back of almost every case of chronic truancy is the enfeebled home, or the home divided against itself, or no home at all. The .child is a victim not a transgressor. 4. Under this bill all these agencies are centered in the board of education and the superintendent of schools, and all employees are appointed by the board and are made directly and solely responsible to it. 5 . The home is given its fair share of responsibility. The parent must report promptly to the census bureau when his child becomes of school age, when he moves from one school to another, when he goes to work; and, upon moving to another city in the state, he must report immediately the names of all children in his family under eighteen years of age. 6. The census bureau is empowered to collect data with reference to illiteracy and the enforcement of the child-labor laws and is given power to enforce these laws. 7. A parent who fails in his duty under the law may be fined and imprisoned, and a lity that fails in its duty may forfeit its entire state appropriation. GENERAL INDEX [Names of authors of formal papers are set in small capitals] Abbot, Clarence M. — Discussion, 749 Abrams, a. W. — Collection, Organization, and Circulation of Visual Aids to In- struction by State Bureaus, 745 Accounting and Bookkeeping Courses, How Teachers Can Increase the Effi- ciency of (Robert H, Montgomery), 387 Act of Incorporation, i Address (Martin G. Brumbaugh), 979; (WOODBRIDGE N. FERRIS), 976; (FrANK B. Willis), 981 Addresses of Welcome (Charles B. Alexander) ,31; (John H. Finley) , 30; (Fred L. Keeler), 901; (William H. Maxwell), 34; (John P. Mitchel), 32; (GusTAVE StraubenmIjller), 35; (Charles S. Whitman), 29; (William G. WiLLCOx), 33, 338 Administration and Method in High- School Physical Training for Girls (Josephine Beiderhase), 801 After-Care Work in Springfield, Massa- chusetts (Frances E. Cheney), 892 Ahern, John F. — What Should Be the Musical Equipment of the Secondary- School Graduate? 582 Alexander, Charles B. — Address of Welcome, 31 Alexander, Georgia — Discussion, 420 Allison, Samuel B. — The Work of the Teacher of the Special Class, 887 Alsberg, Elsa — Education of the Immi- grant, 786 American Citizenship, The Education of Foreigners for (Raymond F. Crist), 1045 Andrews, Fannie Fern — What the Pub- lic Schools Can Do toward the Main- tenance of Permanent Peace, 93 Architect, After the (C. B. J. Snyder), 345 Architectural and Decorative Art, The Influence of (Lloyd Warren), 467 Armstrong, Donald B. — Social Aspects of School Hygiene, 756 Art a Vitalizing Force in Education (Annette J. Warner), 483 Art Education for House Furnishing (William S. Coffin), 489 Art Education, The Domain of (Thomas M. Balliet), 493 Art Instinct Universal, Tie (Florence E. Ellis), 504 Art in the Kindergarten (Grace Cornell), 307 Art-Teaching versus Practical Life (Arthur H. Chamberlain), 496 Art, Practical, The Essentials in Making (Ellsworth Woodward), 508 Art Training, Differentiation in, to Suit Individual Pupil's Needs (Royal B. Farnum), 512 Athletics for Girls in the Elementary Schools, The Organization of (Emily A. O'Keefe), 693 Austen, Willard — Educational Value of Bibliographic Training, 664 Aymar, Mary A. — Discussion, 832 Ayres, Leonard P. — Significant Develop- ments in Educational Surveying, 994 Baccalaureate Degree as an Obstacle to Educational Progress (Barclay W. Bradley), 321 Baer, Clara Gregory — ^The Health of College Women, 690 Bagley, W. C. — The Minimum Essentials versus the Differentiated Course of Study in the Seventh and Eighth Grades, 958 Bahr, Ida M. — Public Libraries for the Blind, 821 Baker, S. Josephine — ^The Work of the New York City Bureau of Child Hy- giene, 752 Baker-Low Henrietta — ^The Child Voice: Responsibility of the Community toward It, 592 Balliet, Thomas M. — Normal-School Curricula — ^A Critique, 458; Practical Means of Unifying the Work of the Kindergarten and the Primary Grades, 438 ; The Domain of Art Education, 493 ; The Elective System — Its Functions and Its Limitations, 318; Training of Science Teachers, 735 Ballou, Frank W. — Improving Instruc- tion thru Educational Measurement, 1086 Banker, Howard J. — The Necessity for After Care of Children Discharged from Special Classes, 888 Bartholomew, W. E. — Fundamental Aims in the Teaching of Bookkeeping, 362 Baylor, Adelaide S. — Discussion, 245 II02 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Beach, Frank A.— Music in the Normal School, 587 Beals, M. B.— Discussion, 824 Becht, J. George— The Public School and the New American Spirit, 935 Beggs, Walter J. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Secondary Education, 517 Beiderhase, Josephine — Administration and Method in High-School Physical Training for Girls, 801 Berry, Gordon L. — Saving the Sight of School Children, 821 Beveridge, J. H. — Vacation-Club Work, 1060 Bexell, J. A. — ^Thrift and Its Relation to Banking, 210 Beygrau, F. R. — Typewriting in the Public Schools, 367 Bibliographic Training, Educational Value of (WiLLARD Austen), 664 Big-Sister Movement, The (Mrs. Sidney C. Borg), 850 BiGELOW, Maurice A. — ^The Home from the Standpoint of Health, 463 Binet Scale and the Diagnosis of Feeble- Mindedness, The (Lewis M. Terman), 879 Blair, Francis G. — Response to Address of Welcome, 904 Blake, Kate D. — ^Thrift in Relation to the Home, 220 Blind Children, Education of, with Special Reference to the Public Schools of the City of New York (Andrew W. Edson), 820 Blind, Public Libraries for the (Ida M. Bahr), 821 Boards of Education, to Whom Re- sponsible? (A. E. Winship), 946 Boards of Education, Functions and Methods of (Beatrice Winser), 343 Booker T. Washington — ^An Appreciation (O. T. Corson), 983 Bookkeeping, Fundamental Aims in the Teaching of (W. E, Bartholomew), 362 BoRG, Mrs. Sidney C— The Big-Sister Movement, 850 Bostwick, Arthur E.— General Principles Involved in the Joint Administration of the High-School Library and the Public Library, 660 Boy Scouts of America (James E. West), 80s Bradford, Mary D.— The Necessity of Changes in the Curriculum of the Upper Elementary Grades, Both in Subject- Matter and in Content, 407 Bradley, Barclay W.— The Baccalaure- ate Degree as an Obstacle to Educational Progress, 321 Brown, J. Stanley— Secretary's Minutes . (New York Meeting), 246 Brownlee, Raymond B. — Discussion, 720 Bruce, Frank M. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of School Administration, 337 Brumbaugh, Martin G. — Address, 979 Bryan, William Jennings — Citizenship in a Republic, 77 Bullowa, Alma M. — The Need of Speech Work in the High Schools, 870 Bureau of Standards, The Relation of, to Physical Research and to the Teaching of Physics (Frank A. Wolff), 713 Burkes, Jennie — Rural Supervision in the Mountains of the South, 1028 BuRRis, W. P. — Discussion, 230 Burrit, M. C. — The Farm Bureau as an Agent in Local Development, 614 Business English: A Summary of Prin- ciples (James F. Hosic), 393 Business English and Advertising in Busi- ness High Schools, The Teaching of (George Burton Hotchkiss), 383 Business Man and the Public Service (Jacob M. Loeb), 351 Business Schools, The Service of, at the Close of the Great War (James C. Egbert), 325 Butler, Nicholas Murray — What Is Going On in the World, 907 By-Laws, 5 Calendar of Meetings, 13 Campbell, Marion A. — Educational Work of a State Commission, 819 Carmalt, Alice M. — Manners and Morals — Our Problem, 1008 Certain, C. C. — Report of Conmaittee on Problems of High-School Libraries, 547 Chamberlain, Arthur H. — Art-Teaching versus Practical Life, 496 Charitable Organizations Help (Babette Goldman), 825 Chemistry, Applied, in Secondary Schools (Chester B. Curtis), 702 Chemistry, Applied, The New York State Syllabus of (William J. Hancock), 705 Chemistry, Method in the Teaching of— An Abstract (W. G. Whitman), 704 Cheney, Frances E. — After-Care Work in Springfield, Massachusetts, 892; Secre- tary's Minutes, Department of Special Education, 811 Child Hygiene, First Aid to the Uninjured (Woods Hutchinson), 762 Child Hygiene, The Work of the New York City Bureau of (S. Josephine Baker), 752 INDEX 1 103 Child Labor and Its Relation to Illiteracy (A. J. M'cKelway), 817 Child Voice: Responsibility of the Com- munity toward It (Henrietta Baker- Low), 592 Churchill, Thomas W. — Making the High School Democratic, 524; The Superintendent as the Layman Sees Him, 940 Citizenship in a Republic (William Jennings Bryan), 77 Clark, Taliaferro — ^The Physical Care of Rural-School Children, 771 Coffin, William Sloane — Art E^ducation for House Furnishing, 489 Coffman, Lotus D. — The Minimum Essentials versus the Differentiated Course of Study in the Seventh and Eighth Grades, 953 Colburn, Jessie B. — Discussion, 849 College Administration, Present Tendencies in (Stephen Duggan), 312 College, The Junior (James M. Wood), 151 College Women, The Health of (Clara Gregory Baer), 690 Collins, Ada R. — The Content and Presentation of Shorthand and Type- writing, 393 Commercial Education, Practical, an Ex- periment in, in the National City Bank of New York (F. C. Schwedtman), 329 Commercial Geography as an Element in Business Education (J. Paul Goode), 391 Committee on Education, Council of Jewish Women, Report of (Fannie Saxe Long), 792 Committee on Health Problems in Educa- tion, Report of (Charles H. Keyes), 285 Committee on High-School Libraries, Re- port of (Mary E. Hall), 671 Committee on Problems of High-School Libraries, Report of (C. C. Certain), 547; (Jesse B. Davis), 553; (Mary E. Hall), 548; (Florence M. Hopkins), 556; (Hanna Logasa), 557; (Ella S. Morgan), 552, 555 Committee on University and College Libraries, Report of the (Harriet A. Wood), 655 Committee, Report of the Elementary School (Orpha Maud Peters), 676; (Effie L. Power), 675; (Renee B. Stern), 678 Committee Reports (Ada R. Collins), 393; (J. Paul Goode), 391; (James F. Hosic), 393 Community Activities as a Means of Motivation (Fred M. Hunter), 1049 Connelley, Clifford B.— The Place of the Corporation and the Continuation Schools, 415 Conservation of Natural Resources thru Education (Leon W. Goldrich), 722 CooKSON, Charles W.— The Ethical as the Essential Factor in Training for Efficient Citizenship in a Democracy, 1069 Cooper, Frank Irving — SchooUiouses and the Fire Hazard, 764 Cooperation between Educators and Physi- cians in Classes for Cripples (Henry Ling Taylor), 827 Cooperation in Health Administration (WiLLARD S. Small), 776 Cornell, Grace — Art in the Kindergar- ten, 307 Corporation and the Continuation Schools, The Place of (Clifford B. Connelley), 415 Corson, O. T.— Booker T. Washington— An Appreciation, 983 Cottages for Teachers (Josephine Corliss Preston), 142 Course of Study as a Test of Efficiency of Supervision (A. Duncan Yocum), 254 Courtis, Stuart A. — Standardization of Teachers' Examinations, 1078 Crabtree, James W. — Preparing Teachers for Leadership in All Special Education, 122 Crampton, C. W. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Child Hygiene, 751; The New York System of Physical Training, 685 Crawford, Caroline — The Drama of Life in the Lyrics of the Folk, 680 Creamer, Mrs. D. B.— The Work of the Widener Memorial Industrial Training School for Crippled Children, 826 Creelman, G. C. — Some Suggestions for Improving the Rural-School Curricula, 947 Crist, Raymond F. — The Education of Foreigners for American Citizenship, 1045 Curriculum of the Upper Elementary Grades, The, Necessity of Changes in the, Both in Subject-Matter and in Content (Mary D. Bradford), 407 Curtis, Chester B. — Applied Chemistry in Secondary Schools, 702 Davidson, William M. — The Library in the Modern High School, 538 Davis, Jesse B. — Educational Guidance thru the High-School Library, 553 Davis, John W.— The Work of the Bureau of Attendance, New York City Schools, 858 II04 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Davis, Kary C— Field Exercises in Their Relation to Agricultural Teaching, 619 Davis, Katherine Bement— Delinquency and Mental Defect, 815 Deaf Child, The Physical Side of the (George B. McAuliffe), 833 Debate: The Best Organization for American Schools Is a Plan Which Shall Divide These Schools into Six Years of Elementary Training and Six Years of Secondary Training (Charles H. Judd), 917 Defining the Work of Physical Training in Relation to Playground and Recreation Activities (Rowland Haynes), 695 Definiteness and Compulsion in Education (A. Duncan Yocum), 1104 Delinquency and Mental Defect (Kather- ine Bement Davis) ,815 Delinquent, The (Edgar Dubs Shimer), 84s Democracy, Preparation thru Education for a (James Y. Joyner), 79 Democracy, The Common School as an Instrument of (Carroll G. Pearse), 82 Demonstration-Play School of the Uni- versity of California (Mrs. C. W. Hetherington), 298 Dempsey, Clarence H. — Thrift in Rela- tion to Industries, 205 Dennis, L. H. — The Home Project in Secondary-School Agriculture, 622 Department of Business Education, 361; of Child Hygiene, 751; of Classroom Teachers, 637; of Elementary Educa- tion, 397; of Higher Education, 311; of Kindergarten Education, 289; Li- brary, 653; of Music Education, 575; National Council of Education, 195, 246; of Normal Schools, 441, 449; of Physical Education, 681; of Rural ajid Agricul- tural Education, 613; of School Adminis- tration, 337; of School Patrons, 783; of Science Instruction, 699; of Secondary Education, 517; of Special Education, 811; of Superintendence, 895; of Voca- tional Education and Practical Arts, 461 Determination of Educational Policies (Henry Snyder), 1042 Dewey, John— Method of Science-Teach- ing, 729; Nationalizing Education, 183 Differentiated Course of Study for Normal Schools (J. AsBURY Pitman), 450 Dodd, Alvin E.— Vocational Education and Government Aid, 479 Does a Strict Enforcement of the Com- pulsory Education Law Assist Teachers and Supervisors ia Their Work? (Ed- ward B. Shallow), 1094 Drama of Life in the Lyrics of the Folk (Caroline Crawford), 680 Duggan, Stephen — Present Tendencies in College Administration, 312 Economics in the Commercial High School (Cheesman a. Herrick), 375 Edson, Andrew W. — Education of Blind Children with Special Reference to the Public Schools of the City of New York, 820 Education, Chinese (V. K. Wellington Koo), 165 Education, Definiteness and Compulsion in (A. Duncan Yocum), 1004 Education for an Age of Service (Joseph H. Appel), 473 Education, National Aid to Vocational (Homer H. Seerley), 114 Education, Nationalizing (John Dewey), 183 Education of Foreigners for American Citizenship (Raymond F. Crist), 1045 Education, Some International Aspects of Public (William G. McAdoo), 170 Education, The War and (G. Stanley Hall), 86 Education, Vocational Qohn D. Shoop) III Educational Policies, The Determination of (Henry Snyder), 1042 Educational Research and Efl&ciency in the Public Schools, Two Phases of (George Melcher), 1073 Educational Values Which the Child Carries Over from the Kindergarten into the Primary Grades (Mary D. Hill), 429 Educational Work of a State Commission (Marion A. Campbell), 819 Educational Work, Possible Modifications in Our, Likely to Come as a Result of the Great War (James E. Russell), 324 Efl&ciency of Supervision, The Course of Study as a Test of (A. Duncan Yocum), 254 Egbert, James C. — The Service of Busi- ness Schools at the Close of the Great War, 325 Eggleston, J. D. — First Aid to the Country Teacher — a Suggestion as to Vitalizing the Country Schools thru Our Present Teachers, 58 Elective System— Its Functions and Its Limitation (Thomas M. Baillet), 318 Elhuff, Lewis — The Relation of General Science to Later Courses in Physics and Chemistry, 710 Ellis, Florence E. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Vocation and Practical Arts, 461; The Art Instinct Universal, 504 Essentials in Making Art Practical (Ells- worth W^oodward), 508 INDEX 1 105 Ethical as the Essential Factor in Training for Efl&cient Citizenship in a Democracy (Charles W. Cookson), 1069 EvERAL, Amy S.— The Girl Delinquent, 846 Examination, Our Old Friend the (William McAndrew), 527 Experiment in Practical Commercial Edu- cation in the National City Bank of New York (F. C. Schwedtman), 329 Extension Work in Normal Schools (Carl W. Salser), 441 Fahey, Sara Helena — Moral Education: What the School Can Do, 638 Fairchild, Milton — ^The National Moral- ity Codes^Competition, 1019 Farm Bureau as an Agent in Local Develop- ment (M. C. Burrit), 614 Farnum, Royal B. — Differentiation in Art Training to Suit Individual Pupil's Needs, 512 Ferris, Woodbredge N. — Address, 976 Fess, Simeon D. — ^The Possibilities of a National University at the Capital, 189 Field Exercises in Their Relation to Agri- cultural Teaching (Kary C. Davis), 619 Finegan, Thomas E. — Functions of the State in Local Administration, 348 FiNLEY, John H. — Address of Welcome, 30; The Thirtieth Man, looi First Aid to the Country Teacher — A Sug- gestion as to Vitalizing the Country Schools thru Our Present Teachers (J. D. Eggleston), 58 FiTTS, Ada M. — How to Fill the Gap between the Special Classes and Institu- tions, 889 Folk-Song (LuiSE Haessler), 608 Ford Idea in Education (Samuel S. Marcus), 910 Foreign Service, Educational Preparation for (Glen Levin Swiggett), 127 Foster, Warren Dunham — Organized Recreation, 49 Francis, J. H. — High Points in the Los Angeles Plan, 988 Fresh-Air Classes in Public Schools, The Need of (Harriet A. Tupper), 860 Frissell, Hollis B. — The Education of the Negro, 106 Fungi, Studying, as a Pastime (W. A. Murrill), 726 FuRST, Clyde — Pensions for Public-School Teachers, 137 Gallup, Anna B. — Discussion, 503 Geisman, Siegfried — Organized Charity and the Delinquent, 851 Girl Delinquent (Amy S. Everal), 846 GoLDBERGER, I. H. — The New York Sys- tem of School Hygiene, 778 Goldman, Babette — Charitable Organiza- tion Help, 825 GoLDRiCH, Leon W.— The Conservation of Natural Resources thru Education, 722 Gompers, Samue"l — ^The American School and the Workingman, 175 GooDE, J. Paul — Commercial Geography as an Element in Business Education, 391 Graduate School of Education, The Func- tion of (C. W. A. Luckey), 225 Greene, James Sonnett — The Mission of the Speech Specialist, 864 Greene, Marian P. — ^Literature for the Kindergarten Child, 303 Greetings (David B. Johnson), 934 Gruver, Elbert A. — Discussion, 836 Haessler, Luise— The Folk-Song, 608 Hall, G. Stanley— The War and Educa- tion, 86 Hall, Mary E. — Report of Committee on High-School Libraries, 671; Report of Committee on Problems of High-School Libraries, 548 Hancock, William J. — The New York State Syllabus of Applied Chemistry, 705 Harden, Frances E. — The Teachers' Responsibility as a Civic Factor in the Community, 784 Hayden, p. C. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Music Education, 575 Hayes, Lydia Y. — History of the Educa- tion of the Blind — Methods and Ideals, 819 Haynes, Rowland — Defining the Work of Physical Training in Relation to Play- ground and Recreation Activities, 695 Healey, Horace G. — Penmanship in Busi- ness High Schools, 365; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Business Educa- tion, 361 Health of College Women (Clara Gregory Baer), 690 Health Problems in Education, Report of Committee on (Charles H. Keyes), 285 Heckman, Samuel B. — Discussion, 882 Herrick, Cheesman a. — Economics in the Commercial High Schpol, 375; What High-School Studies Are of Most Worth, 533 Hervey, Henry D. — Discussion, 1097 Hetherington, Mrs. ■ C. W. — The Demonstration-Play School of the Uni- versity of California, 298 High Points in the Los Angeles Plan (J. H. Francis), 988 High-School Libraries, The Need for an Aggressive Campaign for Better (Charles Hughes Johnston), 539 :io6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION High-School Library, The Relation of the, to Vocational and Technical Courses (Walter D. Hood), 543 High-School Studies, What, Are of Most Worth? (Cheesman A. Herrick), 533 HiLDT, John C— Discussion, 531 Hill, Mary D.— Educational Values Which the Child Carries Over from the Kindergarten into the Primary Grades, 429 Hill, Patty S.— Kindergartens of Yester- day and Tomorrow, 294 History of the Education of the Blind- Methods and Ideals (Lydia Y. Hayes), 819 Home from the Standpoint of Health (Maurice A. Bigelow), 463 Home Project in Secondary-School Agri- culture (L. H. Dennis), 622 Hood, Walter D.— The Relation of the High-School Library to Vocational and Technical Courses, 543 Hopkins, Florence M. — Instructional Phase of School-Library Work, 556 Hosic, James F. — Business English: _A Summary of Principles, 393; Waste in Education, 648 HoTCHKiss, George Burton — ^The Teach- ing of Business English and Advertising in Business High Schools, 383 HoYT, Franklin C. — ^The Juvenile Court of New York City, 842 Hunter, Fred M. — Community Activities as a Means of Motivation, 1049; The Socialized Recitation, loi Hutchinson, Woods — Child Hygiene, First Aid to the Uninjured, 762 Hyatt, Edward — How Not to Train Rural Teachers, 1025 Hygiene, A Practical Course of Study in (Francis M. Walters), 759 Illiteracy, The Elimination of (Cora Wilson Stewart), 54 Immigrant, Education of the (Els a Alsberg), 786 Improving Instruction thru Educational Measurement (Frank W. Ballou), 1086 Intensive Study of Large Topics (Charles A. McMurry), 411 Introductory Explanation of the Analytic Synthetic Method of Teaching Reading to Deaf Children (D. Frances Kauff- man), 829 Is There a Need for More Reality in the Elementary-School Curriculum ? (Georgia Alexander), 420 Johnson, David B. — Greetings, 934; President's Address, 36 Johnson, Estelle M. — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of Classroom Teachers, 637 Johnson, Richard Otto — Measurement of Efficiency in Schools for the Deaf, 836 Johnson, Robert Underwood — A Teach- er— Inscribed to the Beautiful Memory of One Who Gave Her Life to Her Work, 157 Johnston, Charles Hughes — The Junior High School, 145; The Need for an Aggressive Campaign for Better High- School Libraries, 539 Johnston, Emma L. — Vocational Guidance thruout the School Course, 645 Jones, C. Edward — A Study of Deviate Children — the Problem of Delinquency and Subnormality, 1058 JoYNER, James Y. — Preparation thru Education for a Democracy, 79; Rural Education, 269; Secretary's Minutes (New York Meeting), 246 JUDD, Charles H. — The Best Organization for American Schools Is a Plan Which Shall Divide These Schools into Six Years of Elementary Training and Six Years of Secondary Training, 917 Junior High School (Charles Hughes Johnston), 145 Juvenile Court of New York City (Frank- lin C. Hoyt), 842 Kauffman, D. Francis— Introductory Explanation of the Analytic Synthetic Method of Teaching Reading to Deaf Children, 829 Kearns, Carrie Wallace— The Problem, 828 Keating, John F. — Teaching Tenure, 1055 Keeler, Fred L. — Address of Welcome, 901 Keyes, Charles H. — A Memorial to Zachariah Xenophon Snyder, 222; Report of Committee on Health Problems in Education, 285 KiLPATRiCK, Walter M. — The Pintner Tests, 841 Kindergarten and Primary Grades, Prac- tical Means of Unifying the Work of the (J. L. Meriam), 433 Kindergarten and the Primary, Relation of the, in the School of Childhood, Uni- versity of Pittsburgh (Meredith Smith) , 290 Kindergarten Child, Literature for the (Marian P. Greene) , 303 Kindergartens of Yesterday and Tomorrow (Patty S. Hill), 294 King, Millard B.— Short-Unit Industrial Courses, 1063 INDEX 1107 KiNKELDEY, Otto — Music Educatioii and Public Libraries, 596 Kirk, John R. — The Place of the Normal School in a Democracy, 73 Knox, Margaret — The Principal's Point of View of the Selection of Children for Special Classes, 877 Koo, V. K. Wellington — Chinese Educa- tion, 165 Krause, Louise B. — The Relation of the Library to Business Education, 379 Lane, C. H. — Secretary's Minutes, Depart- ment of Rural and Agricultural Educa- tion, 613 League to Enforce World-Peace (William H. Taft), 41 Lee, Joseph — The Education of School Committees, 340 Leonard, M. C. — Discussion, 728 Lewis, Leo Rich — Mechanical Inventions as an Aid to the Teaching of Music, 606 Libraries, Report of Committee on High- School (Mary E. Hall), 671 Libraries, University and College, Report of Committee on (Harriet A. Wood), 655 Library Administration (Mary Sullivan), 546 Library in the Modern High School (William M. Davidson), 538 Library, the High-School, Joint Adminis- tration of, by the Board of Education and the Public Library (Bessie Sargeant Smith), 656 Library, The Relation of the, to Business Education (Louise B. Krause), 379 Library, The Rural-School (Orpha Maud Peters), 676 Literature for the Kindergarten Child (Marian P. Greene), 303 Local Administration, Functions of the State in (Thomas E. Finegan), 348 LoEB, Jacob M. — The Business Man and the Public Service, 351 LoGASA, Hanna — ^The Librarian's Con- tribution, to the Educational Standards of the High School, 557 Long, Fannie Saxe — Report of Com- mittee on Education, Council of Jewish Women, 792 Los Angeles Plan, High Points in (J. H. Francis), 988 LucKEY, C. W. A.— The Function of the Graduate School of Education, 225 Lyon, Miss — Speech-Improvement in the Chicago Public Schools, 869 Lyrics of the Folk, The Drama of Life in the (Caroline Crawford), 680 McAdoo, William G. — Some Interna- tional Aspects of Public Education, 170 McAndrew, William — Our Old Friend, the Examination, 527 McAuliffe, George B. — The Physical Side of the Deaf Child, 833; Tone and Hearing, 868 McCarty, W. J. — The Organization of a Business-Practice and Office-Routine Course and How to Make It a Success in Business High Schools, 370 McClancy, Joseph V. S. — Preserving the Family, 853 McCoNKEY, Bertha M. — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of Elementary Educa- tion, 397 McDonald, Dennis J. — Speech-Improve- ment, 862 McKelway, a. J. — Child Labor and Its Relation to Illiteracy, 817 McKenny, Virginia S. — Report of the Southern Association of College Women, 795. McManus, Elizabeth — Social Service in the Public Schools, 797 McMuRRY, Charles A. — ^The Intensive Study of Large Topics, 411 Making the High School Democratic (Thomas W. Churchill), 524 Manners and Morals — Our Problem (Alice M. Carmalt), 1008 Marquis, Samuel S. — The Ford Idea in Education, 910 Martin, O. B. — Mass Instruction thru Group Training, 97 Mass Instruction thru Group Training (O. B. Martin), 97 Maxwell, William H. — Address of Wel- come, 34 Measurement of Efficiency in Schools for the Deaf (Richard Otto Johnson), 836 Mechanical Inventions as an Aid to the Teaching of Music (Leo Rich Lewis), 606 Melcher, George — The Two Phases of Educational Research and Efficiency in the Public Schools, 1073 Memorial to Zachariah Xenophon Snyder (Charles H. Keyes), 222 Meriam, J. L. — Practical Means of Unify- ing the Work of the Kindergarten and the Primary Grades, 433 Military Training in the High School: Why and How? (W. S. Small), 570 Military Training, Universal (Leonard Wood), 159 Mills, John M.— The Reorganized High School, 567 Minimum Essentials versus the Differenti- ated Course of Study in the Seventh and Eighth Grades (Lotus D. Coffman), 953 iio8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Misfit Child (Thomas W. Salmon), 817 Mitchell, John Purroy— Address of Welcome, 32 Mitchell, Vethake E.— Oral Deformities in Their Relation to Defective Speech, 874 MoNAHAN, A. C— The Status and Need of Rural Supervision, 103 1 MoNTGdMERY, ROBERT H. — How Teachers Can Increase the Eflficiency of Account- ing and Bookkeeping Courses, 387 Moral Education: What the School Can Do (Sara Helena Fahey), 638 Morgan, Ella S. — Report of Committee on Problems of High-School Libraries, 552; The High-School Library and His- tory Teaching, 555 Murrill, W. a.— Studying Fungi as a Pastime, 726 Museum as the New Force in Public- School Development (Henry Fairfield Osborne), 739 Museums and Schools, The Relationship between (Paul M. Rea), 500 Music, Absolute, in the Elementary Schools (Frederic H. Ripley), 577 Music Education and Public Libraries (Otto Kinkeldey), 596 Music in the Normal School (Frank A. Beach), 587 National Morality Codes Competition (Milton Fairchild), 1019 National Uniyersity at the Capital, The Possibilities of (Simeon D. Fess), 189 National Welfare and Rural Schools (Thomas D. Wood), 232 Natural Resources, Conservation of, thru Education (Leon W. Goldrich), 722 Negro, The Education of the (Hollis B. Frissell), 106 New Ideal in Education — ^Better Parents for Better Children (Helen C. Putnam), 240 Normal-School Curricula — A Critique (Thomas M. Balliet), 458 Normal School, The Place of the, in a Democracy (John R. ^irk), 73 Normal Schools, Extension Work in (Carl W. Salser), 441 Ofl&cers for 1915-16, 15 O'Keefe, Emily A.— The Organization of Athletics for Girls in the Elementary Schools, 693 Oral Deformities in Their Relation to De- fective Speech (Vethake E. Mitchell), 874 Organization of a Business-Practice and Ofl&ce-Routine Course and How to Make It a Success in Business High Schools (W. J. McCarty), 370 Organization of the Upper Elementary Grades Contrasted with the Organiza- tion of Lower Elementary Grades and the High School (John D. Shoop), 403 Organized Charity and the Delmquent (Siegfried Geisman), 851 Organized Recreation (Warren Dunham Foster), 49 OsBORN, Henry Fairfield — ^The Muse- um as the New Force in Public-School Development, 739 Owen, William B. — Normal-School Prep- aration for Thrift-Teaching, 281; Secre- tary's Minutes (New York Meeting), 246; Secretary's Minutes, The National Council of Education, 195 Packard, John C. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Science Instruction, 699 Palmer, Charles S. — What Elementary Science Needs, 708 Palmer, Luella A. — Practical Means of Unifying the Work of the Kindergarten and the Primary Grades, 435 Peace, A League to Enforce World- (William H. Taft), 41 Peace, What the Public Schools Can Do toward the Maintenance of Permanent (Fannie Fern Andrews), 93 Pearse, Carroll G. — ^The Best Organiza- tion for American Schools Is a Plan Which Shall Divide These Schools into Six Years of Elementary Training and Six Years of Secondary Training, 925; The Common School as an Instrument of Democracy, 82 Penmanship in Business High Schools (Horace G. Healey), 365 Pensions for Public-School Teachers (Clyde Furst), 137 Peters, Orpha Maud — ^The Rural-School Library, 676 Physical Care of Rural-School Children (Taliaferro Clark), 771 Physical Training in Relation to Play- ground and Recreation Activities, De- fining the Work of (Rowland Haynes), 69s Physical Training in the Schools (Gustave STRAUBENMtJLLER), 682 Physical Training, The New York System of (C. Ward Crampton), 685 Pintner Tests (Walter M. Kilpatrick), 841 Pitman, J. Asbury — A Differentiated Course of Study for Normal Schools, 450 Place of the University in a Democracy (Charles R. Van Hise), 68 Power, Effie L. — Report of the Elementary-School Committee, 675 INDEX 1 109 Preparing Teachers for Leadership in all Special Education (James W. Crab- tree), 122 Preserving the Family (Joseph V. S. McClancy), 853 President's Address (David B.Johnson), 36 Preston, Josephine CoRLiss^Teachers* Cottages, 142 Principal's Point of View of the Selection of Children for Special Classes (Mar- garet Knox), 877 Problem of the Deaf (Carrie Wallace Kearns), 828 Psychology of Esthetic Experience in Music (Margaret Floy Washburn), 600 Public-Library Administration (Arthur E. Bostwick), 660; Discussion, 663 Public School and the New American Spirit (J. George Becht), 935 Putnam, Helen C. — Discussion, 252; The New Ideal in Education — Better Parents of Better Children, 240 Racial Weil-Being, Educational and Psy- chological Aspects of (Robert M. Yerkes), 248 Rathmann, C. G. — ^The Value and Im- portance of the School Museum, 741 Rea, Paul M. — ^The Relationship between Museums and Schools, 500 Recitation, The Socialized (Fred M. Hunter), ioi Recreation, Organized (Warren Dunham Foster), 49 Redfield, William C. — Industrial Edu- cation, 119 Reed, Mrs. Frank A. — Speech Work in the Detroit Public Schools, 870 Reigart, John F. — Speech-Correction as a School Problem, 873 Relation of the Kindergarten and the Primary in the School of Childhood, University of Pittsburgh (Meredith Smith), 290 Reliable Measurements of a School Sys- tem (Otis G. Wilson), 1067 Reorganized High School (John M. Mills), 567 Reply (Ella Flagg Young), 356 Report of Committee on Education, Coun- cil of Jewish Women (Fannie Saxe Long), 792 Leport of Committee on High-School Libraries (Mary E. Hall), 671 Leport of Committee on Problems of High- School Libraries (C. C. Certain), 547; (Jesse B. Davis), 5^3; (Mary E. Hall), 548; (Florence M. Hopkins), 556; (Hanna Logasa), 557; (Ella S. Morgan), 552, 555 Report of the Elementary-School Com- mittee (Orpha Maud Peters), 676; (ErriE L. Power), 675; (Renee B. Stern), 678 Report of the Southern Association of CoUege Women (Virginia S. McKenny), 795 Residual Hearing, The Utilization of (John Dutton Wright), 834 Response to Address of Welcome (Francis G. Blair), 904 Rhythm (Pattie Thomason), 830 Rice, O. S. — Discussion, 669 RiGGS, James G. — Training of Teachers for Special Classes, 884 Ripley, Frederic H. — Absolute Music in the Elementary Schools, 577 Roberts, Dimon H. — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of Normal Schools, 441 Robison, C. H. — ^Training of Science Teachers, 734 Rose, Grace D. — Secretary's Minutes, Library Department, 653 Rose, Wickliffe— National Welfare and Rural Schools, 235 Rouse, John E. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Higher Education, 311 Rural Education (James Y. Joyner), 269 Rural Home and the Farm Woman (David B. Johnson), 36 Rural School and the Reading Habit (Henry N. Sanborn), 626 Rural-School Extension Work by the New York State College of Agriculture (Edward M. Tuttle), 632 Rural Schools, National Welfare and (Thomas D. Wood), 232 Rural Supervision in the Mountains of the South (Jennie Burkes), 1028 Rural Supervision, The Status and Need of (A. C. Monahan), 103 1 Rural Teachers, How Not to Train (Ed- ward Hyatt), 1025 Russell, James E. — Possible Modifica- tions in Our Educational Work Likely to Come as a Result of the Great War, 324 Ryne arson, Edward — ^Socialization of the High School, 519 Salmon, Thomas W.— The Misfit Child, 817 Salser, Carl W. — Extension Work in Normal Schools, 441- Sanborn, Henry N.— The Rural School and the Reading Habit, 626 Saving the Sight of School Children (Gor- don L. Berry), 821 School Committees, The Education of (Joseph Lee), 340 mo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Schoolhouses and the Fire Hazard (Frank I. Cooper), 764 School Hygiene, Social Aspects of (Donald B. Armstrong), 756 School Hygiene, The New York System of (I. H. Goldberger), 778 School Museum, The Value and Impor- tance of the (C. G. Rathmann), 741 Schools, The Secular Free (Ella Flagg Young), 63 ScHWEDTMAN, F. C. — ^An Experiment in Practical Commercial Education in the National City Bank of New York, 329 Science, Applied, in the College Course (Robert H. Spahr), 716 Science, General, The Relation of, to Later Courses in Physics and Chemistry (Lewis Elhuff), 710 Science Teachers, Training of (C. H. Robison), 734 Science-Teaching, Local Industries as a Source of Illustrative Material for (Clarence M. Hall), 719 Science-Teaching, Method in (John Dewey), 729 Scouting as an Educational Asset (James ■ E. West), 1012 Seerley, Homer H. — National Aid to Vocational Education, 114 Seventh and Eighth Grades, The Peculiar Psychological Conditions and Social Needs of the (Daniel Snedden), 398 Shallow, Edward B. — Does a Strict En- forcement of the Compulsory-Education Law Assist Teachers and Supervisors in Their Work? 1094 Shimer, Edgar Dubs — The Delinquent, 845 Shoop, John D. — The Organization of the Upper Elementary Grades Contrasted with the Organization of the Lower Elementary Grades and the High School, 403; Vocational Education, III Shorthand and Typewriting, The Content and Presentation of (Ada R. Collins), 393 Short-Unit Industrial Courses (Millard B. King), 1063 Significant Developments in Educational Surveying (Leonard P. Ayres), 994 Six-Three-Three Organization, A First Step in Establishing the (Herbert S. Weet), 1036 Slaughter, John W. — Discusson, 422 Small, Willard S.— Cooperation in Health Administration, 776; Military Training in the High School: Why and How? 570 Smith, Bessie Sargeant — Joint Adminis- tration of the High-School Library by the Board of Education and the Public Library, 656 Smith, Fannie A.— Secretary's Minutes, Department of Kindergarten Education, 289 Smith, Meredith — Relation of the Kinder- garten and the Primary in the School of Childhood, University of Pittsburgh, 290 Snedden, David — ^The Minimum Essen- tials versus the Differentiated Course of Study in the Seventh and Eighth Grades, 965; The Peculiar Psychological Con- ditions and Social Needs of the Seventh and Eighth Grades, 398 Snyder, C. B. J.— After the Architect, 345 Snyder, Henry — The Determination of Educational Policies, 1042 Social Aspects of School Hygiene (Donald B. Armstrong), 756 Socialization of the High School (Edward Ryne arson), 519 Social Service in the Public Schools (Eliza- beth McManus), 797 Social Worker (Henry W. Thurston), 855 Spahr, Robert H. — Applied Science in the College Course, 716 Speech-Correction as a School Problem (John F. Reigart), 873 Speech-Correction, The Economic Value of (Ira S. Wile), 875 Speech-Improvement (Dennis J. McDon- ald), 862 Speech-Improvement in the Chicago Public Schools (Miss Lyon), 869 Speech Work in the Detroit Public Schools (Mrs. Frank A. Reed), 870 Speech Work in the High Schools, The Need of (Alma M, Bullowa), 870 Speech Specialist, The Mission of the (James S. Greene), 864 Special Class, The Work of the Teacher of the (Samuel B. Allison), 887 Special Classes and Institutions, How to Fill the Gap between (Ada M. Fitts), 889 Special Classes, The Necessity for. After Care of Children Discharged from (Howard J. Banker), 888 Special Classes, Training of Teachers for (James G. Riggs), 884 Standard Tests, Will, Economize Time* Lead to a Broadening of the Subject- Matter, and Make for Efficiency of Both Teacher and Pupil (Lida Lee Tall), 426 Standardization of Teachers' Examina- tions (Stuart A. Courtis), 1078 Stern, Renee B. — The Rural School Library, 678 INDEX iiii Stewart, Charlotte — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of Physical Education, 682; Secretary's Minutes, Department of School Patrons, 783 Stewart, Cora Wilson — ^The Elimina- tion of Illiteracy, 54 Stewart, H, E. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Physical Education, 681 Stewart, Isabel M. — The Teaching of Home Nursing and the Care of Children to Elementary- and High-School Pupils, 767 Stitt, Edward W. — The Importance of Visual Instruction, 737 STRAUBENMtJLLER, GUSTAVE — ^AddreSS of Welcome, 35; Physical Training in the Schools, 682 Straus, S. W.— The Greater Thrift, 274; Thrift — An Educational Necessity, 196 Stuart, M. H.— Thrift in Its Relation to Conservation, 215 Study of Deviate Children — The Problem of Delinquency and Subnormality (C. Edward Jones), 1058 Suggestions for Improving the Rural- School Curricula, Some (G. C. Creel- man), 947 Sullivan, Mary — ^Library Administra- tion, 546 Summary (a Brief) of the Forthcoming Report of the National Joint Committee on the Reorganization of High-School English, 559 Superintendent as the Layman Sees Him (Thomas W. Churchill), 940 Swain, Joseph — Salaries and Pensions of Teachers, 136 Swift, Walter B. — ^What is a "Speech Clinic"? 867 SwiGGETT, Glen L. — Educational Prep- aration for Foreign Service, 127 Taft, William H. — A League to Enforce Peace, 41 Tall, Lida Lee — Will Standard Tests Economize Time, Lead to a Broadening of the Subject-Matter, and Make for Efficiency of Both Teacher and Pupil? 426 Taylor, Harris — Teaching of Language, 832 Taylor, Henry Ling — Cooperation be- tween Educators and Physicians in Classes for Cripples, 827 Teacher, A, Inscribed to the Beautiful Memory of One Who Gave Her Life to Her Work (Robert Underwood John- son), 157 Teachers' Cottages (Josephine Corliss Preston), 142 Teacher's Responsibility as a Civic Factor in the Community (Frances E. Hardin), 784 Teachers, Salaries and Pensions of (Jo- seph Swain), 136 Teaching of Home Nursing and the Care of Children to Elementary- and High- School Pupils (Isabel M. Stewart), 767 Teaching of Language (Harris Taylor), 832 Teaching Tenure (John F. Keating), 1055 Terman, Lewis M. — ^The Binet Scale and the Diagnosis of Feeble-Mindedness, 879 Thirtieth Man Qohn H. Finley), iooi Thomason, Pattie — Rhythm, 830 Thrift, and Its Relation to Banking Q. A. Bexell), 210 Thrift— An Educational Necessity (S. W. Strauss), 196 Thrift in Its Relation to Conservation (M. H. Stuart), 215 Thrift in Its Relation to Country Life (Robert H. Wilson), 201 Thrift in Relation to Industries (Clar- ence H. Dempsey), 205 Thrift in Relation to the Home (Kate Devereux Blake), 220 Thrift-Teaching, Normal School Prepara- tion for (William B. Owen), 281 Thrift, The Greater (S. W. Straus), 274 Thurston, Henry W.— The Social Worker, 855 Tone and Hearing (George B. Mc- Auliffe), 868 Training, Physical, versus Military Train- ing (Randall Warden) , 686 True, Ruth— The Work of the Visiting Teacher, 856 TuppER, Harriet A. — ^The Need of Fresh-Air Classes in Public Schools, 860 TuTTLE, Edward M. — Rural-School Ex- tension Work by the New York State College of Agriculture, 632 Two Phases of Educational Research and Efficiency in the Public Schools, the (George Melcher), 1073 Typewriting in the Public Schools (F. R. Beygrau), 367 University, The Place of the, in a Democ- racy (Charles R. Van Hise), 68 Van Hise, Charles R. — The Place of the University in a Democracy, 68 Vacation-Club Work (J. H. Beveridge), 1060 Visiting Teacher, The Work of the (Ruth True), 856 Visual Aids to Instruction, Collection, Organization, and Circulation of, by State Bureaus (A. W. Abrams), 745 III2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Visual Instruction, The Importance of (Edward W. Stitt), 737 Vocational Education and Government Aid (Alvin E. Dodd), 479 Vocational Guidance thruout the School Course (Emma L. Johnston), 645 Walters, Francis M.— A Practical Course of Study in Hygiene, 759 War and Education (G. Stanley Hall), 86 Warden, Randall — Physical Training versus Military Training, 686 Warner, Annette J. — ^Art a Vitalizing Force in Education, 483 Warren, Lloyd — ^The Influence of Archi- tectural and Decorative Art, 467 Warriner, E. C. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Superintendence, 895 Washburn, Margaret Floy — The Psy- chology of Esthetic Experience in Music, 600 Weet, Herbert S. — ^A First Step in Establishing the Six-Three-Three Organ- ization, 1036 West, James E.— Scoutmg as an Educa- tional Asset, 1012; The Boy Scouts of America, 805 What Elementary Science Needs (Charles S. Palmer), 708 What Is a "Speech Clinic"? (Walter B. Swift), 867 What Is Going On in the World (Nicho- las Murray Butler), 907 What Should Be the Musical Equipment of the Secondary-School Graduate? (John F. Ahern), 582 Whitman, Charles S.— Address of Wel- come, 29 Whitman, W. G.— Method in the Teach- ing of Chemistry— An Abstract, 704 Widener Memorial Industrial Training School for Crippled Children, The Work of the (Mrs. D. B. Creamer), 826 Wile, Ira S.— The Economic Value of Speech-Correction, 875 Will Standard Tests Economize Time, Lead to a Broadening of the Subject- Matter, and Make for Efiiciency of Both Teacher and Pupil? (Lida Lee Tall), 426 WiLLCox, William G.— Address of Wel- come, 33; Address of Welcome, 338 Willis, Frank B. — ^Address, 981 Wilson, H. B. — Discussion, 424 Wilson, Otis G.— Reliable Measurements of a School System, 1067 Wilson, Robert H.— Thrift in Its Rela- tion to Country Life, 201 WiNSER, Beatrice — Functions and Methods of Boards of Education, 343 WiNSHiP, A. E.— To Whom Is the Board of Education Responsible ? 946 Wolff, Frank A.— The Relation of the Bureau of Standards to Physical Re- search and to the Teaching of Physics, 713 Wood, Harriet A. — Report of the Com- mittee on University and College Li- braries, 655 Wood, James M.— The Junior College, 151 Wood, Leonard — Universal Military Training, 159 Wood, Thomas D.— National Welfare and Rural Schools, 232 Woodward, Ellsworth— The Essentials in Making Art Practical, 508 Workingman, The American School and the (Samuel Gompers), 175 Work of the Bureau of Attendance, New York City Schools (John W. Davis), 853 Wright, John Dutton — ^The Utilization of Residual Hearing, 834 Yerkes, Robert M. — Educational and Psychological Aspects of Racial Weil- Being, 248 YocuM, A. Duncan — Definiteness and Compulsion in Education, 1004; The Course of Study as a Test of Efficiency of Supervision, 254 Young, Ella Flagg — ^The Secular Free Schools, 63; A Reply, 356 L National Education Association 13 of the United States N3A13 Addresses and pro- 1916 ceedings... PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY